Cultures of Commodity Branding 1598745417; 978-1598745412

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. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 h t t p :/ /s ite . e b ra ry .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 2 h tt p :// s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

P u b lic atio n s o f th e In s titu te o f A rc h a e o lo g y , U n iv e rs ity C o lle g e L o n d o n Se rie s Ed ito r: R u th W h ite h o u s e D ire c to r o f th e In s titu te : Ste p h e n Sh e n n a n Fo u n d in g Se rie s Ed ito r: P e te r J. U c k o T h e In s titu te o f A rc h ae o lo g y

o f U n iv e rs ity

C o lle g e L o n d o n is o n e o f th e o ld e st,

larg e s t, a n d m o st p re stig io u s a rc h a e o lo g y re se arc h f ac ilitie s in th e w o rld . Its e x te n s iv e p u b lic a tio n s p ro g ra m m e in c lu d e s th e b e s t th e o ry , re s e a rc h , p e d ag o g y , a n d re fe re n c e m a te ria ls in a rc h a e o lo g y a n d c o g n a te d is c ip lin e s th ro u g h p u b lis h in g e x e m p la ry w o rk o f s c h o la rs w o rld w id e . V ia its p u b lic a tio n s , th e In stitu te b rin g s to g e th e r k e y are as o f th e o re tic al a n d s u b s ta n tiv e k n o w le d g e , im p ro v e s a rc h a e o lo g ic a l p ra c tic e , an d b rin g s a rc h a e o lo g ic a l f in d in g s to th e g e n e ra l p u b lic , re s e arc h e rs , a n d p rac titio n e rs . It also p u b lis h e s s ta f f re se arc h p ro je c ts , s ite a n d s u rv e y re p o rts , a n d c o n f e re n c e p ro c e e d in g s . T h e p u b lic atio n s p ro g ra m m e , f o rm e rly d e v e lo p e d in - h o u s e o r in c o n ju n c tio n w i th U C L P re s s , is n o w p ro d u c e d in p artn e rs h ip w ith L e f t C o a s t P re s s , In c . T h e In stitu te c a n b e ac c e ss e d o n lin e a t h ttp :/ / w w w .u c l.ac .u k / arc h a e o lo g y . R e c e n t T itle s A n d re w Be v a n a n d D av id W e n g ro w ( e d s .) , C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d i t y B r a n d in g P e te r Jo rd a n ( e d .) , L a n d s c a p e a n d C u lt u r e in N o r t h e r n E u r a s i a P e te r Jo rd a n an d M a re k Z v e le b il ( e d s.) , C e r a m ic s b e f o r e F a r m in g M a rc o s M a rtin o n - T o rre s a n d T h ilo R e h re n ( e d s.), A r c h a e o l o g y , H is t o r y , a n d S c ie n c e M iria m D a v is , D a m e K a t h l e e n K e n y o n E liz a b e th P y e (e d .), T h e P o w e r o f T o u c h R u ss e ll M c D o u g a ll a n d Ia in D a v id so n ( e d s.), T h e R o t h F a m i ly , A n t h r o p o l o g y , a n d C o lo n ia l A d m in is t r at io n

Ele n i A s o u ti a n d D o ria n Q . Fu lle r, T r ee s a n d W o o d l a n d s o f S o u t h I n d i a T o n y W a ld ro n , P a l e o e p i d e m i o l o g y Ja n e t P ic to n , Ste p h e n Q u irk e , an d P a u l C . R o b e rts ( e d s.) , L iv i n g I m a g e s T im o th y C la c k an d M a rc u s Br itta in ( e d s.) , A r c h a e o l o g y a n d t h e M e d i a Su e C o lle d g e a n d Ja m e s C o n o l ly ( e d s.) . T h e O r ig in s a n d S p r e a d o f D o m e s t i c P l a n t s in S o u t h w e s t A s ia an d E u r o p e

G u sta v o P o litis, N u k a k Su e H am ilto n , R u th W h ite h o u s e , a n d K ath e rin e I. W rig h t ( e d s .) , A r c h a e o l o g y

an d

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A n d re w G a rd n e r, A il A r c h a e o l o g y o f I d e n t i t y Ba rb ara Be n d e r, Su e H am ilto n , a n d C h ris Tilley , S t o n e W o r ld Ja m e s G ra h a m - C a m p b e ll a n d G a re th W illia m s ( e d s.) , S il v e r E c o n o m y in t h e V ik in g A g e G a b rie le P u s c h n ig g , C e r a m ic s o f t h e M e r v O a s i s Jo o s t Fo n te in , T h e S ile n c e o f G r e a t Z i m b a b w e C ritic a l C u ltu ra l H e rita g e Se rie s, Be v e rle y Bu tle r (e d .) K ath a rin a Sc h ra m m , A fr i c a n H o m e c o m in g M in g m in g W an g , E m p ir e a n d L o c a l W o r ld s D e a n Su lly (e d .), D e c o l o n i z i n g C o n s e r v a t io n Fe rd in a n d d e Jo n g a n d M ic h a e l R o w la n d s ( e d s .) , R e c l a i m i n g H e r it a g e Be v e rle y Bu tle r, R e t u r n t o A le x a n d r ia In fo r m at io n o n o ld e r t itle s in t his se r ie s c an b e o b t ain e d fr o m t h e L e ft C o as t P re s s , In c . w e b sit e h tt p :lfiin v w .L C o as t P re s s.c o m

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 3 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 3 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

CULTURES OF COMMODITY BRANDING

Andrew Bevan David Wengrow Editors

Walnut Creek, California

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 4 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 4 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

L EFT C O A ST P R ESS, IN C . 163 0 N o rth M a in Stre e t, # 400 W a ln u t C re e k , C A 9 4 59 6 h ttp :/ / w w w .L C o a stP re ss .c o m

C o p y rig h t © 2 0 1 0 b y L e f t C o a s t P re ss , In c .

A ll r ig ht s r es e rv ed. N o p art o f th is p u b lic a tio n m a y b e re p ro d u c e d , sto re d in

a re trie v a l s y s te m , o r tra n s m itte d in a n y f o rm o r b y a n y m e an s, e le c tro n ic , m e c h a n ic a l, p h o to c o p y in g , re c o rd in g , o r o th e rw is e , w ith o u t th e p rio r p e r m is s io n o f th e p u b lish e r.

ISBN 9 7 8 - 1 - 5 9 8 7 4 - 5 4 1 - 2 h ard c o v e r

L ib ra ry o f C o n g re s s C a ta lo g in g - in - P u b lic a tio n D ata

C u ltu re s o f c o m m o d ity b ra n d in g / A n d re w Be v an , D a v id W e n g ro w , e d ito rs. p . c m .— ( P u b lic atio n s o f th e In s titu e o f A rc h a e o lo g y , U n iv e rs ity C o lle g e Lo nd o n) In c lu d e s in d e x . ISBN 9 7 8 - 1 - 5 9 8 7 4 - 5 4 1 - 2 ( h a rd c o v e r : alk . p a p e r) 1. M ate ria l c u ltu re — H isto ry . 2. M a n u fa c tu re s — H isto ry . 3. M a rk s o f o rig in — H isto ry . 4. T ra d e m a rk s— H isto ry . 5. Bra n d in g ( M a rk e tin g )— H isto ry . I. Be v a n , A n d re w , 1 97 4 - II. W e n g ro w , D . G N 4 3 0 .C 8 5 6 2 0 1 0 3 0 6 .4 '6 0 9 — d c 22 2010013286

P rin te d in th e U n ite d State s o f A m e ric a

© ™ T h e p a p e r u se d in th is p u b lic a tio n m e e ts th e m in im u m re q u ire m e n ts o f A m e ric a n N a tio n a l Sta n d a rd f o r In f o rm a tio n Sc ie n c e s — P e rm a n e n c e o f P ap e r f o r P rin te d L ib ra ry M ate ria ls , A N SI/ N ISO Z 3 9 .4 8 - 1 9 9 2 .

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 5 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 5 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

C o n te n ts

L is t o f Illu s t r at io n s

7

A c k n o w le d g e m e n t s

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In tr o d u c tio n : C o m m o d ity B r a n d in g in A r c h a e o lo g ic a l

11

a n d A n th r o p o lo g ic a l P e r s p e c tiv e s , D a v id W e n g r o w 2.

M a k i n g a n d M a r k i n g R e la tio n s h ip s : B r o n z e A g e

35

B r a n d in g s a n d M e d i te r r a n e a n C o m m o d itie s , A n d re w Be v an 3.

T h e W o rk o f a n Is ta n b u li te I m it as y o n c u ,

87

M a g d a l e n a C ra c iu n 4.

T h e A ttr ib u tio n o f A u th e n tic ity to " R e a l " a n d " F a k e "

109

B r a n d e d C o m m o d itie s in B r a z il a n d C h i n a , R o s a n a P in h e ir o - M a c h a d o 5.

T h e R e al O n e : W e s te r n B r a n d s a n d C o m p e tin g

131

N o tio n s o f A u th e n tic ity i n S o c ia li s t H u n g a ry , Fe re n c H a m m e r 6.

R o y a l B r a n d in g a n d th e T e c h n iq u e s o f th e Bo d y , th e

155

S e lf , a n d P o w e r in W e s t C a m e r o o n , Je a n - P ie r r e W a rn ie r 7.

C o m m o d itie s , B r a n d s , a n d V il la g e E c o n o m ie s in th e

167

C la s s ic M a y a L o w la n d s , Ja s o n Y a e g e r 8.

L in c o l n G r e e n a n d R e a l D u tc h Ja v a P ri n ts : C lo th

197

S e lv e d g e s a s B ra n d s in In te r n a tio n a l T rad e , G r a c i a C la r k 9.

O f M a rk s , P r in ts , P o ts , a n d B e c h e r o v k a : F r e e m a s o n s '

213

B r a n d in g i n E a r ly M o d e r n E u r o p e ? , M a r c o s M a rtin o n - T o rr e s 10.

T h e S e c o n d - H a n d B r a n d : L iq u id A s s e ts a n d

235

B o r r o w e d G o o d s , A li s o n J. C la r k e A b o u t t h e E d it o r s an d C o n t r ib u t o r s

255

In d e x

259

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 6 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 6 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 7 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 7 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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F ig u r e 1 .1 .

Im a g e s im p r e s s e d o n to th e c la y s e a lin g s o f

16

c o m m o d i ty c o n ta in e r s in e a r ly M e s o p o ta m ia . F ig u r e 1 .2 .

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w i th a li s t o f p l a c e s a n d re g io n s m e n tio n e d in th e te x t. F ig u r e 2 .2 .

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52

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T e x tile s .

60

F ig u r e 2 .4 .

O il s , w i n e s , a n d r e la te d liq u id c o m m o d itie s .

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A je a n s - l i k e o u tf i t m a d e in H u n g a r y in th e 1 9 7 0 s .

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A g a r l ic p re s s m a d e in th e U S S R in th e 1 9 7 0 s .

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in 2 0 0 2 . F ig u r e 6 .3 .

A n o in tin g a s u c c e s s o r.

1 61

F ig u r e 6 .4 .

T h e B ir m in g h a m f lin tlo c k .

163

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A r c h a e o l o g ic a l s ite s o f th e M o p a n V alle y .

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B e n q u e V ie jo P o ly c h r o m e b o w l s o f C h u n h u itz

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O r a n g e g r o u p a n d M o u n t M a l o n e y B la c k b o w ls a n d r e s tr ic te d ja r s . F ig u r e 8 .1 .

T w e n ti e th - c e n tu r y w o o l s e lv e d g e s .

200

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203

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b o u g h t 2001. F ig u r e 8 .4 .

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A n a s s a y e r 's w o r k s h o p .

216

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 8 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 8 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

Fi g u r e 9 .2 .

S y m b o ls a n d e m b le m s o n e a r ly m o d e r n

217

m a te r ia l c u l tu re . F ig u r e 9 .3 .

D e ta il o f th e in itia tio n o f a f re e m a s o n .

223

F ig u r e 9 .4 .

A m o d e r n b o ttl e o f b e c h e r o v k a .

229

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 9 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 9 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

A c k n o w le d g e m e n ts

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a rc h a e o lo g y , a n th r o p o lo g y , a n d m a r k e ti n g to c o n s i d e r th e ro l e o f b r a n d i n g i n a b r o a d e r c h r o n o lo g ic a l a n d c r o s s - c u l tu r a l p e r s p e c tiv e th a n is u s u a l ly a tte m p te d . T h e c o n f e r e n c e w a s f u n d e d b y g r a n ts f r o m th e B r iti s h A c a d e m y an d

th e In s ti tu te o f A r c h a e o l o g y

( U C L ) , w h o s e s u p p o r t is g r a te f u lly

a c k n o w l e d g e d . W e w o u ld a ls o li k e to th a n k a ll o f th e o r i g in a l p a r tic i p a n ts f o r th e ir c o n tr ib u tio n s . In a d d itio n to th o s e w h o s e w o r k a p p e a r s i n th is v o lu m e , th e y in c lu d e : Jo h n B e n n e t, A le x B e n tle y , F a b ia n C s a b a , G i il iz G e r, D o u g l a s H o lt, O lg a K r a v e ts a n d O z le m

Sa n d ik q i. D a n n y M ille r, A n n e

P y b u r n , M i k e R o w la n d s , S te p h e n S h e n n a n , S u e S h e r r a tt, a n d R i c k W il k a r e a ls o to b e th a n k e d f o r th e i r s u p p o r t in p u tti n g th e c o n f e r e n c e to g e th e r o r f o r a c tin g a s p a n e l c h a ir s a n d d is c u s s a n ts . W e a re g r a te f u l to M i c h e lle D e G ru c h y , S a r a h F o s te r, a n d M a r y S h e p p e r s o n f o r th e ir a s s is ta n c e in r u n n i n g th e c o n f e r e n c e a n d to G r a e m e W e r e a n d H a id y G e is m a r ( M a te r i a l W o r ld B lo g ) a n d R u th M o r ti m e r ( B r a n d S tr a te g y ) f o r h e lp w i th p u b lic ity . A f in a l th a n k s to th e c o p y e d i to r a n d a n o n y m o u s r e v ie w e r s o f th i s v o lu m e f o r th e ir e x tr e m e l y u s e f u l s u g g e s ti o n s .

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 0 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 0 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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c7 f 7 8 2 e 2 4 6 9 ab 5 1 2 5 c2 5 e f d l 8 f cl 0 3 5 d ebrary

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. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 11 h t t p :/ /s ite . e b ra ry .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 1 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

Ch ap ter I In t r o d u c t i o n C o m m o d it y B r a n d in g in A r c h a e o l o g ic a l a n d A n t h r o p o l o g i c a l Pe r s p e c t iv e s

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T h e o r i g in s o f th is b o o k li e in c o in c id e n c e . A b o u t 5 y e a r s a g o I w a s r e a d ­ in g N a o m i K le i n ' s N o L o g o ( 2 0 0 0 ) , w i th n o s p e c ia l a c a d e m ic in te r e s t in th e w o r ld o f b r a n d i n g . A t m u c h th e s a m e tim e , I w a s te a c h in g g r a d u a te c la s s e s a t U C L 's In s ti tu te o f A rc h a e o lo g y , s o m e o f w h ic h d e a lt w i th th e e a r l y d e v e lo p m e n t o f w r i ti n g , p i c to r ia l a rt, a n d u r b a n e c o n o m i e s in th e M i d d le E a s t. U C L i ts e l f w a s a b o u t to u n d e r g o a n e x p e n s iv e a n d c o n tr o ­ v e r s i a l r e b r a n d in g e x e rc is e . A n e w u n i v e r s ity lo g o w a s p r e s e n te d to s ta f f , a n d i n s tr u c ti o n s w e r e p r o v i d e d o n h o w to d e p lo y it, w h a t it re p r e s e n te d , a n d h o w th is w a s to b e re f le c te d i n o u r p r o f e s s i o n a l li v e s a n d p u b lic c o n ­ d u c t. M y r e s p o n s e to th is s e t o f c i r c u m s ta n c e s e v e n tu a l ly c a m e to g e th e r in a n a r tic le ( " P r e h i s to r i e s o f C o m m o d ity B r a n d in g " ) p u b l is h e d i n 2 0 0 8 i n C u r r e n t A n t h r o p o lo g y , to g e th e r w i th c o m m e n ts — s o m e v e r y

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a b le , o th e r s h ig h ly c r itic a l— f r o m a n u n u s u a l c o m b in a tio n o f s c h o l a r s in a rc h a e o lo g y , a n th ro p o lo g y , a r t h is to r y , a n d m a r k e tin g . Its m a in a r g u m e n t, w h ic h I s u m m a r is e b e lo w , w a s ( in b r ie f ) th a t s o m e th i n g w e w o u ld r e c o g ­ n i s e to d a y a s c o m m o d i ty b r a n d i n g c a n b e f o u n d in m u c h o l d e r s o c ie tie s , in c lu d in g th o s e o f a n c ie n t E g y p t a n d M e s o p o ta m ia , w h e r e th e f ir s t c itie s a n d la r g e - s c a le e c o n o m i e s e m e r g e d a r o u n d 6 ,0 0 0 y e a r s a g o . W ith in m o n th s o f its p u b l ic a tio n , th e f in d in g s o f th e a r tic le h a d b e e n re p o r te d in a n u m b e r o f m a jo r m e d ia o u tle ts , s u c h a s T h e T e le g r ap h a n d N e iv S c ie n t is t . I g a v e a li v e r a d io in te r v ie w a b o u t th e o r i g in s o f b r a n d i n g

a n d f o r a s h o r t tim e w a s c o n ta c te d o n a n a lm o s t d a il y b a s is b y jo u r n a l­ i s ts w a n tin g to w r i te a b o u t b r a n d i n g in th e a n c ie n t w o r ld . S u m m a r ie s o f th e a r tic le , m a n y o f w h i c h e x a g g e r a te d a n d / o r o v e r s im p li f ie d its c la im s , b e g a n to a p p e a r in c o n s u m e r b l o g s b a s e d in s u c h d iv e r s e p l a c e s a s In d ia a n d P o la n d . A le a d in g b u s i n e s s th i n k - ta n k in v ite d m e to a c lo s e d d e b a te o n th e f u tu r e o f g lo b a l b r a n d i n g , h o s te d b y a w e l l- k n o w n T V p u n d it, w h e r e I f o u n d m y s e lf a lo n e a r c h a e o l o g is t i n th e c o m p a n y o f C E O s f r o m In te r b r a n d a n d C o c a - C o la . A lth o u g h th i s w a s a ll q u i te f la tte r in g , a n d f u lly

Li

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 12 h tt p :// s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 2 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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in li n e w i th th e n e w b r a n d im a g e o f m y u n iv e rs ity , i t w a s a ls o c o n f u s in g . I h a d n o t, c o n tr a r y to w h a t s o m e p e o p le w r o te o r s a id , m a d e a n y g r e a t n e w " d i s c o v e r y " ( a n u m b e r o f m y in te r v ie w e r s w e r e d is a p p o in te d w h e n I e x p l a in e d th a t I c o u ld n o t p r o v i d e th e m w i th a n im a g e o f " th e a n c ie n t b r a n d " I h a d f o u n d ) . R a th e r, I h a d s i m p ly in te r p r e te d in f o r m a tio n th a t is q u i te f a m il ia r in m y f ie ld in a n e w w a y . So , w h y th e f u s s ? T h e r e a s o n s e e m e d q u i te c le a r, b u t a ls o p r o b l e m a ti c . M o s t p e o p le a re a w a r e o f a n d ta lk a b o u t c o m m o d i ty b r a n d i n g o n th e a s s u m p tio n th a t it is th e p r o d u c t o f m o d e r n c a p ita l is t m a r k e ts , a n d th a t w e th e r e f o r e k n o w q u i te i n tu i ti v e ly w h a t i t in v o lv e s . O f c o u r s e , th e r e a re m a r k e tin g e x p e r ts a n d b r a n d g u r u s , s o m e o f w h o m I h a v e n o w m e t, w h o k n o w f a r m o re a b o u t h o w i t w o r k s th a n o th e r s , b u t it h a s g e n e r a l ly b e e n a s s u m e d th a t w e , a s c o n s u m e r s o f b r a n d s , a n d th e y , a s d e s i g n e r s o f b r a n d s , a re a ll ta lk i n g a b o u t r o u g h ly th e s a m e th in g . It is a ls o c le a r th a t c a p ita l is t lo g o h a s b e c o m e a n e m o tiv e s u b je c t, o n e th a t d r a w s f ir e f r o m a v a r ie ty o f m o r a l - e th i c a l s ta n d p o i n ts , a n d i s n o t in f r e q u e n tl y a ta r g e t o f g ra s s - r o o ts a c tiv is m . M u c h o f th i s c r itiq u e is d ir e c te d a t " b r a n d b u l l i e s " — g lo b a l m u l ­ ti n a tio n a ls — r a th e r th a n a t th e p h e n o m e n o n o f b r a n d i n g its e lf , b u t th e lin e o f te n s e e m s b lu r r e d . T h e r e is a w id e s p r e a d p e r c e p tio n th a t th e b r a n d i n g o f th i n g s , p e o p le , a n d k n o w l e d g e is a d is ti n c tiv e c r e a tio n o f th e p o s ti n ­ d u s tr ia l W e s t, w h ic h is n o w b e i n g e x p o r te d a r o u n d th e w o r ld , le a d in g to th e e r o s io n o f c u l tu r a l d iv e r s ity a n d lo c a l id e n titi e s in n e w a n d u n p r e c ­ e d e n te d w a y s . V ie w e d a g a in s t th is b a c k d r o p , m y a r tic le w a s c le a r ly m a k in g s o m e u n u s u a l c la im s . S p e c if ic a lly , I w a s tr y in g to s e p a r a te th e h is to r y o f b r a n d ­ in g f r o m th e h is to r y o f c a p ita l is m

a n d to lo c a te its o r ig in s o u ts id e th e

re c e n t h is to r y o f W e s te r n s o c ie tie s . A s a n a n o n y m o u s r e v ie w e r o f m y C u r r e n t A n t h r o p o lo g y s u b m i s s i o n p o in te d o u t ( a n d a s I h a d in i ti a lly f a il e d

to r e a lis e ) , th is h a d a lr e a d y b e e n d o n e s o m e y e a r s e a rl ie r, b y s o c ia l h is to ­ r ia n s G a r y H a m ilto n a n d C h i - k o n g L a i. In th e ir c o n tr ib u tio n to T h e S o c ial E c o n o m y o f C o n s u m p t io n

( 1 9 8 9 ) , H a m ilto n a n d L a i c o n v in c in g ly a r g u e d

th a t a c o m p le x s y s te m o f c o m m o d i ty b r a n d i n g — a p p l ie d to g o o d s s u c h a s r ic e , te a , w i n e , s c is s o r s , a n d m e d ic i n e s — h a d e x i s te d in la te im p e r ia l C h in a , w h e r e i t c a n b e tra c e d b a c k to th e S o n g d y n a s ty o f th e 1 0 th c e n tu r y

a d

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m o r e r e c e n tly H a m il to n 2 0 0 6 ; a ls o E c k h a r d t a n d B e n g ts s o n 2 0 0 9 , b u t n o te th e ir in c o r r e c t d a tin g o f th e n o n - C h i n e s e m a te r ia l) . T h e i r b a s ic c la im — th a t b r a n d i n g w a s n e ith e r u n i q u e l y " m o d e r n ," " W e s te r n ," n o r " c a p i ta l i s t" — re s o n a te d w i th m y o w n n e g a tiv e r e s p o n s e to N a o m i K l e i n ' s d e s c r i p tio n o f th e " o r i g i n s " o f b r a n d i n g in p o s ti n d u s tr i a l E u r o p e . It s e e m e d to m e th a t, in its f u n d a m e n ta ls , w h a t K le i n w a s d e s c r i b i n g c o u ld b e q u ite e a s ily tr a c e d a c ro s s m u c h e a r l ie r p e r io d s o f h u m a n h is to r y : th e a n o n y m ity o f m a s s c o n ­ s u m p tio n , th e s h if t o f c o r p o r a te e n te r p r i s e f r o m c r e a tin g n o v e l p r o d u c ts to im a g e - b a s e d s y s te m s o f d is ti n c tio n , a n d th e e m e r g e n c e o f g e n e r ic la b e l s

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 3 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 3 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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th a t a tta c h ( o f te n h ig h ly im a g i n a ti v e ) b io g r a p h i e s to o th e r w i s e in d is ti n ­ g u is h a b le g o o d s a n d p a c k a g in g .

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A ll o f th is w a s q u i te f a m il ia r f r o m m y e a r lie r r e s e a r c h in to th e o r i g in s o f u r b a n s o c i e tie s a n d w r i ti n g s y s te m s i n th e M i d d le E a s t, b e tw e e n a ro u n d 4 0 0 0 an d 3000

bc

. F o r in s ta n c e , m a n y e x a m p l e s o f w h a t is re g a r d e d a s th e

e a r l ie s t E g y p tia n w a itin g a p p e a r o n la b e l s a tta c h e d to a w i d e r a n g e o f c o m ­ m o d itie s s u c h a s te x til e s , o ils , a n d a lc o h o li c d r in k s th a t w e r e s to r e d a n d tr a n s p o r te d in s ta n d a r d is e d c e r a m ic c o n ta in e r s . T h e s e la b e ls n o t o n ly p r o ­ v id e b u r e a u c r a tic in f o r m a tio n r e l a ti n g to q u a l ity a n d p r o v e n a n c e , b u t a ls o c a r r y im a g e s th a t li n k th e c o m m o d i ti e s in q u e s tio n to ro y a l c e r e m o n ie s a n d to p a r tic u la r lo c a tio n s i n w h ic h th e k in g p e r f o r m e d r itu a ls to e n s u r e th e f e r til ity o f th e la n d ( W e n g ro w 2 0 0 6 : 1 9 8 - 2 0 7 , 2 0 0 8 : 9 - 1 0 ) . A b r o a d ly c o m p a r a b le s y s te m o f p r o d u c t m a r k i n g c a n b e d o c u m e n te d in a n c ie n t M e s o p o ta m ia ( to d a y 's Ir a q ) , w h e r e a s e r ie s o f a d m in is tr a ti v e te r m s ( a p p e a r in g in te x ts o f th e

3rd m il le n n iu m

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i n f o r m a tio n c o n c e r n in g : " ( 1 ) e m b le m s o r s y m b o ls o f d e iti e s , h o u s e h o ld s , o r in d iv id u a ls , ( 2) m a r k i n g

(3) m a r k s

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th e s e e m b le m s o r s y m b o ls ,

w h ic h w e r e th e r e s u lt o f a p p l y in g th e s e to o ls to a n im a ls , h u m a n

b e i n g s o r b o a ts a n d , f in a lly , ( 4 ) v e r b s d e s c r i b i n g th e s e m a r k i n g a c tiv itie s " ( d e M a a i je r

2001: 301).

D a n ie l F o x v o g

(1995)

a c tu a l ly tr a n s la te s o n e s u c h

te r m — w h ic h d e n o te s th e m a r k i n g o f c a ttl e a n d o th e r c o m m o d i ti e s — a s " to b r a n d ." Tho ugh

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in s ta n c e s p o i n t to w a r d s th e p o s s ib il ity th a t te m p le a n d p a l a c e b u r e a u c r a ­ c ie s in th e a n c ie n t N e a r E a s t m a y h a v e b e e n u s in g s y s te m s o f m a r k i n g a n d n o ta ti o n , n o t o n ly to m o n ito r th e q u a n tity a n d q u a l ity o f m a n u f a c tu r e d g o o d s ( a s h a s lo n g b e e n r e c o g n is e d ) b u t a ls o to e n h a n c e th e v a lu e o f s u c h p r o d u c ts th r o u g h s p e c ia li s e d p r o c e d u r e s o f p a c k a g i n g a n d la b e lli n g . W ith s u c h c o n s i d e r a tio n s in m in d , I b e g a n to re a d m o re d e e p ly in to th e h is to r y o f c r itic a l th e o r y a n d s e m i o tic s : m id - 2 0 th- c e n tu r y th e o r e tic a l m o v e m e n ts th a t h a v e b e c o m e h ig h ly u n f a s h i o n a b l e in th e s o c ia l s c i e n c e s b u t w h ic h a t le a s t o f f e r e d a s ta r tin g p o i n t f o r th i n k in g in g e n e r a l te r m s a b o u t b r a n d ­ in g a n d a d v e r tis i n g a s c u l tu r a l p h e n o m e n a . W h a t I f o u n d th e r e w e r e s til l s tr o n g e r c la im s , f o r m u la te d w i th in a b r o a d ly M a r x i a n p e r s p e c tiv e , f o r th e e x c lu s i v e ly m o d e r n c h a r a c te r o f b r a n d i n g a n d its tr a n s f o r m a tiv e e f f e c ts in p o s ti n d u s tr i a l s o c i e tie s . B o th th e G e r m a n ( F r a n k f u r t) a n d F r e n c h ( s e m i o tic ) s c h o o l s s e e m e d to i m p l ic a te b r a n d e d c o m m o d i ti e s in th e d e c li n e o f m o d e s o f s u b je c ti v ­ ity b a s e d o n k in s h i p , c la s s r e l a ti o n s , a n d c a s te , a r g u in g th a t m a s s c o n ­ s u m p tio n c r e a te s a n e w s e t o f n o r m a ti v e id e n titi e s , ty in g c o n s u m e r s to

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 4 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 4 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

14

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C u lt u res o f C o m m o d it y B ran d in g

th e e x p l o i ta ti v e c o n d i ti o n s o f c a p i ta l i s t p r o d u c tio n ( e .g ., B a r th e s 1 9 7 7 [1 9 6 4 ] ; H o rk h e im e r a n d

A d o rn o

1 9 9 6 [ 1 9 4 4 ] ) . Je a n

B a u d r ill a r d

(1968,

1 9 7 0 , 1 9 8 1 ) , f o r e x a m p l e , s a w m o d e r n b r a n d i n g p r a c tic e s a s a f o r m o f c u l tu r a l a lc h e m y s p e c i f i c to c a p i ta l i s t m o d e r n i ty

an d

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e a r l i e r s o c i a l f o r m a tio n s . T h e b r a n d s ig n , h e a r g u e d , b r in g s to g e th e r in a n e p h e m e r a l m a te r i a l f o r m

tw o c o n f l i c ti n g p s y c h o lo g i c a l te n d e n c ie s :

th e d r iv e f o r s h o r t- te r m g r a tif i c a ti o n a n d th e l o n g - te r m n e e d f o r tr a n ­ s c e n d e n c e — w h a t w e m i g h t c a ll , f o r b r e v i ty 's s a k e , th e " C o c a- C o la Is L ife e f f e c t." T h e i n te n d e d o u tc o m e is a s h o r t- li v e d tr a n s c e n d e n c e o f s e l f th a t c a n o n l y b e s u s ta in e d th r o u g h f u r th e r a c ts o f p u r c h a s e a n d c o n s u m p tio n , s o th a t c o m m o d i ty b r a n d i n g u l ti m a te l y s e e k s to c r e a te a w h o l e p a tte r n o f s o c i a l a n d e c o n o m i c d e p e n d e n c y . M o r e r e c e n t c r itiq u e s , in c lu d in g th o s e o f f e r e d b y a n th r o p o lo g is ts , te n d to r e i n f o r c e th e a s s o c ia tio n o f b r a n d i n g w i th " l a t e c a p i ta l i s m " ( e .g ., C a r r i e r 1 9 9 5 ; W e r n ic k 1 9 9 1 ) . E v e n a n a ly s e s o f n o n - W e s te r n a d v e r ti s i n g ( e .g ., in c o n te m p o r a r y Ja p a n ; s e e T o b in 1 9 9 2 ) ta k e W e s te r n m a r k e ti n g s tr a te g i e s a s th e i r to u c h s to n e o f c o m p a r i s o n , r a th e r th a n p u r s u i n g p o s s ib le c o n ti n u i ti e s w i th lo c a l o r in d ig e n o u s f o r m s o f b ra n d in g . T u r n in g to th e c u ltu r a l w i n g o f m o d e r n m a r k e tin g lite r a tu r e , I w a s s u r­ p r i s e d to f in d m a n y o v e r l a p s w i th th e c r itic a l , M a r x i a n tr a d itio n o f b r a n d a n a ly s is . A lth o u g h th e a n c ie n t r o o ts o f p r o d u c t la b e l lin g a re o f te n w h i m ­ s i c a lly m e n tio n e d in th is li te r a tu r e ( w ith a n o d to th e a n c ie n t G r e e k s a n d s u c h th in g s a s p o tte r s ' m a r k s ) , b r a n d i n g its e l f is c le a r ly re g a r d e d b y m a n y m a r k e tin g p r o f e s s i o n a ls ( a n d p r o f e s s o r s o f m a r k e tin g ) a s h a v i n g o n ly r e c e n tly b e c o m e a m a jo r p l a y e r o n th e f ie ld o f s o c ia l c h a n g e ( e .g ., C h e v a l ie r a n d M a z z a l o v o 2 0 0 4 ; H o lt 2 0 0 6 , 2 0 0 8 ; f o r a n e x c e p tio n , s e e M o o r e a n d R e i d 2 0 0 8 a n d c o m m e n ts b e lo w ) . I w a s p a r tic u la r l y s tr u c k b y h o w s o m e m a r k e tin g a n a ly s ts h a d p ic k e d u p o n th e e a r l ie r p s y c h o a n a l y ti c a l li te r a ­ tu re , a r g u in g th a t th e a p p e a l o f b r a n d s is ro o te d in th e " q u i c k f i x e s " th e y o f f e r f o r d e e p e x i s te n ti a l c r is e s in m o d e r n s o c i e tie s , g e n e r a ti n g d is ti n c t a n d s e lf - p e r p e tu a tin g f o r m s o f d e p e n d e n c y b e tw e e n c o n s u m e r s a n d th e ir m o s t c o v e te d p r o d u c ts ( e .g ., H o lt 2 0 0 2 : 8 7 , 2 0 0 4 ) . T h e m a jo r d if f e r e n c e s e e m e d to b e th a t 2 1 st- c e n tu r y e x p e r ts o n m a r k e tin g tr e a t th e c o n s tr u c ti o n o f s e lf ­ im a g e th r o u g h m a s s c o n s u m p tio n a s a b a s is f o r c o m m e r c i a l s tr a te g ie s th a t, if p r o p e r ly m a n a g e d a n d ta r g e te d , m ig h t tr a n s f o r m a n a il in g b u s i n e s s o r p u b l ic i n s ti tu ti o n in to a g lo b a l s u c c e s s s to ry . T h e i r 2 0 th- c e n tu r y a n c e s to r s , b y c o n tr a s t, th o u g h t th e s a m e m a te r ia l - p s y c h o l o g ic a l d r iv e s w e r e d e s tr o y ­ in g th e m o r a l f a b r ic o f s o c i e ty in g e n e r a l. E v e n R a y m o n d W il li a m s 's ( 1 9 8 0 [ I9 6 0 ] ) c h a r a c te r is a tio n o f m a r k e tin g a s a m o d e r n f o r m o f " m a g i c ," " s y m ­ b o l i s m ," a n d " m y th o lo g y ," I d is c o v e r e d , h a s b e e n e n th u s i a s tic a ll y in c o r ­ p o r a te d in to p r o f e s s i o n a l b r a n d - s p e a k , b u t a s a n e n d o r s e m e n t o f g o o d p r a c tic e r a th e r th a n a f o r m o f p s y c h o lo g i c a l w a r f a r e w a g e d o n th e w e a k b y th e p o w e r f u l ( e .g ., R o b e r ts 2 0 0 4 ) .

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 5 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 5 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

In t ro d u c t io n

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15

In s h o r t, it w a s b e c o m in g c le a r to m e th a t a r g u m e n ts f o r th e m o d e r ­ n ity o f c o m m o d i ty b r a n d i n g h a v e b e e n w i d e ly m o u n te d ( b o th w i th in a n d o u ts id e a c a d e m ia ) , o f te n f r o m v e r y d iv e r s e s ta n d p o i n ts , a n d i n th e s e r­ v ic e o f v e r y d if f e r e n t s o c ia l a g e n d a s . B u t w h a t h a p p e n s to th e s e v a r io u s , e n tr e n c h e d p o s itio n s o n c o n te m p o r a r y b r a n d c u l tu r e i f th e W e s t a c tu a l ly tu r n s o u t to b e a re la ti v e la te c o m e r in its a d o p ti o n o f s y s te m a ti c p r o d u c t b r a n d i n g ? W h a t a re th e im p l ic a tio n s o f d e c o u p li n g b r a n d e c o n o m i e s , a s s o c ia l a n d h is to r ic a l p h e n o m e n a , f r o m c a p ita l is t m o d e s o f p r o d u c tio n ? W h a t h a p p e n s i f w e e l e c t to s e e c o n te m p o r a r y W e s te r n c a p ita l is m a s ju s t o n e c o n te x t ( o r b e tte r , s e t o f c o n te x ts ) in w h ic h b r a n d i n g — a p h e n o m ­ e n o n c o m m o n to la r g e - s c a le s o c ie tie s s i n c e b e f o r e th e tim e o f th e G r e a t P y r a m id s — h a s ta k e n o n n e w

f o r m s a n d c u l tu r a l p e r m u ta ti o n s ? B e f o re

e x p l o r in g th e s e q u e s tio n s a n d s o m e o f th e a n s w e r s o f f e re d i n th i s v o lu m e , it s e e m s im p o r ta n t to s u m m a r is e th e e v id e n c e p r e s e n te d in " P r e h is to r i e s o f C o m m o d ity B r a n d in g " ( W e n g r o w 2 0 0 8 ) .

P r e h is t o r ie s o f

C o m m o d it y B r a n d in g

In a s e m i n a l p i e c e o n th e s o c ia l c o n s tr u c ti o n o f v a lu e , th e a n th r o p o lo g is t Ig o r K o p y to f f ( 1 9 8 6 ) a rg u e d th a t c o m m o d i ti e s a re n o t th in g s in th e m s e lv e s b u t r a th e r s i tu a tio n a l e n titie s : e l e m e n ts o f m a te r ia l c u ltu r e ( o r p e r s o n s ) th a t h a v e b e c o m e te m p o r a r ily e n m e s h e d w i th in a p a r tic u la r s e t o f s o c ia l a n d m o r a l c o d e s ; c o d e s th a t d e te r m in e th e c h a r a c te r a n d p a c e o f th e ir c ir­ c u la tio n . C o m m o d ity s itu a tio n s a re th o s e in w h ic h th e e x c h a n g e a b i li ty o f o n e th i n g f o r a n o th e r b e c o m e s , f o r a tim e , its m o s t s o c i a ll y s a l ie n t f e a tu r e . In th e s a m e w o r k , K o p y to f f a ls o o b s e r v e d th a t th e p r o d u c tio n o f c o m ­ m o d i ti e s is " a c u l tu r a l a n d c o g n iti v e p ro c e s s : c o m m o d i ti e s m u s t n o t o n ly b e p r o d u c e d m a te r ia l ly a s th in g s , b u t a ls o c u l tu r a l ly m a r k e d a s b e i n g a c e r ta in k in d o f th i n g " ( p . 6 4 ) . It is th is la tte r o b s e r v a tio n th a t h a s re m a in e d u n d e r d e v e lo p e d

in a n th r o p o lo g ic a l s tu d i e s o f v a lu e a n d

exch an g e, a

n e g le c t th a t f in d s its c o u n te r p a r t in r e c e n t a r c h a e o l o g ic a l th e o r ie s o f c o m ­ m o d i ti s a tio n ( e .g ., R e n f r e w 2 0 0 1 , 2 0 0 5 ) th a t p a y little a tte n ti o n to c o n c r e te m e c h a n is m s o f s e a li n g , la b e lli n g , a n d m a rk in g . S p e c ia l is e d

f o rm s o f p r o d u c t la b e l lin g

in p r e m o d e r n s o c ie tie s h a v e

te n d e d to b e s tu d ie d in o n e o f tw o w a y s . T h e y m a y b e c o n s id e r e d in te rm s o f th e ir a d m in is tr a ti v e ro l e s ( i.e ., th e ir u s e in m o n ito r i n g th e c ir c u la tio n o f p e o p le a n d g o o d s — a n a p p r o a c h u s u a l ly ta k e n b y a r c h a e o lo g is ts a n d a n th r o p o lo g is ts ) . O r th e y a re s tu d ie d f r o m a p u r e ly ic o n o g r a p h ic p e r s p e c ­ tiv e , w i th v a r io u s k in d s o f la b e l s tr e a te d a s a r t o b je c ts , d iv o rc e d f ro m th e c o m m o d i ti e s to w h ic h th e y w e r e a tta c h e d , a n d h e n c e f r o m th e w o r ld o f s o c ia l tr a n s a c tio n s ( a n a p p r o a c h u s u a lly f o llo w e d b y a r t h is to r ia n s ; b u t f o r a n o ta b le e x c e p tio n , s e e W in te r 2 0 0 0 ) . M y p r im a r y a im in " P r e h is to r i e s o f C o m m o d ity

B r a n d in g " w a s to

q u e s tio n th is a rtif ic ia l s e p a r a tio n o f

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 6 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 6 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

16

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C u lt u res o f C o m m o d it y B ran d in g

f u n c tio n s ( a n d o f m o d e r n d is c ip li n a r y in te re s ts ) a s w e l l a s th e w i d e r re c o n ­ s tr u c ti o n s o f a n c ie n t e c o n o m y a n d s o c ie ty th a t it s u p p o r ts . I a tte m p te d to d o th is th r o u g h a d e ta il e d s tu d y o f h o w c o m m o d i ti e s w e r e s e a le d a n d m a r k e d in M e s o p o ta m ia d u r in g th e tr a n s itio n f r o m v il la g e to u r b a n lif e (cn. 7 0 0 0 - 3 0 0 0 T h e k in d

bc

).

o f s e a lin g p r a c tic e s w i th w h ic h I w a s c o n c e r n e d

in v o lv e

tw o b a s ic p h y s i c a l c o m p o n e n ts : (1) th e s e a l its e lf , o f te n a h ig h ly c r a f te d o b je c t m a d e o f s o m e h a rd s u b s ta n c e , w h i c h c a r r ie s a n in ta g li o d e s i g n th a t is im p r e s s e d b y ro l li n g o r s ta m p in g ; a n d ( 2 ) th e s e a li n g , m a d e o f a s o f t a d h e s iv e s u b s ta n c e s u c h a s c l a y o r w a x , w h ic h s e r v e s th e d u a l f u n c tio n s o f r e c e i v in g th e s e a l im a g e a n d h o ld i n g s h u t th e c lo s u r e o f a c o n ta in e r th r o u g h its a tta c h m e n t o v e r th e lip ( F ig u r e 1 .1 , c e n tre ) . S e a lin g p r a c tic e s o f th is k in d a re n o lo n g e r a s ta n d a r d f e a tu r e o f c o m m e r c i a l lif e . B u t th e ir r e p la c e m e n t b y in d u s tr ia l a d h e s i v e s a n d s y n th e tic w r a p p in g m a te r ia l s is a r e la ti v e ly re c e n t d e v e lo p m e n t, a n d m a s s - p r o d u c e d ( " s k e u o m o r p h i c " ) re p li c a s o f s e a l im p r e s s i o n s c o n tin u e to b e f e a tu r e d o n la b e l s f o r a w i d e r a n g e o f m o d e r n c o m m o d i ti e s , n o ta b l y th o s e — s u c h a s a lc o h o lic d r in k s , p e r f u m e s , d a ir y p r o d u c ts , a n d o th e r c o m e s ti b le s — th a t m u s t b e s e a le d f o r p r a c tic a l a s w e l l a s s o c ia l re a s o n s , to a v o id s p o il in g th r o u g h e x p o s u r e . T h is m o d e r n ( s y m b o li c ) u s e o f s e a l im a g e r y to e v o k e n o s ta lg ia a n d a u th e n tic ity is p e r h a p s r e s p o n s ib le , in p a r t, f o r d is g u i s in g th e f a c t th a t s e a lin g p r a c ­ tic e s o f th is k in d , w h e n v ie w e d f r o m a h is to r ic a l p e r s p e c tiv e , c o n s titu te th e

Figure 1.1.

Im a g e s im p re s s e d o n to th e c la y s e a lin g s o f c o m m o d ity c o n ta in ­

e rs in e a rly M e s o p o ta m ia an d s o u th - w e s t Iran , ( ab o v e : s ta m p e d im p re s sio n s, S^ - e a r ly 4 th m ille n n iu m

bc

; b e lo w : ro lle d im p re s sio n s, 4 th m ille n n iu m b c ), a n d

a n illu s tra tio n o f th e s e a lin g m e c h a n is m ( c e n tre ) .

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 7 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 7 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

In t ro d u c t io n

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17

e a r l ie s t- k n o w n te c h n i q u e f o r m e c h a n ic a ll y r e p r o d u c i n g a c r a f te d im a g e ( a n d n o te th e ir s tr ik in g a b s e n c e f r o m W a lte r B e n ja m in 's f a m o u s

(1936)] e s s a y In

[1999

o n " th e w o r k o f a r t in th e a g e o f m e c h a n ic a l r e p r o d u c tio n " ) .

th e a ll u v ia l p l a in s b e tw e e n

th e T ig r is a n d

E u p h r a te s R iv e r s in

M e s o p o ta m ia , th e p r a c tic e o f s e a lin g c o n ta in e r s w i th im p r e s s e d im a g e s in th i s m a n n e r c a n b e tr a c e d b a c k to th e la te

7th m il le n n iu m

bc , s o m e

2,000

y e a r s p r i o r to th e e m e r g e n c e o f c itie s in th e s a m e r e g io n . T h e f u n c tio n o f s e a lin g p r a c tic e s i n th e s e e a r l y v ill a g e e c o n o m i e s h a s b e e n m u c h d e b a te d ( s e e , e .g ., F e r io li e d .

1994).

W h a t r o le d id th e y p l a y in p r e h is to r ic c o m m u ­

n itie s th a t m ig h t a c c o u n t f o r th e ir ra p id s p r e a d a c ro s s th e p l a in s o f n o r th ­ e r n M e s o p o ta m ia ? A s w e a re d e a l in g h e r e w i th " h o u s e h o l d e c o n o m i e s ," it s e e m e d u s e f u l to a p p r o a c h th e q u e s tio n v ia a n th r o p o lo g ic a l s tu d i e s o f w r a p p in g a n d s e a li n g p r a c tic e s in m o re re c e n t d o m e s ti c s e ttin g s . Ja m e s C a r r ie r

(1993),

f o r in s ta n c e , h a s c o n s id e r e d h o w w r a p p in g g if ts ,

ty in g b o w s , a n d a tta c h in g g r e e tin g s w o r k s to o v e r c o m e a c o n tr a d ic tio n b e tw e e n th e g e n e r ic q u a l itie s o f ( m o d e rn ) b r a n d e d p r o d u c ts a n d th e s o c ia l re q u ir e m e n ts o f c e r e m o n i a l e x c h a n g e in c o n te m p o r a r y A m e r ic a n h o u s e ­ h o ld s . H e re , d o m e s ti c " s e a l i n g p r a c ti c e s " — d e s p ite th e ir re l ia n c e o n in d u s ­ tr ia lly p r o d u c e d w r a p p in g p a p e r, a d h e s i v e s , a n d g r e e tin g s c a rd s — s til l w o r k to s u b v e r t th e c o m m o d i ty s ta tu s o f m a s s - p r o d u c e d g o o d s , r e c a lli n g P ie r r e B o u r d ie u 's

(1977:71) s l ig h tly

c y n ic a l o b s e r v a tio n th a t g if t e x c h a n g e s

c a n b e v ie w e d a s c o m m o d i ty r e la ti o n s , s lo w e d to a s n a i l 's p a c e a n d f ilte re d th r o u g h a s e r ie s o f r e c ip r o c a l p e r f o r m a n c e s th a t d e n y th e s e lf - in te r e s te d n a tu r e o f th e tr a n s a c ti o n . T o i n v e r t K o p y to f f ' s f o r m u la tio n , in a w o r ld s a t­ u r a te d b y b r a n d e d c o m m o d i ti e s , i t is g ift s th a t m u s t b e c u l tu r a l ly m a r k e d a s b e i n g " a c e r ta in k in d o f th i n g ." T h e N e o li th i c v ill a g e s in w h ic h s p e c ia li s e d s e a lin g p r a c tic e s f ir s t d e v e l­ o p e d p r e s e n t a n in te r e s tin g c o n tr a s t. T h e h o u s e h o ld w a s a p r i m a r y lo c u s o f p r o d u c tio n a s w e l l a s e x c h a n g e , a n d m a te r ia l g o o d s w e r e o f te n h ig h ly i n d iv i d u a li s e d o b je c ts w i th p e r s o n a l h is to r ie s o f m a n u f a c tu r e a n d o w n e r ­ s h ip . T h is a p p lie s to th e s to n e s e a ls th e m s e lv e s , w h ic h m ig h t b e e q u a lly w e l l u n d e r s to o d a s p e r s o n a l a m u le ts ( C h a r v a t

1994).

E a c h h a d a u n iq u e

s h a p e a n d s u r f a c e d e s i g n a n d w a s p e r f o r a te d f o r a tta c h m e n t to th e b o d y , s u g g e s ti n g c lo s e r e l a ti o n s h ip s b e tw e e n p a r tic u la r p e r s o n s , th e s e a ls th e y c a r r ie d , a n d th e im a g e s d is tr i b u te d f r o m th o s e s e a ls ( F ig u r e

1.2). T h e

act o f

p la c in g a b a n d o f w e t c la y o v e r th e m o u th o f a c o n ta in e r a n d im p r e s s in g it w i th a c a r v e d s to n e a m u l e t le f t a d is ti n g u i s h in g m a r k th a t c o u ld b e u s e d to tr a c e th e p r o d u c t b a c k to a p a r tic u la r in d iv i d u a l o r in s titu tio n : a p o i n t o f o ri g in . T h is s e e m in g ly in n o c u o u s d e v e lo p m e n t w o u ld h a v e f a r - r e a c h in g c o n s e q u e n c e s , s til l d e te c ta b le in to d a y 's c o n s u m e r c u ltu re s . T h e p r e s e n c e o f a c l a y s e a lin g d e m o n s tr a te d th e in te g r i ty o f th e p a c k ­ a g e a n d its c o n te n ts , w h ic h w a s p a r tic u la r l y im p o r ta n t in th e c a s e o f o r g a n ic c o m e s ti b l e s , a n d h a d th e p o te n tia l to re d u c e th e r is k s in v o lv e d

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 8 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 8 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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i n e x c h a n g e s b e tw e e n u n f a m i lia r p a r tn e r s . B u t i t a ls o in tr o d u c e d n e w p o s s ib il itie s f o r m y s tif i c a ti o n in th e c ir c u la tio n a n d c o n s u m p tio n o f c o m ­ m o d i ti e s . T h e n , a s n o w , b r e a k in g a s e a l a lw a y s d i s tu r b s a p r i o r s e t o f re la ­ tio n s h ip s : b e tw e e n th e o w n e r o f th e s e a le d o b je c t, th e o w n e r o f th e s e a l u s e d to f a s te n it, a n d th e a g e n c ie s e v o k e d b y th e im a g e c a r v e d o n th e s e a l 's s u r f a c e , w h ic h w e r e s o m e ti m e s o f a s u p e r n a tu r a l k i n d . It is th e r e f o r e b o th s o m e th i n g o f a v io l a ti o n a n d s o m e th i n g o f a te m p ta ti o n , s e ttin g in m o tio n a c h a in o f c o n s e q u e n c e s , th e o u tc o m e s o f w h ic h c a n n o t a lw a y s b e f o r e s e e n , a n d m a y le a d to m is f o r tu n e . S e a ls h a v e th e p o te n tia l to re w r ite s o c ia l h is to ry , a n d a s s u c h h a v e o f te n b e e n v ie w e d a s p o r te n to u s a n d d a n ­ g e r o u s o b je c ts in th e ir o w n rig h t. L a te r M e s o p o ta m ia n " d r e a m o m e n s " c r e d i te d th e m w i th m a g ic a l p o w e r s , in c lu d in g th e p o w e r to p r o d u c e o r d e s tr o y o f f s p r in g ( P ittm a n 1 9 9 5 ) . O v e r s u c c e e d in g m il le n n ia , M e s o p o ta m ia n s o c i e tie s u n d e r w e n t a tr a n ­ s i ti o n f r o m v ill a g e to u r b a n li f e th a t w a s u n p r e c e d e n te d in h u m a n h is to r y . A n im p o r ta n t a s p e c t o f th a t p r o c e s s , d e s c r i b e d i n m o r e d e ta il i n m y o r i g i­ n a l a r tic le , w a s th e s ta n d a r d is a ti o n o f w i d e s p r e a d f o r m s o f m a te r i a l c u l­ tu r e , o f w h i c h th e m o s t a r c h a e o l o g ic a l ly v is i b l e a r e c e r a m i c s ( F ig u r e 1 .3 ) . By aro u n d 40 0 0

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c o n ta i n e r s s o c h a r a c te r i s ti c o f N e o li th i c v ill a g e li f e i n th is r e g i o n h a d d i s a p p e a r e d . W h a t r e p la c e d th e m w e r e d r a b a n d u n i f o r m v e s s e l ty p e s , m a n u f a c tu r e d w i th th e a i d o f m e c h a n ic a l d e v ic e s s u c h a s th e w h e e l o r c o n s tr u c te d o u t o f p r e f a b r i c a te d , m o d u la r c o m p o n e n ts . S e a l s a n d s e a l­ in g p r a c ti c e s , to o , u n d e r w e n t s i g n if ic a n t c h a n g e s a c r o s s M e s o p o ta m ia ( P ittm a n 2 0 0 1 ) . T h e g e n e r a l tr e n d w a s to w a r d s s ta n d a r d is a ti o n o f th e s e a l f o r m a s w e l l a s a w i d e s p r e a d s h if t f r o m s ta m p in g to r o l li n g ( a n d h e n c e f r o m f l a t to c y l i n d r i c a l s e a ls ) a s th e m e th o d o f im p r e s s i n g im a g e s o n to th e c l a y c lo s u r e s o f c o m m o d i ty c o n ta in e r s . T h e in v e n ti o n o f th e e a r l i e s t- k n o w n w r i ti n g s y s te m ( c a. 3 3 0 0

bc

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th e c h a n c e p r e s e r v a ti o n o f e a r l y a d m i n i s tr a ti v e te x ts a t th e s i te o f U r u k in s o u th e r n Ir a q , p r o v i d e s d e ta il e d in s i g h ts i n to th e r a n g e o f c o m m o d i ­ ti e s a n d s p e c ia li s e d p a c k a g i n g th a t w a s a v a i l a b l e in u r b a n s e ttin g s b y th e la te 4 lh m i l l e n n i u m ( N i s s e n e t a l. 1 9 9 3 ) . D a i r y p r o d u c ts , m e a ts , a n d

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 9 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 9 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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o i l s f o r c o o k i n g a n d c o s m e ti c u s e a s w e l l a s ty p e s o f b r e a d a n d b e e r a re e n u m e r a te d a n d c la s s if i e d a c c o r d in g to f i n e - g r a i n e d c r i te r i a o f d i s ti n c ­ tio n , l e a v i n g n o d o u b t a s to th e s o p h i s ti c a ti o n o f th e u r b a n e c o n o m y a n d i ts a b i l i ty to p r o c e s s a n d p a c k a g e o r g a n i c p r o d u c e o n a v e r y la r g e s c a le . T h e s e te x ts o f f e r a s n a p s h o t o f i n n o v a ti o n s in d i e t a n d c o n s u m p ti o n th a t to o k m a n y c e n tu r i e s to e v o l v e . A s th e r a n g e o f c o m m o d i ti e s h a d e x p a n d ­ e d , n o ta b l y f r o m th e 5 th m il le n n iu m im p r e s s e d

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g u a r d o v e r th e w o r l d o f c o m m o d i ti e s , o c c u p y i n g a n im p o r ta n t

s p a c e o f th e s o c i a l i m a g i n a ti o n b e tw e e n n o v e l p r o d u c ts a n d th e ir c o n ­ s u m p tio n ( F ig u r e 1 .1 , u p p e r ro w ) . B y th e tim e o f th e e a r l ie s t w r iti n g , s ta n d a r d is e d c o m m o d i ty c o n ta in e r s w e r e s e a le d w i th im a g e s th a t c o n v e y e d c le a r n a r r a tiv e th e m e s ( o f te n w ith a s tr o n g , m a s c u lin e c o m p o n e n t) s u c h a s th e c o n q u e s t o f e n e m ie s , th e n u r ­ tu r in g o f w ild a n im a ls , a n d p i o u s p r e s e n ta ti o n s o f g if ts to th e g o d s ( Fig u r e 1 .1 , lo w e r ro w '). S c e n e s o f in d u s tr y ( e .g ., p o ttin g a n d w e a v in g ) a ls o a p p e a r , f e a tu r in g s q u a ttin g w o r k e r s ( u s u a l ly a s s u m e d to b e f e m a le ) w i th d is ti n c ­ tiv e p i g - ta i le d h a ir s ty le s . A s tr ik in g f e a tu r e o f th i s p e r io d is th e d is s e m in a ­ tio n o f s ta n d a r d is e d g o o d s o v e r a tr u ly e n o r m o u s a re a , r e a c h in g a c ro s s th e M e s o p o ta m ia n a ll u v iu m f r o m th e h e a d o f th e P e r s i a n G u l f u p th e h e a d w a te r s o f th e E u p h r a te s ( in m o d e r n - d a y T u rk e y ) a n d p e n e tr a tin g th e w e s te r n p l a in s a n d m o u n ta i n s o f Ir a n . A r c h a e o l o g is ts te r m th is th e " U r u k

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 2 0 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 0 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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( A lg a z e 1 9 9 3) .

T h e c a u s e s o f th e U r u k E x p a n s io n h a v e b e e n w i d e ly d e b a te d , a n d s c h o l­ a r ly d is a g r e e m e n ts o f te n h in g e o n th e n a tu r e o f c o m m o d i ty f lo w s b e tw e e n u r b a n c e n tr e s o n th e M e s o p o ta m ia n a ll u v iu m a n d a s u r r o u n d in g h ig h la n d p e r ip h e r y ( a lo n g th e T a u ru s a n d Z a g r o s r a n g e s ) . T h e la tte r re g io n s w e r e le s s d e n s e ly p o p u l a te d b u t c o n tr o ll e d a c c e s s to m e ta l a n d m in e r a l r e s o u r c ­ e s th a t w e r e l a c k i n g in lo w la n d M e s o p o ta m ia ( s e e c h a p te r s i n R o th m a n 2 0 0 1 ) . A n d r e w S h e r r a tt ( 2 0 0 4 ) , in a n im p o r ta n t c o n tr ib u tio n , n o te d th a t th e o u tw a r d f lo w o f u r b a n p r o d u c ts in to th is w i d e r p e r ip h e r y w a s a c c o m ­ p a n ie d b y in te r n a l s p e c ia li s a tio n in p r i m a r y p r o d u c tio n a n d " le n g th e n e d c h a in s o f tr a n s f o r m a tio n " in th e m a n u f a c tu r e o f te x til e s , a lc o h o lic b e v e r ­ a g e s , a n d a w i d e r a n g e o f f o o d s tu f f s . H e f u r th e r s u g g e s te d th a t th e s e n e w c o n s u m a b l e s w e r e p a r t a n d p a r c e l o f a n u r b a n h a b it u s — a s y s te m o f c u s ­ to m a r y s o c i a l d is tin c tio n s — tr a n s m itte d f a r b e y o n d th e h e a r tla n d s o f e a r l y u r b a n is a ti o n in to le s s d e n s e l y p o p u la te d r e g io n s a n d s e ttle m e n ts . M y 2 0 0 8 a r tic le a d d e d a f u r th e r d im e n s io n to th is r e c o n s tr u c tio n , b y a r g u in g th a t s p e c ia li s e d te c h n i q u e s o f c o m m o d i ty m a r k i n g p la y e d a m o re c o m p l e x ro l e in th e d is s e m in a tio n o f th is u r b a n li f e s ty le th a n h a d p r e v i­ o u s ly b e e n r e a lis e d . U r b a n c e n tr e s , I s u g g e s te d , n o t o n ly p o s s e s s e d a n u n r iv a lle d c a p a c ity to m o n ito r th e p r o d u c tio n , a n d th u s g u a r a n te e th e q u a lity , o f m a s s - p r o d u c e d g o o d s ( a s te s tif i e d in e a r l y w r i tte n r e c o r d s ) ; th e y a ls o in v e s te d in s ta n d a r d is e d s y s te m s o f p r o d u c t p a c k a g i n g a n d la b e lli n g th a t a lte r e d th e n a tu r e o f c o m m o d i ty f lo w s in th e ir f a v o u r ( a n d s e e f u r th e r d is c u s s io n o f " b r a n d e c o n o m i e s ," b e lo w ) . A k e y f e a tu r e o f th a t p r o c e s s , a s A . S h e r r a tt ( 1 9 9 9 ) h a d p o in te d o u t, w a s th e g r o w in g im p o r ta n c e o f c o m ­ m o d itie s ( n o ta b l y w o o lle n te x til e s , d a ir y p r o d u c ts , a lc o h o li c b e v e r a g e s , o i ls , a n d m e ta ls in b o th f in is h e d a n d in g o t f o rm s ) th a t c o u ld b e p r o d u c e d a lo n g a w i d e s p e c tr u m o f q u a l ity a n d p u rity , u s in g c o m p l e x ( a n d o f te n ra r e ) in g r e d ie n ts , a n d a b s o r b in g th e a d d e d v a lu e o f s k i ll e d a n d in te n s iv e la b o u r. S u c h g o o d s w e r e h ig h ly s u s c e p ti b le to a d u l te r a tio n a n d f a k e ry , p la c in g a p r e m iu m o n s p e c ia li s e d m o d e s o f m a r k i n g a n d p a c k a g i n g th a t e n s u r e d q u a l ity a n d s i g n a lle d r e l a ti o n s h ip s o f e x c lu s i v i ty a c ro s s s h a r e d s c a le s o f s u m p tu a r y v a lu e ( a n d s e e B e v a n , th is v o lu m e ) . T o s u m m a r is e , s e a lin g p r a c tic e s c le a r ly p la y e d m u ltip le s ro l e in th e e a r­ li e s t u r b a n e c o n o m i e s , n o t a ll o f w h ic h c a n o r s h o u ld b e s u b s u m e d u n d e r th e ru b r ic o f c o m m o d i ty b r a n d i n g ( s e e W in te r 2 0 0 8 ) . A m o n g th o s e ro le s a re th e u s e o f s e a ls a s m e c h a n ic a l d e v ic e s f o r m a r k i n g th e q u a l ity ( a n d p e r­ h a p s a ls o p r o v e n a n c e ) o f g o o d s , f o r g u a r a n te e in g th e p r i s tin e c o n d itio n o f p e r is h a b le f o o d s tu f f s , a n d f o r tr a c k in g th e m o v e m e n t o f p r o d u c ts w ith in b u r e a u c r a tic s y s te m s o f r e s o u r c e m a n a g e m e n t. A d d itio n a lly , s e a lin g p r a c ­ tic e s in v o lv e d th e a p p l ic a tio n to w i d e ly tr a d e d c o m m o d i ti e s o f s tr ik in g

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 21 h t t p :/ /s ite . e b ra ry .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 1 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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v is u a l im a g e s , im a g e s th a t li n k e d th e s e o th e r w i s e a n o n y m o u s o b je c ts to c e n tr a l c u ltu r a l c o n c e r n s , in c lu d in g c e r e m o n i a l tr a n s a c ti o n s th a t r e p r o ­ d u c e d a n o v e r a r c h in g o r d e r o f r e la tio n s b e tw e e n h u m a n s a n d th e s a c re d . In s u c h c o n te x ts , th e y f o r m e d p a r t o f a p r o c e s s o f ( lim ite d ) d e c o m m o d i ti­ s a tio n , c a r r ie d o u t o n w h a t w a s , b y a n y s ta n d a r d s , a n in d u s tr ia l s c a l e . It is th is p r o c e s s , I w a s s u g g e s ti n g , th a t c a n b e b e s t d e s c r ib e d a s th e w o r l d 's f ir s t s y s te m o f c o m m o d i ty b r a n d in g .

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b o o k is th e f ir s t c o n c e r te d a tte m p t to a p p r o a c h c o m m o d i ty b r a n d i n g o n a c o m p a r a tiv e s c a le , f r o m th e d is c ip li n a r y p e r s p e c tiv e s o f a r c h a e o l o g y a n d a n th ro p o lo g y . U n li k e p r e v i o u s s tu d ie s , w e a p p r o a c h o u r to p ic w i th o u t a n y a s s u m e d li m ita ti o n s o f tim e , c u ltu r e , o r s p a c e , a d d r e s s in g b o th g e n ­ e r a l a n d s p e c if ic f e a tu r e s o f b r a n d e c o n o m i e s a n d c o n s i d e r in g th e in te r f a c e b e tw e e n d is ti n c t c u l tu r e s o f c o m m o d i ty b r a n d i n g a s th e y c o m e in to c o n ­ ta c t w i th o n e a n o th e r. C le a r l y th e re a re d a n g e r s , in a n y s u c h e n te r p r i s e , o f r e d u c in g n o n ­ W e s te r n o r p r e m o d e r n f o r m s o f b r a n d i n g to s h a d o w y p r e c u r s o r s o f s o m e ­ th i n g a p p a r e n tl y f a m ilia r . W e w o u ld c o n tr a s t o u r a p p r o a c h , f o r in s ta n c e , to th a t o f M o o r e a n d R e id ( 2 0 0 8 ) w h o , w r i ti n g f o r a le a d in g b u s i n e s s a n d m a r k e tin g jo u r n a l, h a v e r e c e n tly s o u g h t to id e n tif y " p r o to - b r a n d s " a m o n g a n c ie n t s e a lin g d e v ic e s f r o m th e In d u s V a lle y . F r o m th i s s ta r tin g p o in t, th e y g o o n to h y p o th e s i s e a lo n g - te r m

e v o l u tio n o f b r a n d i n g p r a c tic e s

f r o m m a r k s c o n c e r n e d w i th o ri g in , a u th e n tic ity , a n d th e lo g is ti c a l m a n a g e ­ m e n t o f g o o d s to th e c h a r is m a tic b r a n d s o f m o d e r n c o m m e r c e . W e p o s it n o s u c h e v o l u tio n a r y s c h e m e h e re a n d , a s w i ll b e a p p a r e n t b y n o w , v ie w c h a r is m a tic p r o d u c t m a r k i n g a s a n in te g r a l f e a tu r e o f p r e m o d e r n a s w e ll a s m o d e rn b ra n d in g . T h e c h a p te r s in th i s v o lu m e w o r k c u m u la tiv e l y to q u e s tio n th e c u l­ tu ra l p r e c o n c e p ti o n s a n d h is to r ic a l a s s u m p tio n s in w h ic h th e f a m il ia r ity o f m o d e r n b r a n d s i s g ro u n d e d . E a c h tre a ts a p a r tic u la r b o d y o f a r c h a e o ­ lo g ic a l o r e th n o g r a p h ic d a ta i n d e p th a n d , in s p ite o f th e ir w i d e ly v a r y in g s c a le s o f a n a ly s is , a ll s h a r e a n u m b e r o f f e a tu r e s th a t d is ti n g u i s h th e m a s a g r o u p f r o m e a r l ie r s tu d i e s o f c o m m o d i ty b r a n d i n g . F ir s t, th e y a p p r o a c h b r a n d i n g f r o m th e " g r o u n d u p ," in te rm s o f th e c u s to m a r y p r a c tic e s a n d r e a litie s o f e v e r y d a y in te r a c tio n . T h e i r d a ta a re n o t th e c a r e f u lly c o d if ie d o r s ta tis tic a l ly m a n a g e a b le a s p e c ts o f c o m m e r c ia l r e la ti o n s , th r o u g h w h ic h m a r k e tin g a n d b u s i n e s s s tu d i e s h a v e c o n v e n ti o n a lly a p p r o a c h e d th e a n a l­ y s i s o f b r a n d s . T h e y a re c o n c e r n e d , in s te a d , w i th th e m a n n e r i n w h ic h b r a n d s a n d b r a n d e d g o o d s a re u n d e r s to o d a s m e d ia to r s o f s o c ia l r e l a ti o n ­ s h ip s ; r e l a ti o n s h ip s g r o u n d e d in w i d e r n o tio n s o f tr u s t a n d a u th e n tic ity ,

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 2 2 h tt p :// s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 2 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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C u lt u res o f C o m m o d it y B ran d in g

a n d d is ti n c tio n th a t v a r y b e tw e e n c u l tu r a l a n d h is to r ic a l c o n te x ts . It is n o a c c id e n t, th e n , th a t m a jo r s u b th e m e s to e m e r g e f r o m th i s c o l le c tio n a re th o s e o f th e " f a k e b r a n d ," th e " s e c o n d - h a n d b r a n d ," a n d th e " m i s u n d e r ­ s to o d " o r " r e i n v e n te d " b r a n d , s o c i a ll y re c o n s titu te d in w a y s th a t a re li k e ly to e s c a p e th e p r o f e s s i o n a l c o n c e r n s o f b r a n d m a n a g e r s , d e s ig n e r s , a n d a n a ly s ts .

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W e o f f e r n o re a d y - m a d e f o r m u la f o r th e c o m p a r a tiv e s tu d y o f b r a n d ­ in g , s o i t s e e m s im p o r ta n t to c la r i f y a t th e o u ts e t w h a t c a n o f te n s e e m a ra th e r v a g u e r e la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n " b r a n d i n g " a n d " c o m m o d i ti e s ." H e re , th e e x i s tin g a n th r o p o lo g ic a l li te r a tu r e o f f e r s s o m e p o i n ts o f d e p a r tu r e , a lth o u g h n o n e o f th e m a re e n tir e l y s a tis f a c to r y ( s e e W e n g ro w [ 2 0 0 8 ] f o r a m o re d e ta il e d re v ie w ) . P e r h a p s th e m o s t d ir e c tly in s tr u c ti v e is F r a n k F a n s e l o w ' s ( 1 9 9 0 ) s tu d y o f a c o m m e r c i a l to w n in T a m il N a d u , s o u th e r n In d ia , w h e r e th e c o e x i s te n c e o f d if f e r e n t o u tle ts s p e c ia li s in g in b r a n d e d a n d n o n b r a n d e d c o m m o d i ti e s p r o v i d e s in s i g h ts in to th e ir d if f e r e n t tr a n s ­ a c tio n a l p r o p e r tie s . B a s e d o n e th n o g r a p h ic o b s e r v a tio n s o f h o w tr a n s a c ­ tio n s a re c o n d u c te d w i th th e s e d if f e r e n t k in d s o f g o o d s , F a n s e lo w d r e w a b r o a d a n a ly tic a l d is tin c tio n b e tw e e n " b r a n d e c o n o m i e s " a n d " b a z a a r e c o n o m i e s ," w h ic h is c r itic a l ly u s e d in a n u m b e r o f c h a p te r s th a t f o llo w . In th e " b a z a a r e c o n o m y ," g o o d s a re u n b r a n d e d a n d u n g r a d e d , s o th a t c o n s u m e r s h a v e li ttl e o p p o r tu n ity to a s s e s s q u a l ity a n d q u a n tity b e f o r e p u r c h a s e . T r a n s a c tio n s in g o o d s o f th is k in d o f te n in v o lv e th e m o b il is a ­ tio n o f p e r s o n a l n e tw o r k s o f lo y a lty a n d a f f il ia tio n b e tw e e n tr a d e r s a n d c o n s u m e r s , s o th a t a n y b r e a c h o f tr u s t ( e .g ., b y s e lli n g f a u l ty o r a d u l te r ­ a te d g o o d s ) th r e a te n s th e i n te g r i ty o f a l a r g e r s o c i a l w h o le . T h e l o g ic o f th e b a z a a r e c o n o m y is n o t p a r tic u la r to a n y c u l tu r a l g r o u p o r r e g io n b u t a r is e s f r o m th e a m b i g u o u s a n d h e te r o g e n e o u s n a tu r e o f th e c o m m o d i ti e s tr a n s a c te d . H e n c e F a n s e l o w w o u ld in c lu d e E u r o p e a n m a r k e ts in s e c o n d ­ h a n d m e r c h a n d is e u n d e r th e c a te g o r y o f " b a z a a r e c o n o m i e s ." S u c h s y s ­ te m s , h e a r g u e s , a re s u b je c t to c o n s tr a in ts o f s c a le th a t d o n o t a p p l y to b r a n d e c o n o m ie s . In th e " b r a n d e c o n o m y ," g o o d s a re s ta n d a r d is e d , s tr ic tly g r a d e d , a n d d ir e c tly s u b s ti tu ta b l e f o r o n e a n o th e r. C o n s u m e r s c a n e x c h a n g e k n o w l­ e d g e a b o u t th e m e r its a n d d e f ic i e n c ie s o f p a r tic u la r g e n re s o f p ro d u c t: w h ic h a re to b e tr u s te d a n d w h ic h a v o id e d . In f o r m a tio n c ir c u its a n d s o c ia l n e tw o r k s c a n th e r e f o r e b e g e n e r a te d a r o u n d p a r tic u la r c la s s e s o f c o m m o d ­ ity . T h e f a c t th a t th e s e c o m m o d i ti e s a re ( a t le a s t n o m in a ll y ) p r e te s te d f o r q u a l ity a n d s o ld in s e a le d p a c k a g i n g m e a n s th a t p e r s o n a l lo y a lty a n d tr u s t a re n o lo n g e r s o im p o r ta n t a t th e p o i n t o f tr a n s a c ti o n . B r a n d e d g o o d s ( a n d , to s o m e e x te n t, th e p e r s o n n e l w h o d e a l i n th e m ) c a n th e n b e tr e a te d a s

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 2 3 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 3 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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F a n s e l o w ' s m o d e l h a s s tr o n g p r e d ic tiv e v a lu e . A n d b e c a u s e it is g r o u n d e d in th e p h y s i c a l p r o p e r tie s o f c o m m o d i ti e s , it h a s th e a d d e d a d v a n ta g e o f b e i n g e x te n d a b le to p e r io d s f o r w h ic h little o r n o w r i tte n d o c u m e n ta tio n s u rv iv e s . It is q u i te c le a r, f o r e x a m p le , th a t m a jo r e x p a n s i o n s in c o m m e r ­ c i a l n e tw o r k s c a n o f te n b e tra c e d to p r e c i s e l y th o s e h is to r ic a l ju n c tu r e s w h e n s ta n d a r d is e d p a c k a g i n g is c o m b in e d w i th s p e c ia li s e d m e th o d s o f q u a n tif y i n g , s e a lin g , a n d o th e r w i s e m a r k i n g g o o d s . In e a c h c a s e , m o r e ­ o v e r , e c o n o m i c e x p a n s i o n is a s s o c ia te d w i th a n u n p r e c e d e n te d c o n c e n tr a ­ tio n o f c a p ita l, m a n if e s t in th e a p p e a r a n c e o f c e n tr a lis e d in s ti tu ti o n s s u c h a s te m p le s a n d p a l a c e s , w h ic h s to re d a n d re c o r d e d i n f o r m a tio n a b o u t th e p r o d u c tio n a n d c ir c u la tio n o f g o o d s in n e w a n d m o r e tr a n s p a r e n t w a y s ( n o ta b l y th r o u g h th e u s e o f w r i tte n m e d ia , in c o m b in a tio n w i th c o m p l e x s y s te m s o f n u m e r ic a l n o ta tio n ) . T h e e a r l ie s t, a n d in m a n y w a y s p a r a d i g m a ti c , e x a m p l e o f th is h is to r i­ c a l p a tte r n is th e a f o r e m e n tio n e d U r u k E x p a n s io n o f th e 4 th m il le n n iu m bc

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( W e n g r o w 2 0 0 6 ) , th e In d u s V a lle y ( M ill e r 1 9 8 5 , 2 0 0 8 ) , C e n tr a l A s ia ( K o h l 2 0 0 7 ) , a n d th e e a s te r n M e d i te r r a n e a n ( s e e B e n n e tt [ 2 0 0 8 ] f o r a n e x p l ic it d is ­ c u s s io n o f p a l a ti a l m a r k e tin g in B r o n z e A g e G r e e c e ) . In h i s w i d e - r a n g in g c o n tr ib u tio n to th is v o lu m e ( " M a k i n g a n d M a r k i n g R e la tio n s h ip s : B ro n z e A g e B r a n d in g s a n d M e d i te r r a n e a n C o m m o d i ti e s " ) , A n d r e w B e v a n u s e s a r c h a e o l o g ic a l e v id e n c e f o r f o u r im p o r ta n t c o m m o d i ty ty p e s ( m e ta ls , te x ­ til e s , o ils , a n d w i n e ) to o f f e r a r ic h a c c o u n t o f b r a n d i n g a n d m a r k e tin g s tr a t­ e g i e s i n th e 2 nd m il le n n iu m

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a r c h a e o l o g ic a l w o r k o n th e s e to p ic s , s h o w i n g h o w a c lo s e c o n s i d e r a tio n o f m a te r ia l c u l tu r e p a tte r n in g — c o m b in e d w i th c r itic a l u s e o f a n c i e n t te x tu a l a n d ic o n o g r a p h ic s o u r c e s — c a s ts lig h t o n f o r m s o f c o m m o d i ty f e tis h is m th a t o r i g in a te d i n th e r e a lm o f e lite c u ltu r e , b u t a ls o " l e a k e d " in to w id e r c o m m e r c i a l a r e n a s th r o u g h b o th s a n c tio n e d a n d n o n s a n c ti o n e d p r o c e s s e s o f im ita tio n . T h e im p lie d p a r a l le l s w i th m o d e r n c e le b r i ty c u ltu r e a re c le a r a n d in tu i ti v e , b u t B e v a n is c a r e f u l to e m p h a s i s e th e d is ti n c t c o n te x ts a n d m e d ia o f c u l tu r a l d is s e m in a tio n ( b o th e lite a n d n o n e li te ) th a t p r e v e n t u s f r o m d r a w i n g q u ic k a n d e a s y p a r a l le l s b e tw e e n m o d e r n a n d p r e m o d e r n s itu a tio n s . W e a re le f t in n o d o u b t, h o w e v e r, th a t B ro n z e A g e te m p le s a n d

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 2 4 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 4 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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p a l a c e s , f a r f r o m b e in g m e r e c o l le c to r s a n d d is tr i b u to r s o f e c o n o m ic s u r­ p l u s , a ls o e n li s te d th e s u p p o r t o f th e g o d s a s p r o m o te r s a n d m a n ip u la to r s o f e c o n o m i c v a lu e ( s e e a ls o S h e r r a tt a n d S h e r r a tt 1 9 9 1 ) . In c o n s i d e r in g a v a r ie ty o f c o m m e r c ia l m e d ia , B e v a n a ls o d e v e lo p s a f u r th e r a r g u m e n t o f m y o r i g in a l p a p e r ( W e n g r o w M i lle r

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h o m o g e n e ity a n d p o w e r f u l c u l tu r a l s y m b o l is m — a n in s ta n tly r e c o g n is a b le f e a tu r e o f c o n te m p o r a r y b r a n d s — is n o t u n i q u e to m o d e r n m a te r ia l c u l­ tu re . T h e a r c h a e o l o g ic a l r e c o r d f u r n i s h e s m a n y e x a m p l e s o th e r th a n th o s e d is c u s s e d a b o v e . S u s a n S h e r r a tt ( 1 9 9 9 ) , f o r i n s ta n c e , f in d s s im il a r q u a li­ tie s in th e m a s s - p r o d u c e d a s s e m b l a g e s o f p a i n te d p o tte r y th a t c ir c u la te d th r o u g h o u t th e e a s te r n M e d i te r r a n e a n d u r in g th e l a te r

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S h e w r ite s o f th e d e c o r a ti o n o f o n e s u c h v e s s e l- c la s s ( il lu s tr a te d h e r e in th e c h a p te r b y B e v a n a s h is F ig u r e 4 e ) :

A g a in it is th e m u lti- v a le n c y o f th e o v e rall im p re s s io n th a t s u c c e e d s in m a k in g th e se p o ts s o c ia lly a n d c u ltu ra lly a ttra c tiv e : f in e te x tile s, c h a rio ts , p re c io u s m e ta l v e s s e ls a s s o c ia te d w ith e lite d rin k in g rit­ u a ls , b u lls a s s y m b o ls o f d iv in e o r re g a l p o w e r in N e ar Ea st an d A e g e a n a lik e — a ll u n d e n ia b ly e lite s y m b o ls , a n d a ll ... s u b je c ts o f in te rn a tio n a l e x c h a n g e a t th e h ig h e s t le v e l; b u t a ll w ra p p e d u p in a ru n - o f - th e m ill c la y p o t s u ita b le f o r b e in g lo st f o re v e r in a to m b o r fo r p o s s e s s io n a n d u s e b y s o m e o n e w h o m a y b e lo n g to a le s s th an s u p e r- e lite s tra tu m o f s o c ie ty , b u t n e v e rth e le s s h a s h is s o c ial p re te n ­ s io n s a n d a sp ira tio n s , (p . 189)

In th e lo c a l im i ta tio n a n d a d a p tio n b y C y p r io t in te r m e d i a r ie s o f e s ta b ­ li s h e d ( A e g e a n ) c e r a m i c f o r m s a n d d e c o r a ti v e s c h e m a , S h e r r a tt f u r th e r i d e n tif ie s d e l ib e r a te m a r k e tin g s tr a te g ie s in th e B r o n z e A g e th a t a re n o d if f e r e n t in th e ir e s s e n tia ls f r o m th e c o n te m p o r a r y p h e n o m e n o n o f f a k e b r a n d i n g . T h e d o u b le iro n y , s u re ly , is th a t th e s e a n c ie n t im i ta tio n s n o t o n ly c o m m a n d h ig h p r i c e s o n to d a y 's a n tiq u itie s m a r k e t, w h e r e th e y a re s o ld a s r a re a n d a u th e n tic w o r k s o f a rt, b u t a ls o g e n e r a te th e ir o w n m o d e r n c o p ­ ie s , f a k e s , a n d f o rg e ri e s .

B r a n d U n d e r w o r ld s , A u t h e n t ic it y , a n d I n f o r m a l C o n n o is s e u r s

T h e f o l lo w i n g c h a p te r, b y M a g d a l e n a C r a c iu n , p r e s e n ts a r a d ic a l s h if t in th e s c a le o f a n a ly s is , ta k in g u s in to th e w o r ld o f a m o d e r n Is ta n b u lite im it as y o n c u : a " m a k e r a n d s e lle r o f i m i ta tio n s ," w h o s e s k ill s in th e m a n u f a c tu r e

a n d d is tr i b u tio n o f f o rg e d b r a n d s h a v e e a rn e d h im a s ta b le p o s itio n in th e u r b a n m a r k e t. Y e t m a n y o f th e k e y is s u e s r a is e d in B e v a n 's a r c h a e o lo g ic a l a p p r a i s a l o f b r a n d i n g r e m a in s a l ie n t in th i s c a r e f u l e th n o g r a p h ic stu d y .

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 2 5 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 5 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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F r o m th e p e r s p e c tiv e o f o n e m a n 's c h o ic e o f p r o f e s s io n , C r a c iu n s u b tly p r o b l e m a ti s e s r e la ti o n s h ip s b e tw e e n " f o r m a l ” a n d " i n f o r m a l " s tr u c tu r e s o f b r a n d i n g , s h o w i n g h o w th e la tte r, to o , h a v e th e ir c o d e s o f m o r a l ity a n d p r o f e s s i o n a l s ta n d a r d s , th e ir o w n n e tw o r k s o f m a n u f a c tu r e r s a n d re ta il ­ e rs . F r o m th is v a n ta g e p o i n t, s h e is a b le to q u e s tio n " th e b in a r y lo g ic o f th e o r i g in a l a n d th e c o u n te r f e it, a n d its b u i lt- in b i a s in f a v o u r o f th e f o r­ m e r ." W o rk in g c o n s ta n tl y o n th e m a r g in s o f th e la w , th e a c tiv itie s o f s u c h in d iv i d u a ls a re a s c e n tr a l to th e c o n s tr u c ti o n o f m o d e r n b r a n d c o n s c io u s ­ n e s s a s th o s e o f m o r e r e c o g n i s e d a c to r s s u c h a s p r o f e s s i o n a l a d v e r tis e r s o r c e le b r i ti e s , e v e n i f th e y h a v e le a r n e d , th r o u g h h a rd c o m m e r c i a l e x p e r ie n c e , " t o d is r e g a r d th e m y th s w i th w h ic h b r a n d s a re la y e r e d ." H e re , th e n , w e g a in d e ta il e d a c c e s s to th e s o c ia l m o tiv a tio n s a n d a s p i r a tio n s o f a n " a n o n ­ y m o u s c o n tr ib u to r to th e c o l la b o r a tiv e c o n s tr u c ti o n o f a b r a n d ," w h o s e w o r k , " l o c a te d in th e u n d e r b e l ly o f w h a t is p u b l ic ly a c k n o w l e d g e d ," n e v ­ e r th e le s s s u p p o r ts " th e v is i b l e a n d th e a c k n o w l e d g e d " w o r l d o f A r m a n i, C a lv in K le in , a n d R a lp h L a u r e n t. In a c o m p l e m e n ta r y s tu d y , R o s a n a P i n h e ir o - M a c h a d o ( " T h e A ttr ib u tio n o f A u th e n tic ity to 'R e a l ' a n d 'F a k e ' B ra n d e d C o m m o d itie s in B r a z il a n d C h i n a " ) e x p lo r e s th e d iv e r s e s o c i a l lo g ic s a n d m o r a l im p e r a tiv e s th a t in f o r m th e c o n s u m p tio n o f w h a t w re m ig h t g e n e r ic a ll y c a ll " f a k e b r a n d s ." H e r c a s e s tu d i e s a r is e f r o m a n u n u s u a l c o m p a r i s o n o f C h in a a n d B r a z il , c o u n tr i e s s h o w n b y s ta tis tic a l a n a ly s e s to b e th e " g r e a te s t c o n s u m e r s o f f a k e a n d p i r a te d g o o d s in th e w o r l d ." C o n ta i n e d w i th in th e s tu d y is a ls o a n e x p o s itio n o f th e a n th r o p o lo g is t's tr a d itio n a l f o c u s o n b o r d e r z o n e s , in th is c a s e th e p o s t- u n if ic a tio n b o u n d a r y b e tw e e n m a in la n d C h i n a a n d H o n g K o n g , w h ic h a ls o h a p p e n s to b e th e lo c a ti o n o f o n e o f th e w o r l d 's la r g e s t c e n tr e s f o r c o m m e r c e in f a k e b r a n d s . T h is c h a p te r ta k e s u s f a r b e y o n d a m o n o l ith i c c o n c e p t o f " e l i te e m u l a ti o n " ( a te r m a ls o w i d e ly a n d s o m e ti m e s in d is c r im in a te l y e m p l o y e d b y a r c h a e o lo g is ts ) a s a n e x p l a n a ti o n f o r th e c o n s u m p tio n o f f a k e g o o d s . In a m u lti- la y e r e d a n a ly s is , a u th e n tic ity ( a n d its a b s e n c e ) is s h o w n to re s id e — n o t s o m u c h i n th e c o m m o d i ti e s th e m ­ s e lv e s o r in le g a l s y s te m s o f c la s s if i c a ti o n a n d q u a l ity c o n tr o l— b u t r a th e r in th e m ic r o - p r o c e s s e s o f a c q u i r in g , d is p la y i n g , a n d e v a lu a tin g p e r s o n a l c o n s u m a b l e s . L u r k in g b e h in d th e s e s n a p s h o ts o f s o c i a l li f e is a n a w a re ­ n e s s o f th e tr a n s n a ti o n a l tr a d e li n k in g C h i n a a n d B r a z il th r o u g h th e e x p o r t o f c h e a p m a n u f a c tu r e s , a n d h e n c e o f th e in te r a c tio n s th a t f lo w b e tw e e n a p p a r e n tl y d is p a r a te w o r l d s o f c o n s u m p tio n .

B r a n d in g a n d th e T e c h n iq u e s o f th e B o d y

F e r e n c H a m m e r ( " T h e R e a l O n e : W e s te r n B r a n d s a n d C o m p e tin g N o tio n s o f A u th e n tic ity in S o c ia li s t H u n g a r y " ) o f f e r s a n e th n o g r a p h ic w in d o w o n to a n u n l ik e l y p h e n o m e n o n , w h ic h p u s h e s o u r u n d e r s ta n d i n g o f b r a n d

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 2 6 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 6 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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C u lt u res o f C o m m o d it y B ran d in g

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te r r ito r ie s . H is c h a p te r c o n c e r n s th e e m e r g e n c e ,

d u r in g th e 1 9 8 0 s , o f " a s m a l l n ic h e o f b r a n d c u l tu r e " i n a S o v ie t Blo c p la n n e d e c o n o m y , w h e r e f o r m a l m a r k e tin g s tr u c tu r e s a n d re ta il o u tle ts f o r W e s te rn g o o d s w e r e a b s e n t. T h is is a n a c c o u n t o f h o w f o r e ig n b r a n d s — s p e c if ic a l ly b r a n d e d

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a s i tu a tio n w h e r e th e c h a r is m a tic

la b e l lin g o f c lo th in g a n d c o n s u m a b l e s w a s a s ta te m o n o p o ly a n d w h e r e im p o r te d b r a n d s w e r e o f f ic ia ll y r e g a r d e d a s s u b v e r s iv e , e v e n d a n g e r o u s in f lu e n c e s o n y o u th c u ltu r e . M a n y o f H a m m e r 's in f o r m a n ts r e c a ll h o w th e y “ ju m p e d in to th e b a th tu b to s p e n d a c r u c i a l p h a s e to g e th e r w i th th e ir je a n s in w h ic h th e la tte r w o u ld b e s h a p e d to th e f i g u re o f th e o w n e r ," a s e lf - b a p ti s m th a t tr a n s f o r m e d b r a n d e d je a n s in to a " s e c o n d s k i n ." W o rn je a n s o f te n p a s s e d a s g if ts o r in h e r i ta n c e b e tw e e n c lo s e k in a n d in tim a te f r ie n d s , a c c r u i n g p e r s o n a l e m b e ll is h m e n ts a n d c a r e f u lly m a n a g e d s ig n s o f w e a r a lo n g th e w ay . H e r e a g a in , " a u th e n ti c i ty " is s e e n to re s id e n o t s i m p ly in th e b r a n d e d o b je c t, b u t in a s e r ie s o f r o u tin e s a n d p e r f o r m a n c e s th a t in itia te th e w e a r e r o f b r a n d e d c lo th in g in to a n e w s o c i a l a n d m o r a l s ta tu s . T h is c h a p te r , li k e A li s o n C l a r k e ' s c o n tr ib u tio n ( b e lo w ) , f u r th e r illu s tr a te s h o w b r a n d v a lu e c a n b e re ta in e d , e n h a n c e d , tr a n s f o r m e d , o r a lto g e th e r e x h a u s te d th r o u g h s e c o n d a r y a n d te r tia r y e x c h a n g e s o f g o o d s , w h ic h f a ll o u ts id e th e p u r v ie w o f c o n v e n ti o n a l m a r k e t re s e a rc h . A

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a n d th e T e c h n iq u e s o f th e Bo d y , th e Se lf , a n d P o w e r in W e s t C a m e r o o n ." W a r n i e r 's c h a p te r r e tu r n s u s to th e th e m e o f b r a n d e d g o o d s i n a w o r ld o f k in g s h ip a n d s a c r e d e c o n o m i e s , th is tim e o b s e r v e d th r o u g h th e e y e s o f th e e th n o g r a p h e r r a th e r th a n th e a r c h a e o lo g is t. A s u p e r f ic ia l e x a m in a ­ tio n o f c o n te m p o r a r y c o n s u m p tio n i n h ig h la n d C a m e r o o n m ig h t s u g g e s t th a t th e in tr o d u c ti o n o f s u c h th in g s a s b r a n d e d c o s m e ti c lo ti o n s ( a n d th e " b r a n d m y th s " p r o je c te d b y a d v e r tis i n g ) a re c u r r e n tl y tr a n s f o r m in g th e s e tr a d itio n a l h ie r a r c h i e s ( a n d th e ir lo c a l ritu a l e c o n o m i e s , b a s e d o n s u b ­ s ta n c e s s u c h a s p a l m o il a n d ra f f ia w in e ) in a c c o r d a n c e w i th th e in te re s ts o f e x te r n a l m a r k e t lo g ic s . H o w e v e r , a s W a rn ie r d e m o n s tr a te s , th e r e a lity is q u ite th e c o n tr a ry . It is th e e x te r n a l m a r k e t th a t is b e i n g in c o r p o r a te d , a s it h a s b e e n f o r c e n tu r ie s , in to a n e x i s tin g s y s te m o f s o c ia l r e l a ti o n s th a t in c lu d e s s u p e r n a tu r a l a g e n ts ( k in g s , w i tc h e s , a n c e s to r s ) a s w e l l a s h u m a n o n e s . M o re o v e r , th is o v e r a r c h in g s y s te m is f ir m ly a n c h o r e d in w h a t M a rc e l M a u s s te rm e d " te c h n i q u e s o f th e b o d y ," in c lu d in g tr a d itio n a l a n d e f f e c tiv e w a y s o f m a k in g , c o n s u m in g , a n d e x c h a n g in g th in g s th a t a re b o th h ig h ly d u r a b l e a n d r a r e ly a r tic u la te d th r o u g h s p e e c h o r w ri tin g . T h e a b s o r p ti o n o f im p o r te d g o o d s , in c lu d e d b r a n d e d p r o d u c ts , in th e C a m e r o o n g r a s s f ie l d s is f u r th e r f ilte r e d th r o u g h lo c a l c o n c e p ts o f tr u s t a n d d e c e p ti o n , c u s to m a r y m e a n s o f e v a lu a tin g a n y s u b s ta n c e o r o b je c t th a t c o m e s in to c o n ta c t w i th th e b o d y a n d s k in o r th a t h a s th e p o te n tia l

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 2 7 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 7 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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to g iv e o r ta k e li f e ( c o m p a r e B u r k e 1 9 9 6 ) . H e r e , w o r r ie s a b o u t th e p u r ity a n d r e l ia b ili ty o f b r a n d e d c o m m o d i ti e s , e s p e c ia l ly th o s e th a t c o m e f r o m o u ts id e th e k in g d o m , a re e a s ily tr a n s la te d in to c o n c e r n s a b o u t th e n e g a ­ tiv e e f f e c ts o f w i tc h c r a f t. F o r i n s ta n c e , to u n d e r s ta n d th e s i g n if ic a n c e o f a m o th e r r o u tin e ly r u b b in g P e a r s B a b y L o tio n o n to h e r in f a n t's s k in , it is f ir s t n e c e s s a r y to u n d e r s ta n d th e a m b i v a le n t r e l a ti o n s h ip b e tw e e n a s a c r e d k in g a n d h is s u b je c ts , a s m e d ia te d th r o u g h r itu a l p r o te c tio n o f th e b o d y 's s u r f a c e a n d o r if ic e s . In d e v e lo p in g o b s e r v a tio n s s u c h a s th e s e , W a r n ie r e x e m p l if i e s th e d e p th o f e th n o g r a p h ic o b s e r v a tio n re q u ir e d f o r a c o n v in c in g a n a ly s is o f h o w b r a n d e d p r o d u c ts a re r e c e i v e d a n d c o n s u m e d a c r o s s d iv e r s e c u l tu r a l c o n te x ts . H is a c c o u n t, b r i d g i n g th e e x o tic a n d th e f a m ilia r, w i ll n o d o u b t b e o f w i d e in te r e s t to a r c h a e o l o g is ts a n d h is to r ia n s a s w e l l a s a n th r o p o lo g is ts .

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) p r e s e n ts s o m e in s tr u c ti v e c o n tr a s ts , a s w e l l a s s i m il a r itie s ,

w i th th e e a r l y M e d i te r r a n e a n e c o n o m i e s d is c u s s e d b y B e v a n . P a r tic u l a r ly s tr ik in g , b y w a y o f c o n tr a s t, is th e la c k o f m o b il ity f o r b u l k c o m m o d i ty tr a n s f e r s . D r a f t a n im a ls , w h e e l e d v e h ic le s , a n d s a il b o a ts w e r e n o t f e a ­ tu r e s o f th e C la s s ic M a y a e c o n o m y , a n d th e ir a b s e n c e is a c c o m p a n ie d b y a n in tr ig u in g la c k o f e v id e n c e f o r s u c h th in g s a s s ta n d a r d is e d c o m m o d i ty p a c k a g i n g a n d s p e c ia li s e d s e a lin g d e v ic e s : th e f a m il ia r m a te r ia l c o r r e la te s o f a " b r a n d e c o n o m y ." In C h a p te r 7 , Y a e g e r o r i e n ts h is d is c u s s io n a r o u n d F a n s e l o w ' s d is ti n c ­ tio n b e tw e e n " b r a n d e c o n o m i e s " a n d " b a z a a r e c o n o m i e s ." G i v e n th a t c u r ­ r e n t r e c o n s tr u c ti o n s o f C la s s ic M a y a e c o n o m y a re o f te n h ig h ly p o la r is e d , w i th th e v e r y e x i s te n c e o f m a r k e tp l a c e s r e m a in in g a s u b je c t o f c o n te n tio n , Y a e g e r is o b li g e d to s te e r a c a r e f u l c o u r s e in a p p l y in g s u c h m o d e l s to h is m a in c a s e s tu d y , f r o m th e M o p a n V a lle y o f w e s te r n B e liz e . H is c o n c lu ­ s io n , th a t c lo s e in tim a c y b e tw e e n p r o d u c e r s a n d c o n s u m e r s p r e c lu d e d th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f e i th e r " b a z a a r " o r " b r a n d " e c o n o m ie s , m a y n o t s a tis f y a ll. N e v e r th e le s s , th i s s tu d y b e g i n s to s h o w h o w a f o c u s o n c o m m o d i ti e s a n d b r a n d i n g c a n p r o v id e s tim u la tin g a lte r n a tiv e s to " th i n k i n g a b o u t th e M a y a e c o n o m y a s a F r a n k e n s te i n h y b r id o f p o l itic a l ly g e n e r a ti v e g if t e x c h a n g e s a n d f u n c tio n a l ly d r iv e n h o u s e h o ld p r o v i s io n i n g ." C h a p te r s 8 a n d 9 h a v e a m o r e " h i s to r i c a l " f o c u s , lo c a te d b e tw e e n th e r e m o te p a s t a n d th e e th n o g r a p h ic p r e s e n t. G r a c ia C l a r k ' s " L i n c o l n G re e n a n d R e a l D u tc h Ja v a P rin ts : C lo th S e lv e d g e s a s B r a n d s in In te r n a tio n a l

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 2 8 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 8 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

28

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C u lt u res o f C o m m o d it y B ran d in g

T r a d e " is a s tu d y in th e k in d o f in f o r m a l c o rtn o is s e u rs h ip o f f a b r ic s th a t B e v a n a ls o d e te c ts f o r m u c h e a r l ie r p e r io d s o f h is to r y . In th e a b s e n c e o f m a s s lite ra c y , s p e c ia li s e d a d v e r tis in g , a n d g lo b a l c o m m u n i c a ti o n s m e d ia , C la r k s h o w s h o w

th e d e s ir e s o f A f r ic a n c o n s u m e r s h a v e n e v e r th e le s s

s h a p e d th e p r o d u c tio n o f s p e c if ic te x tile b r a n d s in n o r th e r n E u r o p e o v e r a p e r io d o f c e n tu r i e s . H e r c a r e f u l s tu d y o f m a n u f a c tu r e d v a r ia b il ity in th e a p p e a r a n c e o f c lo th s e lv e d g e — th e s e lf - f in is h e d e d g e o f a c u t o f c lo th a s it e m e r g e s f r o m th e lo o m — il lu s tr a te s h o w

m e s s a g e s r e g a r d in g q u a lity ,

p r o v e n a n c e , a n d e x c lu s i v i ty c a n b e s u b tly in c o r p o r a te d ( li te r a ll y w o v e n ) in to m o r e tr a d itio n a l m e d ia s u c h a s te x til e s , w i th o u t n e c e s s a r y re c o u r s e to e x tr a n e o u s f o r m s o f la b e l lin g ( a n d f o r a c o m b in a tio n o f th e tw o s tr a t­ e g i e s in th e a n c ie n t te x til e tr a d e b e tw e e n M e s o p o ta m ia a n d T u rk e y , s e e a g a in B e v a n th is v o lu m e ) . T h e r e is a le s s o n h e r e f o r a r c h a e o l o g is ts w h o w o u ld m in im i s e th e ro le o f c o n s u m e r d e m a n d in p r e m o d e r n e c o n o m ie s , a n d e q u a lly f o r e x p e r ts i n c o n te m p o r a r y m a r k e tin g w h o w o u ld id e n tif y c o n s u m e r m a n ip u la tio n o f b r a n d v a lu e s a s a re c e n t tr e n d , c o n tin g e n t u p o n te c h n o lo g i e s s u c h a s th e In te rn e t. In " O f M a r k s , P r in ts , P o ts , a n d B e c h e r o v k a : F r e e m a s o n s ' B r a n d in g in E a r ly M o d e r n E u r o p e ? ," M a r c o s M a rtin o n - T o rr e s p r e s e n ts a n a n a ly s is o f e n ig m a tic m a r k s , s ta m p e d o n w h a t is a r g u a b l y th e l e i t m o t i f o f m e d ie v a l c o m m o d i ty tr a n s f o r m a tio n a n d f a k e r y : th e a lc h e m i s t's c r u c ib le . R e s is ti n g a n y e a s y i n te r p r e ta ti o n o f th e s e m a r k s a s p r e c u r s o r s to m o d e r n b r a n d s , M a r tin o n - T o r r e s e x p lo r e s th e w i d e r in s titu tio n a l b a c k g r o u n d to a lc h e m y in e a r l y m o d e r n E u r o p e , h i g h li g h ti n g in tr ig u in g ( b u t u ltim a te ly a m b ig u o u s ) li n k s b e tw e e n th e c o m m e r c i a l d is s e m in a tio n o f m e ta ll u r g i c a l e q u ip m e n t ( a s w e l l a s o th e r c r a f te d ite m s ) a n d th e c ir c u la tio n o f M a s o n ic s y m b o ls . T h e r e s u l ti n g i n te r p r e ta ti o n is c le a r ly a t o d d s w i th th e tr a d itio n a l im p o r ­ ta n c e o f s e c r e c y a m o n g F r e e m a s o n s a n d r a is e s w i d e r q u e s tio n s a b o u t th e ro le o f c o m m e r c i a l in s titu tio n s s u c h a s g u ild s in e a r ly m o d e r n E u r o p e th a t s e e m b e s t a n s w e r e d th r o u g h a c o m b in a tio n o f te x tu a l a n d a r c h a e o lo g ic a l a n a ly s is ( c o m p a r e G a i m s te r a n d G i lc h r is t 2 0 0 3 ) . M a r tin o n - T o r r e s 's c h a p te r c o n tr ib u te s to a g r o w in g b o d y o f s c h o l a r s h ip o n th e h is to r y o f E u r o p e a n b r a n d i n g b e f o r e th e In d u s tr ia l R e v o lu tio n ( R ic h a r d s o n 2 0 0 8 ) . It s e e m s a p p r o p r ia te th a t a c o m p a r a tiv e s tu d y o f b r a n d i n g s u c h a s th i s s h o u ld e n d w h e r e i t b e g a n : w i th in th e h o u s e h o ld . In th e c o n c lu d ­ in g c h a p te r , A li s o n C la r k e ( " T h e S e c o n d - H a n d B ra n d : L iq u id A s s e ts a n d B o r r o w e d G o o d s " ) s h o w s h o w a n th r o p o lo g ic a l a p p r o a c h e s c a n s h e d n e w li g h t o n w h a t, f o r m o s t re a d e r s , w i ll b e m o re f a m il ia r a re n a s o f b r a n d c o n ­ s u m p tio n th a n th o s e d e s c r ib e d in e a r lie r c h a p te r s . H e r s tu d y f o c u s e s o n th e c ir c u la tio n o f b r a n d e d h o u s e h o ld c o n s u m a b l e s th r o u g h e Ba y , n o w in c r e a s in g ly i n th e f o r m o f l e a s in g a r r a n g e m e n ts r a th e r th a n a ll - o u t p u r­ c h a s e . T a k in g is s u e w i th c o n te m p o r a r y m a r k e tin g lite r a tu r e , a n d e c h o i n g p o i n ts m a d e b y P i n h e ir o - M a c h a d o a n d o th e r s in th i s v o lu m e , s h e a r g u e s

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 2 9 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 9 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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th a t th e c u r r e n t f a s h io n f o r " tr a n s i e n t p o s s e s s io n o f b r a n d s " is n o t " s i m ­ p l y th e r e s u lt o f a r a tio n a l e c o n o m ic c o n s u m e r a p p l y in g th e m s e lv e s to th e n e w ly r a tio n a l is e d te r r i to r y o f th e p o s t- p r im a r y m a r k e t." R a th e r , th e a f te r ­ lif e o f b r a n d s w i th in e B a y ' s " p e r p e tu a l a r c h iv e o f e v e r y d a y m a te r ia l c u l­ tu r e " a ls o tr a n s f o r m s th e ir n a tu r e , " ta m i n g " th e m , a n d m a k in g th e m f o c a l p o i n ts f o r th e d is s e m in a tio n o f n e w c u l tu r a l p r a c tic e s ( e .g ., o f p a r e n tin g , o r c o m m e m o r a ti o n ) w i th in th e h o u s e h o ld . B y tr a c in g th e f o r tu n e s o f b r a n d e d n o lo n g e r " b r a n d

p r o d u c ts a s u s e d g o o d s ( th in g s

n e w " ) , C l a r k e ' s s tu d y a ls o

s i g n if ic a n tly c o m p lic a te s

F a n s e l o w ' s d is tin c tio n b e tw e e n b a z a a r a n d b r a n d e c o n o m ie s . S h e s h o w s u s e x a m p l e s o f b r a n d e d g o o d s c ir c u la tin g iv it h in a b a z a a r e c o n o m y . B u t th e o n - li n e a u c ti o n is a d is ti n c t k in d o f b a z a a r in w h ic h c o m m e r c i a l id e n ti­ tie s a re c a r e f u lly tr a c k e d a n d tr a n s p a r e n tly d is p la y e d b y th e a w a r d i n g o f p o i n ts f o r tr u s tw o r th i n e s s a n d re l ia b ility . In th is c a s e , d ig ita l te c h n o lo g y h a s h e lp e d c r e a te a h y b r id a re n a f o r th e c ir c u la tio n o f c o m m o d i ti e s , s u s ­ p e n d e d s o m e w h e r e b e tw e e n F a n s e l o w 's id e a l ty p e s o f tr a n s a c ti o n a l o rd e r. B ra n d e d g o o d s tr a d e d o n - li n e h a v e u s u a l ly p a s s e d th r o u g h th e d o m e s tic s p h e r e a n d m ig h t th e n b e e x p e c te d to h a v e lo s t s o m e th i n g o f th e ir " b r a n d c h a r i s m a ." Y e t C la r k e d e m o n s tr a te s h o w , q u ite to th e c o n tr a r y , th e " s ta g ­ i n g " o f s u c h g o o d s o n - li n e c o n s titu te s a f o r m o f r e e n c h a n tm e n t, d r a w ­ in g o n th e o r i g in a l b r a n d b u t a ls o a d d in g n e w v a lu e th r o u g h p e r s o n a l te s tim o n ie s , e x p e r ie n c e s , a n d e v e n s u rf a c e m a r k s a c q u ir e d th r o u g h u s e . M o re o v e r, th e s e l l e r ' s ta s te s ( o r r a th e r a c a r e f u lly e d i te d v e r s i o n o f th e m ) a re o n s h o w in th e f o r m o f a n in v e n to r y o f b r a n d e d p r o d u c ts th e y h a v e b o u g h t a n d s o ld . C o n s u m e r s a n d b u y e r s a re a b le to b e c o m e s e lf - s ty le d ic o n s f o r p a r tic u la r b r a n d s , ta k in g o n s o m e th i n g o f th e ro le o f c e le b r iti e s in f ir s t- p h a s e b r a n d c o n s u m p tio n , a n d th e m s e lv e s " s te e r i n g th e p a c e o f b r a n d c h a n g e " in th e w i d e r m a rk e t.

C o n c l u s i o n : T o w a r d s a C o m p a r a t iv e H is t o r y o f “ D e c o m m o d it is a t io n ”

M a n y o f th e c h a p te r s in th is b o o k a r g u e f o r th e p r i m a c y o f s o c ia l a n d h is ­ to r ic a l c o n te x t in th e a n a ly s is o f b r a n d i n g a n d b r a n d e d g o o d s . T h is s h o u ld n o t, h o w e v e r , b e ta k e n a s a p le a f o r th e h y p e r - r e la tiv e . O n th e c o n tra r y , u n d e r ly in g a ll th e c o n tr ib u tio n s is a n e x p l ic itly a n th r o p o lo g ic a l u n d e r ­ s ta n d in g o f th e p h e n o m e n o n o f b r a n d i n g , ro o te d in u n i v e r s a l a n d p e r e n ­ n ia l p r o b l e m s o f h u m a n in te r a c tio n . A ll , a t s o m e le v e l, a d d r e s s a p a r a d o x o f s o c ia l li f e th a t ri s e s to th e s u r f a c e w h e n e v e r e c o n o m y — b r o a d l y u n d e r ­ s to o d a s th e p r o d u c tio n , d is tr i b u tio n , a n d c o n s u m p tio n o f m a te r ia l g o o d s a n d im m a te r i a l k n o w l e d g e — r e a c h e s a c e r ta in s c a le a n d le v e l o f u n i f o r ­ m ity . T h is is th e p a r a d o x o f s u s ta in in g p e r s o n a l re l a ti o n s h ip s th r o u g h th e c ir c u la tio n o f im p e r s o n a l, s ta n d a r d is e d g o o d s . W e v i e w b r a n d i n g a s a s tr a te g y f o r r e s o lv in g th is p a r a d o x , g r o u n d e d i n th e te n s io n b e tw e e n

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 3 0 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 3 0 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

30

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C u lt u res o f C o m m o d it y B ran d in g

tw o o p p o s i n g te n d e n c ie s o f la r g e - s c a le e c o n o m ie s : th e d is e n c h a n tm e n t o f p r o d u c tio n to r a tio n a l is e a n d m a x im is e o u tp u t a n d th e r e e n c h a n tm e n t o f h o m o g e n e o u s g o o d s to m a k e th e m a c c e p ta b l e f o r c o n s u m p tio n a n d p e r­ s o n a lis e d e x c h a n g e . In

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in v o lv i n g th e d e ta c h m e n t o f g o o d s f r o m th e ir u n i q u e c o n te x ts o f p r o d u c ­ tio n , th e ir m a r k i n g w i th c e n tr a l c u l tu r a l s y m b o ls , a n d th e ir s u b s e q u e n t r e a tta c h m e n t to s o c ie ty in a lte r e d a n d e l e v a te d f o rm s — b e a r s c o m p a r is o n w i th th e tim e le s s a n d u n i v e r s a l lo g ic o f ritu a l tr a n s f o r m a tio n , a s d is c u s s e d b y a n th r o p o lo g is ts s u c h a s M a u r ic e B lo c h ( 1 9 9 2 ) . A s I h a v e a r g u e d e l s e ­ w h e r e , a n d a s e x e m p lif ie d b y th e c h a p te r s in th is v o lu m e , w h a t h a s v a r ie d o v e r tim e a n d s p a c e is:

th e n e x u s o f a u th e n tic ity , q u a lity c o n tro l, a n d d e s ire f ro m w h ic h b r a n d e c o n o m ie s d ra w th e ir a u th o rity ; th e w e b o f a g e n c ie s ( re a l o r im a g in e d ) th ro u g h w h ic h h o m o g e n e o u s g o o d s m u s t b e s e e n to p ass in o rd e r to b e c o n s u m e d , b e th e y th e b o d ie s o f th e a n c e s tra l d e ad , th e g o d s , h e a d s o f state , s e c u lar b u s i n e s s g u ru s , m e d ia c e le b ritie s, o r th a t c o re f e tis h o f p o s t- m o d e rn ity , th e b o d y o f th e s o v e re ig n c o n ­ s u m e r c itiz e n in th e a c t o f se lf -f a sh io n in g . ( W e n g ro w 200 8 : 21)

T h e b r o a d e r c o n c lu s io n is th a t c o n te m p o r a r y b r a n d i n g s tr a te g i e s s h o u ld n o t b e s tu d ie d m e r e ly a s p a r t o f th e lo n g - te r m h is to r y o f c o m m o d i ti s a tio n , b u t a ls o a s p a r t o f its o p p o s ite : th a t is , th e h is t o r y o f d e c o m m o d it is at io n , o n a c o n tin u u m w i th te c h n i q u e s o f g if t- g iv in g , ri tu a l, a n d s a c r if ic e , w h ic h h a v e lo n g b e e n a f o c u s o f re s e a rc h in a r c h a e o l o g y a n d a n th ro p o lo g y . A n d i t f o l­ lo w s f r o m th is th a t a tru ly c r o s s - c u l tu r a l a n a ly s is o f b r a n d i n g — o f th e k in d re c e n tly c a ll e d f o r b y S c h r o e d e r ( 2 0 0 5 ) a n d C a y la a n d A r n o u ld ( 2 0 0 8 ) — w i ll in v o lv e a g r e a t d e a l m o re th a n ju s t s h if tin g th e g o a l p o s ts o f c o n s u m e r ta s te to in c lu d e a w i d e r v a r ie ty o f “ b r a n d m y th s ."

R

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A lg a z e , G . 1993. T he U ru k W o rld S y s t e m : T h e D y n am ic s o f E x p an sio n o f E ar ly M e s o p o t am ian C iv iliz at io n . C h ic ag o : U n iv e rs ity o f C h ic ag o Pre ss.

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r e l a ti o n a l p e r s p e c ti v e .

35

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 3 6 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 3 6 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

g o o d s fro m

th i s

36

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C u lt u res o f C o m m o d it y B ran d in g

T h e o r e t ic a l

P e r s p e c t iv e s

V a lu e s , B r a n d s , a n d R e la t io n s h ip s

W h e n w e s p e a k o f th e v a lu e o f a n o b je c t, w e in tr o d u c e a s e m a n tic a l ly a m b i v a le n t b u t s o c i a ll y p o w e r f u l te r m . In E n g li s h , f o r e x a m p le , w o r d s s u c h a s " v a l u e ," " w o r t h ," a n d " t a s t e " a ll r e ta in a c u r io u s c h a r g e d u e to th e f a c t th a t th e y e v o k e b o th w h a t w e th in k o f a s a p e r s o n a ll y a s c r ib e d o r n a tu r a l p r o p e r ty a n d w h a t w e a s s u m e is a s o c i a ll y n e g o tia te d o n e , w h a t w e s e e k to k e e p s e p a r a te f r o m o u r e th ic a l li f e a n d w h a t w e in s ti n c tiv e l y a s s o c ia te w i th m o r a l o r im m o r a l b e h a v i o u r ( B e v a n 2 0 0 7 : 8 - 1 8 ) . A s G e o r g S i m m e l p o i n te d o u t lo n g a g o ( 1 9 0 0 ) , v a lu e th u s li e s a t th e in te r f a c e b e tw e e n w h a t is p e r c e iv e d a s o b je c tiv e a n d s u b je c ti v e , o r, a s D a n ie l M i lle r s u g g e s te d m o r e r e c e n tly ( 2 0 0 8 :1 1 2 3 ) , i t is a te r m th a t p e o p le r e g u la r l y u s e a s a b r id g e to c o n n e c t th e ir m a r k e t- le d m e a s u r e m e n t o f th e w o r ld a n d a c o n tin u e d e m p h a s i s o n th e s o c ia ll y in a lie n a b le . If th e o r e tic a l p e r s p e c tiv e s o n v a lu e h a v e a m u c h lo n g e r W e s te rn a n d n o n - W e s te r n in te ll e c tu a l h is to ry , th e r e h a v e b e e n p e r h a p s tw o p a r tic u la r l y im p o r ta n t a c a d e m ic c o n tr ib u tio n s o v e r th e la s t c o u p le o f d e c a d e s . T h e f ir s t is a n e m p h a s is o n u n d e r s ta n d i n g r e g im e s o f v a lu e a s th e y c h a n g e o v e r th e c o u r s e o f a n o b je c t's f u ll a n d o f te n q u i te c o m p le x c a re e r , d u r in g w h ic h th a t o b je c t c a n p a s s th r o u g h a r a n g e o f p r o d u c tio n , d is tr ib u tio n , re in te r p r e ta tio n , a n d c o n s u m p tio n s ta te s ( e .g ., A p p a d u r a i 1 9 8 6 ) . T h e s e c o n d e m p h a s i s , f a r m o r e p a tc h ily p r o m o te d , h a s b e e n o n p u ll in g d o w n m a n y o f th e in te ll e c tu a l b a r r ic a d e s s e p a r a tin g , f o r e x a m p l e , th e p e r s p e c tiv e s o n v a lu e o f f e re d b y M a r x i s t th e o r ie s o f e m b o d ie d la b o u r, th e u tili ty f u n c tio n s o f c la s s ic a l e c o n o m ic s , M a u s s i a n g if ts , a n d

la te 2 0 th- c e n tu r y c o n s u m e r

th e o r y ( e .g ., A s w a n i a n d S h e p p a rd 2 0 0 3 ; G o o d y 2 0 0 6 ; M c G r a w e t a l. 2 0 0 3 ; W e n g r o w 2 0 0 8 ; a ls o B e v a n 2 0 0 7 : 8 - 2 5 ) . T h e s e d e v e lo p m e n ts le a v e u s m u c h b e tte r p l a c e d to a d o p t u n a s h a m e d l y s y n th e tic a p p r o a c h e s to o b je c t v a lu e a n d to p l a c e p h e n o m e n a s u c h a s c o m m o d i ty b r a n d i n g in to a b r o a d e r c r o s s - c u l tu r a l a n d d ia c h r o n ic c o n te x t. B r a n d in g is a la b e l th a t h a s b e c o m e a r a th e r l o o s e m e ta p h o r f o r a r a n g e o f s ty li s tic p h e n o m e n a a n d p e r s u a s iv e a g e n d a s , b u t a s a p o i n t o f a n a ly tic a l d e p a r tu r e , i t is m o r e u s e f u l to r e s tr ic t th e te r m to th e re a lm o f b r o a d ly s u b s ti tu ta b l e g o o d s c ir c u la tin g a s tr a d e d c o m m o d itie s . T h e r e h a s b e e n m u c h r e s e a r c h d e v o te d to th e p r o c e s s o f c o m m o d i f ic a ti o n a s a f o r m o f s o c ia l a li e n a tio n , b u t m o re re c e n t w o r k o n c o m m o d i ti e s h a s r e p e a te d ly a s s e r te d

how

in h e r e n tly

s o c i a l th e ir s u b s e q u e n t p r o m o tio n , re c e p ti o n

a n d m a n ip u la tio n r e a lly is . M y a r g u m e n t h e r e is th a t th e p r o c e s s e s b y w h ic h a p e r s o n a li ty is re a tta c h e d ( f o r th e p h r a s e , s e e F o s te r 2 0 0 5 : 11) to a s ta n d a r d is e d

c o m m o d i ty o f te n in v o k e th e lo g ic s u s e d

to c o o r d in a te

h u m a n s o c ia l r e la ti o n s h ip s . In f a c t, th e re is n o th in g p a r tic u la r l y n e w in th is

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 3 7 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 3 7 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

M akin g an d M ar kin g R e lat io n s h ip s

©

37

a s s e r tio n , a n d a w h o le s tr a in o f m o d e r n c o n s u m e r r e s e a r c h h a s e m p h a s is e d th e im p o r ta n c e o f " b r a n d p e r s o n a l i ty " a n d " r e l a ti o n s h ip m a r k e ti n g ," w ith r e s p e c t to s u c h v a r ie d to p ic s a s th e r e b r a n d in g o f m o d e r n c o r p o r a tio n s a s f r ie n d s o r f a m ily , th e p e r s o n if i c a ti o n o f b r a n d e d o b je c ts , th e g e n e s is o f c o n c e p tu a l " b r a n d c o m m u n i ti e s ," th e c o n s u m p tio n s tr a te g i e s o f re c e n tly im m i g r a te d g ro u p s , o r th e d if f e r e n t s ta n d a r d s th a t a p p ly to d if f e r e n t s o c ia l c la s s e s w h e n c o n s u m in g f a k e b r a n d s ( A a k e r 1 9 9 7 ; A g g a r w a l 2 0 0 4 ; M u n iz a n d O 'G u i n n 2 0 0 1 ; O s w a ld 1 9 9 9 ; a n d P in h e ir o - M a c h a d o , th i s v o lu m e ) . B r a n d in g in

th e m o d e m

W e s te rn w o r ld

is o f te n a b o u t e s ta b li s h in g

b o n d s o f tr u s t b e tw e e n p ro d u c e r, d is trib u to r, b u y e r, a n d s e ll e r ( p a rtic u la rl y th e la tte r tw o ) . A t le a s t in itia lly , s u b s ti tu ta b le b r a n d e d c o m m o d iti e s a re a s o lu tio n to th e p ro b le m o f n a v ig a tin g th e v e r y d if f e r e n t le v e ls o f in f o r m a tio n th a t e a c h o f th e s e g ro u p s m ig h t h a v e a b o u t th e f in is h e d

p ro d u c t a n d

th e re f o r e to th e r is k o f b e in g d e c e iv e d a b o u t q u a lity o r q u a n tity ( w h a t G e o r g e A k e r l o f [ 1 9 7 0 ] f a m o u s l y te r m e d a f e a r o f " a d v e r s e s e le c tio n " o r o f b u y i n g " l e m o n s " ) . T h e n e x t s e c tio n d is c u s s e s h o w th is s o lu tio n re la te s to th e p a r tic u la r c o n f i g u r a tio n o f e x c h a n g e in la rg e r s c a le , d is tr ib u te d e c o n o m ie s , b u t f o r n o w m y m a in p o i n t is s im p ly th a t th is f e a r o f d e c e p tio n , a n d d e s ire f o r tru s t, re f le c ts a m o r e f u n d a m e n ta l p ro b le m u n d e r p in n in g a n y k in d o f i n te rp e rs o n a l re l a tio n s h ip : h o w tw o o r m o r e p e o p le e s ta b li s h p re d i c ta b le w a y s o f b e h a v i n g to o n e a n o th e r a s w e ll a s c o n s e n s u s a b o u t th e g r o u n d ru le s th a t p e r ta in to th e m in a g iv e n s o c ia l c o n te x t. M o s t o f th e in te rp e rs o n a l re l a ti o n s h ip s in w h ic h h u m a n s e n g a g e a re u n d e r s to o d , o rg a n is e d , a n d s i g n a lle d th r o u g h a li m ite d n u m b e r o f b a s ic s tru c tu ra l lo g ic s th a t e n c o u ra g e g r e a te r le v e ls

o f s o c ia l c o o r d i n a ti o n

an d

c o n s e n s u s . T h is h a s b e e n

a

c o n c lu s io n s h a re d b y a la rg e n u m b e r o f d if f e r e n t e c o n o m ic , e th n o g ra p h ic , a n d s o c io lo g ic a l c o m m e n ta to rs , b u t A la n F is k e h a s b e e n p a rtic u la rl y c le a r in h is id e n tif ic a tio n o f f o u r w a y s in w h ic h h u m a n b e in g s h a b itu a ll y th in k th r o u g h in te rp e rs o n a l re la ti o n s h ip s ( 1 9 9 1 ; 2 0 0 4 b ) . D e p e n d in g o n s o c ia l c o n te x t,

p e o p le

can

c h o o se

re l a ti o n s h ip s o f in c lu s io n

to

e m p h a s is e

o r e x c lu s io n

(1)

s im p le , u n d if f e re n tia te d

( w h a t F is k e

te rm s

"c o m m u n al

s h a r i n g " ) , ( 2) o r d e r e d re la ti o n s h ip s o f u n e q u a l s ta tu s ( " a u th o r i ty r a n k in g " ) , ( 3) p e e r- to - p e e r a s s o c ia tio n s ( " e q u a l ity m a tc h i n g " ) , o r ( 4) c e rta in f le x ib le k i n d s o f m e tr ic a l r e l a tio n s h ip ( " m a r k e t p r i c in g " ) . T h e r e a re g o o d r e a s o n s f o r tre a tin g s u c h d is ti n c tio n s a s s l ig h tly m o re ro b u s t th a n ju s t a n o th e r s e t o f a n th r o p o lo g ic a l o r s o c i o lo g ic a l ty p e s . In f o r m a l te r m s , th e y r e f le c t f o u r f u n d a m e n ta l s c a l e s a t w h ic h w e m e a s u r e th e r e a l w o r ld ( n o m in a l, o r d in a l, in te r v a l, a n d r a tio ) a n d s u g g e s t n o t o n ly th e e v o l u tio n o f c e r ta in h u m a n c o g n itiv e p r o c liv itie s , b u t a ls o im p o r ta n t v a r ia tio n s

in

th e

w ay

th e s e

p r o c liv itie s

a re

c u l tu r a l ly

im p le m e n te d

( F is k e 2 0 0 0 ; a ls o H a s la m 2 0 0 4 ) . A s a s e t o f w o r k in g d is ti n c tio n s , th e y a re p a r tic u la r l y a ttr a c ti v e g iv e n ( 1) th e c o m m o n g r o u n d th e y s h a re w i th a w i d e r v a r ie ty o f e x i s tin g s o c i o lo g ic a l th e o r y ( e .g ., s o m e o f th e d is tin c tio n s

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 3 8 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 3 8 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

©

38

C u lt u res o f C o m m o d it y B ran d in g

ra is e d b y D o u g l a s , M a u s s , P ia g e t, R ic o e u r, S a h l in s , a n d W e b e r a m o n g s t o th e rs : W h ite h e a d 1 9 9 3 :1 1 - 1 2 ) ; ( 2 ) th e ir c o n g r u e n c e w i th m o d e m c o g n itiv e th e o r ie s a b o u t c h il d h o o d l a n g u a g e d e v e lo p m e n t a n d th e m o d u la r i ty o f th e h u m a n m in d ; a n d

( 3 ) th e b a la n c e th e y o f f e r b e tw e e n b e h a v i o u r a l

d e te r m in i s m a n d c u l tu r a l r e l a ti v i s m ( F is k e a n d H a s la m 2 0 0 0 ) . If w e tu r n to th e ro le o f m a te r ia l c u l tu r e , p e o p le c a n u s e o b je c ts to a d v a n c e th e ir in te r p e r s o n a l r e l a ti o n s h ip s in th e d ir e c ti o n o f a n y o f th e s e d if f e r e n t lo g ic s : G if ts , f o r e x a m p le , d o n o t a lw a y s r e f le c t a n d p r o m o te th e m o s t f a m o u s c a s e o f r e c ip r o c a l e x c h a n g e b u t c a n o th e r w i s e in v o lv e f a ir ly a ltr u is tic s h a r i n g w i th in a c o m m u n ity , ra n k e d d if f e r e n c e s in s o c i a l s ta tu s , o r m a r k e t- le d e n tic e m e n ts ( K o m te r 2 0 0 1 ; a ls o B e v a n 2 0 0 7 : 2 5 - 2 6 ) . R a th e r, it is th e d iv e r s io n o f o b je c ts f r o m o n e k in d o f s o c i a ll y a g r e e d r e la tio n s h ip w i th

p e o p le

to

a n o th e r

th a t

is

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th e

s tu f f

of

m o ra l

o u tr a g e

( p a r tic u la r l y th e c o m m o d if ic a tio n o f th in g s i n s e e m in g ly in a p p r o p r ia te w a y s ; s e e A p p a d u r a i 1 9 8 6 : 1 4 - 1 6 ; K o p y to f f 1 9 8 6 ; M c G r a w

a n d T e tlo c k

2 0 0 5 ; M c G r a w e t a l. 2 0 0 3 ; T u k e t al. 2 0 0 9 ) , a n d a r g u a b ly th e m a in re a s o n f o r th e s e m a n tic a m b i v a le n c e o f v a lu e / v a lu e s in th e f ir s t p la c e . M o r e i m p o r ta n tly p e r h a p s , c e r ta in k in d s o f o b je c ts a re m u c h m o r e lik e ly to e n c o u r a g e c e r ta in k in d s o f s o c ia l r e la tio n s h ip th a n o th e r s , a n d m a te r ia l c u ltu r e is o n e im p o r ta n t w a y in w h ic h p e o p l e ' s p r e f e r r e d r e la ti o n a l lo g ic s a re m a d e p h y s i c a lly m a n if e s t a n d s o c i a ll y c o n s titu te d a s n o r m s ( F is k e 2 0 0 4 a ; in d e e d

th e s e p h y s i c a l m a n if e s ta tio n s a re u s u a l ly th e w a y s th a t

s u c h p a tte r n s a re r e c o g n is e d b y c h il d r e n , o u ts id e r s , o r a n th r o p o lo g is ts ) . F o r e x a m p le , c o m m u n a l , c a te g o r i c a l m o d e ls f o r s o c ia l re l a ti o n s h ip s a re o f te n

p r o m o te d

m o d i f i c a ti o n

by

(an d

f o o d - s h a r in g

p a r a p h e r n a l ia , b y

its re p r e s e n ta tio n o n a r te f a c ts ) , b y

e m b le m a tic b o d y a c ts o f p h y s ic a l

in tim a c y ( a n d a s s o c ia te d o b je c ts ) , b y in i ti a ti o n rite s , a n d b y p u r ity la w s o r ta b o o . R a n k e d r e l a ti o n a l m o d e ls a re c o m m o n ly e s ta b li s h e d v ia p h y s ic a l p r o p s th a t c h o r e o g r a p h s o c ia l e n c o u n te r s in o rd e re d , a s y m m e tr ic w a y s ( a b o v e / b e lo w , in f r o n t/ b e h i n d , b e f o r e / a f te r , b ig g e r / s m a ll e r , s tro n g e r / w e a k e r ) . T h e y c a n a ls o b e r e in f o r c e d b y th e p e r c e iv e d n a tu r a l h ie r a r c h y o f m a te r ia l g o o d s ( e .g ., M a u s s a n d D u r k h e im 1 9 6 3 : 8 3 - 8 4 ) . P e e r - to - p e e r re l a ti o n s h ip s o f e q u iv a le n c e a re u s u a l ly f o rg e d a n d r e in f o r c e d b y o b je c ts th a t f a c il ita te b a la n c e d , tu rn M a r k e t- p r ic in g easy

lo g ic s te n d

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ta k in g , o r c o m p l e m e n ta r y

to b e e n c o u r a g e d

m e n s u r a b i li ty

c o n tr ib u tio n s .

b y o b je c ts th a t f a c il ita te

( e .g ., th o s e w i th b u l lio n v a lu e ) ,

p r o p o s i ti o n a l o f f e r in g s ( e .g ., s a m p l e s ) , b r a n d m n e m o n ic s , a n d a c c o u n tin g s y m b o l s ( e .g ., lo g o s , la b e ls , s e a ls , a n d w e ig h ts ) . T h e s e p h y s i c a l p r o p e n s iti e s th e r e f o r e s u g g e s t th a t o b je c t s ty le s m ig h t b e s u b je c t to b o th d ir e c t a n d in d ir e c t s e le c tio n b a s e d o n th e ir s u ita b ili ty f o r c e r ta in k in d s o f s o c i a l r e la tio n s h ip , a n d h e n c e th a t w e m ig h t h o p e to id e n tif y th e o c c a s i o n a l r e s id u e s o f p a s t r e la ti o n a l m o d e l s in th e p a tte r n in g o f th e m a te r ia l re c o r d . If w e r e tu r n to th e c a s e o f m o d e r n W e s te r n c o m m o d i ty

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 3 9 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 3 9 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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M akin g an d M ar kin g R e lat io n s h ip s

39

b r a n d s , s o m e p r o d u c ts m a k e r e la ti v e ly s tr a ig h tf o r w a r d , m e tr ic a l c la im s a b o u t p r o d u c t e f f ic a c y ( p a r tic u la r ly th o s e a s s o c ia te d w i th a f a ir l y e a r ly p h a s e o f a d v e r tis i n g s tr a te g y ; s e e H o l t 2 0 0 2 : 8 0 - 8 1 ) : F o r e x a m p le , b u y th i s s o a p a n d c le a n 5 0 % m o r e d is h e s . In o th e r c a s e s , th e p r o p o s i ti o n is le s s p r e c is e b u t s til l m e tr ic a l: W e a r th e s e c lo th e s a n d h a v e m o r e f r ie n d s . H o w e v e r, a d is ti n c tiv e f e a tu r e o f m a n y b r a n d e d c o m m o d i ti e s is th a t, w h il e th e y a re c le a r ly c r e a te d to s tr e a m lin e m a r k e t- le d re l a ti o n s h ip s b e tw e e n p e o p le ( b y p r o v i d in g m o re s ta n d a r d is e d a n d r e c o g n i s a b le q u a n titie s a n d q u a l itie s th a t a ll e v ia te f e a r s o f a d v e r s e s e le c tio n ) , th e ir b r a n d im a g e o r b r a n d p e r s o n a li ty o f te n s tr a d d le s o n e o r m o r e o f F i s k e ' s o th e r th r e e re la ti o n a l m o d e ls ( i.e ., c o m m u n a l s h a r i n g , a u th o r i ty r a n k in g , o r e q u a lity m a tc h i n g ) , w h e th e r s o e n g in e e r e d b y m a r k e tin g s p e c ia li s ts o r d u e to th e c r e a tiv e c o n tr ib u tio n s o f c o n s u m e r s . T h is re l a ti o n a l d e x te r ity , o f te n in v o lv i n g s o m e k i n d o f u n s p o k e n p r o p o s i ti o n , is a d ir e c t a n a lo g u e to " i n d i r e c t s p e e c h ," w h e r e th e u s e o f v e il e d la n g u a g e a v o id s a w k w a r d m is ta k e s in r e la tio n s h ip c o o r d i n a ti o n a n d / o r c a n p r o p o s e c h a n g e s to e x i s tin g r e l a ti o n s h ip s w i th o u t in c u r r in g th e f u ll p e n a l ty o f o u tr ig h t r e je c ti o n ( e .g ., th e l a n g u a g e o f b r ib e s , h a lf - s p o k e n th r e a ts , a n d s e x u a l c o m e - o n s ; s e e P in k e r e t a l. 2 0 0 8 ) .

D is t r ib u t e d E c o n o m ie s

O b je c t v a lu e is c le a r ly m o r e m a ll e a b l e f o r s o m e in d iv i d u a ls , g r o u p s , a n d in s ti tu ti o n s th a n f o r o th e r s ( A p p a d u r a i 1 9 8 6 : 3 1 ; M o lm e t a l. 2 0 0 1 ) , a n d th e o v e r a l l s o c i a l n e tw o r k w i th in w h ic h s u c h v a lu a ti o n o c c u r s is a n im p o r ta n t s tr u c tu r in g f e a tu r e ( e .g ., W a tts a n d S tr o g a tz 1 9 9 8 ) . M a n y c o m m e n ta to r s h a v e n o te d th e im p o r ta n c e o f m o d e r n , h i- te c h c o m m u n i c a ti o n — c h e a p , f a s t, o f te n li te r a te , h ig h - v o lu m e , lo n g - d i s ta n c e — to a s m o d e r n b r a n d i n g , in c lu d in g

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m o r e e p h e m e r a l f o r m s o f e n te r ta in m e n t, e x p e r ie n c e , c o m m u n ity , a n d p e r s o n a l id e n tity ( Ja n s o n 2 0 0 2 ; M u n iz a n d

O 'G u i n n 2 0 0 1 ; W a ll e n d o r f

2 0 0 1 ) . H o w e v e r , w h il e r e ta in i n g a n a w a r e n e s s th a t th e re is li k e ly to b e s o m e th i n g u n u s u a l a b o u t th e le v e ls o f b r a n d e d m a te r ia l c u l tu r e , b r a n d e d s p a c e s , a n d b r a n d e d h u m a n id e n ti ti e s p r e s e n t i n th e W e s te r n w o r ld o f th e la s t 5 0 - 1 0 0 y e a r s , w e s h o u ld r e a l ly s e e k to p l a c e th i s in a m u c h w i d e r c o n te x t w i th r e s p e c t to i n f o r m a tio n flo w ' i n a v a r i e ty o f d if f e r e n t k in d s o f e c o n o m y ( e .g ., A p p a d u r a i 1 9 8 6 : 4 8 ; F a n s e lo w 1 9 9 0 ; H a m ilto n a n d L a i 1 9 8 9 ) . T h e k e y is s u e is a r g u a b l y th e im p a c t o f d r a w 'n - o u t n e tw o r k s o f p r o d u c tio n , e x c h a n g e , a n d c o n s u m p tio n . In d e e d , a lth o u g h th i s u s e d to b e a le s s e m p h a s i s e d f e a tu r e o f m o d e r n b r a n d s , i t h a s c o m e r a p i d ly b a c k in to f a s h io n w i th a n e m p h a s i s o n " s o u r c i n g " b y b r a n d m a n a g e r s a n d a n ti­ g lo b a l is a tio n c a m p a ig n e r s a li k e ( F o s te r 2 0 0 5 : 1 1 - 1 2 ) . M o r e b ro a d ly , w e c a n a s s o c ia te th e s e n e tw o r k s w i th th e e c o n o m i e s th a t h a v e c o a l e s c e d a ro u n d s e d e n ta ry , o f te n h ig h ly u r b a n is e d s o c i e tie s in o n ly

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 4 0 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 4 0 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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C u lt u res o f C o m m o d it y B ran d in g

a f e w p a r ts o f th e w o r ld , p a r tic u la r l y th o s e th a t h a v e d e v e lo p e d tra n s re g i o n a l s y s te m s o f e x c h a n g e . In s u c h c ir c u m s ta n c e s , p r o d u c e r s , d is tr i b u ­ to rs , a n d c o n s u m e r s b e c o m e s e p a r a te d f r o m o n e a n o th e r b o th p h y s ic a ll y a n d c u ltu r a lly , a n d th e p r o p o s i ti o n a l in f o r m a tio n th a t th e y m ig h t w i s h to e x c h a n g e is n a v i g a te d th r o u g h a s e r ie s o f c o m m u n i c a ti o n b o ttl e n e c k s . W h il e o n e - o f f lu x u r y p r o d u c ts o c c a s i o n a ll y r e ta in e l a b o r a te b io g r a p h i e s ( r e a l o r im a g in e d ) a s th e y p a s s th r o u g h s u c h b o ttl e n e c k s , th e s a m e tr ic k is ra r e ly f e a s ib le f o r m o s t g o o d s . T h e p r o b le m s th a t th i s le a d s to a re w e l l k n o w n ( e .g ., A k e r l o f 1 9 7 0 ; R ic h a r d s o n 2 0 0 8 ) : In m a n y in s ta n c e s , c o n s u m e r s h a v e f a r le s s k n o w l e d g e a b o u t th e p o te n tia l ra n g e in q u a l ity o f p a r tic u la r m e r c h a n d is e th a n th e p r o d u c e r s o r d is tr ib u to r s . L ik e w is e , th e c o n d itio n s o f s a le o r th e n a tu r e o f th e o b je c t c a n o f te n m a k e it d if f ic u lt to e v a lu a te k e y p r o p e r tie s s u c h a s d u r a b ility , s a f e ty a n d e f f e c tiv e n e s s b e f o r e p u r c h a s e . D e p e n d in g o n th e ir m e a n s , p e o p le m a y a ls o n o t b e a b le to a f f o rd to r e p la c e d e f e c tiv e o r o th e r­ w i s e p o o r p u r c h a s e s . T h is la c k o f e c o n o m ic f le x i b i li ty te n d s to m a k e th e m r is k a v e r s e , b u t a ls o o f te n le a v e s th e m u n a b le to te s t a s e l l e r ' s r e lia b il ity th r o u g h th e tr ia l a n d e r r o r o f r e p e a te d p u r c h a s e ( th o u g h th is d e p e n d s o n th e g o o d s in v o lv e d ) . In m a n y c ir c u m s ta n c e s , th e r e is a ls o n o e a s y o r a f f o r d a b le le g a l re c o u r s e f o r th o s e w h o h a v e re c e iv e d d e f e c tiv e g o o d s . Fin a lly , th e re a re m a n y in c e n tiv e s f o r p r o d u c e r s a n d d is tr i b u to r s to c u t c o s ts w h e r e v e r p o s s ib le . In th e f a c e o f th e s e p r o b l e m s , c o m m o d i ty s ta n d a r d is a ti o n is a n a ttr a c t­ iv e s o lu ti o n , p a r tic u la r l y i f it is e a s ily id e n tif ia b le b y th e p r e s e n c e o f s o m e h ig h ly

r e c o g n i s a b le , c a r e f u lly

s tr u c tu r e d

p a c k e ts o f c u l tu r a l m e a n in g .

T h e s e m n e m o n ic p a c k e ts a re u s u a l ly c r e a te d th r o u g h p h y s i c a l a d d itio n to th e o b je c ts in v o lv e d ( lo g o s , la b e ls , s e a ls , s p e c ia l a d d itiv e s , a n d / o r a s s e m ­ b l y p r a c tic e s ) , a b s tr a c t s y m b o l is m , e x te r n a l a d v e r tis e m e n t, a n d , w h e r e p o s s ib le , s tr u c tu r e d

so c ia l p e rfo rm a n c e , an d

th e r e a f te r a re a n e f f ic ie n t

m e a n s o f re in v e s tin g s ta n d a r d is e d g o o d s w i th m o r e p o te n t s o c ia l id e n ­ titie s ( F o s te r 2 0 0 5 ; W e n g r o w 2 0 0 8 ) . In a d d itio n , w e m i g h t a ls o ta lk a b o u t th r e e f u r th e r in te r e s ti n g p a tte r n s a s s o c ia te d w i th s u c h s y s te m s . T h e f ir s t c a n b e s u m m a r is e d b y th e E n g li s h p h r a s e " c o a l s - to - N e w c a s tl e " ( e .g ., F u l l e r 1 8 4 0 : 5 4 2 ) a n d e v o k e s th e id e a o f tr a d e in d ir e c ti o n s th a t s e e m

s e n s e le s s o r u n e c o n o m ic a l b e c a u s e o f

th e s u p e r a b u n d a n c e o f th a t p a r ti c u l a r c o m m o d i ty a t th e tr a d e d e s ti n ­ a tio n . In d e e d , th e C la s s ic a l v e r s i o n o f th i s p h r a s e , " o w l s to A th e n s " ( e .g ., A r i s to p h a n e s ' B ir d s 3 0 1 ) is e v e n n e a te r b e c a u s e i t re f e r s , o n th e o n e h a n d , to th e p a tr o n b ir d o f th e c ity , th e a s s o c ia te o f th e g o d d e s s A th e n a , th a t r o o s te d i n th e e a r l y P a r th e n o n , a n d , o n th e o th e r, p r o b a b ly a ls o

to s l a n g f o r th e a b u n d a n t s i lv e r c o i n s m in te d b y A th e n s w i th a

d e p i c ti o n th e A th e n i a n o w rl ( h e n c e , w h y ta k e s u c h o w l s to A th e n s w h e r e th e r e w e r e s o m a n y a lr e a d y ? ) . In a n y c a s e , a r e l a te d , b u t s tr u c tu r a ll y

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 41 h t t p :/ /s ite . e b ra ry .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 4 1 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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d i s ti n c t p h e n o m e n o n is th e o n e in w h ic h a n u n e v e n g e o g r a p h ic s p r e a d of

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p o s i ti o n e d i n te r m e d i a r ie s to a d d v a lu e to c o m m o d i ti e s i n s o m e m a n n e r ( e v e n i f o n ly th r o u g h r e p a c k a g in g ) a n d th e n p a s s th e m o n to th ir d p a r tie s o r s o m e ti m e s e v e n b a c k to th e o r i g in a l s o u r c e ( e .g ., W e n g ro w 2 0 0 8 : 11; W il k 2 0 0 6 : 9 7 ) . T h is is th e f o r e m o s t a n a ly tic a l f e a tu r e o f a " w o r l d - s y s te m ," a s o r i g in a ll y f o r m u la te d e c o n o m ic

( W a ll e r s te in 1 9 7 4 ) , in w h ic h v e r y a s y m m e tr i c

r e l a ti o n s h ip s e x i s t b e tw e e n c o r e e c o n o m i c z o n e s a n d

th e ir

p e r i p h e r i e s , b a s e d o n a s u p r a - te r r i to r i a l d i v i s i o n o f la b o u r. In te re s tin g ly , th e r e a re p l e n ty o f e x a m p l e s o f c o a l s - to - N e w c a s tle s i tu a tio n s w h e r e th e s e o r g a n i s a tio n a l a s y m m e tr i e s d o n o t e x i s t a n d w h e r e , in s te a d , th e k e y is in s u c c e s s f u l p r o d u c t d if f e r e n ti a ti o n ( s e e b e lo w ) . A se co n d

i n te r e s ti n g f e a tu r e o f s u c h e c o n o m i e s is th e c h a r i s m a o f

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c o n s u m e r k n o w l e d g e (W e n g ro w r 2 0 0 8 : 8 ; s e e a ls o w h a t M i c h a e l S i l v e r s te i n [ 2 0 0 6 : 4 9 3 ] c a ll s " - o n o m i c " k n o w l e d g e ) . L u x u r y c o m e s ti b l e s a r e a g r o u p o f p r o d u c ts f o r w h ic h th i s b e c o m e s p a r ti c u l a r l y im p o r ta n t: m o d e r n w i n e ta lk , o i l - ta l k , f o o d - ta l k , a n d c o f f e e - ta l k , f o r e x a m p l e , a ll h a v e th e ir o w n s p e c i a l i s e d te r m i n o l o g i e s , c u l tu r a l a u th o r i ti e s , a n d r e v e r e d p r o d u c tio n p r a c ti c e s . T o v a r y i n g d e g r e e s , th e y a l l s h a r e a s e m i - r e l i g i o u s e m p h a s i s on

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p r o d u c ts ) , ti m e l i n e s s ( v in ta g e , o c c a s i o n a l p r o d u c ti o n ) , th e d i a l e c ti c o f te c h n o l o g y a n d tr a d i ti o n ( s p e c i a l i s t e q u ip m e n t, s e c r e t r e c i p e s , a u th e n ti c p r o c e d u r e s ) , th e lo n g g e n e a l o g y o f th e p r o d u c e r , a n d a s p e c if ic ja r g o n o f p r o d u c ti o n , d i s tr i b u ti o n a n d c o n s u m p ti o n ( B e v e r l a n d 2 0 0 5 ; H e a th a n d M e n e l e y 2 0 0 7 ; M a n n i n g 2 0 0 8 ) . I w i l l r e tu r n to s o m e o f th e s e f e a tu r e s w i th r e s p e c t to th e m a r k e ti n g o f B r o n z e A g e o i l s a n d w i n e b e lo w . A

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e c o n o m i e s c a n b e l o o s e l y te r m e d " l e a k a g e ." W h il e th e re a re u s u a l ly d ir e c ­ tio n a l , c a r e f u lly m a n a g e d c o m m o d i ty f lo w s in s u c h e c o n o m i e s a n d c a r e ­ f u lly d r a w n - u p c o m m e r c i a l a n d id e o lo g ic a l a g e n d a s , th e r e a re a ls o w a y s in w h ic h p h y s i c a l g o o d s , s k ill s , a n d b r a n d a b s tr a c ti o n s e s c a p e f r o m th e s e c h a n n e l s in to a lto g e th e r d if f e r e n t a n d o f te n m o r e in f o r m a l c o n te x ts . T h is le a k a g e is n o t a n e p i p h e n o m e n o n , b u t a f u n d a m e n ta l f e a tu r e . F o r e x a m p l e , b r a n d e d g o o d s a re o f te n re in te r p r e te d b y c o n s u m e r s o n th e ir o w n te r m s , ra th e r th a n th e d is tr i b u to r s . T h e r e a lity o f th i s p r a c tic e a n d , f o r s o m e , its u ltim a te d e s ira b il ity , is re f le c te d in r e c e n t m a r k e tin g in i ti a ti v e s th a t s e e k to in f lu e n c e o n ly lo o s e ly th e c o n te x ts in w h i c h g o o d s a re c o n s u m e d , th e r e b y le a v i n g r o o m

f o r c o n s u m e r in n o v a tio n s th a t m ig h t a d d f u r th e r b r a n d

v a lu e ( A r v id s s o n 2 0 0 5 : 2 4 3 - 4 4 ; H o lt 2 0 0 2 ) . L ik e w is e , b r a n d e d g o o d s a re o f te n r e c ir c u la te d a s g if ts o r o n th e s e c o n d - h a n d m a r k e t in w a y s th a t f e e d b a c k in to th e ir o r i g in a l v a lu e ( A . C la r k e , th is v o lu m e ) . S o m e tim e s th is p r a c tic e c a n o v e r l a p w i th th e p r e v i o u s o n e i n th e p h y s i c a l r e w o r k in g o f

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 4 2 h tt p :// s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 4 2 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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C u lt u res o f C o m m o d it y B ran d in g

b r a n d e d o b je c ts to f it n e w c o n s u m e r a g e n d a s ( e .g ., th e in te r g e n e r a ti o n a l tr a n s f e r o f c u t- o f f je a n s ; H a m m e r , th i s v o lu m e ) . Fin a lly , b r a n d s o f te n s u f f e r f r o m a n o th e r k in d o f le a k a g e w h e n th e y a re s u b s titu te d f o r c o p ie s ( s e e a ls o b o th C r a c iu n a n d P i n h e ir o - M a c h a d o , th is v o lu m e ) . T h e p r e p a c k ­ a g in g a n d s e a lin g p r a c tic e s a s s o c ia te d

w i th b r a n d e d

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q u a l ity a n d q u a n tity c o n tr o ls th a t r e d u c e th e r is k o f a d v e r s e s e le c tio n , b u t th e y r e m a in , li k e o th e r e f f ic i e n t f o r m s o f c o m m u n i c a ti o n ( e .g ., d ig i ta l n e tw o r k s , g e n e s ) v u l n e r a b l e to d i s s im u la tin g f re e - r id e r s : In a s e n s e , im i­ ta ti o n is a g r e a t in d ic a tio n o f a ( te m p o r a r ily ) s u c c e s s f u l b r a n d .

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r e g io n ( F ig u r e 2 .1 ) w a s b r o k e n u p in to a r e l a ti v e ly w e l l- d e f i n e d s e t o f p o l itie s . T h e s e to o k v a r io u s s h a p e s a n d s iz e s , b u t w e r e ty p ic a l ly u n d e r th e d ir e c t r u le o f a k in g , a n d i n c r e a s in g ly b y th e e n d o f th i s p e r io d , u n d e r th e in d ir e c t i n f lu e n c e o f a " G r e a t K i n g ." Im m e d ia te ly b e l o w

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. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 4 4 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 4 4 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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p l e n ty o f e v id e n c e f o r c o p ie s o f p o p u la r, b u t s e e m in g ly lo w - v a l u e p o tte r y s ty le s ( a ls o s e e b e lo w w i th r e s p e c t to o il a n d w in e ) . O n e c le a r s i g n o f th is s h a r i n g o f g o o d s a n d id e a s w e r e w e i g h ts a n d m e a s u re s . F ro m a t le a s t th e m id - 3 rd m il le n n iu m o n w a r d s in th e e a s te r n M e d i te r r a n e a n a n d A e g e a n , w e s e e e v id e n c e f o r b o th r e g i o n a l s y s te m s o f m e a s u r e m e n t a n d a f a m il ia r ity w i th th e p o i n ts o f c o n v e r g e n c e b e tw e e n th e m ( A lb e r ti a n d P a ri s e 2 0 0 5 ; M ic h a ili d o u 1 9 9 9 ; P u la k 2 0 0 0 ; R a h m s to r f 2 0 0 6 ) . T h e s e d e v e lo p m e n ts p r o b a b ly b e g i n s l ig h tly e a r l ie r in M e s o p o ta m ia , d u r in g th e 4 th m il le n n iu m , b u t in a ll c a s e s , th e e v id e n c e f o r s ta n d a r d w e i g h t s y s te m s c o - a p p e a r s w i th th e e v id e n c e f o r m o re e l a b o r a te s e a li n g p r a c tic e s a n d m o r e s ta n d a r d is e d c o n ta in e r s , s u g g e s tin g , i n e a c h c a s e , n o t o n ly th e u p - s c a li n g o f a d m in is tr a ti v e p r a c tic e b u t a ls o im p o r ta n t c h a n g e s in th e r e la ti o n s h ip b e tw e e n s o c i e ty a n d m a te r ia l c u l tu r e ( W e n g r o w 2 0 0 8 ) . B y th e la te r 2 nd m il le n n iu m in th e e a s te r n M e d i te r r a n e a n , th e r e a re e v e n s tr o n g e r p a tte r n s o f m e tr ic a l c o n v e r g e n c e a n d h y b r id is a ti o n , p a r tic u la r l y in th e n o r th e r n L e v a n t a n d n o r th e r n M e s o p o ta m ia . M u ltip le s y s te m s o f w e i g h ts a re f o u n d a t th e s a m e s i te o r o n th e s a m e s h ip w r e c k , a n d th e d o c u ­ m e n ta r y e v id e n c e s h o w s th e m to g e th e r in e v e r y d a y u s e b y th e s a m e tra d e r. In te r o p e r a b le u n its o f w e i g h t a n d c a p a c ity b o th f a c il ita te d a n d r e f le c te d a p e r io d o f m u l ti- la n g u a g e d ip lo m a c y , p o l y g lo t m o b il e c o m m u n i ti e s , a n d d e l ib e r a te ly c o s m o p o li ta n s ty le s in a r a n g e o f m a te r ia l c u ltu r e , a ll o f w h ic h e n c o u r a g e d n e a te r, m o r e s y n c r e tic p a c k e ts o f s h a re d m e a n in g i n la n g u a g e , r e lig io n , a n d e c o n o m ic lif e . T h e m a jo r m e tr ic u n its in a lm o s t a ll a r e a s o f th e e a s te r n M e d i te r r a n e a n a n d A e g e a n w e r e s im il a r a n d o f te n r e f e r e n c e n o tio n a l , p r a c tic a l m e a s u r e s s u c h a s a " d o n k e y - l o a d " o r a " f l e e c e ." T h e s e a ll o w e d p r o d u c e r s , d is tr i b u to r s , a n d c o n s u m e r s to ta lk in c o u n ts o f s ta n ­ d a rd c o m m o d i ti e s r a th e r th a n c o m p l e x w e i g h e d m e a s u r e s a n d c a r e f u ll y d e s c r ib e d g o o d s ( s e e a ls o S h e r r a tt a n d S h e r r a tt 1 9 9 1 : 3 6 2 - 6 3 ) . T h e la n g u a g e o f b o th d ip lo m a c y a n d c o m m e r c e h a d a ls o b e c o m e r e l a ­ tiv e ly u n i f o r m b y th e

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. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 4 5 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 4 5 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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a s th e o s te n ta tio u s b u t

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re v is it F i s k e ' s r e la ti o n a l m o d e l s , th e s e

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c o o r d i n a te d v ia a lo g ic o f m a tc h e d e q u iv a le n c e , b u t w e r e a ls o f a c il ita ti n g m a r k e t- le d c a lc u la tio n s a n d w e r e o c c a s i o n a ll y m is r e p r e s e n te d a s ra n k e d d if f e r e n c e s in r o y a l a u th o r ity . R u le r s w e r e c le a r ly a w a re o f p o te n tia l d is ­ c r e p a n c ie s b e tw e e n th e p h r a s i n g o f re l a ti o n s h ip s a n d th e ir re a lity . T h e

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 4 6 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 4 6 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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C u lt u res o f C o m m o d it y B ran d in g

k in g o f B a b y lo n a ll u d e s to th is in h i s E g y p tia n c o r r e s p o n d e n c e w h e n h e e x p r e s s e s a n n o y a n c e th a t h i s g if t o f c h a r io ts h a d b e e n d is p la y e d a s tr ib ­ u te d u r in g a n E g y p tia n p a r a d e , a n d h e tri e s to in te r f e r e in h is r i v a l 's , th e k in g o f A s s y r ia 's , a tte m p ts to in itia te re la ti o n s w i th E g y p t b y d e l ib e r a te ly d r a w i n g a n u g ly c o n tr a s t b e tw e e n th e tw o a s p e c ts o f th e p r o c e s s ( " g i f ts " a n d " p u r c h a s e s " ; s e e Z a c c a g n in i 1 9 8 7 : 5 8 ) . T h is v e il e d l a n g u a g e o f B ro n z e A g e d ip lo m a c y s u c c e s s f u ll y c o o r d in a te d a r a n g e o f p o l itic a l , le g a l, a n d e c o n o m i c r e l a ti o n s h ip s o v e r v e r y lo n g d is ta n c e s , a n d g r e e ti n g g if ts w e r e a n e s ta b li s h e d c la s s o f e lite o b je c ts th a t w e r e w e l l d e s i g n e d to p la y f le x ib le ro le s , a s b o th r e a l g if ts b e tw e e n p e r c e iv e d e q u a ls o f re f in e d c u l tu r a l s e n s ­ ib ility , a n d b r ib e s o r c o m m e r c i a l e n tic e m e n ts . I w o u ld a ls o g o f u r th e r a n d a r g u e th a t n o t o n ly h a v e w e s o m e ti m e s s l ig h tly m is r e a d th e n a tu r e o f m a r k e t- le d r e l a ti o n s h ip s i n th e B r o n z e A g e M e d i te r r a n e a n a n d u n d e r e s tim a te d

th e o v e r a l l a m o u n t o f c o m m e r c i a l

a c tiv ity , b u t w e h a v e a ls o s y s te m a ti c a lly m is r e a d th e c h a r a c te r o f ro y a l a n d / o r te m p le d is b u r s e m e n ts . T h e b a l a n c e o f in f lu e n c e b e tw e e n p a la c e s a n d te m p le s v a r ie s s i g n if ic a n tly in d i f f e r e n t r e g i o n s a n d a t d if f e r e n t tim e s , w i th th e p a l a c e b e i n g m o r e o f a c o n s ta n t th r o u g h o u t, b u t th e y w e r e ty p ic ­ a ll y th e l a r g e s t p r o d u c e r s , c o n s u m e r s , a r b itr a to r s , a n d p a tr o n s o f B r o n z e A g e c o m m o d i ti e s . T h e i r i n v e s te d w e a l th , o r g a n i s a tio n a l in f r a s tr u c tu r e , p o l i ti c a l a u th o ri ty , r e l ig i o u s in f lu e n c e , c o n tr o l o f ta x a ti o n , a n d / o r s u p p o r t f o r k e y p o r t o r c a r a v a n f a c i l i ti e s o f te n , th e r e f o r e , c o n f ig u r e d th e m a jo r p a tte r n s o f c o m m e r c i a l tra d e . H o w e v e r , th i s a ls o m a d e th e r u le r a n d th e g o d s p r im e a u th e n tic a to r s o f c o m m o d i ty b r a n d v a lu e . It is n o a c c id e n t th a t, f o r e x a m p l e , w e s e e o n e o r m o r e g o d s a s th e c e l e b r i ty g u e s ts f o r th e w i n e f e s ti v a l s a t U g a r i t, a s r e c e i v e r s o f v o tiv e q u a n titie s o f p e r f u m e d o il a t P y lo s , a s th e o f f i c i a l g u a r a n to r o f u n ta m p e r e d te x tile l o a d s a t A s s u r , o r a s th e s ta tu e s q u e o v e r s e e r s o f c o p p e r p r o d u c tio n a t E n k o m i ( s e e b e lo w ) . T h e s e w e r e a ll g o o d s th a t w e r e p r i m a r i l y tr a d e d a s m a r k e te d c o m m o d ­ itie s , b u t d iv in e o r r o y a l s p o n s o r s h i p w a s a c r u c i a l p r e lim i n a r y a c t, n o d o u b t tr e a te d r e v e r e n tia l ly a n d s i n c e re ly , b u t w i th th e lo n g e r te r m e f f e c t o f e n d o r s in g th e q u a l ity a n d q u a n tity o f th e f in is h e d p r o d u c ts . In a n y e v e n t, th e o v e r a r c h in g c o n c e p tu a l m e ta p h o r o f th e f a m il y a n d s m a l l v ill a g e b in d s to g e th e r n o t o n ly d ip lo m a c y a n d c o m m e r c e , b u t a ls o c e r ta in re l ig i o u s f u n c tio n s . T h e d w e l lin g s o f ru le rs , g o d s , a n d tr a d e r s h a d m u c h in c o m m o n s e m a n tic a l ly a n d p r a c tic a lly . A s s u g g e s te d a b o v e , th e te r m " h o u s e " h a d s e e m in g ly o v e r l a p p in g m e a n in g s th a t, d e p e n d i n g o n c o n te x t, c o u ld r e f e r to th e h o u s e h o ld o f a n in d iv id u a l, a f a m il y - b a s e d f ir m , th e h o u s e o f a g o d ( i.e ., a te m p le ) , o r th e c o m m e r c i a l in te r f a c e o f s e v e r a l o f th e s e ( e .g ., C a s tle 1 9 9 2 : 2 5 0 - 5 3 ; K il le n 1 9 7 9 : 1 7 6 - 7 9 ; Silv e r 1 9 9 5 : 3 - 3 8 ; V e e n h o f 1 9 7 2 :1 1 6 , 3 9 7 - 9 9 ) . A

f u r th e r im p o r ta n t c o n s i d e r a tio n is th e f a c t th a t e v e n th o s e c o m ­

m o d itie s p r o d u c e d b y th e p a l a c e s a n d m a jo r te m p le s f o r c e r ta in h ig h ly

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 4 7 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 4 7 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

M akin g an d M ar kin g R e lat io n s h ip s

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n o t a lw a y s c o n s u m e d , p e r m a n e n tly

s to r e d , o r d e s tr o y e d th e re a f te r . In s te a d , th e y le a k e d o u t o f th is s u p e r f i­ c i a l l y c lo s e d lo o p in to o th e r c ir c u its , a n d d id s o a s a m a tte r o f c o u r s e . A n e v o c a tiv e e x a m p l e f ir s t m e n tio n e d b y L e o O p p e n h e im ( 1 9 6 4 : 1 8 3 - 9 8 ) a n d r e c e n tly re v is ite d b y D a v id W e n g ro w ( f o r th c o m in g ) i s th e s m o k in g m e a t o f E g y p tia n a n d M e s o p o ta m ia n r itu a l th a t w a s f e d to d iv in e s ta tu e s in c a p ­ a b le o f e a tin g it b u t th e r e a f te r re e n te re d th e w o r ld o f c ir c u la tin g g o o d s , im b u e d w i th e n o r m o u s a d d e d c h a r is m a . Jo h n B e n n e t ( 2 0 0 8 ) a ls o d is c u s s e s th e s e m i - s ta n d a r d is e d , p r e s tig io u s p a r a p h e r n a l ia m a n u f a c tu r e d b y

th e

M y c e n a e a n p a l a c e s f o r th e ir e lite s u p p o r te r s a n d n o te s th a t th e y in v o lv e d m a te r ia l s s o w h o l ly in f u s e d w i th a p a l a ti a l id e o lo g y a n d tr a n s f o r m e d b y p a l a ti a l c r a f t s p e c ia li s ts th a t w e m ig h t c o n s tr u e th e m a s a k in d o f P a la c e ™ , b u t w e r e n o n e th e le s s o b je c ts th a t d id e v e n tu a l ly le a k o u t in to a w i d e r, l o w e r e lite w o r ld . T h e a f te r m a th o f c e r e m o n ia l d i s b u r s e m e n t is ju s t o n e i n s ta n c e o f th e k in d s o f b r a n d le a k a g e m e n tio n e d a b o v e a s b e in g w i d e ly r e le v a n t in th e o p e r a ti o n o f d is tr i b u te d e c o n o m ie s , a n d I w i ll re tu r n to f u r th e r e x a m p l e s a n d o th e r ty p e s b e lo w . In a n y c a s e , th e c h o r e o g r a p h y o f c o m m e r c e e n c o u r ­ a g e d th e r e s o c ia lis a tio n o f c o m m o d i ti e s in p a r tic u la r w a y s , a n d w e s h o u ld th e r e f o r e lo o k p a r tic u la r l y c a r e f u lly a t th e w a y th e p h y s i c a l a p p e a r a n c e o f s u c h c o m m o d i ti e s , th e m a r k s m a d e o n th e m , a n d th e la b e l s a tta c h e d to th e m m ig h t e n d o r s e n o t o n ly q u a l ity a n d q u a n tity , b u t a ls o p a r tic u la r k in d s o f c o n s u m e r r e la ti o n s h ip . T h e p h y s i c a l b r a n d i n g o f c a ttl e , s h e e p , o b je c ts , a n d s la v e s w i th th e e m b le m a tic m a r k s o f te m p le , c ity , h o u s e h o ld , o r in d iv i d u a l o w n e r s h ip is a tte s te d f r o m a t le a s t th e la te

3rdm il le n n iu m

bc

in M e s o p o ta m ia i f n o t b e f o r e ( d e M a a i je r 2 0 0 1 ; F o x v o g 1 9 9 5 ) . E v id e n c e f o r s u c h m a r k i n g p r a c tic e s o c c a s i o n a ll y s u r v iv e s in d o c u ­ m e n ta r y f o rm , b u t it is w o r th a c k n o w l e d g in g th e e v e n g r e a te r p r o b le m s a s s o c ia te d w i th th e p a tc h y n a tu re o f th e a r c h a e o l o g ic a l re c o r d . T h e m o s t a r c h a e o l o g ic a l ly e n d u r in g m a r k s o n c o m m o d i ti e s a re o f te n th o s e m a d e e a r l y o n , d u r in g p r o d u c tio n , w i th th o s e m a d e d u r in g th e la te r s ta g e s o f d is tr i b u tio n o f te n b e i n g m o re e p h e m e r a l a n d f ra g ile . T h e r e f o r e , w e a re li k e ly to g e t o u r s tr o n g e s t a p p a r e n t e v id e n c e f o r p r o d u c t a d v e r tis e m e n t f o r th o s e u n u s u a l c a s e s w h e r e p r o d u c tio n a n d d is tr i b u tio n a re s tr o n g ly in te g r a te d , s u c h a s f o r a li m ite d r a n g e o f r o y a l a n d te m p le p r o d u c ts . T h e p a tc h y f a te o f la b e ls a n d s e a lin g s is p a r tic u la r l y im p o r ta n t h e r e : C la y s e a l­ in g s a re o n ly p r e s e r v e d u n d e r c e r ta in u n u s u a l b u r n in g c o n d itio n s , a n d w a x v e r s i o n s w i ll h a v e d is a p p e a r e d e n tire ly . In k in s c r i p tio n s a re s o m e ­ tim e s f o u n d i n b e tte r p r e s e r v e d c o n te x ts ( p a r tic u la r ly in E g y p t; s e e , e .g ., H a y e s 1 9 5 1 ) , b u t th e ir r e c o v e r y is s til l in c r e d i b l y li m ite d

an d u n e v en .

W h a t th e d o c u m e n ta r y a n d ic o n o g r a p h ic e v id e n c e d o e s m a k e c le a r , a n d w h a t s o m e o f th e s p e c if ic e x a m p l e s d is c u s s e d b e lo w a ls o re v e a l, is th a t th e w r a p p in g a n d s e a lin g o f s ta n d a r d is e d g o o d s w a s in c r e d ib ly w id e s p r e a d

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 4 8 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 4 8 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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a n d in v o lv e d n o t ju s t th e tr e a tm e n t o f in d iv i d u a l ite m s b u t a ls o p a c k a g i n g in g r o u p s , o f te n in v e r y e l a b o r a te w a y s . T h e f o l lo w i n g s e c tio n s a d d r e s s th e r e la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n s u b s ti tu ta b le g o o d s , p r o d u c t m a r k in g , a n d s o c ia l r e l a ti o n s h ip s a s th e y r e la te to th e c ir c u la tio n o f f o u r k e y M e d ite r r a n e a n c o m m o d iti e s .

M e t a ls

M e ta l s a re b y n o m e a n s a lw a y s th e h ig h e s t v a lu e ite m s in e a r ly c o m p l e x s o c ie tie s , b u t a c o n c e p tu a l tri a d o f g o ld , s ilv e r , a n d b r o n z e ( th e la tte r in th e f o r m o f c o p p e r p lu s tin ) , is o n e th a t d e v e lo p s m o s t c le a r ly in th is re g io n fro m

th e 3 rd m il le n n iu m

bc

o n w a r d s ( e .g ., S h e r r a tt a n d S h e r r a tt 1 9 9 1 :

f ig . 2 ) . S in c e th e B r o n z e A g e , a c o n s i s te n t a n d , to s o m e e x te n t, d e c is iv e f e a tu r e o f th e M e d i te r r a n e a n e c o n o m y h a s b e e n th e c ir c u la tio n o f s u c h m e ta ls i n s e m i - s ta n d a r d is e d in g o t f o rm . T h e r e w e r e a w i d e v a r ie ty o f d if ­ f e r e n t B r o n z e A g e in g o t s h a p e s , in c lu d in g , b u n s , c h a in s , r in g s , b a r s , a n d s o - c a lle d o x h id e s , a ll s h o w i n g s o m e in te r n a l v a r ia tio n in w e i g h t b u t ty p i­ c a ll y h o v e r in g a r o u n d o n e k n o w n w e i g h t s ta n d a r d o r a n o th e r . T h is r e g u ­ la r i ty m e a n t th a t th e y c o u ld b e a s s e s s e d q u i c k ly b y c o u n ti n g , e v e n i f th e y w e r e o f te n th e n c h e c k e d b y w e i g h in g a n d th e r e a f te r b y r e m e ltin g ( s e e b e lo w , a ls o D a v ie s 1 9 7 3 : p l.l v ; D e r c k s e n 1 9 9 6 : 5 7 - 6 0 ) . P a la c e s a n d te m p le s w e r e c le a r ly c o n c e r n e d w i th c o n tr o ll in g a p o r tio n o f th e m e ta ls tr a d e to s a f e g u a r d th e ir o w n p r o d u c tio n a n d , u ltim a te ly , a ls o to s e t li m its o n th e d e g r e e o f a c c e s s th a t o th e r in d iv i d u a ls m ig h t h a v e to s u c h p r e s tig e in d ic a to r s . S o m e c o m m e n ta to r s s e e p a r ts o f th e B r o n z e A g e i n te r m s o f p a l a ti a l m o n o p o lie s in th i s r e g a r d , b u t ty p ic a l ly th i s a r g u ­ m e n t r e s ts o n p a l a ti a l d o c u m e n ta r y e v id e n c e ( th a t u n s u r p r is i n g l y r e v e a ls li ttl e i n te r e s t in n o n p a la tia l tr a n s a c ti o n s ) . It is c le a r th a t th e d e g r e e o f p a l a ­ tia l in v o l v e m e n t d id v a r y f r o m r e g i o n to r e g i o n a n d o v e r tim e , b u t th e r e is n o n e th e le s s e x c e l l e n t e v id e n c e f o r th e c ir c u la tio n o f in g o ts , f in is h e d m e ta l g o o d s , an d re c y c le d

s c ra p

i n p r i v a te h a n d s ( H e ltz e r 1 9 8 4 ; Z a c c a g n in i

1 9 8 4 , a n d f o r a p a r ti c u l a r l y e n li g h te n i n g S u m e r i a n " d i s p u te " b e tw e e n s i l­ v e r a n d c o p p e r , s e e K r a m e r 1 9 6 3 : 2 6 5 ) . In a n y c a s e , th e k e y p o i n t I w o u ld li k e to e s ta b li s h b e lo w is th a t, w h il e th e r e s tr i c te d n a tu r e o f m e ta ls a s a re s o u r c e le d to s o m e h ig h ly d ir e c ti o n a l a n d s o m e ti m e s c a r e f u lly m a n a g e d e x c h a n g e s , th e p o p u l a r ity o f p a r ti c u l a r m e ta l c o m m o d i ti e s , f r o m p a r tic u ­ la r s o u r c e s a n d h a n d l e d b y p a r tic u la r l y d i s tr i b u to r s , w a s s o m e th i n g th a t h a d a l o t to d o w i th th e i r m a r k e tin g . M o s t o f th e d is c u s s io n b e lo w f o c u s e s o n c o p p e r a s a c o m m o d i ty b e c a u s e it is r e c o v e r e d a r c h a e o l o g ic a l ly in g r e a te r q u a n titie s th a n o th e r m e ta ls , h a s b e e n s u b je c t to g r e a te r a n a ly tic a l s c r u tin y w i th r e g a r d to p r o v e n a n c e , a n d w a s c o m m o n ly u s e d th r o u g h o u t th e s o c ia l h ie ra rc h y . H o w e v e r , it is f ir s t w o r th e x p l o r in g th e ro le o f th r e e o th e r m e ta ls : g o ld , s ilv e r , a n d tin .

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 4 9 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 4 9 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

M akin g an d M ar kin g R e lat io n s h ip s

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G o ld c o m e s f r o m a li m ite d n u m b e r o f s o u r c e s in th e e a s te r n M e d ite r ­ ra n e a n a n d M i d d le E a s t a n d h a s f u r th e r m a r k e ta b le p h y s i c a l p ro p e rtie s : It is s h in y , e a s ily w o r k e d , a n d s h o w y in th e s e n s e th a t it c a n b e th in ly s p r e a d o v e r a la r g e a r e a a s le a f a n d d o e s n o t ta r n is h ( e .g ., R e n f r e w 1 9 8 6 ) . It is f r e q u e n tly , th e r e f o r e , c a u g h t u p in d is ti n c tio n s b e tw e e n m o r ta li ty a n d tr a n s c e n d e n c e , o f te n u n d e r s to o d a s d iv in e f le s h , a n d u s e d to c o a t c u l t s ta tu e s a n d o th e r o b je c ts ( e .g ., A u f r e re 1 9 9 1 : 7 2 5 - 2 8 ; W e n g ro w f o r th c o m ­ in g ) . A lth o u g h th e r e w e r e g o l d s o u r c e s e x p lo ite d i n A n a to li a , th e n o r th A e g e a n , a n d f u r th e r a f ie ld , m u c h o f th e g o l d i n th e B r o n z e A g e e a s te r n M e d i te r r a n e a n a n d M i d d le E a s t s e e m s to h a v e c o m e f r o m v ia E g y p t, a n d E g y p tia n g o l d w a s s o m e ti m e s f u r th e r q u a lif ie d b y th e n a m e s o f th e d if ­ f e r e n t m in in g d is tr i c ts f r o m w h ic h i t o r i g in a te d ( K a s s ia n id o u a n d K n a p p 2 0 0 5 : g .9 .1 ; L e h r b e r g e r 1 9 9 5 : e s p . g . l ; V e r c o u tte r 1 9 5 9 ) . S i lv e r w a s o f te n a m o r e s o lid , s tr u c tu r a l c o m p o n e n t o f a r te f a c ts a n d c u l t im a g e s ( in s o m e in s ta n c e s , th e b o n e s o f th e g o d s ; s e e A u f r e r e 1 9 9 1 : 4 1 2 - 1 3 ) , w i th s o u r c e s in A n a to li a , th e A e g e a n a n d v ia th e P e r s i a n / A r a b i a n G u lf ( M o o r e y 1 9 9 4 : 2 1 9 - 2 0 ; W a g n e r e t al. 1 9 8 5 ) . In a d d itio n , a lth o u g h g o ld , s ilv e r, a n d c o p p e r w e r e a ll s o m e tim e s u s e d a s n o tio n a l e q u iv a le n c ie s f o r e x c h a n g e p u r p o s e s , s i lv e r e s ta b li s h e s its e l f a s b y f a r th e m o s t c o m m o n re f ­ e r e n t f r o m th e 3 rd m il le n n iu m o n w a r d s ( F o s te r 1 9 7 7 : 3 5 ; L e e m a n s 1 9 6 0 : 1 3 0 - 3 1 ; P o w e ll 1999). C o m p a r e d to g o l d a n d s i lv e r , ti n w a s a n e v e n m o r e g e o g r a p h i c a l l y r e s tr i c te d c o m m o d i ty a n d , a l th o u g h th e r e m a y h a v e b e e n s o m e li m ite d ( a n d p e r h a p s e a r l y ) e x p l o i ta ti o n o f s o u th - c e n tr a l A n a to l i a n a n d / o r c e n ­ tr a l E u r o p e a n s o u r c e s ( P e r n ic k a e t a l. 2 0 0 3 : 1 6 0 - 6 5 ; Y e n e r e t a l. 1 9 9 3 ) , a g o o d d e a l o f th e tin u s e d i n th e B r o n z e A g e e a s te r n M e d i te r r a n e a n s e e m s to h a v e b e e n b r o u g h t th o u s a n d s o f k i l o m e tr e s f r o m th e m o u n ­ ta i n s o f c e n tr a l A s i a ( C ie r n y a n d W e i s g e r b e r 2 0 0 3 ) , a l o n g a s e r ie s o f h i g h l y a tte n u a te d o v e r l a n d , r i v e r i n e , a n d m a r i ti m e r o u te s . W e h a v e v e r y li ttl e e v i d e n c e f o r th e e a r l y s ta g e s o f th i s jo u r n e y , b u t d o c u m e n ta r y a n d a r c h a e o l o g i c a l e v id e n c e b e c o m e s m o r e a v a i l a b l e o n c e th i s c o m m o d i ty r e a c h e s th e M e s o p o ta m ia n r e g io n . O n e s e t o f d o c u m e n ts th a t h a v e p r o v e n p a r tic u la r l y in s i g h tf u l h a v e b e e n th o s e p e r ta i n i n g to a n e a r ly 2 nd- m il le n n iu m d o n k e y c a r a v a n ro u te f r o m A s s u r a c ro s s n o r th e r n M e s o p o ta m ia to K a n e s h i n c e n tr a l A n a to li a ( s e e F ig u r e 2 .1 ) . T h is A s s y r ia n tr a d e is d is c u s s e d in g r e a te r d e ta il in th e s e c tio n o n te x til e s b e lo w , b u t th e d o c u m e n ta r y a r c h iv e s f r o m K a n e s h a n d o th e r s ite s o f f e r c le a r e v id e n c e f o r th e s te a d i ly in c r e a s in g p r i c e o f tin ( in s ilv e r ) a s it tr a v e ll e d

w e s tw a r d s ( Jo a n n e s 1 9 9 1 ; V e e n h o f 2 0 0 3 : 1 1 5 - 1 6 ;

V e e n h o f a n d E id e m 2 0 0 8 : 8 2 - 8 3 ) . B e y o n d th i s g e o g r a p h ic a ll y a f f o r d e d o v e r a l l tr e n d , lo c a l v a r ia tio n s in th e e x c h a n g e r a te o f tin w e r e c o m m o n , f a ir ly s i z e a b l e , a n d th e s o u r c e o f m u c h c o m m e r c i a l s p e c u l a ti o n . S o m e o f th e s e re la te d to th e v a r y in g lo c a l

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 5 0 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 5 0 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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s u p p l y o f o th e r m e ta ls a n d o th e r c o m m o d i ti e s in v o lv e d i n lo c a l tr a d e s , b u t p o litic s w a s a m a jo r f a c to r. F o r e x a m p le , th e k in g d o m o f M a r i te m p o r ­ a r il y g a in e d m u c h b e tte r a c c e s s to tin s u p p l ie s a f te r a s h if t in th e p o litic a l o f p o w e r a m o n g its e a s te r n n e ig h b o u r s ( in c lu d in g th e d e m is e o f A s s u r ) a n d , f o r a p e r io d o f a f e w y e a r s in th e 1 8 th c e n tu r y

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a b o u t h a l f th e u s u a l p r i c e a n d th e r e b y s e t u p a w h o l e to u r n a m e n t o f Sy r ia n re g i o n a l d ip lo m a c y , a s o th e r s ta te s jo s tl e d f o r p r e f e r r e d lo c a l tr a d in g rig h ts ( C h a r p in a n d D u ra n d 1 9 9 1 ; L im e t 1 9 8 5 :1 6 - 1 7 ) . T in w a s p r i m a r ily v a lu a b l e in th e B r o n z e A g e f o r a ll o y i n g w i th c o p p e r to m a k e b r o n z e , w h ic h w a s h a r d e r a n d m o r e d u r a b le . O v e r a ll, th e c o p p e r tr a d e w a s o n a n e n tir e l y d if f e r e n t s c a l e to th a t o f g o ld , s ilv e r, a n d tin , th e re ­ f o re p r o v i d in g u s w i th a m u c h w i d e r s c o p e f o r a n a ly s is . T h e li n k b e tw e e n c o p p e r a n d c o m m e r c e is q u i te s tr o n g : I t w a s th e m a jo r m a te r ia l u s e d f o r to o ls a n d w a s c o m m o n ly tr a d e d , r e c y c le d , a n d a ll o y e d . M e r c h a n ts o n th e N ile a re r e f e r r e d to a s b e in g " a s b u s y a s c o p p e r " ( B la c k m a n a n d P e e t 1 9 2 5 : 2 8 8 ) , a n d c o p p e r w a s a ls o a c o m m o n ly u s e d u n i t o f e q u iv a le n c e ( p a r tic u ­ la r l y in E g y p t; s e e Ja n s s e n 1 9 7 5 : 4 4 1 - 4 2 ) . A c o m p l e x r a n g e o f d is tin c tio n s w e r e m a d e to d e s c r i b e d if f e r e n t g r a d e s , ty p e s , a n d

so u rc e s (D e rc k se n

1 9 9 6 : 3 3 - 4 7 ; M o ra n 1 9 8 7 : E A 3 3 .9 - 1 8 , EA 4 0 .6 - 1 5 ; P ritc h a rd 1 9 6 9 : 3 5 6 ) , th a t re f e r re d , f o r e x a m p l e , to th e c o p p e r ' s p u r ity a n d c o l o u r, s h a p e a s a n in g o t, a n d w h e th e r i t w a s w h o l e o r b r o k e n u p . In th e c a s e o f th e O ld A s s y r ia n tr a d e , th e f i n e r g r a d e s o f A n a to li a n c o p p e r w e r e s o m e ti m e s w o r th o v e r tw ic e th e p r i c e in s i lv e r o f th e p o o r e r o n e s . In d i c a ti o n s o f p r o v e n a n c e w e r e a ls o p a r ti c u l a r l y im p o r ta n t a n d c o u ld in v o lv e r e f e r e n c e s to b r o a d r e g i o n s , m in in g , a r e a s o r d is tr i b u ti o n p o in ts . C o p p e r c an b e fo u n d

in a w i d e v a r i e ty o f d if f e r e n t p l a c e s a c r o s s th e

e a s te r n M e d i te r r a n e a n a n d M i d d le E a s t, a n d s m a l l e r q u a n titie s c o n ti n ­ u e d to c o m e f r o m d iv e r s e s o u r c e s th r o u g h o u t th e B r o n z e A g e . H o w e v e r , to ju d g e f r o m b o th th e a r c h a e o l o g ic a l a n d d o c u m e n ta r y e v id e n c e , tw o r e g i o n s b e c a m e d o m i n a n t tr a n s r e g i o n a l s u p p l ie r s : D i lm u n / M a g a n a n d A la s ia . D i lm u n r e f e r s to th e a r e a o f m o d e r n d a y B a h r a in , w h o s e p o p u l a ­ tio n w a s w e l l k n o w n f o r tr a d in g in m e ta l a n d o th e r r e s o u r c e s c o m in g u p th e P e r s i a n / A r a b i a n G u l f f r o m M a g a n ( th e m e ta l- b e a r in g z o n e in th e a l - H a jja r m o u n ta i n s o f m o d e r n - d a y O m a n ) a n d v ia M e l u h h a ( th e In d u s V a l le y ) . In o th e r w o r d s , D i lm u n w a s a n in te r m e d i a r y r a th e r th a n a p r i m a ­ r y m e ta l p ro d u c e r , b u t n o n e th e l e s s , th e d o c u m e n ta r y s o u r c e s o f te n a d o p t th e te r m " D i l m u n c o p p e r " a n d s u g g e s t its tr a d e w a s p a r ti c u l a r l y im p o r ­ ta n t d u r in g th e la te 3 rd a n d e a r l i e r 2 nd m il le n n ia

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( L e e m a n s 1 9 6 0 :1 2 1 - 2 3 ;

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th e T r o o d o s m o u n ta i n s o f m o d e r n - d a y C y p r u s ;

f o r a r e c e n t d i s c u s s i o n o f th e d e b a te o v e r th e lo c a ti o n o f th is p l a c e n a m e a n d th e p e tr o g r a p h ic p r o v e n a n c e o f th e l e tte r s f r o m th e k in g o f A la s ia , s e e G o r e n e t a l. 2 0 0 3 ) . T h e r e a r e te x tu a l r e f e r e n c e s to s u g g e s t i t b e g i n s to

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 51 h t t p :/ /s ite . e b ra ry .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 5 1 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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b e c o m e im p o r ta n t d u r i n g th e e a r l i e r 2 nd m il le n n iu m , a l th o u g h a t p r e s ­ e n t th is is o n ly o b v io u s a r c h a e o l o g i c a l l y b y th e l a te r B r o n z e A g e ( M u h ly 1996: 49 ). A m o n g s t th e r a n g e o f B r o n z e A g e in g o t ty p e s , p e r h a p s th e b e s t k n o w n a n d m o s t a r c h a e o l o g ic a l ly o b v io u s is th e o x h id e in g o t ( F ig u r e 2 .2 c ) . T h is s h a p e w a s u s e d f o r a v a r ie ty o f d if f e r e n t m e ta ls , b u t w a s p a r tic u la r l y a s s o c ia te d w i th c o p p e r a n d , f r o m a t le a s t th e 1 5 th to th e 1 2 th c e n tu r y

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a p p e a r s o n a r te f a c ts , in w a l l- p a in tin g s , a n d a s a d is c r e te s i g n in a t le a s t o n e c o n te m p o r a r y s c r i p t ( e .g ., L in e a r B) . L ite r a lly h u n d r e d s o f a c tu a l e x a m p l e s h a v e a ls o b e e n r e c o v e r e d a r c h a e o l o g ic a l ly o v e r a v e r y w i d e a r e a o f th e M e d i te r r a n e a n a n d b e y o n d , a t le a s t a s f a r n o r th a s B a v a r ia a n d B u lg a r ia , a s f a r s o u th a s E g y p t, w e s t to S a r d in ia , a n d e a s t to th e E u p h r a te s ( G a le 1 9 9 1 : g .2 ; P u la k 1 9 9 7 : 2 3 4 - 3 5 ) . T h e w e ig h t o f th e s e in g o ts d o e s v a r y ( b o th in re a l te r m s a n d d u e to s u b s e q u e n t c o r r o s io n ) , b u t h o v e r s a r o u n d th e r a n g e a s s o c ia te d w i th v a r io u s e a s te r n M e d i te r r a n e a n ta le n t- w e ig h t s ta n d a r d s ( c a. 2 7 - 3 0 k g ; s e e P u l a k 2 0 0 0 : 1 4 1 - 4 3 ) , a n d th e w r i tte n d o c u m e n ts c o n f ir m

th a t th i s o f te n a ll o w e d th e in g o ts to b e re f e r re d to in c o u n ts , w i th g r e a te r p r e c i s io n th e r e a f te r a c h ie v e d th r o u g h w e ig h in g . T h is w a s th e r ig h t w e i g h t f o r o n e s i d e o f a d o n k e y o r th a t a n in d iv i d ­ u a l c o u ld c arry . It w a s a ls o a s h a p e th a t c o u ld b e s ta c k e d in a s e r ie s o f o v e r l a p p in g a n d s ta b le ro w s in th e h o ld o f th e s h ip ( e .g ., a s f o u n d o n th e U lu b u r u n w r e c k ; s e e P u la k 1 9 9 8 : f ig s . 4 , 1 2 ) . " O x h i d e i n g o t" is a m o d e r n la b e l a n d i t re m a in s f a r f r o m c le a r w h e th e r th is s y m b o l ic c o n n e c tio n a ls o e x is te d in th e B r o n z e A g e , b u t th e s h a p e d o e s r e s e m b le tr a d itio n a l, s e m i­ s ta n d a r d u n its o f v a lu e in th e f o r m o f a n im a l s k in s ( e .g ., th e o x h id e a n d th e f le e c e ) , is o c c a s i o n a ll y s h o w n in a s s o c ia tio n w i th liv e c a ttl e o r a n im a l s k in s ( e .g ., T o m b o f R a m s e s III: le f t w a l l u p p e r ; f o r c a ttl e a s a n o th e r C y p r io t e x p o r t, s e e H e ll b i n g 1 9 7 9 : 8 0 ) , o r h a n d l e d in a m a n n e r a k in to li v e s to c k a n d s k in s ( th r o w n o v e r th e s h o u ld e r s li k e a y o u n g la m b o r c a lf , u n d e r f o o t lik e a f lo o r - c o v e r in g , o r s h o t a t a s i f h u n te d , s e e b e lo w ) . L e a d is o to p e a n a ly s is m o s t c o m m o n ly s o u r c e s th e c o p p e r in m a n y o f th e in g o ts to th e C y p r io t T ro o d o s m o u n ta i n s ( e .g ., S to s - G a le e t al. 1 9 9 7 ) a n d b y th e la te r B r o n z e A g e , w e s e e c o p p e r o x h id e i n g o ts c o n n e c te d w ith s o m e o f th e c le a r e s t C y p r io t r e lig io u s im a g e r y a s w e l l a s w i th o th e r d is ­ tin c ti v e ly C y p r io t m a n u f a c tu r e d

g o o d s ( s e e b e lo w ) . H o w e v e r, th e k e y

p o i n t th a t th e d is c u s s io n b e lo w s e e k s to m a k e is th a t th is tr a d e in C y p r io t m e ta l s h o u ld n o t b e in te r p r e te d s im p ly a s th e e x p o r t o f r a w m a te r ia l f r o m a g e o g r a p h ic a ll y f a v o u r e d lo c a le b u t a s s o m e th i n g th a t re q u ir e d re g u la r a n d in te n s i v e p r o m o ti o n . T h e r e is n o in h e r e n t r e a s o n , f o r e x a m p le , w h y a s ta te s u c h a s E g y p t s h o u ld h a v e s o u g h t la rg e q u a n titie s o f c o p p e r f r o m C y p r u s , g iv e n th e s u b s ta n tia l s u p p l ie s it h a d in th e S i n a i a n d E a s te r n D e s e r t. R a th e r, a c r u c i a l f a c to r w a s th e p o s itio n i n g o f d is ti n c tiv e c o m m o d ­ i tie s ( a b e tte r w a y to c o n s tr u e n o t ju s t e l a b o r a te f in is h e d m e ta lw o r k b u t

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 5 2 h tt p :// s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 5 2 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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Figure 2 .2 .

C o p p e r an d th e s y m b o lism o f a s s o c ia te d c o m m o d itie s: (a) a d e p ic ­

tio n f ro m th e to m b o f N e b a m u n ( af te r Sa v e -So d e rb e rg h 1957: 2 5 - 2 7 , p i. x x iii, c o u rte s y o f O x f o rd U n iv e rs ity P re ss ); (b ) a statu e tte o f a (p ro b ab le ) g o d stan d ­ in g o n a n o x h id e in g o t ( c o u rte s y o f th e D e p artm e n t o f A n tiq u itie s C y p ru s) ; (c ) a c o p p e r o x id e in g o t w ith an im p re ss e d stam p ( sh o w n at h a lf o f th e state d sc ale ); (d ) a c h lo ritite v e s se l im ita tin g a m e tal v e rsio n ; (e) a c h lo ritite v e ss e l w ith in c is e d d e c o ra tio n ; (f) a c y lin d e r s e a l s h o w in g a h u m a n f ig u re w ith sp e ar, o x h id e in g o ts , a b ird , a d e e r, a g o at, a d o g , a n o x , a n d p o s s ib le b u n / rin g in g o ts ( sh o w n a t tw ic e th e state d sc ale ) ; an d (g ) a b ro n z e s tan d w ith a f ig u re h o ld in g a n o x h id e in g o t. A ll im a g e s n o t o th e rw is e a ttrib u te d are c o u rte sy o f th e British M u se u m .

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 5 3 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 5 3 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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a ls o th e in g o ts th e m s e lv e s ) a n d th e s o m e tim e s a w k w a r d k n ittin g to g e th e r o f u p la n d l a n d s c a p e s , lo w la n d e n tr e p o ts , a n d o v e r s e a s c o n s u m e r s . T h e p u r ity o f th e s e in g o ts ( o f te n 9 9 %

c o p p e r ) im p l ie s n o t ju s t p r i­

m a r y s m e ltin g , b u t a ls o a s e c o n d s ta g e o f r e f i n e m e n t ( H a u p tm a n n e t a l. 2 0 0 2 ; M e r k e l 1 9 8 6 ) . H o w e v e r , ju d g in g th e q u a l ity o f m e ta l c o m m o d i ti e s b y e y e ( e .g ., p u rity , in te r n a l f la w s , e tc .) h a s a lw a y s b e e n a d if f ic u lt ta s k ( R i c h a r d s o n 2 0 0 8 : 8 - 1 1 ) , a n d is s u e s o f v e r if i c a ti o n w e r e c le a r ly a B ro n z e A g e c o n c e r n . F o r e x a m p l e , th e B a b y lo n ia n k in g in o n e A m a r n a l e tte r c o m ­ p l a in e d a b o u t th e q u a lity o f g o ld s e n t to h im f r o m E g y p t ( p r e s u m a b ly a f te r h e h a s r e m e l te d it) a n d q u e r ie d w h e th e r i t h a d b e e n in s p e c te d p r i o r to d e p a r tu r e ( M o r a n 1 9 8 7 : EA 10) . W h o le in g o ts w e r e th e r e f o r e n o t a lw a y s in s ta n t in d ic a to r s o f q u a l­ ity a n d , in f a c t, f r e s h ly b r o k e n o n e s w e r e in m a n y w a y s m o re a ttr a c tiv e , b e c a u s e th e y a ll o w e d li m ite d in s p e c ti o n o f th e in s id e ( e .g ., D e r c k s e n 1 9 9 6 : 5 8 - 5 9 ) . In th i s r e g a r d , i t w a s n o t ju s t im p o r ta n t th a t th e o x h id e in g o t w a s c o n v e n ie n t to h a n d l e , a v is u a ll y f a m il ia r s y m b o l o f v a lu e , a n d o f a s e m i­ s ta n d a r d w e ig h t, b u t a ls o th a t it b o r e m o r e d e ta il e d te c h n o lo g i c a l a n d / o r p r o c e d u r a l tr a d e m a r k s . T h e f ir s t o f th e s e re la te s to th e w a y th e in g o ts w e r e c a s t, in a n o p e n m o u ld th a t le f t th e u p p e r s i d e w i th a c h a r a c te r is tic b lis te r e d s u r f a c e ( H a u p tm a n n e t a l. 2 0 0 2 : 4 ; w h a t w o u ld b e th e " h a i r y " s i d e i f it w a s , i n f a c t, m e a n t to e v o k e a re a l o x h id e ) . T h is m e th o d , c o m b in e d w i th th e r e s id u a l im p u r i ti e s i n th e m e ta l, a ls o m e a n t th a t th e in g o ts w e r e s u f f ic ie n tly b r i ttl e th a t th e y c o u ld b e b r o k e n u p in to s m a l le r u n its . G iv e n th e n e e d to s i g n a l th a t a ll o f th e s e q u a l itie s w e r e p r e s e n t i n th e f in is h e d m e ta l c o m m o d ity , it is n o a c c id e n t th a t m a n y o f th e re p r e s e n ta tio n s o f in g o ts in B r o n z e A g e ic o n o g r a p h y d o n o t m e r e ly d e p ic t th e s h a p e , b u t a re a ls o c a r e f u l to s h o w th is s tip p li n g o n o n e s i d e ( e .g ., D a v ie s 1 9 7 3 : 2 1 n .2 8 ; K a r a g e o r g h i s a n d P a p a s a v v a s 2 0 0 3 : f ig s . 1 , 3 ) . A s e c o n d s e t o f r e a s s u r in g m a r k s w e r e th o s e c a s t, im p r e s s e d o r in c is e d o n p e r h a p s h a l f o f th e a r c h a e o l o g ic a l ly s u r v iv in g in g o ts ( e .g ., F ig u r e 2 .2 c ) . A s G e o r g e B a s s p o i n te d o u t ( 1 9 6 7 : 7 3 ) , th e s e s m a ll m a r k s w e r e v a lu e ­ la d e n f e a tu r e s c o m m o n ly f o u n d o n in g o ts f r o m th i s p o i n t o n w a r d s , r ig h t th r o u g h th e C la s s ic a l, R o m a n , a n d M e d i e v a l p e r io d s a n d u p to th e p r e s ­ e n t d ay . In m a n y l a te r in s ta n c e s , th e y g u a r a n te e a c e r ta in m e ta l p u rity , w e i g h t, p r o v e n a n c e , a n d / o r tr e a tm e n t e n ro u te . H o w e v e r , g iv e n th a t n o t a l l B r o n z e A g e in g o ts a re m a r k e d in a n y p a r tic u la r a r c h a e o l o g ic a l c o n te x t, it s e e m s m o r e p la u s ib le th a t o n ly o n e o r m o r e a m o n g s t a la r g e r b a tc h w e re b e i n g tr e a te d in th i s w a y . L ik e w is e , d if f e r e n t m a r k s w e r e c le a r ly a p p lie d a t d if f e r e n t s ta g e s o f m a n u f a c tu r e a n d tr a n s p o r t ( n o t u n l ik e th e d is tr ib u te d m a r k i n g p r a c tic e s a s s o c ia te d w i th o il a n d w i n e c o n ta in e r s , s e e b e lo w ) . S o m e w e r e d e s ig n s m a d e in th e m o u ld its e l f o r w e r e im p r e s s e d in to th e m e ta l w h il e i t w a s c o o lin g , a n d m u s t th e r e f o r e b e a s s o c ia te d w i th th o s e d o i n g th e f in a l r e f in in g a n d c a s tin g .

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 5 4 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 5 4 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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In c o n tr a s t, th e la rg e n u m b e r o f in c is e d m a r k s p r o b a b ly re f le c ts th e c o n c e r n s o f th e d is tr ib u to r, to id e n tif y th e s o u r c e , d e s tin a tio n , a n d / o r b a tc h lo a d , o r i n s o m e li m ite d in s ta n c e s a s a te m p o r a r y ta lly in g m e c h a ­ n is m . M a r k s d e p ic tin g m a r itim e im a g e s s u c h a s b o a ts , f is h , f is h h o o k s , a n d tr id e n ts ( e .g ., P u l a k 1 9 9 8 : g .1 0 ) a re q u ite c o m m o n a n d r e e m p h a s is e ( w h e th e r d e l ib e r a te ly o r a c c id e n ta ll y ) th e ir p r o d u c t's c ir c u la tio n v ia m a r i­ tim e e x c h a n g e . W h a t a ll o f th is s u g g e s ts is th a t w e c a n n o t tr e a t B r o n z e A g e in g o t m a r k s a s im m e d i a te ly a n a lo g o u s to la te r h a ll m a r k s , f o r e x a m p l e , b u t in s te a d s h o u ld a r g u a b l y s e e th e m a s ju s t o n e m o re c o n s p i c u o u s c h a r a c te r ­ is ti c o f p r o p e r tr a d in g p r a c tic e th a t h a d b o th a p r a c tic a l ro le a n d a r e a s s u r ­ in g q u a l ity f o r th e e n d - u s e r . C a s tin g te c h n iq u e s a n d in g o t m a r k s le a d u s f ir m ly to th e is s u e o f h o w m e ta ls p r o d u c tio n a n d

tr a d e w a s o r g a n is e d

an d

w h o e v e n tu a l ly h a d

a c c e s s to s u c h c o m m o d itie s . F u r th e r e v id e n c e f o r th e im p o r ta n c e o f d is ­ tr ib u to r s in th e m e ta ls tr a d e is s u g g e s te d b y th e f a c t th a t th e n a m e s a s s o c i­ a te d w i th m e ta ls a r e o f te n in te r m e d i a r y r e g io n s o r c o a s ta l e n tr e p o ts ra th e r th a n th e m e ta l- p r o d u c in g a r e a s th e m s e lv e s , h e n c e " t i n o f M e l u h h a " o r " D i l m u n c o p p e r " ( f o r a s i m ila r s i tu a tio n w i th M e d i e v a l " D a m a s c u s s te e l ," s e e F e u e r b a c h 2 0 0 6 ) . L ik e w is e , th e o n ly k n o w n a r c h a e o l o g ic a l e x a m p l e o f a n o x h id e in g o t m o u ld c o m e s f r o m a c o a s ta l e n tr e p o t s o m e d is ta n c e a w a y f r o m a n y m e ta l- b e a r in g z o n e ( L a g a rc e e t a l. 1 9 8 3 : g .1 5 ) a n d th e C y p r io t s ite s w i th th e g r e a te s t c o n n e c tio n to in g o t p r o d u c tio n , r a th e r th a n p r im a r y s m e l tin g , a re a ls o lo w la n d p o r ts ( e .g ., E n k o m i) . T h e m e ta ls tr a d e is a ls o c le a r ly a n a r e a o f e c o n o m i c a c tiv ity in w h ic h p a l a c e s ( a n d te m p le s ) a re v e r y in te re s te d . F o r e x a m p le , in a r a n g e o f d o c u m e n ta r y s o u r c e s , w e s e e ro y a l n e g o tia ti o n s f o r s h ip m e n ts o f g o l d , s ilv e r, a n d tin , b u t a ls o m u c h la r g e r q u a n titie s o f c o p p e r ( s o m e tim e s in v o lv in g

s e v e r a l to n s in o n e

tr a n s a c ti o n ) . In v a r io u s p a l a ti a l a r c h iv e s , w e c a n a ls o d o c u m e n t s m a l l to m e d iu m - s i z e d d is b u r s e m e n ts o f m e ta l to s m ith s a n d c a r e f u l a tte n tio n to re c o v e r i n g th e v a lu e o f th e s e a s f in is h e d o b je c ts ( e .g ., H e ltz e r 1 9 8 2 : 9 1 - 9 5 ; V e n tris a n d C h a d w i c k 1 9 7 3 : 5 0 9 ; W is e m a n 1 9 5 3 : 1 0 5 - 0 6 ) . T h is p a tte rn o f in v o lv e m e n t w i th m e ta ls h a s le d m a n y c o m m e n ta to r s to s u g g e s t th a t m o s t n e w m e ta l p a s s e d th r o u g h th e p a la c e e c o n o m y o r le a k e d o u t in to o th e r c ir c u its in d ir e c tl y th r o u g h r e c y c lin g o r to m b r o b b in g ( W e e k s 2 0 0 3 : 1 4 0 - 4 2 ; s e e a ls o M ic h a ili d o u 2 0 0 1 ; S h e r r a tt 2 0 0 0 ) . H o w e v e r, e v e n le a v i n g a s i d e th e e l o q u e n t e v id e n c e f r o m th e A s s y r ia n tr a d e , th e re is p l e n ty o f in d ic a tio n f r o m

e l s e w h e r e o f n o n in s titu ti o n a l

tr a d e s a n d p r i v a te o w n e r s h ip o f m e ta l b u l lio n ( H e ltz e r 1 9 8 4 ; Z a c c a g n in i 1 9 8 4 ) . A g o o d e x a m p le f r o m E g y p t c o m e s f r o m th e la te 1 5 th c e n tu r y

bc

T h e b a n to m b o f N e b a m u n w h o w a s a p h y s i c ia n a n d r e c e iv e s a n o x h id e i n g o t f r o m a S y r ia n m a n , p r e s u m a b ly in p a r t p a y m e n t f o r h is p r o f e s s i o n a l h e lp ( F ig u r e 2 .2 a ; W a c h s m a n n 1 9 9 8 : 4 6 ) . A r e la te d q u e s tio n , h o w e v e r, is th e p r e s e n c e o r a b s e n c e o f s e lf - o r g a n is in g , g u ild - l ik e s tr u c tu r e s a m o n g s t

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 5 5 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 5 5 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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th e m e r c h a n ts a n d c r a f t s p e c ia li s ts o f th is re g io n in th e B r o n z e A g e . In a v a r ie ty o f d o c u m e n ta r y c o n te x ts , w e h a v e li s ts o f in d iv i d u a ls in th e ir p r o f e s s i o n a l g r o u p i n g s ( a n d o c c a s i o n a ll y w i th th e ir o w n le a d e r s ) , b u t it re m a in s v e r y u n c l e a r w h e th e r th e s e w e r e ju s t a b u r e a u c r a tic c o n v e n ie n c e o r w h e th e r th e y a c tiv e ly p r o m o te d p r o d u c t q u a l ity a n d id e n tity in th e m a n n e r th a t s o m e M e d ie v a l

g u ild s s e e m to h a v e d o n e ( e .g ., C u tl e r a n d

M a c d o n a ld 1 9 7 7 ; G o r d o n 1 9 5 6 ; V e n tr is a n d C h a d w i c k 1 9 7 3 : 5 0 9 ; s e e a ls o M a r tin o n - T o r r e s , th i s v o lu m e ; R ic h a r d s o n 2 0 0 8 ) . In a n y c a s e , th e N e b a m u n e x a m p l e is a ls o in te r e s ti n g b e c a u s e , a lo n g s id e th e in g o t, b o th a la rg e C a n a a n i te - s ty le tr a n s p o r t ja r a n d a p o tte r y ju g le t ( th e la tte r p r o b a b ly c o n ta in in g p e r f u m e d o il) a re s h o w n a s p a r t o f th e o v e r ­ a ll tr a n s a c ti o n . Sim ila rly , in a le tte r to h is E g y p tia n c o u n te r p a r t, th e C y p r io t k in g re q u e s ts p a y m e n t, in la rg e s u m s o f s ilv e r, f o r a s h ip m e n t o f b o th c o p ­ p e r a n d tim b e r ( L iv e r a n i 1 9 7 9 :1 0 0 - 0 1 ; M o ra n 1 9 8 7 : EA 3 5 .2 7 - 9 ) . E ls e w h e re I h a v e s u g g e s te d th a t s o m e o f th e s e w i d e r, m ix e d e x c h a n g e s in v o lv i n g c o p p e r im p lic itly d o c u m e n t th e in te n s if i e d c o m m o d if ic a tio n o f a w h o le u p la n d , o p h io li te la n d s c a p e ( a ls o B e v a n 2 0 0 7 : 1 7 4 - 7 9 ) . T h e b r o a d ra n g e o f m e ta ls , s to n e s , a n d h ig h b io d i v e r s ity p r e s e n t w ith in o r a d ja c e n t to s u c h la n d s c a p e s m a d e th e m im p o r ta n t s o u r c e s f o r a w h o le r a n g e o f p r o d u c ts in a d d itio n to m e ta ls , in c lu d in g u ltr a m a f ic s o f ts to n e s , tim b e r, w ild f o w l, a r o ­ m a tic p l a n ts , a n d o i ls a n d g o o d o p p o r tu n itie s f o r g r a z i n g ( h e n c e a ls o w o o l, m e a t, d a iry , a n d h o rs e s ) . So m e o f th e p r o d u c ts w e r e h e a v ily in te r w o v e n in te r m s o f th e ir p r a c tic a l u s e s : C y p r io t tim b e r w a s a n a tu r a l a c c o m p a n im e n t to c o p p e r a s i t p r o v i d e d tr a n s p o r t ( s h ip s ) , f u e l f o r m e ta llu rg y , a n d p e r­ h a p s s tr u c tu r a l s u p p o r t in m in e s . L ik e w is e , u ltr a m a f ic s o f ts to n e s ( s te a tite , c h lo r i tite , s e r p e n tin ite ) w e r e v a r io u s l y u s e f u l in th e m e ta l in d u s tr y a s h e a tre s is ta n t m a te r ia ls f o r tu y e r e s , m o u ld s , a n d / o r a s f in e ly - c a r v e a b le s to n e f o r s e a ls a n d v e s s e ls ( F ig u re 2 .2 d - f ) . S o , a w i d e a r r a y o f p r o d u c ts w a s f lo w in g w i th th e m e ta l o u t o f th e C y p r io t u p la n d z o n e a n d th r o u g h m a jo r c o a s ta l e n tr e p o ts . O n e in te r e s ti n g a s p e c t o f th is p r o c e s s is th a t th is m ix e d a s s e m b l a g e o f c o m m o d i ti e s ta k e s o n m a n y c o n s i s te n t s y m b o lic a s s o c ia tio n s , w h ic h b o th a c te d a s p r o p o s itio n a l d e v ic e s in a c o m m e r c i a l c o n te x t a n d a s a w a y o f a r tic u la tin g th e te n s io n s in h e r e n t in s u c h u p la n d / lo w la n d , d is tr i b u te d m e ta l e c o n o m ie s . T h e f i r s t p o i n t to n o te is d iv in e s p o n s o r s h i p o f C y p r io t c o p p e r p r o d u c tio n a s a r tic u la te d a t lo w la n d c e n tre s . P e r h a p s th e m o s t f a m o u s e x a m p l e s a re b r o n z e s ta tu e s o f ( a p p a r e n tly d iv in e ) f ig u r e s s ta n d in g o n o x h id e in g o ts ( F ig u r e 2 .2 b ) , b u t o x h id e in g o ts a ls o a p p e a r a s m in ia tu r e v o tiv e ite m s ( a n d / o r v e r y s m a l l b u l lio n u n its ) a n d th e re a re c le a r a r c h ite c tu r a l a s s o c ia ­ tio n s b e tw e e n c u l t a c tiv ity a n d c o p p e r p r o c e s s i n g a r e a s a t s e v e r a l C y p r io t c o a s ta l s ite s ( K n a p p 1 9 8 6 ) . B e y o n d th e s e im m e d i a te ly r e lig io u s a s s o c ia tio n s , o x h id e in g o ts h a d a w i d e r s y m b o l ic c a p ita l a s ta rg e ts f o r E g y p tia n ro y a l a r c h e r y c o n te s ts ,

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 5 6 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 5 6 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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C u lt u res o f C o m m o d it y B ran d in g

a s b a d g e s o f p e r s o n a l w e a l th a n d o v e r s e a s k n o w l e d g e o n E g y p tia n to m b w a l ls , a n d a s ic o n ic d e v ic e s s h o w n o n o th e r C y p r io t c r a f t p r o d u c ts s u c h a s b r o n z e s ta n d s a n d s o f ts to n e s e a ls ( F ig u r e 2 .2 d a n d g ; D a v ie s 1 9 3 5 : 4 9 - 5 1 , g .4 ) . T h is c o n te x tu a l p r o m i s c u ity r e f le c ts th e p r o li f e r a tio n o f a h ig h ly s u c ­ c e s s f u l b r a n d s i g n a n d its in te r w e a v i n g w i th a h o s t o f re la te d c o m m o d i ti e s a n d in te r n a tio n a l a c tiv itie s . In th is r e g a r d , b o th th e s ta n d s a n d s e a ls to n e s a re w o r th b r i e f f u r th e r m e n tio n . T h e f o r m e r w e r e f o u r s i d e d , o f te n w h e e le d s ta n d s f o r s u p p o r ti n g la r g e m e ta l v e s s e ls ( F ig u r e 2 .2 g ) , a n d p r o d u c ts o f a d v a n c e d m e ta ll u r g i c a l k n o w - h o w ; s e v e r a l h a v e im a g e s o f p e o p le c a r r y ­ in g o x h id e in g o ts ( F ig u r e 2 .2 g ; K a r a g e o r g h is a n d P a p a s a v v a s 2 0 0 3 ) . S u c h s ta n d s , a n d a t th e e n d o f th e B r o n z e A g e p e r h a p s ir o n d a g g e r s a n d k n iv e s ( s e e S h e r r a tt 1 9 9 4 ) , w e r e d e s ir a b le n o v e ltie s in th e ir o w n r ig h t th a t w e r e tr a d e d a c r o s s th e e a s te r n a n d c e n tr a l M e d i te r r a n e a n , b u t th e y w e r e a ls o p r o m o ti o n a l d e v ic e s th a t r e in f o r c e d n o tio n s o f C y p r io t in n o v a tio n in th e m e ta l in d u s try . S p e c if ic ty p e s o f C y p r io t s e a ls to n e a ls o s h o w o x h id e in g o ts , in a s s o ­ c ia tio n w i th p la n ts , a n im a ls , a n d p e o p le a ll p l a u s i b l y d r a w n f r o m

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s a m e u p la n d la n d s c a p e in th e T ro o d o s m o u n ta in s o f C y p r u s ( F ig u r e 2 .2 d ; G r a z i a d io 2 0 0 3 ; W e b b 2 0 0 2 : 1 1 8 - 2 6 , p l .i i i . l —8 ) . T h e m a te r ia l o f th e s e a ls ( c h lo r iti te ) a lm o s t c e r ta in ly c o m e s f r o m th is s a m e g e n e r a l r e g io n a n d w a s h e a v ily u s e d in th e m e ta l in d u s tr y ( s e e a b o v e ) . A s D a v id W e n g ro w h a s s u g g e s te d ( 2 0 0 8 : 8 ) , s e a ls a re w e l l d e s ig n e d to p l a y a d u a l r o le " a s c o m ­ p o n e n ts o f b u r e a u c r a tic s y s te m s a n d a s c h a r is m a tic s ig n if ie r s o f p r o d u c t id e n tity ," a n d th e s e p a r tic u la r e x a m p l e s re c o r d , e v o k e , a n d p r o m o te th e b r o a d r a n g e o f c o m m o d i ti e s f lo w in g o u t o f s u c h u p la n d la n d s c a p e s . T h e in te r e s ti n g th i n g a b o u t th e s e d i s tr i b u te d e c o n o m i c r e l a ti o n s h ip s a n d e x te n d e d o p h i o li te b r a n d i n g s is th a t th e y a re b y n o m e a n s u n iq u e to th i s r e g io n . I f w e ju m p b a c k w a r d s in tim e to th e la te 3 rd m il le n n iu m bc

a n d a c r o s s to th e P e r s i a n / A r a b i a n G u lf , a s tr ik in g ly a n a lo g o u s c a s e

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M e s o p o ta m ia ( L e e m a n s 1 9 6 0 : 1 2 1 - 2 7 ; W e e k s 2 0 0 3 ) .2 S o m e o f th e p r o d ­ u c ts w e r e c o m in g f r o m a s f a r a f ie ld a s th e In d u s V alle y , b u t m a n y w e r e p r o d u c e d in a r e g i o n k n o w n a s M a g a n ( p a r tic u la r l y th e o p h i o li te z o n e o f w h a t is n o w O m a n ) , a n d w e r e o f te n s h ip p e d b y b e tte r p l a c e d , in te r m e d i­ a r y tr a d e r s f r o m D i lm u n ( f r o m a r o u n d m o d e r n - d a y B a h r a in ) . In a s im ila r m a n n e r to C y p r u s , i n te n s i f i e d c o p p e r tr a d in g s e e m s to h a v e s tim u la te d p r o d u c tio n o f a r a n g e o f u ltr a m a f ic s o f ts to n e p r o d u c ts , i n c lu d in g v e s s e ls , ta lc - te m p e r e d p o tte r y , a n d m o u ld s , b u t a ls o th e s e a ls to n e s th a t D i lm u n tr a d e r s o f te n u s e d a s p a r t o f th e ir b u s i n e s s ( B e v a n 2 0 0 7 : 1 7 5 - 7 7 , e s p e c ia l ly f ig . 8.21). In b o th th e C y p r i o t a n d D i lm u n / M a g a n c a s e s , th e s y m b o l is m o f th e s e o p h i o li te p r o d u c ts e x p r e s s e s a c e r ta in M e t a lls c h o c k , o s c i ll a ti n g b e tw e e n im a g e s o f tr a d itio n a n d te c h n i c a l in n o v a tio n a n d r e f le c tin g a

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 5 7 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 5 7 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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s o c i o e c o n o m i c r e l a ti o n s h ip b e tw e e n u p la n d c o m m u n i ti e s , lo w la n d d i s ­ tr ib u to r s , a n d o v e r s e a s c o n s u m e r s th a t w a s s o m e ti m e s p r o f ita b l e a n d s o m e ti m e s tr a u m a tic ( f o r o th e r e x a m p l e s o f s u c h a s y m m e tr y a n d its c o n ­ se q u e n c e s, se e Sh e n n a n 1999).

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( 1 9 7 2 ) o f te x til e v o c a b u la r y i n th e O ld A s s y r ia n tr a d in g c o l o n y a r c h iv e s is , in m a n y w a y s , to v is i t p a r a lle l w o r l d s . In b o th c a s e s , s ta n d a r d is e d b o lts o f c lo th ( e n o u g h to m a k e o n e i f n o t m o re f u ll g a r m e n ts ) a re h a n d le d b y w h o l e s a le r s w h o c a te r f o r v e r y s p e c if ic lo c a l ta s te s . G r o u p s o f p r o d u c e r s m a k e d is ti n c tiv e p r o d u c ts c o n f o r m i n g to c a te g o r i e s th a t o u ts id e b u y e r s c a n id e n tif y . A c l e a r a n d w i d e ly a g re e d s e t o f ty p e s a n d q u a l ity g r a d e s a re p r e s e n t a n d a s s o c ia te d w i th m a n y o f th e s e , a ls o in d ic a tio n s o f p r o v e n a n c e ( s o m e s til l m e a n in g f u l, o th e r lo n g s in c e b e c o m e n o tio n a l ) . M a r k s o n th e e d g e s o f b o l ts o f c lo th , o n f in is h e d g a r m e n ts , a n d / o r o n p a c k e ts o f s e v e r a l te x til e s a re im p o r ta n t s ig n if ie r s o f re lia b le v a lu e . T o ta k e th e 2 n d m il le n n iu m

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f o llo w s , s e e in p a r tic u la r L a r s e n 1 9 8 7 ; V e e n h o f 1 9 7 2 , 2 0 0 3 ) , th e A s s y r ia n tr a d e r s m e n tio n e d a b o v e w e r e s h ip p in g tin a n d te x til e s w e s tw a r d s f r o m A s s u r to c e n tr a l A n a to li a ( s e e F ig u r e 2 .1 ) , s o m e ti m e s in d u lg i n g in lo c a l A n a to li a n tr a d e in c o p p e r a n d o th e r ite m s , b u t u ltim a te ly l o o k in g to ta k e th e ir p ro f its b a c k to A s s u r in th e f o r m o f s i lv e r a n d g o ld ( w h ic h w 'e re lig h t­ w e i g h t a n d h ig h ly c o n v e r tib le ) . T h e s e m ix e d c a r a v a n s o f tin a n d te x til e s m a k e a n in te r e s ti n g c o m b in a tio n . A s s u g g e s te d a b o v e , tin w a s a g e o g r a p h ­ ic a l ly r e s tr i c te d re s o u r c e m a k in g its w a y to A n a to li a ( a n d b e y o n d ) a lo n g a tr a d e r o u te th o u s a n d s o f k il o m e tr e s lo n g . In c o n tr a s t, th e m e c h a n ic a l te c h n o lo g y , b a s ic k n o w 'h o w r a n d ra w m a te r ia ls re q u ir e d to p r o d u c e te x til e s w e r e c o m m o n a c ro s s m u c h o f th e M e d i te r r a n e a n a n d M i d d le E a s t. F o r te x til e s , w h a t th e re f o re m a tte r e d w a s th e a b ili ty o f p r o d u c e r s a n d tr a d e r s to m a r k e t p r o d u c ts in s ta n d a r d is e d s iz e s a n d q u a l itie s , w i th r e c o g n is e d ty p e s o f w 'o o l, d is ti n c tiv e m a n u f a c tu r i n g

te c h n i q u e s , a n d / o r p o p u l a r

ty p e s o f d e c o r a tio n . In f a c t, th e te x til e s in th e A s s y r ia n c a r a v a n s h e a d in g to A n a to li a in c lu d e d m a n y n o n - A s s y r ia n p r o d u c ts th a t w e r e im p o r te d f r o m B a b y lo n ia to th e s o u th o r a c q u ir e d f r o m n o d a l c o m m u n i ti e s a lo n g th e ro u te , b u t a ls o m a d e l o c a lly a t A s s u r. T h e r e w 'ere a r a n g e o f p r i v a te in d iv i d u a ls , p a r tn e r s h i p s , a n d in s titu ­ tio n s ( e .g ., th e r u le r o f A s s u r, v a r io u s te m p le s ) w h o in v e s te d in th is tra d e , w 'h ic h in v o lv e d th e m o v e m e n t o f la rg e q u a n titie s a n d s i g n if ic a n t f in a n c ia l re tu r n s ( c o n s e rv a tiv e l y , th o u s a n d s o f te x tile s , a n d h u n d r e d s o f k il o g r a m s o f p r o f i t i n s i lv e r p e r y e a r ; s e e L a r s e n 1 9 8 7 : 5 1 ; V e e n h o f 2 0 0 3 : 7 0 ; V e e n h o f

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 5 8 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 5 8 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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a n d E id e m 2 0 0 8 : 9 0 ) . O u r d o c u m e n ta r y s a m p l e is , o f c o u r s e , p a r tia l, a n d th e te x ts f o c u s v e r y m u c h o n lo g is tic a l a r r a n g e m e n ts r a th e r th a n e ith e r th e lo c a l p r o d u c tio n o r i n i ti a l p u r c h a s e o f th e te x til e s in A s s u r o r th e ir f in a l s a le . C o n s ig n m e n ts a r r i v i n g in A n a to li a , f o r e x a m p le , w e r e e n tr u s te d a s c r e d i t to o th e r tr a d e r s w h o w e r e th e n r e s p o n s ib le f o r m a r k e tin g th e m lo c a lly . H o w e v e r , w h il e w e la c k a c le a r v ie w o f th e c o n s u m e r e n d o f th e p r o c e s s , th e r e a re m o re th a n e n o u g h c lu e s in th e c o m p l e x c h o r e o g r a p h y o f w r a p p in g a n d s e a lin g th e s e ite m s f o r tr a n s p o r t to s u g g e s t th a t a k in d o f b r a n d v a lu e w a s v e r y im p o rta n t. B o th tin a n d te x til e s w e r e p a c k a g e d in d iv id u a ll y a n d / o r in g r o u p s , u s in g a s ta n d a rd c lo th w r a p p in g a n d a c c o r d in g to s ta n d a r d a p p ro x im a te w e ig h ts . P a c k e ts o f te x tile s o f a ro u n d 3 0 k g e a c h w e r e s e a le d w i th h e m i­ s p h e r ic a l lu m p s o f c la y ( " b u l l a e " ; s e e , e .g ., O z g ii^ a n d T u n c a 2 0 0 1 :1 3 5 ) a n d p l a c e d o n e i th e r s i d e o f th e d o n k e y . O th e r, s m a lle r q u a n titie s w e r e s to re d in to p - p a c k s th a t c o u ld b e tra d e d o r a d d e d to e n ro u te . T h e c la y lu m p s w e r e s o m e ti m e s s ta m p e d w ith th e s e a l o f th e g o d a n d c ity o f A s s u r a s a n im p o r­ ta n t g u a r a n te e o f o f f ic i a ll y v e r if ie d q u a lity , ty p e , a n d q u a n tity ( r e l a te d a ls o to c u s to m s ta x p r o c e d u re s ) , b u t m o s t s e a ls a n d o th e r m a rk s a p p e a r to re p re ­ s e n t p a r tic u la r in d iv id u a ls a n d / o r th e ir f a m il y - f ir m s ( L a rs e n 1 9 7 7 ; V e e n h o f a n d E id e m 2 0 0 8 :1 1 4 - 1 7 ) . T h e m a k in g a n d b r e a k in g o f s e a li n g s w a s g e n e r ­ a ll y o n ly d o n e a t c e r ta in tim e s ( e .g ., n o t b e f o r e th e e n d o f th e jo u r n e y f ro m A s s u r ) a n d in f r o n t o f w itn e s s e s : O n e o f its p r im a r y r o le s w a s to e n d o rs e re lia b le le v e ls o f q u a lity , q u a n tity , a n d ty p e . T h e p r o x y u s e o f s e a ls b y th i rd p a r tie s to s ta n d f o r p h y s ic a ll y a b s e n t in d iv id u a ls a n d th e ir f a m il y f irm s a ls o s u g g e s ts a n im p o r ta n t ro l e f o r th e s e a s m a r k e t a b s tra c tio n s , m e a n t to p r o p a ­ g a te th e re lia b il ity o f a p a r tic u la r f ir m o r o f th e A s s u r c ity tra d e in g e n e ra l. T h is w r a p p in g , m a r k i n g , a n d s e a lin g o f te x til e s a ls o o c c u r r e d a t s e v e r a l d if f e r e n t le v e ls , w i th c e r ta in p r o c e d u r e s a s s o c ia te d w i th te x til e b u n d le s a n d o th e r s w i th in d iv i d u a l p i e c e s ; w i th s o m e m a r k s o r s e a ls to d o w i th th e re s p o n s i b il itie s o f th e tr a d e r a n d o th e r s to d o w i th th e o w n e r a n d / o r p r o ­ d u c e r ( V e e n h o f 1 9 7 2 : 4 1 —44). H o w e v e r , f o r th e in d iv i d u a l p ie c e s , a c r itic a l z o n e o f a tte n ti o n s e e m s to h a v e b e e n th e te x til e b o r d e r ( s is s ik t u m ) . In th e e a rly

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, th is a r e a o f a te x til e h a d g r e a t m e to n y m ic v a lu e :

F o r e x a m p l e , th e s is s ik t u m w a s u s e d a s a n e m b le m o f th e p e r s o n th e m ­ s e lv e s f o r d iv o r c e r itu a ls , a s a s ta n d - in f o r a n a b s e n t i n d iv i d u a l in c e r ta in h a r u s p ic a l rite s , o r in lie u o f a re a d ily a v a ila b le s e a l f o r e v e r y d a y s e a li n g p u r p o s e s ( D u r a n d 1 9 8 8 : 4 0 ; L a rs e n 1 9 7 7 : 9 8 ; v a n d e r T o o rn 1 9 9 6 : 4 6 - 4 7 ) . G i v e n th a t th e A s s y r ia n c a r a v a n tr a d e w a s o f te n in v o lv e d in tr a n s p o r t­ in g b o lts o f u n c u t w o v e n f a b r ic ( V e e n h o f 1 9 7 2 : 8 9 - 9 7 ) , i t s e e m s s e n s ib le to a s s u m e th a t th e te r m s is s ik t u m c o u ld re f e r to th e b o r d e r s o f b o th f in is h e d g a r m e n ts a n d u n c u t c l o th .3 In a n y c a s e , th e s e w e r e th e p a r ts o f w r a p p e d te x til e s th a t w e r e m o s t v is i b l e to th e b u y e r a n d th e r e f o r e a k e y lo c u s f o r b r a n d i n g a c tiv ity ( G . C la r k , th is v o lu m e ) .

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 5 9 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 5 9 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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W h a t s o rts o f q u a l ity d if f e r e n c e s w e r e s u c h m a r k i n g p r a c tic e s m e a n t to e n d o r s e ? T h e s h e e r v a r ie ty o f te x til e te r m s in th e a r c h iv e s a tte s ts to a v a s t a r r a y o f d is ti n c tio n s b a s e d o n c o l o u r, p r o v e n a n c e , f in is h in g , s ty le , a n d th i c k n e s s ( V e e n h o f 1 9 7 2 : 1 4 4 - 2 1 3 ) . A t th e v e r y to p o f th e s c a l e , w e r e te x til e s o f s o - c a lle d ro y a l q u a l ity th a t a re re f e r re d to n o t o n ly i n th e O ld A s s y r ia n c a r a v a n tr a d e , b u t a ls o in a r a n g e o f o th e r B ro n z e A g e te x tile in d u s tr ie s ( s e e b e lo w ) . In s o m e in s ta n c e s , th i s m a y l i te r a ll y m e a n " o f o r f o r th e k i n g ," a n d th e r e b y r e f e r to ro y a l tra d e p r o d u c ts o r th o s e th a t h a d s o m e h o w f o u n d th e ir w a y in to g e n e r a l c ir c u la tio n , b u t s o m e ti m e s it ju s t s e e m s to r e f e r to th e v e r y f in e s t q u a l ity g a r m e n ts . T h is is a g o o d e x a m p le o f h o w B r o n z e A g e ro y a l b r a n d s m ig h t le a k o u t to a w i d e r e lite g r o u p a n d w i ll b e re v is ite d b e lo w w i th r e s p e c t to th e m a r k e tin g o f h ig h - q u a l ity o ils . In a n y

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d if f e r e n t s ty le s o f p r o d u c ts in th e c a r a v a n tr a d e , a n d th e r e a f te r d if f e r e n t p e r c e iv e d q u a l ity g r a d e s . F o r e x a m p l e , th e re w e r e c le a r s e p a r a tio n s o f d if ­ f e r e n t A n a to li a n , A s s y r ia n , a n d B a b y lo n ia n - s ty l e p r o d u c ts . M o r e p re c is e ly , th e p a r tic u la r c a s e o f " A b a r n i a n " te x til e s is in te r e s ti n g b e c a u s e th e n a m e im p l ie s a p r o v e n a n c e f r o m th e to w n o f A b a r n a , b u t th e te x ts in c lu d e a t le a s t o n e re f e r e n c e to th e s e b e in g m a d e b y a lo c a l A s s y r ia n w o m a n a t A s s u r ( V e e n h o f 1 9 7 2 : 1 2 3 , 1 5 6 - 5 8 , 1 9 1 ) . T h e M e d ie v a l e v id e n c e f o r c lo th m a k in g is p a r tic u la r l y e l o q u e n t o n s u c h is s u e s ( G . C la r k , th is v o lu m e ; R ic h a r d s o n 2 0 0 8 : 2 1 - 2 2 ) : T h e m a in p r o d u c in g a n d d is tr i b u tin g to w n s o f te n g a v e th e ir n a m e s to f a m o u s p r o d u c ts a n d h a d a p r e d a to r y b r a n d q u a l ity , s w a l lo w in g u p th e p r o d u c ts o f n e a r b y p l a c e s , a n d a k e y in d ic a to r o f s u c c e s s f u l to w n b r a n d s h a s b e e n th e ir s u r v iv a l in to m o d e r n l a n g u a g e ( e .g ., " w o r s te d ," " m u s l i n ," e tc .) . In a n y

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A b a r n i a n te x tile is ty p ic a l o f w e l l- p l a c e d d is tr i b u to r s ( s e e a ls o b e lo w f o r o i ls ) , b u t c o n v e r s e l y a ls o a c o n c e r n f o r th o s e lo o k in g to u p h o ld th e v a lu e o f e x i s tin g im p o r ts . A n o th e r g o o d e x a m p le is a d e c is io n b y A s s u r ' s c o m ­ m e r c ia l l e a d e r s to p u t a h a lt to a n y tr a d e b y e x p a tr i a te A s s y r ia n s i n tw o s p e c if ic ty p e s o f lo c a l A n a to li a n te x til e . T h is v e r d ic t w a s a c c o m p a n ie d b y th e th r e a t o f h e a v y f in e s , s e e m in g ly b e c a u s e o f a f e a r th a t th e lo c a l p r o d ­ u c ts w e r e e i th e r b e i n g m a r k e te d m o r e f ie r c e ly b y A s s y r ia n tr a d e r s th a n th e a c tu a l im p o r ts o r th a t th e y c o u ld b e c o n v e r te d in to c h e a p im ita tio n s ( V e e n h o f 2 0 0 3 : 8 9 - 9 0 ; a n d c o m p a r e w i th C r a c iu n , th i s v o lu m e ) . T h e a b o v e d is c u s s io n s h o u ld m a k e i t c le a r th a t a w h o l e r a n g e o f p r o d ­ u c t m a r k i n g a n d m a r k e t- le d m a n ip u la tio n w a s b e h in d th e p e r c e iv e d v a lu e o f th e s e te x til e s , w i th g o o d e v id e n c e f o r th e k in d s o f s y m b o lic a b s tr a c ­ tio n th a t w e c o m m o n ly a s s o c ia te w i th m o d e r n b r a n d i n g p r a c tic e s . W h il e th e f o c u s h e r e h a s n e c e s s a r il y b e e n o n th e r ic h e s t b o d y o f d o c u m e n ta r y e v id e n c e ( g iv e n th e p o o r a r c h a e o l o g ic a l p r e s e r v a tio n o f te x til e s ) , th e re a re s ig n s th a t s u c h p r a c tic e s w e r e w id e s p r e a d in th e B r o n z e A g e e a s te r n

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 6 0 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 6 0 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 61 h t t p :/ /s ite . e b ra ry .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 6 1 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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M e d i te r r a n e a n . F o r e x a m p le , s u r v iv in g E g y p tia n li n e n g a r m e n ts a n d c u tc l o th re v e a l d is ti n c tiv e b o r d e r d e c o r a tio n , f r in g e s , a n d / o r d e f in e d s e lv ­ e d g e s ( F ig u r e 2 .3 b - c ; V o g e ls a n g - E a s tw o o d 2 0 0 0 ; a n d n o te th e n a r r a tiv e p r o m i n e n c e o f th e s e i n th e M i d d le K in g d o m T ale o f t h e E lo q u e n t P e as an t ; L ic h th e im 1 9 7 5 :1 6 9 - 8 4 ) . T h e u s e o f s p e c ia li s t e q u ip m e n t, f ix in g a g e n ts , d y e s , s p lic in g , s p in ­ n in g , a n d w e a v in g te c h n iq u e s e n s u r e d d is ti n c tiv e r e g io n a l p r o d u c ts th a t k n o w l e d g e a b le

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w o u ld s tr u g g le to r e p li c a te e x a c tly ( s e e P in h e ir o - M a c h a d o , th is v o lu m e ; R ic h a r d s o n 2 0 0 8 : 1 7 - 1 8 ) , a n d E g y p tia n li n e n p r e s e r v e s g o o d e v id e n c e f o r s o m e o f th e s e te c h n o lo g i c a l tr a d e m a r k s ( e .g ., f la x s p lic in g , s - s p u n th r e a d , c e r ta in w e a v e s , a n d w e f t f ri n g e s : v a n ' t H o o f t e t a l. 1 9 9 4 : 1 3 - 2 2 ; a ls o f o r th e s p e c ia l n a tu r e o f c e r ta in U g a r i ta n d y e s , s e e v a n S o ld t 1 9 9 0 ) . T h e r e a r e a ls o p r e s e r v e d e x a m p l e s o f E g y p tia n te x til e m a r k s , i n c lu d in g n a m e s , d a te s , a n d a b s tr a c t d e s ig n s th a t w e r e w o v e n , e m b r o id e r e d , o r w r i tte n in in k o n to th e b o r d e r s o f th e c lo th ( F ig u r e 2 .3 c ; s e e a ls o v a n ' t H o o f t e t a l. 1 9 9 4 : T a b le 6 a - c ) . A v a r ie ty o f a c tiv itie s , in v o lv i n g b o th f irs t- a n d s e c o n d - h a n d tr a n s ­ a c tio n s a n d to m b r o b b in g , s e e m to h a v e le d to th e f u l l ra n g e o f g r a d e s a n d ty p e s o f b o th u n c u t c lo th a n d f in is h e d g a r m e n ts b e i n g a v a ila b le f o r p o te n tia l p u r c h a s e ( in c lu d in g th o s e o f s o - c a lle d ro y a l q u a l ity : V o g e ls a n g E a s tw o o d 2 0 0 0 : 2 9 3 ; s e e a ls o E y r e 1 9 9 8 : 1 7 8 - 8 3 ; Ja n s s e n 1 9 7 5 : 2 4 9 - 9 8 ) . M y c e n a e a n a n d U g a r i ta n d o c u m e n ts s u g g e s t a s i m ila r p a tte r n o f d is ti n c ­ tiv e w o o l a n d li n e n p r o d u c ts o f v a r io u s g r a d e s , c o l o u r s , a n d p r o v e n a n c e s , w i th d e c o r a te d f r in g e s a n d / o r s e lv e d g e s c u t to s ta n d a r d le n g th s o r m a d e in to r e c o g n i s a b le f in is h e d g a r m e n ts ( e .g ., K il le n 1 9 7 9 ; P a la im a 1 9 9 1 :2 9 1 - 9 3 ; R ib ic h in i a n d X e l la 1 9 8 5 ; v a n S o ld t 1 9 9 0 ) . Fin a lly , th e d e p i c ti o n s o f g a r m e n ts in w a ll p a in tin g s a n d d e c o r a tiv e re lie f s ty p ic a l ly

c o m b in e im p o r ta n t c a te g o r i c a l o r o r d in a l in f o r m a tio n

a b o u t th e p e r c e iv e d a g e , g e n d e r, e th n ic ity , o r s o c i a l c la s s o f th e w e a r e r w ith g r e a t a tte n tio n to k n o w n q u a l ity g r a d e s a n d d e ta il s o f w e a v e , c o l o u r, e d g e f in is h in g , a n d / o r d ia p h o n y ( e .g ., F ig u r e 2 .3 a ; D o u m a s 1 9 9 2 : n o s . 1 0 0 - 3 4 ) . T o a d e g re e , h o w e v e r , w e s h o u ld s e e th e s e c a te g o r i e s a n d r a n k s a s m o re s h a r p ly d e f in e d o n th e w a l l ( a n d p e r h a p s in d e a th ) th a n th e y a lw a y s w e r e i n th e h o m e o r in th e s tr e e t: F o r e x a m p l e , th e v e lo c i ty w i th w h ic h f o re ig n c l o th a n d f o r e ig n g a r m e n t s ty le s w e r e c ir c u la tin g s u g g e s ts th a t, a t le a s t f o r c e r ta in o c c a s i o n s , f le x ib le d r e s s in g w a s a n im p o r ta n t f o r m o f s o c ia l d is ­ p la y , p a r tic u la r l y f o r v a r io u s lo w e r a n d u p p e r e lite s e c tio n s o f s o c ie ty .

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T o a la rg e d e g re e , w h a t th e m a n ip u la tio n o f te x til e v a lu e r e f le c ts is th e f a c t th a t, u n lik e m e ta ls , te x til e s c o u ld b e f a s h io n e d a lm o s t a n y w h e r e in th e M e d i te r r a n e a n a n d M i d d le E a s te r n re g io n . W h a t th e r e f o r e m a tte r e d w a s

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 6 2 h tt p :// s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 6 2 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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th e a b ili ty to m o n o p o lis e a n d m a r k e t p a r tic u la r r a w m a te r ia ls , p r o c e s s in g te c h n iq u e s , a n d c o n c e n tr a ti o n s o f s k ill e d la b o u r. L ik e w is e , th e d e s ir e to a c q u ir e p a r tic u la r ty p e s o f te x til e , f r o m p a r tic u la r p la c e s , w a s s o m e th i n g to b e c a r e f u lly c u l tiv a te d , b y th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f u n i q u e l y r e c o g n is a b le te c h n iq u e s , e y e - c a tc h in g s ty le s a n d a ttr a c ti v e s y m b o l ic a s s o c ia tio n s , a s w e l l a s to b e re in f o r c e d b y p r o te c tio n is t s tr a te g i e s i f n e c e s s a ry . O il a n d w i n e p r o d u c ts a re a ls o h e a v ily p r o c e s s e d c o m m o d i ti e s th a t c o u ld b e p r o d u c e d a lm o s t a n y w h e r e in th e M e d i te r r a n e a n , b u t th e w a y th e y w e r e p r o m o te d d if f e r s f r o m te x til e s in tw o c r u c ia l w a y s . F ir s t, a n d to v a r y in g d e g r e e s , th e y in v o lv e d a n in v e s tm e n t in th e la n d s c a p e th a t m ig h t o n ly h a v e a d e l a y e d e c o n o m ic re tu r n ( e .g ., v in e y a r d s a n d o l iv e g r o v e s th a t o n ly p r o d u c e d v ia b le h a r v e s ts s e v e r a l y e a r s o r d e c a d e s a f te r in iti a l p l a n tin g ) , b u t o n c e in tr o d u c e d c r e a te d r e u s e a b le la n d s c a p e c a p ita l ( e .g ., v in e s , tr e e s , te r r a c e s , p r o c e s s i n g in s ta lla tio n s , e tc .) th a t e n c o u r a g e d r e g io n ­ a l s p e c ia li s a tio n o v e r th e lo n g e r te r m , a n a c c o m p a n y in g in e rtia r e s u lti n g f r o m s u n k - c o s ts a n d , p o te n tia lly , o p p o r tu n iti e s f o r e v o k i n g th e m o d e r n e q u iv a le n t o f te rro ir. S e c o n d , o ils a n d w i n e s w e r e liq u id s th a t ty p ic a lly re q u ir e d a ir ti g h t c o n ta in e r s f o r tr a n s p o r t a n d s to r a g e , m e a n in g th a t: ( 1) T h e c o n te n ts th e m s e lv e s w e r e u s u a l ly h id d e n f r o m v ie w u n til th e m o m e n t o f p h y s i c a l c o n s u m p tio n ; a n d ( 2 ) T h e c o n ta in e r s b e c a m e a s im p o r ta n t a lo c u s f o r p r o d u c t d if f e r e n ti a ti o n a s th e c o n te n ts . T o s o m e e x te n t, h o w e v e r, th i s s e c tio n s til l a w k w a r d l y l u m p s tw o v e r y d if f e r e n t k in d s o f c o m m o d i­ tie s a n d g lo s s e s o v e r a h o s t o f a p p a r e n t v a r ia tio n in w i n e ty p e s a n d a d d i­ tiv e s a s w e l l a s h u g e v a r ie ty o f o le a g in o u s p l a n ts a n d a d d itiv e s u s e d f o r d if f e r e n t o i ls . E v e n s o , th e d is c u s s io n b e lo w b e g i n s b y a d d r e s s in g s o m e a r e a s o f c o m m o n g r o u n d b e tw e e n th e s e c o m m o d i ti e s a n d th e n g r a d u a lly d if f e r e n tia te s th e m . In th e B ro n z e A g e w r i tte n r e c o r d s , w e r e g u la r ly s e e o i ls a n d w i n e s w ith s p e c if ic n a m e s , g r a d e s , p r o v e n a n c e s , in g r e d ie n ts , ta s te s / s c e n ts , e tc . B o th c o m m o d i ti e s w e r e lo o s e l y a s s o c ia te d w i th a c ts o f a p p r o p r ia te h o s p ita lity ( th o u g h i n d if f e r e n t w a y s to f a m ily , f r ie n d s , o r s tr a n g e r s ) a n d , in m a n y in s ta n c e s , a ls o th e h e a lth o f th e li v i n g a n d d e a d . A lth o u g h w e c a n c e r ta in ly p o i n t to o v e r l a n d tr a d e o f o il a n d w i n e o v e r s h o r te r d is ta n c e s , th e lo n g ­ d is ta n c e b u l k tr a n s p o r t o f s u c h B r o n z e A g e g o o d s o n ly s e e m s to h a v e b e e n w o r th w h il e a r o u n d th e c o a s ta l f r in g e s o f th e e a s te r n M e d i te r r a n e a n a n d / o r d o w n a f e w m a in r iv e r in e a r te r ie s . O ils a n d w i n e s w e r e , f r o m a t le a s t th e la te r 4 lh m il le n n iu m

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s a i lin g s h ip s ( w ith b i g g e r c a r g o c a p a c itie s a n d lo n g e r r a n g e th a n p a d d le d c r a f t; s e e B r o o d b a n k 2 0 0 0 : 9 6 - 1 0 2 ; M a r c u s 2 0 0 2 : 4 0 9 - 1 2 ) a n d b e c o m e s a s ta n d a r d f e a tu r e o f M e d i te r r a n e a n li f e th r o u g h th e r e s t o f th e B r o n z e a n d Ir o n A g e a n d u p to th e p r e s e n t d a y ( n o te , f o r e x a m p l e , th e ir c e n tr a l ro l e

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 6 3 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 6 3 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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in th e m o d e r n g lo b a l b r a n d i n g o f a h e a lth y " M e d i te r r a n e a n " li f e s ty le ; s e e M e n e le y 20 07). A s w i th te x til e s , b o th o i ls a n d w i n e s w e r e o f te n u s e d a s m a r k e r s f o r s p e c if ic s o c i a l c la s s e s o r e th n ic g r o u p s a s th e y e n a b le d d is ti n c tiv e c o o k ­ in g , e a tin g , d r in k i n g , a n d a b lu ti o n a r y h a b i ts . W ith in th e s e s o c ia l c a te g o r ie s a n d c o m m u n i ti e s h o w e v e r, th e y m o s t o f te n f o rg e d , o n th e o n e h a n d , e ith e r f a ir ly u n d i f f e r e n tia te d s o c i a l re l a ti o n s h ip s b u i l t o n c o m m u n a l s m e lls , a g e , a n d g e n d e r - r e la te d rite s , c o m m e n s a l h o s p ita li ty , o r p u r ity - h o n o u r - s h a m e id i o m s ( e .g ., f o r th e la tte r in m o d e m o l iv e o i l m a r k e tin g , s e e M e n e l e y 2 0 0 7 : 6 8 3 - 8 4 ) , o r o n th e o th e r, a s e n s e o f c o l le g i a lity a n d r e c ip r o c ity th r o u g h c y c li n g o b li g a ti o n s o f h o s p ita lity ( e .g ., in w e l c o m in g p e o p le to a b a n q u e t: D a v ie s 1 9 7 3 : p l s .l x i i i - v i i ) o r th e e q u ip m e n t d e e m e d n e c e s s a r y to b e lo n g to a c e r ta in p e e r g r o u p ( e .g ., o il a n d w i n e c o n s u m p tio n " s e t s , " s e e b e lo w ) . B y th e m id - 2 nd m il le n n iu m

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o f s e a b o r n e tr a d e is th e m a r itim e tr a n s p o r t ja r th a t w a s u s e d f o r a w i d e ra n g e o f c o m m o d i ti e s , b u t e s p e c ia l ly f o r o il a n d w in e . " C a n a a n i te - s ty l e " a m p h o r a e a re p r o b a b ly th e m o s t f a m o u s B r o n z e A g e e x a m p l e ( Fig u r e 2 .4 a ) , b u t h a n d l e d a m p h o r a e o f o n e ty p e o r a n o th e r w e r e th e r e a f te r th e k e y tr a n s p o r t c o n ta in e r s f o r th e n e x t 2 - 3 ,0 0 0 y e a r s ( u n til th e y a re s u p ­ p la n te d b y M e d i e v a l s ta v e d b a r r e ls ; s e e V ro o m 2 0 0 3 :1 5 ) . A s D ia n e T w e d e h a s arg u e d

( 2 0 0 2 , f o l lo w i n g L o c k h a r t 1 9 9 7 ) , tr a n s p o r t ja r d e s ig n w a s

c o n s i s te n tl y d r iv e n b y th e th r e e , n e a r - u n i v e r s a l d e m a n d s o f c o m m e r c ia l p a c k a g in g : p r o te c tio n o f th e c o n te n ts , u ti lity in tr a n s p o r t a n d c o n s u m p ­ tio n , a n d m a r k e t c o m m u n i c a ti o n . W h il e th e s h a p e o f tr a n s p o r t ja r s w a s u s u a l ly a p h y s i c a l a d a p ta tio n to s ta c k in g in a n d e x tr a c tio n f r o m th e h o ld s o f s h ip s , th e ir a p p r o x im a te w e i g h t w h e n f u ll a g a in o f te n h o v e r s a ro u n d k n o w n s ta n d a r d s ( th e ta le n t w e i g h t o f c a. 2 7 - 3 0 k g m e n tio n e d a b o v e ; s e e , e .g ., H e ltz e r 1 9 9 0 :1 2 7 ; o r h a lf th a t f o r th e M y c e n a e a n s tir r u p ja r s d is c u s s e d b e lo w ) , w h ic h a g a in p r o b a b ly re f le c ts th e n e e d f o r b o th in d iv i d u a ls a n d d o n k e y s to c a r r y th e m e f f ic ie n tl y u p o n d is e m b a r k a ti o n . C a n a a n i te - s ty le ja r s w e r e f ir s t s to p p e r e d , th e n th e ir n e c k s w e r e c o v e r e d in c l a y to m a k e th e m a ir tig h t, a n d th e r e a f te r th e y w e r e ty p ic a l ly s e a le d a n d / o r m a r k e d in s o m e o th e r m a n n e r ( e .g ., G r a c e 1 9 5 6 : g .2 b ) . T h e s e a l­ in g p r a c tic e s a re ty p ic a l ly k n o w n to u s o n ly th r o u g h im a g e r y o r a c c id e n ts o f a r c h a e o l o g ic a l r e c o v e r y a n d m a r k i n g p r a c tic e s a re a ls o v e r y u n e v e n l y p r e s e r v e d , w i th in k e d , p a i n te d , o r o th e r w i s e b io d e g r a d e a b l e la b e l s p a r ­ tic u la r ly v u l n e r a b l e . T h is s e r io u s ly s k e w s o u r im p r e s s io n o f th e a m o u n t o f b o th li te r a te a n d n o n li te r a te in f o r m a tio n b e in g c o n v e y e d w i th s u c h c o n ­ ta in e r s , e s p e c ia l ly s i n c e th e m u lti- p u r p o s e , r e u s a b le n a tu r e o f th e ja r i ts e l f e n s u r e d th a t v e r y f e w o f th e m o r e a r c h a e o l o g ic a l ly r o b u s t im p r e s s e d o r in c is e d m a r k s a re l i k e ly to h a v e re f e r re d to a s in g u la r c o n te n ts ( f o r th e s e m a r k s , s e e H ir s c h f e l d 1 9 9 3 , 2 0 0 2 ; u n s u r p r is i n g l y th e y a re f a r f r o m e x p lic it to th e u n in itia te d ) . H o w e v e r , it is c le a r a g a in th a t th e B r o n z e A g e s e e s th e

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 6 4 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 6 4 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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b e g in n in g o f a p r a c tic e o f m a r k i n g m a r itim e c o n ta in e r s th a t b e c o m e s e v e n m o r e c o m m o n a n d m o r e c le a r ly p r o p o s i ti o n a l in la te r p e r io d s w h e r e it is u s e d to e n d o r s e s ta n d a r d is e d a m p h o r a e s iz e s , c o n te n ts , p r o d u c e r s , p r o v ­ e n a n c e , a n d v in ta g e ( e .g ., C a lle n d e r 1 9 6 5 ; E ir i n g a n d L u n d 2 0 0 4 ; G r a c e a n d S a v v a tia n o u - P e tr o p o u l a k o u 1 9 7 0 : 2 7 8 - 8 0 ) . T h e m o s t o b v io u s ly b r a n d e d B r o n z e A g e w i n e s a n d o i ls a re th o s e th a t w e s e e a s s o c ia te d w i th r e s tr ic te d s p h e r e s o f ro y a l ( a n d te m p le ) p ro d u c tio n . In E g y p t, f o r e x a m p l e , w h il e m a n y p r i v a te v in e y a r d s a re d e p ic te d i n to m b p a i n tin g s o r m e n tio n e d in d o c u m e n ts , th e s u r v iv in g ja r la b e l s ty p ic a lly r e f e r to th e p r o d u c ts f r o m th e la rg e e s ta te s o f th e r u le r o r m a jo r te m p le s . W h a t D a v id W e n g ro w h a s p o in te d o u t f o r a v e r y e a r l y ja r la b e l ( 2 0 0 8 :9 - 1 0 , f ig s . 1 - 2 ) is s o m e th i n g th a t w e m ig h t c o n s i d e r a s a f a ir l y p e r s is te n t f o r m o f E g y p tia n ro y a l p r o d u c t e n d o r s e m e n t: th e r u le r a s b o th a c ti o n h e r o ( d e f e a t­ in g e n e m ie s a n d r u n n i n g f r o m o n e c o r n e r o f th e k in g d o m to a n o th e r ) a n d f e r til ity f ig u re ( g iv in g li f e to th e la n d ; f o r a m o d e r n e x a m p l e w i th s im ila r te n s io n b e tw e e n ro le s ; s e e a ls o H o lt a n d T h o m p s o n 2 0 0 4 ) . S u c h r o y a l ja r la b e l s ( a n d le s s e l a b o r a te o n e s ) c e r ta in ly im p l y s o m e in d ir e c t b e n e f it to b e g a in e d b y th o s e w h o w e r e lu c k y e n o u g h to s h a r e in th e r o y a l p r o d u c tio n , b u t d id th e y e v e r c ir c u la te b e y o n d th e s e e m in g ly c lo s e d lo o p o f ro y a l g if ts ? In f a c t, th e r e is a r a n g e o f e v id e n c e to s u g g e s t th a t th e y d id , a t le a s t b y th e l a te r

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b o th f irs t- a n d s e c o n d - h a n d c o m m e r c i a l tr a n s a c ti o n s ( s e e b e lo w f o r U g a r i t a n d th e A e g e a n ) . F o r E g y p t, th e s i tu a tio n m a y in itia ll y s e e m u n c le a r, b u t w e c a n c e r ta in ly d o c u m e n t th e f lo w o f s u c h c o m m o d i ti e s o n th e s e c o n d ­ h a n d ( a n d in a t le a s t s o m e c a s e s u n o p e n e d ) m a r k e t, o f te n a f te r f ir s t- h a n d d is b u rse m e n t b y

th e p a l a c e a n d / o r te m p le s ( T a lle t 1 9 9 8 : 2 6 0 - 6 1 ) . F o r

e x a m p l e , th e w o r k e r s a t D e ir e l- M e d in a d u r in g th e 1 3 th- l l th c e n tu r ie s bc

s e e m to h a v e o c c a s i o n a ll y b e e n g iv e n n e h e h o i l ( a lm o s t c e r ta in ly o liv e

o il; s e e T a l le t 2 0 0 4 ) b y ro y a l a ll o c a tio n o n p a r tic u la r f e s tiv a ls ( u n s u r p r i s ­ in g g iv e n th e s p e c ia l n a tu r e o f th i s c o m m u n i ty w o r k in g o n ro y a l to m b p r o je c ts ) , b u t s o m e ja r s a r e th e n a ls o e x c h a n g e d a s c o m m o d i ti e s b y th e w o r k e r s a m o n g s t th e m s e lv e s ( Ja n s s e n 1 9 7 5 : 3 3 0 - 4 2 , 3 5 0 - 5 2 ) . T h e c a s e o f n e h e h o i l a ls o g iv e s u s a ra re o p p o r tu n ity to c o n s i d e r a f u ll p r o d u c t tr a je c to r y , f r o m m a n u f a c tu r e to c o n s u m p tio n . T h e o i l w a s c le a r ly u s e d f o r a r a n g e o f p u r p o s e s a n d 1 4 th- 1 2 th c e n tu r y

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d e n c e s u g g e s ts th a t a t th a t tim e , a li tr e w a s ty p ic a l ly w o r th a b o u t 2 0 0 g o f c o p p e r o r 3 g o f s ilv e r, w h e r e a s w i n e w a s b o th r a r e r a n d m o re c o s tly ( f o l lo w i n g Ja n s s e n s u g g e s te d f ig u re s , 1 9 7 5 : 1 0 8 - 0 9 , 3 3 0 n .6 ) . H o w e v e r , th e d a tin g o f th e ja r la b e ls a n d o th e r d o c u m e n ta r y r e f e r e n c e s in d ic a te s o m e im p o r ta n t s h if ts in lik e ly p r o v e n a n c e : T h e e a r l ie r e x a m p l e s w i th in th e a b o v e d a te ra n g e s u g g e s t s tr o n g l y th a t th e c o n te n ts w e r e im p o r te d a n d m ic r o s c o p i c f a b r ic a n a ly s is o f th e a c tu a l ja r s s u g g e s ts th a t th e s e w e r e m a d e n e a r th e L e b a n e s e a n d S y r ia n c o a s ts ( S e r p ic o 2 0 0 4 ; S m i th e t a l. 2 0 0 4 ) .

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 6 5 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 6 5 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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W ith in th is r e g io n , th e la rg e , c o s m o p o li ta n p o r t to w n o f U g a r i t is li k e ly to h a v e b e e n o n e o f th e m a jo r c e n tr e s o f p r o d u c tio n , e s p e c ia l ly in th e lig h t o f th e v iv id e v id e n c e th i s s i te h a s p ro v id e d f o r a d v a n c e d m e th o d s o f o liv e o i l m a n u f a c tu r e ( e .g ., th e le v e r b e a m p re s s : C a llo t 1 9 8 7 ) , a r r a n g e m e n ts f o r b u l k e x p o r t ( e .g ., h a r b o u r s id e s to r e s o f la rg e g ro u p s o f ja r s ; s e e F ig u r e 2 .4 a ) , th e c e le b r a tio n o f o ils a n d w i n e s in a n n u a l r e lig io u s e v e n ts ( e .g ., L ip in s k i 1 9 8 8 :1 4 0 - 4 2 ) a n d th e ir o b v io u s c o m m e r c ia l in te r e s t to p a la c e , te m p le s , a n d p r i v a te in d iv i d u a ls a li k e ( B e v a n 2 0 0 7 : 1 4 5 - 5 0 ; H e ltz e r 1 9 8 7 ; N o u g a y r o l e t a l. 1 9 6 8 : 8 0 - 8 3 ; Sc h a e f f e r 1 9 4 9 : p l.3 1 ) . H o w e v e r , b y th e la tte r h a lf o f th e 1 3 th c e n tu r y

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th e w e s te r n D e lta : N o t o n l y a re th e ja r s n o w o f te n m a d e o f lo c a l E g y p tia n c la y s , b u t th e la b e ls f r e q u e n tl y n o w c la im th a t th e o i l is " m a d e in E g y p t," a n d o n e c o n te m p o r a r y d o c u m e n t n o te s th e c o e x is te n c e o f b o th S y r ia n a n d E g y p tia n v a r ie tie s ( T a lle t 2 0 0 4 : 6 4 - 6 7 ) . T h is k in d

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c le a r p a tte r n s o f b o th p r o d u c tio n - f o r - e x p o r t a n d d e l ib e r a te im p o r t s u b ­ s titu ti o n , ju s t a s it a ls o in d ic a te s c o m b in a tio n s o f s tr u c tu r e d in s titu tio n a l d i s b u r s e m e n t a n d c o m m e r c i a l c ir c u la tio n . M o r e g e n e r a l ly , B r o n z e A g e o i ls a n d th i c k e r u n g u e n ts w e r e m a d e f r o m a ra n g e o f d if f e r e n t o le a g in o u s p l a n ts , a n d d if f e r e n t ty p e s a n d g r a d e s a re a n o b v io u s f e a tu r e a m o n g s t th e d o c u m e n ta r y re c o r d s ( H e ltz e r 1 9 8 7 ; L e e m a n s 1 9 6 0 : 1 4 - 1 6 ; M e le n a 1 9 8 3 : 1 0 9 - 1 7 ; S e r p ic o a n d W h ite 2 0 0 0 : 3 9 0 - 4 0 6 ; S h e l m e r d in e 1 9 8 5 : 1 7 - 3 9 ) . O ils w e r e u s e d a s s o u r c e s o f li g h t, s m o k e , a n d g e n e r a l a tm o s p h e r e in li v in g s p a c e s a n d th e y w e r e a ls o c o m e s ti b l e s ; b u t th e m o s t o b v io u s B ro n z e A g e u s e s w e r e a s p e r f u m e d b o d il y tr e a tm e n ts ( a n d re la te d to th is , s o m e ti m e s a ls o a s tr e a tm e n ts o f te x til e s to m a k e th e m s h in e a n d s m e ll li k e th e b o d ie s o f th e g o d s ; s e e S h e l m e r d in e 1 9 9 5 ) . T h e f in e s t p e r f u m e d o ils w e r e in c r e d ­ ib ly c o m p l e x r e c ip e s , m a d e o f a m ix tu r e o f in g r e d ie n ts , w h o s e p r o p e r m a n u f a c tu r e to o k m a n y d a y s a n d re q u ir e d th e s k ill s o f e x p e r t p e r f u m ­ e r s ( e .g ., S h i m y 1 9 9 7 : 3 1 5 - 6 7 ) . P e r h a p s th e b e s t e x a m p le o f th e e l a b o r a te c o n s u m p tio n c h o r e o g r a p h y th a t m ig h t b e a s s o c ia te d w i th th e s e p r o d u c ts a re E g y p tia n p r e s c r ip tio n s f o r " s e v e n s a c re d o i l " s e ts th a t w e r e b o th f o r a n o in tin g li v in g b o d ie s a n d to a ll o w th e d e c e a s e d to p a s s th r o u g h e a c h o f th e s e v e n g a te s o f th e u n d e r w o r ld ( G e e 1 99 8 : T a b le 7 .5 ; S h im y 1 9 9 7 : 2 6 - 1 1 9 ) . T h e s e o ils c o u ld b e m a d e o f p u r e ly E g y p tia n in g r e d ie n ts , p u r e ly f o r e ig n o n e s , o r a c o m b in a tio n , a n d b y th e la te r 3 rd m il le n n iu m a t le a s t, e a c h h a d b e e n g iv e n a s p e c if ic n a m e , p l a c e in th e a n o in tin g c e r e m o n y a n d p h y s i c a l s l o t in th e o il s e ts th e m s e lv e s , p r o v i d in g a v e r y c le a r h ie r a r c h ic a l o r d e r in g o f s p a c e a n d tim e , b u t u ltim a te ly , a ls o a r a n k in g o f s o c ia l r e l a ti o n ­ s h ip s a m o n g s t th e li v i n g a n d th e d e a d . B e y o n d th is e x a m p l e o f u p p e r e lite , h y p e r - c r a f te d o ils ( a n d th e ir lo w e r e l ite s im u la c r a : R o th 1 9 9 2 : f ig . 3 ) , th e r e w e r e a ls o a r a n g e o f o th e r s th a t s til l in v o lv e d c o m p l e x p r e p a r a tio n , b u t w e r e p r o d u c e d i n g r e a te r q u a n titie s

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 6 6 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 6 6 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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o v e r 8 0 C a n a a n ite - s ty le tra n s p o rt ja r s f ro m th e n o rth e rn h a rb o u r o f U g a rit ( Sc h a e f f e r 1949: p i. ix ) ; (b ) a larg e c o a rs e w a re s tirru p ja r p a in te d w ith L in e a r B sig n s ( D e m a k o p o u lo s 1981: 2 2 , c o u rte s y o f th e 9 th Ep h o rate o f P re h is to ric a n d C la s s ic a l A n tiq u itie s , T h e b e s ) ; (c ) a s m a ll s tirru p ja r; (d ) a b a s e - rin g ju g le t; a n d (e ) a m ix in g b o w l d e c o rate d w ith a c h a rio t sc e n e . A ll im a g e s n o t o th e rw is e a ttrib u te d are c o u rte s y o f th e Britis h M u se u m .

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 6 7 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 6 7 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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a n d c ir c u la te d th r o u g h o u t m u c h o f th e e a s te r n M e d ite r r a n e a n . B r o a d ly s p e a k in g , w e c a n d is ti n g u i s h tw o s c a l e s to th e tra d e in o i ls th a t f i r s t a p p e a r s in th e 3 rd m il le n n iu m , b u t b e c o m e s v e r y c le a r - c u t b y th e m id d le o f th e

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a n o th e r in d e c o r a te d ju g le ts . O u r d e g r e e o f c l a r i ty a b o u t th e r e la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n th e s e tw o s c a le s v a r ie s w i th re g io n a n d c o n te x t, b u t th e o v e r a ll s u s p i c io n is th a t th e s m a l le r v e s s e ls c o n ta in e d m o r e h ig h ly p r o c e s s e d o ils ( a n d o th e r p r e c io u s liq u id p r o d u c ts n o t a ll o f w h ic h n e e d h a v e b e e n o il b a s e d ) , a ll o w i n g p a r tic u la r l y w e l l- c o n n e c te d tr a d in g c e n tre s to a d d v a lu e to b r o a d e r r e g io n a l p r o d u c ts th r o u g h e l a b o r a te r e p a c k a g in g , e x tra p h y s ­ ic a l in g r e d ie n ts a n d p e r h a p s v a r io u s k in d s o f r itu a l e n d o r s e m e n t. W h il e

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o n w a r d s , w e s e e a tr u ly im p r e s s i v e r a n g e o f d e c o r a te d ju g le ts b e in g m a d e th r o u g h o u t m u c h o f th e e a s te r n M e d i te r r a n e a n ( ty p ic a l ly le s s th a n h a l f a litr e in v o lu m e , b u t w i th lo ts o f d iv e r s ity b y ty p e ) .4 T h e s e o b je c ts e x h ib it v e r y h ig h le v e ls o f s ty li s tic in n o v a tio n , a r a n g e o f c u l tu r a l re f e r e n c e s ( r e g io n a l s ty le s , d if f e r e n t s u r f a c e tr e a tm e n ts a n d te c h n ic a l a ll u s io n s ) , a n d a te n d e n c y to w a r d s b e in g s u b s ti tu te d f o r lo c a l im ita tio n s ( e .g ., K il le b r e w 2 0 0 4 ; S h e r r a tt 1 9 9 9 ) . T h e i r d if f e r e n t s h a p e s c h o r e o g r a p h e d p o u r in g in d iv e r s e w a y s a n d a re li k e ly to h a v e h a d b o th a g e s tu r a l a n d a li n g u i s tic v o c a b u la r y o f a p p r o p r i­ a te d e l iv e r y ( e .g ., th e g ri p ta k e n o n d if f e r e n tl y p l a c e d h a n d l e s , th e s i z e a n d p o s itio n i n g o f th e s p o u t, w i th a d if f e r e n ti a te d te r m in o l o g y s i m ila r to , f o r e x a m p l e , p o u r, g lu g , d r iz z le , o r s tr a in in m o d e r n E n g li s h ) . M o re o v e r , a lth o u g h th e re w a s h u g e v a r ie ty in ju g l e t s ty le s , m o s t s ty le s e x h ib it r e a s o n ­ a b le in te r n a l c o n s i s te n c y , s u g g e s ti n g th a t th e y w e r e m a r k e r s f o r e q u a lly re c o g n is a b le , s ta n d a r d is e d c o n te n ts ( th a t n e e d n o t, o f c o u r s e , a ll h a v e b e e n o ils ) . S p e c if ic s ty le s a ls o s e e m to h a v e p o s itio n e d th e ir c o n te n ts f o r p a r ­ tic u la r r e g i o n a l m a r k e ts o r p a r tic u la r k in d s o f c o n s u m e r : So m e m a y h a v e e v o k e d th e c o n te n ts d ire c tly , th e m o s t f a m o u s b u t c o n te n ti o u s e x a m p le b e i n g th o s e c lo s e ly r e s e m b l in g a s la s h e d p o p p y - h e a d b e c a u s e th e ir c o n ­ te n ts m a y h a v e b e e n o p iu m b a s e d ( " b a s e - r i n g " ju g l e ts ; s e e F ig u r e 2 .4 d ; B is s e t e t al. 1 9 9 6 ; M e r r ill e e s 1 9 6 2 ) . O th e r s w e r e m e ta l s k e u o m o r p h s a n d th u s in tim a te ly c o n n e c te d

w i th c la s s - r e l a te d

a s p i r a tio n s to u s e h ig h e r

v a lu e m e ta l v e s s e ls ( B e v a n 2 0 0 7 : 1 3 6 - 3 7 ) , o r w e r e b u m is h e d - a n d - i n c i s e d a n d th u s c lo s e r to s e lf - c o n s c io u s l y tr a d itio n a l o r g a n ic d e s ig n s ( e .g ., f r o m w o o d , g o u r d s , b a s k e try , o r le a th e r) o r p e r h a p s e v e n p r a c tic e s o f p e r s o n a l b o d y - m a r k in g ( e .g ., ta tto o s o r b o d y - p a in t) . T h e M y c e n a e a n " s ti r r u p - ja r " is a g o o d e x a m p l e o f th e ju g l e t p h e n o m ­ e n o n ( F ig u r e 2 .4 c ) . O v e r p e r h a p s a 4 0 0 - y e a r p e r io d in th e la te r B r o n z e A g e ,

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 6 8 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 6 8 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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its e x te r n a l p a in te d d e c o r a ti o n is r e p e a te d ly m o d if ie d , w i th b o th s im p le li n e a r d e s ig n s a n d

s o m e ti m e s f ig u r a tiv e im a g e r y . So m e o f th i s v a r ia ­

tio n is r e g io n a l a n d c o n te m p o r a r y in c h a ra c te r, b u t m u c h o f it is c h r o n o ­ lo g ic a l, r e f le c ti n g a h ig h s ty li s tic tu r n o v e r i n d e c o r a te d M y c e n a e a n p o tte r y m o r e g e n e r a l ly th a t, in m o d e r n a r c h a e o l o g ic a l te rm s , h a s m a d e i t o n e o f th e f in e s t- g r a i n e d a r c h a e o l o g ic a l in d ic a to r s f o r re la ti v e c h r o n o lo g y in a ll o f w o r ld p r e h is to ry . T h e s i n g le , n a r r o w s p o u t o n s tir r u p - ja r s ( w ith o u t a s e c o n d a ir h o le ) m a k e s o il d r ip o u t v e r y s lo w ly , a n d th e tw o s tr a p h a n ­ d le s w r a p p e d o v e r a f a ls e s p o u t a re v is u a ll y u n u s u a l a n d d if f e r e n ti a te th e p h y s i c a l a c t o f p o u r in g f r o m th a t o f o r d in a r y ju g le ts . S tir r u p ja r s w e r e a ls o m a d e i n m u c h la r g e r, le s s d e c o r a te d c o a r s e w a r e v e r s i o n s ( F ig u r e 2 .4 b , w ith a ty p ic a l c a p a c ity o f 1 2 - 1 4 li tr e s ) , a n d th e s e s e e m to h a v e b e e n th e m a in liq u id tr a n s p o r t ja r in th e la te 2 nd- m il le n n iu m A e g e a n ( w ith o il a s s u m e d to b e o n e o f th e m o s t c o m m o n c o n te n ts ) . T h e la rg e c o a r s e w a r e v e r s i o n s w e r e a s c a lin g - u p o f th e s m a ll, f i n e w a r e ju g le ts a n d w e r e a r g u a b l y le s s w e l l- a d a p te d to b e in g a m a r itim e tr a n s p o r t s h a p e th a n , f o r e x a m p l e , th e C a n a a n i te - s ty le ja r ( th e l a tte r c e r ta in ly tr a d e d to th e A e g e a n , b u t w a s n o t lo c a lly m a d e th e re a n d w a s p r o b a b ly f u l l o n a r r iv a l r a th e r th a n tr a d e d f o r its o w n s a k e ) , b u t th e y c a p ita l is e d o n th e f a m il ia r a n d d is tin c tiv e q u a litie s o f th e s m a l le r v e rs io n . A lth o u g h m a n y o f th e s m a ll, d e c o r a te d s tir r u p - ja r s th a t tr a v e ll e d to th e e a s te r n M e d i te r r a n e a n w e r e m a d e i n th e A r g o lid , th e c la y s o f th e la rg e r c o a r s e w a r e tr a n s p o r t ja r s s u g g e s t th a t w e s te r n C r e te w a s a m a jo r p r o d u c ­ tio n r e g io n ( H a s k e ll 2 0 0 4 ) . L a r g e n u m b e r s a re m e n tio n e d in th e L in e a r B d o c u m e n ts ( e .g ., i n a t le a s t o n e tr a n s a c ti o n o f 1 ,8 0 0 ja r s ; s e e Sh e lm e r d in e a n d B e n n e t 2 0 0 8 : 3 0 4 ) , a n d a g r o u p w a s f o u n d s to p p e r e d a n d s e a le d in a ( p o s s ib le m e r c h a n t's ) s to re a t M y c e n a e , s e e m in g ly r e a d y f o r o n w a rd c o n ­ s i g n m e n t ( T o u m a v ito u 1 9 9 5 : 7 9 - 8 1 , p is . l l - 1 2 a ) . S u c h la rg e c o a r s e w a r e v e r s i o n s c e r ta in ly w e r e tr a d e d b e y o n d th e A e g e a n to b o th th e e a s te r n a n d c e n tr a l M e d i te r r a n e a n , b u t a re le s s e a s ily id e n tif i e d in e x c a v a ti o n s th a n th e m o re v iv id ly d e c o r a te d ju g le ts , h e n c e it re m a in s d if f ic u lt to a s s e s s h o w m u c h b r e a k in g - o f - b u l k w a s d o n e w ith in th e A e g e a n f ir s t. T h e p r o b ­ a b le ro le o f C y p r io t d is tr i b u to r s a s w e l l a s lo c a ls s e e m s lik e ly , h o w e v e r , a s m a n y o f th e ja r s s h o w in c is e d m a r k s o n th e ir h a n d l e s th a t o v e r la p w ith th o s e o f C y p r io t im ita tio n s a n d s e e m s i m ila r in c o n c e p t to th e m a r k s o n c o p p e r o x h id e in g o ts ( H ir s c h f e ld 1 9 9 3 , 2 0 0 2 ) . O v e r 1 8 0 s u c h c o a r s e w a r e tr a n s p o r t ja r s a ls o h a v e la rg e p a i n te d L in e a r B s ig n s a c ro s s th e b o d y o r o n th e s h o u ld e r ( F ig u r e 2 .4 b ; C a tl in g e t a l. 1 9 8 0 ; H a s k e ll 2 0 0 4 ) , r e f e r r in g to th e m a n u f a c tu r e r ( o f th e p o t a n d / o r o f th e c o n ­ te n ts ) , a p r o b a b le d is tr i b u to r o r o w n e r o f s o m e k in d , a n d / o r a p la c e n a m e ( o f m a n u f a c tu r e o r d is tr i b u tio n ) . B o th th e c la y s a n d th e p l a c e n a m e s s u g ­ g e s t th a t th e s e ja r s w e r e m a d e in b o th s o u th - c e n tr a l a n d w e s te r n C re te , w h il e

th e a r c h a e o l o g ic a l f in d s p o ts o f th e s e v e s s e ls s u g g e s t s tr ik in g ly

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 6 9 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 6 9 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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d ir e c ti o n a l p a tte r n s o f e x p o r ta tio n w i th e a c h o f th e s e tw o r e g io n s s u p ­ p l y in g d if f e r e n t m a in la n d c e n tr e s ( P a la im a 1 9 8 4 :1 9 1 - 9 4 ) . It is te m p tin g to s u g g e s t th a t b u l k o il f r o m C r e te w a s b e in g s h ip p e d to th e m a in la n d , w h e r e it w a s th e n e n h a n c e d a n d re p a c k a g e d f o r o n w a r d s tr a d e in th e s m a lle r d e c o r a te d s tir r u p ja r s , b u t i t is w o r th n o tin g th a t w e s te r n C r e te w a s a ls o p r o d u c in g e x tr e m e l y d is ti n c tiv e f i n e w a r e s f o r e x p o r t a t th is tim e ( s tir r u p ja r s f o r s m a l le r a m o u n ts o f o il, r h y ta f o r s tr a in i n g liq u id s , d e e p b o w ls f o r m ix i n g w in e ; s e e K a n ta 1 9 8 0 : 2 8 8 - 8 9 ; T z e d a k is 1 9 6 9 ) , s o a m o re c o m p le x p i c tu r e o f th e c o m b in e d m a r k e tin g o f b o th m o r e a n d le s s re f in e d p r o d u c ts b y s e v e r a l d if f e r e n t r e g i o n a l c e n tr e s s e e m s m o re lik e ly . O n s e v e r a l o f th e la b e lle d c o a r s e w a r e ja r s , th e n a m e o f th e c o lle c to r/ o w n e r is r e p la c e d b y th e a d je c tiv e " r o y a l ." A n d , a s w i th th e te x til e s a n d o th e r o i ls d is c u s s e d a b o v e , w e a r e le f t to d e c id e w h e th e r th i s im p lie s a c tu a l ro y a l c o n tr o l a n d o w n e r s h ip o f th e p r o d u c t o r s o m e th i n g m o re p r o p o s i ti o n a l a b o u t th e p e r c e iv e d q u a l ity o f th e c o n te n ts . T h e a b b r e v i­ a te d f o r m u la e u s e d f o r th e s e la b e ls c e r ta in ly s h a re m u c h i n c o m m o n w ith th o s e f o u n d in th e L in e a r B p a l a c e r e c o r d s th a t d e a l w i th b u l k c o m m o d ­ ity tr a n s a c ti o n s ( f o r a n o v e r v ie w , v a n A lf e n 1 9 9 7 ) . H o w e v e r, a tr a d itio n a l i n te r p r e ta ti o n o f p a l a ti a l r e d is tr ib u tio n , a lth o u g h in d ic a tin g a k e y f e a tu r e o f c o m m o d i ty f lo w s , n o n e th e le s s f r a m e s o u r u n d e r s ta n d i n g o f p a la ti a l a n d n o n p a la tia l a c tio n in a n e n tir e ly u n s a ti s f a c to r y w a y , f o r a t le a s t f iv e re a s o n s . F ir s t, th e a r c h iv e s a re in c r e d i b l y p a r tia l, r e f le c tin g o n ly th e s u b je c ts r e c o r d e d in c lay , a n d o f th o s e , o n ly th e o n e s p r e s e r v e d b y a c c id e n ta l f iri n g . T h e y a ls o r e f le c t o n ly th e p a l a c e 's s h o r t- te r m in te r e s t in a v e r y li m ite d ra n g e o f r a w m a te r ia ls , s e m i- f in is h e d , a n d f in is h e d g o o d s ( e .g ., m e ta ls a n d m e ta l­ w o r k , p r o c e s s e d o i ls , te x til e s , a n d th e in g r e d ie n ts n e c e s s a r y to m a k e th e m ) . In f a c t, th e r e is v e r y li ttl e c o v e r a g e o f w h o le s w a th e s o f a M y c e n a e a n k in g ­ d o m ' s p o l itic a l , lite ra ry , le g a l, d ip lo m a tic , o r e c o n o m ic li f e ( e .g ., P a la im a 1 9 9 1 ; a n d f o r th e im p o r ta n c e o f a s s e s s i n g th e s e k in d o f is s u e s o f p r e s e r v a ­ tio n a n d a d m in is tr a ti v e r e a c h in o th e r M e d i te r r a n e a n a n d M id d le E a s te r n a r c h iv e s , s e e P o s tg a te 2 0 0 1 ) . In f a c t, th e a b b r e v ia te d v o c a b u la r y o f p a la ti a l a d m in is tr a tio n m a y w e l l h a v e p e r m e a te d n o n p a la tia l c o m m o d i ty tr a n s a c ­ tio n s ( a s w e c a n s e e th a t th e y d id e l s e w h e r e in th e e a s te r n M e d ite r r a n e a n ) b u t w e r e ju s t le s s o f te n re c o r d e d o n c lay . S e c o n d , th e la b e lle d s tir r u p ja r s th e m s e lv e s m a y d a te to a p e r io d a f te r th e f in a l c o l la p s e o f th e M y c e n a e a n p a l a c e a t K n o s s o s a n d , i f tr u e , m u s t b e d e c o u p le d p a r tia l ly o r w h o l ly f r o m m o d e ls o f ( a t le a s t p a n - C r e ta n ) ro y a l a d m in is tr a tio n . T h ir d , o il s e e m s to h a v e b e e n a v e r y s e c o n d a r y c o n c e r n ( to w o o l a n d te x til e p ro d u c tio n ) f o r th e K n o s s o s p a l a c e i n a n y c a s e , a n d it w o u ld h a v e b e e n a b le to a c q u ire th e a m o u n ts m e n tio n e d i n th e a r c h iv e s f r o m

its im m e d i a te h in te r la n d

( P a la im a 1 9 8 4 : 2 0 1 - 0 3 ) , in d ic a tin g th e a r c h a e o l o g ic a l ly d o c u m e n te d s c a le o f o il tr a d e c a n n o t s i m p ly b e m a p p e d o n to p a l a ti a l p r o d u c tio n . F o u r th , th e

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 7 0 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 7 0 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

70

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la rg e s iz e a n d p r o m i n e n t p o s itio n o f th e la b e l lin g i n a p l a c e th a t w a s b e s t s e e n w h e n th e ja r s w e r e n o t in a h o ld o r s to r e d e n m a s s e ( i.e ., in c o n tr a s t to th e in c is e d m a r k s o n th e to p s o f th e h a n d le s ) s u g g e s ts th a t th e ir p u r­ p o s e w a s p a r tly o r w h o l ly a s a v i s u a l e n tic e m e n t. T h e f a c t th a t, in o n e o r tw o in s ta n c e s , th e L in e a r B s ig n s a re s o p o o r ly d o n e th a t th e p a i n te r m a y n o t h a v e b e e n f u lly a w a r e o f th e ir m e a n in g a r g u e s in th e s a m e d ir e c ti o n . F if th a n d f in a lly , th e K n o s s o s L in e a r B a r c h iv e s h o w s th e p a la c e a c q u ir ­ in g r e s o u r c e s f r o m m o r e d is ta n t p a r ts o f C r e te , in d ir e c tly , th r o u g h p e o p le th a t h a v e b e e n g iv e n a m o d e r n g lo s s a s " c o l l e c to r s / o w n e r s " ( B e n n e t 1 9 9 2 ) . A lth o u g h th e d o c u m e n ts c e r ta in ly d o n o t p r o v i d e c le a r - c u t e v id e n c e a b o u t th e id e n tity o f s u c h p e o p le , n e v e r th e le s s s o m e , i f n o t a ll, w e r e f r o m th e u p p e r e lite c la s s , w e r e s e m i - in d e p e n d e n t in th e ir o p e r a ti o n s , a n d w e r e a t le a s t p o te n tia l ly s im ila r to e l ite tr a d e r s d o c u m e n te d e l s e w h e r e in th e e a s te r n M e d i te r r a n e a n ( K ille n 1 9 7 9 : 1 7 6 - 7 9 ) . W h a t th is e x te n d e d e x a m p le s h o u ld a ls o b e p a r tic u la r l y r e m in is c e n t o f is th e tr a d e in c o p p e r , w h e r e th e r e a re a ll s o r ts o f c o a l s - to - N e w c a s tle c o n d itio n s , e f f o r ts to e n d o r s e q u a l­ itie s a n d q u a n titie s b y a r a n g e o f m e a n s , m a r k in g s a t v a r io u s s ta g e s o f th e p r o d u c tio n a n d d is tr i b u tio n p r o c e s s , c o - m a r k e ti n g o f b o th h y p e r - e la b o r a te f in is h e d g o o d s a n d le s s p r o c e s s e d v e r s io n s , p o s s ib le C y p r io t in v o lv e m e n t, a n d m ix e d p o litic a l, e c o n o m ic , a n d r e lig io u s a s s o c ia tio n s . T h e e x a m p l e s a b o v e h a v e f o c u s e d o n c a s e s w h e r e o il is th e m o s t li k e ly c o n te n ts , b u t it is w o r th b r ie f l y r e tu r n in g to e x a m p l e s f r o m th e w in e tr a d e . O n e g e n e r a l d if f e r e n c e b e tw e e n m o d e r n w i n e a n d th a t c o n s u m e d in th e B r o n z e A g e is th a t m ix i n g a n d r e m o v in g v a r io u s a d d itiv e s w a s a f a r m o re im p o r ta n t p a r t o f B r o n z e A g e w i n e p r o d u c tio n , d is tr ib u tio n , a n d c o n s u m p ­ tio n ro u tin e s . A n o th e r p o s s ib le d if f e r e n c e is th e m o d e r n e m p h a s i s o f c u r a t­ in g a n d a g e i n g w in e s , w i th a ll o f th e o p p o r tu n iti e s f o r b io g r a p h i e s o f p a s t o w n e r s h ip th a t th is o f f e r s ( S i lv e r s te i n 2 0 0 6 :4 8 4 ) . T h e B r o n z e A g e e v id e n c e f o r th e la tte r p r a c tic e is e q u iv o c a l ( b u t s e e M e e k s 1 9 9 3 : 2 5 - 2 6 f o r a p o s s ib le 3 5 - y e a r - o ld w i n e f r o m th e to m b o f T h u ta n k h a m u n , a n d f o r a la te r H o m e ri c tr a d itio n o f a g e d a n d p r e o w n e d w i n e , s e e I liad V II.4 6 7 - 7 5 , O d y s s e y 11.340, III.3 9 1 - 9 2 , IX .1 9 6 - 2 1 5 ) , b u t th e y w e r e c le a r ly s to r e d o v e r a t le a s t s e v e r a l y e a r s a n d o f f e r e d th e s a m e k in d s o f o p p o r tu n iti e s f o r s e c o n d - h a n d c ir c u la ­ tio n ( e s p e c ia l ly f o r " r o y a l " p r o d u c ts ) , a s th e n e h e h o il d is c u s s e d a b o v e . In E g y p t, w i n e h a d b e e n i m p o r te d s i n c e p e r h a p s th e l a te n iu m , p a r ti c u l a r l y f r o m by

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bc, p r o d u c tio n w i th i n th e N il e 2004; M c G o v e r n 2003: 85-147).

E v id e n c e f o r b o th s u b s ta n ti a l ro y a l a n d p r i v a te v in e y a r d s e x i s ts , b u t la r g e q u a n titie s o f w i n e w e r e a ls o r e b o ttle d a n d r e l a b e lle d f o r r o y a l ju b i ­ le e s a n d o th e r f e s ti v a l s ( e .g ., M c G o v e r n

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e x a m p l e o f r o y a l r e d i s tr ib u tio n , b u t w e r i s k c u tti n g o u t a n im p o r ta n t p a r t o f th e s e o b je c ts ' a ttr a c ti o n i f w e ig n o r e th e ir p o s td i s b u r s e m e n t a f te r li f e

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 71 h t t p :/ /s ite . e b ra ry .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 7 1 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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a s r o y a l ly e n d o r s e d p r o d u c ts . E g y p t' s g o o d c o n d i ti o n s f o r a r c h a e o l o g ic a l p r e s e r v a ti o n

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E g y p tia n - m a d e , b u t C a n a a n i te - s ty l e tr a n s p o r t ja r s , m a r k e d a n d s e a le d in a v a r i e ty o f w a y s i n c lu d in g p r e - f i r in g s ta m p s , in k la b e l s , a n d m u d c o n e s to m a k e th e v e s s e l s a ir ti g h t. T h e le g ib le m a r k s s u g g e s t th a t w i n e w a s b y f a r th e m o s t c o m m o n c o n te n ts i n s u c h ja r s ( th o u g h s e e a ls o th e n e h e h o il d is c u s s e d a b o v e ) a n d a ls o o f te n i n d i c a te th e s o u r c e a n d d e s ti n a ti o n f o r th e p r o d u c ts , its v i n ta g e , v in tn e r , a n d q u a n ti ty ( e .g ., C e r n y 1 9 6 5 ; H a y e s 1 9 5 1 ) . D i f f e r e n t v a r ie tie s o f w i n e a n d d if f e r e n t q u a l ity g r a d e s a r e c le a r ly v i s i b l e in c o n te m p o r a r y N e w K i n g d o m E g y p t, a n d s u c h in te n s i f i c a ti o n o f c o n s u m p tio n a n d d iv e r s if ic a tio n o f ta s te a ls o b r o u g h t w i th i t a v a r i e ty o f n o v e l c o n s u m e r h a b i ts s u c h a s d e c a n ti n g in to a s h a ll o w b o w l o r s i p p i n g th r o u g h a s tr a w ( M e e k s 1 9 9 3 : 2 6 - 2 7 ) . L o c a l e a s te r n M e d i te r r a n e a n w i n e in d u s tr ie s ro s e a n d f e ll a s th e y c o m ­ p e te d f o r p o p u l a r ity a lo n g th e s tr ip f r o m th e E g y p tia n d e lta to S y r ia . G iv e n e q u a l o p p o r tu n iti e s f o r p r o d u c tio n in th e s e re g io n s ( th o u g h le s s tr u e f u r­ th e r e a s t in lo w la n d M e s o p o ta m ia w h e r e c o n d itio n s w e r e le s s f a v o u r a b le ; s e e P o w e ll 1 9 9 5 ) , i t w a s th e a b il ity o f p r o d u c e r s to c u l tiv a te p a r tic u la r l y a ttr a c ti v e p r o d u c ts a n d a s e n s e o f tr a d itio n th a t w a s im p o r ta n t. It is n o a c c id e n t th a t w e s e e e l a b o r a te w i n e f e s ti v a l s a t U g a r i t, w h o s e w in e p r o ­ d u c tio n s e e m s to h a v e d w a r f e d e v e n its p r o d u c tio n o f o il ( L ip i n s k i 1 9 8 8 : 1 4 0 ^ 4 2 ) . T h e s e r itu a ls in v o lv e d th e d is tr i b u tio n o f la rg e q u a n titie s o f w in e , th e in v o lv e m e n t o f b o th ro y a l a n d d iv in e p a tr o n s , a n d th e d e lib e r a te p r o ­ m o tio n o f B r o n z e A g e te rro ir , w i th o n e p o e ti c te x t, f o r e x a m p l e , e v o k i n g a “ n e c k l a c e " o f te r r a c e d v in e y a r d s th a t r in g e d th e L e b a n e s e m o u n ta i n s a n d w e r e e n d o r s e d b y th e f a th e r o f th e g o d s , E l h im s e lf ( W a ts o n 1 9 9 9 ; f o r th e s u g g e s ti o n th a t th e s e v in e y a r d s w e r e te r r a c e d , s e e H e ltz e r 1 9 9 0 :1 2 0 ) . B y c o n tr a s t, a lth o u g h C r e ta n a n d M y c e n a e a n p a l a ti a l s ta te s p r o d u c e d a r a n g e o f w i n e s a n d tr a d e d th e s e w i th in th e A e g e a n ( in c lu d in g s i n g le tr a n s a c ti o n s o f a s m u c h a s 1 2 - 1 4 ,0 0 0 li tr e s , a s w e l l a s a r a n g e o f lo g o - li k e , li g a tu r e d id e o g r a m s , a n d o th e r a d je c tiv a l p r o d u c t d is ti n c tio n s ; s e e P a lm e r 1 9 9 4 , 2 0 0 0 ) , th e r e is n o t m u c h e v id e n c e f o r th e s e p r o d u c ts c ir c u la tin g m o r e w i d e ly in th e e a s te r n M e d i te r r a n e a n u n til th e Iro n A g e . H o w e v e r, w h a t c e r ta in ly w e r e v e r y p o p u l a r in th e e a s te r n M e d i te r r a n e a n d u r in g 1 4 ,h- 1 2 th c e n tu r i e s

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b o w l s ( " p i c to r i a l k r a te r s " ; s e e F ig u r e 2 .4 e ) . B y th is tim e , m e ta l w i n e s e ts w e r e m u s t- h a v e p a r a p h e r n a l ia f o r e lite f a m il ie s a s a m e a n s o f c o n f ir m ­ in g th e ir m e m b e r s h ip

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p r o m o ti n g r e c i p r o c a l b e h a v i o u r a m o n g s t th e ir p e r c e iv e d p e e rs . P o tte r y v e r s i o n s w e r e , b y c o n tr a s t, s o m e w a y f u r th e r d o w n th e v a lu e h ie ra rc h y , a n d a lth o u g h s o m e ti m e s a ls o f o u n d in h ig h - s ta tu s c o n te x ts , w e r e n o t f o r­ m a ll y w o r th y o f m e n tio n in ro y a l c ir c l e s f o r e x a m p l e . A s S u e S h e r r a tt p u ts it n ic e l y ( 1 9 9 9 :1 9 5 ) , s u c h p o tte r y th e r e f o r e " h a s b o th le s s im p o r ta n c e a n d

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 7 2 h tt p :// s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 7 2 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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m o r e im p o r ta n c e th a n h a s o f te n b e e n a c c o r d e d i t" : le s s b e c a u s e i t is n o t s o m e th i n g in w h ic h th e p a l a c e s a n d te m p le s e v e r e x p r e s s e d a n y r e a lly in te r e s t ( W h ite la w 2 0 0 1 ; in c o n tr a s t to th e i r h ig h m o d e r n v a lu a ti o n b y a rt h is to r ia n s , a r c h a e o l o g is ts , o r th e a n ti q u i ti e s m a r k e t) a n d m o re b e c a u s e : ( 1 ) B o th p r o d u c e r s a n d tr a d e r s c le a r ly v a lu e d th e m e n o u g h to tr o u b le to m a k e , c o p y a n d d is tr i b u te th e m ; a n d ( 2 ) T h e e x te n s iv e d i s tr i b u tio n o f th e s e v e s s e ls re s ta te s th e f u n d a m e n ta l p o i n t th a t tr a n s r e g i o n a l tr a d e i n c lu d e d a s u b s ta n tia l lo w e r a n d s u b - e lite c o m p o n e n t. In a n y c a s e , th e s e m ix i n g b o w ls w e r e p r o b a b ly f ir s t m a d e in th e n o r th ­ w e s te r n P e lo p o n n e s e o f G r e e c e ( S c h a ll in 1 9 9 7 ) , b u t a re in f a c t m o r e c o m ­ m o n ly f o u n d in e x p o r t c o n te x ts e l s e w h e r e in th e e a s te r n M e d i te r r a n e a n a n d s e e m to h a v e b e e n p r o d u c e d w i th a n e x p o r t m a r k e t in m in d . In d e e d , th e ir e l a b o r a te d e c o r a ti v e s c e n e s o f c h a r io t r id i n g , b u l ls , a n d w i ld f o w l d e l ib e r a te ly e v o k e d

a c o m m o n e lite li f e s ty le th r o u g h o u t m u c h o f th e

n o r th - e a s te r n M e d i te r r a n e a n . T h e r e a r e m a n y o th e r in s ta n c e s o f s u c h m a r ­ k e tin g o f a p p a r e n tl y n o n p a la tia l p o tte r y p r o d u c ts f o r e x te r n a l m a r k e ts ( th e ju g l e ts m e n tio n e d a b o v e b e i n g a n o th e r e x c e l le n t c a s e ) , r e f l e c ti n g im p o r ­ ta n t f e e d b a c k b e tw e e n p r o d u c e r s , d is tr i b u to r s , a n d c o n s u m e r s . A f u r th e r s i g n o f h o w c o m p e ti ti v e s u c h a m a r k e t c o u ld b e is th e f a c t th a t b y th e 1 3 th- 1 2 th c e n tu r i e s

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b u t it h a s s o u g h t to e x p l o r e th e m a k i n g a n d m a r k i n g o f f o u r B r o n z e A g e c o m m o d i ti e s — m e ta l s , te x ti l e s , o i l s , a n d w i n e — a t a n e a r l y s ta g e in th e i r d e v e l o p m e n t a s f a m i l i a r c o m p o n e n ts o f M e d i te r r a n e a n li f e . In th e B r o n z e A g e , s u b s ti tu ta b l e g o o d s e v o k e d a w h o l e r a n g e o f q u a l i ty a n d q u a n ti ty d i s ti n c ti o n s a n d c i r c u l a te d in n e tw o r k s o f g i f ti n g , c o m m e r c i a l e x c h a n g e , a n d s e c o n d - o r th i r d - h a n d

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e a s y to d i s e n ta n g l e . H o w e v e r , w e d o l i ttl e to f u r th e r o u r u n d e r s ta n d ­ in g o f th e v a l u e s a s s i g n e d to s u c h o b je c ts , in B r o n z e A g e s o c i e ty o r a n y o th e r , e i th e r b y u n c r i ti c a l l y e q u a ti n g th e m w i th m o d e r n b r a n d e d g o o d s o r b y m o d e l l i n g th e ir w o r l d a s a p r e m o d e r n , n o n - W e s te r n o th e r. In f a c t, ju s t a s c a p i ta l i s m a s a n a n a l y ti c a l c o n c e p t i s b e tte r d i v o r c e d f r o m p r e ­ v i o u s l y w e d d e d n o ti o n s s u c h a s W e s te r n d e m o c r a c y o r th e P r o te s ta n t w o r k e th i c , s o , to o ( a n d a s th i s e d i te d v o l u m e s u g g e s ts m o r e g e n e r a l l y ) , th e c o n c e p t o f c o m m o d i ty b r a n d i n g is b e tte r d e c o u p l e d f r o m a n y a u to ­ m a ti c a s s o c i a ti o n s w i th p o s ti n d u s tr i a l , W e s te r n c a p i ta l i s m .

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 7 3 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 7 3 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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B r a n d s th e m s e lv e s e x i s t a t v a r i o u s le v e ls o f a b s tr a c ti o n , f r o m lo o s e id e a s a n d l i f e s ty le s , to s p e c if ic n a m e s a n d p la c e s , to th e m a r k s o n p h y s i c a l p r o d u c ts . T h e y c a n b e p r o m u lg a te d b y p r o d u c e r s , d is tr i b u to r s , o r c o n ­ s u m e r s a n d th i s m a y in v o lv e a n y c o m b in a tio n o f in d iv i d u a ls , f a m il ie s , f a c tio n s , c o m m u n i ti e s , c o r p o r a ti o n s , n a ti o n - s ta te s , a n d / o r d iv in e f ig u re s . T h e r e f o r e , w h o p r o p o s e s th e n e w r s o c i a l c o n te x ts in to w h ic h s u b s ti tu ta b l e g o o d s m i g h t f it a n d h o w is th i s a g e n c y c o n c e iv e d i n id e o lo g ic a l a n d p r a c ­ ti c a l te r m s ? F o r m o d e r n b r a n d s , e a r l y a n a ly tic a l e m p h a s i s w a s u n d e r ­ s ta n d a b l y p l a c e d o n th e d e f in i n g ro le o f th e c o r p o r a tio n a n d o f c e r ta in k in d s o f m e d ia s p e c ia li s t w h o w e r e c u l tu r a l i n te r m e d i a r i e s ( e .g ., N e g u s 2 0 0 2 ) , b u t th e e x i s te n c e o f c h e a p , f a s t, g lo b a l c o m m u n i c a ti o n n e tw o r k s , a n d w i d e s p r e a d l i te r a c y i n m u c h o f th e m o d e r n w o r l d a r g u a b l y o p e n s u p a w h o l e r a n g e o f o th e r p o s s ib il itie s th a t w e a re o n l y ju s t b e g i n n i n g to c o m p re h e n d . In th e B r o n z e A g e , th e o n ly e n titie s th a t s e e m to h a v e h a d th e c a p a c ity r e g u la r l y to s p a n lo n g - r a n g e a n d o th e r w is e a tte n u a te d c h a in s o f e c o n o m ic in te r a c tio n w e r e ru le rs , c e r ta in te m p le in s ti tu ti o n s , a n d th e u p p e r e lite a d m in is tr a to r s a n d tr a d e r s , a n d e v e n th e y d id s o te n u o u s l y a n d w i th a b r a v a d o th a t w a s n o t a lw a y s m a tc h e d b y e ith e r th e ir p r a c tic a l k n o w l e d g e o f th e lin k s in th e c h a in o r th e f o rc e s o f c o m m o d i f ic a ti o n a n d d e c o m m o d ­ if i c a ti o n th a t th e y w e r e u n l e a s h in g . E v e n s o , g o d s a n d ru le rs w e r e k e y a u th e n tic a to r s o f B r o n z e A g e v a lu e , w h e th e r o r n o t th e g o o d s in v o lv e d m o v e d in im m e d i a te ly c o m m e r c i a l c ir c u its . In d e e d , a s w i th a ll b r a n d e d c o m m o d i ti e s , i t w a s th e e x i s te n c e o f s i n g u la r o p p o s ite s — th e g o o d s th a t th e p a l a c e s a n d

te m p le s te m p o r a r ily k e p t b a c k f r o m

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w a s a r g u a b l y c r u c i a l ( f o r a n e x c e l le n t e th n o g r a p h ic e x a m p le o f h o w ro y a l in te r v e n tio n o f th is k in d m ig h t b e s tr u c tu r e d , s e e W a rn ie r, th i s v o lu m e ) . A s e c o n d a re a o f p o te n tia l c o m m o n g r o u n d is th e o n e r a is e d a t th e b e g i n n i n g o f th is c h a p te r : th e n e e d f o r g r e a te r a tte n ti o n to th e c u l tu r a l ly s p e c if ic b u t s tr u c tu r a ll y e q u i v a l e n t m o d e l s th r o u g h w h ic h p e o p le c o o r d i­ n a te th e ir s o c i a l r e l a ti o n s h ip s . R e l a tio n a l m o d e l s f r e q u e n tl y p r o v i d e th e o p e r a ti o n a l f r a m e w o r k b y w h ic h g o o d s a re c o m m o d i f ie d i n th e f ir s t p l a c e , a n d b y w h ic h th e y a re l a te r g i v e n f r e s h s o c i a l m e a n in g . In th e B r o n z e A g e M e d i te r r a n e a n a n d M i d d le E a s t, s o c ia l a n d e c o n o m i c e x c h a n g e s o f a l l k in d s w o r k e d w i th in th e c o n c e p tu a l f r a m e w o r k o f a p p r o p r ia te c o n ­ d u c t in f a m il ie s a n d s m a l l v ill a g e s to th e e x te n t th a t e v e n th e m o s t s e e m ­ in g l y g e n e r i c c o m m o d i ti e s w e r e m a d e a n d m a r k e d i n w a y s th a t c u e d f o r th e ir l a te r r e i n te g r a ti o n in to s o c i e ty in a s e t n u m b e r o f w a y s . In d e e d , w i th o u t s u c h c u e s , B r o n z e A g e tr a d e , w i th its u n f a m i l i a r d iv in e a n d ro y a l

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A c o u n te r f e ite r i l le g a l ly u s e s a c o m p a n y ' s w e l l- e s ta b li s h e d lo g o , p a c k in g , a n d r e p u ta ti o n f o r h is o w n b e n e f it. H o w e v e r , I a r g u e i n th is c h a p te r th a t a c o u n te r f e ite r m ig h t b e r e g a r d e d a s a n e c o n o m i c a n d c u l tu r a l a g e n t, a c ti­ v e ly s h a p i n g , tr a n s f o r m in g , q u a l if y i n g , a n d m e d ia ti n g b r a n d s . H e is a n a n o n y m o u s c o n tr ib u to r to th e c o l la b o r a tiv e c o n s tr u c ti o n o f a b r a n d ( W ilk 2 0 0 6 ) , a lo n g s id e r e c o g n is e d a c to r s s u c h a s m a r k e te r s , a d v e r tis e r s , r e ta il e r s , o r c e le b r itie s . B e i n g lo c a te d in th e u n d e r b e l ly o f w h a t is p u b l ic ly a c k n o w ­ l e d g e d , s u p p o r ti n g , n e v e r th e le s s , th e v i s i b l e a n d th e a c k n o w l e d g e d , h is w o r k f a ll s o u ts id e th e u s u a l ( a n d le g a l) d e f in i ti o n o f a c u l tu r a l i n te r m e d i­ a r y ( B o u r d ie u 1 9 8 4 ; N e g u s 2 0 0 2 ) a n d r e m a i n s in v is ib l e a s a re s u lt. T h is c h a p te r a d d r e s s e s i ts e l f to th is n e g le c te d c o n tr ib u tio n a n d d e ta il s th e w o r k o f a n Is ta n b u lite im it as y o n c u , th a t is , a m a k e r a n d s e lle r o f im i ta ­ tio n s , w h o h a s m a n a g e d , d e s p ite th e v a g a r ie s o f th e s o c ia l, e c o n o m i c , a n d l e g a l e n v ir o n m e n t, to tu r n th e c o u n te r f e itin g o f b r a n d s in to a p r o f e s s i o n a n d to g a in a r e l a ti v e ly s ta b le p o s itio n o n th e lo c a l m a r k e t. I d e s c r i b e th e r o u tin e s o f s u c h a b u s i n e s s , p o i n ti n g o u t h o w th i s m a n m e d ia te s v a r i­ o u s i n te r e s ts a n d ta s te s i n th e p r o c e s s o f c h o o s i n g b r a n d s to im i ta te a n d m o d e l s to m u tip ly , d e a l in g w i th m a n u f a c tu r e r s , s u p p l ie r s , a n d b u y e r s a n d m a k i n g s e n s e o f h is c u s to m e r s . H is s u c c e s s d e p e n d s o n h a v i n g th e a p p r o p r ia te c u l tu r a l c a p ita l , in th e f o r m o f k n o w l e d g e o f f a s h io n tr e n d s , b r a n d s , a n d n a m e s in th e b u s i n e s s a t th e lo c a l le v e l. In th e f ir s t p a r t o f th e c h a p te r, I p l a c e th i s c h o ic e o f a c tiv ity w i th in th e m a in c h a r a c te r 's li f e s to ry , s u g g e s ti n g th a t, i n th is c a s e , th e f a k e b r a n d c a n b e u n d e r s to o d , f o l lo w i n g B o u r d ie u ( 1 9 7 7 ) , a s th e p r i n c i p a l lo c u s f o r th e o b je c tif ic a tio n o f th e s tr u c tu r in g p r i n c i p le th a t g o v e r n s th e im it as y o n c u ’ s li f e . F u r th e r m o r e , th is c h o ic e is c o n te x tu a li s e d w i th in th e Is ta n b u l c lo th ­ in g in d u s tr y . In th e s e c o n d p a r t, I f o c u s o n e v e r y d a y li f e : f r o m th e w a y th e im it as y o n c u o b ta in s th e g o o d s in w h ic h h e is tr a d in g , to th e a r r a y o f c o m m o d i ti e s in h is s h o p , to th e e v e r y d a y a c tiv itie s o f c o n d u c tin g a f lu id b u s i n e s s , i n f r i n g i n g th e la w , a n d g e ttin g o n w i th th e w o rk .

87

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88

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C u lt u res o f C o m m o d it y B ran d in g

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c h ild r e n w h o d e m o n s tr a te a k e e n s e n s e f o r s o c i a l m a n o e u v r i n g a t a n e a r l y a g e . H e h a s a ll o w e d m e , a n a n th r o p o lo g is t in te r e s te d in f a k e b r a n d s , to d ro p b y a n y tim e I w a n t a n d to p o k e m y n o s e in to h is b u s i n e s s a n d h i s li f e . A f te r in te r v ie w s w i th p e o p le v i g i l a n t a b o u t s h a r i n g in f o r m a tio n a b o u t th e ir i l le g a l o c c u p a ti o n , I w a s lo o k i n g f o r s o m e o n e w i lli n g to s h a r e th e ju i c y s tu f f I w a n te d to k n o w a b o u t: th e d a il y p r a c tic e o f d e a l in g in f a k e b r a n d e d c lo th in g in Is ta n b u l. F ir la m a , s l o w ly r e c o v e r i n g f r o m h i s m o s t s e v e r e b lo w , a la w s u i t th a t f o r c e d h im to h id e h i s m e r c h a n d is e a n d re d u c e th e p a c e o f h is b u s i n e s s , g r a d u a lly w e l c o m e d th e a n th r o p o lo g is t w h o w a s in te r e s te d in li s te n i n g to h i s id e a s a b o u t th i s k in d o f b u s i n e s s a n d its p r o s ­ e c u ti o n a s w e l l a s th e o p p o r tu n ity i t p r e s e n te d to h im f o r s e lf - r e f le c ti o n a n d s e lf - p r e s e n ta tio n . O u r e n c o u n te r c a n b e th u s d e s c r i b e d a s a n in s ta n c e o f th e " c o m p l i c i ty o f m u tu a l in te r e s t b e tw e e n a n th r o p o lo g is t a n d in f o r ­ m a n t, s u b tl y b u t c le a r ly u n d e r s to o d b y e a c h o th e r , th a t m a k e s r a p p o r t p o s s ib le — in d e e d th a t c o n s titu te s , e v e n c o n s tr u c ts i t " ( M a r c u s 1 9 9 7 : 8 9 ) .

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F ir la m a s ta r te d h i s li f e u n d e r v e r y s tr i c t r u le s , b u t r e s p o n d e d b y s y s te m ­ a ti c a l l y r e je c ti n g th e m ; h e n e e d e d

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in d i v i d u a l r a th e r th a n th e m e r e p r o d u c t o f th e s e ru le s . H is f a th e r w a s a c o n s e r v a ti v e tr a d e r w h o tr ie d to m a k e h i s c h ild r e n d e p e n d e n t o n h is w i s d o m , e x p e r i e n c e , a n d ju d g e m e n t. T h e b o y s c a m e to w o r k i n th e b a z a a r a b o u t th e a g e o f 5 , f o r th e ir f a th e r d e c id e d q u i c k ly h o w

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T h e b o y s p e n t 4 y e a r s i n a n i m a m - h a t i p ( p r e a c h e r - p r a y e r le a d e r ) s c h o o l , a n i n s ti tu ti o n c h a r a c te r i s e d b y a n a tm o s p h e r e o f d i s c ip li n e , w h e r e th e d u ty o f th e s tu d e n ts is to o b e y a n d th e ta s k o f th e te a c h e r s is to in c u lc a te m o r a l v a lu e s a n d c o m p e l s tu d e n ts to b e a d h e r e n ts to a n d p r a c ti ti o n e r s o f M u s l i m te a c h i n g s ( P a k 2 0 0 4 ) . U p o n f i n i s h i n g th i s s c h o o l , F ir la m a r e b e l le d a n d l e f t h o m e . F o r y e a r s , h e l i v e d a c o l o u r f u l l i f e o n th e s tr e e ts , h a d a ll m a n n e r o f e x p e r i e n c e s , a n d h a d m a d e th e m o s t o f d o i n g e v e r y th i n g th a t w a s p r e v i o u s l y f o r b id d e n . H o w e v e r, F ir la m a h a d o n ly o n e w i s h f o r li f e , n a m e ly to p r o v e h im s e lf . T h e a rm y , o n e o f th e im p o r ta n t in s ti tu ti o n s re s p o n s i b le f o r th e p r o d u c tio n o f m a s c u lin i ty in T u rk e y ( K a n d iy o ti 1 9 9 4 ; N e y z i 2 0 0 1 ) , p la y e d a m a jo r ro l e in c r y s ta ll is in g h i s p e r s o n a l h a b itu s . D e m o n s tr a ti n g r e s o u r c e f u l n e s s , w it, a n d b ra v e ry , F ir la m a b e g a n to v a lu e h i s d if f e r e n c e a n d to s e a r c h f o r w a y s o f c o m b in in g h is p r e d ile c tio n f o r a d v e n tu r e w i th m o d a l itie s o f e a r n in g a li v in g a n d s i tu a tin g o n e s e l f in s o c ie ty . A s h e re c o u n ts :

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 8 9 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 8 9 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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M y f a th e r p u t th e la b e l o n m y f o re h e a d . H e said I w a s a lo se r an d n o th in g g o o d w o u ld c o m e o u t o f m e . I w a n te d to p ro v e m y s e lf to m y f a m ily . . . . So I n e e d e d to m a k e m o n e y re g u larly . I w a s u se d to m a k in g a n d tra d in g in th in g s th a t s e ll w e ll a n y w a y . M y f a th e r d id th is. L e a th e r w a s so m u c h in d e m an d in th e '6 0 s a n d '70 s . In th e '70 s c a m e f o am ru b b e r; c o tto n a n d w o o l w e re g o n e , f o am ru b b e r so ld w e ll, a n d m y f a th e r w a s in th is b u s in e s s . So m e p e o p le s ay " It is o k if I d o n 't e a rn a lo t a s lo n g as I d o n 't g e t in to tro u b le ." W ith m e it's th e o p p o s ite . I w a n t to e a rn a lo t b u t I d o n 't c are if I g e t in to tro u b le . T h a t is m y c h a ra c te r. L ittle b y little , I c a m e to re a lis e s m u g g lin g , im ita tio n a r e th e k in d o f jo b s I w o u ld m a k e m o n e y e v e ry d a y , e v e n i f th e y are d an g e ro u s o n e s.

F ir la m a c o u ld h a v e c h o s e n to e n te r d e e p e r in to th e u n d e r w o r ld o r to b e c o m e a sp y , a s th e o f f ic e r h e w o r k e d f o r d u r in g h is m il ita r y s e r v ic e e n c o u r a g e d h im , b u t s m u g g li n g a n d f a k in g s e e m e d th e b e s t o p tio n s , th e “ c l e a n e s t" o n e s . T h e r e f o r e , s i n c e th e e a r l y 1 9 8 0 s , F ir la m a h a s b e e n in v o lv e d in th e tr a d e i n f a k e b r a n d s , f a k e - b r a n d e d u n d e r w e a r i n h is c a s e . " In th o s e ti m e s ," h e r e c a l ls : T u rk e y w a s g r a d u a lly o p e n i n g to th e w o r ld . Be c a u s e w o r k m a n ­ s h ip w a s s o c h e a p , s m a rt m e rc h a n ts c a m e a n d h a d th e ir s tu f f p r o ­ d u c e d h e re . So m e b o d y a s k e d f o r C K , f o r E n g la n d , a b ig s m u g g lin g d e a l. N o b o d y k n e w o f a n y la w a g a in s t it. A n d I d id n o t e v e n k n o w th a t " C K " s to o d f o r C a lv in K le in . W e k n o w it a s C e K a b u t th e Eu ro p e a n s s a y C K . It s e ttle d in m y b r a in a s C e K a . I h a d a lre a d y th e te n d e n c y to w a rd s s u c h th i n g s , I d iv e d rig h t in . Still I h a v e n o t s u rf a c e d . T o d ay , F ir la m a o c c u p ie s a m id d l e - le v e l p o s itio n in th e m a r k e t, b e tw e e n th e b ig p la y e r s w h o in v e s t m il li o n s in th is b u s i n e s s a n d th e in s i g n if ic a n t p a r tic i p a n ts w h o s titc h p o o r ly c u t la b e ls o n c h e a p c lo th e s ; in o th e r w o r d s , he

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T w o c o n c o m i ta n t p r o c e s s e s f a v o u r e d th e p r o f ita b l e b u s i n e s s o f m a n u ­ f a c tu r i n g a n d s e l l i n g i m i ta tio n s , n a m e l y th e tr a n s f o r m a ti o n o f Is ta n b u l i n to a m a n u f a c tu r i n g s i te in th e g lo b a l c l o th i n g in d u s tr y a n d th e c i ty ' s

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 9 0 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 9 0 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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r e c a p tu r in g o f its h i s to r i c a l ro le a s a r e g i o n a l m a r k e t, w i th tr a d i n g r o u te s s p r e a d in g a c r o s s a v a s t a r e a th a t i n c lu d e s e a s te r n E u r o p e a n d th e f o r m e r S o v i e t U n io n . S i n c e th e 1 9 8 0 s , a s i g n i f i c a n t n u m b e r o f T u r k is h f ir m s h a v e e n te r e d th e w e b o f th e g l o b a l c l o th i n g in d u s tr y . T h e i r e n tr y h a s b e e n f a v o u r e d b y a c o m b i n a ti o n o f f a c to r s : a n a ti o n a l l i b e r a l p o l i c y o f s h i f ti n g to a m a r k e t- o r i e n te d b u y e r - d r iv e n e s ta b l i s h e d

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f r a n c h i s i n g a n d l i c e n s i n g a g r e e m e n ts w i th l o c a l f ir m s ; th e p r o g r e s s i v e r e m o v a l o f q u o ta s o n te x ti l e a n d c l o th i n g i m p o r ts b y th e E u r o p e a n U n io n in th e 1 9 9 0 s ; a n d th e g r a d u a l l i f ti n g o f U .S . q u o ta s l i m i ti n g i m p o r ts o f c l o th i n g f r o m d e v e l o p i n g c o u n tr i e s s i n c e th e la te 1 9 8 0 s , to g e th e r w i th ta r i f f c u ts . T u r k e y h a s e m e r g e d a s a l o w - c o s t p r o d u c e r , r a n k i n g n i n th a m o n g th e m a jo r c l o th i n g e x p o r te r s o f th e w o r l d ( W T O 2 0 0 6 ) a n d m a n u ­ f a c tu r i n g m a jo r g l o b a l b r a n d s . T h e c l o th i n g in d u s tr y is " a c a s c a d e o f o p e r a ti o n s , e a c h o f w h i c h c a n b e , a n d in p r a c ti c e is a t o n e tim e o r a n o th e r , s e p a r a te d o f f a n d s u b c o n ­ tr a c te d , c r e a ti n g a lm o s t a c o n ti n u u m

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o f s k i ll , p o w e r, a n d p r o f i ta b i l i ty " ( P e te r s e t a l. 2 0 0 2 : 2 2 9 ) . M o s t o f th e T u r k is h c o n tr a c to r s a n d s u b c o n tr a c to r s a re l o c a te d a t th e b o tto m o f th is h i e r a r c h y a s s i m p le f ir m s th a t a re r e s p o n s i b le f o r s e w i n g a n d a s s e m b l y ( h i g h l y la b o u r - in te n s iv e ta s k s ) o f g a r m e n ts , th e i r c o m p e ti ti v e n e s s ly i n g in th e r e l a ti v e l y lo w w a g e s a n d g e o g r a p h i c a l p r o x i m i ty to th e E u r o p e a n U n io n . S o m e o f th e m

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a s s e m b l y to f u l l - p a c k a g e p r o d u c tio n , a m o v e th a t b r i n g s th e b e n e f i ts o f q u a l ity , f l e x i b i l i ty a n d p r o d u c ti v i ty b y f o r c i n g m a n u f a c tu r e r s to d e v e lo p b e tte r te c h n o l o g i e s a n d s tr o n g e r tie s w i th lo c a l a n d f o r e ig n s u p p l ie r s a n d s u b c o n tr a c to r s to s a ti s f y th e d e m a n d s o f m a r k e te r s a n d r e ta il e r s . T h is , in tu r n , le a d s to b e tte r m o ti v a ti o n a n d p e r f o r m a n c e , s o th a t f ir m s le a r n h o w to " d o th i n g s b e t te r " a n d h o w to " m a k e b e tte r th i n g s " ( S c h m itz a n d K n o r r in g a 2 0 0 0 : 1 8 1 ) . Tho ugh

m a n u f a c tu r e r s th a t o p e r a te i n g l o b a l n e tw o r k s f a c e d i s ­

c o u r a g e m e n t a n d e v e n o b s ta c l e s i f th e y w a n t to u p g r a d e i n to h i g h e r v a lu e - a d d e d

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m a r k e ti n g , a n d r e ta i l i n g , a f e w T u r k i s h f i r m s h a v e s u c c e s s e d i n e v o l v ­ in g to th e p o i n t w h e r e th e y m a n u f a c tu r e o r i g i n a l b r a n d n a m e s , M a v i Je a n s b e i n g th e m o s t q u o te d e x a m p l e . M o r e o v e r , s o m e l a r g e d o m e s ­ ti c m a n u f a c tu r e r s e x p e r i e n c e d a c a u ti o u s a n d g r a d u a l tr a n s f o r m a ti o n fro m

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2003). A p r o f ita b le s i d e b u s i n e s s h a s a ls o p r o li f e r a te d in T u rk e y — th a t is , th e tr a d e in " s l i g h tl y im p e r f e c t" ite m s . K n o w n a s " e x p o r t e x c e s s " p r o d u c ts ,

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 91 h t t p :/ /s ite . e b ra ry .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 9 1 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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th e s e ite m s m a y c o n s titu te u p to 1 0 p e r c e n t o f a b r a n d ' s p ro d u c tio n . A s T o k a tli a n d K iz il g ii n ( 2 0 0 4 : 2 2 8 ) p o in t o u t: T h is m a y o r m a y n o t b e c o n sid e re d p a rt o f th e c o u n te rf e itin g b u s i­ n e ss . T h e " e x p o rt e x c e s s " a rtic le s a re n o t n e c e s s a rily " f a k e s " in th e s e n s e o f b e in g c o p ie s o f w e ll- k n o w n b ran d s , s in c e th e y a re m a n u f a c ­ tu re d a t th e s a m e f a c to rie s , to g e th e r w ith th e ite m s th a t p a ss q u a lity in s p e c tio n s , w ith o u t a n y in te n t o f c o u n te rf e itin g . R a th e r, th e y re p ­ re s e n t a " lo o p h o le " in th e n e tw o rk s , a so u rc e o f f ra g ility b y w h ic h a s ig n if ic a n t a c c u m u la tio n o f c a p ita l is p o s s ib le b y fu llp a c k a g e m a n u ­ f ac tu re rs th ro u g h th e c o lle c tio n o f u n e a rn e d b ra n d re n ts; [it] c a n b e e x p lo ite d b y s e e m in g ly p o w e rle s s m e m b e rs o f th e [ g lo b al c lo th in g in d u stry ] n e tw o rk . A lth o u g h it is im p o s s i b l e to k n o w w h ic h f ir m s ta k e a d v a n ta g e o f th is tr a d e a n d to w h a t e x te n t, th e b u s i n e s s s e e m s to b e p r o f ita b le , f o r th e e x c e s s p r o d ­ u c ts c a n b e s o ld n o t o n ly in th e d o m e s tic m a r k e t b u t a ls o in th e c o u n tr i e s o f th e f o r m e r S o v i e t U n io n a n d e a s te r n Eu r o p e . A f te r th e f a ll o f c o m m u n i s m a n d th e re o p e n in g o f th e e a s te r n E u r o p e a n a n d S o v i e t b o r d e r s , p e tty tr a d e r s f r o m a ll o v e r th is r e g io n h a v e s ta r te d to tr a v e l r e g u la r ly to T u rk e y , m a in ly to Is ta n b u l, to p u r c h a s e m o d e r a te q u a n titie s o f c o n s u m e r g o o d s , s u c h a s g a r m e n ts a n d le a th e rw e a r. K n o w n a s " s u i tc a s e tr a d e " o r " s h u ttl e tr a d e ," th i s f lo u r is h in g tra d e h a s b e e n , f o r th e m o s t p a rt, u n r e g is te r e d a n d e v a d e d ta x e s a n d c u s to m s d u ti e s a s s ta te s a re e i th e r u n w i ll in g o r u n a b le to re g u la te it ( B la c h e r 1 9 9 6 ; K e y d e r 1 9 9 9 ; K o n s ta n ti n o v 1 9 9 6 ; Y ii k s e k e r 2 0 0 4 ) . T u rk e y , f o r its p a r t, h a s tu r n e d a b lin d e y e to th is " u n e x p e c te d in f o r m a l g lo b a l iz a tio n " ( K e y d e r 1 9 9 9 : 2 2 ) b e c a u s e it re p r e s e n te d a s o u rc e o f m u c h - n e e d e d f o r e ig n c u r r e n c y f o r th e n a tio n a l e c o n o m y . A t a h ig h p o i n t i n th e m id - 1 9 9 0 s , s u itc a s e tr a d e e x p o r ts f r o m T u rk e y to th e f o r m e r S o v i e t U n io n w e r e e s ti m a te d a t $ 9 b ill io n a n n u a ll y ( U .S. c u r r e n c y ) , a s i g n if ic a n t s u m c o m p a r e d w i th T u r k e y 's o f f ic ia l e x p o r ts , w h ic h r a n g e d b e tw e e n $ 1 3 a n d $ 2 7 b i l l i o n p e r a n n u m o v e r th e d e c a d e ( Y ii k s e k e r 2 0 0 4 : 4 9 ) . A s th e im p a c t o f b r a n d n a m e s o n th e c o n s u m e r s o c i­ e tie s o f th i s r e g i o n w a s c o n s p i c o u s , s m a ll- s c a le tr a d e r s e x p r e s s e d th e ir in te r e s t in b r a n d e d g o o d s . A n d T u rk is h e n tr e p r e n e u r s o f f e re d th e m a v a r ­ ie ty o f p r o d u c ts , r a n g in g f r o m " i m p e r f e c t" b r a n d s to " p e r f e c t" f a k e s . In b r ie f , a t m a n u f a c tu r i n g s i te s o f th e g lo b a l c lo th in g in d u s try , s tr a t­ e g i e s a r e in v e n te d

to m a k e b r a n d s e s c a p e s y s te m s o f c o n tr o l, m u ta te ,

a n d p r o li f e r a te , a s lo c a l a g e n ts h a r n e s s , a p p r o p r ia te , o r d iv e r t th e p o w e r o f b r a n d f o r th e ir o w n b e n e f it. In Is ta n b u l, tr a d e in im ita tio n s e m e r g e s o u t o f o p p o r tu n iti e s s u c h a s g r o w in g m a n u f a c tu r i n g c a p a c itie s , k n o w ­ le d g e tra n s f e r, a v a ila b le te c h n o lo g y , e x c e s s p r o d u c ts , a n d l e a k a g e s a n d a n in c r e a s in g n u m b e r o f c u s to m e r s w h o a re d e m a n d in g b r a n d e d g o o d s a t a f f o r d a b le p ri c e s .

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 9 2 h tt p :// s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 9 2 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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F ir la m a o w n s a tin y s h o p in a b a z a a r to w h ic h c r o w d s th r o n g d a i l y d r if t­ in g p a s t th e s to r e f r o n ts , p e e p in g in to th e w i n d o w s , e n te r in g th e s h o p s , tu r n i n g e v e r y th in g u p s id e d o w n , b u t n o n e th e le s s b u y in g . T h e m a jo r ity o f th e g o o d s in th is s h o p a re p r o d u c e d in a r e n te d w o r k s h o p e q u ip p e d w i th h ig h - te c h a u to m a te d Ita lia n m a c h in e s th a t s p e e d u p th e p r o d u c tio n p r o c e s s a n d r e d u c e w a s ta g e o f m a te r ia ls . T h e w o r k s h o p is lo c a te d in a n e ig h b o u r h o o d o n th e A n a to li a n s i d e o f Is ta n b u l, a n d th e p r o d u c tio n o f m ic r o f i b r e s e a m l e s s " t u b e s " ( s o o n - to - b e im i ta tio n g o o d s ) ta k e s p l a c e d u r­ in g th e la te h o u r s , a f te r " n o r m a l " p r o d u c tio n — s u b c o n tr a c te d w o r k f r o m lo c a l c lo th in g c o m p a n ie s — is f in is h e d . A s F ir la m a p u ts it: " A t f iv e o ' c l o c k , th e C D s a re c h a n g e d a n d th e p r o d u c tio n s ta rts . It is th e im i ta tio n s ' tim e ! T h e r e a re n o w o r k e r s in th e w o r k s h o p , o n ly e n g in e e r s w h o k n o w h o w to h a n d l e th e m a c h in e s . T h e r e s t o f th e p e o p le w o r k in g th e r e ju s t ta k e c a r e o f th e p r o d u c ts , p a c k e d th e m f o r th e ir n e x t d e s ti n a ti o n ." F ir la m a ra r e ly n e e d s to g o to th e w o r k s h o p , a s th e p h o n e is s u f f ic ie n t f o r k e e p in g in to u c h w ith h is tr u s tw o r th y m a n , to s u p e r v is e th e m o v e m e n t o f th e g o o d s a n d to p la c e n e w o r d e rs . T h is m a n c o m e s e v e r y w e e k to th e s h o p a n d c o l le c ts th e w a g e s o f th e e m p l o y e r s a n d m o n e y f o r m a te r ia l s a n d r e p o rts o n th a t w e e k 's s itu ­ a tio n . F ir la m a r u n s th e w o r k s h o p to g e th e r w i th a p a rtn e r , th e p a r tn e r s h ip b e i n g r a th e r a " m a r r i a g e o f c o n v e n i e n c e " ; th e tw o k e e p a n e y e o n e a c h o th e r— o n e d a y k is s e s , a n o th e r d a y c u r s e s . A s F ir la m a e x p la in s :

W e b o th u se c h e c k b o o k s. W e d o n o t w a n t to h a v e a b a d re p u ta tio n a m o n g b a n k s . If y o u m e s s u p w ith o n e c h e c k , th e n y o u a re d o o m e d ! O n e f a c to ry c a n m ak e u p to 10 0,00 0 ite m s a m o n th . If I c a n 't s e ll all o f it o r s e ll to w ro n g p e o p le , th e re w ill b e tro u b le . It's all ris k y . Bu t w ith 5 0 ,0 0 0 , if I c a n 't s e ll th e m , I s till h a v e th a t a m o u n t o f m o n e y in th e s a f e b o x so th e re w i ll b e n o p ro b le m . Y o u c a n u s e c h e c k s fo r 30 y e a rs b u t w h e n y o u c a n n o t p a y o n ly o n e , y o u are f in is h e d ! T h e n y o u a re n o t w e lc o m e a t th e b a n k , y o u are n o t a b e y e fe n di [ g e n tle m an ] an y m o re !

T h o u g h te n s e , th is i s a f r u itf u l r e la tio n s h ip , w i th th e tw o ta k in g g r e a t c a re to ta r g e t d if f e r e n t c u s to m e r s a n d s u p p o r t e a c h o th e r w 'h e n o n e o f th e m d o e s n o t h a v e e n o u g h m o n e y to p a y h is p a r t o f th e f a c to r y 's e x p e n s e s . F ir la m a h a s h is o w 'n a r r a n g e m e n ts w i th o th e r w o r k s h o p s in w h ic h th e d if f e r e n t o p e r a ti o n s n e c e s s a r y f o r th e f in is h in g o f h i s p r o d u c ts c a n b e c a r r ie d o u t. A ll th e p l a c e s th r o u g h w h i c h h is g o o d s a re m o v in g , in c lu d in g s to r e h o u s e s a n d th e b a z a a r, a re s tr a te g i c a l ly p l a c e d i n v a r io u s p a r ts o f th e c ity . H o w e v e r, f r o m a d if f e r e n t p o i n t o f v ie w , th is is a n o r m a l p r o d u c tio n c h a in i n th e lo c a l c lo th in g in d u s tr y . F r o m th e r e n te d w o r k s h o p , th e tu b e s

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 9 3 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 9 3 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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a re s e n t to b e d y e d in a d if f e r e n t lo c a ti o n , in a n o th e r n e ig h b o u r h o o d o n th e A n a to li a n s id e . F ro m th e r e , g o o d s a re la te r m o v e d to a n o th e r s ite , in th e s a m e n e ig h b o u r h o o d , a p la c e w h e r e th e y e v e n tu a l ly b e c o m e im ita tio n s , w i th th e b r a n d n a m e s p r i n te d o n th e m . L o n g - la s ti n g Ita lia n p a i n t is u s e d f o r im p r in tin g , w h i c h F ir la m a b u y s a t a g o o d p r i c e b y f ir s t s e n d i n g i t to S y r ia a n d th e n r o u tin g it to Is ta n b u l th r o u g h s m u g g li n g n e tw o r k s . O n c e th e ite m s a re p a in te d a n d im p r in te d w i th b r a n d n a m e s , th e la s t s to p is a w o r k s h o p o n th e E u r o p e a n s i d e o f Is ta n b u l, w h e r e th e tu b e s a re s h a p e d in to m e n 's a n d w o m e n ' s u n d e r w e a r. C a r d b o a r d b o x e s a re p r o d u c e d in a d if f e r e n t p la c e . A p a r t o f th e s e p r o d u c ts a re s e n t to th e s h o p , a n o th e r d ir e c tly to c u s to m e r s , a n d th e re s t to s e c u r e s to r e h o u s e s . F ir la m a c h a n g e s th e ir lo c a tio n s a t le a s t o n c e a y e a r to a v o id p e r ilo u s e n c o u n te r s . T h e f in is h e d p r o d u c ts a re m ic r o f i b r e s e a m le s s u n d e r w e a r f o r m e n a n d w o m e n in d if f e r e n t c o l o u r s , a f a r g r e a te r v a r ie ty th a n c o u ld b e f o u n d in a n y o f f ic ia l s h o p . In s ty le , th e y r a n g e f r o m m e n 's b o x e r b r ie f s w i th a th i n o r w i d e w a i s tb a n d , s ta n d a r d a n d h ip s te r s ' b r ie f s , w o m e n 's b o x e r b r ie f s , g - s tr i n g th o n g s , a n d h i p s te r s ' b r ie f s . T h e r e a re a ls o f a n c ie r m o d e l s p r o ­ d u c e d m a in ly f o r b u y e r s w h o c a te r f o r m o r e s o p h is tic a te d c u s to m e r s . A t a f ir s t g la n c e , th e o n ly d if f e r e n c e s e e m s to b e th e b r a n d n a m e . H o w e v e r , s h a rp e y e s w i ll s p o t th e d e ta il in g in th e f a b r ic th a t d if f e r e n tia te s o n e b r a n d f r o m a n o th e r ; i f n o t, F ir la m a is a lw a y s k e e n to p o i n t o u t th e d if f e r e n c e s . M o s t o f th e g o o d s a re b r a n d e d A r m a n i a n d D & G , th e s a f e s t b r a n d s , a s th e s e c o r p o r a tio n s , h e in s is ts , d o n o t d e p l o y la w y e r s to p r o te c t th e ir in te r­ e s ts f r o m im ita to r s . T h is i s d e s c r i b e d d if f e r e n tly to th e c u s to m e r s , w h o a re to ld th a t th e s e tw o b r a n d s a re th e m o s t in - d e m a n d o n th e m a r k e t. M o re o v e r, o th e r p r o d u c e r s a n d r e ta il e r s o f im ita tio n s I ta lk e d to s h a re th e s a m e o p i n io n , th e ir m a in a r g u m e n ts b e i n g th e q u a n tity a n d v a r ie ty o f im ita tio n s o f th e s e b r a n d s o n th e lo c a l m a r k e t. H o w e v e r , la w y e r s a n d lo c a l a s s o c ia tio n s ( e .g ., U n ite d B r a n d s / B i r l e jm i j M a r k a l a r D e r n e g i) c la im e x a c tly th e o p p o s i te a n d g i v e e x a m p l e s o f r a id s to p r o te c t th e s e b r a n d s . In s m a lle r q u a n titie s , F ir la m a h a s C a lv in K le i n , R a lp h L a u r e n t, B jo m B o rg , D s q u a r e d , G u c c i, a n d V e r s a c e , a n d , u n d e r th e c o u n te r , H u g o B o s s a n d D ie s e l, th e m o s t d a n g e r o u s b r a n d s th e s e d a y s , w i th f i e rc e la w y e r s p r o ­ te c tin g th e ir in te re s ts . F ir la m a c o n f e s s e s to m e th a t w h a t h e li k e s th e m o s t a b o u t th is tra d e s e c to r is th a t:

I

a m n e v e r le f t w ith g o o d s th a t w e re n o t so ld . T h e re is n o su c h

th in g a s o u t-o f - f a s h io n h e re . L e t's s a y D & G is v e ry f as h io n a b le in G e r m a n y th is y e ar. In a y e a r it b e c o m e s f a s h io n a b le in e as te rn Eu ro p e . In tw o y e a rs in T u rk e y , in f o u r y e a rs in A z e rb a ija n . It g o e s lik e th is , ste p b y ste p . T h e re is a b r a n d w h o s e n a m e b e g in s w ith a D , I d o n o t re m e m b e r n o w th e n a m e . I s o ld a lo t o f th o s e th is y e a r,

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 9 4 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 9 4 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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C u lt u res o f C o m m o d it y B ran d in g

b u t I h a v e 2 0 0 0 le f t n o w in th e s to rag e . I a m n o t w o rr ie d b e c a u s e I k n o w a R o m a n ia n o r Y u g o s la v ia n c u s to m e r w ill a s k f o r th a t p ro d u c t in a y e a r o r tw o . O r it w i ll b e v e ry p o p u la r in T u rk e y . T e n y e a rs ag o n o b o d y c are d fo r D & G .

F ir la m a a ls o k e e p s o r i g in a l T u rk is h b r a n d s i n h i s s h o p to c a te r f o r lo c a l ta s te s , a s h e h im s e lf , b a z a a r tr a d e r s , a n d s o m e c u s to m e r s a re v e r y f o n d o f th e s e k in d s o f u n d e r w e a r a n d s o c k s . N e v e r th e le s s , to h is s u r p r is e , b r a n d h a s a n im p a c t e v e n o n th e s e g o o d s . A s h e p u ts it:

So m e tim e s I d o n o t u n d e r s ta n d p e o p le . W e k n o w e a c h o th e r f o r so m a n y y e ars . T h e y k n o w w h a t k in d o f p e rs o n I a m . T h e y c o m e an d se e O z tag c o tto n b o x e r b rie f s a n d w a n t to b u y . I te ll th e m it is n o t 1 00 % c o tto n , I k n o w th is v e ry w e ll, a f rie n d o f m in e m an u f a c tu re d th e m . I te ll th e m b u y th is o r th at, it m ig h t n o t b e O z ta j, b u t it is q u a lity . T h e y a re d e a f. T h e y w a n t O z ta j. T h e y w a n t a b ra n d . A s if w e a rin g b ra n d e d b o x e rs o r n o n - b ra n d e d b o x e r s is n o t th e sam e th in g . A s if th e y d o n o t s e rv e th e s a m e p u rp o s e , th a t is , to k e e p y o u r b u tto c k s . I s e ll b ra n d s , b u t s o m e tim e s I d o n o t u n d e rs ta n d w h a t are th e y g o o d fo r.

F i r l a m a 's r e a c tio n is th a t o f th e p r o d u c e r w h o k n o w s th e q u a l ity . T h e ir s is th e r e a c tio n o f th e c u s to m e r s , f o r w h o m th e b r a n d g u a r a n te e s th e q u a l­ ity . B u t th e re a re o th e r tim e s i n w h ic h , f o r e x a m p l e , F ir la m a ta k e s p r id e i n w e a r i n g a n o r i g in a l Q u ic k s ilv e r t- s h ir t. H e is a c o n s u m e r , f o r w h o m " o n e v o ic e o f th e b r a n d i s a lw a y s in f o r m a tio n a n d th e im p l ie d w a r r a n ty o f o b je c tiv e p u r ity a n d s a f e ty [ a n d ] its o th e r v o ic e is p e r s u a s i o n " ( W ilk 2006: 26). T h a n k s to h is n u m e r o u s c o n n e c tio n s a m o n g c lo th in g m a n u f a c tu r e r s , F ir la m a a ls o tr a d e s in im p e r f e c t ite m s ( d e fo lu ) a n d n o n b r a n d e d g o o d s th a t h e tr a n s f o r m s in to f a k e s b y i m p r in ti n g b r a n d n a m e s o r s e w in g la b e l s a n d lo g o s o n th e m . T h o u g h a g r e a t d e a l o f i n f o r m a tio n a b o u t s u c h o p p o r tu n i­ tie s c a n b e le a r n e d in f a c e - to - f a c e m e e tin g s o r b y p h o n e , h e e m p l o y s a n e x p e r ie n c e d o l d e r m a n to c o m b th e c lo th in g m a n u f a c tu r i n g d i s tr i c ts o f th e c ity in s e a r c h o f q u a l ity p r o d u c ts th a t c a n b e r o u te d th r o u g h h i s b u s i ­ n e s s . F ir la m a r a r e l y n e e d s to g o in p e r s o n to s e ttle a d e a l th a t th is m a n tr a c e s d o w n , f o r, h a v i n g b e e n a r o u n d f o r s o m a n y y e a r s , p e o p le k n o w h im , p u t s to c k i n h i s w o r d s a n d a re p r e p a r e d to d o b u s i n e s s w i th h is e m p l o y e e . T h is m a n g iv e s p e r io d ic a l r e p o r ts b y p h o n e , k e e p in g F ir la m a w 'ell in f o r m e d a b o u t n o v e ltie s o n th e m a r k e t a n d b u y s in h is n a m e w h a t­ e v e r h e k n o w s w i ll m e e t h is e m p l o y e r ' s s ta n d a r d s , b e i t th r e a d , p a in t, f a b r ic , la b e l s , o r f in is h e d p r o d u c ts . H e d r o p s b y th e s h o p to b r i n g s a m ­ p l e s o n l y w h e n h e n e e d s F i r l a m a 's o p i n io n a n d h is k n o w l e d g e o f f a s h io n

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 9 5 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 9 5 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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tr e n d s . S a m p le s a re c a r e f u lly s c r u tin is e d w i th e x p e r t e y e s th a t k n o w g o o d tr im m in g s a n d s e a m s a n d e x p e r ie n c e d h a n d s th a t c a n e v a lu a te th e f a b ­ ric s . T h o u g h F ir la m a d o e s b e l i e v e in a n d b e n e f i t f r o m th i s m a n 's a b ili ty to d is c e r n g o o d q u a l ity th i n g s , i n th e e n d , i t is o n l y F ir la m a w h o d e c id e s w h ic h p r o d u c ts a re m a r k e ta b le a n d w h ic h h a v e th e p o te n tia l to b e c o m e c o n v in c in g f a k e s th a t c a n b e d is p la y e d i n h i s s h o p n e x t to th e im ita tio n s h e m a n u f a c tu r e s . F ir la m a s h o w s m e s o m e o f th i s m a n 's d is c o v e r ie s . O n e e x a m p l e is a s m a l l s e r ie s o f s l ig h tly i m p e r f e c t w h ite a n d b la c k g - s tr i n g th o n g s , o f a b e tte r q u a l ity th a n th o s e h e c a n m a n u f a c tu r e , o n w h o s e w a i s tb a n d h e i m p r in te d A r m a n i a n d D & G . S e v e r a l tim e s , I w i tn e s s h im c la i m in g th e s e a re o r i g in a l ite m s a n d th e n re g r e ttin g h a v i n g d o n e th is , n o t o n ly b e c a u s e h e is n o t b e li e v e d a n d th e c u s to m e r s b u y n o th in g in th e e n d , b u t a ls o b e c a u s e h e r e a lis e s th a t h e is th e r e b y a d m ittin g th a t h is o th e r p r o d u c ts a re o f a n in f e r io r q u a lity . S o m e w h ite c a m is o le s a re a n o th e r lu c k y f in d . S o o n a f te r th e y a r r iv e d in th e s h o p , h e s ta r ts to ta lk th e m u p , te ll in g e v e r y o n e th e y a re id e n tic a l to a m o d e l f r o m th e b r a n d ' s n e x t s e a s o n c o lle c tio n . H e p u ts o n e ite m o n th e ta b le , ta k e s a ta p e m e a s u r e , a n d b e g in s th e d e m o n s tr a tio n :

T h e m arg in , 2 c e n tim e tre s. T h e re s t, 4 7 c e n tim e tre s, e x a c tly a s th e o rig in a l. T h e n th e re a re th e c o lo u rs : b lu e a s b lu e as A rm a n i's b lu e , w h ite a s w h ite a s A rm a n i's w h ite , b la c k a s b la c k a s A r m a n i's b la c k , c y c la m e n m o re b e a u tif u l th a n A rm a n i's c y c lam e n . A n d th e b ran d n a m e im p rin te d w ith Ita lia n p ain t. T h e y w ill s e ll lik e h o t c ak e s , b e su re o f th is , m y frie n d .

H e te lls th is to e v e r y v is i to r w h o c r o s s e s th e s h o p 's th r e s h o ld th e w e e k h e re c e iv e d th e c a m is o le s . W h e n th e y a re n o lo n g e r n e w a r r i v a l s a n d n o t s e lli n g li k e h o t c a k e s , h e a d d s m a tc h i n g b o x e r b r ie f s a n d a d v e r tis e s th e m a s a s e t. A p a r t o f th e c y c la m e n s to c k is re d y e d b l a c k a n d th e b r a n d n a m e is c h a n g e d to D & G . L o n g a f te r, w h e n I h e lp h im a r r a n g e th e s h e lv e s , h e re c o u n ts h o w h is m a n f o u n d th e m o n th e m a r k e t, f in is h e d w h ite p r o d u c ts , a n d h o w th e y b o th li k e d th e m a n d d e c id e d to tu rn th e m in to f a k e s . T h e 2 a n d 4 7 c e n tim e tr e s s to r y I o n c e h e a r d w a s in v e n te d o n th e s p o t in a n a tte m p t to c o n v in c e h is v is i to r to b u y th e m e r c h a n d is e . F ir la m a h im s e lf is a b u y e r o f c o tto n u n d e r w e a r, w o r k in g w i th s e v e r a l m a n u f a c tu r e r s a t th e s a m e tim e , a c c e p tin g th e ir p r o d u c ts , o r d e m a n d in g m o d e ls th a t h e k n o w s h e c a n s e ll f o r g o o d p r o f it th r o u g h h i s o w n n e tw o r k o f b u y e r s a n d c u s to m e r s . F ro m o n e o f h is p a r tn e r s , f o r e x a m p l e , h e b u y s s tr e tc h c o tto n b o x e r b r ie f s w i th a th in w a is tb a n d . A t th e b e g in n in g , th e ite m s w e r e o f e x c e l le n t q u a lity , e x tr a s to c k o f a n o u td a te m o d e l th a t a f o r­ e ig n b u y e r h a d r e f u s e d . F ir la m a b o u g h t th a t s to c k , s o ld i t v e r y w e l l, a n d

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 9 6 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 9 6 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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d e c id e d to w o r k a g a in w i th th a t m a n u f a c tu re r. A s u s u a l, h e f ir s t d is c u s s e d th e m o d e l w i th h is y o u n g a p p re n tic e . T h e b o y is f o n d o f tr y in g a ll th e s e n e w p r o d u c ts a n d f e e d s b a c k h is e x p e r ie n c e a n d d e ta il s a b o u t th e ir f i t o n th e b o d y . A n d , a s th e b o y li k e s to s h o w o f f in f r o n t o f h i s f r ie n d s , h e c a n re p o r t o n th e ir re a c tio n s . F ir la m a a n d h is a p p r e n ti c e a g r e e d to c h a n g e th e o r i g in a l d e s i g n s lig h tly , d e c id i n g o n a n o th e r c o l o u r s c h e m e , e n la r g in g th e f r o n t p a r t, c h o o s i n g s m a l le r la b e l s a n d m o r e b r a n d n a m e s , a n d a ls o o r d e r ­ in g b u tto n - f l y b o x e r b r ie f s in th e s a m e f a b ri c . S in c e th e n , F i r l a m a 's p a r tn e r h a s b e e n re s p o n s i b le f o r th e w h o le m a n u f a c tu r i n g p r o c e s s , a n d a s a re s u lt, w a i s tb a n d s a re r o u g h e r a n d la b e l s c a r e l e s s l y c u t. N e v e r th e le s s , th e y s e ll w e l l a n d b r in g g o o d p ro f it. F ir la m a a n d h is a p p r e n ti c e c o n s ta n tl y r e a r r a n g e th e s h e l v e s a n d th e p i le s o n th e f lo o r a n d f ill u p th e e m p ty s p a c e s w i th p a tie n c e a n d i n g e n u ­ ity . T h e f r o n t c o u n te r d e s e r v e s s p e c ia l a tte n ti o n , f o r th i s is th e f ir s t to f a ll v ic tim to th e e a g e r h a n d s o f th e c u s to m e r s . A f te r e v e r y v is i t, th e p a ir s o f u n d e r w e a r a re a g a in n e a tly a li g n e d a n d w r a p p e d s o th a t th e ir b r a n d re m a in s v is ib le . H u g e b u n d le s a re s e t d o w n b y p o r te r s in f r o n t o f th e s h o p a f e w tim e s p e r w e e k a n d th e ir c o n te n t is q u ic k ly d iv id e d b e tw e e n th e s h o p a n d th e n e a r b y s to re h o u s e . T h u s , th o u g h c r a m m e d f u ll w i th g o o d s , th e s h o p is a lw a y s tid y a n d r e a d y to b e e x p lo re d .

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E a g e r to s e ll h i s p r o d u c ts , F ir la m a w a i ts f o r v is ito r s : s i ttin g o n a s to o l a t th e e n tr a n c e to th e s h o p , s m o k in g , s i p p in g te a , ta lk i n g w i th o th e r m e r c h a n ts , e a v e s d r o p p i n g o n th e e b b a n d f lo w o f c o n v e r s a tio n s , a n d s c r u tin is i n g th e b a z a a r alle y . T h e e a r n e s t s h o p k e e p e r s p r in g s to h i s f e e t w h e n e v e r c u s to m ­ e r s a p p r o a c h , w e l c o m in g th e m w ith h o n e y e d w o r d s , e n c o u r a g in g th e m to ru m m a g e th r o u g h th e s h e lv e s . " L o o k ! A r m a n i! D o lc e & G a b b a n a ! " s o m e c ry , th r il le d . " Y e s , sir, I h a v e th e m a ll. In s i x te e n c o l o u r s . Y e s ," F ir la m a re p ­ li e s , w a i ti n g to ta k e th e ir o rd e r, te m p tin g th e m w i th m o re c o l o u r s th a n th o s e d is p la y e d a t th e c o u n te r. O c c a s io n a ll y , h e g o e s in to d e ta il s r e g a r­ d in g th e m a n u f a c tu r i n g , e m p h a s i s in g th e e x c e l le n t c h o ic e th e c u s to m e r is a b o u t to m a k e , f o r h is s e ll s f o r € 2 q u a l ity p r o d u c ts th a t in th e o f f ic ia l s h o p c o s ts € 4 0 . F o r a ll th e c u s to m e r s , th e p r i c e s a re f ix e d , Y T L 5 ( T u rk is h c u rr e n c y , e q u a l to $ 3 U S C ) a p a ir, Y T L 6 a p a ir, d e p e n d i n g o n th e d a y a n d th e s h o p k e e p e r 's m o o d . N e v e r th e le s s , F ir la m a r a r e ly f o r g e ts to e m p h a s is e th a t th i s is a s p e c ia l o f f e r, " o n l y f o r y o u , m y f r ie n d , b e c a u s e I li k e y o u ." T h e b o th e r s o m e c u s to m e r s , w h o im a g i n e th a t th e y c a n g e t a d is c o u n t b y b u y i n g th r e e p a i r s in s te a d o f tw o , a re c u t s h o r t a n d le f t a lo n e to p o n d e r w h e th e r th e y w a n t to b u y o r n o t. " B a r g a in in g , a s i f h e b u y s a c a r ," F ir la m a u s u a l ly c o m m e n ts , p u tti n g b a c k o n th e s h e l v e s th e th in g s th a t s e e m e d to o e x p e n s iv e to h is c u s to m e r. T h e h e s i ta te r s a re s h o w n d if f e r e n t ite m s in th e

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 9 7 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 9 7 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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h o p e th e y w o u ld f in a ll y r e a c h a d e c is io n , b u t m a n y tim e s th e ir o b v io u s p le a s u r e in tu r n i n g th e s h o p u p s id e d o w n i n d is p o s e s th e s h o p k e e p e r . T h e f e w n a if s , w h o th i n k th a t th e y h a v e m a d e a lu c k y f i n d , b r a n d s f o r a f r a c tio n o f th e ir p r i c e , a re a s s u re d th e g o o d s a re im i ta tio n s , b u t q u a l­ ity p r o d u c ts , h a rd to f in d in o th e r b a z a a r s h o p s u n l e s s th e s h o p k e e p e r s a re h is c li e n ts . D u r in g th e s e e n c o u n te r s , w i th o u t e x c e p ti o n , th e r e c o m e s a m o m e n t w h e n b o th p a r tie s s tr e tc h th e u n d e r w e a r, F ir la m a to d e m o s tr a te th e ir r e s is ta n c e a n d q u a l ity , th e c u s to m e r s to c h e c k w h e th e r th e y s u it th e m o r n o t. R a r e ly w i ll o n e le a v e w i th ju s t o n e p a ir, f o r th e r e is n o h a r m in b u y i n g m o re , th in g s b e in g d ir t c h e a p i n th is s h o p , p e o p le o f te n th in k a lo u d . F ir la m a in v ite s th o s e c u s to m e r s w h o b u y f r o m h im f o r th e f ir s t tim e to im m e d i a te ly w a s h a n d w e a r a p a i r to a s s e s s q u a l ity v ia c o n s u m p tio n . T h e y w i ll li k e h is p r o d u c ts a n d w i ll re tu r n to b u y m o re , h e is c e r ta in . " I a m h e r e . Y o u c a n f in d m e a g a i n ," h e s a y s , in s te a d o f g o o d b y e . N o w a n d th e n a g ita te d b a z a a r s h o p k e e p e r s , w h o s e ll F ir la m a 's p r o d ­ u c ts a t a m a r k - u p , r u s h in to th e s h o p , in u r g e n t n e e d o f a r tic le s in a c e r ta in c o lo u r, s i z e , o r b r a n d . " I w i ll ta k e f if ty p a ir s , w h ite , b l a c k a n d g re y , a ll s i z e s , a ll b r a n d s , f o r th e w h o l e w e e k ," o n e p l a c e s th e o rd e r, q u ite d e te r ­ m in e d . " M y f r ie n d , I n e e d r ig h t n o w th r e e b la c k p a ir s , I h a v e a c li e n t in m y s h o p , it d o e s n o t m a tte r w h a t b r a n d , ju s t h u r r y u p ," a n o th e r u tte r s a t o n c e , b r e a th i n g h e a v ily w i th e f f o r t, o n ly to b r in g th e m b a c k , f e w m in u te s la te r, a p o l o g i s in g , a g a in in o n e b r e a th , b e c a u s e th e c li e n t h a s c h a n g e d h i s m in d . " G i v e m e th e s e x i e s t c o l o u r s y o u h a v e , b ro th e r, b u t o n ly A r m a n i ," s p e a k s a n o th e r, i n q u i te a h u m d r u m m a n n e r. T h e y a re p r o m p tl y s e r v e d a n d th e n u m b e r o f ite m s th e y ta k e is w r i tte n o n th e ir p a g e in F i r l a m a 's n o te b o o k , th e m o n e y b e in g c o lle c te d la te r, u s u a l ly a t th e e n d o f th e w e e k . F ir la m a is th e s u p p l ie r f o r te n s o f s u c h s m a l l- s c a le b u y e r s f r o m th e b a z a a r a n d its v ic in ity , b u t th e s e p a r tn e r s h i p s a re o f s h o r t d u r a tio n a n d m o s t o f th e s m a l l- s c a le b u y e r s a re b a d a t s e ttli n g th e ir d e b ts . T h e s e s h o p ­ k e e p e r s e a r n a liv in g f r o m s e lli n g g o o d s w d th th e h ig h e s t p o s s ib le p r o f it to o c c a s i o n a l c u s to m e r s . F o r g in g lo n g - l a s tin g re l a ti o n s h ip s w i th s m a ll- s c a le b u y e r s a n d c u s to m e r s is n o t a th i n g th e y w o r r y a b o u t. T h e r e f o r e , th e y c a n q u i c k ly c h a n g e th e ir s u p p lie r , o n c o n d itio n th a t th e p r o d u c ts a re c h e a p e r. T a k in g th i s in to c o n s i d e r a tio n , F ir la m a is o p e n to w o r k in g w i th a n y n e w s h o p k e e p e r w h o w a n ts to b u y h is g o o d s , p r o v id e d th a t th is m a n h a s s o m e ­ o n e to in tr o d u c e h im a n d s p e a k o n h is b e h a lf , c o n f ir m i n g th a t h e is tr u s t­ w o r th y a n d th a t h is s h o p is w e l l p o s itio n e d . Im p o r ta n t b u y e r s w h o

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p h o n e , u s u a l l y la r g e o n e s , to b e s e n t to n e a r b y p l a c e s , d i s ta n t to u r is t r e s o r ts , o r a b r o a d . T h e s e a r e h a r d - e a r n e d a n d w e l l - e s ta b l i s h e d r e l a ti o n ­ s h ip s th r o u g h w h ic h F ir la m a s e l l s a s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t o f h i s m e r c h a n d is e . A t th e s e tim e s , th e r e is a l o t o f w o r k to d o . F ir la m a s u m m o n s h i s a p p r e n ­ tic e to h e lp h im a r r a n g e th i n g s . H e li k e s to d o s u c h th i n g s a s q u i c k l y a s

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 9 8 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 9 8 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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p o s s i b l e a n d , c o n s e q u e n tl y , th e s e a re th e tim e s w h e n th e b o y is s c o l d e d f o r f a i l i n g to k e e p p a c e . P a c k e ts a re b u n d l e d u p , w r a p p e d in p l a s tic , f a s ­ te n e d w i th r u b b e r b a n d b a n d s , a n d le f t in f r o n t o f th e s h o p , r e a d y to b e p i c k e d b y p o r te r s f r o m th e c a r g o c o m p a n y F ir la m a is w o r k i n g w ith . H e g iv e s th e c a r g o c o m p a n y h i s f u l l n a m e a n d a d d r e s s , a h a b i t m a n y o th e r s c o n s i d e r f o o l is h . F ir la m a r e a s o n s th a t in c a s e s o m e th i n g b a d d o e s h a p ­ p e n , e v e r y b o d y w i l l b e c o m e a s tr a n g e r a ll o f a s u d d e n (h e r k e z F r an s iz o lu y o r ) , d e n y in g a ll r e s p o n s ib il ity .

B e s id e s c u s to m e r s a n d o th e r s h o p k e e p e r s , f r ie n d s , tr u s th w o r th y p a r t­ n e r s , a n d s e r io u s b u y e r s c r o s s F ir la m a 's th r e s h o ld . T h e y a re o f f e re d te a , a c ig a r e tte , a n d a c h a t, a n d th e y r e je c t n o n e . In ju s tic e s th e y h a v e s u f f e re d , u s u a l ly u n p a id d e b ts , a re e a g e r ly r e c o u n te d , th e m e n s e e th i n g w i th in d ig ­ n a ti o n , u tte r i n g h a r s h b u t w e l l- d e s e r v e d

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p e r s o n , F ir la m a is th e b e s t a u d i e n c e , h is m o s t tr e n c h a n t c r itic i s m b e in g re s e r v e d f o r th e f ic k le c h a r a c te r s , th e ig n o r a n ts , a n d th e lia rs . D o in g b u s i ­ n e s s in Is ta n b u l, e s p e c ia l ly d o i n g th is k in d o f b u s i n e s s , m e a n s h e n e e d s to k e e p h im s e lf w e l l in f o r m e d a b o u t p e o p le a n d e v e n ts , th e la te s t s c a n d a ls , a n d th e h o te s t n e w s . A ll th e s to r i e s a n d a ll th e p e o p le a re s o e n ta n g le d in th i s w o r l d , s u c h th a t " th e l i a r ' s c a n d le w i ll n o t l a s t f o r e v e r ," a w a y o f s a y ­ in g th a t s o o n e r o r l a te r w r o n g s a n d b e tr a y a ls a re d is c o v e r e d . In th is w a y , p a r tic i p a n ts d is till p i e c e s o f n o te w o r th y in f o r m a tio n f r o m th e g o s s ip a n d a ll u s io n s la v is h ly d is p e n s e d o n th e s e o c c a s i o n s . F ir la m a e x p l a in s w h a t th e s e e n c o u n te r s a re g o o d f o r: L a st m o n th in A n taly a , a g u y w e n t b a n k ru p t. T e n m in u te s late r, e v e ry o n e in Ista n b u l f o u n d o u t. It w o r k s th is w a y . If I c a n n o t p a y a c h e c k I h a v e w ritte n , it w i ll b e h e a rd a ll o v e r T u rk e y in 10 m in u te s. Frie n d s le t y o u k n o w , w arn y o u to b e c a re f u l w h e n ap p ro ac h e d b y a c e rta in m an . W h e n a s tra n g e r c o m e s h e re a n d s a y s h e w a n ts to d o b u s in e s s w ith m e , I a s k w h o e ls e in th e trad e h e k n o w s , w h e re is h is sh o p , a n d th e n I c h e c k i f h e h a s b e tra y e d o th e r im ita tio n s e lle rs , if h e p ay s re g u la rly w h a t h e h a s to p a y , i f h is s h o p is in d e e d a t a n ic e p lac e . If h e is a tra d e r w h o h a s b e e n a ro u n d , e v e n if I d o n o t k n o w h im , m o s t p ro b a b ly a f rie n d o f m in e w ill k n o w h im a n d te ll m e w h a t k in d o f g u y h e is. M y f rie n d sa y s , f o r e x a m p le , " T h is o n e d o e s n o t p a y o n tim e ," so I a m s u d d e n ly o u t o f g o o d s . O r " T h is o n e w ill c au s e n o tr o u b le ," so it m e an s I c a n tru s t h im a n d b e h a v e a c c o rd in g ly . A n d th is f rie n d o f m in e w ill b e m y g u a ra n to r, h e w ill h a v e to p a y in c ase th e o th e r d o e s n o t, o r, a t le a st I w ill g o to h im a n d c o m p la in , th re a t­ e n , d is c re d it th a t g u y . I d o th is. W h e n e v e r I h a v e a p ro b le m , I le t e v e ry o n e k n o w . D u r in g th e s e e n c o u n te r s , F ir la m a d o e s n o t m is s a c h a n c e to ta lk u p h is g o o d s.

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 9 9 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 9 9 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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D e p e n d in g o n th e a u d i e n c e , h is in te n tio n is e i th e r to c o n v in c e th e m to b u y o r to c o n s o l id a te h is im a g e a s a s u c c e s s f u l tra d e r a n d p r o f e s s i o n a l im i­ t as y o n c u . In th o s e m o m e n ts , a s th e y say , h is to n g u e is h u n g i n th e m id d le

a n d w a g s a t b o th e n d s . T h e h ig h - te c h f a c to r y , th e c le v e r w a y in w h ic h h is b u s i n e s s i s o r g a n is e d , th e q u a l ity o f th e p r o d u c ts , th e n e w m o d e l s , th e n e w b r a n d s , a ll e d d y a r o u n d in th o s e to r r e n ts o f w o rd s . H e p r e s e n ts th e n e w an d

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d e s ir a b le , s p e c if y in g th e ir a v a i la b il ity , a n d o f te n r e f e r r in g to h o w

w e l l r e c e iv e d th e y h a v e b e e n w i th o th e r b u y e r s a n d h o w c r a z y c u s to m ­ e r s in th is a n d th a t lo c a ti o n a re a b o u t th e m . H e f ir m ly b e li e v e s th a t d ir e c t e n g a g e m e n t w i th th e p r o d u c ts is th e m o s t c o n v in c in g s e lli n g s tra te g y , s o h e p e r s u a d e s h is v is i to r s to to u c h th e f a b r ic s a n d te a c h e s th e m h o w q u a l­ ity f e e ls . S o m e tim e s h e s e n d s h is a p p r e n tic e to b o r r o w a p a i r f r o m a n o th e r. T h e v is i to r s a re in s tr u c te d in h o w to c o m p a r e th e d if f e r e n t ite m s a n d a d m it h is p r o d u c ts a re b e tte r . In tu r n , th e v is i to r s w a n t to k n o w w h ic h g o o d s a re m a n u f a c tu r e d b y h im a n d w h ic h a re n o t. T h e l a s te s t ru m o u r, th e y say , is th a t s o m e tr a d e r s a re i n f a c t d e a lin g in g o o d s m a d e in C h i n a , b u t c la i m in g th a t th e y a re m a d e in T u rk e y . A s i t is h a r d , i f n o t im p o s s ib le , to f in d o u t th e m a n u f a c tu r i n g d e ta il s o f th e s e g o o d s , it is b e tte r to a v o id th e m , s o m e in s is t. F ir la m a a s s u r e s h is in te r l o c u to r s a ll th e g o o d s in h is s h o p , m a n u f a c ­ tu re d b y h im o r n o t, a re o f g o o d q u a lity . B u y in g a n d s e lli n g q u a l ity is th e m o s t p r o f ita b le b u s i n e s s s tra te g y , b o th p a r tie s o f te n c o n c lu d e . R a r e ly d o th e s e v is i to r s n e e d th e g o o d s to b e id e n tic a l im i ta tio n s , r e p r o d u c i n g in th e s m a l le s t d e ta il s th e ir o f f ic ia l c o u n te r p a r ts . F ir la m a c a n n o t p r o v id e id e n ti­ c a l c o p ie s b u t h e c a n o f f e r q u a l ity c o p i e s in a w i d e r ra n g e o f c o l o u r s th a n a b r a n d ' s o f f ic ia l p r o d u c tio n . S e g m e n ta ti o n a n d ta r g e tin g a re th u s a ls o c h a r ­ a c te r is ti c s o f th e m a r k e t o f f a k e b r a n d s ( E n tw i s tle 2 0 0 6 ) . F ir la m a c o n f id e n tly

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n e w e s t b r a n d s , n a m e s th e y h a v e n e v e r h e a r d o f , b u t w h ic h w i ll b e s o o n d e m a n d e d . B u r b e r ry , D s q u a r e d , R a lp h L a u r e n , o r B jo r n B o rg , h e r e c ite s , w i th d if f ic u lty . T h e y a re k in d l y r e q u e s te d to k e e p h im in m in d a s th e ir p o s s ib le tr u s th w o r th y s u p p l ie r o f th e s e n e w b r a n d s . In b r ie f , e v e r y th in g in th i s s h o p is s p e c ia l a n d w h a te v e r n e w d e a l th e v is i to r s a n d h e d e c id e o n it is m e a n t to b e a n u n h e a r d - o f p r o d u c t a n d a n ir r e s is ti b le o f f e r. F o r F ir la m a h a s th e r e p u ta ti o n o f b e in g a k n o w l e d g e a b le p e r s o n , th e o n e w h o c a n te ll w h a t is f a s h io n a b le , w h a t b r a n d s a re d e m a n d e d , w h o m a n u f a c tu r e s w h a t, w h o h a s th e te c h n o lo g y f o r p r o d u c in g c e r ta in th in g s , w rh a t to d o i f th e re is tro u b le w i th la w y e r s a n d p o lic e .

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 0 0 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 0 0 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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a n d d i s c u s s th e ir m a r k e ta b ili ty . H i s o w n ta s te is c r i ti c a l to s e le c ta b ili ty . S o m e o n e s h o w s h i m s e v e r a l p a i r s o f s tr e tc h c o tto n b o x e r b r i e f s , b r a n d e d Ed H a r d y a n d L a M a r tin a , f o r e x a m p l e . T h o u g h b o th b r a n d s s e ll w e l l n o w a d a y s , F ir la m a is n o t a t a ll im p r e s s e d . T h e lo g o is im p r in te d w i th q u a l ity p a i n t a n d th e f a b r i c is o f a n a c c e p ta b l e q u a lity , b u t th e c u t f o r h im is e n tir e l y w r o n g , n o t f itte d f o r a m a n ' s b o d y . H is p a r tn e r d id n o t w a n t to l i s te n to h i s a d v i c e a n d in v e s te d a c o n s i d e r a b l e a m o u n t o f m o n e y in m e r c h a n d is e c u t th is w a y a n d n o w th e y c r o w d h i s s to r e h o u s e . F ir la m a d o e s n o t w a n t to m a k e th e s a m e m is ta k e . D o i n g b u s i n e s s m e a n s a s s u m ­ in g r is k s b u t n o t m a k in g m is ta k e s r e g a r d i n g th e p r o d u c ts , h e r e m i n d s h i s in te r l o c u to r s . D u r in g th e s e e n c o u n te r s , e v e r y o n e h a s a s u c c e s s f u l s to r y to s h a re . F i r l a m a 's m o s t re c e n t o n e is a b o u t B jo m Bo rg . " H a v e n ' t y o u h e a r d o f th is b r a n d y e t? " h e in te r r o g a te s h is c o m p a n io n . A f e w p a i r s o f o r ig in a l B jo m B o r g c o tto n b o x e r b r ie f s r e m a i n e d i n h i s s h o p f o r m o n th s u n til F ir la m a m a d e u p h i s m in d a n d b o u g h t th e w h o le s to c k o f a f a c to r y th a t w a s s e ll ­ in g it o n th e lo c a l m a r k e t a f te r i t w a s re f u s e d b y a f o r e ig n b u y e r , a 1 - w e e k d e la y b e in g th e f a c to r y 's o n ly f a u lt. F ir la m a is n o w p r o u d o f b e in g th e o n ly s h o p k e e p e r in th e b a z a a r w h o c a n o f f e r th is b r a n d a n d c o n te n t to h a v e m a n y c u s to m e r s b u y i n g w i th o u t th i n k in g tw ic e . H a d th e s e c o tto n b o x e r b r i e f s in b r ig h t c o l o u r s b e e n p r o d u c e d b y a T u rk is h c o m p a n y , h e c o m m e n ts , n o b o d y w o u ld e v e n lo o k a t th e m . " B o x e r s h o r ts w i th f lo w e r s o r f l i e s ," h e r e p e a ts s e v e r a l tim e s , s c o rn f u lly . " I t is th e b r a n d n a m e th a t th r il ls e v e r y o n e ," h e b itte r ly re m a rk s . T o s o m e o f h is g u e s ts , F ir la m a r e v e a l s h is n e w e s t a n d d e a r e s t p la n . H e w a n ts to r e g i s te r h is o w n b r a n d , w h o s e n a m e w i ll b e H e r e a n d w h o s e lo g o w i ll b e a n a r r o w p o i n ti n g d o w n , a je s t h e h o p e s w i ll lu r e p e o p le in to b u y ­ in g h is g o o d s . N e e d le s s to s ay , h e w i ll c o n tin u e to s e ll im i ta tio n s , b u t u n d e r th e c o u n te r , f o r th e p u n is h m e n t is m o r e s e v e r e in th e c a s e o f a n o w n e r o f a b r a n d f o u n d to b e s e lli n g f a k e b r a n d e d g o o d s . N o t a ll th o s e e n te r in g F i r l a m a 's s h o p a re w e lc o m e , b u t h e f in d s w a y s o f ta k in g a d v a n ta g e o f th e s e m e e tin g s , to o . F o r e v e n in a te n s e e n c o u n te r th e r e m ig h t b e a n o p p o r tu n ity f o r p r a i s in g th e g o o d s . E v e n to a b a d p a y e r, tu r n i n g u p a f te r m o n th s in w h ic h h e d id n o t a n s w e r th e p h o n e , n e w a r r iv a ls m ig h t b e in tr o d u c e d . T h e s e m e n m a k e s u c h u n e x p e c te d v is i ts th a t th e s h o p k e e p e r is le f t s p e e c h le s s f o r a m o m e n t. " H e r e y o u a r e ," F ir la m a h u f f s , a s e c o n d la te r, e y e s re d w i th f u ry , a n d h e b r i s k l y p u ll s o u t a n o te b o o k k e p t u n d e r a p i le o n th e s h e l f . " A tw o - p a g e - l o n g d e b t," " a 1 - y e a r d e b t," h e s n a p s a t th e m a n d r e a d s th e d a te s a t w h ic h s u c h a n d s u c h q u a n tity w a s p u r c h a s e d . A f te r h a r s h r e m a r k s , th e m a tte r s a re s e ttle d a n d th e p a g e s to rn f r o m th e n o te b o o k .

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 101 h t t p :/ /s ite . e b ra ry .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 0 1 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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R a r e ly d o s u c h m e n le a v e im m e d ia te ly . U s u a ll y th e y d a r e to a s k w h a t e l s e th e y m ig h t b e o f f e r e d . R a p i d ly , F i r l a m a 's f a c e tu rn s f r o m s u lk to c o r ­ d ia l ity a n d w h e n h e s p e a k s a g a in h is v o ic e d o e s n o t h a v e th e s a m e c o a r s e to n e a s b e f o r e . T h e n e w e s t a n d m o s t e x p e n s iv e m o d e l s a re f ir s t s h o w n , th e c la s s ic a l m o d e l s in d a r in g c o l o u r s f o llo w a n d s o o n a n d s o f o r th , f o r m a n y a m in u te s . " H o w m u c h is th i s ? " " D o e s i t s e ll w e l l ? " a re th e c o m ­ m e n t h e u s u a l ly e l ic its . T h e r e a re c a s e s in w h ic h h is o f f e r s a re r e f u s e d , o n e b y o n e . A lte r n a tiv e s a re s u g g e s te d , d if f e r e n t s h o p s , w i th c h e a p e r s tu f f , Y T L 2 .5 in s te a d o f Y T L 3 .5 , h is p ri c e . H o w e v e r, F ir la m a , a n n o y e d a g a in , e m p h a s i s e s th a t th o u g h s e e m in g id e n tic a l , th o s e g o o d s a re p o ly e s te r , in s h a rp c o n tr a s t to h is f in e - q u a li ty th in g s . " F o r c e th e f a b r ic n e a r th e s titc h e s a n d y o u w i ll g e t a la d d e r i n a f e w s e c o n d s ," h e f r o w n s a n d p u r s e s h is lip s . " B e s i d e s , th e y c h e a t th e c u s to m e r s , s e ll in g 1 0 p a ir p a c k e ts m in u s o n e o r tw o , a ll s i z e s p a c k e ts m in u s o n e s i z e . It is u p to y o u , m y b ro th e r. I c a n g iv e y o u th e ir b u s i n e s s c a r d , y o u c a n c a ll th e m r ig h t n o w ," h e s u g g e s ts . U p o n th e ir d e p a r tu r e , F ir la m a m u tte r s u n d e r h is b re a th : " C h e a p n e s s , th is is w h a t h e w a n ts , n o t im i ta tio n s . A t le a s t, I g o t m y m o n e y b a c k ." So m e d o re tu rn l a te r a n d b u y h is m e r c h a n d is e . O th e r s d o n o t. In s o m e c a s e s , s o lv in g f in a n c ia l is s u e s n e c e s s ita te s m o r e th a n th e s im p le a c t o f g iv i n g o r r e c e i v in g c a s h o r c h e q u e s . B la n d is h m e n ts a n d a p p e a ls to e v e r y k n o w n s o c ia l tie m a y b e s o m e o f th e a lte r n a tiv e te c h n i q u e s , b u t e q u a lly p o s s ib le a re g r o v e l li n g a n d h a u g h tin e s s , th r e a ts a n d s h o u tin g . T h e e n d o f th e w o r k in g w e e k is p a r tic u la r l y e x h a u s ti n g f o r F ir la m a ; th e re a re n u m e r o u s p h o n e c a ll s to b e m a d e to r e m in d p e o p le th a t th e y o w e h im m o n e y , a s h e h a s to p a y h is e m p l o y e e s a n d c o v e r th e w o r k s h o p ' s e x p e n s e s . In th e m o r n in g , F ir la m a c o n s u lts h is n o te b o o k a n d te ll s h is a p p r e n tic e f r o m w h ic h s h o p s in th e b a z a a r h e h a s to c o l l e c t m o n e y . C h a i n - s m o k in g a s h e tr ie s to re a c h p e o p le b y c e ll p h o n e , h e f lie s in to a te m p e r e v e r y tim e o n e p r o m i s e s h e w i ll p a y a v is i t in h a l f a n h o u r a n d b r i n g th e d e b t, u s in g th e e x a c t w o r d s a s h e d id a w e e k a g o , a m o n th a g o , a y e a r a g o . N e x t c o m e th e c a lc u la tio n s , a n d F ir la m a p l u n g e s in to s i le n c e , a g r u m p y tr a d e s m a n , e v a lu a tin g th e p ro f it, p l a n n in g th e f u tu r e m o v e m e n ts , d e c id ­ in g w h a t b i l l s to p a y a n d w h a t p u r c h a s e s to m a k e f o r th e w o r k s h o p , a n d th e n r e c o n s id e r i n g e v e r y th in g a n d d r a w i n g u p a n a lte r n a tiv e p la n . " In th i s n o te b o o k o f m i n e ," h e e x p l a in s , " th e r e a re w r i tte n Y T L 1 4 0 0 0 0 , a ll tr a n s a c ti o n s d e p e n d i n g o n a w o r d o r a p ro m is e . T h e r e is n o s o li d p r o o f , n o w r i tte n c o n tr a c ts . It c a n ' t b e w rr itte n w i th im i ta tio n s , o f c o u r s e . It is i l l e g a l ." In th i s w o r l d , b u s i n e s s p ro p o s i ti o n s a re c a r e f u lly p o n d e r e d o v e r, f o r e v e r y o n e h a s b e e n c h e a te d b e f o r e a n d f o r e v e r y o n e k n o w s th e lo c a l h a b i t o f b r a g g in g a n d p r o m i s i n g , o n ly to f o r g e t s e c o n d s la te r. B u s in e s s its e l f is f lu id a n d e v e r c h a n g in g , r e q u ir in g o n g o i n g m a in te n a n c e g iv e n th a t re l a ti o n s h ip s w i th o th e r p r o d u c e r s , s u p p lie r s , a n d tr a d e r s a re e a s ily lo s t, b r o k e n , a n d re f a s h io n e d .

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 0 2 h tt p :// s it e . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 0 2 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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B o u n c i n g b a c k f r o m h is w o r s t d is a s te r s , F ir la m a h a s m a d e a n e f f o r t a t c a r v in g o u t a p l a c e f o r h im s e lf in th e m a r k e tp la c e . A t th e s a m e tim e , h e h a s b u i lt a r e p u ta ti o n a s a n h o n e s t a n d r e lia b le tra d e r. A s h e e x p l a in s to h is c h a tte r b o x o f a n a p p r e n tic e a n d m e : I d o n o t b e h a v e im m o ra lly an d th e c u s to m e r p r e f e rs m e . Bu y e rs c a ll a n d m a k e a n o rd e r, th e y d o n o t e v e r c o m e h e re . I h a v e b u y e rs f ro m A n ta ly a th a t I d o n o t re m e m b e r w h a t th e y lo o k lik e . I s e n d th e g o o d s , th e y s e n d m y m o n e y . If I d o n o t h a v e th e p ro d u c t th e y a s k , I c a ll, te ll th e m an d s u g g e s t a n a lte rn ativ e . If th e y ag re e , w e s e n d th e m . Fo r in s ta n c e , th e re a re n o w th re e b o x e s I p re p a re d in m y d e p o t. T h e c u s to m e r n e v e r c a m e h e re . It is s o d if f ic u lt to c o m e h e re f ro m M a c e d o n ia . H e s e n t m e € 3 ,6 0 0 , h e w an ts 2 ,0 0 0 ite m s , h e se n t th e list. I p re p a re d e x a c tly w h a t is o n th e lis t, b e c a u s e I d o n 't w a n t to lo se th e tru s t o f th is g u y . W h e n th e tran s p o rta tio n is re a d y , h e w ill te ll m e a n d I w ill se n d th e g o o d s . H e is s u r e I w ill n o t c h e a t h im , I a m su re h e w ill n o t f o rg e t m e . It is a s s im p le a s th is. If y o u d o n o t h a v e g o o d in te n tio n s , y o u c a n n o t b e su re a b o u t th e c u s to m e r 's c o n sta n c y . If y o u a re h o n e s t to th e c u s to m e r, h e w ill lik e y o u e v e n if h e is f ro m N e w G u in e a ! M o re o v e r, F ir la m a f e e ls b o u n d to r e m in d u s th a t: T h e o n e s w h o liv e o r w o rk w i th o u t d is c ip lin e a re d e s tin e d to lo s e in th e e n d . I w a s li k e th a t u n til 1 9 9 4 . 1 lo s t s o m e th in g lik e o n e m illio n d o lla rs a n d th o u g h t to m y s e lf if I h a d ta k e n th e s e p re c a u tio n s , th is w o u ld n o t h a p p e n . A f te r th a t I b e c a m e m o re d is c ip lin e d an d e a rn e d th e m o n e y I lo s t. I h a v e c e rta in ru le s . In m y rig h t p o c k e t I h a v e m y m o n e y to s p e n d b u t I n e v e r to u c h th e m o n e y in m y le f t p o c k e t. I h a v e m y " d e a th m o n e y " a t h o m e , I m e an s ic k n e s s , I c an o n ly s p e n d th a t m o n e y in c a s e o f s ic k n e s s. I h a v e s u c h s tric t ru le s . If m y s p e n d in g m o n e y in m y rig h t p o c k e t is f in is h e d , I d o n o t g o a n y w h e re . I g o h o m e a n d a v o id s p e n d in g a n y th in g . If I re a lly h a v e to b u y s o m e th i n g I u s e m y c r e d it c a rd . I n e v e r to u c h m y le f t p o c k e t. If I d id , m y c h e c k s w o u ld b o u n c e an d I w o u ld g e t in to d e b t. It is m y s h o p 's m o n e y . D o in g b u s i n e s s re q u ir e s c a r e f u l th o u g h t a n d m o d e r a ti o n , g o o d c a s h f lo w , a n d

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re s u lt in lo s in g e v e r y th in g . In th e ir w o r l d , a b a n k r u p t tr a d e r is a n o b o d y . Id e a lly , F ir la m a in s is ts , th e tr a d e r m u s t p u t h is w h o l e h e a r t in to h is w o r k a n d m u s t b e h o n e s t a n d th rif ty . T h e n h e w i ll p r o s p e r a n d h is s h o p a n d s to r e h o u s e s w i ll b e f u ll to th e b rim .

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 0 3 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 0 3 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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Eff o rt m u s t b e p u t in to m a k in g f ra u d s to o . I m a k e th e p ro d u c ts th e w a y M e rc e d e s d o e s , I a lw a y s m a k e th e m a te ria l lik e th e w a y it sh o u ld b e p ro d u c e d . Fo r in s ta n c e , I h a v e m a d e th is p ro d u c t v e ry n ic e ly , if I d o n o t h a v e it s e w e d w ith m e rc e ris e d f ib re , it w ill b e to rn in le s s th an 2 m o n th s . M o re , if I d o n o t p u t th is in to w a te r w ith th e c h e m ic a ls th a t s o f te n th e f a b ric , th e c o s t w ill d e c re a se a b it, b u t th e n u m b e r o f m y c u s to m e rs w i ll a ls o d e c re a s e . T h is p r o d u c t o f m in e h a s a w h o le s a le p ric e o f € 1.80 . Bu t in a n o th e r p la c e I c a n fin d y o u th e s a m e k in d o f b o x e r s h o rts f o r € 1 .3 0 o r €1.60. H e re it w rite s 90 % m ic ro f ib re a n d 10% e las tan . W e c a n tak e th is to a te x tile la b a n d te st it. If w h a t is w ritte n is n o t tru e I a m p re p a re d to lo se a ll m y b e lo n g ­ in g s in c o u rt. O r y o u c a n tak e th e s h o rts a n d m ak e m e w e a r th e m o n m y h e a d ! I c o u ld m a k e th is 1 00% s y n th e tic a n d w rite th e s am e th in g , an d th e n I w o u ld s e ll it to y o u f o r € 1 .5 0 . T h e o n ly lie h e re is th a t it w rite s " m a d e in Ita ly ." Ev e ry th in g e l s e is tru e . If I w ro te " m a d e in T u rk e y " I w o u ld n o t e v e n h a v e th e c h a n c e to s e ll it. T h e n it w o u ld n o t b e im ita tio n . It w o u ld b e p o in tle s s.

S e lli n g q u a l ity im i ta tio n s is w h a t k e e p s F ir la m a in b u s i n e s s . " A s lo n g a s y o u r p r o d u c ts a r e g o o d , n o b o d y c a n to u c h y o u in th is b u s i n e s s . E x c e p t f o r th e la w y e r s , o f c o u r s e ," h e p o i n ts o u t. F ir la m a w a s f ir s tl y c a u g h t in 2 0 0 1 , b e c a u s e o f a r id i c u l o u s m is ta k e . T h e n u m b e r o f th e f la t th a t h e u s e d a s a s to r a g e p l a c e a n d th e n u m b e r o f th e b u i ld in g w e r e th e s a m e , a p u r e c o in c id e n c e . A te a m o f la w y e r s w a s lo o k ­ in g f o r th e g r o u n d f lo o r s h o p , to m a k e a r o u tin e in s p e c ti o n . H is e m p lo y e e h a p p e n e d to b e s m o k in g a c ig a r e tte in f r o n t o f th e e n tr a n c e a t th e w r o n g tim e a n d c a n d id ly a n s w e r e d th e ir q u e s tio n , in d ic a tin g th a t n u m b e r 5 6 w a s o n th e f if th f lo o r. T h e la w y e r s e n te r e d p a r a d i s e , a f la t f ille d w i th f a k e b r a n d e d g o o d s , a n d F ir la m a f a c e d a h e a v y f in e a n d y e a r s in ja i l . T h e p u n ­ is h m e n t w a s , h o w e v e r , p o s tp o n e d f o r 5 y e a r s , f o r th is is th e p e r io d a f te r w h ic h th e f ile s a re c le a r e d , a le g a l tr ic k f o r w h o s e a p p l ic a tio n Fir la m a g e n ­ e r o u s l y b r ib e d la w y e r s a n d ju d g e s . C o n s e q u e n tly , h e to o k m o r e p r e c a u ­ tio n s , c h a n g in g th e lo c a ti o n o f h is p r o d u c tio n s ite s m o r e f re q u e n tly , h id in g th e s to r e h o u s e s e v e n b e tte r , a r r a n g in g f o r th e b a n k to s e q u e s te r s o m e o f h is p r o p e r tie s , a n d s tr e n g th e n in g h i s tie s w i th lo c a l p o l itic i a n s , la w y e r s , a n d u n d e r w o r ld le a d e r s . L a s t tim e , F ir la m a w a s c a u g h t in h is s h o p , b u t k e p t h im s e lf o u t o f f u r th e r tr o u b le b y h a lf - b r ib in g a n d h a lf - th r e a te n in g th e la w y e r w h o p a i d th e im p o r tu n a te v is it. O v e r th e la s t f e w y e a r s , e f f o r ts to c o m b a t c o n te r f e i ti n g h a v e in te n s if i e d , b u t f o r s o m e o n e li k e F ir la m a , w h o li v e d a c o lo u r f u l li f e w h e n h e w a s y o u n g a n d w h o w a s im p r is o n e d s e v e r a l tim e s f o r s m u g g li n g ,

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 0 4 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 0 4 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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th e s e p ro b le m s w ith th e law a re lik e f a iry ta le s f o r m e . I d o n o t c are ! It is a s e rio u s th in g , I m u s t a d m it, b u t m o re th a n a n y th in g e lse , it is c o m ic a l. P u re c o m e d y ! T h e m o s t im p o rta n t th in g : y o u h a v e to g o to c o u rt c le a n - s h a v e d . Y o u h a v e to p u t o n a n ic e s u it, b u tto n it o n th e f ro n t. Sta n d u p lik e a s o ld ie r in f ro n t o f th e ju d g e a n d n e v e r a d m it to h a v e s o ld a n y th in g . Y o u w ill n o t g e t p u n ish m e n t, y o u d o n o t e v e n n e e d to h ire a la w y e r, th e s tate g e ts y o u o n e . Su p p o s e th e la w y e r is an id io t, d o e s n o t o p e n h is m o u th . W e d o n o t ris k g o i n g to c o u rt c o u n tin g o n a law y e r! W e c o u n t o n o u rs e lv e s . " I d id n o t s e ll." N o b o d y c a n p ro v e a n y th in g th e n . I h a v e b e e n s e llin g th is s tu f f fo r 2 0 y e ars , tru e , b u t in c o u rt " I d id n o t s e ll! " If y o u p la y s tu p id lik e y o u d o n o t h a v e a c lu e a b o u t w h a t h a p p e n e d a t th e sh o p , y o u w ill c o n v in c e th e ju d g e . I p la y it re a lly w e ll b u t th e ju d g e k n o w s m e b y n o w . I h a v e b e e n c a u g h t th irte e n tim e s , e v e n th e ju d g e s e e s m e an d say s " W e lc o m e ." T h is is h o w c o rru p te d th e s itu atio n is.

F ir la m a h a s b e c o m e s o m e h o w b l a s e a b o u t it, a n d a lth o u g h h e s tr e s s ­ e s th e d a n g e r o u s s i d e o f h is p r o f e s s i o n f r o m tim e to tim e , h e i s k e e n o n e m p h a s i s in g its d o w n - to - e a r th s id e . It m ig h t lo o k s e r io u s to b e c o n f r o n te d b y c o r p o r a tio n s a n d p o lic e , b u t in re a l li f e b r ib e s s m o o th e o u t e v e r y th in g ( F ir la m a r a r e l y m e n tio n s th e d a r k e r s id e , th e o r g a n is e d c r im e a n d th r e a ts o f d e a th , f o r h e d o e s n o t s e e h i m s e l f a s p a r t o f th is s to r y ) . T h is is n o r m a l lif e , a f te r a ll. F o r h is p a r t, F ir la m a d e c id e d th a t w h a t h e is d o in g is n o t a c r im e a n d h e is n o t a c r im in a l. H e s u p p o r ts h is o w n p o s itio n b y p o i n ti n g o u t th e in f la te d c h a r a c te r o f th e b ra n d :

Is n 't it a c rim e to s e ll w h a t c o s t y o u €2 fo r € 4 0? O r is it a c rim e to s e ll it fo r € 3 ? Y o u d e c id e . I n e v e r try to ta k e a n y b o d y 's m o n e y . I d o n o t h a v e an y b a d re c o rd s w ith b a n k s o r th e ta x o ff ic e . I d o n o t h a v e a p ro b le m w ith th e s ta te o r p e o p le in p e rso n . I d o n o t m e s s w ith p e o p le , b u t w ith th e b ra n d s. Be c a u s e it is m y m a jo r. L ik e y o u h av e y o u r m a s te rs d e g re e , I h a v e th is. I a m in th e im ita tio n b u s in e s s a n d I o n ly u se a c e ll p h o n e , n o e m a ils a n d s u c h . Y o u c a n g iv e m y f u ll n am e to T u rk c e ll to le a rn m y p h o n e n u m b e r, th a t is h o w u n w o rrie d I am . I d o n 't f e e l th e n e e d to k e e p m y n u m b e r s e c re t. I d o n o t try to ru n a w ay , I a m n o t a sh am e d th a t I d o im ita tio n . If a c o m p a n y d o e s n o t f e e l s h a m e to m a k e th is p ro d u c t f o r 10 lira s a n d s e ll it f o r 2 0 0 lira s, th e n I a m n o t a s h a m e d to m a k e th e im ita tio n o f it a n d s e ll it f o r 4 liras. T h e y a re m a k in g f o o ls o f p e o p le . T h e y a re th e o n e s w h o sh o u ld b e a s h a m e d o f th e m s e lv e s . If th e y d o n o t w a n t u s to im ita te th e y s h o u ld m a k e s o m e th in g th a t w e c a n n o t im ita te , th a t w e d o n o t d a re to im ita te . T h e n w e w o u ld a d m ire th e p ro d u c t. Bu t w h e n th e p ro d ­ u c t is n o th in g s p e c ia l, it is o n ly th e n a m e o f th e b r a n d th a t is so ld .

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 0 5 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 0 5 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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T h e y a re s e llin g th e n am e . I a m s e llin g th e s am e n a m e f o r c h e a p e r b u t th e s a m e q u a lity .

M o re o v e r , in s te a d o f th e d e r o g a to r y la b e l th a t la w y e r s , u s u a lly , u s e to d e s i g n a te g o o d s li k e h is , th a t is , c o u n te r f e ite d b r a n d s (s a h t e m ar k alar ) , F ir la m a p r e f e r s th e te r m " i m i ta ti o n s " ( im it as y o n lar , t aklit m ar k ala r ) , a te rm th a t in d ic a te s a t le a s t s o m e th i n g o f th e w o r k a n d v a lu e g o i n g in to th e ir p ro ­ d u c tio n . H o w e v e r, th e r e a re a ls o m o m e n ts in w h ic h h is a tti tu d e tu r n s f r o m c o n f id e n c e a n d d e f ia n c e to b itte r n e s s . " I h e a r d th a t n o w a d a y s , i f y o u ty p e a n a m e o n th e in te r n e t, a ll th e la w s u its o f th a t p e r s o n w i ll p o p u p . I h a v e m a n y , s o m a n y . O n e m ig h t th i n k I a m a b a d p e r s o n . B u t I d o i m i ta tio n s ." A f te r a b ig , e a r l y s h if t f r o m c o n f o r m i ty a n d il le g a lity , F ir la m a h a s f o u n d a n ic h e f o r h im s e lf a n d , th r o u g h it, a m o r a l ity th a t h e is c o m f o r ta b le w ith , a n d th a t h a s m u c h s m a l le r o s c i ll a ti o n s b e tw e e n c o n v e n ti o n a l m o r a l ity a n d ille g a lity . H e th u s ta lk s a b o u t h o n e s ty a n d re lia b ility , th e q u a l ity o f h is p r o d u c ts , a n d th e c o m p l ic ity o f th e s ta te in th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e g r a y e c o n o m i c a re a in w h ic h h e o p e r a te s . L ik e m a n y i n f o r m a l / il lic i t e n tr e p r e ­ n e u r s f r o m o th e r p a r ts o f th e w o r l d w h o in h a b i t a n d w o r k w i th in th e in te r­ s tic e s b e tw e e n f o r m a l / in f o r m a l a n d L ic it/ illic it a n d w h o a re a w a re o f th e w a y s i n w h ic h m a in s tr e a m s o c ie ty m a r g i n a l is e s a n d c r im i n a l is e s th e m a s th e u n e m p lo y e d p o o r, s m u g g le r s , c o u n te r f e ite r s , o r m a f ia s , F ir la m a s tr iv e s to ju s ti f y h is w a y o f e a r n in g a li v in g to h im s e lf a n d o th e r s ( M i lla r 2 0 0 8 ; R o itm a n 2 0 0 6 ; T o ra n z o R o c a 1 9 9 7 ) . M o re o v e r, h e p o i n ts o u t th a t h e is a n in te g r a l a c to r in th e p r o d u c tio n a n d r e p r o d u c tio n o f th e g lo b a l e c o n o m y . T h e w a y in w h ic h o r d in a r y a c to r s , li k e F ir la m a , m a k e s e n s e o f th e ir w o r k c a n h e lp u s u n d e r s ta n d th e p r e s e n t " r e a l i ti e s o f e c o n o m ie s a n d le g a li tie s " ( G a le m b a 2 0 0 8 : 2 3 ) a n d , I w o u ld a d d , m o r a litie s ( e m p h a s e s a d d e d ) .

C o n c l u s io n

M a k i n g f a k e b r a n d e d c lo th in g is a n a c tiv ity li k e a " s p a r k ," I w a s to ld in Is ta n b u l. A m o n g th e c o n n o ta ti o n s th is im a g e m ig h t r a is e , o n e c o u ld re f e r to th e p r o d u c e r h im s e lf , a p o s itiv e c o n n o ta ti o n o f s h a r p n e s s , e n e rg y , a n d c re a tiv ity . T h is a r tic le m a k e s a s im ila r c la im : T h e p r o d u c e r o f im ita tio n s o f b r a n d e d g o o d s m ig h t b e re g a r d e d a s a n e c o n o m i c a n d c u l tu r a l a g e n t. H o w e v e r, F i r l a m a 's p o s itio n is a p a r a d o x i c a l o n e . H e h a s a c q u ir e d s o p h is tic a te d

k n o w l e d g e o f th e m a te r ia l s tr a te g i e s th a t a re in v e s te d in

th e p r o d u c tio n o f c lo th in g b r a n d s . A s te c h n o lo g i c a l u p g r a d in g u n d e r th e in f lu e n c e o f g lo b a l c lo th in g in d u s tr y b e c a m e p o s s ib le , h e e n g a g e d in th e m a n u f a c tu r i n g o f q u a l ity im ita tio n s . H e h a s m a d e h is o w n c o n tr ib u tio n to c o n s o l id a tin g th e id e a th a t th e b r a n d n a m e is th e p a r a m o u n t in g r e d ie n t o f a d e s i r a b le c o m m o d i ty b u t, a t th e s a m e tim e , h e h a s c o m e to d is re g a rd th e m y th s w i th w h ic h b r a n d s a re la y e r e d . H e h a s b u i l t h is r e p u ta ti o n a s

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 0 6 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 0 6 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

106

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C u lt u r es o f C o m m o d it y B r an d in g

a n h o n e s t a n d k n o w l e d g e a b le tr a d e r a n d , s i m u lta n e o u s ly , g r o w n a w a r e o f th e n e g a tiv e c o n n o ta ti o n s a n d m o r a l c o n d e m n a ti o n a s s o c ia te d w i th h is a c tiv itie s . In a w a y , F i r l a m a 's d il e m m a is a n in d iv id u a l v e r s i o n o f th e s o c ie ta l d il e m m a o f e m b r a c in g a n d , a t th e s a m e tim e , c o n d e m n in g im ita tio n s . F a k e b r a n d s a r e p a r t o f a p e r v a s i v e m a te r ia l p r e s e n c e w h o s e h is to r y s p a n s c e n tu r i e s , w h o s e d is tr i b u tio n c o v e r s v a s t a re a s , a n d w h ic h m o v e s b e tw e e n s o c ia l s tra ta . T h e s e o b je c ts e x i s t b e c a u s e " w e a d m ir e th e u n i q u e , th e n w e re p r o d u c e it: f a ith f u lly , f a tu o u s ly , f a ith le s s ly , f o r tu i to u s l y " ( S c h w a r tz 1 9 9 6 : 1 6 ) . H o w e v e r, in s p ite o f th is p e r v a s i v e n e s s , f a k e s a re d e n ig r a te d . A d e e p ly in g r a in e d c u l tu r a l l o g ic o f " e i th e r / o r " b in a r ie s p r i v i le g e s o n e te r m a t th e e x p e n s e o f th e o th e r. T h e f a k e is c a u g h t in s u c h a n o p p o s i ti o n a n d is s u b ­ o r d in a te d to th e o r ig in a l. A n d f a k in g is r e g a r d e d a s a n in h e r e n tly s e c o n d ra te a n d p o te n tia l ly s h a d y a c tiv ity . H o w e v e r, th is b i n a r y lo g ic c o e x is ts w i th a n u n d e r s ta n d i n g ( a n d a p p r e c ia tio n ) o f th e s h a d e s , f o r p r o d u c e r s a n d c o n s u m e r s a s w e l l a s la w y e r s f a v o u r o n e p o s itio n o r a n o th e r , d e p e n d ­ in g o n th e c ir c u m s ta n c e s a n d th e ir a g e n d a . T h e tr a n s a c ti o n a l p r o p e r tie s o f f a k e b r a n d s a re b a s e d o n m a te r ia l p r o p e r tie s , lo g o a n d la b e l in c lu d e d , a n d in te r p e r s o n a l re l a ti o n s h ip s b e tw e e n m a n u f a c tu r e r s , b u y e r s , a n d c u s ­ to m e rs . A s c lo th e s a re th e k in d o f g o o d s w h o s e q u a l ity c a n b e a s c e r ta in e d b e f o r e p u r c h a s in g , a n d c lo th in g is a d o m a i n in w h ic h in f o r m a l c o n n o is s e u r s h ip c a n b e a c h ie v e d , th e a s s u m e d s e p a r a tio n o f b r a n d s a n d f a k e s in to d if f e r e n t re g im e s o f v a lu e b e c o m e s p r o b le m a ti c . T h e w o r k o f th is p r o d u c e r o f f a k e c lo th in g b r a n d s a ls o r e v e a ls th e c o n ­ tr a d ic to r y n a tu r e o f b ra n d . F a k e b r a n d e d g a r m e n ts a re e a s y to p r o d u c e . S o m e tim e s a ll it ta k e s is s titc h in g a la b e l o n a p ie c e o f g a rm e n t. F a k e b r a n d ­ e d g a r m e n ts a re e a s y to p r o d u c e b e c a u s e s ta n d a r d is e d c lo th e s a re e a s y to m a n u f a c tu r e . F u r th e r m o r e , f a k e b r a n d s a re e a s y to p r o d u c e b e c a u s e o f th e tr a n s f e r o f te c h n o lo g y a n d k n o w l e d g e th a t ta k e s p l a c e in a m a n u f a c tu r i n g s i te o f th e g lo b a l c lo th in g in d u s tr y . T h e e n d le s s p r o lif e r a ti o n o f b r a n d s is n o t o n ly a m a tte r o f a v a il a b le te c h n o lo g y a n d k n o w - h o w b u t a ls o o f c e a s e le s s re c y c l in g o f r e m a in s o f th e b r a n d p r o d u c tio n . T h e r e f o r e , i t is th e b r a n d i ts e lf th a t c r e a te s its " o th e r ." F o r th e b r a n d p r o m i s e s q u a l ity a n d d is ti n c tio n , a n d , a t s ite s o f its m a n u f a c ­ tu re , th e in e v ita b le c o n c o m ita n ts a re f a k e s a n d f a il u re s . T h e f o r m e r is k e p t a t a d is ta n c e w i th th e h e lp o f in te r n a tio n a l p r o p e r ty r ig h ts le g is la tio n . T h e la tte r is s e t a s i d e th r o u g h th e d e f in i ti o n o f q u a lity . T h o u g h m a n u f a c tu r e d w i th d if f e r e n t in te n tio n s , f a k e to p a s s f o r b r a n d , f a il u r e to b e b r a n d , in th e e n d , th e tw o a re s im ila r, m a te r ia l is i n g th e o th e r. B r a n d th e n c o n s tr u c ts its e l f a g a in s t th i s o th e r, d if f e r e n ti a ti n g its e l f le g a lly a n d te c h n ic a lly . F a k e b r a n d s c i r c u l a te w i th i n a n u n c o n tr o l l a b l e a l te r n a ti v e e c o n o m y o f v a l u e w h o s e c h a r a c te r d e m a n d s d e e p e r a n a l y s i s , a s th e u p g r a d i n g o f m a n u f a c tu r i n g

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. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 0 7 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 0 7 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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ity c h a l l e n g e s th e u s u a l a s s u m p ti o n s a n d r e q u ir e a m o r e d i v e r s e a n d e n c o m p a s s i n g p e r s p e c ti v e ( M i lle r 2 0 0 8 : 2 3 ) o n b r a n d i n g ' s c o n tr a d i c ti o n s a n d c o m p r o m is e s .

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1. A c k n o w l e d g e m e n ts : T h e f ie ld r e s e a r c h o n w h ic h th is c h a p te r is b a s e d w a s s u p p o r te d b y g r a n ts o f th e R o m a n i a n C u ltu r a l In s titu te a n d M a ri e C u r i e S o c A n th p r o g r a m m e . I th a n k th e m f o r th is s u p p o r t. I w o u ld a ls o li k e to th a n k th e o r g a n is e r s o f th e C u l tu r e s o f C o m m o d ity B r a n d in g c o n f e r e n c e , D a v id

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D . W e n g ro w , " P re h is to r ie s o f C o m m o d ity

Bra n d in g ." C u r r e n t A n t h r o p o lo g y 4 9 :2 3. N e g u s , K . 2 002. T h e w o rk o f c u ltu ra l m te rm e d ia rie s a n d th e e n d u rin g d is tan c e b e tw e e n p ro d u c tio n a n d c o n su m p tio n . C u lt u ral S t u d ie s 1 6 :5 0 1 - 1 5 .

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 0 8 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 0 8 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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T o k a tl i , N . 2 003. G lo b a liz a tio n a n d th e c h a n g in g c lo th in g in d u s try in Tu rk ey . E n v ir o n m e n t an d P lan n in g A 3 5 :1 8 7 7 - 9 4 .

T o k a tl i , N . an d O . K iz ilg u n . 200 4 . U p g ra d in g in th e g lo b a l c lo th in g in d u s try : M a v i je a n s an d th e tra n sf o rm a tio n o f a T u rk is h firm f ro m f u ll- p a c k a g e to b ra n d - n a m e m a n u f a c tu rin g an d re tailin g . E c o n o m ic G eo g r ap h y 8 0 :2 2 1 - 4 0 . T o ra n z o R o c a , C . F. 1997. In f o rm a l a n d illic it e c o n o m ie s a n d th e ro le o f n a r­ c o traf f ic k in g . In M . B. L e o n s a n d H . Sa n a b ria ( Ed s .) , C o c a, C o c ain e, an d t he B o liv ian R e alit y : 1 9 5 - 2 1 0 . A lb a n y : State U n iv e rs ity o f N e w Y o rk P re ss.

W ilk , R . 2 0 0 6 . Bo ttle d w ater. T h e p u re c o m m o d ity in th e a g e o f b ra n d in g . Jo u r n al o f C o n s u m e r C u lt u r e 6 :3 0 3 - 2 5 .

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b o o k s p _ e / a n re p _ e / w o rld _ tra d e _ re p o rt0 6 _ e .p d f (a c c e ss e d 31 M a rc h , 2 01 0) . Y iik se k e r, D . 200 4 . T ru st a n d g e n d e r in a tra n s n a tio n a l m a rk e t: T h e p u b lic c u l­ tu re o f L a le li, Is ta n b u l. P u blic C u lt u r e 1 6 :4 7 - 6 5 .

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 0 9 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 0 9 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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S ta tis ti c s f r e q u e n tly s h o w th a t B r a z il a n d C h in a a r e th e g r e a te s t c o n s u m e r s o f f a k e a n d p ir a te d g o o d s in th e w o r l d .2 T h e r e a s o n g iv e n f o r th is k in d o f c o n s u m p tio n is u s u a l ly th a t b o th n a ti o n s a re d e v e lo p in g c o u n tr i e s m a r k e d b y a a le v e l o f s o c ia l s tr a tif ic a tio n th a t s e ts p o o r a n d ri c h f ir m ly a p a rt. F ro m th is p e r s p e c tiv e , p o v e rty , o r ra th e r " l a c k o f m o n e y ," is th e m a in r e a s o n w h y s u b je c ts o p t f o r a c h e a p e r f a k e p r o d u c t in s te a d o f p a y i n g th e h ig h e r p r ic e f o r g e n u in e b r a n d s . In th i s c h a p te r, I q u e s tio n th is e c o n o m y - d r i v e n lo g ic . O n th e o n e h a n d , I a g r e e th a t s o c ia l in e q u a lity a n d p o v e r ty a re im p o r ­ ta n t f a c to r s b e h in d th e p r e s e n c e o f f a k e g o o d s i n b o th th e p r o d u c in g a n d c o n s u m in g s e c to r s . T h is m a r k e t in f a k e s is c r u c ia l f o r th e g e n e r a ti o n o f jo b s a n d in c o m e i n le s s - p r i v i le g e d a re a s o f s o c ie ty . It in v o lv e s m il lio n s o f f o r m a l a n d in f o r m a l w o r k e r s th r o u g h its p r o c e s s e s o f p r o d u c tio n a n d d is ­ tr ib u tio n . F o r th e c o n s u m p tio n o f lu x u r y g o o d s i n p a r tic u la r , th e a c q u i s i­ tio n o f b r a n d e d c o m m o d i ti e s p e r f o r m s a n im p o r ta n t ro le i n m e d ia ti n g th e d i s p u te s a n d in te r a c tio n s th a t o c c u r b e tw e e n d if f e r e n t c la s s e s a n d s o c ia l g ro u p s . B r a n d s — a s p o r ta b le s i g n s th a t m o v e to g e th e r w i th th e in d iv id u a ls th a t p o s s e s s th e m — s y m b o l is e " s o c i a l w e l l b e i n g ," a n d a r e a s s o c ia te d w ith lu x u r y , p o w e r, a n d w e a lth . O n th e o th e r h a n d , th i s s i m p l i s ti c e x p l a n a ti o n th a t l a c k o f m o n e y is a l w a y s b e h in d th e c h o i c e o f c o p i e s o v e r g e n u in e g o o d s d o e s n o t e x p l a i n , f o r i n s ta n c e , w h y s o m e p e o p l e o f lo w

in c o m e in B r a z i l s a v e a lm o s t

e v e r y th i n g th e y m a k e to b u y r e a l p r o d u c ts o r w 'h y s o m e i n d i v i d u a l s o f th e n e w C h i n e s e e l i te u s e f a k e g o o d s . F u r th e r m o r e , i f i n d i v i d u a l s w e r e e x c l u s i v e l y f o l l o w i n g th e p r a g m a ti c r e a s o n s s u g g e s te d b y th i s p e r s p e c ­ tiv e o n p o v e r ty , th e n , w h e n s h o p p i n g f o r a p u r s e , th e y w o u ld s i m p l y c h o o s e th e c h e a p e s t p r o d u c t. R a th e r , th e e x p l a n a ti o n f o r a n d m e a n i n g b e h i n d th e c o n s u m p ti o n o f a n y c o m m o d i ty c a n o n l y b e a p p r e h e n d e d

109

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 1 0 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 1 0 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

110

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w h e n i t is o b s e r v e d in p a r ti c u l a r s o c i a l c o n te x ts , w h e r e a b r a n d d e r i v e s v a l u e a n d l e g i ti m a c y f r o m th e n e g o ti a ti o n s th a t e m e r g e w i th i n a r e l a ­ ti o n a l u n i v e r s e . G i v e n th a t p e o p l e a r e c h o o s i n g b e tw e e n g e n u in e a n d f a k e g o o d s , th e m o ti v a ti o n s f o r th i s d is c e r n i n g c o n s u m p ti o n m u s t b e re l a te d to th e s o c i a l c o n s tr u c ti o n o f a u th e n tic ity . T h u s , a l th o u g h in b o th c o u n tr i e s th e d i s p l a y o f l u x u r y b r a n d s c a n c o n s ti tu te a s tr a te g y f o r i n d i ­ v i d u a l e m p o w e r m e n t— w h e th e r th r o u g h r e p l i c a s o r g e n u in e g o o d s — its m e a n i n g c a n v a r y s u b s ta n ti a l l y f r o m o n e c o u n tr y to a n o th e r , a s th e s e m e a n in g s a r e r e l a te d to v e r y d if f e r e n t lo c a l a n d h i s to r i c a l c o n te x ts . T h e a n a ly s is th a t f o l lo w s tr a c e s a c o m p a r i s o n b e tw e e n tw o c ir c u its o f c o n s u m e r s o f b r a n d e d f a k e g o o d s : s o u th e r n C h i n a a n d s o u th e r n B ra z il. I h a v e p e r f o r m e d r e s e a r c h in b o th c o u n tr i e s a s p a r t o f a b r o a d e r p ro je c t, f r o m 1 9 9 9 to 2 0 0 7 , w 'h ic h a i m e d a t u n d e r s ta n d i n g th e g lo b a l c o m m o d i ty c h a in th a t s ta r ts in th e f a c to r ie s in G u a n g d o n g P r o v in c e a n d e n d s in th e in f o r m a l s tr e e t m a r k e ts o f th e c ity o f P o r to A le g r e , c a p ita l o f th e s ta te o f R i o G r a n d e d o S u l i n B ra z il . A s I p e r f o r m e d fie ld w ro r k in s u c h c o m m o d ity s p a c e s , w i th p a r tic u la r a tte n ti o n to th e s y s te m o f p r o d u c tio n a n d d is tr i b u ­ tio n th a t c o n n e c te d th e m , m y a tte n ti o n a ls o s ta r te d to f o c u s o n th e c o n ­ s u m e r s , “ r e f u s in g to tr e a t p r o d u c tio n a s p r i v i le g e d m o m e n t o r p h a s e in a s to r y o f a c o m m o d i ty " ( F o s te r 2 0 0 6 : 2 8 9 ) . I w i ll a rg u e th a t b e tw e e n th e c ity o f Sh e n z h e n ( m a in la n d C h in a ) a n d H o n g K o n g , b r a n d s c o n s titu te a n o b je c tif ic a tio n o f th e e v e r y d a y im p o s i­ tio n o f th e b o r d e r a n d o f th e id e n tity n e g o tia ti o n s o c c u r in g b e tw e e n th e p e o p le o f H o n g K o n g a n d th e m a in la n d C h i n e s e s i n c e r e u n if ic a tio n . In c o n tr a s t, in th e c a s e o f th e c ity o f P o r to A le g r e , B r a z il , th is d if f e r e n c e in c o n s u m p tio n p r a c tic e w ill b e re lo c a te d to th e is s u e o f c la s s , a n d I w i ll a r g u e th a t b r a n d e d g o o d s c o n s titu te ta n g ib le s i g n s o f p a tte r n s o f r e la ti o n s h ip s a n d s tr a tif i c a ti o n b e tw e e n d if f e r e n t s o c ia l la y e rs . In b o th o f th e s e o b s e r v e d u n i v e r s e s , w 'h at is a t s ta k e is th e s o c ia l c o n s tr u c ti o n o f th e a u th e n tic ity o f p o r ta b le g o o d s a n d its v a r ia tio n a c c o r d in g to th e c o n te x t.

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T o W a lte r B e n ja m in , o r i g in a l w o r k s o f a r t c a r r y a n in tr in s i c a u r a o f w h ic h th e ir r e p r o d u c tio n s , e v e n th e m o s t p e r f e c t, a re d e p ri v e d :

th e h ie e t n u n c o f art, th e u n it o f its p re s e n c e in th e v e ry p la c e w h e re it h a p p e n s to b e . ... T h e h ie e t n u n c o f th e o rig in a l c o n s titu te s w h a t is c a lle d a u th e n tic ity .... W h a t c h a ra c te riz e s th e a u th e n tic ity o f a th in g is e v e ry th in g th a t it c o n ta in s a n d th a t is o rig in a lly tran sm iss ib le , f ro m its m a te rial d u ra tio n to its p o w e r o f h is to r ic a l te stim o n y ... th at w h ic h w ith e rs in th e a g e o f m e c h a n ic a l re p ro d u c tio n is th e a u ra o f th e w 'o rk o f art. ( Be n ja m in 1980: 7 - 8 )

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 111 h t t p :/ /s ite . e b ra ry .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 1 1 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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I a r g u e th a t th e a u r a to w h ic h B e n ja m in r e f e r s is a p e r c e p tio n : a re a c tio n th a t th e o b je c t c a u s e s i n in d iv id u a ls . T h e r e f o r e , a u ra is n o t a n e s s e n ti a l e l e m e n t to th e r e a l p i e c e , b u t a s o c ia l a n d in d iv i d u a l c o n s tr u c tio n . In th is s e n s e , n o t o n ly re a l p i e c e s c a n h a v e a u r a — im ita tio n s c a n , to o , s in c e a u ra is a b e lie f . T h e a u ra , th u s , c a n b e u n d e r s to o d a s a s o r t o f m a g ic — in th e s e n s e d e f in e d b y B o u r d ie u ( 1 9 8 0 ) — its e f f ic a c y , a c k n o w l e d g e m e n t, a n d v a lu e a re s u s ta in e d in th e p r o d u c tio n o f b e li e f , w h ic h is f o r m u la te d in f ie ld s o f d is ­ p u te s a n d i n f ie ld s th a t le g itim is e a u th o ri ty . If a u th e n tic ity is a c o n s tr u c te d “ s o c i a l a lc h e m y ," i t is a ls o s o c ia l c o n s e n s u s ( E c o 1 9 8 4 ) , b a s e d o n th e c o l le c ­ tiv e b e l i e f th a t a n o b je c t c a r r ie s c e r ta in s p e c if ic , u n iq u e , a n d ra re m a te r ia l a n d im m a te r i a l p r o p e r tie s . A u th e n tic ity , im i ta tio n , a n d p o w e r h a v e b e e n b r o a d ly a n a ly s e d b y a n th r o p o lo g is ts f r o m m a n y p e r s p e c tiv e s . T h e s e to p ic s a re d i s c u s s e d b o th in s tu d i e s s e e k in g a n u n d e r s ta n d i n g o f c u l tu r e s , s o c i e tie s , a n d in d iv i d u ­ a ls ( B h a b h a 1 9 9 4 ; Br o w n 1 9 9 8 ; L in d h o lm 2 0 0 2 ; T a u s s ig 1 9 9 3 ) a n d in m o r e s p e c if ic f ie ld s , s u c h a s a r t/ r e l ic s ( P r ic e 1 9 8 9 ; S c h e f o ld 2 0 0 2 ; W e n g ro w 2 0 0 8 ) , c o m m o d i ti e s , a n d b r a n d s ( F r ie d m a n 2 0 0 5 ; N o ta r 2 0 0 6 ; V a n n 2 0 0 6 ) . A r e l ig i o u s r e l ic , w o r k o f a r t, o r c o m m o d i ty h a s d if f e r e n t k in d s o f a u th o r ­ ity , d e f in e d in s i n g u la r f ie ld s o f d is p u te , a b le to d is ti n g u i s h w h a t is r e al a n d w h a t is f a l s e ( r e l ig i o u s g r o u p s , c o n n o is s e u r s , m a r k e t, s ta te ) . In th i s c h a p te r , I d is c u s s th e f o r m a tio n o f a u th e n tic ity in b r a n d e d c o m ­ m o d i ti e s . In th e c a p ita l is t g lo b a l m a r k e t, a u th e n tic b r a n d s a re d is ti n c tiv e s y m b o l s a tta c h e d to c o m m o d i ti e s th a t p o s s e s s in te ll e c tu a l p r o p e r ty rig h ts ( IP R ) . T h e o w n e r s o f th e b r a n d h a v e s o c i a l le g itim a c y th a t is s u s ta in e d b y m a r k e t a n d p o l itic a l p ri n c ip le s . T h ro u g h

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a c q u ir e d th e r ig h t to g o to c o u r t in a s p e c if ic c o u n tr y to f ig h t f a ls if ic a tio n s a n d to c a ll o n th e s ta te p o l ic e f o r a s s is ta n c e . In th i s c o n te x t, im i ta tio n s a re n o lo n g e r c o n s i d e r e d " th e s in c e r e s t f o r m o f f la tte r y ," n o r d o th e y a s s u m e th e " p r e s ti g i o u s " p e d a g o g ic c h a r a c te r d e f in e d b y M a r c e l M a u s s ( 1 9 6 0 ) . T h e y a m a s s n e g a tiv e v a lu e , c la s s if i e d a s c r im i n a l p r o d u c tio n s . A s in th e f ie ld o f a rt, b r a n d o w n e r s h a v e th e a u th o r ity to r e p r o d u c e a u th e n tic " f i r s t s a m p l e s ." " In te l l e c tu a l P r o p e r ty R i g h ts la w s d e te r m in e w h ic h c o p ie s a re a u th o r i z e d , le g itim a te , a n d a u th e n tic , a n d w h ic h c o p ie s a re u n a u th o r iz e d , i lle g itim a te , a n d in a u th e n tic — a n d th e r e f o r e i l l e g a l " ( C o m m b e q u o te d in V a n n 2 0 0 6 : 2 8 6 ) . T h e s o c ia l r e c o g n i ti o n o f th is le g itim a c y , h o w e v e r, is n o t a u to m a tic . T h e m e a n in g a s s ig n e d to n o tio n s s u c h a s o r ig in a l, re a l, a u th e n tic , f a k e , f a ls e , re p li c a , o r m im i c r y c a n v a r y s u b s ta n tia l ly f r o m f ie ld to f ie ld a n d f r o m s o c i e ty to s o c i e ty ( s e e N o ta r [ 2 0 0 6 ] a b o u t C h in a a n d V a n n [ 2 0 0 6 ] a b o u t V ie tn a m ) . I a m a d o p ti n g h e r e th e p a i r f a k e / r e a l to r e f e r p r i m a r ily to

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 1 2 h tt p :// s it e . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 1 2 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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th e o r ig in o f th e o b je c ts : w h e th e r a p r o d u c t ( 1) c o m e s f r o m a n a u th o r is e d f a c to r y o r ( 2) is a n " o u tl a w " c o p y T h a t d o e s n o t m e a n th a t I r e c o g n is e th e IP R a s a n a b s o lu te tr u th th a t g r a n ts p u r ity to g o o d s , o n ly th a t I a m e s ta b ­ li s h in g a s ta r tin g p o i n t to s h o w , la te r, h o w in d iv i d u a ls in C h in a a n d B ra z il in te r p r e t s u c h a n o r ig in . In re a lity , f o l lo w i n g A p p a d u r a i ' s ( 1 9 9 9 ) th o u g h ts , I w a n t to s h o w h o w c o m m o d i ti e s in m o tio n h a v e f lo a tin g r e g i m e s o f v a lu e a n d h o w th e y g e t a n d lo s e a u th e n tic ity a s th e y c ir c u la te in th e w o rl d . In a p r e v io u s s tu d y b a s e d o n e th n o g r a p h y ( 2 0 0 8 ) , I d e a l t e x te n s iv e l y w i th th e f a k e / r e a l r e la ti o n s h ip f r o m th e p o i n t o f v ie w o f p r o d u c tio n ( in C h i n e s e f a c to r ie s ) a n d its d is tr i b u tio n to B r a z il ia n in f o r m a l m a r k e ts . M y o b je c tiv e w a s to s h o w s o m e li m ita ti o n s a r is in g f r o m th e c o n c e p t o f im i ta ­ tio n a s w e l l a s o f f r o m th e n o tio n s o f le g a li ty a n d il le g a l ity in th e s e c ir c u its . D e p e n d in g o n w h e r e a n d th r o u g h w h o m i t c ir c u la te d ( th e a p p e a r a n c e o f th e m a r k e t, th e p a y m e n t o f ta x e s o r n o t, th e c o n d itio n o f th e s a le s m a n , e tc .) , th e c o m m o d i ty ' s s ta tu s c o u ld m e ta m o r p h o s is e s o m e w h e r e a lo n g th e c h a in . In th e s a m e w a y , i n d is c u s s in g th e a u th e n tic ity o f b r a n d s , I q u e s tio n e d s o m e a m b i g u o u s g o o d s th a t h a v e th e a b il ity to d is lo c a te th e p o l a r ity o f r e a l o r f a k e . S u c h is th e c a s e o f th e " C u c c i " w a tc h e s , p r o d u c e d in s m a ll f a c to r ie s i n C h in a . C a n th e y b e c o n s i d e r e d a n im ita tio n ? T h e r e is n o c o n s e n s u s . T h e G u c c i C o m p a n y m a y a c c u s e th e f a c to r ie s o f in te ll e c tu a l p r o p e r ty in f r i n g e ­ m e n t, b u t th a t m a y n o t b e a c c e p te d b y a c o u n tr y th a t r e c o g n is e s C u c c i a s a p r o p e r tr a d e m a r k , a n d th e r e f o r e a s a le g a l f o r m o f c o m m e r c e ( P in h e ir o M a c h a d o 2005, 2008). W ith r e g a r d to th e p a i r r e a l/ f a k e a n d f r o m th e p o i n t o f v ie w o f c o m ­ m o d ity b r a n d s , it is im p o r ta n t to c o n s i d e r th e m a te r ia l p r o p e r tie s o f th e c o p i e s , w h ic h v a r y e n o r m o u s l y f r o m c o m m o d i ty to c o m m o d ity , a n d f r o m f a c to r y to f a c to ry , b u t r a n g e f r o m r o u g h c o p ie s to p e r f e c t re p lic a s . D u r in g m y f ie ld w o r k , f o r e x a m p l e , I v is ite d f a c to r ie s o f f a k e w a tc h e s th a t u s e d th e s a m e c o m p o n e n ts a n d p a r ts a s th e p r o d u c t th e y im ita te d ( a n o t v e r y f a m o u s b r a n d ) , e v e n th e s a m e s u p p lie r. A n o th e r f a c to r y w a s o u ts o u r c e d f o r th e p r o d u c tio n o f to y s a n d p r o d u c e d a c e r ta in n u m b e r o f a u th e n tic p r o d u c ts o n d e m a n d f r o m a s p e c if ic b r a n d . In th e s a m e p l a c e , th e o w n e r a c c e p te d o r d e r s f o r c o p i e s o f th e s a m e to y s , b u t p r o d u c e d th e m w i th s im il a r b u t c h e a p e r m a te r ia ls . L ik e w is e , c o p ie s o f c e r ta in la b e lle d c lo th e s ( t- s h ir ts , u n d e r w e a r ) c a n b e v e r y s i m ila r to th e g e n u in e a r tic le s , a s th e ir p r o d u c tio n is s im p le a n d c a n b e d o n e a t h o m e , d e m a n d in g o n ly s o m e g o o d f a b ri c , th e m o d e l o f th e c u ttin g , a n d th e p r in t f o r th e b r a n d . In th e s e c a s e s , w 'h e re th e m a te r ia l p r o p e r tie s v a r y v e r y li ttle b e tw e e n c o p y a n d o r i g in a l, a u th e n tic ­ ity is s u s ta in e d o n ly b y p o w e r a n d b y th e p o l itic a l a n d e c o n o m ic a u th o r i ty d e f in e d in a f ie ld o f d is p u te s th a t le g itim is e s th e o w n e r o f IP R . In th e n a ti v e s p e e c h o f tr a d e r s a n d p r o d u c e r s o f f a k e g o o d s , th e r e is a g e n e r a l is e d a n d s ta n d a r d is e d d is c o u r s e , w 'h ic h c a n b e f o u n d in d if f e r e n t p a r ts o f th e w 'o rld , b a s e d o n th e c o m m o n id e a th a t c o p i e s a re p r a c tic a l ly

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 1 3 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 1 3 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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id e n tic a l to th e r e a l p r o d u c ts a n d th e o n l y th i n g th a t v a r ie s i s th e p ri c e . T h e r e f o r e , th o s e w h o c o m m e r c i a lis e th e s e p r o d u c ts a re b e n e f ittin g s o c ie ty b y b r in g in g th e " s a m e " p r o d u c ts to th e m a r k e t f o r a p r i c e th a t ta k e s th e m o u t o f re s tr ic tiv e e l itis t c ir c u its a n d m a k e s th e m p o p u la r. A c c o r d in g to th is e x p l a n a ti o n , tr a d e r s a n d p r o d u c e r s r e s p o n d to th e m s e lv e s a n d to s o c ie ty , re s c u in g a m o r a l d im e n s io n to w h a t th e y d o , w h ic h is in o p p o s i ti o n to th e id e a th a t th e ir w o r k is a k in d o f p i r a c y o r c r im e ( P in h e ir o - M a c h a d o 2 0 0 5 ) . A s p e o p le o f te n s a y in B r a z il , to i n v e r t th e c o m m o n a d v e r tis i n g lo g ic th a t " p i r a c y is a c r i m e ," " t h e r e a l c r im e is s e lli n g a C D f o r 4 0 r e a i s ." 3 A f te r s o m e y e a r s o b s e r v i n g th e d is c o u r s e o f tr a d e r s w rh o w o r k w ith c o p i e s a n d h a v e a p o s itiv e p e r c e p tio n o f th e m , I s ta r te d to c o n d u c t re s e a rc h o n y o u n g p e o p le i n H o n g K o n g — w h o c o n s i d e r th e m s e lv e s p o l itic a l ly c o r ­ re c t c o n s u m e r s — a n d I f a c e d a c o m p l e te ly d if f e r e n t d is c o u r s e : a n a c tu a l a p o l o g y f o r th e p e r c e iv e d la c k o f a u th e n tic ity a n d q u a l ity o f th e c o p ie s . T h e h u n d r e d s o f la b e l s to r e s a r o u n d H o n g K o n g l e f t m e in n o d o u b t a b o u t th e a p p e a l th a t s u c h b r a n d s e x e r t o n th e p o p u la ti o n . T h e b o r d e r c ity o f S h e n z h e n h a s s o m e o f th e m o s t f a m o u s m a ll s in th e w o r ld f o r r e p li c a s o f b r a n d e d p r o d u c ts . T h e p r o x i m ity o f th e s e tw o u n i v e r s e s m a k e s it c le a r th a t th e s tu d y o f c o p ie s c a n n o t tr e a t r e a l p r o d u c ts to o c u rs o r ily , a s b o th g e t th e ir m e a n in g a n d v a lu e in o p p o s iti o n a l o r c o m p le m e n ta r y r e l a ti o n to th e o th e r. O n th e s a m e o c c a s io n , I v is i te d th e o u ts o u r c e d f a c to r ie s o f D o lc e & G a b b a n a , A r m a n i Je a n s , a n d B e n e tto n in Sh e n z h e n a n d in te r v ie w e d re p re ­ s e n ta tiv e s f r o m L o i u s V u itto n . T h e d if f e r e n c e s in h o w m a n u f a c tu r i n g w a s o r g a n i s e d a t th e s e n a m e - b r a n d f a c to r ie s w e r e v e r y r e v e a lin g . It to o k a lo n g tim e to p r o d u c e a p a i r o f je a n s , a n d th e c o s t o f p r o d u c tio n w a s v e r y h ig h . T h e e q u ip m e n t w a s e x tr e m e l y e x p e n s iv e a n d h a d li m ite d m a n u f a c tu r i n g c a p a c ity . T h e p r o d u c tio n o f D & G p u r s e s d e m a n d e d e v e n h ig h e r le v e ls o f s u p e r v is io n . A ll o f i t w a s c a r e f u lly s p e c if ie d b y d ig i ta l p r o to ty p e s f r o m th e c r e a tiv e o f f ic e a n d h a n d - m a d e p i lo t e x a m p le s , w h ic h g e n e r a te d a p ilo t, h a n d - m a d e m o d e l . T h e c a r e g iv e n to th e d e ta il s p e r p le x e d m e . T h e f a c to r y c o u ld p r o d u c e a r o u n d 3 ,0 0 0 p u r s e s a m o n th , c o m p a r e d to th e m il li o n s e x i s tin g o n th e f a k e m a r k e t. O n e o f th e p a r tn e r s e x p la in e d : " W e 'v e h a d th e o p p o r tu n ity to p r o d u c e C h a n e l a n d L o u is V u itto n p u r s e s . F o r u s , i t' s n o t w o r th it. Y o u c a n s e e th e p r o d u c ts th a t w e h a v e h e r e , th o s e m a c h in e s a re e x tr e m e l y e x p e n s iv e , v e r y e x p e n s iv e . . . . T o p r o d u c e a p u r s e w i th L o u is V u itto n q u a l ity , w e w o u ld n e e d e v e n [ m o r e ] s u p e r io r m a c h in e ry . W e c a n ' t ." C o p ie s a re p r o d u c ts th a t, b y d e f in i ti o n , a re m e a n t to b e p o p u la r is e d . G e n u in e lu x u r y p r o d u c ts h a v e li m ite d p r o d u c tio n , s o th e y a re r e s tr ic te d to th e e l ite . T h e r e p li c a s s h a r e th e d r e a m

o f b e l o n g i n g to th a t r e s tr ic ­

tiv e c ir c le . M y p o i n t i n d is c u s s in g th e p r o d u c tio n o f f a k e a n d r e a l c o m ­ m o d i ti e s is th a t b o th o b je c ts c a n b e v e r y s i m ila r. H o w e v e r, w i th s p e c if ic re g a r d to lu x u r y la b e l s , th e a tte n tio n to d e ta il — e x p r e s s e d in tim e a n d in th e c o s t o f p r o d u c tio n — i s a n im p o r ta n t d is ti n c tio n b e tw e e n th e r e a l a n d

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 1 4 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 1 4 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

114

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f a k e c o m m o d ity . S u c h c a r e b e c o m e s a s y m b o l ic v a lu e , e n f r a m e d in th e c a te g o r y o f " q u a l i ty ." T h e s y m b o l ic v a lu e a g g r e g a te s s u r p l u s e c o n o m i c v a lu e . T h e c o m m o d i ty f e tis h i s m o f a C h a n e l p u r s e , f o r e x a m p l e , is b a s e d o n th e la b o u r p r a c tic e s in w h ic h th e f a c to r y w o r k e r s p e n d s a lo n g tim e f in is h in g th e p r o d u c t b y h a n d s e w in g . A w a r e th a t th e c o p ie s m a y p ro v id e a n e a r - p e r f e c t im a g e o f th e re a l p r o d u c t, th e lu x u r y b r a n d c o m p a n ie s s u s ta in th e ir d if f e r e n ti a ls th r o u g h th e q u a lity d is c o u rs e . A re p lic a o f a D io r w a tc h , e v e n th e m o s t p e r f e c t o n e , w i ll n e v e r h a v e its 12 d ia m o n d s . A s a w e a p o n , th e d e a le r s in c o p ie s h a v e th e p r ic e a n d th e a c c e s s ib il ity o f th e p ro d u c t. " Y o u c r e a te d a d re a m , w e p o p u la ri s e d i t," s a id o n e o f th e b ig g e s t f a ls if ie rs o f C a r ti e r w a tc h e s , in a n in te r v ie w to th e p r e s s f r o m ja il. T h e f a k e p r o d u c t is a w a y to s e ll th e c o m m o d ity f e tis h , th r o u g h a s i m u la c r u m , w i th o u t a n e x tr e m e a g g r e g a te d v a lu e . W h e n re a l o r f a k e g o o d s l e a v e th e f a c to r ie s , th e p r i c e a n d q u a l ity v a l­ u e s a re d if f e r e n tl y n e g o tia te d a n d a p p r o p r ia te d b y c o n s u m e r s . A w a y f ro m th e d is c o u r s e o f its " o w n e r s ," a b r a n d ' s p o w e r o f p e r s u a s io n d e p e n d s o n its s y m b o l ic e f f ic a c y b a s e d , a s L e v i- S tr a u s s p u ts i t ( 1 9 7 9 ) , in th e tr in ity o f in d iv i d u a l, s o c ie ty , a n d s o r c e r e r ( th e o b je c t) . T h e o b je c t h a s to c o n v in c e , th e in d iv i d u a l h a s to b e li e v e , a n d s o c i e ty h a s to a c k n o w le d g e . T h u s , th e re a re tw o p o s s ib le w a y s to a n a ly s e th e u s e o f b r a n d s : f r o m th e p o i n t o f v ie w o f th e p e r s o n w h o c o n s u m e s th e m ( th e in d iv i d u a l/ s e lf ) , o r f r o m th e p o in t o f v ie w o f th o s e w h o o b s e r v e th i s p e r s o n ( th e s o c i e ty ) . O n th e o n e h a n d , i t is im p o r ta n t to u n d e r s ta n d th e m e a n in g o f a u th e n ­ ti c ity f o r th o s e w h o c o n s u m e th e o b je c t a n d w h a t th a t r e v e a ls a b o u t th e m ic r o - a n d m a c r o - c o n te x ts in w h ic h th e y f in d th e m s e lv e s . W h e n is th e o r i ­ g in ( i.e ., f r o m e s ta b li s h e d s h o p o r f a k e m a r k e t) im p o r ta n t? F o r s o m e , th e f a c t th a t a p r o d u c t is r e a l is v ita ll y im p o r ta n t; f o r o th e r s , w 'h at m a tte r s is ju s t th e e x te r n a l a p p e a r a n c e o f p r o d u c t. T h u s , q u a l ity , im a g e , p r ic e , a n d n o v e lty a re p e r m a n e n tly n e g o tia te d c a te g o r ie s . O n th e o th e r h a n d , f r o m th e p e r s p e c tiv e o f s o c i e ty in g e n e r a l, th e a u th e n tic ity o f a n ite m , b e y o n d its o r i g in , d e p e n d s o n a s u b je c t' s a b il ity to c o n v in c e . M a n y in d iv i d u a ls c a n w e a r e x tr e m e l y v a lu a b l e g o o d s , b u t th e u n i v e r s e a r o u n d th e m m a y n o t g r a n t th e m le g itim a c y , w h ic h m e a n s th a t th e re e x is ts n o s o c i a l b e l i e f th a t th e p r o d u c t is a u th e n tic . In c o n tr a s t, s u b je c ts wrh o b e a r s u f f i c ie n t s o c ia l a n d s y m b o lic c a p ita l c a n b e e x tr e m e l y c o n v in c in g a n d c a n o f te n th e r e b y g r a n t a u th e n tic ity to f a k e g o o d s . I c o n s i d e r i t im p o r ta n t, th e n , to a n a ly s e n o t ju s t th e in d iv i d u a l m e a n in g o f th e b r a n d , b u t a ls o its r e la tio n s h ip w i th th e c la s s if y i n g s o c ia l s y s te m s th a t p e r m a n e n tly a u th e n tic a te o r f a ls if y o b je c ts .

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V e b le n ( 1 9 9 8 ) , S i m m e l ( 1 9 7 1 ) , a n d B o u rd ie u ( 1 9 7 5 , 1 9 7 9 ) , th r o u g h d if f e r ­ e n t p a th s a n d c o n c e p tio n s , in f e r r e d th a t th e e lite c o n s titu te s a m o d e l u p o n

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 1 5 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 1 5 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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w h ic h a ll o th e r c la s s e s b a s e th e m s e lv e s . B e h a v io u r a n d f a s h io n a re b o r n a t th e to p a n d a r e ra m if ie d f o r th e r e s t o f s o c i e ty th r o u g h c y c le s o f im ita tio n s . F r o m th is p o i n t o f v ie w , r e p li c a s a n d f a k e g o o d s w o u ld a lw a y s b e u n d e r ­ s to o d a s a s tr a te g y b y th e lo w e r c la s s e s f o r c la i m in g a n e w s o c i a l p o s itio n . S u c h a th e o r y p r e m is e c a n b e a n in te r e s ti n g w a y to th i n k a b o u t c e r ta in s i tu a tio n s , b u t i t d o e s n o t e x p l a in th e p o l y s e m y o f m e a n in g s th a t th e u s e o f a c o p y c a n a s s u m e in th e c o n te m p o r a r y w o r ld . B o u r d ie u ( 1 9 7 9 ) , a n a ly s in g d if f e r e n c e s in b e h a v i o u r a m o n g th e s o c ia l c la s s e s o f F r a n c e in th e 1 9 6 0 s , p o in te d o u t th a t lo w e r c la s s g r o u p s w o u ld c o n s u m e r o u g h im ita tio n s ( s u b s ti tu te s ) o f e l ite o b je c ts ( s p a r k lin g w i n e in s te a d o f c h a m p a g n e , f o r e x a m p le ) , a n d th a t th is is a d e f in in g p r a c tic e th a t u n v e ils th e s y m b o l ic c a p ita l o f e a c h c la s s . T a s te ( g o o d ta s te ) , th e n , b e g i n s to b e u n d e r s to o d a s a s o c i a l c o n s tr u c tio n a n d a n a c q u ir e d c a p ita l, o f w h ic h th e lo w e r c la s s e s a re d e p r iv e d . T o B o u r d ie u , th e h ab it u s — a s e t o f s o c ia l a n d c u l tu r a l d is p o s i ti o n s e m b o d ie d in s u b je c ts — is a b le to re v e a l s tr o n g ly m a r k e d c la s s f r o n tie r s . In B o u r d ie u 's m o d e l, a p e r s o n f r o m th e lo w - in c o m e c la s s c o u ld n e v e r p a s s a s a m e m b e r o f th e e l ite . D e s p ite h is b e s t e f f o r ts , h is p o s tu r e , ta s te , a n d p r e f e r e n c e s w ill d e n o u n c e h im . B e s id e s th a t, im ita tio n s w o u ld b e o f v is i b l y b a d q u a l ity a n d th e r e f o r e w o u ld n o t p a s s a s re a l ite m s . F o l lo w in g th is l o g ic , a p e r s o n f r o m th e d o m i n a n t c la s s s i m p ly w o u ld n o t c o n s u m e a n im i ta tio n .4 Ju x ta p o s in g B o u r d ie u 's a r g u m e n t w i th th e o b s e r v e d r e a l ity in C h i n a a n d B r a z il , s o m e e l e m e n ts a re s u ita b le f o r th i n k in g a b o u t th e b r a n d e d o b je c ts d is c u s s e d h e r e , o th e r s a re n o t. N o w a d a y s , a s m u c h in C h in a a s in B r a z il , c o n s u m p tio n o f b r a n d e d f a k e g o o d s s p r e a d s a c r o s s m a n y d if f e r e n t s o c ia l c la s s e s . In c o n tr a s t to B o u r d i e u 's a s s e r tio n , f a k e g o o d s a re n o t r e s tr ic te d to c o n s u m p tio n b y p o p u la r g r o u p s to e m u la te th e e lite s . O b v io u s l y , th e s e d if f e r e n c e s i n p a r t r e f le c t th e f a c t th a t th e m a r k e t f o r c o p ie s th a t e x i s te d in 1 9 6 0 s ( th e p e r io d o f B o u r d ie u 's re s e a rc h ) c a n n o t b e c o m p a r e d to th e c o n ­ te m p o r a r y p h e n o m e n o n o f s i m u l ta n e o u s b a n a l is a tio n a n d s p e c ia li s a tio n o f th e r e p li c a in d u s tr y . In a d d itio n , d e v e lo p in g c o u n tr i e s s u c h a s B ra z il a n d C h in a h a v e s i n g u la r h is to r ic a l c la s s f o r m a tio n s th a t a re n o t n e c e s s a r il y s im ila r to Fr e n c h s o c ie ty . W h y , th e n , a re f a k e g o o d s to d a y p a r t o f a c o n s u m p tio n re a lity f o r m a n y c la s s e s a n d s o c i a l g r o u p s ? H o w c a n w e d e f in e b o r d e r s b e tw e e n g ro u p s g iv e n th e b a n a l is a tio n o f w h a t is s u p p o s e d to b e , b y d e f in i ti o n , a r e s tr ic t­ e d ( lu x u r y ) ? C e r ta in ly im i ta tio n s a re n o t w i d e ly c o n s u m e d o n ly b e c a u s e th e y a re w e l l m a d e b u t a ls o b e c a u s e th e d if f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n th e s o c ia l c la s s e s a re s tr o n g l y m a r k e d b y a n o th e r c o n d itio n i n g f a c to r th a t s u p p o r ts th e b r a n d : th e h ab it u s . A t th is p o in t, a B o u r d ia n a n a ly s is is p a r tic u la r l y e l u c id a tiv e , a s it s h o w s u s th a t th e r e a re o th e r b o r d e r d e f in e r s to w 'o rk a lo n g s id e th e o b je c ts . T h e lw b it u s i s in th e b o d y h e x is , i n la n g u a g e , in in f o r ­ m a tio n , in k n o w in g , in a c tin g . T o F r ie d m a n ( 2 0 0 5 : 3 3 2 ) , “ D i s tin c ti o n is n o t

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 1 6 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 1 6 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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s i m p ly s h o w b u t is g e n u in e 'c a r g o / w h ic h a lw a y s c o m e s f r o m th e o u ts id e , a s o u r c e o f w e l l- b e in g a n d f e r til ity a n d s i g n o f p o w e r. . . . A C o n g o le s e c a n id e n tif y e v e r y o n e 's s o c ia l r a n k c r o w d b y th e ir o u tw a r d a p p e a r a n c e ." Goods

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( D o u g la s a n d Is h e r w o o d 1 9 7 9 ) . T h e s o c ia l le g itim a c y o f b r a n d s w ill a lw a y s b e r e s tr i c ti v e a n d e x c lu d in g , p o i n ti n g to g a m e s o f s o c ia l d if f e r e n tia tio n a n d w a y s o f m a in ta in in g h ie r a r c h ie s . C lo th in g is a p r i v i le g e d f ie ld to p e r c e iv e s u c h d if f e r e n c e s b e c a u s e i t is a n im m e d ia te a n d p o r ta b le e x p r e s s io n o f th e s e l f a n d " i s n o t a s y m b o l o f s o c i a l p o s itio n b u t a c o n c r e te m a n if e s ta tio n o f s u c h p o s itio n " ( F r ie d m a n 2 0 0 5 : 2 3 7 ) .

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W h a t d o e s th e lo n g li n e th a t f o r m s a r o u n d th e L o u is V u itto n a n d G u c c i s to r e s in H o n g K o n g te ll u s a b o u t th e is l a n d 's r e la ti o n s h ip to th e m a in ­ la n d ? H o w c a n a c o n s i d e r a tio n o f b r a n d s r e v e a l la te n t a s p e c ts o f th e re u n i­ f ic a tio n o f th e tw o g e o g r a p h ic a l p a r ts ? C a n a n a n a ly s is o f th e c o n s u m p tio n o f b r a n d s re v e a l la te n t s o c i a l a n d

c u ltu r a l a s p e c ts o f th e r e u n if ic a tio n

p ro c e ss? H o n g K o n g w a s r e tu r n e d to C h in a i n 1 9 9 7 a f te r a c e n tu r y a s a B r itis h c o lo n y . T h e r e u n if ic a tio n , w h ic h w a s p a r t o f th e C h i n e s e p o l ic y o f " o n e c o u n try , tw o s y s te m s " ( y i g e g u o , li an g g e z h i) , is s til l a o n g o i n g p r o c e s s o f n e g o tia ti o n , p a r t o f th e e v e r y d a y lif e o f th e m a in la n d C h i n e s e a n d o f H o n g K o n g p e o p le , e s p e c ia l ly a m o n g th o s e w h o li v e in th e b o r d e r re g io n th a t p u ts th e m in p e r m a n e n t c o n ta c t. If , o n th e o n e h a n d , f a c e - to - f a c e re la ti o n s h a v e b e c o m e m u c h c lo s e r , o n th e o th e r h a n d , s y m b o lic f r o n tie r s h a v e a ls o e m e r g e d th a t s e p a r a te , li m it, a n d d e n o u n c e w h o is w h o . T h e B r iti s h p r e s e n c e is s ti l l v e r y s tr o n g a n d c a n n o t b e f o u n d o n ly in th e " l o o k r ig h t/ l e f t" s ig n s w r i tte n o n th e u r b a n p a v e m e n t o r in th e d o u b l e ­ d e c k e r b u s e s . It is m o s tl y p r e s e n t in th e m e n ta lity o f H o n g K o n g p e o p le , w h o h a v e tr a n s f o r m e d th is h e r ita g e in to s y m b o lic c a p ita l w i th w h ic h to d is ti n g u i s h th e m s e lv e s f r o m

th e m a in la n d C h in e s e . T h e f a c t th a t th e y

h a v e b e e n a B ri tis h c o l o n y a ll o w s th o s e in H o n g K o n g to f e e l th a t th e y a re b e a r e r s o f k n o w l e d g e w i th r e g a r d to d r e s s in g , e a tin g , a c tin g , a n d o th e r in s ta n c e s o f a " c o s m o p o l i ta n a n d g l o b a l i s e d " w o r ld . It is a c o n s tr u c ti o n o f i d e n tity th a t o s c i ll a te s b e tw e e n C h i n a a n d E n g la n d . Jo h n n y , a 2 3 - y e a r - o ld m u s ic s tu d e n t, to ld m e h e c o n s id e r e d th e C h in e s e r u d e a n d ig n o r a n t w i th r e s p e c t to m a n y a s p e c ts o f w h a t h e c o n s id e r e d a s " m o d e r n i ty " ( s u c h a s k n o w l e d g e a b o u t b r a n d s , g lo b a l c itie s , a n d th e c u l tu r a l in d u s tr y ) . F e i f e i ( 3 2 y e a r s o l d ) , m y in te r p r e te r a n d k e y - i n f o r m a n t, h a s liv e d i n H o n g K o n g f o r 1 5 y e a r s b u t k e p t m a n y c o n ta c ts w i th r e l a ­ tiv e s a n d f r ie n d s in S h e n z h e n . D u r in g s o m e o f th e m e a l s w e h a d o n th e m a in la n d , s h e w o u ld a lw a y s p o i n t a t s o m e o n e a n d s a y : " T h e C h in e s e

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 1 7 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 1 7 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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h a v e n o b a c k g r o u n d , th e y d o n 't k n o w h o w to e a t. T h e i r h e a r t is p u r e r th a n th e H o n g K o n g p e o p le ' s , b u t th e y d o n 't k n o w e ti q u e tte ." C h i n e s e ta b le m a n n e r s a re e x tr e m e ly r itu a li s e d a n d m a r k e d b y a c o m p l e x e tiq u e tte , s o w h e n Fe if e i r e f e r s to " l a c k o f p o l i te n e s s ," s h e e v id e n tly is ta lk i n g a b o u t a W e s te r n b e h a v i o u r p a tte r n . A n n a , a 1 7 - y e a r - o ld a r t s tu d e n t, u s e d to s a y th a t a lth o u g h h e r p a r e n ts w e r e C h in e s e , s h e w o u ld n e v e r d a te a C h in e s e p e r s o n , b e c a u s e " th e y a re d irty , a n ti q u a te d , a n d d o n 't k n o w h o w to tr e a t a w o m a n ." R u d e a n d im p o li te a re r e c u r r in g d e s c r ip tiv e c a te g o r i e s th a t c a m e u p in in te r v ie w s o r c o n v e r s a tio n s a b o u t th e n e x t- d o o r n e ig h b o u r s . R e tu r n in g to th e q u e s tio n p o s e d a t th e b e g in n in g o f th is s e c tio n , lu x u r y b r a n d s c o n s titu te a m e c h a n is m th a t m a te r ia l is e s th is d if f e r e n c e , c o m m o d i­ tis in g id e n titi e s , s in c e th e y re f e r to th e im a g i n a r y n o tio n o f a n in te r n a tio n a l e l ite . O n e d o e s n o t o n ly c o n s u m e a p u r s e , b u t a ls o d iv e r s e r e p r e s e n ta tio n s o f c o s m o p o li ta n i s m a n d tr a v e l th a t p o r tr a y H o n g K o n g 's w e a l th a n d p r o s ­ p e rity . It is n o t e n o u g h to p o s s e s s a lu x u r y ite m ; i t is a ls o n e c e s s a r y to d o m i n a te o th e r c o d e s o f b e h a v io u r , s u c h a s e a tin g , tr a v e ll i n g , a n d b o d y c a re . T h u s , s o c ia l d is ti n c tio n c o m e s th r o u g h a b r o a d e r s o c ia l a p p a r a tu s th a t s u p p o r ts th e u s e o f th e r e a l p r o d u c t. F o r th e in f o r m a n ts , it w a s n o t o n ly a b o u t w e a r i n g th e b r a n d , b u t u n d e r s ta n d i n g w h a t it m e a n t a n d b e in g a b le to d is ti n g u i s h a r e a l f r o m a f a k e ite m . It is im p o r ta n t to p o in t o u t th a t th e p a s s io n f o r b r a n d s is n o t a n e x c lu ­ s i v e H o n g K o n g p h e n o m e n o n ; it is a n o tic e a b le g e n e r a l f e a tu r e in e a s t A s i a , e s p e c ia l ly i n Ja p a n ( s e e K e e t 2 0 0 7 ) . In th e b lo g " I a m f a s h i o n ," a u th o r " B a r n e y s G i r l ," 21 y e a r s o ld , c o m m e n ts o n th e b o o k T h e C u lt o f L u x u r y B r an d s :

In H o n g K o n g , lu x u ry c o n s u m p tio n h a s b e e n a d o p te d as th e c e n tra l id e o lo g y . M a k in g m o n e y a n d b lo w in g it o n th e lu x u rie s o f lif e is th e o n e th in g th a t th e p e o p le a re c le ar a b o u t, w h ile o n e v e ry th in g e lse , f ro m p o litic s , c u ltu re to p a trio tis m , a m b ig u ity re ig n s. C o m in g f ro m H o n g K o n g , I m u s t s ay , I to ta lly ag re e .

A s a c o u n te r p o in t to th is a m b i g u o u s id e n tity s h a r e d b e tw e e n C h in a a n d th e th e W e s te rn w o r l d , th e in f o r m a n ts a re a ttr a c te d to th e " i n c o n te s ta b l e " a u th e n tic ity o f th e g o o d s th e y c o n s u m e . F o r th e m , it is im p o r ta n t to g o to th e s h o p s o n th e d a y a n e w ' m o d e l is r e le a s e d , w a i t in li n e u n til th e s h o p s a re o p e n e d , f e e l th e e n v ir o n m e n t, ta lk to th e s a le s p e o p le . T h e r e is n o g l a m ­ o u r a b o u t b e in g in th o s e o v e r c r o w d e d s to r e s , w h e r e th e a tte n d a n ts d o n o t h a v e to b e n ic e , b e c a u s e th e n u m b e r o f v is i to r s o v e r w h e lm s th e in te n d e d c a p a c ity o f th e s to r e . G o in g to th e s h o p is , m o s t o f a ll, th e a s s u r a n c e th a t a n a u th e n tic p r o d u c t h a s b e e n b o u g h t; it is th e c e r ta in ty o f th e o ri g in ; it is k n o w 'in g th a t th e p r o d u c t is p a r t o f s o - c a lle d le g a l a n d e th ic a l c o n s u m p tio n . T h e r e a re c a s e s s im ila r to th e s e p o in te d o u t b y F o s te r ( 2 0 0 7 : 7 0 8 ) w h e n h e

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 1 8 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 1 8 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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C u lt u r es o f C o m m o d it y B r an din g

d is c u s s e s " l o v e m a r k s " : " T h e y s ig n a l a n e m o tio n a l c o n n e c tio n a n d a tta c h ­ m e n t to a b r a n d th a t g o e s b e y o n d r e a s o n ." F o r c o n s u m e r s w h o a re in lo v e w i th a b r a n d , o n ly th e r e a l g o o d s p o s s e s s th e a u ra th a t W a lte r B e n ja m in ( 1 9 8 0 ) d e s c ri b e d . A p e r f e c t re p li c a is n o t g o o d e n o u g h , f o r it w i ll n o t b r in g w i th it th e d is tin c tiv e e x p e r ie n c e o r s e n s a ti o n . A lth o u g h th is c o n s u m p tio n c a n re f e r to a n im a g i n e d g lo b a l a n d c o s m o ­ p o l ita n w o r ld , it o n ly m a k e s s e n s e w h e n r e la te d to a p a r tic u la r u n iv e r s e c o n c e r n in g th e lo c a l id e n tity d is p u te s . I f lu x u r y b r a n d s a re w e l l- k n o w n A s i a n p h e n o m e n a , in H o n g K o n g th e ir m e a n in g is d ir e c tly r e la te d to th e n e x t- d o o r u n i v e r s e , C h in a . T h e id e a o f " p o l i ti c a l l y c o r r e c t" c o n s u m p tio n is v a lu e d b e c a u s e o f a p r e s u m p ti o n th a t, v e r y c lo s e b y , th e r e is a " p o l i ti c a l l y in c o r r e c t" c o n s u m p tio n . F o r e x a m p l e , w h e n I in q u ir e d a b o u t lu x u r y c o n ­ s u m p tio n i n H o n g K o n g , w i th o u t m e n tio n in g th e m a in la n d , I u s u a l ly g o t a n a d d itio n a l r e s p o n s e th a t r e f e r r e d to th e C h i n e s e / C a n to n e s e a n d th e ir h a b i t o f c o n s u m in g a n d p r o d u c in g im i ta tio n s , c o p ie s , a n d f a ls if ic a tio n s . In Jo h n n y 's w o r d s :

C h in e s e im ita te e v e ry th in g w e m a k e . T h e y im ita te w h a t w e c o n ­ su m e , w h a t w e w e a r. If w e lik e G u c c i, G u c c i w ill b e f als if ie d in Sh e n z h e n . T h e y c o p y e v e n th e n a m e o f o u r sq u are . T h e y h a v e th e ir T im e s Sq u a re , w h ic h is a n im ita tio n o f o u r T im e s Sq u a re .

Ia n , a 2 6 - y e a r- o ld y o u n g m a n , a s s e r te d :

I s p e n d lo ts o f m o n e y b u y in g re a l b r a n d s b e c a u s e I f in d h a te f u l th e c o n s u m p tio n o f f a k e g o o d s . I w o u ld n e v e r b u y o n e . It's a m a tte r o f c iv iliz a tio n . Y o u k n o w , ru le s , c a p ita lis m , la w . ... Fa ir - tr a d e . Bu t i f y o u g o to o u r n e ig h b o u rin g c ity , e v e r y th in g y o u a re g o n n a f in d is f ak e .

T h is k in d o f a n s w e r , w h ic h a u to m a ti c a l ly e v o k e s th e m a in la n d , o f f e r s a w a y to r e in f o r c e p o s itiv e l y th e ir o w n c o n s u m p tio n b e c a u s e th e e x a lta tio n o f a u th e n tic ity n e e d s a n i n a u th e n tic o p p o s ite . T o H o n g K o n g p e o p le , th e b e l i e f th a t th e y a re m o r e p o lite th a n C h i n e s e p e o p le is b a s e d m a in ly o n th e c o n s u m p tio n o f r e a l g o o d s in s te a d o f th e r e p u g n a n t f a k e o n e s th a t c le a r ly s y m b o l is e a " l e s s - c i v i l i z e d " u n iv e r s e . In th is s e n s e , b r a n d s a re to d a y o n e o f m o s t im p o r ta n t w a y s o f c o m m o d i ti s in g d if f e r e n c e s . T o w e a r G u c c i is , a b o v e a ll e ls e , a w a y in w h ic h p e o p le u n d e r s ta n d a n d m a k e th e m s e lv e s H o n g K o n g p e o p le . L e a v i n g th e s u b w a y a n d c r o s s i n g th e H o n g K o n g / S h e n z h e n b o r d e r , y o u s e e L o u H u C o m m e r c i a l C ity , o n e o f th e b i g g e s t m a l l s i n C h i n a a n d o n e o f th e b i g g e s t c e n tr e s f o r b r a n d f a l s i f i c a ti o n in th e w o r l d . It is a g i g a n ti c , m o d e r n c o n s tr u c ti o n . T h e c i ty e n tr a n c e f o r th o s e c o m i n g f r o m

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 1 9 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 1 9 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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H o n g K o n g a n n o u n c e s a c o m p l e te l y d i f f e r e n t u n i v e r s e , a t l e a s t w i th r e s p e c t to th e v a l u e a s s i g n e d to b r a n d a u th e n tic ity . S h e n z h e n is a n e x tr e m e l y n e w c ity , w h ic h , in le s s th a n 3 0 y e a r s , h a s tu r n e d f r o m

a v ill a g e to a m e tr o p o li s . D u r in g th e p e r io d

o f e c o n o m ic

re f o rm , a n d a s a r e s u lt o f its lo c a tio n o n th e b o r d e r w i th th e f o r m e r c o lo n y , it w a s m a d e a S p e c ia l E c o n o m ic Z o n e o f th e c o u n tr y , w i th th e o b je c tiv e o f b r in g in g th e m a in la n d a n d H o n g K o n g c lo s e r to g e th e r. T h e e c o n o m ic re f o r m s b y D e n g X ia o p in g th a t b e g a n a t th e e n d o f th e 1 9 7 0 s le d to p h e ­ n o m e n a l d e v e lo p m e n t in C h i n e s e in d u s tr y . A c c e le r a te d in d u s tr ia l is a tio n b r o u g h t w i th i t b o o m in g p r o d u c tio n o f f a k e s , a s th is c o n s titu te d o n e o f th e e a s i e s t a n d f a s te s t w a y s to g e n e r a te i n c o m e a n d w o rk . T h e c o p ie s a re p r o ­ d u c e d in th e in d u s tr ia l z o n e a lo n g th e d e l ta o f th e P e a r l R i v e r, S h e n z h e n 's re g io n . T h e p o p u l a ti o n o f th is c ity is c o n s id e r e d th e " C h i n e s e w in d o w to th e w o r l d " a n d is c o m p o s e d o f " f l o a ti n g p o p u l a ti o n s ." T h e s e in c lu d e m ig r a n ts f r o m a ll o v e r th e c o u n tr y w h o m a k e u p th e in d u s tr ia l la b o u r f o r c e , s ta te e m p lo y e e s , a n d a la rg e n u m b e r o f b u s i n e s s m e n , w h o , a lo n g w i th th e te c h n o c r a ts , c o m p r i s e th e c o u n tr y ' s n e w f in a n c ia l e l ite s ( L i 2 0 0 0 ) . F o r a lm o s t a d e c a d e , C h in a p r o d u c e d th e s e g o o d s w i th o u t a s tr o n g in te r n a l m a rk e t. H o w e v e r, in te r n a l c o n s u m p tio n b e c a m e in e v ita b le d u e to its a s to u n d in g tr a je c to r y o f e c o n o m ic g r o w th ( D a v is 2 0 0 0 ) . T h e r e f o r e , a s e r ie s o f o f f i c i a l c a m p a ig n s w e r e l a u n c h e d in th e 1 9 9 0 s th a t e n c o u r a g e d p e o p le to s ta r t c o n s u m in g . It w a s n e c e s s a r y to c u l tiv a te th e p le a s u r e o f in d iv id u a l c o n s u m p tio n th r o u g h th e id e a o f " m o d e r n a n d s o p h is tic a te d c o n s u m e r s ." T h u s , th e c o n s u m in g d e s ir e w a s g e n e r a l is e d th r o u g h a to p d o w n in iti a ti v e . T h is c o n s u m p tio n r e v o lu tio n in C h in a , o r th e " c o n s p i c u ­ o u s m o v e m e n t," s ta r te d a s a s ta te p o l itic a l s tr a te g y to c o n n e c t th e n a tio n a l e c o n o m y to th e g lo b a l e c o n o m y ( P u n 2 0 0 3 ) . A c c o r d in g to D a v is ( 2 0 0 0 ) , f r o m 1 9 7 8 to 1 9 9 0 p e r c a p ita in c o m e d o u b le d , a n d lu x u r y g o o d s , w h ic h o n c e w e r e ra re a n d a c q u ir e d

th r o u g h r e l a ti o n s h ip s w i th s ta te o f f ic e rs ,

b e c a m e a v a ila b le to th e m a s s e s . In th e l a s t f e w

y e a r s , th e c o n s u m p ti o n o f lu x u r y b r a n d s ( r e a l o r

f a k e ) i n C h i n a h a s b e c o m e a n im p o r ta n t p h e n o m e n o n . F r o m m y p o i n t o f v ie w , b r a n d s a re ic o n s o f a r u p tu r e w i th th e s o b e r M a o i s t a e s th e ti c s o f th e C u l tu r a l R e v o l u ti o n a n d i n tr o d u c e th e c o u n tr y i n to a n e w p h a s e m a r k e d b y a g lo b a l c a p i ta l i s t m a r k e t e c o n o m y

T h e y s tr o n g l y r e p r e s e n t

th e p o s t- M a o C h i n a , a n n o u n c i n g a n e w p e r i o d o f w e a l th a n d w e l f a r e . W h e n p e o p l e u s e s u c h p r o d u c ts , i t s e e m s th a t th e y a r e c o n s ta n tl y c o m ­ m u n i c a ti n g th e f a c t th a t " I li v e in a n e w c o u n tr y ," a n d , i n d e e d , th i s is w h a t th e y a c tu a l ly say . In S h e n z h e n , a s a m a tte r o f f a c t, i t w a s p o s s ib le to f in d p e o p le w e a r ­ in g f a k e s th r o u g h o u t th e te r ri to r y , b u t th e s e c o u ld b e i n th e h a n d s o f a N o r th A m e r i c a n b u s i n e s s m a n , a H o n g K o n g p e r s o n , a n y S h e n z h e n in h a b ­ ita n t, a f a c to r y w o r k e r , o r e v e n a h o m e l e s s p e r s o n o r a b e g g a r — w h ic h

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 2 0 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 2 0 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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is e x tr e m e l y c o m m o n . In s id e th is p o l y s e m y o f m e a n in g s r e g a r d i n g th e im p o r ta n c e o f b r a n d s , I h a v e m e t p e o p le w h o b o u g h t o n l y r e a l p r o d u c ts , o n l y r e p li c a s , o r b o th , d e p e n d i n g o n th e s itu a tio n . T h e r e w a s n o h o m o g e ­ n e o u s d is c o u r s e a b o u t b r a n d s , s u c h a s I f o u n d in H o n g K o n g , b u t d il u te d e x p r e s s i o n s o f u n d e r s ta n d i n g b r a n d a u th e n tic ity . W h e r e a s H o n g K o n g p e o p le u s e d

to te ll m e th a t th e C h i n e s e w e r e

" l e s s p o l i te ," th e m a in la n d e r s , in tu r n , c la s s if i e d th e ir n e ig h b o u r s a s c o n ­ c e ite d a n d c a r r y i n g a s e n s e o f s u p e ri o ri ty , th o u g h th is w a s n o t c o m m o n . A c c o r d in g to F e i f e i ' s c o u s in M e i - x e i, 2 6 y e a r s o ld : " T h e y th in k th e y a re s u p e r i o r ju s t b e c a u s e th e y b e lo n g e d to E n g la n d . T h e p r o b le m is th a t th e y w i ll h a v e to c a r r y f o r e v e r th e b u r d e n o f b e in g C h in e s e . T h e y a re ju s t lik e u s , b u t th i n k th e y a re n o t." M e i - x e i ta k e s a l o t o f c a r e o f h e r a p p e a r a n c e a n d , a s m a n y C h in e s e w o m e n d o , d r e s s e s a n d w e a r s m a k e - u p i n th e s ty le o f th e f a s h io n m o d e ls w h o c ir c u la te a ro u n d T o k y o , H o n g K o n g , B e iji n g , a n d S h e n z h e n . B e c a u s e h e r s a la r y w a s lo w ( 1 ,4 0 0 y u a n , o r a b o u t $ 2 0 0 U S C ) , s h e u s e d to g o s h o p ­ p i n g in th e m a n y m a ll s th a t s o ld n o t o n ly im i ta tio n s b u t a ls o c lo th e s a n d p r o d u c ts o f c h e a p a n d u n k n o w n b r a n d s . S h e o n c e to ld m e th a t if s h e h a d a b o y f r ie n d f r o m H o n g K o n g it w o u ld b e p o s s ib le f o r h e r to g e t p r e s e n ts f r o m th e e s ta b li s h e d s h o p s . H o w e v e r , s o o n a f te r th a t s h e s a i d th a t th i s w a s n o t s o im p o r ta n t, a s s h e a lr e a d y h a d a " M i u - M i u p u r s e " a n d a " L o u i s V u itto n w a tc h ." T h e p r o d u c ts s h e re f e r re d to , n e v e r th e le s s , h a d b e e n b o u g h t in a f a m o u s f a k e m a r k e t. T h e p r i d e s h e f e l t o n s h o w i n g h e r b e lo n g i n g s to o th e r p e o p le — " L o o k , I h a v e a L o u is V u itto n w a tc h " — m a d e m e s u s p e c t th a t, f o r h e r, th e d is tin c tio n b e tw e e n th e f a k e a n d th e r e a l p r o d u c t w a s m a ll e a b le . S h e w a s s h a r i n g a le g itim a te s y m b o l a n d th a t w a s w h a t m a tte r e d , b e y o n d th e in tr in s ic p r o p e r tie s — th a t c o u ld b e e q u a lly v a lu a b l e b u t n e v e r d e c is iv e . H a v i n g s a id th is , s h e m a d e lo ts o f e f f o r t to a c q u ir e r e a l G u c c i p r o d u c ts f r o m h e r b o y f r ie n d . T h e s e w e r e li k e tr o p h ie s to h e r, b e c a u s e s h e w a s h a v ­ in g a n a f f a ir w i th a g u y f r o m H o n g K o n g . S h e u s e d to s a y : " Y o u w i ll s e e ! H e w i ll g iv e m e o n e ! " T h e im p o r ta n c e o f g e n u in e n e s s in th a t s itu a tio n re s id e d in w h a t i t m e a n t to th e b o y f r ie n d , a s th e g u y h a d n e v e r b o u g h t a n y th i n g f a k e f o r h im s e lf , b u t h a d f o r h e r. M e ta p h o r ic a ll y , it w a s a s i f th e p u r s e ' s c e r tif ic a te o f o r i g in a li ty w a s a ls o a c e r tif ic a te f o r th e re la ti o n s h ip : T h e p u r s e w a s a n a u t h e n t ic m e a s u r e o f a f f e c tio n . W h e n s h e r e a lis e d th a t h e w o u ld n o t b u y it f o r h e r, s h e s a id ( in f r o n t o f a n e s ta b li s h e d G u c c i s h o p , l o o k in g a t a n e w ' m o d e l in th e d is p la y , th o r o u g h ly d is a p p o i n te d ) : " I d o n 't n e e d a n y g u y to p a y a n y th i n g to m e . T h is is a n o ld b e h a v i o u r o f tr a d itio n a l c u ltu r e . I c a n b u y b y m y s e lf . I t' s n o t th e re a l o n e , b u t i t is G u c c i a s w 'e ll." A n d th e n s h e b o u g h t o n e a t th e f a k e m a rk e t. In a n o th e r in s ta n c e , in a m e e tin g w i th s u c c e s s f u l b u s i n e s s m e n th a t I p a r tic i p a te d in th r o u g h m y re s e a r c h o n p r o d u c tio n in C h in a , I n o tic e d th a t a l l m e n w e r e w e a r i n g a R o le x w a tc h — o n e o f th e s y m b o l s o f b e lo n g i n g

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 121 h t t p :/ /s ite . e b ra ry .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 2 1 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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to th e n e w C h i n e s e b u s i n e s s e l ite . T h a t b r a n d , li k e G u c c i i n H o n g K o n g , is a f o r m o f d is p la y th a t e m p o w e r s p e o p le to c o n tr o l a n x ie ty in f a c e o f a n e w li f e c ir c u m s ta n c e s . A f te r th a t m e e tin g , o n e o f th e e n tr e p r e n e u r s , L i ( 3 6 y e a rs o ld ) to o k m e to a h u g e m a r k e t o f f a k e w a tc h e s a n d s a i d : " L o o k m y R o le x th e r e ! " T h e to n e in w h ic h h e ta lk e d a b o u t h is w a tc h w a s s im il a r to M e i - x e i's . T h e f a c t is , h e h a d a R o le x . F r o m th e p o i n t o f v ie w o f m a n y H o n g K o n g p e o p le , h e p r o b a b ly d id n o t h a v e o n e , b e c a u s e th e a u ra o f th e b r a n d f o r th e m w a s o n ly a tta c h e d to th e g e n u in e p ie c e . F o r m o s t o f m y in f o r m a n ts f r o m S h e n z h e n , h o w e v e r , th e a u r a w a s th e s y m b o l its e lf , l e g iti­ m is e d th r o u g h s o c i a l c ir c u its a n d in m o r a l v a lu e s a n d b e li e f s . M e i - x e i a n d L i ' s c a s e s h a v e le s s to d o w i th th e ir s a l a r y a n d m o r e to d o w i th th e g e n e r a l ro l e o f b r a n d s in p o s t- M a o C h in a , w h e r e n a ti o n a l c o n ­ c e p ts a b o u t c o p ie s a n d in te ll e c tu a l p r o p e r ty a re v e r y f le x ib le . F a k e g o o d s a re le s s c r im i n a l is e d th a n in o th e r p l a c e s ; th e m o r a l w e i g h t a r o u n d th e m is f a r lig h te r. T h is c o n d itio n is re la te d to th e v e r y n o tio n o f in te ll e c tu a l p r o p ­ e r ty i n a c o u n tr y th a t, a c c o r d in g to A lf o r d ( q u o te d in V a n n 2 0 0 6 ) , d o e s n o t s h a r e th e N o r th A m e r i c a n a n d E u r o p e a n tr a d itio n s o f r e c o g n i s in g r ig h ts o f o w n e r s h ip . In th is s e n s e , f o r m a n y s u b je c ts , it is p o s s ib le to h a v e b o th re a l a n d f a k e g o o d s d e p e n d i n g o n in d iv i d u a l n e g o tia ti o n s a n d v a lu e s b e c a u s e , f o r th is ty p e o f c o n s u m e r s , b r a n d s d o n o t e x i s t ju s t f o r th e r e a l p r o d u c t b u t a ls o f o r th e f a k e o n e . T h u s , r e p li c a s c a n b e a u th e n tic b r a n d e d c o m m o d i ti e s .

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A s e r ie s o f c la s s ic B r a z il ia n s o c i o lo g ic a l s tu d ie s , w h ic h d r a f te d a g e n e ra l th e o r y a b o u t th e c o u n try , h a v e s h o w n th a t, b e h in d th e id e a s o f th e " c o r d i a l m a n ," " h a r m o n y a m o n g c la s s e s ," a n d " r a c i a l d e m o c r a c y " ( w h ic h p r o d u c e a n im a g e o f a f r ie n d l y c o u n tr y a n d o n e w i th o u t s tr o n g s o c ia l h ie r a r c h ie s ) li e s h id d e n a s o c ie ty m a r k e d b y s o c ia l s tr a tif i c a ti o n a n d r a c ia l s e g r e g a tio n . In te n s e c o n ta c t b e tw e e n u n e q u a l s e g m e n ts o f s o c i e ty is o n ly p o s s ib le o n c e s u b je c ts h a v e a c le a r v ie w a b o u t th e p la c e th e y o c c u p y in s o c i e ty a n d in th i s in te r a c tio n . It is p o s s ib le to " b e i n f o r m a l " n o t b e c a u s e th e r e a re n o d is ta n c e s b e tw e e n in d iv i d u a ls b u t b e c a u s e th e s e d is ta n c e s a re w e ll k n o w n a n d in c o r p o r a te d ( B u a r q u e d e H o la n d a 1 9 9 7 ; D a M a tta 1 9 8 1 ) . M y o b je c tiv e h e r e is to c o n s i d e r th e u s e o f lu x u r y b r a n d s i n th i s B r a z il ia n s o c io c u ltu r a l m o d e l , w h e r e s o c i e ty is m a r k e d n o t o n ly b y c la s s s tr a tif i c a ti o n b u t f o r th e m o s t p a r t b y p e r s o n if ie d re p r e s e n ta tio n s o f th is d if f e r e n c e : It is im p o r ta n t to h a v e p o w e r a n d to s h o w it. T h e c o n s u m p tio n o f f a k e lu x u r y g o o d s c a n b e f o u n d in a ll la y e r s o f B r a z il ia n s o c ie ty . T h is is p a r tic u la r l y s o b e c a u s e it is a s o c ie ty th a t o p e r a te s w i th a c r u e l d is c r im in a to r y s y s te m th a t is a b le to m a k e th e a c c u s a ti o n o f " f a k e " f o r a p r o d u c t w i th o u t a n y m a te r ia l ju s tif ic a tio n . In o th e r w o r d s , in d e p e n d e n t o f w h e th e r a p r o d u c t is re a l o r f a k e , its s o c ia l le g itim a c y a n d

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 2 2 h tt p :// s it e . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 2 2 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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a u th e n tic a tio n w ill b e d e te r m in e d , in th e e n d , b y w h o is w e a r i n g it. T h is s i tu a tio n is n o t u n iq u e to B r a z il , b u t in B r a z il ia n s o c ie ty , th is c la s s if ic a tio n s y s te m th r o u g h a p p e a r a n c e is u n u s u a lly rig id . T o e x e m p l if y th is id e a , I r e p o r t a c o m m o n p l a c e s c e n e th a t ta k e s p l a c e in m id d l e - to h ig h - c la s s B r a z il ia n n e ig h b o u r h o o d s . T h e b o s s a n d th e m a id g e t in to th e s a m e e l e v a to r o f a b u i ld in g , b o th h o ld i n g a L o u is V u itto n p u r s e . N o t k n o w i n g th e in d iv i d u a l h is to r ie s o f th e s e w o m e n , i t w o u ld a t f ir s t s e e m s e n s ib le to c o n c lu d e th a t th e f ir s t h a s a r e a l p r o d u c t a n d th e s e c o n d a f a k e o n e . T h is p r o s a ic e l e v a to r s c e n e is a n e x tr e m e l y u s e f u l m o d e l w ith w h ic h to th i n k a b o u t th e s o c i a l c o n s tr u c ti o n o f a p r o d u c t's a u th e n tic ity . A n o u ts id e r w o u ld p r o b a b ly a s s u m e th e m a i d ' s p u r s e is n o t a u th e n tic . H o w e v e r, th e re is a r e a s o n a b le c h a n c e th a t h e r p u r s e is a re a l ite m , a n d th e r e a re m a n y d if f e r e n t p l a c e s w h e r e s h e c o u ld h a v e b o u g h t i t o r r e c e iv e d it a s a p r e s e n t. In f a c t, th e r e is a b e tte r c h a n c e th a t th e b o s s is w e a r i n g th e f a k e ite m , n o t b e c a u s e s u c h b r a n d e d g o o d s a re b e y o n d th e b u d g e t o f m id d l e - c la s s c itiz e n s , b u t b e c a u s e a f a k e p r o d u c t is m o re li k e ly to b e s u c ­ c e s s f u l ly p a s s e d o f f a s a r e a l ite m i f w ro m b y a p e r s o n w i th h ig h s o c ia l a n d s y m b o lic c a p ita l. M y e th n o g r a p h y in P o r to A le g r e w a s p e r f o r m e d

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d o r s , tr a d e r s w h o w o r k in th e in f o r m a l e c o n o m y . T h e y s e ll c h e a p C h in e s e p r o d u c ts a s w e l l a s f a k e s ( c lo th e s , h o u s e a p p l ia n c e s , d e c o r a tio n , C D s a n d D V D s , to y s , e tc .) , a n d th e c o n s u m in g p u b lic c a n b e f r o m a n y s e g m e n t o f s o c ie ty , d e p e n d i n g o n th e p r o d u c t. T h e tr a d e r s b e lo n g to th e lo w - in c o m e c la s s , b u t, th o u g h th e y e n d u r e f r e q u e n t f in a n c ia l h a r d s h ip s , a re n o t in e x tr e m e p o v e rty . M o s t o f th e m liv e in th e c i ty f a v e l a s ( s lu m s ) o r in o u tly in g c itie s . A f te r s o m e y e a r s r e s e a r c h in g th e p r o c e s s o f s e ll in g c h e a p p r o d u c ts a n d / o r f a k e s , I s ta r te d to p a y a tte n ti o n to w h a t th e y , a s tr a d e r s , w i s h e d to c o n su m e . T h e s e tr a d e r s a re u s e d to s e lli n g c h e a p lo w - q u a li ty p r o d u c ts a n d b e in g p o r tr a y e d b y th e lo c a l m e d ia a s " v a n d a l s ," re s p o n s i b le f o r th e s p r e a d o f p i r a te d g o o d s in to w n . T h is c o n d itio n h a s le d th e m to f e e l r e p e ll e d b y th e g o o d s th a t th e y s e ll a n d in s ti lls in th e m a c o r r e s p o n d in g d e s ir e f o r th e e x p e n s iv e re a l p r o d u c t, w h ic h h a s to b e p u r c h a s e d in m a n y in s ta llm e n ts , in v o lv i n g a lo t o f e f f o r t a n d s a c ri f ic e . T h e im p o r ta n c e o f th e s e p r o d u c ts th a t th e y c a ll th e " g o o d s tu f f " ( i.e ., p r o d u c ts b o u g h t i n s h o p s ) is s o m e th i n g g e n e r a te d in th e v e r y c o m m u n i ty w 'h e re th e y li v e in a n d in th e p l a c e w h e re th e y w o rk . M y in f o r m a n ts h a d b o u g h t D V D p l a y e r s lo n g b e f o r e m a n y in d iv id u a ls w 'h o b e lo n g to m id d l e c la s s h a d d o n e s o ( in c lu d in g m e ) . T h e y a lw a y s h a v e th e m o s t m o d e r n c e ll p h o n e s a v a ila b le o n th e m a r k e t, a p o s s e s s io n th a t is n o t c h e a p in B ra z il . A m o n g s t m a n y e x a m p l e s o f s u c h c o n s u m e r b e h a v ­ io u r, I re c a ll o n e in p a r tic u la r th a t a d d r e s s e s M i l l e r 's a s s e r tio n s ( 1 9 9 8 , 2 0 0 8 ) a b o u t th e i n te r s e c ti o n b e tw e e n c o n s u m p tio n , r e la ti o n s h ip s , s a c r if ic e ,

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 2 3 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 2 3 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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a n d lo v e . O n c e , a s tr e e t v e n d o r g a v e a v e r y e x p e n s iv e d e s i g n e r s u it to h is f a th e r- in - la w . K n o w in g th e h a b i ts o f th a t f a m il y v e r y w e l l, I k n e w th a t th e s u i t w o u ld h a r d ly e v e r b e w o r n , b u t th is d id n o t m a k e th e g i f t a n y le s s im p o r ta n t o r le s s v a lu a b le . T h e s o n - in - la w h a d b o u g h t th e e x p e n s iv e a n d u n u s u a l g i f t b e c a u s e i t h a d b e e n o f f e re d to h im b y s o m e o n e w h o h a d s to le n i t f r o m a s h o p d is p la y . H e p a id h a l f i n c a s h a n d h a lf in c o m m o d i ti e s . W ith o u t k n o w i n g h i s f a th e r - in - la w 's s iz e , h e b o u g h t th e s u it im m e d i a te ly b e c a u s e h e k n e w th a t th e m o s t im p o r ta n t th in g w a s th a t h e w a s g iv i n g a n e x p e n s iv e , b r a n d e d g if t. T h e f a th e r - in - la w w a s a ls o s a tis f ie d w i th th is g r a n d io s e a c t o f s a c r if ic e a n d lo v e , a lth o u g h h e w a s a w a re th a t h e w o u ld n e v e r f it in s i d e th a t s tr a n g e a n d la rg e s u it. A p p r e c ia tio n f o r b r a n d p r o d u c ts o r n e w te c h n o lo g y is a w e ll- o b s e r v e d f a c t in o th e r lo w e r c la s s c o n te x ts in B ra z il . In th e c ity o f P o r to A le g re , Sc a lc o ( 2 0 0 8 ) h a s n o tic e d th a t y o u n g p e o p le f r o m th e c i ty ' s b ig g e s t f a v e l a ta k e p a r t in a v ir tu a l c o m m u n i ty c a ll e d " A d i d a s Is S ty l e ," a n d th e y p re f e r th e P u m a s p o r ts b r a n d , d is p la y i n g th e ir ta s te f o r b r a n d e d g e a r. S c a l c o a ls o p o in te d o u t th a t y o u n g p e o p le w o u ld r a th e r w e a r a f a k e L o u is V u itto n th a n a n u n k n o w n b r a n d b e c a u s e , a s th e in f o r m a n ts say , " o n th e p ic tu r e n o b o d y c a n re a liz e th a t th e p u r s e is f a k e ! " ( p . 4 5 ) . L e i ta o ( 2 0 0 4 ) h a d s h o w n th a t w o m e n f r o m th e s a m e c o m m u n i ty d o n o t li k e u s in g th e c lo th e s th e y p r o d u c e — w h ic h a re b o u g h t b y th e m id d le c la s s a s p o l itic a l ly c o r r e c t f a ir tra d e c o n ­ s u m p tio n — p r e f e r r in g to g o s h o p p in g in th e c i ty ' s b ig c lo th in g s to re s . T h e m a r k e t in s to l e n p r o d u c ts is o n e p o s s ib le w a y to a c c e s s v a lu a b le g o o d s a n d lu x u r y b r a n d s , e s p e c ia l ly i n p l a c e s s u c h a s th e s tr e e t v e n d o r 's m a r k e t a n d th e f a v e l a s . H o w e v e r , th e g r e a te s t m a jo r i ty o f p e o p le m a n a g e to b u y s o m e g o o d s o f th is k in d b e c a u s e o f a v e r y c h a r a c te r is tic f e a tu r e o f th e B r a z il ia n m a r k e t th a t is a d a p te d to th e p o p u l a ti o n 's p u r c h a s in g p o w e r : p a y m e n t in m a n y in s ta l lm e n ts . It is n o t u n u s u a l f o r s o m e o n e p l a n n in g to a c q u ir e a c e r ta in p r o d u c t to s e t u p a s a v in g s a c c o u n t o r to g iv e u p c o n s u m ­ in g s o m e th i n g e ls e , a s d a il y f o o d , f o r e x a m p l e . W h a t f o r a lo n g tim e w a s c o n s i d e r e d a d e m o n s tr a tio n o f " i g n o r a n c e " b y th e lo w e r in c o m e c la s s e s in B ra z il — w h o w e r e a c c u s e d o f c h o o s i n g to b u y a te le v i s io n o v e r f o o d — is to d a y s e e n f r o m a n o th e r p e r s p e c tiv e , in th e s e n s e o f u n d e r s ta n d i n g th a t c o n s u m p tio n is a n im p o r ta n t m e a n s b y w h ic h in d iv i d u a ls f e e l li k e s o c ia ll y in c lu d e d c itiz e n s . M y k e y i n f o r m a n t, C a r m in h a , a 3 9 - y e a r - o ld s tr e e t v e n d o r w h o s e lls to y s , o n c e s p e n t a w h o l e m o n th o f f o o d m o n e y to g iv e a b r a n d e d r u c k ­ s a c k ( b a c k p a c k ) to h e r te e n a g e d a u g h te r. U n f o rtu n a te ly , it w a s n o t e n o u g h m o n e y a n d s h e c o u ld n o t c o n tin u e to p a y a ll th e in s ta l lm e n ts , s o s h e h a d lo ts o f p r o b l e m s in c o u rt. N o t s h y a b o u t it, s h e to ld m e w h a t s h e h a d s a id to h e r la w y e r : " P o o r C a tia , h o w c o u ld s h e g o to s c h o o l w i th th a t o ld r u c k ­ s a c k ? " S h e e x p l a in e d to m e th a t a t th e s c h o o l w h e r e h e r d a u g h te r s tu d ie s , s h e s u f f e r s d is c r im in a tio n a t th e h a n d s o f o th e r k id s , w h o p u b l ic ly c a ll

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 2 4 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 2 4 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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h e r a " s m u g g l e r ' s d a u g h te r ." S h e to ld m e : " S o C a ti a a r r iv e d w i th th e n e w ru c k s a c k a n d th e e n v io u s k id s s a id it w a s f a k e . . . . T h e n I g o t p is s e d o f f . I w e n t th e r e a n d I a lm o s t b e a t th e s h it o u t o f th e m o th e r w h o s e g ir l s a id th a t. It' s n o t f a k e , i t' s g o o d s tu f f ! " In a s o c ie ty th a t d is c r im in a te s o v e r s o c ia l c la s s , th e c o n s u m p tio n o f e x p e n s iv e g o o d s , g e n u in e a n d / o r p u rc h a s e d i n f o r m a l s h o p s , a p p e a r s a s a m e c h a n is m f o r s o c ia l a f f ir m a tio n b u t m o s tly a s a k in d o f m o ra lity . T h u s , c o n s u m p tio n is a t th e c e n tre o f th e p r o c e s s o f in te r a c tio n b e tw e e n th e d if f e r ­ e n t s o c ia l s e g m e n ts in B ra z il. In th is s e n s e , f o llo w in g F r i e d m a n 's re m a rk s ( 2 0 0 5 ) a b o u t th e u s e o f F re n c h b r a n d s b y p o o r s e g m e n ts o f s o c ie ty in C o n g o , I d o n o t b e li e v e th a t s u c h c o n s u m p tio n o f v a lu a b le g o o d s is a s i m p li s tic p r o c e s s o f e lite e m u la tio n , b u t " a c o n s u m p tio n o f h ig h e s t o rd e rs o f s ta tu s [ ...] it is n o t re p re s e n ta tiv e b u t c o n s titu ti v e o f s o c ia l id e n tity " ( p . 2 3 8 ) . F o r th o s e w o r k in g i n th e in f o r m a l e c o n o m y , o r s o m e h o w

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th e s e p r a c tic e s , o th e r f o r m s o f in s e r ti o n in a n e s ta b li s h e d u n i v e r s e a re s o u g h t a f te r, f o r m s th a t d r iv e th e m a w a y f r o m th e la b e ls o f il le g a l ity a n d " d i r t " th a t s u r r o u n d s th e m . E v id e n tly , th e s e p e o p le a ls o c o n s u m e f a k e g o o d s s u c h a s C D s , D V D s , g a m e s , e tc ., b u t th e r e r e m a in s a p o s itiv e n a r r a ­ tiv e s u r r o u n d in g re a l b r a n d e d g o o d s th a t p r o v id e s o c i a l a f f ir m a tio n in th e f a c e o f o th e r s o c i a l g r o u p s . I f it is tr u e th a t n o t m a n y g r a n t le g itim a c y to a L o u is V u itto n p u r s e w o r n b y a m a id o r s o ld b y a s tr e e t v e n d o r , it is e x a c tly i n th i s c o n te x t o f d is p u te th a t b u y i n g r e a l g o o d s m a k e m o r e s e n s e . F ro m th e in d iv i d u a l p o i n t o f v ie w , b r a n d e d g o o d s a r e a p p r e c ia te d a s th e y s ig n a l th e p o s s ib il ity o f h a v i n g " g o o d s tu f f ," o r, a s i t is c o m m o n ly p h r a s e d , " P o o r p e o p le a ls o li k e g o o d s tu f f ." F o r B r a z il ia n in f o r m a n ts , in c o n tr a s t to th o s e f r o m

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e x a m p l e , i t is n o t im p o r ta n t to g o to th e s to re a n d li v e th r o u g h th e w h o le s h o p p in g e x p e r ie n c e . T h e m e a n s b y w h ic h th e g o o d s w e r e a c q u ir e d m a k e s n o d if f e r e n c e : h e n c e , th e m a r k e t f o r s to le n p r o d u c ts , s e c o n d - h a n d g o o d s , o r th o s e p a id in in s ta llm e n ts . T h e im p o r ta n t th i n g is to o w n , e n jo y , a n d s h o w th e g o o d s o f f in a s p e c if ic s o c ia l s e ttin g . T h e in f o r m a n ts w i s h e d to s o m e ­ h o w s h a r e in a u n i v e r s e o f w e a l th f r o m w h ic h th e y a re ty p ic a l ly e x c lu d e d , a n d th e f e e l in g o f in c lu s i o n is a c h ie v e d th r o u g h th e c o m m o d itie s . A t th e m a r k e t w h e r e I d e v e lo p e d th i s e th n o g ra p h y , I p e r c e iv e d th a t m a n y p e o p le f r o m th e m id d l e c la s s a s k e d th e s tr e e t v e n d o r s w h e r e th e y c o u ld f in d th e " L o u i s V u itto n p u r s e s " — a b r a n d w ith g r e a t a p p e a l a m o n g th e B r a z il ia n e l ite s . In re a lity , I u n d e r s ta n d th a t th e p e o p le w h o g e t th e m o s t o u t o f th e r e p li c a m a r k e t in B r a z il ( a n d e ls e w h e r e ) a re c e r ta in ly f r o m th e m id d le c la s s — th o s e w h o o f te n d o n o t h a v e s u f f ic ie n t e c o n o m i c c a p ita l to b u y a r e a l p u r s e b u t n o n e th l e s s p o s s e s s s u f f ic ie n t s y m b o l ic c a p ita l to le g itim a tis e a r e p lic a . T h e s e s e g m e n ts o f s o c i e ty n e e d to c o n v in c e s o c i e ty th a t th e i r r e p lic a s a r e re a l. F o r th i s g o a l to b e s u c c e s s f u l , th e i n d iv i d u a ls h a v e to m a s te r

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 2 5 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 2 5 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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c e r ta i n f u n d a m e n ta l c o d e s o f b e h a v i o u r th a t s u p p o r t th e p u r s e ( v o ic e to n e , b o d y h e x is , c l o th i n g ) . T h e y a r e c o n s c i o u s th a t a l o t o f e f f o r t a n d e v e n d i s s i m u l a ti o n i s n e e d e d to m a k e th i s a c t c o n v in c in g . O n e o f C a r m i n h a 's o l d c u s to m e r s to l d m e : " A h , I w e n t to P a r is w i th v e r y l i ttl e m o n e y , o n a to u r i s t p a c k a g e , o n ly e a ti n g s a n d w i c h e s ! I s a y I b o u g h t m y L o u is V u itto n th e r e , b u t I a c tu a l l y b o u g h t it f r o m th e K o r e a n s ." W h e n e v e r I s a y I s tu d y " f a k e g o o d s ," p e o p l e o f te n r e s p o n d in a lo w v o ic e , w i th a l i ttl e b i t o f s h a m e , a s i f r e v e a l i n g a s e c r e t: " M i n e is f a k e ." A c c o r d in g to a re p li c a s u p p l ie r f r o m P o r to A le g r e w h o b e lo n g s to a o n c e w e a l th y f a m il y :

W e , p u rs e s p e c ia lis ts , c a n d is tin g u is h a re p lic a f ro m a re a l ite m . Bu t I c a n u s e b o th a n d n o b o d y c a n te ll th e d if f e re n c e . If I g o to a f an c y p a rty w ith a re p lic a , n o b o d y is g o in g to s a y th a t " I " a m w e a rin g a re p lic a , th e re w ill p ro b a b ly b e m a n y re p lic a s a n d re a l ite m s m ix e d to g e th e r, b u t th a t d o e s n 't m a k e a n y d if f e re n c e , w h a t m a tte rs is th at a ll o f u s a re w e a rin g L o u is V u itto n a n d th a t's w h a t m atte rs a t th e se p la c e s . A n d th e p e o p le w h o b u y f ro m m e , f o r in s ta n c e , is a n A c la s s p u b lic . P e o p le w ith a lo t o f m o n e y .

In th e s e s p a c e s , w h e r e b r a n d s c ir c u la te a n d a p p e a r a t p a r tie s a n d p r e s ti­ g io u s e v e n ts , i t is n o t p o s s ib le to s a y th a t e v e r y b o d y b e li e v e s in th e a u th e n ­ tic ity o f e v e r y o n e e l s e ' s g o o d s . P u r s e s a n d w a tc h e s a re le g itim is e d a ll th e tim e . T h e e y e s c a r e f u lly f o c u s o n th e je w e lr y , th e c lo th e s , th e p e r s o n a l a n d f a m il y b a c k g r o u n d o f th e in d iv i d u a l, a n d th e n a v e r d ic t is p r o n o u n c e d . B u t th e r e is a lw a y s a c e r ta in d o u b t in th e a ir, a n u n c e r ta in ty : Is it r e a l o r fak e? F o r th o s e w h o d o n o t a c tu a l ly b e lo n g to th e e l ite , s u c h g o o d s a re a n a tte m p t to n e g o tia te th e c la s s c o n d itio n . So , a L o u is V u itto n is a n a tte m p t to g e t a n u p g r ad e , to tr y to " l o o k r i c h ." A m a id o r a s tr e e t v e n d o r c o u ld h a r d ly a c h ie v e th a t. In a s o c i e ty w h e r e c la s s in e q u a liti e s a re h ig h ly m a r k e d a n d w h e r e p o w e r is s tr o n g l y a tta c h e d to th e p e r s o n , b r a n d e d c o m m o d i­ tie s , w 'h e th e r r e a l o r f a k e , c o n s titu te n o t o n ly f a s h io n a c c e s s o r ie s , b u t a ls o a c c e s s o r ie s f o r s o c i a l p o s itio n i n g a n d id e n tity . L u x u r y b r a n d s , in B ra z il , a re in th e c e n tr e o f a ( s y m b o li c ) c la s s s tru g g le .

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In th i s c h a p te r , I h a v e p r e s e n te d c a s e s tu d i e s th a t p e r ta i n to th e b r a n d e d c o m m o d i ti s a tio n o f id e n titi e s , c la s s e s , b o u n d a r i e s , h ie r a r c h i e s , m o r a l itie s , a n d p r e ju d ic e s . T h e p l o t w a s c o m p o s e d o f m ic r o - s to r ie s , a lm o s t s n a p s h o ts , w i th th e o b je c tiv e o f q u e s tio n in g th e c o n s tr u c ti o n o f a u th e n tic ity a n d th e v a lu e o f b r a n d e d g o o d s in c o m p l e te ly d if f e r e n t c o n te x ts .

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 2 6 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 2 6 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

126

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C u lt u r es o f C o m m o d it y B r an d in g

I s h o w e d th a t a m o n g c e r ta in g r o u p s o f H o n g K o n g y o u n g s te r s , f r o m b o th m id d le a n d h ig h c la s s e s , p a y i n g a lo t o f m o n e y f o r a p r o d u c t b o u g h t i n a s to re d e p e n d e d o n a n u n d e r s ta n d i n g th a t, b y d o i n g s o , o n e w a s a c q u ir ­ in g c e r ta in p r o p e r tie s th a t th e c o p ie s d id n o t p o s s e s s — a ty p e o f a u r a th a t c a m e a lo n g w i th a c e r tif ic a te o f a u th e n tic ity f r o m a n e s ta b li s h e d s h o p . T h e “ la te s t m o d e l " is a n x io u s l y a w a i te d , a n d th e o ld o n e s a re th r o w n a w a y . T h e im p o r ta n c e o f g e n u in e n e s s c a n b e a ls o s e e n a m o n g c e r ta in lo w e r c la s s g r o u p s in B ra z il , to o , w h e r e i t b e c o m e s a m o r a l v a lu e . Q u a li ty is u n d e r s to o d a s b e in g " g o o d s tu f f " a n d n o t " ju n k s tu f f ." In c o n tr a s t to th e p r i o r iti e s o f th e in f o r m a n ts f r o m H o n g K o n g , th e m e a n s b y w h ic h th e s e B r a z il ia n s a c q u i r e th e ir g o o d s d o n o t m a tte r : T h e y c o u ld b e f r o m th e s to le n g o o d s m a r k e t, s e c o n d - h a n d , o r p a i d f o r in lo n g in s ta llm e n ts . T h e y h a d to b e " r e a l " p r o d u c ts , e v e n i f th e y w re re o ld o r d e m o d e . S u c h r e p r e s e n ta tio n s s h o w th a t d if f e r e n t g r o u p s o p t f o r p a y i n g a lo t o f m o n e y f o r a p r o d u c t f o r c u l tu r a l re a s o n s , w h ic h a re d e f in e d i n a r e l a ­ tio n a l u n i v e r s e th a t d e a ls w i th s o m e O th e r f r o m w h o m it is n e c e s s a r y to d is ti n g u i s h o n e s e lf . In S h e n z h e n , f o r e x a m p l e , I h a v e f o u n d m o re f le x ib le d is c o u r s e s a n d d il u te d v a lu e s o v e r th e im p o r ta n c e o f b r a n d s , w h ic h c o u ld b e a tta c h e d to th e c o p i e s o r to th e r e a l p ro d u c ts . In th e s a m e w a y , a m o n g s o m e in d iv i d u a ls o f th e B r a z il ia n m id d l e c la s s , I r e a lis e d th a t th e o r i g in o f th e b r a n d w a s n o t ta k e n in to a c c o u n t. T h e im p o r ta n t th in g w a s th e s im u la ­ c r u m its e lf , a n d , in th is s e n s e , th e f a k e ite m w a s a g o o d s tr a te g y to a c q u ire b r a n d e d g o o d s . " L o o k a t m y L o u is V u itto n / R o le x . . . , " s o m e in f o r m a n ts to ld m e , p o i n ti n g a t th e ir r e p li c a s . In th e s e s itu a tio n s , th e q u e s tio n th a t r e m a in s is : Is th e b r a n d a tta c h e d o n ly to th e g e n u in e p ie c e ? C h a r l e s L in d h o lm , d is c u s s in g a u th e n tic ity a n d m o d e rn ity , c o m p le te s h is a r g u m e n t b y s u g g e s ti n g th a t " th e s a c r e d is w h e r e y o u f in d i t " ( 2 0 0 2 : 3 3 7 ) . T h e a n x ie ty to d e f in e w h a t is o r is n o t a u th e n tic e n c o u r a g e s tru th s to b e c r e a te d a n d re c re a te d in c e s s a n tl y w i th in p a r tic u la r f ie ld s o f d is p u te . T h e a u th e n tic ity o f a b r a n d e d c o m m o d i ty is li n k e d to in te r n a tio n a l h e g e ­ m o n ic p o l itic s th a t c la s s if i e s th e m a s le g a l o r il le g a l a c c o r d in g to c r ite r i a o f IP R a n d o f r e g is te r e d b r a n d s . H o w e v e r, in th e f ie ld o f th e h u m a n e x p e r i­ e n c e w i th o b je c ts , s u c h d e f in i ti o n s a re re - e la b o r a te d , ta k e n o n o r n o t. To a n s w e r th e q u e s tio n a b o v e — r e g a r d in g th e b r a n d a n d th e g e n u in e p ie c e — I ta k e th e li b e r ty o f " p i r a ti n g " L i n d h o l m ' s s e n te n c e a n d s u g g e s t: T h e b r a n d is w h e r e y o u b e l i e v e it to b e .

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1. A c k n o w l e d g e m e n ts : T h is p r o je c t h a d th e s u p p o r t o f th e W e n n e r G re n F o u n d a ti o n a n d o f B r a z i l 's M i n i s tr y o f E d u c a tio n ( C A P E S F o u n d a ti o n ) . I th a n k th e o r g a n i s e r s o f th e C u l tu r e s o f C o m m o d ity B r a n d in g c o n f e r ­ e n c e , D a v id W e n g ro w a n d A n d r e w B e v a n , a n d th e v a lu a b l e c o m m e n ts

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 2 7 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 2 7 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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o f D a n ie l M i lle r a n d p a r tic i p a n ts a t th a t c o n f e r e n c e . I a m g r a te f u l to M i l l e r ' s s tu d e n ts f o r d is c u s s in g a d r a f t o f th e c h a p te r. Ed R o s s a n d C la r is s a R a h m e i e r a ls o h e lp e d w i th s u g g e s ti o n s a n d c r itic is m . I th a n k P r o f e s s o r R u b e n G e o r g e O li v e n f o r a ll h i s e n c o u r a g e m e n t. 2 . A c c o r d in g to r e c e n t r e p o r ts f r o m

In te r n a tio n a l In te l le c tu a l P r o p e r ty

A ll ia n c e ( 2 0 0 8 ) , B r a z il a n d C h in a a re th e g r e a te s t c o n s u m e r s o f p ir a te d s o f tw e a r in th e ir c o n tin e n ts . 3. F o r ty re a i s a re a p p r o x im a te ly e q u iv a le n t to $ 2 5 U SC . A f a ls if ie d C D c o p y c o s ts a n a v e r a g e o f 5 re a is ( $ 3 U SC ) . 4 . A l i m i ta ti o n o f B o u r d i e u 's ( 1 9 7 9 ) a n a l y s i s is th a t h e d o e s n o t r e f l e c t o n th e p o w e r s o f m a n i p u l a ti o n a n d c r e a ti v i ty o f th e lo w e r c la s s e s . T o B u r k e ( 1 9 8 9 ) , B o u r d i e u d o e s n o t c o n s i d e r tw o - w a y m o v e m e n ts ( e .g ., w h e r e th e p o p u l a r b e c o m e s e r u d i te ) ; a c c o r d i n g to G i n z b u r g ( 1 9 8 7 ) , th e c o n c e p t o f " l o w e r i n g " o f g o o d s , m a te r i a l a n d im m a te r i a l — a s w e l l a s th e id e a o f i m i ta ti o n b e tw e e n c la s s e s — is to o m e c h a n i c a l , f o r it d o e s n o t ta k e tr a n s f o r m a ti o n in to a c c o u n t. W h e n th i s a p p e a r s i n B o u r d i e u 's w o r k , it is a l w a y s w i th th e m e a n i n g o f " d i s t o r t i o n ."

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. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 2 8 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 2 8 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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Fo ste r, R . 2 0 06 . T rac k in g g lo b a liz a tio n : C o m m o d itie s an d v a lu e in m o tio n . In C . T ille y e t al. (Ed s.) , T he Sn g e H an d b o o k o f M at e r ial C u lt u re: 2 8 5 - 3 0 2 . L o n d o n : Sag e . Fo ste r, R . 2007 . T h e w o rk o f th e n e w e c o n o m y : C o n s u m e rs , b ra n d s , a n d v alu e c re atio n . C u lt u r al A n t h r o p o lo g y 5 :7 0 7 - 3 1 . Frie d m a n , J. 200 5. G lo b a liz a tio n a n d lo c a liz a tio n . In J. In d ia a n d R . R o s a ld o ( Ed s .) , T h e A n t h r o p o lo g y o f G lo b aliz at io n : 2 3 3 - 4 6 . M a ld e n , M A : Bla c k w e ll P u b lis h e rs. G in z b u rg , C . 1987. O Q u eijo e o s V erm es. Sa o P a u lo : C o m p a n h ia d as L e tras. H an d le r, R . 1986. A u th e n tic ity . A n t h r o p o lo g y T oday 2 :2 - 4 . In te rn a tio n a l In te lle c tu a l P ro p e rty A llia n c e . 2 008. E s t im at e d T rade L o ss es d u e to C o p y r ig ht P irac y , h ttp :/ / w w w .iip a.c o m /

( ac c e s s e d 2 3 Ju n e , 2 0 09) .

K e e t, P. 2 0 07 . T h e T oky o L o o k B o o k. T o k y o : K o d a n sh a. L e ita o , D . 200 4. R o u p a p ro n ta e ro u p a b o a: R e f le x a o so b re g o s to e h a b ito s d e c o n s u m o d e p ro d u to ra s e c o n s u m id o ra s d e u m a c o o p e ra tiv a d e c o stu ras. P a p e r p re s e n te d a t th e X X IV R e u n ia o Bra sile ira d e A n tro p o lo g ia ( 24 th Bra z ilia n m e e tin g o f an th ro p o lo g y , O lin d a , 1 2 - 1 5 Ju n e ) . L e v i- Stra u s s , C . 1979. S t ru c tu r al A n t h ro p o lo g y . M id d le se x , U K : P e n g u in Bo o k s. L i, C . 2 0 0 0 . " C r e d e n tia lis m " v e rs u s " e n tr e p re n e u ris m ." In K . B. C h a n (Ed .), C h in e s e B u s in es s N e t w o rks . S t at e , E c o n o m y an d C u lt u r e: 8 6 - 1 1 1 . Sin g a p o re :

P re n tic e H all. L in d h o lm , C . 2 0 0 2 . A u th e n tic ity , a n th ro p o lo g y , an d th e s a c re d . A n t h r o p o lo g ic al Q u ar t e r ly 7 5 :3 3 1 - 3 8 .

M a u s s , M . 1960. S o c io lo g ie e t A n t h r o p o lo g ic . P aris : P re ss e s U n iv e rsitaire s . M ille r, D . 1998. A T h eo r y o f S h o p p in g . Ith ac a, N Y : C o rn e ll U n iv e rs ity P re ss. M ille r, D . 200 8. T he C o m fo rt o f T h in g s . C a m b rid g e : Po lity . N o tar, B. E. 2 0 06 . A u th e n tic ity a n x ie ty a n d c o u n te rf e it c o n fid e n c e : O u ts o u rc in g s o u v e n irs , c h a n g in g m o n e y , a n d n a rra tin g v a lu e in re f o rm - e ra C h in a. M o d er n C hin a 3 2 :6 4 - 9 3 .

P in h e iro - M ac h a d o , R . 2 005. L a g a ran tia so y y o . R e d e s lo c a is e tra n s n a c io n a is d e c o m e rc io p o p u la r— c a m e lo s e s ac o le iro s ( Bras il- P ara g u a i). P h .D . d is s e r­ ta tio n , Fe d e ra l U n iv e rs ity o f R io G ra n d e d o Su l, P o rto A le g re , Braz il. P in h e iro - M ac h a d o , R . 200 8. C h in a- P ara g u a i- Bra s il: U m a ro ta p a ra p e n s a r a e c o n o m ia in fo rm a l. B r az ilian R e v ie w o f S o c ial S c ie n c e 6 7 :4 5 - 7 6 . P ric e , S. 1989. P r im it iv e A r t in C iv iliz e d P lac e s . C h ic ag o : U n iv e rs ity o f C h ic ag o P re ss. P u n , N . 2 0 03 . Su b s u m p tio n o r c o n s u m p tio n ? T h e p h a n to m o f c o n s u m e r re v o ­ lu tio n in " g lo b a liz in g " C h in a. C u lt u r al A n t h r o p o lo g y 1 8 :4 6 9 - 9 2 . Sc a lc o , L. 2 0 0 8. Fa la k e n o is : Etn o g raf ia d e u m p ro je to d e in c lu s a o d ig ita l e n tre jo v e n s d e c la s s e s p o p u la re s e m P o rto A le g re . P h .D . d is s e rta tio n , Fe d e ral U n iv e rs ity o f R io G ra n d e d o Su l, P o rto A le g re , Braz il. Sc h e f o ld , R . 2 0 02 . Sty listic c a n o n , im ita tio n a n d f ak in g . A n t h r o p o lo g y T oday 1 8 :1 0 - 1 4 . Sim m e l, G . 1971. O n In d iv id u alit y an d S o c ial F o rm s . C h ic ag o : U n iv e rs ity o f C h ic a g o P re ss.

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 2 9 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 2 9 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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T au ssig , M . 1993. M im es is an d A lt e r it y : A P ar t ic u lar H is t o r y o f t h e Sen se s. L o n d o n : R o u tle d g e . V an n , E. 2 0 0 6 . L im its o f a u th e n tic ity

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V e b le n , T. 1998. T he T h e o r y o f t h e L eis u r e C lass. N e w Y o rk : P ro m e th e u s Bo o k s. W e n g ro w , D . 2 0 08 . P re h is to rie s o f c o m m o d ity b ra n d in g . C u r re n t A n t h r o p o lo g y 4 9 :7 - 3 4 .

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 3 0 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 3 0 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 131 h t t p :/ /s ite . e b ra ry .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 3 1 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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[ W ]h ils t th e b o u n d a ry d iv id e s a n d f ra m e s , th e m arg in b lu rs d is tin c ­ tio n s a n d f ro n tie rs . It is o n e o f th e p ara d o x e s o f d re s s to b e b o th a m a rg in a n d th e b o u n d a ry a t o n e a n d th e s am e tim e . A s b o u n d a ry , it f ra m e s th e b o d y an d s e p a ra te s f ro m th e re s t o f th e s o c ia l w o rld , th u s f u n c tio n in g a s a k in d o f c o n ta in e r o r w ra p p e r. D re s s a s a b o u n d a ry is m e a n t to tra c e a n e a t lin e b e tw e e n s e lf a n d o th e r: th e lim ita tio n o f p h y s ic a l v is ib ility v ia c lo th in g , f o r e x a m p le , p ara lle ls m e ta p h o ric a lly a n in te n d e d lim ita tio n o f p s y c h o lo g ic a l a c c e ss ib ility . A s m a rg in , o n th e o th e r h an d , d re s s c o n n e c ts th e in d iv id u a l to o th e r b o d ie s , it lin k s th e b io lo g ic a l e n tity to th e s o c ia l e n se m b le a n d th e p riv a te to th e p u b lic . — W a rw ic k a n d C a v a lla ro 1 9 9 8 :1 7

In th is c h a p te r, I o f f e r a c u ltu r a l - h i s to r ic a l n o tio n o f b r a n d s in s o c ia li s t H u n g a ry , p a r tic u la r l y w i th r e g a r d to h o w v a r io u s s p i r itu a l, p s y c h o lo g i­ c a l, m a te r ia l , s o c i a l, a n d p o l itic a l c o n s i d e r a tio n s a ll s u p p o r te d a s e e m in g ly u n l ik e l y p h e n o m e n o n : A s m a ll n ic h e o f b r a n d c u ltu r e in a S o v i e t b l o c p la n n e d e c o n o m y a p p e a r e d a d e c a d e o r tw o b e f o r e th e f a ll o f s ta te s o c i a l­ i s m in 1 9 8 9 . T h e c o r e q u e s tio n o f m y r e s e a r c h 1 a d d r e s s e s w h a t je a n s m a y h a v e s ig n if ie d in th e s o c ia l a n d c u ltu r a l c o n te x t o f a c o m m u n i s t e c o n o m y c h a r a c te r is e d b y th e o b v io u s a b s e n c e o f m a r k e tin g ( a d v e r tis in g ) , re g u la r s h o r ta g e s o f g o o d s , a n d in d e e d th e s h e e r a b s e n c e o f W e s te r n c o m m o d itie s f r o m o f f ic ia l r e ta il e r s . T h e m a in e m p i r ic a l s o u rc e o f m y r e s e a r c h o n je a n s w e a r i n g in s o c ia li s t H u n g a r y is c o m p o s e d o f 1 4 0 + w r i tte n te s tim o n ie s f r o m r e s p o n d e n ts to m y in q u ir y a b o u t th e s to ry b e h in d th e ir f ir s t p a ir o f je a n s . A m o n g s t th is e x tr e m e ly in te r e s ti n g m a te r ia l , I h a v e n o tic e d a

131

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 3 2 h tt p :// s it e . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 3 2 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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survival: It is h ard to d e fin e th e ty p e o f re la tio n s h ip th a t p re v a ils b e tw e e n p e o p le in th e Ea st o th e rw is e th an a s a c tin g , w ith th e e x c e p tio n th at o n e d o e s n o t p e rf o rm o n a th e a te r s ta g e b u t in th e s tre e t, o ff ic e , f a c ­ to ry , m e e tin g h a ll, o r e v e n th e ro o m o n e liv e s in . Su c h a c tin g is a h ig h ly d e v e lo p e d c ra f t th a t p la c e s a p re m iu m u p o n m e n ta l a le rt­ n e ss . Be fo re i t le a v e s th e lip s, e v e ry w o rd m u s t b e e v a lu ate d a s to its c o n s e q u e n c e s . A sm ile th a t a p p e a rs a t th e w ro n g m o m e n t, a g la n c e th a t is n o t a ll it s h o u ld b e c a n o c c as io n d a n g e ro u s s u sp ic io n s an d a c c u s a tio n s. Ev e n o n e 's g e s tu re s , to n e o f v o ic e , o r p re f e re n c e fo r c e rta in k in d s o f n e c k tie s a re in te rp re te d a s s ig n s o f o n e 's p o litic a l te n d e n c ie s .

M i l o s z 's e l o q u e n t a c c o u n t r e v e a ls tw o im p o r ta n t a s p e c ts f o r m y to p i c . F ir s t, h e c a p tu r e s a u n i q u e f e a tu r e o f li f e in a d ic ta to r s h ip ; th a t is , p o l iti­ c a l s u b m is s io n , o r r e s is ta n c e , f o r th a t m a tte r, c a n b e e x p r e s s e d b y n o n ­ v e r b a l a c ts o f c o m m u n i c a ti o n , s u c h a s b o d il y g e s tu re s . T h e n o n th e a tr ic a l p e r f o r m a n c e s d e s c r ib e d b y M ilo s z a re c r u c i a l a s p e c ts o f p o l itic a l c u ltu r e b e c a u s e th e s e p o l itic a l ly r e le v a n t, e v e r y d a y a c ts a re th e v e r y m o m e n ts th r o u g h w h ic h in s titu tio n a l p o w e r e i th e r r e p r o d u c e s i ts e l f o r f a il s to d o s o . S e c o n d , h e s u g g e s ts th a t— r a th e r s u r p r i s in g l y in th e m o d e r n e r a — a m o d ­ e r n s ta te p a y s a tte n ti o n to its c itiz e n s ' n e c k tie s . T h e H u n g a r i a n s o c i a li s t r e g i m e 's ( 1 9 4 8 - 8 9 ) c o n tr o l o v e r its c i ti z e n s ' li v e s c a n b e e x e m p lif ie d ra th e r a c c u r a te l y v ia c h a n g e s in s a r to r ia l r e g u la tio n s e n a c te d f r o m th e 1 9 5 0 s to th e 1 9 8 0 s . S ta te p r o p a g a n d a a n d th e o p i n io n s o f th e s c h o o l a n d w o r k ­ p l a c e a ll f ie r c e ly a tta c k e d th e r o c k " n " ro ll o u tf i t in th e e a r l y 1 9 5 0 s , a n d th e e v e r - p r e s e n t a c c u s a ti o n th a t th is c lo th e d th e a g e n t o f th e e n e m y c o u ld q u i te o f te n tu r n in to a le g a l a c c u s a ti o n ( a n d in d e e d , c o n f li c ts th a t a ro s e

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 3 3 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 3 3 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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a r o u n d m e n 's p a lm - tr e e p a tte r n e d y e l lo w tie s a tte s t to M i l o s z 's o b s e r v a ­ tio n ) . H o w e v e r, b y th e 1 9 8 0 s , d r e s s in g , w i th th e o c c a s i o n a l e x c e p ti o n o f th e p u n k lo o k , h a d b e c o m e a p r i v a te m atte r. B lu e je a n s a s a c o n s c io u s ly w o r n f a s h io n ite m s ta r te d to a p p e a r in la r g e r c itie s f r o m th e e a r l y 1 9 6 0 s ,2 a n d a s w a s tr u e in m a n y o th e r c o u n tr i e s , w e a r ­ in g d e n im b e c a m e , to g e th e r w i th r o c k " n " ro l l o r b e a t m u s ic , a n in te g r a l p a r t o f a b o o m in g y o u th c u l tu r e c e n tr e d a r o u n d a c ts o f p e r f o r m a n c e , im m e ­ d ia c y , s p o n ta n e ity , a n d a c e r ta in " l i v e d a u th e n ti c i ty " v is - a - v is " m a n i p u l a ­ ti v e " a n d " v i o l e n t" a d u l t u n i v e r s e s o f f e r e d b y c a p ita l is m o r th e V ie tn a m W ar. A lo n g s id e m a n y s im il a r itie s — s u c h a s s c h o o l a n d f a m il y c o n f li c ts a b o u t p r o p e r d r e s s in g — je a n s - w e a r in g d if f e r e d i n c o m m u n i s t c o u n tr i e s in c r u c i a l w a y s f r o m th a t o f th e W e s t. Je a n s a s a n o b v io u s ly W e s te r n o u tf it p la y e d s e v e r a l s u s p i c io u s ro le s in th e p o litic a l p l o ts e n v is i o n e d b y v a r i­ o u s p o c k e ts o f o f f ic ia ld o m d u r in g th e 1 9 6 0 s : L e t th e s e c lo th e s b e a g e n ts o f b o u r g e o is d e c a d e n c e , m a r k e t- d r iv e n m o r a l d e c a y , a n d s e lf is h a e s th e tic in d u lg e n c e . A f te r a b o u t 1 9 7 0 , je a n s s ta r te d to a p p e a r in th e o f f ic ia ll y c o n ­ tr o ll e d v is u a l s p a c e s ( p u b lic e v e n ts , th e a tr e s , s c h o o ls , re c o r d c o v e r s , f ilm s ) a n d , s o m e w h a t la te r, a t u n i v e r s ity e x a m s a n d s c h o o ls c e r e m o n i e s o r o n th e te le v i s io n s c re e n . S i n c e th e s ta te - o w n e d r e ta il in d u s try , u n til a s la te a s th e la te 1 9 7 0 s , d id n o t r e g a r d its ro le a s th e f u l f il lm e n t o f te e n a g e d e n im d r e a m s , th e n o r m s r e g a r d i n g d e n im w e r e g u id e d — in s te a d o f a d s , c o m ­ m e r c ia ls , o r s h o p w i n d o w s — e x c lu s i v e ly b y in te r p e r s o n a l e x p e r ie n c e , in th e f o r m o f g o s s ip , h e a rs a y , p e r s o n a l s to r i e s , o r th e s tir r in g im a g e o f a p a s s e rb y .

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ly o b s e r v e d r u le s , a ll a s s o c ia te d w i th p a r tic u la r p h y s i c a l f e a tu r e s o f th e b lu e je a n s : b r a n d e d o r b r a n d l e s s , f a k e o r o r i g in a l, p o s itio n in th e b r a n d h ie r a r c h y ( L e v i's , L e e , W ra n g le r, R o y R o g e r s , e tc .) , d e n im o r je rs e y , re a llo o k in g b u t " s o i l e d " b y a d u b io u s b r a n d . O r w h e th e r it is n e w o r o f a w o r n lo o k . O r d e n im v e r s u s c o rd u ro y . O r th e c o l o u r, th e b u tto n s , th e p o c k e ts , o r th e c u t. T h is s e e m in g ly r u d im e n ta r y c la s s if i c a ti o n s y s te m w o r k e d in re a l ity in a m u c h m o r e s o p h is tic a te d w a y . O n e r e s p o n d e n t r e c a l ls s o m e in te r l o c k in g f e a tu r e s o f th e d e n im o r d e r in th o s e d a y s :

Fo r m e th e ra n k in g w a s: L e v i's , W ra n g le r, a n d L e e , an d th e re w a s n 't a n y o th e r b ra n d f o r m e . O n e 's c h o ic e h ad e as ily re c o g n is a b le tin y d e ta ils , a n d it w a s n 't ju s t th e s h e e r q u a lity , f a b ric o r c u t o f th e p an t.

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 3 4 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 3 4 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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O n e 's s o c ia l b a c k g ro u n d w a s s h o w n b y th e je a n s , it d id n 't ta k e e v e n a s p lit s e c o n d to w o rk o u t w h e re a p e r s o n w a s c o m in g f ro m an d w h a t th e y w e re w a n tin g to b e lo n g to . Bu t it w a s a ls o te llin g w h e th e r th e je a n s w e re w o rn - o u t o r d irty . O r w h e th e r th e y h a d s p e c ia l D IY d e c o ra tio n w ith e m b ro id e ry , lab e ls , o r s p o ts . T h a t w a s th e s ta rt o f th e w o rn - o u t sty le . T h o s e w ith w o rn o u t je a n s , o r w h e re th e le g w as s w e e p in g a lo n g th e g ro u n d , s e n t a m e s s a g e to th e w o rld th a t th e y w e re f re e . T h e u p p e r- m id d le - c la s s c h ild re n , lik e m e , c o u ld a c h ie v e o n ly th a t m y je a n s ' le g s w e re n 't iro n e d to a c re as e . (B.B. 1 9 54) 3

T h is s h o r t " m y f ir s t je a n s " e x c e r p t n e a tly c a p tu r e s th e c e n tr a l p o i n t o f th is c h a p te r : Je a n s o f f e re d m u l tip l e o p p o r tu n iti e s f o r y o u n g p e o p le in th e 1 9 6 0 s - 7 0 s to lo c a te th e m s e lv e s o n v a r io u s c u l tu r a l m a p s , a s w e l l a s " e n a b l i n g e n v ir o n m e n ts ," m a g ic g a r m e n ts th a t a c te d a c c o r d in g to a n e n v i­ s io n e d a u th e n tic lif e .

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A f ir s t s e t o f p s y c h o lo g i c a l a n d s o c i a l f e a tu r e s th a t s e e m to h a v e b e e n a s s o ­ c ia te d w i th th e a u th e n tic ity o f a p a i r o f je a n s a re a ll c o n n e c te d to th e ir s in g u la r , p e r s o n a li s e d p h y s i c a l c h a r a c te r. F o r e x a m p l e , th e d e n im p a n ts s o ld a g e n e r a tio n a g o r e q u ir e d a c e r ta in s e r ie s o f p h y s ic a l in te r v e n tio n s a t h o m e , s u c h a s a g e n e r o u s w a s h i n g to m a k e th e je a n s s h r in k to th e ir " r e g u ­ l a r s h a p e " a n d to f ix th e in d ig o d ie m o r e p e r m a n e n tly ( a n d th e r e b y a v o id s ta in i n g th e w e a r e r 's b o d y ) , o r s o m e r e ta il o r i n g to f it th e w e a r e r . T h is l a tte r w a s e s p e c ia l ly n e c e s s a r y a t f le a m a r k e ts ,4 w h e r e th e r e w a s a li m ite d c h o ic e o f s i z e s o r w h e n th e w e a r e r s w e r e n o t th e o n e s w h o p u r c h a s e d th e je a n s b e c a u s e th e p u r c h a s e o c c u r r e d in a f o r e ig n c o u n try . T h e r e is a w e l l- k n o w n L e v i ' s a d v e r tis e m e n t f r o m 1 9 8 5 - 8 6 th a t d e p ic ts a n in d iv i d u a l ly i n g i n th e b a th i n th e a c t o f p r e s h r in k in g h i s p a i r o f je a n s ( B a r tle B o g le H e g a r ty , q u o te d b y N ix o n 1 9 9 7 :2 9 3 ) . T h e p e r f o r m a n c e s h o w n i n th is a d v e r tis e m e n t h a s p a r tic u la r re le v a n c e in a H u n g a r ia n c o n te x t a n d is c a p tu r e d b y th e H u n g a r i a n w o r d " b e a v a ta s " th a t m e a n s b o th a n in i­ tia tio n , in th e s e n s e o f a r itu a l o r r ite - o f - p a s s a g e , a n d a n d a ls o th e a c t o f p r e s h r in k in g , i n th e te x til e in d u s tr y s e n s e . T h e p r a c tic e d e p ic te d in th is im a g e w a s m e n tio n e d h a l f d o z e n tim e s in th e " m y f ir s t je a n s " in te r v ie w s , a s r e s p o n d e n ts r e c o u n te d h o w th e y ju m p e d in to th e b a th tu b to s p e n d a c r u c i a l p h a s e to g e th e r w i th th e ir je a n s in w h ic h th e la tte r w o u ld b e s h a p e d to th e f ig u re o f th e o w n e r .5 It is d if f i c u lt to o v e r l o o k th e in tr ig u in g r itu a l a ll u s io n , p a r tic u la r l y to b a p ti s m , in th is r a th e r f u n c tio n a l b a th r o o m p r a c ­ tic e . In th e b a th tu b c e r e m o n y , b o th o f th e u n i f y in g p a r tn e r s g o th r o u g h a tr a n s f o r m a tio n : T h e p a n ts g e t th e s h a p e o f th e o w n e r s , w h o , in tu rn , s ta r t a n e w ' p e r io d o f th e ir li f e m a r k e d b y a p a i r o f je a n s . T h e a c t o f m a k in g a

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 3 5 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 3 5 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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p i e c e o f c lo th in g m o r e w o r n lo o k in g , to r e n d e r it u s a b l e , is m o s t o b v io u s ly c o n n e c te d to th e f ig u re o f th e d a n d y , p a r tic u la r l y B e a u B r u m m e ll, w h o h a d h is n e w c lo th e s w o r n b y h is v a l e t o r h is g lo v e s w e tte d f ir s t to g a in th e f o rm o f th e h a n d im p e c c a b ly ( B a rth e s 2 0 0 5 [ 1 9 6 2 ] : 6 7 ) . I w ill re tu rn to th i s th e in s tr u c tiv e p a r a l le l in a s u b s e q u e n t s e c tio n , b u t it is w o r th n o tin g h e r e th a t in b o th c a s e s th e o u tf i t u n i f ie s d e e p ly in g r a in e d a e s th e tic v a lu e s ( a n a tu r a l lo o k ) a n d m o r a l v a lu e s ( h o n e s ty / o r ig in a l ity ) to th e d e g re e th a t, in b o th c a s e s , th e p r a c tic e o f ta k in g c a r e o f c lo th e s is th e p e r f o r m a n c e o f a u th e n tic ity its e lf . T h e p e r s o n a li s a tio n

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H u n g a ry , s u c h a s d e c o r a ti n g th e m w i th b e a d s , e m b ro id e ry , o r in k i n s c r i p ­ tio n s o f r o c k l y r ic s o r r o c k s ta r s ' n a m e s .6 B u t th e m o s t in tim a te p e r s o n ­ a li s a tio n o f je a n s w a s u n d o u b te d ly th e m a n y - y e a r p r o c e s s b y w h ic h th e y w e r e in to a s e c o n d s k i n , th e ir f o r m u n m i s ta k e n l y m a r k i n g th e w e a r e r 's f ig u r e .7

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It is a s in e q u a n o n a b o u t th e m th a t th e y s h o u ld b e w h ite . ... T h e n a tu ra l p la c e f o r o n e 's f e e t w h e n o n e is in a c o m f o rta b le s ittin g p o s tu re is o n th e to p o f o n e a n o th e r , o r a t a n y ra te ru b b in g u p a g a in s t o n e a n o th e r. W ith w h ite s p a ts th is w o n 't d o . Y o u m u s t th in k o f e a c h f o o t s e p a ra te ly . Y o u r ri g h t f o o t m u s t k n o w a ll th e tim e w h a t y o u r le f t f o o t is d o in g ; it m u s t tr e a t it a s i f it w e r e a c o m ­ p l e te s tra n g e r, a s if it w e r e s o m e o n e e l s e 's f o o t. W h ite s p a ts m ak e y o u f o o t- c o n s c i o u s . — A b o u t W h ite Sp a ts ( P u n c h , M c D o w e ll 1998: 24)

P e r h a p s th e m o s t im p o r ta n t th e m e i n th e h is to r y o f o u tf i ts is th e c o n n e c ­ tio n b e tw e e n s o c i a l s ta tu s a n d c lo th in g . A p a r t f r o m ta x o n o m ie s o f f a b r ic , c o lo u r, o r c u t o r w h e th e r o r n o t to d r e s s s im ila rly , a n in te r e s ti n g i f p e r h a p s le s s im m e d i a te ly v is ib le to p ic f o r h i s to r ia n s is h o w a p a r tic u la r s ty le o f d r e s s in g r e g u la te s b o d il y p o s tu r e a n d m o v e m e n t a n d h o w r th is th e n c o n ­ tr ib u te s to th e r e p r o d u c tio n o r s u b v e r s io n o f p o w e r r e la ti o n s . A lth o u g h m o d e r n W e s te r n c lo th in g is m o s tly a b o u t h o w to p r e s e n t th e y o u n g ( is h ) f it a n d a ttr a c ti v e b o d y ( th a t its e lf is th e li tm u s te s t o f th e c h a r a c te r ) , f o r p re v i­ o u s e p o c h s b o d y g e s tu r e s h a d o f f e re d m e a n in g s c e n tr a l r a th e r to th e v is i o n o f th e r e s p e c ta b le c itiz e n . F o r T h a c k e ra y , h a t- w e a r in g w a s a c l e a r s i g n o f th e p o s itio n o f th e p e r s o n in q u e s tio n o n th e s o c i a l m a p : " I f y o u w a n t to u n d e r s ta n d th e in d iv i d u a l, lo o k a t h im in th e d a y - tim e ; s e e h im w a l k in g w 'ith h is h a t o n . T h e r e is a g r e a t d e a l in th e b u i ld a n d w e a r i n g o f h a ts — a g r e a t m o re th a n a t f ir s t m e e ts th e e y e " ( T h e B o o k o f S n o b s , e x c e r p te d in M c D o w e ll 1 9 9 8 :1 0 6 ) . B a lo g h ( 1 9 8 4 : 3 )

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 3 6 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 3 6 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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n o te s th a t m e n 's b o d il y p o s tu r e s a n d m o v e m e n t in p u b lic c h a n g e d w h e n n e w e r g e n e r a ti o n s in th e i n te r w a r p e r io d d e c id e d to d ro p th e u r b a n h a t a n d th e h ig h s h ir t c o l la r f r o m th e ir e v e r y d a y w a r d r o b e , a ll o w i n g th e m to s te p o u t f r o m a c a u ti o u s a n d ri g id r e g im e th a t m a d e th e m lo o k li k e c a r e ­ f u lly m o v in g s ta tu e s c h a r a c te r is e d b y " t h e s lo w g la n c e o f th e n o b i l i ty " ( in B o u r d ie u 's w o r d s , 1 9 8 9 [ 1 9 7 9 ] : 1 7 7 ) . T h e h u m o r o u s P u n c h q u o te f r o m th e 1 9 2 0 s o n w h y p e o p le w o r e w h ite s p a ts w o u ld m a k e a n y s o c ia l s c i e n ti s t e n v io u s a s th e a u th o r c a p tu r e s th e p o in t w i th e x c e p ti o n a l c la r i ty : W h ite s p a ts f a c il ita te f o o t- c o n s c io u s n e s s . Je a n s c r e a te p a r ti c u l a r r e l a ti o n s h i p s b e tw e e n th e b o d y a n d a p e r s o n 's s e n s e o f s e lf . P e r h a p s th e m o s t a r c a n e b u t m a y b e th e m o s t in te r e s ti n g r e l a ti o n s h ip a p p e a r s in th e " m y f i r s t je a n s " s to r i e s w h e n s p e a k e r s e x p l a in how

th e ir " b o d y c o n s c i o u s n e s s ," to g e th e r , o f c o u r s e , w i th th e ir w h o l e

s o c i a l p e r s o n a , c h a n g e d th e m o m e n t th e y p u t o n th e ir je a n s .8 C u l tu r a l h i s to r y s u g g e s ts m a n y e q u i v a l e n t i n s ta n c e s in w h ic h a n in d i v i d u a l is tr a n s f o r m e d th r o u g h a p e r f o r m a ti v e r i tu a l th a t i n v o l v e s th e d o n n in g o f a p a r ti c u l a r g a r m e n t. T h e m o m e n t f o l l o w i n g Jo e B u c k ' s p u r c h a s e o f h is w e s te r n b o o ts in M id n ig h t C o w b o y s u g g e s ts s o m e th i n g s i m ila r ( M c D o w e ll 1998: 9 7 -9 8 ):

In h is n e w b o o ts , Jo e Bu c k w a s s ix - fo o t- o n e a n d lif e w a s d iff e re n t. A s h e w a lk e d o u t th a t s to re in H o u s to n s o m e th in g s n a p p e d in th e b o tto m h a lf o f h im : A k in d o f p o w e r h e n e v e r k n e w w a s th e re h ad b e e n re le a se d in h is p e lv is a n d h e w 'as a b le to f e e l th e w 'o rld th ro u g h it. Bran d -n e w ' m u s c le s c am e in to p la y in h is b u tto c k s a n d in h is le g s, an d h e w a s a w a re o f a to ta lly new ' a ttitu d e to w a rd th e sid e w a lk . T h e w o rld w a s d o w n th e re , a n d h e w 'as u p th e re , o n to p o f it, an d th e s p a c e b e tw e e n h im a n d it w a s n o w c o m m a n d e d b y a b e au tifu l stra n g e a n im al, h im s e lf , Jo e Bu c k . H e w a s stro n g . H e w a s e x u lta n t. H e w a s re a d y . " I' m re a d y ," h e s a id to h im s e lf , a n d h e w o n d e re d w h a t h e m e a n t b y th at.

A g o o d n u m b e r o f th e " m y f i r s t je a n s " r e s p o n d e n ts r e f l e c t in s o m e w a y o n h o w th in g s c h a n g e d a f te r th e y o b ta in e d a n d f ir s t p u t o n th e je a n s . In th e s e a c c o u n ts , b e y o n d th e e x p e c te d r e c o l le c tio n s a b o u t p a r e n t o r te a c h e r re a c tio n s to th e n e w

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c la i m e d th a t th e a c t o f p u tti n g o n th e je a n s h a d in s ta n tly p l a c e d th e m in a n e w a n d d if f e r e n t s o c i a l a n d / o r c u l tu r a l p o s itio n . T h re e re s p o n d e n ts a ls o m e n tio n th e a c t o f s i ttin g o n th e g r o u n d in a p u b lic p l a c e w h il e w e a r ­ in g th e ir je a n s . T h is a c t s e e m e d to b e m o re th a n ju s t a q u e s tio n o f ta k in g a d v a n ta g e o f d u r a b l e d re s s : R a th e r, s i ttin g o n th e g r o u n d s e n t a d e lib e r a te m e s s a g e th a t th e in d iv id u a l w a s d if f e r e n t f r o m th e o l d e r g e n e r a ti o n a n d f r o m th e m a in s te a m o f th e s o c ie ty . A s o n e r e s p o n d e n t p u t it: " P e o p l e w 'h o

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 3 7 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 3 7 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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w o r e je a n s h a d a n u n d e r s ta n d i n g th a t je a n s p r o v id e th e f r e e d o m to s i t w h e r e v e r o n e w i s h e s , ly i n g to th e g r o u n d , in th e d ir t, w a s n a tu r a l w ith je a n s . T h e y d id n o t n e e d w a s h i n g " ( N .L . 1 9 5 8 ) . A s th is c o m m e n t s u g g e s ts , th e a c t o f p u tti n g o n je a n s o p e n e d u p a n e w c u l tu r a l a n d s o c i a l la n d s c a p e o f p o te n tia l ro le s a n d a c tio n s f o r th e y o u n g p e o p le in q u e s tio n ,9 a n d th i s c u l tu r a l s p a c e , s a r to r i a ll y c o n s tr u c te d in p a r t, w a s o r g a n is e d a r o u n d v a lu e s a n d p r i n c i p le s s u c h a s s p o n ta n e ity , in f o r ­ m a li ty , " l i v e d l i f e ," a n d d if f e r e n c e . T h is p r o g r a m m e o f 1 9 5 0 s - 6 0 s y o u th c u ltu r e in W e s te r n c o u n tr i e s a n d its f o l lo w e r s e ls e w h e r e is u n i q u e in th e s e n s e th a t th e c e n tr a l p o i n t o f th e s o c ia l c h a n g e is th e v is ib le r e p r e s e n ta tio n its e lf : o u tf it, s p e e c h a n d lif e s ty le , b e h a v io u r , d a n c in g , b o d y g e s tu r e s , e tc . T h e c o n s e q u e n c e o f th is d e e p ly " m a k e - i t- h a p p e n ," o r p e r f o r m a ti v e c h a r ­ a c te r o f a g e n c y is th a t e l e m e n ts o f y o u th c u ltu r e w e r e p e r f o r m e d , a s w e ll a s u n d e r s to o d b y p e e r s , a s th e g r a n d a ll e g o r y o f a u th e n tic lif e . T h r o u g h a w e b o f c o n n o ta ti o n s , o f te n c o n n e c te d to th e p u b l ic ly d is p la y e d b o d y , b lu e je a n s w e r e c e n tr a l e l e m e n ts in th is a ll e g o ry . Ju s t a s it is q u i te d if f ic u lt to v e r b a lis e th e e x p e r ie n c e o f a p e r f o r m a ti v e a c t, b e i t a b a l l e t o r a h a m ­ m e r th r o w , s o , it is to o , f o r a n o n v e r b a l e x p e r ie n c e o f a c tin g w i th th e p u b ­ li c ly d is p la y e d , c a r e f u lly s ty li s e d b o d y . Ju s t a s a c lo s e d e s c r i p tio n o f th e a th l e te s ' o u tf i t w o u ld te ll li ttle a b o u t th e ir p e r f o r m a n c e , th e s i g n if ic a n c e o f je a n s - w e a r i n g c a n b e e q u a lly v a g u e ly c a p tu r e d b y th e a c tu a l d e s c r i p tio n o f th e d re s s . T h e p e r f o r m a ti v e , m a tte r - o f - f a c t a c ti n g e m b o d ie d b y je a n s - w e a r i n g b o th in 1 9 5 0 s U n ite d S ta te s a n d 1 9 6 0 s - 7 0 s H u n g a r y c a n b e c o m p a r e d to th e r i tu a l a s p e c ts o f th e m i m e ti c e x p e r i e n c e i n a n c ie n t d r a m a , b o th e n a c t­ in g th e d e e p e s t r e a l ity : th e a u th e n ti c s e lf . In th e H u n g a r i a n e n v ir o n m e n t, th e " m i m e ti c s tr u g g l e " e m b o d ie d b y je a n s - w e a r i n g w a s n o t o n l y d e f in e d in r e l a ti o n to a li f e th r e a te n e d b y h y p o c r is y , m a n i p u l a ti o n , a li e n a ti o n ( a n d f u r th e r p o p u l a r v ic e s o f th e 1 9 6 0 s ) , b u t je a n s a s a g a r m e n t w i th a c l e a r A m e r i c a n o r i g i n w e r e s o m e ti m e s th e ta r g e t o f p o l i ti c a l c r i ti c i s m in th e o f f i c i a l p r e s s , f o l l o w i n g th e tr a c k , a l b e i t in a m i l d e r m a n n e r , o f th e 1 9 5 0 s c o m m u n i s t p u r g e s a g a i n s t th e ja m p e c s u b c u l tu r e .10 T h e p e r f o r m a ti v e n a tu r e o f th e lo o k o f th e y o u th h a d n o t b e e n c o n f in e d to a b s tr a c t m e a n in g s a b o u t th e g o o d li f e , b u t a s th e " s e x a n d d r u g s a n d r o c k ' n ' r o l l " s l o g a n c a p tu r e d it w i th r e m a r k a b le a c c u r a c y , th e a c tin g b o d y h a d b e e n p e r c e iv e d to b e in th e c e n tre o f th e v is i o n o f m a k in g a g o o d lif e . It is q u ite iro n ic th a t, i n th e W e s t, y o u th c u ltu r e o f te n s a w b o u r g e o is m o r a lity a n d c a p ita l is t c o n s u m p tio n a s th e e n e m y , w h e r e a s in e a s te r n E u r o p e th is id e o lo g y o f th e la te 1 9 6 0 s m a n if e s ts i ts e l f in a m o r e f r a g m e n te d a n d f a d e d m a n n e r a n d , a m u s in g ly , d o e s s o i n r e v e r s e , i n th e f o r m o f c la s s ic M a r x i s t p r o d u c t f e tis h is m : R e c o r d s , m a g a z in e s , a n d d e n im p a n ts ( th e la tte r p o s ­ s i b ly w i th a re d ta b o n th e m ) w e r e th e th in g s u s e d to f ig h t th e a li e n a ti o n a n d o p p r e s s io n o f m o d e r n lif e .

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 3 8 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 3 8 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

138

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Bu t o n e th in g is c e rta in . W h e n I w a lk e d d o w n th e s tre e t in m y n e w je a n s , m y b u d d ie s , b u t p artic u la rly th e g irls w e re g a z in g a t m e lik e a n u n sta re s a t th e C h ris t s c u lp tu re . — Sz .S. 1943

Je a n s w o r n in a n e x tr e m e l y tig h t- f it m a n n e r, b y b o th m e n a n d w o m e n , re p ­ re s e n te d a n o th e r im p o r ta n t e l e m e n t i n th e tr a n s f o r m a tiv e c o n tin u u m o f th e b o d y , th e o u tf it, a n d th e s o c ia l w o r l d . A g a i n , a c u r io u s c o n n e c tio n c a n b e d e te c te d th r o u g h th e a n a ly s is o f th e " m y f ir s t je a n s " s to r ie s b e tw e e n th e p u b l ic ly d is p la y e d b o d y , je a n s , a n d a la n d s l id e c h a n g e in s e x u a l h a b its . A s f a r a s th e b a s ic g r a m m a r o f th is v is u a l re g im e is c o n c e r n e d , a r e s p o n d e n t p u t it th is w a y : N o q u e s tio n , je a n s w e re a ll a b o u t se x . T h e y a re d e s ig n e d to s h o w o ff th e b o d y , e s p e c ia lly th e f e m a le b o d y , a n d th is w a s e s p e c ia lly tru e in th e p re h ip -h o p e ra w h e n th e y w e re w o rn s u p e rtig h t. T h e ir c u t b o ld l y a c c e n tu a te s th e m a le a n d , e v e n m o re s o , th e f e m a le g e n ita lia . In Sp a n is h b u llf ig h tin g th e re is a n e x p re ss io n : th re e - h a n d k e rc h ie f m ata d o r. M a n y p e o p le w e a rin g je a n s b a c k in o u r d a y w e re th re e h a n d k e rc h ie f h ip p ie s, if y o u k n o w w h a t I m e a n . ( Sz .A .196 3) " Y o u k n o w w h a t c o m e s b e tw e e n m e a n d m y C a l v i n 's ? N o th i n g ," m u r ­ m u r e d B ro o k e S h i e ld s in a d e e p ly s u g g e s tiv e , s q u a ttin g p o s e i n a 19 81 C a lv in K le in je a n s c o m m e r c ia l ( C ra ik 1 9 9 4 :1 9 5 ) . It s e e m s th a t in a h a lf g e n ­ e r a tio n o r s o , th e je a n e d f e m a le b o d y h a d b e c o m e s u c h a v is u a l c o m m o n ­ p l a c e th a t s e ll in g je a n s n o w

d e m a n d e d th e m o b il is a tio n o f th e ( a lm o s t)

in v is ib le , " u n d e r n e a th " f o r its p u r p o s e s . In H u n g a r y i n th e 1 9 6 0 s , th is w o u ld h a v e a ll b e e n u n n e c e s s a ry , b e c a u s e a g ir l w e a r i n g tig h t tr o u s e r s o f a m a le c u t ( w ith a f ly !) w a s a s u f f ic ie n tly o u tr a g e o u s c o n c e p t a n d lo o k in its e lf : A s m a n y o f th e je a n s s to r ie s re v e a le d , p a r e n ts ( p a r tic u la r l y f a th e rs ) a n d s c h o o l s o f te n jo i n e d f o r c e s a g a in s t th e id e a o f f e m a le s w e a r i n g je a n s u n til th e e a r l y 1 9 7 0 s . A g a in , a g r e a t d e a l o f f a n ta s y a n d im a g i n a ti o n p la y e d a k e y r o le f o r e v e r y o n e c o n c e r n e d . A w o m a n b o r n in 1 9 6 7 wfro te : [ Je a n s s u g g e s te d a b o u t th e w e a re r] a c e rta in le v e l o f m a tu rity a n d a s e rio u s p as t ( lo o k a t m y je a n s a n d f in d o u t w h y th e y a re s o w o rn ) . A ss o c ia te d

w ith m a tu rity , je a n s su g g e s te d

a c e rta in a m o u n t o f

s e x u al e x p e rie n c e , a n d c o n s id e rin g th e se x a p p e a l le n t b y th e p a ir o f je a n s , th is s u g g e s tio n c o u ld h a v e b e e n e a s ily m a te ria liz e d , s u g ­ g e s te d th e je a n s . It w a s a ll in c o n tra s t to th e trin ity o f s k irt- b lo u s e h ig h h e e ls th a t w a s w o r n o n ly b y m is e ra b le , c h ild is h g o o d little g irls. (K .A . 1967)

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 3 9 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 3 9 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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A n o th e r w o m a n th e s a m e a g e r e f le c te d o n th e a tti tu d e o f h e r te a c h e rs : In o u r s c h o o l, th e te a c h e rs b e lie v e d th a t g irls w h o w o re je a n s d id so b e c a u s e th e y w an te d b o y s to to u c h th e m , b u t th e te a c h e rs ' p ro ­ p a g a n d a b e c a m e c o u n te rp ro d u c tiv e , b e c a u s e e v e n tu a lly m o re an d m o re g irls f o u n d it a p p e a lin g to b e lo n g to th is im ag in ary , d e m o n ­ iz e d g ro u p . ( Sz .Z s . 1967) S i n c e th e 1 9 6 8 y o u th m o v e m e n t's a g e n d a w i th r e s p e c t to s e x u a l p o l i­ tic s w a s a b o u t li b e r a ti o n f r o m p a tr ia r c h a l s e x u a l o p p r e s s io n , je a n s o f te n p r o v i d e d th e c a ta ly s t o r th e w a y f o r a w o m a n to a c t f re e ly . Je a n s m e a n t tw o th in g s , a t le a s t f o r g ir ls : e m a n c ip a tio n a n d f r e e d o m — p u t o n e f e m a le “ f ir s t je a n s " r e s p o n d e n t b lu n tly ( K .J. 1 9 5 2 ) . S o m e o f th e je a n s s to r ie s o f f e r a g li m p s e a t w h a t th e s e a b s tr a c t c o n c e p ts m e a n t i n re a lity . F o r e x a m p le , th e s tr u c tu r in g ro le o f d re s s in s o c ia l r e la tio n s is e l o q u e n tly e x e m p lif ie d b y th i s a m u s in g lo v e tr ia n g le s to ry , w i th a f e m a le " f i r s t je a n s " r e s p o n d e n t a t th e c e n tr e : W e d e c id e d w ith m y b o y f rie n d ... th a t w e ' d w e a r th e s a m e sty le o f je a n s a n d sh irt. . . . H is a u n t c a m e b a c k f ro m A m e ric a w ith tw o p a ir s o f L e e , f o r tw o o f u s. ... T h is L. w a s m y b o y f rie n d a t h o m e in th e s m a ll to w n . M y c o lle g e b o y f rie n d in th e c ity ( w ith o u t k n o w in g a b o u t it) jo in e d o u r je a n s c o m m u n ity . I g o t a s h irt f ro m h im ( th a t I a lre a d y h a d a t h o m e ) , n o t k n o w in g th a t th e re a re a lre ad y th re e o f u s w e arin g th e s h irts . ( K .B. 1950) A s r e v e a le d b y th e f o l lo w i n g r e c o l le c tio n , je a n s w e r e a d e c is iv e f a c to r in th e s e le c tio n o f c o m p a n y f r o m th e o p p o s i te s e x : " O d d a s i t m a y s o u n d n o w , [ in c o lle g e ] I d i d n 't e v e n lo o k a t b o y s w h o d i d n 't w e a r je a n s . If h e h a d a d e n im ja c k e t a ls o , it h a d e v e n in c r e a s e d h i s c h a n c e s a t m e " ( Sz .K . 1 9 6 2) , In th e s e s to r i e s , th e v is i b l e je a n e d b o d y ( lo w e r p a rt) p la y e d a d u a l ro le . Je a n s a s a f r a m e a ll o w e d th e w e a r e r to e x p r e s s s e n s u a l m e a n in g s w i th th e h e lp o f th e c lo th e d b o d y ; m e a n w h il e , th e p u b l ic ly d is p la y e d " p r o p e r l y " f r a m e d ( i.e ., je a n e d ) b o d y h a d c r e a te d o p p o r tu n iti e s f o r th e s u b je c ti v i ty to p e r f o r m c h a n g e s a n d to re f in e its e lf . T h e c lo th e d b o d y a s th e m o u ld f o r th e s u b je c ti v i ty is a ls o th e v e r y c o m m u n i c a ti o n in te r f a c e f o r th e y o u n g s e lf to c o n n e c t w i th o th e r s in m a n a g in g a n x ie tie s a n d s e e k in g p le a s u re s .

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G irls in Sz e g e d w o re d if f e re n t s ty le s o f je a n s in th e late 1970s, b u t a ll w e re f la re d . I d id n 't f in d th e se s im p le e n o u g h . I w a s rath e r a u s ­ te re in m y n o rm s a n d h a b its an d je a n s w e re ju s t a p p ro p ria te f o r its

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 4 0 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 4 0 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

140

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C u lt u r es o f C o m m o d it y B r an d in g

e x p re s sio n . Q u ite p ara d o x ic a lly , th e s im p le s t d e s ig n w a s th e m o s t d if f ic u lt to fin d . — V .V . 1959

In m a n y w a y s , je a n s re p r e s e n te d a n a n ti - w o r l d , th e n e g a tio n o f s o m e k in d o f s o c i e ta l n o r m o f te n e s ta b li s h e d b y th e m a jo r i ty in th e s a m e a g e g r o u p , b y a d u l t s o c ie ty , o r e v e n b y th e e a s te r n b lo c . A s d is c u s s e d a b o v e , th e m o s t o b v io u s f r a m e f o r u n d e r s ta n d i n g je a n s is th e a b s e n c e o f s c a r­ c ity . A m e r i c a n s je a n s w e r e th e u ltim a te o u tf it in th e U n ite d S ta te s o f th e 1 9 7 0 s a n d 1 9 8 0 s , b u t, in c o n tr a s t, th e je a n s o f e a s te r n E u r o p e a n s in th e s a m e p e r io d w e r e p r e d o m in a n tl y th o u g h t o f a s s o m e th i n g n o t e a s te r n E u r o p e a n ( b u t T u rk is h , f o r in s ta n c e ) . T h e m a in i m p r in t o f th e C o ld W a r o n th e c o n s tr u c te d m e a n in g o f je a n s w a s ( e s p e c ia lly in th e 1 9 6 0 s ) th a t th e y w e r e p o l itic a l ly " ju i c y " c lo th in g th a t c o u ld re p r e s e n t s i le n t, n o n v e r b a l , b u t s tr ik in g f o r m s o f p o l itic a l o p in io n . A n o th e r u s e o f im a g e s a n d m e a n in g s f r o m th e " o th e r w o r l d " is c o n s i d e r e d b y B e r g e r e t a l. ( 1 9 7 4 : 1 4 4 ) :

T o ta k e tw o im p o rta n t e x a m p le s , th e p a ir o f th e w ris tw a tc h an d th e b a llp o in t p e n in th e T h ird W o rld to d a y c a n n o t b e u n d e rs to o d s im p ly in f u n c tio n a l, u tilita ria n te rm s. T h e s e o b je c ts a re a b o v e all s y m b o lic . T h e y s y m b o liz e th e m o d e m s tatu s o f th e in d iv id u a l w h o o w n s a n d e x h ib its th e m , a n d th e y a re w e ll c h o s e n in d e e d . T h e o n e re f e rs to lite ra c y a n d th e im m e n s e n e w s to c k s o f k n o w le d g e th at lite ra c y o p e n s u p , th e o th e r, to th a t s tru c tu re o f tim e w h ic h ... lie s a t th e v e ry ro o ts o f th e te c h n o lo g ic a l p ro d u c tio n a n d m o d e rn b u r e a u ­ c ra c y , a n d th u s o f m o d e m s o c ie ty as su c h .

W e a ri n g je a n s w a s a p e r f o r m a n c e o f d is s e n t, a li e n a tio n , o r d e ta c h m e n t th a t c o u ld b e d ir e c te d a g a in s t n o t o n ly e x p l ic it p o l itic a l e n titie s , b u t v ir tu ­ a ll y a n y th in g . A r e s p o n d e n t ( B .R . 1 9 5 9 ) d e s c r i b e s h e r p r e f e r e n c e f o r je a n s in th e 1 9 7 0 s th a t w e r e a c la s s ic c u t o f L e e , L e v i's , W r a n g le r ( o r a g o o d q u a l­ ity c o p y ) , b u t d e f in ite ly n o t o n e o f th e c o n te m p o r a r y Ita lia n - s ty le b a g g is h c u ts ( s e e c h a r t) . S i m il a r o p p o s i ti o n s c a n b e d is c o v e r e d in h e r re m e m b e r e d c h o ic e o f o th e r c o n s u m e r ite m s a s w e ll: B.R .

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. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 141 h t t p :/ /s ite . e b ra ry .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 4 1 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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T h is r o u g h c h a r t th a t I h a v e d is till e d f r o m th e w r i tte n n a r r a tiv e o f B.R . s h o w s th e s y s te m ic c h a r a c te r o f h e r c h o ic e r e g a r d in g je a n s . T h e o b v io u s p a r a l le l o f v a lu e s in th e v a r io u s c o n s u m p tio n f ie ld s s u g g e s ts a h o m o l o g i­ c a l p a tte r n b e tw e e n th e c u l tu r a l r e p e r to ir e o f B.R . v is - a - v is th e r e p e rto ir e o f th e m a in s tr e a m y o u th in th e tu r n o f th e 1 9 7 0 s - 8 0 s . In f a c t, th e r e l a ti o n ­ s h ip s b e tw e e n th e s e c u l tu r a l f ie ld s s u g g e s t th a t a n " a c h i e v e m e n t" i n o n e f ie ld ( e .g ., o b ta in in g a p a i r o f L e v i ' s 5 0 1 s ) p e r h a p s le d to a t le a s t p a r tia l a c h ie v e m e n t in o th e r f ie ld s a s w e l l, o r a t le a s t th e p r o m i s e o f it. A c c o r d in g to th i s lo g ic , p u tti n g o n w o r n - o u t je a n s in s o c i a li s t H u n g a r y d u r in g th e 1 9 6 0 s - 7 0 s i n s ta n tly s u g g e s te d a n e n tir e p r o g r a m m e . T h e e l e m e n ts o f th is p r o g r a m m e w e r e o f te n r e je c ti o n s o f th e p r e v a i lin g s o c i o c u ltu r a l n o r m s o f th e c o u n tr y . It is im p o r ta n t to s e e th a t th e a n ti - w o r l d a u r a o f je a n s w a s n o t ju s t th e m e c h a n ic a l n e g a tio n o f c e r ta in n o r m s , s u c h a s lo w h e e l s v e r s u s h ig h h e e ls , b u t a c o n f l i c t o f p o i n t o f v ie w a s w e ll. W h il e th e a d u l t w o r ld w a s s h o c k e d b y th e h a b i t o f m id d l e - c la s s y o u n g s te r s n e g le c ti n g to w a s h th e ir je a n s , th e je a n s - w e a r e r s ' s p e c ta c u la r c h o ic e o f n o r m r e g a r d in g c le a n ­ li n e s s w a s n o t ju s t a s h e e r d i r t c u lt, b u t a s tr a te g i c a c t h ig h li g h ti n g w h a t w a s , in th e ir v ie w , a n im p r o p e r n o r m s y s te m th a t f a v o u r e d g o o d m a n n e r s o v e r th e " s p o n ta n e o u s e x p r e s s i v i ty " o f th e in d iv id u a l. In a w a y , a s th e s e h o m o l o g ie s s u g g e s t, th e d ir ty je a n s th e m s e lv e s in d ic a te d a s e n s e o f p u r ity a n d a u th e n tic ity in th e o th e r w i s e v u lg a r, d is h o n e s t, a n d d e f a c e d w o r ld o f m id d l e - c la s s c u ltu re . T h e m u l ti- la y e r e d n o r m a tiv e n a tu r e o f je a n s - w e a r in g q u ite n a tu r a l ly e x p la in s — in s p i te o f th e s e r ie s o f e x c ite m e n ts , p l e a s u r e s , a n d a d v e n tu r e s — a d e g r e e tr a u m a p r e s e n t in th e " m y f ir s t je a n s " s to r i e s , s u c h a s c o n f li c ts , d o u b ts , a n g s t, a n d d e s p a ir. S o m e o f th e s e n e g a tiv e e x p e r ie n c e s c a n p e r­ h a p s b e e x p l a in e d b y th e in s a tia b le n a tu r e o f m o d e r n n e e d s o r a s e n s e o f lo s s — th e f e e l in g o f lo s in g o n e ' s f u tu re — in th e a c tu a l is a tio n o f a n e x p e c ta ­ tio n ( C a m p b e ll 1 9 9 7 ) . S o m e o f th e n e g a tiv e e x p e r ie n c e s s te m f r o m c o n ­ f li c ts c a u s e d b y th e je a n s in th e f a m ily , a t s c h o o l, o r w i th in a p e e r g ro u p . S o m e tr o u b le s w e r e c a u s e d b y th e m e r e f a c t th a t th e je a n s ' o w n e r w a s n o t th e r e a t th e p o i n t o f p u r c h a s e a n d h a d n o c o n tr o l o v e r th e c h o ic e o f p ro p e r b r a n d , c u t, c o l o u r, o r s iz e . A p a r t f r o m a ll o f th e s e f u n n y b u t n o t to o s u r­ p r i s in g f a c to r s , th e s h e e r n u m b e r o f tr a g ic f e a tu r e s in th e s e s to r ie s s e e m s to u n d e r lin e th e e x is te n tia l im p o r ta n c e o f je a n s i n th e r e s p o n d e n ts ' liv e s . T h e c lo s e n o r m a tiv e g ri d th a t c o n n e c ts a e s th e tic s a n d m o r a l ity i n je a n s c u ltu r e , n a tu r a l ly in v ite s a c lo s e r lo o k a t th e f ig u re o f th e d a n d y . A s B a r th e s ( 2 0 0 5 [ 1 9 6 2 ] : 6 6 - 6 7 ) a r g u e s in h i s s tu d y o f th e d a n d y , th e d e s ir e to d if f e r e n ­ tia te w i th in o th e r w i s e f a ir ly u n i f o r m m a le d re s s o f th e 1 8 th- 1 9 th c e n tu r ie s c r e a te d th e ( p r e v io u s ly le s s im p o r ta n t) n o ti o n o f d e t ail: " w h i c h s ta r te d to p la y a d is ti n g u i s h in g ro le in f a s h io n : th e k n o t o n th e k r a v a t, th e m a te r ia l o f th e s h ir t, th e b u tto n s o n th e w a i s tc o a t, th e b u c k l e o n th e s h o e , w e r e f r o m th e n o n e n o u g h to h ig h li g h t th e n a r r o w e s t o f s o c ia l d if f e r e n c e s ."

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 4 2 h tt p :// s it e . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 4 2 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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In th e s a m e w a y th a t d e ta il m a d e e a r l y m o d e r n m a le d re s s in to a c o m ­ p l e x n o r m a tiv e in te r f a c e , s o , to o , th e s u r p r i s in g r e g u la r i ty o f c u l tu r a l m e a n in g a s s o c ia te d w i th je a n s in 1 9 6 0 s - 7 0 s H u n g a r y s u g g e s ts s o m e th i n g s im ila r. T h e n o tio n o f th e " h a l f r e a d y ," " r a w " je a n s ( b e f o r e th e p r e s h r u n k d e n im e ra ) e c h o e s B a r th e s 's w o r d s a b o u t th e d a n d y , f o r w h o m " a l l f o rm s o f b e h a v i o r w h ic h b e a r w i tn e s s to th e p r o f o u n d ly c r e a tiv e , a n d n o lo n g e r s i m p ly s e le c tiv e , id e a th a t th e e ffe c t s o f a f o r m h a v e to b e th o u g h t th r o u g h , th a t c lo th in g is n o t s i m p ly a n o b je c t to b e u s e d b u t is a p r e p a r e d o b j e c t " ( B a r th e s 2 0 0 5 : 6 7 , e m p h a s e s in th e o r ig in a l) . T h e c u r io u s o r d e r li n e s s — th r o u g h a w e b o f h o m o l o g ie s — o f th e o th e r ­ w i s e e x p l ic itly d is o r d e r l y y o u th c u l tu r e o f 1 9 6 0 s H u n g a r y s h o w s a p a r a l le l w i th th e s a r to r i a l s y s te m o f B e a u B ru m m e ll , th e a r c h e ty p a l d a n d y w h o u s e d a m e tic u lo u s , a lm o s t a b s u r d , s e le c tio n s y s te m f o r h is d a il y o u tf i t.11 In b o th c a s e s , th e o r g a n is a tio n o f th e o u tf it p e r f o r m s a d u a l f u n c tio n , a lm o s t a r o m a n tic p r o g r a m m e , in w h ic h e f f o r ts a t a c e r ta in a e s th e tic p e r f e c ti o n a re c lo s e ly c o n n e c te d to a m o r a l d is a p p r o v a l o f th e o r d i n a r y a n d th e s h a llo w .

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P e rh a p s i t w a s im p o rta n t to o b ta in th e je a n s to p ro v e to m y s e lf th a t I w a s w illin g to m a k e c h a n g e s in m y life . — Sz .B. 1958 I h a v e a lr e a d y d is c u s s e d a n in te r e s ti n g f e a tu r e o f je a n s : W h e n th e y a re c o n ­ n e c te d w i th th e b o d y ,

th e " m e d i u m is th e m e s s a g e " f o r th e i n d iv i d u a l.12

T h is m o tif c a n b e u n d e r s to o d i n a w i d e r s e n s e , w h e r e b y je a n s a re n o t ju s t a c u l tu r a l m o u ld ( o r p r o g r a m m e ) f o r th e in d iv id u a ls b u t a ls o a n im p o r ta n t e v e n t in th e p e r s o n 's p e r s o n a l b io g ra p h y . T h e h is to r ic a l a n d s o c io lo g ic a l c h a ll e n g e s th a t y o u n g p e o p le f a c e d i f th e y w a n te d to o b ta in je a n s a re th e b a s ic s o f C o ld W a r h is to r y : p o l itic a l c o n tr o l o n tr a v e l a n d c o n s u m p tio n , s h o r ta g e , is o la tio n f r o m W e s te r n c u ltu r e a n d m e d ia , la c k o f m o n e y , a c o n ­ s e r v a tiv e s o c ie ty , e tc . Y e t, th e e f f o r ts y o u n g p e o p le m a d e to ( 1) e v a d e a d u lt o p p r e s s io n , o r ( 2 ) o b ta in s o m e th i n g v a lu a b l e , in a n a d v e n tu r o u s w a y a n d f r o m a re m o te p l a c e ( I c a n n o t h e lp th i n k in g o f th e G o ld e n F le e c e h e r e ) s e e m to b e tim e l e s s c o n d itio n s a s s o c ia te d w i th p r e p a r in g f o r a d u l t lif e . T h is d u a l c h a r a c te r o f th e o r d e a l, r e v e a le d b y m a n y o f th e " f i r s t je a n s " s to r i e s , e x p l a in s th e c r u c i a l ro le o f je a n s in th e li f e o f lo ts o f te e n a g e r s i n th e e r a . B u y in g je a n s w i th th e p r o c e e d s f r o m a f ir s t s a l a r y e a r n e d a s a s u m m e r s tu d e n t w o rk e r, c h a lle n g in g p a r e n ta l o r s c h o o l a u th o r i ty v ia je a n s - w e a r in g , a n d m a n y o th e r c o n f li c ts a ll h a v e a c o m m o n e l e m e n t in th e d if f ic u ltie s s u r r o u n d in g je a n s : T h e y w e r e c a ta l y s ts f o r y o u n g p e o p le to d e f in e th e ir c h a n g in g p o s itio n in a d u l t li f e , s e c u r i n g a c r u c i a l c o n n e c ­ tio n b e tw e e n th e c lo th in g a n d th e id e n tity o f th e in d iv i d u a l, e v e n i f th is

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 4 3 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 4 3 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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r e tr o s p e c tiv e n a r r a tiv e ( “ m a k in g o n e ' s w a y in to a d u l t l i f e " ) is p r e s u m a b ly d if f e r e n t f r o m th e je a n s - s e e k e r te e n a g e r ' s n a r r a tiv e d e c a d e s b e f o r e f o r w h o m g e tti n g a p a ir o f je a n s w a s e v e r y th in g b u t a s te p to w a r d a d u lth o o d . T h o u g h b r i e f , th e f o l lo w i n g c o m m e n t f r o m a 4 0 - s o m e th in g m a n 's s to r y m i g h t b e c o m p a r e d to m o re s p e c ta c u la r g e n e r a ti o n a l c h a n g e s : It s h o w s th a t w a s h i n g a p a i r o f je a n s s til l c a n re p r e s e n t s o m e th i n g o f a th r e s h o ld a g o o d 3 0 y e a r s la te r: " T h a t w a s th e f ir s t g a r m e n t th a t I w a s h e d w i th m y h a n d s — a n d I d id th a t w ith p le a s u r e , I h a v e to a d d " ( R Z . 1 9 6 4 ) . T h e " f i r s t je a n s " s to r i e s r e c o r d h o w w e a r i n g je a n s b r o u g h t a l o n g - a w a ite d c h a n g e in th e m a le o w n e r ' s s ta tu s a m o n g g i r l s ,13 o r h o w s ta r tin g a t a n e w s c h o o l w a s c o n s i d e r e d to b e p o s s i b l e o n ly in " r e a l je a n s " :

Fin is h in g e le m e n ta ry s c h o o l in th e s u m m e r o f 1989, ju s t b e f o re th e d riv e rs ' b lo c k a d e , I f e lt th a t o n e c o u ld n o t s ta rt h ig h s c h o o l w ith o u t je a n s . T h e f e e lin g th a t e v e ry o n e h a d th e m e x c e p t m e , w a s o b v io u s fo r m e , b u t h o n e s tly , I d o n 't k n o w w h e th e r I w a s re a lly th e o n ly o n e in K a p o s v a r, th e c e n te r o f th e w o rld a t th a t tim e f o r m e , w h o w as s tro llin g th e s tre e ts in f ak e je a n s . (S.T . 1975)

T h e p e r s o n a l b io g r a p h y o f th e s e in d iv i d u a ls is s o m e ti m e s f r a m e d b y th e h is to r ie s o f th e ir je a n s . Je a n e d tim e o f te n c o n ta in s o f s e r ie s a p la n s , a d v e n tu r e s , a n d c o m p l ic a tio n s a s s o c ia te d w i th a c q u i r in g th e ite m , th e n c o m e s li f e w i th je a n s , lif e in d e n im , a n d a ls o o c c a s i o n a l m e n tio n o f a je a n s a f te r li f e , w h e n th e y w e r e m a d e in to s h o r ts , a g u ita r c a s e , o r ju s t b e c a m e n o lo n g e r u s e d m e m o r a b il ia in th e w a r d r o b e . A n o th e r s l ig h tly e x tr a o r d in a r y a s p e c t o f je a n s th a t c o n n e c ts th e m to th e v a r io u s li f e c y c le s o f in d iv id u ­ a ls is th a t th e y w e r e q u ite o f te n in h e r ite d f r o m o ld e r a n d / o r l a r g e r c o u s ­ in s a n d f r ie n d s , a h a b i t o th e r w i s e n o t p a r tic u la r l y f r e q u e n t a m o n g y o u n g a d u lts , o r th e y w e r e p a s s e d o n in a s i m ila r m a n n e r. A s is c le a r in m a n y o f th e s e je a n s m e m o r i e s , p r o p e r ly b r a n d e d je a n s a n d th e r ite s o f p a s s a g e o f a y o u n g p e r s o n w e r e n a tu r a l ly c o n n e c te d th r o u g h th e n o tio n s o f th e re a l a n d th e a u th e n tic . Ju s t a s y o u th f u ln e s s h a d s ta r te d to b e c o m e a tr a it m a r k i n g a d is tin c t s o c ia l g r o u p in p o s t- W o rl d W a r II m o d e r n s o c ie tie s — w i th a p a r tic u la r s e t o f a e s th e tic s , m o r a ls , a n d a s p ir a tio n s — s o , to o , th e p e r c e iv e d im p o r ta n c e o f a c h o s e n c u l tu r a l s ty le — in m u s ic , c lo th in g , s l a n g , h a ir c u t, e tc .— h a d s ta r te d to g ro w . A s th e je a n s s to r i e s s u g g e s t, g e ttin g a p a ir o f je a n s w a s s l ig h tly m o r e th a n ju s t a n e c e s s a r y " u n i f o r m " f o r th e m e m b e r s h ip o f a d e s ir e d g ro u p . T h e a c t o f p u tti n g th e m o n w a s r e m e m b e r e d b o th a s a n a c t o f tr a n s f o r m a tio n a n d a s a n a c t o f s te p p in g in to a d e s ir e d s ta tu s w ith in a p e e r g ro u p . In th e “ f ir s t je a n s " n a r r a tiv e s , lo v e r s r e m e m b e r h a v i n g d e n im p a n ts m a d e — b a s e d o n th e ir o w n d e s ig n — b y a lo c a l ta il o r ; g r e y - h a ir e d m e n re m e m b e r , n o t w i th o u t e m o tio n , w h e n th e ir f r ie n d s le n t th e m th e ir je a n s

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 4 4 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 4 4 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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f o r a f e w w e e k s ; a n d n u m e r o u s f u r th e r s to r i e s te s tif y to th e h a p p i n e s s o f s te p p in g in to th e " i n " c r o w d w i th a p a i r o f n e w je a n s o n . A t th e tu r n o f th e 1 9 7 0 s - 8 0 s , tw o p a r a l le l y o u th c u ltu r e s — w i th th e ir c o n f li c t s im il a r to th e m o d - r o c k e r r e la ti o n s h ip in th e U n ite d K in g d o m s o m e 2 0 y e a r s e a r lie r — f lo u r is h e d , e a c h w i th a p a r tic u la r c h o ic e o f d e n im . A lth o u g h Ita l ia n - s ty le je a n s — o f C a s u c c i o r R i tt b r a n d s — w e r e w o r n b y y o u th w i th a n a f f in ity f o r d is c o , d e c e n t h a ir c u ts , a n d p o in te d s h o e s , th e f o l lo w e r s o f th e " r u g g e d s ty l e " e x p r e s s e d a p r e f e r e n c e f o r ro c k m u s ic , lo n g h a ir, a n d le s s d e c e n c y in b e h a v i o u r a n d w o r e tr a d itio n a l je a n s w i th th e ir le g s re ta il o re d to a n e x tr e m e l y tig h t fit.

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In h is sc e n t, th e w h o le p e r s o n s e e m s to b e s u d d e n ly th e re ; n o t ju s t h is w o rd s o r th o u g h ts, b u t th e w h o le p h y sic al p e rs o n a n d e v e ry th in g th a t m a k e s h im a ttra c tiv e , d e s ira b le a n d him . By m e an s o f s m e ll, a w h o le atm o sp h e re , p e rs o n o r situ a tio n c o m e s to y o u in a v e ry d ire c t an d u n m e d ia te d w a y . A n d a c o m p a ra b le p o w e r o f a ttra c tio n p ro ­ c e e d s f ro m o b je c ts. — V e e n is 1999: 79

It is a p u z z li n g ta s k to c o n s i d e r th e ro le a n d s i g n if ic a n c e o f n o n li n g u is ­ tic e x p e r ie n c e s in a c u ltu r e th a t is — n o m a tte r h o w im p o r ta n t th e v is u a l h a s b e c o m e in th e p a s t f e w d e c a d e s — o r g a n is e d p r e d o m in a n tl y th r o u g h th e m e d iu m

o f s p o k e n o r w r i tte n la n g u a g e . A n u n d e r s ta n d i n g o f th e

ro le s o f n o n li n g u is ti c e x p e r ie n c e s — th e m o s t n o ta b l e in th is r e s p e c t is th e o l f a c to r y — in o u r c u l tu r e s h a s to ta k e in to a c c o u n t a p a r a d o x i c a l d o u b le p r o b l e m o f re p r e s e n ta tio n . O n th e o n e h a n d , th e s ta tu s o f th e n o n li n g u is tic a s s u c h ( th e o l f a c to ry , th e ta c ti le , o u r r e la ti o n s h ip w i th th e v is u a l o r w ith o b je c ts ) in m o d e r n i ty is in f e r i o r to w o r d s . F o r e x a m p l e , th e n o n li n g u is tic e x p e r ie n c e , s u c h a s th e h is to r y o f s m e l ls , o r th e ro le o f th e ta c ti le h a s a q u i te e s o te r ic a u r a a s a s o c i a l s c ie n c e to p ic ( n o t le a s t b e c a u s e it is la r g e ly la c k i n g in w r i tte n s o u rc e s ) . O n th e o th e r h a n d , w h e n o u r c u ltu r e ta k e s in to c o n s i d e r a tio n th e n o n li n g u is ti c e x p e r ie n c e s , a g a in , f o r e x a m p l e , th e o l f a c ­ to ry , i t c a n b e a p p r o a c h e d th r o u g h l a n g u a g e o n ly ( th r o u g h w h a t e ls e , o n e c o u ld a s k ) , th e r e f o r e th e n o n li n g u is ti c is " to o r e p r e s e n ta tio n a l," b e c a u s e o u r c u ltu r e f in d s i t d if f ic u lt to a c c e p t it o n its o w n rig h t. If th e y b e c o m e s u b je c ts o f a tte n tio n , th e y c a n b e g r a s p e d th r o u g h o n ly v a g u e a n d a m b i g u ­ o u s li n g u i s tic re f e r e n c e s . T h e r e s u lt is , th a t, f o r e x a m p l e , o u r r e la ti o n s h ip ( k n o w l e d g e a n d n o r m s ) r e g a r d i n g s m e l ls a n d o d o u r s is f r a m e d b y li n g u i s ­ tic te c h n i q u e s ( m e ta p h o r, m e to n y m y , s i m ile , e tc .) . A n o th e r e p i s te m o l o g ic a l d if f ic u lty s te m s f r o m th e f a c t th a t th e n o n li n ­ g u is tic h a s a d if f e r e n t te m p o r a l ity to th e e x p e r ie n c e s c a p tu r e d b y s p o k e n

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 4 5 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 4 5 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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w o r d s o r te x ts . O n e c a n r e c o u n t h o w a n e v e n t to o k p l a c e in th e p a s t, b u t w h e n o n e s m e lls o r to u c h e s s o m e th i n g s tr o n g ly a s s o c ia te d w i th a p a s t e v e n t, th a t th in g , th o u g h i t w o u ld b e p l a c e d in a p a s t te n s e f o r n a r r a tiv e , b e c o m e s s o m e h o w p r e s e n t. O n e c a n n o t o v e r e s ti m a te th e im p o r ta n c e o f th i s a te m p o r a l e x p e r ie n c e f o r th e s e l f a n d s u b je c ti v ity : A f la s h - lik e g li m p s e o f s o m e th i n g lo n g f o r g o tte n w i th th e h e lp o f a le s s te m p o r a l n o n li n g u is tic e x p e r ie n c e is a s tr o n g e x i s te n ti a l e v e n t. The is

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p r a c ti c e s th a t " r e c o r d " h i s to r y f o r p a r ti c i p a n ts d i f f e r e n tl y th a n th e w a y it w o u l d b e r e c o r d e d b y h i s to r i a n s . T h e " f i r s t je a n s " s to r i e s s u g g e s t th a t p e o p l e ' s m e m o r y o f je a n s , w i th th e i r s tr o n g c o n n e c ti o n to b o d i l y e x p e r i e n c e , a n d to th e m a te r i a l i ty , ta c ti l i ty , a n d s m e l l o f je a n s o f f e r a v e r y d if f e r e n t h i s t o r y th a n th e o n e s in h i s to r y b o o k a b o u t e v e r y d a y li f e . T h e le s s te m p o r a l a n d l e s s r e p r e s e n ta ti o n a l c o n n e c ti o n to o b je c ts a n d s tr o n g e r e m p h a s i s o n ta c ti l e a n d o l f a c to r y e x p e r i e n c e c a n b e d e te c te d in n u m e r o u s c a s e s i n th e

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I s till re m e m b e r w e ll w h e n I saw re al L e v i's th e f irs t tim e , as a sm all to w n b o y . A n o ld e r b o y f ro m Bu d a p e s t c a m e to th e n e ig h b o rs , an d h e w o re th a t f a m o u s g arm e n t. I w a s a p p alle d b y th e n o b le m a te ria l, th e lu m in e s c e n t in d ig o , th e c o p p e r riv e ts , a n d g e n e ra lly th e w h o le lo o k . Its c u t, f o llo w in g th e w e a re r's b o d y , th e s tro n g s titc h e s , th e le g s n o t iro n e d to a c re a s e re p re s e n te d a re v o lt a g a in s t e v e ry th in g th at w e w e re f ed u p w ith : W e a rin g s u its , o ld e r g e n e ra tio n s , th e o f fic ial c h e e s y p o p m u s ic , c lu m s in e s s . ( V .G y . 1951)

T h e a ttr a c ti o n o f th e m a te r ia l ity o f je a n s c a n b e f o u n d in lo ts o f d e n im r e c o lle c tio n s . T h is f e e l in g h a s o b v io u s ly to d o w i th th e e x o tic i s m , th e s c a r­ c ity , th e W e s te r n o r i g in , th e p o l itic a l a ll u s io n s , a n d m a n y o th e r s o c i a l a n d h is to r ic a l f a c to r s . B u t it is lik e ly , to o , th a t th e f r e q u e n t re f e r e n c e s to m a te r i­ a li ty a re , in f a c t, th e v e r y m o m e n ts w h e n th e s p e a k e r s d o n o t o n ly r e m e m ­ b e r w i th th e ir w o r d s , b u t b y n o n li n g u is ti c m e a n s re - a c t e v e n ts w i th th e ir b o d y a n d p s y c h e , to o , a s i f th e y liv e d in a c o n tin u o u s p re s e n t. M a te r i a l i ty in th e d e n i m

s to r i e s i s , o f c o u r s e , n o t o n l y im p o r ta n t

b e c a u s e i t m a k e p o s s i b l e a l te r n a ti v e r e l a ti o n s h i p s w i th th e p a s t, b u t a ls o b e c a u s e th i s m a te r i a l i ty p r e s e n te d th e c l e a r e s t d i v i d i n g l i n e b e tw e e n th e E a s t a n d th e W e s t. V e e n i s ( 1 9 9 9 : 1 0 5 ) , in h e r a b o v e - q u o te d s tu d y , d e sc rib e s h o w

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e x p r e s s e d th e i r a ttr a c ti o n to W e s te r n o b je c ts th a t w e r e " s o m e h o w s o f t­ e r , b r i g h te r , m o r e c o l o u r f u l a n d c h e e r f u l a n d h o w th e i r s c e n t w a s b e tte r th a n th a t o f th e E a s t G e r m a n t h i n g s ." T h i s d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n W e s te r n

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 4 6 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 4 6 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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a n d E a s te r n p r o d u c ts m e a n t th a t a k e y s k i l l o f th e e a s te r n E u r o p e a n c o n s u m e r - c i ti z e n w a s to s p o t i n s ta n tl y th e W e s te r n o r i g i n o f th i n g s . T h i s s k i l l n a tu r a l l y i n c l u d e d th e a b i l i ty to d i f f e r e n ti a te b e tw e e n je a n s o f W e s te r n o r E a s te r n o r i g in . P e r h a p s th e p i c tu r e o f H u n g a r i a n - m a d e je a n s s h o w n i n F ig u r e 5 .1 , w i th th e p o o r q u a l i ty o f th e s ti tc h e s a n d th e c l u m s y c u t, c a n e x p l a i n th a t th i s s k i l l w a s f a r f r o m a n y s u p e r n a tu r a l f a c u l ty ( s e e X X I. s z a z a d 2 0 0 6 ) . T h e s c a r c i ty a n d p r i c e o f je a n s a n d th e p o s s ib il ity o f c o u n te r f e it ite m s le n t th e is s u e o f re a l v e r s u s f a k e a s p e c ia l im p o r ta n c e in th e d e n im s to ri e s . T h e a n x ie ty a n d in s e c u r i ty a s s o c ia te d w i th u n k n o w n b r a n d s , th e p r i c e o f je a n s , o r w h a t v a r io u s c u ts a re s u p p o s e d to lo o k li k e c r e a te d a n a m u s in g c u ltu r e o f a u th e n tic ity p r o c e d u re s :

O f c o u rs e je a n s w e n t th r o u g h a rig o ro u s te s t in th e sc h o o l. Firs t it w a s ru b b e d w ith p a p e r tis s u e s to se e i f th e p a p e r b e c o m e s b lu e . T h e n f o llo w e d th e c ig a re tte te s t o n th e b o tto m o f th e p a n t's le g to se e if it g e ts b u r n t o r n o t. T h e la s t o n e w a s th e m e c h a n ic a l te s t th a t w as lif tin g th e je a n s o w n e r b y th e b e lt h o ld e rs o f th e p an t. (K .T . 1950)

In th is s e c tio n , I h a v e e x p lo r e d th e s i g n if ic a n c e o f a n e x tr e m e l y u n u s u a l s e t o f c o n n e c tio n s e n c o u r a g e d b y th e m a te r ia l ity o f th e je a n s , th e s tr o n g p h y s i c a l a n d p s y c h o lo g i c a l r e la ti o n s h ip b e tw e e n th e b o d y a n d d re s s , a n d th e a n x ie tie s a b o u t th e p r o p e r q u a l itie s a n d o r i g in o f th e je a n s . In th is

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A n y o n e w h o h a s e v e r s e e n 1 - 2 - y e a r - o ld c h ild r e n 's in s tin c tiv e a n d p a s ­ s io n a te s e n s e o f p r o p e r ty w i th r e s p e c t to a to y o r a b la n k e t— w i th o u t e v e r h a v i n g b e e n ta u g h t— c a n n o t a c c e p t a t f a c e v a lu e a n y g r a n d d ic tu m s th a t p r o p e r ty is p r e d o m in a n tl y v io l e n c e , th e f t, o r s i n , b e c a u s e a s m u c h a s o u r p e r s o n a l h is to r y is c o m m o n ly a c c e p te d a s a f u n d a m e n ta l d e f in i n g s tr u c ­ tu r e o f o u r s e lf , th e s a m e c o u ld b e a r g u e d f o r th e o b je c tif ie d re c o r d o f o u r lif e ( i.e ., th in g s th a t w e c h o o s e , li v e w i th , a n d p re s e r v e ) . In th e je a n s s to r ie s , a g a in , e c o n o m i c f a c to r s ( s h o r ta g e , s u p p l y - d e m a n d im b a la n c e , e tc .) m ig h t e x p l a in a ll to o w e l l th e r e s p o n d e n ts ' c o m m o n re p o r ts o f th e ir e m o tio n a l o u tb u r s t f o l lo w i n g th e a c q u i s itio n o f a p a i r o f je a n s a n d m a y c a s t d o u b t o n p o s s ib le s o c i o c u ltu r a l m o tif s b e h in d th e a c t o f p o s s e s s in g . Je a n s s to r ie s s o m e ti m e s s u g g e s t f u n d a m e n ta l m o tiv a tin g f a c to r s b e h in d th e d e s ir e to p o s s e s s th in g s , o th e r th a n s c a rc ity .14 O d d a s i t m a y s o u n d , a lo t o f th e d e n im s to r ie s m a k e s tr a n g e a ll u s io n s to a n “ e x p a n d e d s e l f ," o r " r e a l s e l f ," a f te r th e y te ll o f s u c c e s s in o b ta in in g a p a i r o f d e n im . Ju s t a s m o s t li k e ly to d d le r s ' a ttr a c ti o n to th e ir " p r o p e r ty " is s o m e h o w c o n n e c te d to th e ir e m e r g in g b o d y c o n s c io u s n e s s ( a n d p e r h a p s to a n in s ti n c tiv e te r­ r ito r ia li ty ) , s o th e c e le b r a tio n o f th e s e lf th r o u g h p o s s e s s io n a p a i r o f je a n s h a s s o m e th i n g to d o w i th th e f a c t th a t je a n s h a v e a n e x c e p ti o n a lly s tr o n g r e la ti o n s h ip w i th th e b o d y . T h is p s y c h o lo g i c a l u n d e r s ta n d i n g o f p r o p e r ty c a n e x p l a in th e c h a n g in g ro le s o f ta c ti lity in m o d e r n ity . T o u c h in g th i n g s in a m a r k e t m ig h t b e f a ir l y a p r e e m p tiv e e f f o r t to a v o id b u y i n g r u b b is h , b u t a ls o i t c a n b e u n d e r s to o d a s a r e a d y s u b s ti tu te f o r p o s s e s s io n . T h r o u g h ta c tililty , th e o b s e r v e r b e c o m e s p a r tic i p a n t, a n d b e c a u s e th e b o d y is u ti li s e d

in th e p r o c e s s o f in v e s tig a tio n , to u c h in g

th in g s c a n " r e a l l y " te ll th e b u y e r s w h a t it w o u ld b e li k e i f th e o b je c t w a s th e ir p r o p e rty . T h is p s y c h o lo g i c a l a n d a n th r o p o lo g ic a l a p p r o a c h to o b je c ts , w h ic h e m p h a s i s e s th e ir c o n s tr u c te d c h a ra c te r, o f f e r s a b r o a d e r u n d e r s ta n d i n g o f th e re l a ti o n s h ip s th a t e x is t b e tw e e n h u m a n s a n d o b je c ts a n d o n e th a t is d if f e r e n t f r o m o r m o re th a n ju s t th e m e a n in g g iv e n b y p a s s iv e a n d d u m b o b je c t. Je a n s s to r ie s s u g g e s t th a t je a n s c a n s e r v e a s a n e n a b lin g to o l, a p r o s th e s is th a t p e r f e c ts th e a c tin g s e lf , o r — a s a n im p o r ta n t m e m o r y — a c r u c i a l e v e n t th a t c o n tr ib u te s to th e s h a p e o f th e m e m o r y o f th e in d iv id u a l. It is im p o r ta n t to n o te h e r e th a t th e s ta r tin g p o i n t f o r m y je a n s r e s e a r c h w a s w h e n I n o tic e d th a t th e v a s t m a jo r i ty o f m y f r ie n d s a n d a c q u a i n ta n c e s b e tw e e n ro u g h ly 3 0 a n d 6 5 y e a rs o ld h a v e a w e l l- p r e s e r v e d s to r y o f th e ir f ir s t p a ir o f je a n s .

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 4 8 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 4 8 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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h i e r o g l y p h i c ," th e r e a d in g o f a p r o d u c t m a d e in a c o m m u n i s t e c o n o m y w o u ld d if f e r f r o m th e r e a d in g o f h ie r o g ly p h s e m b o d ie d b y a c a p ita lis tm a d e p r o d u c t. T h e f o l lo w i n g p ic tu r e o f f e r s a f e w g u id e l in e s to a s s e s s h o w o b je c ts c o u ld m e a n s lig h tly d if f e r e n t th in g s in s o c i a li s m a n d c a p ita lis m . F ig u r e 5 .2 s h o w s a S o v i e t- m a d e k itc h e n g a r lic p r e s s , m a d e p e r h a p s a ro u n d th e 1 9 7 0 s . T h e m o s t r e m a r k a b le f e a tu r e o f th i s o b je c t i s th a t its p r ic e (1 ru b e l a n d 8 0 k o p e k s , e q u a l to a b o u t $ 3 U S D o f f ic ia lly , o r .3 0 o n th e b la c k m a r k e t) is c a s t in to m e ta l. C a s tin g th e p r i c e o f a p r o d u c t in to m e ta l is a w h o l ly u to p ia n a c t, a n e x p r e s s i o n o f th e b e l i e f th a t a ll th o s e c o n tin g e n c ie s th a t m a y a f f e c t th e p r ic e o f th e p r o d u c t a n d c a n b e b r a c k e te d . T h e r e is m o re , h o w e v e r . A c a p ita l is t e c o n o m y a n d m a r k e t r e n d e r s a s r e l a ti v e n o t o n ly p r i c e s b u t a ls o s h if ts in s u p p l y a n d d e m a n d , b r a n d v a lu e s , a n d / o r f a s h io n a p p e a l. W ith o u t th e re l a ti v i s i n g f u n c tio n o f a m a r k e t e c o n o m y , p r o d u c t f e a tu r e s c a n s e e m s o f ix e d a n d e te r n a l th a t th e y tu r n p r o d u c ts in to id o ls a n d r e m o v e th e m f r o m d e te r m in a tio n s o f tim e a n d s p a c e . T h is o b s e r v a tio n is e c h o e d b y M ic h e l P a s to u r e a u ( 2 0 0 1 [ 1 9 9 1 ] ) in h is i l lu m in a ti n g b o o k o n th e h is to r y o f s tr ip e s , a r g u in g f o r th e m o r e " m a tte r o f f a c t" s i g n if ic a n c e o f p u b lic a p p e a r a n c e in p r e m o d e r n s o c i e tie s c o m p a r e d to m o d e r n c a p ita l is t o n e s , w h e r e " a l l f ix e d

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T h e m a in s o u r c e f o r m y r e s e a r c h is th e c o l le c tio n o f f ir s t- p e r s o n m e m o r ie s a b o u t je a n s , q u i te o f te n c itin g e v e n ts f r o m th e 1 9 6 0 s - 7 0 s . R e m e m b e r i n g e v e n ts a t s e v e r a l d e c a d e s d is ta n c e is a lr e a d y a r is k y e n te r p r i s e in te rm s o f s o u r c e a c c u ra c y , a n d , a s a r e g im e c h a n g e to o k p l a c e b e tw e e n th e a c t o f r e m e m b e r i n g a n d th e e v e n t in q u e s tio n , i t is e v e n m o r e s o . T h e k e y p o l itic o - e p is te m o lo g i c a l is s u e a b o u t th e r e m e m b r a n c e o f s o c i a li s m is th a t th o s e li v i n g th e ir ( y o u n g ) a d u lt lif e in th e 1 9 6 0 s - 8 0 s a n d c h o o s i n g n o t to im m i g r a te il le g a l ly m o s tl y a s s u m e d th a t th e p o litic a l s y s te m w o u ld n o t c h a n g e in th e ir lif e tim e . T h is le d n o t o n l y to m a s s iv e p u b lic s u r p r i s e a n d a m a z e m e n t c o n c e r n in g th e s p e e d a n d th e s m o o th n e s s o f th e p o l itic a l tr a n s ­ f o r m a tio n , b u t a ls o r e s u lte d in a m a s s iv e m e m o r y p ro b le m : In p e r s o n a l m e m o r ie s a s w e l l a s s c h o l a r ly a r tic le s , e v e n ts o f th e 1 9 7 0 s - 8 0 s a re o f te n f r a m e d a s " p r e c u r s o r s " to th e s u b s e q u e n t f a ll o f th e Ir o n C u r ta in , w h e r e a s in re a lity , e v e n in 1 9 8 7 H u n g a ry , v e r y f e w th o u g h t th a t th e S o v i e t s y s te m ( i n c lu d in g th e S o v i e t m il ita r y o c c u p a ti o n ) w o u ld c h a n g e in th e f o r e s e e a b le

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 5 0 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 5 0 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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f u tu re . In te re s tin g ly , p e o p l e ' s re c o lle c tio n s a b o u t th e ir f ir s t p a i r o f je a n s o f te n m a n a g e to e l u d e th i s tr a p o f r e m e m b e r in g b y o f f e r i n g n o p a r tic u la r m o r a l o f th e s to ry . P a u l B e tts 's ( 2 0 0 0 : 7 5 3 ) s tu d y o f f e r s a n in te r e s ti n g o b s e r ­ v a ti o n o n th e ro le o f o b je c ts in r e m e m b e r i n g ( a lth o u g h b r a n d e d je a n s w e r e n o t s o c ia li s t p r o d u c ts , th e ir " m y th i c a l " e r a w a s c o n f in e d to th e p e r io d e n d ­ in g in th e 1 9 8 0 s ) : " D e s p i te — o r p e r h a p s p r e c is e ly b e c a u s e o f — th e a b r u p t 's e c u l a r i z a ti o n ' o f G D R a r tif a c ts , w h e r e th e y n o lo n g e r e m b o d y th e d re a m s o f a p r o s p e r o u s p r e s e n t a n d a h o p e f u l s o c i a li s t f u tu r e , th e y n o w s e r v e a s re p o s ito r ie s o f p r iv a te h is to r ie s a n d s e n tim e n ta l r e f l e c ti o n s ." W r itte n p e r s o n a l je a n s m e m o r i e s o f f e r f e w i n te r n a l l i n e s o f e v i d e n c e a s to th e f a c tu a l c r e d i b i l i ty o f th e i r a c c o u n t o r th e d e g r e e to w h i c h th e y h av e

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i s v e r y o b v i o u s , h o w e v e r , w h e n b r o w s i n g th e d o z e n s o f f i r s t- p e r s o n a c c o u n ts i s a n o v e r a l l to n e o f s e r i o u s n e s s , n o t a p p a r e n tl y d u e to a n y s e n s e o f c e r e m o n y b u t b e c a u s e th e r e s p o n d e n ts r e c o g n i s e d a s ta k e in s u c h r e f l e c ti o n s . M a n y r e s p o n d e n ts s ta te d e x p l i c i tl y h o w u n e x p e c te d l y p l e a s a n t it w a s b o th to r e c o l l e c t je a n s m e m o r i e s a n d to r e a l i s e h o w w e l l th e y r e m e m b e r a s to r y th a t th e y h a d n o t th o u g h t a b o u t f o r a l o n g tim e . R e l i v i n g th e p a s t v ia m e a n s o f r e m e m b e r i n g f its q u i te n e a tl y w i th th e f r e q u e n t a l l u s i o n in th e d e n i m s to r i e s to th e f a c t th a t th e w e a r i n g o f je a n s w a s o f te n a b o u t li v i n g a l i f e m o r e r e a l th a n b e f o r e . T h i s r e f l e c ti o n , f r o m a now

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m u tu a l i n te r r o g a ti o n b e tw e e n je a n s a n d th e s e l f is a n e v e r - e n d i n g s to r y in h i s lif e :

If I h a v e a c h o ic e , I s till w e a r je a n s , T -s h irt, ju m p e r a n d s n e a k e rs. ... Je a n s w e a rin g d o e s n 't m e a n f o r m e a d is tin c t f e e lin g , o r b e lo n g in g to a g ro u p , o r a f e e lin g o f y o u th f u ln e s s , b u t if I try to fin d o u t w h y e x a c tly I s till w e a r je a n s , I re a lly c a n n o t c o m e u p w ith a n y th in g n e w o th e r th a n th e se th in g s I m e n tio n e d th a t w o u ld e x p la in w h y I p u t o n je a n s a g a in a n d ag a in . ( M .S. 1949)

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. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 151 h t t p :/ /s ite . e b ra ry .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 5 1 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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r e s e a r c h w i th th e h e lp o f a r e s e a r c h f e l lo w s h i p f r o m B ir k b e c k C o ll e g e 's C u l tu r e s o f C o n s u m p ti o n p r o g r a m m e in th e s p r in g o f 2 0 0 6 , f o r w h ic h I a m g ra te f u l. 2 . In te r e s tin g ly , a s s o m e o f th e " m y f ir s t je a n s " re s p o n d e n ts n o te d , b lu e je a n s s ta r te d to a p p e a r s p o r a d ic a ll y a f te r th e 1 9 5 6 H u n g a ri a n re v o lu ­ tio n , in a id b a l e s a n d c lo th in g p a c k a g e s s e n t b y W e s te r n r e la tiv e s , b u t th e s e o d d w o r k p a n ts o r c o s tu m e - li k e tr o u s e r s w e r e r e g a r d e d a s s o e x tr a v a g a n t— c a ll e d " c o w b o y p a n ts " a t th e tim e — th a t w e a r i n g th e m i n s c h o o l s o r o u ts id e o f th e h o m e w a s u s u a l ly o u t o f q u e s tio n ( s e e m o re d e ta il o n th is in H a m m e r 2 0 0 8 ) . 3. In itia ls a n d th e d a te o f b i r th in d ic a te s th e o r ig in o f th e " m y f ir s t je a n s " s to r y e x c e r p t. 4 . T h e m a in p l a c e to b u y je a n s in H u n g a r y f r o m th e 1 9 6 0 s - 8 0 s w a s th e E c se ri se c o n d -h a n d

f le a m a r k e t o n th e o u ts k ir ts o f B u d a p e s t w h e r e

c u s to m e r s c o u ld b u y th e ir je a n s i n r a th e r r o m a n tic c ir c u m s ta n c e s , f o r e x a m p l e , tr y in g p a n ts o n n e x t to a B ie d e r m e ie r a rm o ire . E c s e r i 's je a n s m e r c h a n ts w e r e c r is s - c r o s s in g th e b o r d e r o f th e le g a l e c o n o m y : T h o u g h m a n y o f th e m h a d a m e r c h a n t's li c e n s e , th e ir m e r c h a n d is e h a d to b e s m u g g le d in f r o m a b ro a d , b y tr u c k e r s , c o n d u c to r s o n tr a in s w i th s le e p ­ in g c a r s , o r o th e r n o n e li te tr a v e ll e r s .

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 5 2 h tt p :// s it e . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 5 2 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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In th e ir s tu d y , K a is e r a n d K e tc h u m ( 2 0 0 5 : 1 3 9) c ite c a s e - s tu d ie s th a t s h o w h o w th is f o r m u la tio n c a n in f a c t b e re v e rs e d . Je a n s s h a p e th e b o d y a s w e l l, w h e n th e y f u n c tio n a s a m e a s u r e o f th e o w n e r ' s d ie tw a tc h i n g e f f o rts .

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T h e s i g n if ic a n c e o f th e i n d iv i d u a ll y d e c o r a te d je a n s c a n b e u n d e r ­ s to o d a s a k in d o f p e r s o n a li s e d u n i f o r m . A ty p ic a l p h e n o m e n o n in m i l i ta r y b a r r a c k c u l tu r e is w h e n s o ld ie r s , o th e r w i s e w e a r i n g th e s a m e u n i f o r m , d e v e lo p a s o p h is tic a te d h i e r a r c h y th r o u g h in d iv i d u a li s e d u n i f o r m - w e a r i n g s ty le s , in c lu d in g c a r e f u l c h o ic e a m o n g s e v e r a l d if ­ f e r e n t a v a ila b le u n i f o r m ite m s a n d in d iv i d u a li s e d p e r s o n a l m il ita r y g a d g e ts .

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A s m a l l b u t te ll in g c o n tr ib u tio n to th is p o in t is th e s to r y o f a b a n k r o b b e r w h o w a s id e n tif ie d b y th e a u th o r i ti e s b a s e d o n C C T V p i c tu r e s th r o u g h th e " r i d g e s a n d v a l l e y s " o f d a r k e r b lu e a lo n g th e s e a m o n th e l e g o f h is je a n s , a n d th a t th e F B I h a d i n c lu d e d th e " f i n g e r p r i n t" o f w o r n je a n s in its id e n tif i c a ti o n d a ta b a s e ( H a u s e r 2 0 0 4 ) .

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w o u ld e m e rg e s m ilin g a n d g ra c e f u l f ro m its tis s u e p ap e r. " W e a r m e , g iv e m e li f e ," it w o u ld s e e m to s a y to h e r, " a n d I w ill d o m y d a m n e d e s t f o r y o u !" A n d f irs t, n o t u n s k illf u lly , f o r w as s h e n o t a p o rtra it p ain te r? M is s Bru c e w o u ld p u t o n th e p o w d e r, th e R o u g e - Fa s c in atio n , th e ro u g e f o r th e lip s, las tly th e d re s s — a n d s h e w o u ld g a z e in to th e g la s s a t a tra n s fo rm e d se lf . 9.

M i c k Fa rr e n ( 1 9 8 5 :8 ) s h a r e s a s i m ila r p e r s o n a l r e c o l le c tio n in h i s b o o k o n th e b l a c k le a th e r ja c k e t. Ju s t a s je a n s s e e m e d to h a v e b e e n a tic k e t to s i t o n th e g r o u n d i n p u b l ic , f o r th e a u th o r, th e ja c k e t w a s th e e n tr y p o i n t in to th e w o r l d w h e n h e w o u ld s m o k e i n th e p r e s e n c e o f a n a d u lt: A s I s ta re d in to th e m irro r, I c o u ld n 't b e lie v e m y s e lf . A d m itte d ly th e m irro r w a s tilte d u p to p ro d u c e th e m o s t f la tte rin g e f f e c t, b u t I lo o k e d g re at. M y le g s s e e m e d lo n g e r, m y s h o u ld e rs s e e m e d b r o a d e r. I f lip p e d

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. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 5 3 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 5 3 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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[ T ] h e p e rs o n a l, a n d s o c ia l c o n se q u e n c e s o f a n y m e d iu m — th a t is , o f a n y e x te n s io n o f o u rse lv e s — re s u lt f ro m th e n e w s c a le th a t is in tro d u c e d in to o u r a f f a irs b y e a c h e x te n s io n o f o u rs e lv e s , o r b y a n y n e w te c h n o lo g y . ... W h a t w e a re c o n s id e rin g h e re , h o w ­ e v e r, are th e p sy c h ic a n d s o c ia l c o n s e q u e n c e s o f th e d e s ig n s o r p a tte rn s as th e y a m p lif y o r a c c e le ra te e x is tin g p ro c e s se s . Fo r th e " m e s s a g e " o f an y m e d iu m o r te c h n o lo g y is th e c h a n g e o f sc ale o r p a c e o r p a tte rn th a t it in tro d u c e s in to h u m a n a f f a irs . . . , th e m e d iu m is " th e m e s s a g e " b e c a u s e it is th e m e d iu m th a t s h a p e s a n d c o n tro ls th e s c a le a n d f o rm o f h u m a n a s s o c ia tio n a n d ac tio n . ( 1964: 2 3 - 2 4 ) 1 3. K .T . ( 1 9 5 0 ) s a i d : " A s s o o n a s I p u t o n th e je a n s , a t le a s t I f e l t th a t w a y , I c o u ld a p p r o a c h g ir ls w i th m o re e a s e a n d r e la x e d n e s s , a n d th e g ir ls s e e m e d to f e e l m o r e li k e a c c e p tin g m y a p p r o a c h to o ." 1 4. O r th e y e x p la in w h y th e n o u n " g o o d s " — in H u n g a r ia n a s w e l l a s in E n g li s h — c o m e s f r o m th e a d je c tiv e " g o o d ."

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A d am s, B. an d T. Tate, Ed s. 1991. T hat K in d o f W om an . N e w Y o rk : C arro ll an d G raf. Ba lo g h , Z . 1984. Eg y m a rx is ta o lto z k o d e ss z o c io lo g ia v a z lata [ A n o u tlin e o f a M a rx is t s o c io lo g y o f d re s sin g ] , M e d v e t d n c 1 6 :3 - 3 2 . Barth e s, R. 2 0 05 [ 1962]. D a n d y is m an d f ash io n . In A . Sta f fo rd a n d M . C a rte r ( Ed s.) , T h e L an g u ag e o f F as hio n : 6 5 - 6 9 . O x f o rd : Be rg . Be rg e r, R L ., Be rg e r, B. a n d K e lln e r, H . 1974. H o m e le s s M in d . N e w Y o rk : V in tag e Bo o k s. Be tts, R 2 000. T h e tw ilig h t o f th e id o ls : Ea s t G e rm a n m e m o ry a n d m a te ria l c u ltu re . T h e Jo u r n al o f M o de r n H is t o r y 7 2 :7 3 1 - 6 5 . Bo u rd ie u , R 1989 [ 1979] . D is t in c t io n : A S o c ial C r it iq u e o f t he Ju d g e m e n t o f T aste. L o n d o n : R o u tle d g e . C a m p b e ll, C . 199 7. T h e ro m a n tic e th ic a n d th e s p irit o f m o d e rn c o n su m e ris m . R e fle c tio n s o n th e re c e p tio n o f a th e sis c o n c e rn in g th e o rig in o f th e c o n tin u ­ in g d e sire f o r g o o d s. In S. M . P e arc e ( Ed .) , E x p e r ie n c in g M at e r ial C u lt u r e in t h e W est ern W orld: 3 6 - 4 8 . L o n d o n : L e ic e ste r U n iv e rs ity Pre ss.

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 5 4 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 5 4 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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C o n n e rto n , P. 1 989. H o w S o c ie t ie s R em em ber. C a m b rid g e : C a m b rid g e U n iv e rs ity P re ss. C ra ik , J. C . 1994. T he F ac e o f F as h io n : C u lt u r al S t u d ie s in F ash io n . L o n d o n : R o u tle d g e . Fa rre n , M . 1985. T h e B lac k L e at h e r Jac ke t . N e w Y o rk : A b e rv ille P re s s P u b lis h e rs . Fliig e l, J. C . 1930. T he P s y c h o lo g y o f C lo t he s. L o n d o n : H o g a rth P re ss. H am m e r, F. 2 0 08 . Sa rto rial m a n o e u v re s in th e d u sk : Blu e je a n s in s o c ia lis t H u n g ary . In F. T re n tm a n n an d K . So p e r ( Ed s.), C it iz e n s h ip an d C o n s u m p t io n : 5 1 - 6 8 . Ba sin g s to k e , U K : P a lg ra v e M a c m illa n . H arv e y , J. 1995. M en in B lac k. L o n d o n : R e a k tio n Bo o k s. H au se r, K . 2 0 04 . A g a rm e n t in th e d o c k ; O r, h o w th e FBI illu m in a te d th e p re h is ­ to ry o f a p a ir o f d e n im je a n s . Jo u r n al o f M at e r ial C u lt u re 9 :2 9 3 - 3 1 3 . K aise r, S. B. an d K . K e tc h u m . 2 0 0 5 . C o n s u m in g f a s h io n a s f le x ib ility : M e tap h o r, c u ltu ra l m o o d , a n d m ate riality . In S. R a tn e s h w a r a n d D . M ic k ( Ed s.) , In s id e C o n s u m p t io n : 1 2 2 - 4 3 . L o n d o n : R o u tle d g e .

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V e e n is, M . 199 9. C o n s u m p tio n in Ea s t G e rm a n y : T h e s e d u c tio n a n d b e tra y a l o f th in g s . Jo u r n al o f M at e r ial C u lt u r e 4 :7 9 - 1 2 2 . W arw ic k , A . a n d D . C a v a lla ro . 1998. F as h io n in g t he F r am e : B o u n dar ie s, D r es s an d t h e B ody . O x f o rd a n d N e w Y o rk : Be rg .

X X I. s z a z a d . 200 6. D z sin sz . R T L K L U B T e le v isio n .

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 5 5 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 5 5 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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In D e c e m b e r 2 0 0 2 , 1 w a tc h e d a n d f il m e d th e m a s s a g i n g o f a o n e - y e a r - o l d b o y b y h i s m o th e r . It w a s in th e W e s te r n H i g h l a n d s o f C a m e r o o n , a ls o c a l l e d " G r a s s f i e l d s " ( f o r a n o v e r v ie w , s e e W a r n ie r 1 9 8 5 ) . It to o k p l a c e a r o u n d 11 a .m ., w h e n i t w a s b e c o m i n g w a r m e n o u g h to g i v e a b a th to th e c h i l d i n th e o p e n . T h e m o th e r b r o u g h t a p l a s ti c tu b i n to th e c o u r t­ y a r d o f h e r c o m p o u n d . S h e p u t i t o n th e g r o u n d n e x t to a c h a ir. S h e a ls o b r o u g h t a p l a s ti c b a s k e t f u l l o f v a r i o u s c o s m e ti c s a n d s o m e w a r m w a te r th a t s h e p o u r e d i n to th e tu b . S h e a d d e d s o m e D e tto l i n to th e w a te r a s a d i s i n f e c ta n t. T h e n s h e g a v e th e b a b y a b a th . A f te r th a t, s h e s a t o n th e c h a ir , li f te d th e b a b y b o y f r o m th e tu b , d r ie d h i m w i th a to w e l a n d la i d h i m o n h i s b e l l y a c r o s s h e r o w n la p . T h e n s h e to o k a c o n ta i n e r o f P e a r s B a b y L o ti o n f r o m

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o f P e a r s B a b y O i l , a d d e d s o m e o f th e o i l i n to th e s m a l l c o n ta i n e r , a n d m i x e d to g e th e r th e o i l a n d th e lo ti o n . T h e n s h e p r o c e e d e d to m a s s a g e th e b o y . Sh e s a t h im o n h e r la p , p u t s o m e o f th e m ix tu r e in th e p a l m s o f h e r h a n d s , r u b b e d h e r h a n d s to g e th e r, an d

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s h a v e n , a n d w o r k in g d o w n . S h e to o k m o re m ix tu r e in to h e r h a n d s a s th e y g o t d ry . S h e w o r k e d e v e r y s q u a r e m il li m e tr e o f th e b a b y ' s s k i n , ta k in g g r e a t c a r e w h e n r u b b in g th e e a r f o ld s , th e n o s tr i ls , th e f o ld s in th e s k i n , th e b u tto c k s , th e g e n ita ls , a n d th e s p a c e s b e tw e e n th e f in g e r s a n d th e to e s . A s s h e w e n t, s h e s h if te d th e b a b y . S h e a ls o w o r k e d a n d tu r n e d a ll h is jo i n ts a r o u n d ( F ig u r e 6 .1 ) . T h e w h o le b u s i n e s s to o k a b o u t 15 m in u te s . T h e b a b y w a s re la x e d a n d c a lm . A f te r th a t, s h e d re s s e d h im w i th c le a n p a n ts a n d a t- s h ir t a n d s a t h im d o w n o n th e g r o u n d . T h e w o m a n h a d p e r f o rm e d th is ty p e o f m a s s a g in g to h e r b a b y e v e r y d a y s in c e h is b ir th . S h e in te n d e d to d o s o u n til h e w o u ld b e a b le to w a lk . M o s t if n o t a ll w o m e n d o lik e w is e in th e G ra s s f ie ld s . A ll th e w o m e n u s e b ra n d e d / la b e lle d c o s m e tic s f o r th a t p u rp o s e . T h e m o s t p o p u la r b r a n d s a t th e tim e o f m y f ie ld w o r k w e r e P e a r s , m a n u f a c tu re d b y U n il e v e r in N ig e r ia f o r th e A f r ic a n m a r k e t, a n d B e b e H y g ie n e .- T h e r e w e r e h a l f a d o z e n m o re b r a n d e d b a b y lo ti o n s , in c lu d in g Jo h n s o n 's ( F ig u re 6 .2 ) . E a c h w o m a n h a d h e r o w n p re f e re n c e . S o m e , f o r f in a n c ia l re a s o n s , u s e d lo c a ll y m a n u f a c tu re d p a lm o il, w h ic h is m u c h c h e a p e r. In th e p a s t, it w a s th e s ta n d a r d b o d y lo ti o n f o r b a b i e s a n d a d u lts a s w e ll— m o s tly w o m e n . P a lm o i l w a s a ls o e x te n s iv e ly

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 5 7 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 5 7 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 5 8 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 5 8 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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a m ix tu r e o f s a l iv a a n d m e d ic i n e s o r r a p h ia w in e , a n im a l f a t ( th e m o s t v a lu e d o n e b e i n g th a t o f th e p y th o n ) , a m ix tu r e o f m e d ic in e s a n d f a t o r o il, w h ite o r p i n k k a o lin , a n d a ll k in d s o f c o s m e tic s p u r c h a s e d o n th e m a r k e t­ p la c e . B r a n d s c le a r ly m a tte r in th i s c o n te x t, b u t it is n o t e a s y to k n o w i n w h a t w a y . It d e p e n d s o n s e n s o r y p e r c e p tio n s th a t a re n o to r io u s ly d if f i c u lt to v e r b a lis e , a n d it a ls o d e p e n d s o n o r ig in s a n d th e w a y th e y tr ig g e r v a r io u s f a n ta s ie s . P e o p l e a re c h o o s y . I h a v e li ttl e d o u b t th a t a d v e r tis i n g is im p o r ­ ta n t i n th e r e c e n t h is to r y o f c o n s u m e r is m in th e G r a s s f ie ld s a n d i n o th e r p a r ts o f A f ri c a ( s e e B u r k e 1 9 9 6 ; P re s th o ld 2 0 0 8 ) . H o w e v e r, in th e B ig h t o f B ia f ra a n d its h in te r la n d , s u c c e s s f u l b r a n d s o r a d v e r tis e m e n ts f o r c o s m e t­ ic s u s u a l ly c a p ita l is e o n b o d il y te c h n iq u e s th a t a re w i d e ly s h a r e d in th e w h o l e a re a , e s p e c ia l ly w h e n it c o m e s to th e s k in . In " W e s K o s " o r p id g in E n g li s h , " a o f o y o u s h ik in ? " m e a n s " H o w f o r y o u r s k i n ? " ( i.e ., " H o w is y o u r h e a l th ? " ) . A s m a n y p r i m a to lo g i s ts a n d p s y c h o lo g i s ts s u c h a s Jo h n B o w lb y ( 1 9 5 8 ) a n d D i d ie r A n z ie u ( 1 9 8 5 ) h a v e n o tic e d , th e s k i n is e x tr e m e l y im p o r ta n t a s a s u r f a c e o f c o n ta c t w i th th e o u ts id e w o r l d , a s a c o n ta in e r f o r in te r­ n a l o r g a n s a n d a s a m e a n s to e x c h a n g e a n d v e t h e a t a n d c o ld , U V ra y s , m o i s tu r e , s w e a t, f o o d , d ri n k , n o is e s , a n d th e lik e . T h e e x te r n a l s e n s e s — s i g h t, ta s te , s m e l l, h e a r in g , a n d to u c h — a re lo c a te d a r o u n d its s u r f a c e a n d o p e n in g s . F r o m a p s y c h o a n a l y ti c a l p o i n t o f v ie w , in th e o n to g e n e s is o f th e s u b je c t, th e e a r l ie s t e x p e r ie n c e s o f th e f o e tu s a n d th e n e w b o r n w i th re g a r d to its s k i n s u rf a c e a ll o w h im o r h e r to c o n s tr u c t its p s y c h e v ia th e f a n ta s y o f a n e n v e lo p e w i th a n in s id e , a n o u ts id e , s p e c if ic p s y c h i c c o n te n ts , a n d a c a p a c ity f o r in tr o je c ti o n a n d p ro je c ti o n . T h is is , s o to s p e a k , th e u n i v e r s a l s u b s tr a tu m b e h in d m a n y c u l tu r a l v a r ia tio n s in th e w a y h u m a n b e i n g s d e a l w i th th e s k in . W h a t is p e c u li a r to th e C a m e r o o n G r a s s f ie ld s is th a t th is u n iv e r s a l d im e n s io n o f th e h u m a n e x p e r ie n c e h a s b e e n p u t to u s e to c o n s tr u c t a m o n a r c h ic p o l itic a l o r g a n i s a ­ tio n . In th e G r a s s f ie ld s e s p e c ia lly , th e s k i n is in v o lv e d in p o w e r r e l a ti o n ­ s h ip s a n d I e l a b o r a te o n th i s p o i n t b e lo w . T h e r e a re s o m e 1 5 0 k in g d o m s in th e G r a s s f ie ld s . T o th is d ay , th e k in g 's b o d y is p e r c e iv e d a s c o n ta in in g a n u m b e r o f s u b s ta n c e s ( s a liv a , b r e a th , s p e e c h , s e m e n ) . T h e s e s u b s ta n c e s a re e x te n d e d o r m u ltip lie d b y o th e r s u b s ta n c e s ( p a lm o il, r a p h ia w i n e , c a m w o o d ) , e x te r i o r to th e k i n g ' s b o d y b u t a tta c h e d to i t th r o u g h th e u s e o f ro y a l e m b o d ie d c o n ta in e r s a n d b y s p e c if ic b o d il y te c h n iq u e s ( e .g ., th e k in g p u ts r a p h ia w i n e in to h is m o u th a n d s p r a y s it o n to th e p e o p le ; s e e W a rn ie r [ 2 0 0 7 ,2 0 0 9 ] f o r f u r th e r d e ta il s ) . T h e s e s u b s ta n c e s a re p e r c e iv e d a s b e in g tr a n s f o r m e d in to a n c e s tr a l lif e s u b s ta n c e s w h e n th e k in g m a k e s o f f e r i n g s to th e d e a d m o n a r c h s w h il e u tte r i n g p e r f o r m a ti v e w o r d s . T h e b u r d e n o f k in g s h ip c o n s i s ts o f s to r in g , a c c u m u la tin g , tr a n s f o r m in g , a n d g iv i n g o u t m a te r ia l s u b s ta n c e s a s lif e

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 5 9 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 5 9 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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s u b s ta n c e s . T h e k in g a c ts a s a c o n ta in e r. P e o p l e r e c e iv e th o s e s u b s ta n c e s o n th e s u r f a c e o f th e ir s k i n a s a c o n ta in e r o r w i th in th e ir b o d ie s th r o u g h its o p e n in g s . R o y a l p o w e r is a d d r e s s e d to th e b o d y o f th e k in g a n d o f th e s u b je c ts . T h e k in g is th e o n e w h o c o n s tr u c ts th e in s id e , th e o u ts id e , th e o p e n ­ in g s , a n d th e o n e w h o e n s u r e s th e c ir c u la tio n o f s u b s ta n c e s , th in g s , a n d p e o p le th r o u g h th e o p e n in g s . H e a ls o a c ts a s th e o p e n i n g in th e c o n ta in e r . T h e k in g m a y b e c o n s id e r e d a s h a v i n g ( o r b e in g ) th r e e b o d ie s — h is o w n p e r s o n a l b o d y , th e p a l a c e , a n d th e c ity — a s th e s e th r e e b o d ie s h a v e a s im i­ la r m a te r ia l s tru c tu re : a n e n v e lo p e w i th its o p e n i n g s , ir r ig a te d th r o u g h o u t b y th e s a m e ro y a l s u b s ta n c e s . T h e k in g a c h ie v e s th e c lo s u r e a n d o p e n i n g o f th e th r e e s p a c e s b y s o m a n y e n v e lo p e s , th e ir o p e n in g s , th e d if f e r e n c e b e tw e e n a n in s id e a n d a n o u ts id e , th e c ir c u la tio n o f s u b s ta n c e s , th in g s , a n d p e o p le th r o u g h th e o p e n in g s , ta k in g i n th e " g o o d " th in g s a n d e x p e l­ li n g th e " b a d " o n e s a s s o m a n y e x c re ta . T h e g o v e r n m e n t o f th e k in g d o m m a y b e a m a tte r o f m a k in g d e c is io n s a n d im p l e m e n tin g th e m . B u t, a b o v e a ll , it is a m a tte r o f o p e n i n g u p , c lo s ­ in g d o w n , p o u r in g in o r o u t, a n d ta k in g in a n d p u s h in g o u t m a te r ia l th in g s a n d p e o p le in tr a n s it, th a t is , c o m m o d i ti e s . A s re g a r d s ta k in g th i n g s a n d p e o p le in to th e k in g d o m a n d s to r i n g th e m , o r p u s h in g th e m o u t, th e k in g is in c h a r g e o f b r a n d i n g e v e r y th in g th a t is in tr a n s it th r o u g h th e o p e n in g s . H o w d o e s h e a c h ie v e th is ? H e a p p lie s ro y a l s u b s ta n c e s a n d w o r d s o n th e ir s u r f a c e s o r s k in s . H e d o e s th i s h i m s e l f o r h a s it d o n e b y p a l a c e n o ta b le s a n d s te w a r d s o n h is b e h a lf , u s in g r o y a l s u b s ta n c e s s u c h a s c a m w o o d p o w ­ d e r a n d p a l m o il f r o m th e ro y a l s to r e s . S p r a y in g h is o w n s a liv a o r a m ix ­ tu r e o f s a l iv a , b r e a th , a n d r a p h ia w i n e o n th in g s a n d p e o p le m a y b e s e e n a s th e e p i to m e o f h is a c tio n in b r a n d i n g th in g s a n d p e o p le . In F o u c a u l d ia n p a r l a n c e , w e a re f a c in g a g o v e r n m e n ta li ty o f c o n ta in ­ e rs . T h e te c h n i q u e s o f th e s e lf a p p ly to th e s k in , its c o n te n ts , its o p e n in g s , a n d to th e w a y th i n g s g o in to it a n d o u t o f i t a g a in . T h e y b e lo n g w i th th e te c h n o lo g i e s o f p o w e r.

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. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 6 0 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 6 0 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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c o m m o d i ti e s o r a c tu a l ly r e p la c e d th e m . In a d d itio n to p r a c tic i n g in te n s iv e tr a d in g , p e o p le w e r e , a n d s til l a r e , h ig h ly m o b il e , a n d k in g d o m s w e r e a n d s til l a re c o m p o s ite o r g a n i s a tio n s f e d e r a ti n g d e s c e n t g r o u p s a n d k i n s h ip g r o u p s th a t d o n o t s h a re a n y c o m m o n a n c e s tr y . K in g s a re in c h a r g e o f p r o d u c in g th e u n ity o f th e ir b o u n d e d , in te r n a ll y c o m p o s ite k in g d o m s b y b r a n d i n g e v e r y th in g th e y c o n ta in o r ta k e f r o m th e o u ts id e , w i th a n c e s tr a l u n i f y in g li f e s u b s ta n c e s . L e t m e e x p a n d o n th i s p o in t w i th re g a r d to th e p r a c tic e o f tr a d in g . In th e G r a s s f ie ld s , in te n s i v e tr a d in g in s u b s is te n c e g o o d s c a n b e d o c u ­ m e n te d f o r th e p a s t s e v e r a l c e n tu r i e s a t th e v e r y le a s t a n d h a s b e e n a s s o c i­ a te d w i th th e p r o d u c tio n o f s ta n d a r d is e d g o o d s . It is m o s t o b v io u s in th e c a s e o f iro n s m e l tin g a n d s m ith in g , th e c a r v in g o f u te n s il s , f u r n itu r e , m u s i­ c a l in s tr u m e n ts , a n d m a s k s in th e p r o d u c tio n o f b o th o r d in a r y a n d lu x u r y e a r th e n w a r e s , a n d th e m a n u f a c tu r e o f r a p h ia te x tile s . P a c k a g in g w a s e x te n s iv e l y u s e d . T h e r e w e r e s ta n d a r d is e d b a g s , b a s ­ k e ts , a n d c a la b a s h e s o f d if f e r e n t s i z e s f o r th e m e a s u r e m e n t a n d tr a d e o f g r a in s , p a l m o il, r a p h ia w i n e , e tc . H o w e v e r, o n e u n u s u a l f e a tu r e is w o rth m e n tio n in g : T h e p r i c e o f c e r ta in g iv e n g o o d s w a s th e s a m e a ll o v e r th e tr a d in g

n e tw o r k , b u t th e s ta n d a r d is e d

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f r o m la r g e r o n e s to s m a l le r o n e s a s o n e tr a v e ll e d a w a y f r o m th e p l a c e o f m a n u f a c tu r e . T h u s , th e p r ic e o f o n e c a la b a s h o f p a l m o il w a s id e n tic a l a ll o v e r th e tr a d in g n e tw o r k , b u t th e s iz e o f a s ta n d a r d c a la b a s h d im in is h e d a s o n e w e n t f u r th e r a w a y f r o m

th e p a l m - o il p r o d u c in g c o m m u n itie s .

S m o k e d f is h , c a te r p i lla r s , g r a s s h o p p e r s , a n d s o o n w e r e p a c k a g e d in s ty l­ is h a n d e l a b o r a te p i e c e s o f b a s k e try . Ir o n g o o d s w e r e s ta n d a r d is e d in th e f o r m o f b la n k s f o r h o e s o r m a c h e te s , b o u n d to g e th e r in b u n d le s o f a g iv e n n u m b e r, a n d tr a d e d b o th a s c o m m o d i ti e s a n d c u r r e n c ie s . In m y v ie w , th e re is c le a r ly m o r e th a n a m e r e a n a lo g y b e tw e e n th e te c h ­ n iq u e s o f th e b o d y a p p l ie d to th e h u m a n s k i n a s a n e n v e lo p e , th e te c h ­ n iq u e s o f w r a p p in g a n d p a c k a g i n g a p p lie d to c o n ta in e r s a n d c o n te n t, a n d th e te c h n o lo g i e s o f p o w e r a p p lie d to th e k in g a n d h is s u b je c ts . F o r e x a m p l e , p r o d u c in g a s u c c e s s o r th r o u g h a r itu a l o f s u c c e s s i o n im p lie d a n o in tin g th e s k in o f th e in c u m b e n t a n d w r a p p in g h is b o d y in c lo th e s , h e r b a l m e d ic i n e s , a n d v a r io u s a d o r n m e n ts ( F ig u r e 6 .3 ) . T h e c iv il is a tio n o f th e h ig h la n d s is o n e o f c o n ta in e r s , s u r f a c e s , o p e n i n g s , a n d c o n te n ts , a ll th e w a y f ro m th e k in g d o m a s a b o u n d e d b o d y p o litic d o w n to th e b a s k e ts , b a g s , a n d d r in k i n g h o r n s . T h e o r i g in o f g o o d s a n d th e i r c a r r ia g e o u t o f a b o u n d e d k in g d o m , in to th e b o u n d e d s p a c e o f a m a r k e tp l a c e , a n d a ll th e w a y in to a n o th e r b o u n d e d k in g d o m a n d in to a g iv e n c o m p o u n d w a s a n d s ti l l is a m a tte r o f c o n c e r n . T h is is b e c a u s e s u b s ta n c e s , e s p e c ia l ly b u t n o t o n l y ir o n o b je c ts a n d m e d ic i n e s , c a r r y p o w e r — e i th e r n e f a r io u s o r p o s itiv e . T h e o r i g in o f a c o m m o d i ty w a s a n d s ti l l i s a p r o b l e m . It c o u ld b e tr a c k e d d o w n b y

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 161 h t t p :/ /s ite . e b ra ry .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 6 1 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

R o y al B r an d in g an d t he T ec hn iqu es in W est C am e ro o n

Figure 6.3.

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r e f e r e n c e to th e s h a p e a n d n a tu r e o f th e c o n ta in e r ( b a g , b a s k e t, c a la b a s h , a n d s o f o r th s p e c if ic to a g iv e n p l a c e o f o r i g in ) o r e l s e b y th e s h a p e o f th e c o m m o d i ty its e lf . T h e s h a p e o f h o e s , m a n u f a c tu r e d in la rg e n u m b e r s in s e v e r a l k in g d o m s s p e c i a l i s i n g in ir o n p r o d u c tio n , w a s d if f e r e n t in e a c h k in g d o m . A n o th e r c l e a r e x a m p l e is p r o v i d e d b y p o tte r y w i th r e c o g n i­ s a b le s ty le s . T h e s h a p e s , w r a p p in g s , a n d s ty le s a c te d a s s o m a n y la b e ls o f o r i g in . T h e n e x t q u e s ti o n I w i s h to a d d r e s s is : In s u c h a c o n te x t, w h a t d o e s b r a n d i n g b y th e k in g a c h ie v e ? W h a t is its e f f e c t, o r, a t le a s t, w h a t d o th e k i n g a n d h is s u b je c ts a s s u m e to b e i ts e f f e c t? H o w d o e s i t i m p a c t o n p e o p l e a n d th i n g s ? T h e r e i s n o d e n y i n g th a t a b r a n d o r a l a b e l m a y b e s e e n a s a s i g n in a s y s te m o f c o n n o ta ti o n o r c o m m u n i c a ti o n . It m a k e s s e n s e . H o w e v e r , th e u n d e r l y i n g a s s u m p tio n b e h in d m y q u e s ti o n is th a t it m a y a l s o b e ta k e n a s a n e f f ic a c i o u s a c ti o n o n th i n g s a n d p e o p le in a s y s te m o f a g e n c y . In w h ic h c a s e , th e r e l e v a n t q u e s ti o n is n o t “ W h a t d o e s it m e a n ? " b u t " W h a t d o e s i t a c h ie v e ? W h a t is its im p a c t? W h a t d o e s i t tr a n s f o r m a n d h o w ? " L e t m e m a k e a n a n a lo g y : B r a n d in g th e s k in o f a h u m a n b e in g w i th a r e d - h o t ir o n in th e f o r m o f a l i ly o r ir i s ( a f l e u r - d e - ly s ) in a n c ie n t F r a n c e c e r ta in ly c o n v e y e d a c le a r m e a n in g . It im p r in te d th e s ig n o f th e c r o w n o n th e s h o u ld e r o f th e c o n v ic t. It d e f in i te ly h a d a s i g n v a lu e in a c o d e d s y s te m o f c o n n o ta ti o n a n d c o m m u n ic a tio n . B u t it a ls o a c te d o n th e p e r s o n i n a s y s te m o f a g e n c y . It tr a n s f o r m e d th a t p e r s o n a n d d ir e c te d h im ( in th is

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 6 2 h tt p :// s it e . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 6 2 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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e x a m p l e , m o s t c o m m o n ly m a le ) to w a r d s th e p r i s o n a n d th e g a ll e y s w ith th e ir s p e c if ic m a te r ia l c u ltu r e a n d r e p e rto ir e o f a c tio n s . It a ls o p r e v e n te d th e m a n , s h o u ld h e e s c a p e , f r o m a c tin g li k e a n y o th e r n o n b r a n d e d p e r s o n . R i g h t f r o m th e s ta r t, th is m a n h a d b e e n a p r o b le m a n d h e h a d b e e n b r a n d ­ e d a s s u c h a n d d ir e c te d to w a rd s s p e c if ic re p e r to ir e s o f a c tio n . H e h a d b e e n m a n u f a c tu r e d a s a c o n v ic t a n d r o y a l s l a v e ( s e e a ls o W e n g ro w 2 0 0 8 :1 2 ) . Sim il a rl y , th e k in g a n d h is s u b je c ts f e e l c o n c e r n e d a b o u t w h a t is in tr a n ­ s i t th r o u g h th e o p e n i n g s o f th e k in g , th e p a l a c e , th e c ity , a n d , la s t b u t n o t le a s t, th e b o d il y e n v e lo p e s o f th e s u b je c ts th e m s e lv e s , a n d a b o u t w h a t is in c o n ta c t w i th th e e n v e lo p e s o f th e s e v a r io u s c o n ta in e r s . C o m m o d itie s a r e a m a tte r o f c o n c e r n . A g o o d e x a m p le o f s u c h a c o n c e r n is p ro v id e d b y th e im a g i n a r y o f w i tc h ­ c r a f t c o n c e iv e d a s th e a c tio n o f p a tr o n is in g a n o c c u lt m a r k e tp la c e to w h ic h w i tc h e s g o a t n ig h t to p u r c h a s e p a c k a g e d g o o d s f o r w h ic h th e y p a y b y g iv i n g a w a y th e li f e o f th e ir k in . A t th e tim e o f p u r c h a s e , th e y d o n o t k n o w w h a t is in th e p a r c e l. W h e n th e y b r i n g th e p a rc e l b a c k in to th e k in g d o m a n d u n p a c k it, th e y e ith e r d is c o v e r f a n ta s ti c r ic h e s o r th in g s th a t w i ll c a u s e d e c a y , ru in , a n d d e a th . In th e k in g d o m o f Bu m , th is o c c u lt m a r k e tp la c e is c a ll e d m s a ( f o r a m o re d e ta il e d d e s c r ip tio n , s e e W a rn ie r 1 9 9 3 :1 5 7 - 6 2 ) . T h is f a n ta s y o f a n a m b i g u o u s m a r k e t lo c a te d o u t th e re in th e o c c u lt w o r ld il lu s tr a te s a d ic h o to m y b e tw e e n th e o u ts id e o f th e k in g d o m — m a d e u p o f th e d a n g e r o u s w o r l d a t la rg e , w h e r e th e re is a v a s t d iv e r s ity a n d m u l tip l ic ity o f g o o d s a n d p e o p le , la b e lle d in a ll k in d s o f w a y s b y a ll k in d s o f a g e n ts — a n d th e in s id e o f th e k in g d o m i n w h ic h th e k in g ( a n d th e n o ta ­ b le s ) v e t a n d b r a n d b o th g o o d s a n d p e o p le a t th e g a te s o f th e c ity ( a n d in s id e it) , th e r e b y a c h ie v in g a u n i ty o f c o n te n t— a d iv e r s if ie d , la b e lle d , e x te r n a l o f f e r in g m e t w i th a u n if ie d , b r a n d e d re c e p ti o n . L e t u s g o b a c k to th e q u e s tio n w h a t d o e s b r a n d i n g a c h ie v e u n d e r s u c h c ir c u m s ta n c e s ? It im p a c ts o n th e s u b je c ts to s u b je c ti f y th e m a n d tu r n th e m in to th e c itiz e n s o f a k in g d o m a n d in to th e s u b je c ts o f a g iv e n , n a m e d , p h y s i c a l k in g . In o th e r w o r d s , it i s a p o l itic a l p ro c e s s . In th e p a s t, I a s s u m e th a t th e tr a d e i n E u r o p e a n im p o r ts r a is e d s p e ­ c if ic p r o b l e m s o f b r a n d i n g b e c a u s e th e y c a m e o u t a n d f r o m a n u n k n o w n s p a c e a n d in tr u d e d in to th e k in g d o m th r o u g h lo n g - d is ta n c e tra d e . T h e y s tr e n g th e n e d th e p o l itic a l h ie r a r c h i e s b u t c o u ld b e c o m e a th r e a t to th e k in g d o m a n d its in h a b ita n ts . A c c o rd in g ly , o r i g in s , la b e l s , a n d b r a n d i n g b y th e k in g m a tte r e d . T h e y m a tte r e d a ll th e m o r e w h e n im p o r te d th in g s w e r e c lo s e to th e s k i n a n d to th e b o d y , th a t is , m e d ic i n e s , te x til e s , o r n a m e n ts , w e a p o n s , g u n p o w 'd e r, e tc . O n e n e a t c a s e o f a l a b e l le d , i m p o r te d

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. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 6 3 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 6 3 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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in th e e a r l y 2 1 st c e n tu ry . T h is s ta n d a r d is e d m u s k e t b e a r s th e p r o o f a n d v i e w m a r k s o f th e B ir m i n g h a m G u n m a k e r s p r o o f h o u s e ( F ig u r e 6 .4 ) . It w a s c le a r ly la b e l le d a n d w a s r e c o g n i s e d a s a n a u th e n tic v e r s i o n in th e C a m e r o o n G r a s s f ie ld s , e s p e c i a l l y b y th e in s c r i p tio n s o n th e b a r r e l a n d o n th e p l a te , w h ic h b e a r th e ro y a l c r o w n o f E n g la n d a n d th e w o r d " t o w e r " — a c le a r r e f e r e n c e to th e T o w e r o f L o n d o n . I h a v e n o d o u b t th a t o th e r E u r o p e a n im p o r ts w e r e a ls o la b e lle d , a n d th a t th e c o n c e p t o f l a b e l le d s ta n d a r d is e d

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. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 6 4 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 6 4 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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th e o u ts id e , th e la b e l w a s n o t e n o u g h . It h a d to b e b r a n d e d b y th e k in g w h o m e d ic a te d th e g u n s o n c e a y e a r to re m o v e th e th r e a t th e y re p r e s e n te d w i th in th e k in g d o m . T h is m e d ic a tio n is s til l p r a c tis e d in th e 2 0 0 0 s , o n th e f ir s t d a y o f th e a n n u a l f e s tiv a l. B r a n d in g is a n d w a s a ll th e m o re n e c e s s a r y b e c a u s e ir o n is p e r c e iv e d in th e G r a s s f ie ld s a s a n a m b i g u o u s s u b s ta n c e : a t th e s a m e tim e v e r y p o w e r f u l a n d e f f e c tiv e a n d p o te n tia l ly v i o l e n t a n d d a n g e r o u s — m u c h a s n u c l e a r e n e r g y is p e r c e iv e d in c o n te m p o r a r y s o c ie ty ( W a r n ie r 2 0 0 4 ) .

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B y n o w , it s h o u ld b e c le a r th a t th e g e s tu r e s p e r f o r m e d b y th e k in g , a n d th e s u b s ta n c e s h e u s e s , b e lo n g to a b r o a d r e p e r to ir e o f te c h n iq u e s o f th e b o d y s h a r e d b y h i m s e l f a n d a ll h is s u b je c ts . T h e o n ly d if f e r e n c e — a lb e i t a m a jo r o n e — is th a t th e s e te c h n i q u e s , w h e n u s e d b y th e k in g , c le a n s e p e o p le a n d th in g s a n d a c h ie v e th e ir u n i ty w i th in th e k in g d o m . T h e k in g is a m o n a r c h , th a t is , a s i n g le p r in c ip le o f b o u n d e d n e s s a n d u n ity . A s s u c h te c h n iq u e s a p p ly b o th to p e o p le a n d m a te r ia l th in g s , th e y b l u r th e d iv id e b e tw e e n s u b je c t a n d o b je c t. P e o p le a r e c o n ta in e r s a n d c o n ta in e r s a re p e o p le ( D a v id e t a l. 1 9 8 8 ; W a rn ie r 2 0 0 5 ) . If o n e g o e s b a c k to th e d a il y m a s s a g in g o f a to d d le r b y h is o r h e r m o th e r, it m a y b e s e e n a s a h e a lth - r e la te d p r a c tic e , b u t, in li g h t o f th e te c h n o lo ­ g i e s o f e n v e lo p e s im p l e m e n te d b y th e k in g , i t m a y a ls o b e s e e n a s a d a il y b r a n d i n g o f th e c h ild w i th th e d o u b le p u r p o s e o f c o n s tr u c ti n g h is s k in a s a le a k - p r o o f , h e a lth y e n v e lo p e , a n d o f in c lu d in g it in to th e h o u s e h o ld o f h is o r h e r p a r e n ts a n d in to th e k in g d o m . H o w e v e r, th e r e is m o re to it b e c a u s e th e u n i f y in g s u b s ta n c e s o f th e k in g f lo w o u t f r o m th e p a l a c e a n d c a s c a d e o v e r th e e n tir e k in g d o m a n d its s u b je c ts a n d in v e s t a ll th e m a te r ia l s u b s ta n c e s u s e d b y th e m . T h e y a ls o b r a n d th e c o m m o d i ti e s e n te r in g th e k in g d o m f r o m th e o u ts id e , i n c lu d in g P e a r s B a b y O il a n d L o tio n m a n u f a c ­ tu re d b y U n il e v e r i n N ig e r ia f o r th e A f r ic a n m a r k e t. T h u s , th e m a s s a g in g m a y a ls o b e s e e n b y th e a n th r o p o lo g is t a s a m e a n s to in c lu d e th e to d d le r in to th e k in g d o m . T o c o n c lu d e , in s u c h a n A f r ic a n c o n te x t, b r a n d i n g r e la te s to th e s k in , th e b o d y , o p e n i n g s , a n d e n v e lo p e s . It is th e p e r m a n e n t r e s p o n s i b il ity o f th e k in g , a n d it c o n c e r n s b o th th e c lo s u r e o f th e k in g d o m a s a n e n v e lo p e a n d th e c ir c u la tio n o f th in g s a n d p e o p le in a n d o u t o f its o p e n in g s . It is a c h ie v e d b y th e u s e o f m a te r ia l ro y a l / a n c e s tr a l s u b s ta n c e s a n d b y g e s tu re s th a t, m o s t o f th e tim e , a re n o t v e r b a lis e d a n d d o n o t e l ic it a n y v e r b a l c o m ­ m e n t o r e x p l a n a ti o n . T h e y b e l o n g m o r e to th e r e a lm o f p r o c e d u r a l k n o w ­ le d g e a n d s e n s o r i- m o tr i c ity th a n to v e r b a lis e d k n o w le d g e . T h e y d ra w o n h u m a n m o tio n s a n d e m o tio n s r e g a r d in g th e h u m a n b o d y a n d in tru s i o n . T h e y e x te n d to e a c h in d iv i d u a l s u b je c t a n d to its c o n c e r n s w i th th e s k in

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 6 5 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 6 5 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

R o y al B r an din g an d t h e T ec hn iqu es in W est C am e ro o n

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165

a n d its tre a tm e n t, a s e x e m p lif ie d b y th e d a il y m a s s a g in g o f b a b i e s p re ­ s e n te d in th e in tr o d u c tio n to th is c h a p te r. B r a n d in g m a y a p p ly to in d iv i d u a l n o n s ta n d a r d is e d th in g s a n d p e o p le . B u t, i t m a y a ls o a p p ly to s ta n d a r d is e d c o m m o d i ti e s . It m a y b e c o n s id e r e d a s a d ia l e c tic a l a n d tr a n s itio n a l p r o c e s s b e tw e e n o u ts id e a n d in s id e , d iv e r ­ s i ty a n d u n ity , " g o o d " a n d " b a d , " th e o th e r a n d th e s e lf , th e w o r ld a t la rg e a n d th e k in g d o m . B r a n d in g , in th is c o n te x t, m a y b e p e r f o r m e d e ith e r to c o m m o d i f y o r to d e c o m m o d i f y th in g s a n d p e o p le . W h e n a n a r tis a n s e lls s o m e th i n g in th e m a r k e tp l a c e , h e m a y s p i t o n it ju s t b e f o r e p a r tin g w i th it a n d h a n d i n g i t o v e r to th e b u y e r. C o n v e rs e l y , th e k in g w ill a n o in t a p ie c e o f f u r n itu r e s u c h a s a w o o d e n s ta tu e w ith p a lm o il a n d c r im s o n c a m w o o d to d e c o m m o d i f y it a n d ta k e it a s a n in a l ie n a b l e p o s s e s s io n in to th e ro y a l tre a s u ry .

N o t es

1. I a m m o s t g r a te f u l to D a v id W e n g r o w

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in g o r g a n is e d th e c o n f e r e n c e o n " A r c h a e o lo g ic a l a n d A n th r o p o lo g ic a l A p p r o a c h e s to C o m m o d ity B r a n d i n g ," to th e p a r tic i p a n ts , a n d to th e m a n y p e o p le in th e D e p a r tm e n t o f A n th r o p o lo g y a n d th e In s titu te o f A rc h a e o lo g y

a t U n iv e r s i ty C o ll e g e L o n d o n w h o c o n tr ib u te d

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o r g a n i s a tio n o f th e c o n f e r e n c e a n d to th e d is c u s s io n s . T h e i r q u e s tio n s a n d c o n tr ib u tio n s h e lp e d m e r e w r ite th e p r e s e n t c h a p te r f o r w h ic h , h o w e v e r , I a s s u m e f u ll re s p o n s i b ility . 2 . I h a v e c o n d u c te d f ie ld w o r k i n M a n k o n s i n c e 1 9 7 1 . M y la s t s ta y in th e k in g d o m d a te s b a c k to S e p te m b e r 2 0 0 2 - Ja n u a r y 2 0 0 3 . I a c k n o w l e d g e w i th th a n k s th e f in a n c ia l h e lp o f th e " U M R - L M S " ( C N R S - U n iv e r s i te P a r is - D e s c a r te s ) .

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. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 6 6 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 6 6 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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th e Fro b e n iu s In s titu t. W arn ie r, J-P. 1993. L ' esp rit d ' en t r e p r is e an C am e ro u n . P a ris: K a rth a la. W arn ie r, J-P. 200 4. M e ta llu rg ie a n c ie n n e , id e n tif ic a tio n s e t d o m e s tic a tio n d e la v io le n c e a u C am e ro u n . In J-F. Ba y a rt a n d J-P. W a rn ie r ( Ed s.) , M at ie r e a P o lit iqu e . L e p o u v o ir, les C o r p s e t les C h o se s: 1 8 1 - 9 4 . P aris/

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. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 6 7 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 6 7 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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C o m m o d i t i e s , B r a n d s , a n d V il l a g e E c o n o m i e s i n t h e C l a s s ic M a y a L o w l a n d s

Jason Y a e g e r

C o n v e n ti o n a l v i e w s o f c o m m o d i ti e s i n e c o n o m i c s d e f i n e th e m

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n a r r o w l y i n te r m s o f th e i r e q u i v a l e n c e o f u s e v a l u e . C o m m o d i ti e s a re c h a r a c te r i s e d

a s p h y s i c a l s u b s ta n c e s — o f te n

b u lk

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m a te r i a l s a n d

s ta p l e s s u c h a s l i v e s to c k , g r a i n s , a n d m e ta l s — th a t a r e in te r c h a n g e a b l e w i th e q u a l m e a s u r e s o f th e s a m e s u b s ta n c e . A p o r k b e l l y is a p o r k b e l l y i s a p o r k b e ll y , a t l e a s t in te r m s o f i ts u s e v a l u e . B e c a u s e its e x c h a n g e v a l u e is s u b je c t to s u p p l y a n d d e m a n d , r e a l a n d a n ti c i p a te d , th e r e i s a ls o a f u tu r e s m a r k e t f o r p o r k b e l l i e s th a t h a v e y e t to b e c r e a te d . T h e te r m s " c o m m o d i t y " a n d , o f te n m o r e s p e c if ic a l ly , " p e t t y c o m m o d i ty " a re a ls o a p p l i e d to c l a s s e s o f o b je c ts o f th e s a m e f u n c ti o n o r u s e - v a l u e , s u c h a s h a m m e r s , te l e v i s i o n s , a n d a x e s . In a n e c o n o m y d o m in a te d b y c o m m o d i ti e s , a b r a n d s e r v e s s e v e r a l p u r­ p o s e s ( s e e W e n g ro w , th i s v o lu m e ) . G i v e n th a t th e m e a s u r e s o r e x e m p la r s o f a p a r tic u la r c o m m o d i ty a re o s te n s ib ly e q u iv a le n t in u s e - v a lu e , c r e a tin g a b r a n d is a w a y to d if f e r e n ti a te o n e s u b s e t o f th a t c o m m o d i ty f r o m o th e rs . T h e b r a n d p r o v id e s a m e a n s to m a k e c la i m s a b o u t th e q u a lity o r s p e c ia l p r o p e r tie s o f th e b r a n d e d c o m m o d ity . A b r a n d a ls o s e r v e s a s a v e h ic le f o r e s ta b li s h in g a s p e c ia l b o n d b e tw e e n b r a n d e d g o o d s a n d c o n s u m e r s ( H o lt 2 0 0 4 ) . In c o n te m p o r a r y W e s te r n b u s i n e s s p r a c tic e , c o m p a n ie s u s e b r a n d ­ in g s tr a te g ie s in e f f o r ts to in c r e a s e m a r k e t s h a r e a n d p ro f its . A n th r o p o lo g is ts h a v e te n d e d to u n d e r s ta n d c o m m o d i ti e s d if f e re n tly . Ig o r K o p y to f f ( 1 9 8 6 ) , f o r e x a m p le , d e f in e s th e m q u ite b r o a d ly a s a n y ite m s th a t h a v e b o th a u s e - v a lu e a n d a n e x c h a n g e - v a lu e . H e s u g g e s ts th e re is , in f a c t, a c o n tin u u m f r o m p u r e c o m m o d iti e s — o b je c ts th a t a re f u l ly e x c h a n g e ­ a b le a n d s u b s ti tu ta b le — to in a lie n a b le ite m s , o b je c ts li k e g if ts th a t a re o s te n ­ s i b ly u n iq u e a n d s in g u la r. N e ith e r o f th e s e p o l a r o p p o s i te s a c tu a l ly e x i s ts in r e a l- w o r ld e x c h a n g e s ; e a c h ite m in e v e r y tr a n s a c tio n o c c u p ie s s o m e m id d le g r o u n d . Sim ila rly , W im v a n B in s b e rg e n ( 2 0 0 5 ) e m p h a s is e s th e d e g re e to w h ic h a n o b je c t's u s e - a n d e x c h a n g e - v a lu e s a re d e te r m in e d b y th e s o c ia l

167

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 6 8 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 6 8 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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C u lt u r es o f C o m m o d it y B r an d in g

re la ti o n s h ip s th a t s h a p e its p r o d u c tio n a n d e x c h a n g e . T h e w e a k e r th e ir ro le s , th e m o r e a n o b je c t c a n b e u n d e r s to o d to c ir c u la te a s a c o m m o d i ty . M o v in g

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s y s te m s , R o y

D i lle y

( 2 0 0 5 ) — in a n a p p r o a c h th a t I p r o p o s e to d e v e lo p h e r e — s u g g e s ts th a t w e p l a c e a n a ly tic a l p r i o r i ty o n th e d e g r e e to w h ic h p r o d u c e r s a n d th e ir la b o u r a r e i n v is ib l e to th e c o n s u m e r . In s o c i a l c o n te x ts c h a r a c te r is e d b y s m a l l- s c a le r e g i m e s o f v a lu e , s u c h a s s m a l l v ill a g e s e ttin g s , a c o n s u m e r 's k n o w l e d g e o f th e p r o c e s s e s o f p r o d u c tio n a n d h is o r h e r p e r s o n a l r e la ­ tio n s h i p s w i th th e p r o d u c e r b o th s tr o n g l y i n f lu e n c e th e n e g o tia ti o n o f a n e x c h a n g e v a lu e f o r a n o b je c t. T h is is p a r ti c u l a r l y tr u e i f o b je c ts a re o b ta in e d

d ir e c tl y f r o m

th e p r o d u c e r s , w i th o u t m e d i a ti n g v e n d o r s . In

th e s e v ill a g e e c o n o m i e s , o b je c ts a n d th e ir v a l u e s a r e s tr o n g l y s tr u c tu r e d b y l o c a l s o c i a l r e la tio n s . If , h o w e v e r, th e c o n te x t o f p r o d u c tio n is d iv o r c e d f r o m th e p o i n t o f p u r­ c h a s e a n d c o n te x t o f c o n s u m p tio n , th e s e lle r h a s m o r e la titu d e i n s e ttin g th e te rm s o f e x c h a n g e . In th e b a z a a r e c o n o m y a s f o r m u la te d b y F r a n k F a n s e lo w ( 1 9 9 0 ; a ls o W e n g ro w 2 0 0 8 , th is v o lu m e ) , b r o k e r s a c q u ir e g o o d s o f u n e v e n q u a l ity f r o m p r o d u c e r s a n d o f f e r th e m f o r r e s a le to c o n s u m e r s o r to v e n d o r s w h o th e n r e s e ll th e m . T h e p o i n t o f p u r c h a s e a n d c o n te x t o f c o n s u m p tio n a re th u s s p a ti a lly a n d s o c ia ll y r e m o v e d f r o m th e lo c i o f p r o d u c tio n a n d f r o m th e p ro d u c e rs . T h is c r e a te s a s tr o n g a s y m m e tr y in k n o w l e d g e a b o u t h o w a n ite m w a s p r o d u c e d a n d its q u a lity , p r o v id in g th e v e n d o r s o m e a d v a n ta g e s in n e g o tia ti n g th e ite m 's e x c h a n g e v a lu e . O f c o u r s e , th e c o n s u m e r c a n s e e k to c o u n te r a c t th is a s y m m e tr y b y s h re w d b a r g a in in g a n d c o m p a r i s o n s h o p p in g w i th m u ltip le v e n d o r s . Fin a lly , in a n e c o n o m y d o m i n a te d b y b r a n d e d c o m m o d i ti e s ( W e n g ro w , th is v o lu m e ) , b r a n d s s e r v e to d is tin g u is h a m o n g s t th e v a r io u s e x a m p l e s o f a g iv e n c o m ­ m o d ity . P r o d u c e r s s e e k to m a in ta in a c e r ta in le v e l o f q u a l ity a n d c o n s is ­ te n c y i n th e ir b r a n d e d g o o d s ; th u s , th e b r a n d h o ld s a p r o m is e o f p a r tic u la r c h a r a c te r is tic s a n d q u a litie s . In th is w a y , b r a n d s c a n re d u c e c o n s u m e r a n x ie ty o f b u y i n g g o o d s o f v a r ia b le q u a lity th a t is in h e r e n t in th e b a z a a r eco no m y . T h e s e a n th r o p o lo g ic a l p e r s p e c tiv e s e m p h a s i s e p r o c e s s e s o f e x c h a n g e a n d v a lu a ti o n a n d th e y e m p l o y th e c o n s tr u c t o f th e c o m m o d i ty a s a u s e ­ f u l a b s tr a c ti o n . N o ite m is in h e r e n tly a c o m m o d i ty ; ra th e r , ite m s a c t m o re o r le s s li k e c o m m o d i ti e s in p a r tic u la r e x c h a n g e s . T h e s e s h if ts in e m p h a ­ s i s f o c u s o u r a tte n ti o n o n th e f o l lo w i n g q u e s tio n s : W h a t s tr u c tu r a l c o n d i­ tio n s e n c o u r a g e th e c o m m o d i f ic a ti o n o f g o o d s ? W h a t c o n d itio n s f o s te r th e e s ta b li s h m e n t o f b r a n d s ? T o a d d r e s s th e s e q u e s tio n s , I w i ll c o n s i d e r th e p r o d u c tio n a n d e x c h a n g e o f p o tte r y in a C la s s ic M a y a e c o n o m y . I d ra w m y d a ta f r o m th e n e ig h b o u r in g p o l itie s o f X u n a n tu n i c h a n d B u e n a v is ta d e l C a y o , B e liz e ( L e C o u n t e t a l. 2 0 0 2 ) . I h a v e c h o s e n to f o c u s n a r r o w l y o n tw o c e n tr e s in th e M o p a n V a lle y b e c a u s e a c lo s e a n a ly s is o f th e d a ta f r o m

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 6 9 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 6 9 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

C o m m o d it ies , B ran ds , an d V illag e E c o n o m ies in t he C las sic M ay a L o w lan d s

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th e s e tw o s ite s is th e b e s t m e a n s to e l u c id a te th e re l a ti o n s h ip s th a t e x i s te d b e tw e e n c o n s u m e r s a n d p r o d u c e r s o f c e r ta in g o o d s . E v e n s o , g iv e n th e s o c i a l, p o l itic a l , a n d e c o n o m ic h e te r o g e n e ity o f C la s s ic M a y a c iv il iz a tio n ( d is c u s s e d b e lo w ) , I r e m a in c a u ti o u s a b o u t o v e r g e n e r a lis in g m y c o n c lu ­ s i o n s to o th e r M a y a p o litie s .

C l a s s ic M a y a C iv il iz a t io n

T h e c e n tr a l a n d s o u th e r n M a y a lo w la n d s w e r e o c c u p ie d b y d o z e n s o f c o m p e ti n g p o l itie s d u r in g th e C la s s ic p e r io d ( a

2 5 0 - 9 0 0 ) . T h e s e p o litie s

d

w e r e s m a ll in s i z e , w i th p o p u l a ti o n s r a n g in g b e tw e e n 1 5 ,0 0 0 a n d 7 5 ,0 0 0 p e o p le , a n d c lo s e ly s p a c e d , o f te n le s s th a n 1 5 k m a p a r t ( D e m a r e s t 2 0 0 4 ; S h a r e r 2 0 0 4 ; W e b s te r 1 9 9 7 ) . T h e la r g e r p o l itie s w e r e ru le d b y a k' u h u l aj a w ( " d i v i n e lo r d " ; p i. k' u h u l a j aw t ak ) , a title th a t im p l ie s a h ig h d e g r e e o f p o l iti­ c a l a u to n o m y ( S h a r e r a n d G o ld e n 2 0 0 4 ) a n d is s o m e tim e s tr a n s la te d a s " k i n g " ( M a r tin a n d G r u b e 2 0 0 8 ) . M a y a k' u h u l a j a w t a k d r e w le g itim a c y f r o m m il ita r y s u c c e s s e s a n d f r o m th e ir p r e e m in e n t ro le s a s in te r m e d i a r ie s w i th th e s u p e r n a tu r a l , c e le b r a tin g b o th o f th e s e ty p e s o f a c tiv itie s in th e p u b lic a r t th e y c o m m is s io n e d ( S h a r e r a n d G o ld e n 2 0 0 4 ) . T h e y a ls o s o u g h t to m a in ta in th e ir p o litic a l p r e e m in e n c e b y c r e a tin g a n d

m a in ta in in g b o n d s o f lo y a lty w i th th e ir

s u b o r d in a te s th r o u g h g if t g iv in g ( B a ll 1 9 9 3 a ; L e C o u n t 1 9 9 9 ) . M a y a ru le rs m a in ta in e d c r a f t w o r k s h o p s w h e r e a r tis a n s m a d e e l a b o r a te , h ig h - v a lu e o b je c ts , in c lu d in g c e r a m i c v e s s e ls a n d je w e ll e ry , w h ic h th e r u le r s th e n d is tr i b u te d to th e ir f o l lo w e r s a n d a ll ie s ( B a ll 1 9 9 3 a ; F o ia s 2 0 0 2 ; In o m a ta 2 0 0 1 ) . T h e s e g if ts m a te r ia l is e d th e u n e q u a l in te r p e r s o n a l b o n d s b e tw e e n th e k' u h u l aja w , a s d is p e r s e r o f la r g e s s e , a n d h is o r h e r s u b je c ts , th e s u b ­ o r d in a te d re c ip ie n ts . B e c a u s e th e s e s u b je c ts la c k e d th e r e s o u r c e s to m a k e c o m p a r a b le o b je c ts , th e y r e c ip r o c a te d w i th th e ir lo y a lty a n d w h a te v e r s e r­ v ic e s th e y c o u ld o f f e r th e ir s o v e r e ig n ( F o ia s 2 0 0 2 ) . M a y a c e n tr e s w e r e n o t d e n s e l y

n u c le a te d

c itie s , a n d

th e ir w i d e ly

s p a c e d r e s id e n tia l c o m p l e x e s w e r e s e p a r a te d b y te r r a c e s a n d o th e r a g ri­ c u l tu r a l f e a tu r e s ( P y b u r n 2 0 0 8 ; W e b s te r 1 9 9 7 ) . P o p u la tio n d e n s itie s g e n e r ­ a ll y d e c li n e d li ttle a s o n e m o v e d o u tw a r d s f r o m th e p o l i ty 's c e n tr e in to th e s u r r o u n d in g c o u n tr y s id e ( D r e n n a n 1 9 8 8 ; Y a e g e r 2 0 0 3 ) , w h e r e f a r m e r s p r a c tic e d a r a n g e o f in te n s i v e a n d e x te n s iv e a g r i c u ltu r a l s tr a te g ie s . T h e c o u n tr y s i d e w a s a l s o th e s c e n e o f s i g n i f i c a n t c r a f t p r o d u c tio n . M o s t f a r m in g h o u s e h o l d s w e r e a ls o c r a f tin g h o u s e h o l d s , e n g a g i n g in s p i n n i n g , w e a v i n g , f l i n t- k n a p p i n g , p o ttin g , a n d ( P y b u rn 2 0 0 8 ; a ls o

H ir th 2 0 0 9 ) . O th e r h in te r la n d

o th e r c r a f t a c ti v i ti e s r e s id e n ts d e d i c a te d

th e m s e l v e s to m o r e i n te n s i v e a n d s p e c i a l i s e d c r a f t p r o d u c ti o n , s u c h a s th e m a n u f a c tu r e o f f in e b i f a c i a l s to n e to o l s a n d , p ro b a b ly , th e p r o d u c tio n o f p o tte r y , a s d e ta il e d b e lo w .

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 7 0 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 7 0 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

170

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C u lt u r es o f C o m m o d it y B r an d in g

T h e w a y s th r o u g h w h ic h th e s e g o o d s c ir c u la te d w i th in M a y a e c o n ­ o m i e s a re th e s u b je c t o f m u c h d e b a te ( s e e W e lls 2 0 0 6 ) . M a n y M a y a n i s ts a c c e p t a d u a l m o d e l o f th e e c o n o m y th a t d r a w s a s tr o n g

d is ti n c tio n

b e tw e e n p r e s tig e g o o d s a n d u ti lita r i a n g o o d s ( e .g ., F o i a s 2 0 0 2 ) . In th is m o d e l , p r e s tig e g o o d s w e r e m a n u f a c tu r e d u n d e r e l ite p a tr o n a g e , o f te n in a tta c h e d w o r k s h o p s . S o m e o f th e s e ite m s w re r e r e s e r v e d f o r u s e i n c e r e ­ m o n ie s a n d r itu a ls ; o th e r s w e r e d is tr i b u te d b y th e e l ite a s g if ts to th e ir s u b je c ts . In c o n tr a s t, th e m a n u f a c tu r e o f u ti lita r i a n g o o d s w a s th e p u r ­ v i e w o f r e l a ti v e ly a u to n o m o u s a r tis a n s w h o w o r k e d a t o r n e a r th e ir r u r a l h o m e s ( S a n d e r s a n d P r ic e 1 9 6 8 ; W e b s te r e t a l. 2 0 0 0 ) . S o m e s c h o l a r s h a v e in f e r r e d th a t th e p r o d u c e r s o f u ti lita r i a n g o o d s e x c h a n g e d m o s t o f th e ir w a r e s w i th m e m b e r s o f th e ir k in g r o u p o r c o m m u n i ty ( S a n d e r s 1 9 8 9 ) . O th e r s h a v e a r g u e d th a t m a r k e tp l a c e s e x i s te d to f a c il ita te e x c h a n g e ( e .g ., Jo n e s 1 9 9 6 ) , a c o n c lu s io n s u p p o r te d b y a g r o w in g b o d y o f e m p i r i c a l e v i­ d e n c e a s d is c u s s e d b e lo w . In je c ti n g th e c o n s tr u c ts o f c o m m o d i ty a n d b r a n d in to th is d e b a te d r a w s o u r a tte n ti o n m o r e c lo s e ly to th e c o m p le x tr ia d ic r e l a ti o n s h ip s b e tw e e n p r o d u c e r s , c o n s u m e r s , a n d g o o d s th e y e x c h a n g e d . N o tio n s o f b r a n d a n d c o m m o d i ty b r in g p r o d u c tio n , e x c h a n g e , a n d c o n s u m p tio n to g e th e r in to a c o h e r e n t d y n a m ic th a t is in h e r e n tly s o c i a l, a n d th a t d o e s n o t re ly o n a to p - d o w n m o d e l o f th e p o l itic a l e c o n o m y , a lth o u g h i t is n o t in c o m p a tib le w i th to p - d o w n p e r s p e c tiv e s . T h e c o n s tr u c t o f b r a n d in p a r tic u la r f o rc e s u s to c o n s i d e r th e r e c u r s iv e d y n a m ic b e tw e e n c o n s u m e r d e c is io n s a n d th e s tr a te g i e s o f p r o d u c e r s to in f lu e n c e th o s e d e c is io n s a n d o f th e s o c ia l re l a ti o n s h ip s f o rg e d b y th a t d y n a m ic . T h u s , lo o k in g a t C la s s ic M a y a e c o n ­ o m i e s th r o u g h th e le n s e s o f c o m m o d i ty a n d b r a n d c o m p e l s u s to s h if t f r o m th i n k in g a b o u t th e M a y a e c o n o m y a s a n a w k w a r d a m a lg a m o f p r e s ­ tig e g o o d s th a t c ir c u la te th r o u g h p o l itic a l ly g e n e r a ti v e g if t e x c h a n g e s a n d u ti lita r i a n g o o d s o b ta in e d in s tr a te g i e s o f h o u s e h o ld p r o v is io n in g , e m p h a ­ s i z in g e x c h a n g e a n d c o n s u m p tio n a s s o c ia ll y s i tu a te d p r a c tic e s in s te a d .

T h e M o p a n V a l l e y d u r in g

t h e

C l a s s ic P e r io d

T h e M o p a n V a ll e y o f w e s te r n B e liz e p r e s e n ts a b r o a d a n d f e r til e a ll u v ia l f lo o d p la in f r a m e d b y g e n tle , k a r s t- d e r i v e d li m e s to n e h il ls . T h e h il ls a re c a r p e te d w i th a g r i c u ltu r a l te r r a c e s b u i l t b y f a r m in g f a m il ie s o v e r g e n e r a ­ tio n s a s th e y tr a n s f o r m e d th e v a l l e y 's la n d s c a p e f o r in te n s i v e a g r ic u ltu r a l p r o d u c tio n ( N e f f 2 0 0 8 ; R o b in 1 9 9 9 ; W y a tt 2 0 0 8 ) . In th e f lo o d p la in a n d h ills , d e p o s its o f c la y s a n d c h e r t n o d u le s p r o v i d e d im p o r ta n t r a w m a te r ia l s f o r C la s s ic M a y a p o tte r s a n d f li n t- k n a p p e r s ( Y a e g e r 2 0 1 0 ) . T h e ri v e r its e l f w a s a n a tu r a l tr a n s p o r ta tio n c o rr id o r, c o n n e c tin g th e la n d lo c k e d a r e a s o f th e c e n tr a l lo w la n d s , h o m e to p o w e r f u l C la s s ic p o l itie s lik e N a r a n jo a n d T ik a l, to th e C a r ib b e a n Se a a n d c o a s ta l tr a d e r o u te s ( F ig u r e 7 .1 ).

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 171 h t t p :/ /s ite . e b ra ry .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 7 1 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

C o m m o d it ies , B ran ds , an d V illag e E c o n o m ies in t he C las sic M ay a L o w lan d s

D u r in g th e C l a s s i c p e r io d ( a

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2 5 0 - 9 0 0 ) , th e M o p a n V a ll e y w a s d e n s e l y

p a c k e d w i th p o l i ti c a l c e n tr e s , a n d R i c h a r d L e v e n th a l a n d W e n d y A s h m o r e ( 2 0 0 4 ; a ls o A s h m o r e 2 0 1 0 ; H e lm k e a n d A w e 2 0 0 8 ) h a v e s u g g e s te d th a t th i s c lo s e s p a c i n g w a s th e r e s u l t o f th e s e q u e n ti a l r is e o f c o m p e ti n g p o l i ti c a l c e n tr e s o v e r th e c o u r s e o f th e P r e c la s s ic a n d C la s s ic p e r io d s . B u e n a v i s ta d e l C a y o ( h e r e a f te r B u e n a v i s ta ) w a s f o u n d e d a r o u n d 9 5 0

bc

a n d d e v e l o p e d in to o n e o f th e v a l l e y ' s m o s t im p o r ta n t p o l i ti c a l c e n tr e s b e g in n in g a ro u n d 6 5 0

bc

( B a ll a n d T a s c h e c k 2 0 0 4 ) . X u n a n tu n i c h w o u ld

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 7 2 h tt p :// s it e . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 7 2 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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n o t b e e s ta b l i s h e d a s a m a jo r p o l i ti c a l c e n tr e f o r a n o th e r m i l le n n iu m ( L e C o u n t a n d Y a e g e r 2 0 1 0 a ) . B y th e e a r l y p a r t o f th e L a te C la s s ic p e r io d (a d

6 0 0 - 6 7 0 , th e S a m a l p h a s e ) , h o w e v e r , B u e n a v i s ta a n d X u n a n tu n i c h

w e r e th e tw o d o m i n a n t c e n tr e s i n th e M o p a n V alle y . T h e s e tw o c e n tr e s c o m p e te d f o r th e v a l l e y 's r e s o u r c e s , i n c lu d in g th e lo y a l ty o f th e v a l l e y 's p o p u la c e

(L eC o u n t an d

Y a e g e r 2 0 1 0 b ; L e v e n th a l a n d

A sh m o re 2 0 0 4 ;

c o m p a r e T a s c h e k a n d B a ll 2 0 0 4 ) , a n d X u n a n tu n i c h e m e r g e d a s th e m o s t p o w e r f u l c e n tr e i n th e v a l l e y b y th e l a te r L a te C l a s s i c p e r io d ( a 7 8 0 ; H a ts ' C h a a k p h a s e ) . T h e T e r m in a l C l a s s i c p e r io d ( a

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7 8 0 - 8 9 0 ; T sak '

p h a s e ) s a w d im i n i s h e d c o n s tr u c ti o n i n m o s t o f th e l a r g e r c e n tr e s a n d th e a b a n d o n m e n t o f a ll o f th e m b y th e e n d o f th e p e r io d . T h e M o p a n V a ll e y c o u n tr y s i d e w a s d e n s e l y p o p u l a te d , a s d o c u m e n te d b y s y s te m a ti c s e ttl e m e n t s u r v e y s a c r o s s th e r e g i o n ( A s h m o r e 1 9 9 5 ; F o r d a n d F e d i c k 1 9 9 2 ; Y a e g e r 2 0 1 0 ) . T h e p o p u l a ti o n in X u n a n tu n i c h ' s h i n ­ te r la n d r e a c h e d its p e a k o f m o r e th a n 4 0 0 p e o p l e / k m 2 d u r i n g th e la te 7 th a n d e a r l y 8 ,h c e n tu r i e s

a d

( N e f f 2 0 1 0 ; Y a e g e r 2 0 0 3 ) . T h e c o u n tr y s i d e

w a s o r g a n i s e d in a c o m p l e x m a n n e r , w i th e l i te r e s i d e n c e s th a t w e r e th e h o m e s o f w e a l th y r u r a l f a m i l i e s ; a d m i n i s tr a ti v e c o m p l e x e s u s e d b y p o l ity r u le r s to p r o je c t th e ir a u th o r i ty i n to th e h i n te r l a n d ; a n d h a m le t- s i z e d s e ttl e m e n t c l u s te r s o f v a r i a b l e lo n g e v ity , s o m e o f w h i c h s h o w r e m a r k ­ a b le s o c i o e c o n o m i c h e te r o g e n e i ty f o r th e i r s m a l l s i z e ( Y a e g e r a n d R o b in 2 0 0 4 ) . T h e m a s s i v e L a te C l a s s i c c o n s tr u c ti o n p r o je c ts a t X u n a n tu n i c h a n d o th e r c e n tr e s te s ti f y to th e a u th o r i ty th a t th e r e g i o n 's r u le r s e x e r c i s e d o v e r h i n te r l a n d c o m m u n i ti e s , a n d s u r v e y a n d e x c a v a ti o n d a ta f r o m th e h i n te r l a n d s a ls o s h o w

th a t X u n a n tu n i c h ' s r u le r s s tr a te g i c a l l y e n g a g e d

w i th p r e e x i s ti n g h i n te r l a n d s o c i a l a n d p o l i ti c a l n e tw o r k s ( A s h m o r e e t a l. 2 0 0 4 ) . A t th e s a m e tim e , th e s e s tr a te g i e s w e r e n e i th e r w h o l l y e f f e c ­ tiv e n o r u n i f o r m , a n d s o m e h i n te r l a n d g r o u p s g r e w s tr o n g e r th r o u g h th e n e w a r r a n g e m e n ts th a t e m e r g e d o u t o f th e ir n e g o ti a ti o n s w i th r e g i o n a l r u le r s ( R o b in e t a l. 2 0 1 0 ; Y a e g e r 2 0 0 0 a , 2 0 0 3 ) . T h is h ig h ly d iv e r s if ie d c o u n tr y s id e w a s th e v e n u e f o r s i g n if ic a n t e c o ­ n o m ic p r o d u c tio n a n d c o n s u m p tio n . R u r a l f a m il ie s n o t o n ly re m o d e ll e d th e la n d s c a p e o v e r g e n e r a ti o n s to in c r e a s e a g r i c u ltu r a l y ie ld s , b u t a ls o e n g a g e d in o th e r p r o d u c tiv e a c tiv itie s , p r e s u m a b ly in e f f o r ts to g e n e r a te w e a l th a n d d is p o s a b le in c o m e , m e e t tr ib u te d e m a n d s , a n d b u f f e r th e m ­ s e lv e s a g a in s t th e r is k o f p o o r h a r v e s ts . A t le a s t a f e w m a d e o r n a m e n ts f r o m im p o r te d m a r in e c o n c h s h e l ls ( Y a e g e r 2 0 0 0 b ) ; m o s t s p u n c o tto n a n d li k e ly w o v e it in to c lo th ( R o b in 1 9 9 9 ; Y a e g e r 2 0 0 0 b ) .

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a s s e s s i n g th e r e g i o n ' s e c o n o m i c c o m p l e x ity . C h i p p e d

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 7 3 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 7 3 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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a s s o c i a te d w a s te ( d e b i ta g e ) f r o m th e ir p r o d u c ti o n is c o m m o n in d o m e s ­ tic M a y a h o u s e h o l d m i d d e n s a n d d e m o n s tr a te s th a t m o s t f a r m i n g f a m ­ il i e s p r o d u c e d s o m e s i m p l e s to n e to o l s , l i k e l y f o r p e r s o n a l c o n s u m p ti o n (V an d e n Bo sc h 1999). T h e r e w a s a ls o a s e c o n d , m o re s p e c ia li s e d le v e l o f m a n u f a c tu r i n g , in w h ic h o n e o r m o r e h o u s e h o ld s f o r m e d a w o r k s h o p . T h e e x tr e m e l y h ig h d e n s itie s o f d e b ita g e a n d to o ls in th e s e w o r k s h o p s ( e .g ., 1 - 2 m il lio n f la k e s a n d 1 4 f in is h e d b if a c e s p e r c u b ic m e tre a t T / A l - 0 0 2 a n d T / A l - 0 0 3 ; s e e V a n d e n B o s c h 1 9 9 9 ) s p e a k to th e g r e a t n u m b e r s o f to o ls th e y p ro d u c e d . W o rk s h o p s m a n u f a c tu r e d m o r e c o m p l e x to o l s li k e s p e a r p o i n ts a n d a x e s , a n d d if f e r e n t w o r k s h o p s s e e m to h a v e s p e c ia li s e d in d if f e r e n t s u b s e ts o f to o ls . T h is li k e ly re f le c ts th e v a r y in g q u a l ity o f lo c a l s to n e o u tc r o p s , b u t c o u ld a ls o r e f le c t a c o n c e r n w i th e n h a n c i n g th e d e s ir a b il ity o f p a r tic u la r to o l ty p e s w i th in a n d b e y o n d th e c o m m u n i ty ( e .g ., Y a e g e r 2 0 0 0 b ) . T h e r e w e r e a t le a s t th r e e w o r k s h o p s w i th in 4 k m o f X u n a n tu n i c h ( H e a r th 2 0 0 8 ; V a n d e n B o s c h 1 9 9 9 ; Y a e g e r 2 0 0 0 a ) , d e m o n s tr a tin g th a t th e r e w e r e m u ltip le c lo s e ly s p a c e d lo c i o f in te n s i v e p r o d u c tio n o f th e s e e s s e n tia l g o o d s , w h ic h li k e ly c o m p e te d w i th o n e a n o th e r f o r c o n s u m e r s . A th ir d p r o d u c tio n p a tte r n o c c u r s a t th e m a jo r c e n tr e s o f X u n a n tu n i c h a n d B u e n a v i s ta th e m s e lv e s , in la rg e p la z a s th a t l i k e ly s e r v e d a s c e n tr a l m a r k e tp l a c e s . A lth o u g h s o m e s c h o l a r s h a v e a r g u e d f o r th e e x i s te n c e o f m a r k e tp l a c e s i n M a y a c itie s f o r d e c a d e s ( e .g ., Jo n e s 1 9 9 6 ; S a b lo f f a n d T o u r te llo t 1 9 9 2 ) , i t is o n ly r e c e n tly th a t a r c h a e o l o g is ts h a v e b e g u n c o m ­ b i n i n g a r c h ite c tu r a l p a tte r n s , a r te f a c t d is tr ib u tio n s , a n d s o il c h e m is tr y to m o re c o n f id e n tly id e n tif y th e m ( C a p 2 0 0 7 , 2 0 0 8 ; D a h lin 2 0 0 3 ; D a h li n a n d A rd re n 2 0 0 2 ; K e ll e r 2 0 0 6 ; W u r tz b u r g 1 9 9 1 ) . A lth o u g h I w i ll n o t re v ie w th e e v id e n c e in d e ta il h e r e , tw o lo c a tio n s id e n tif ie d a s m a r k e ts w e r e a ls o v e n u e s f o r s to n e to o l p r o d u c tio n : th e L o s t P la z a a t X u n a n tu n i c h ( K e ll e r 2 0 0 6 ) a n d th e Ea s t P la z a a t B u e n a v is ta ( B a ll 1 9 9 3 b ; C a p 2 0 0 7 ,2 0 0 8 ; H e in d e l 2 0 0 8 ; R e i th 2 0 0 3 ) . T h e e v id e n c e a t th e la tte r s ite is p a r tic u la r l y c o m p e lli n g ; f l i n t- k n a p p e r s ' e f f o r ts w e r e la r g e ly r e s tr ic te d to th e v e r y la s t s te p s in th e p r o d u c tio n p ro c e s s , p u tti n g th e f in is h in g to u c h e s o n n e a r ly c o m p le te d to o ls a n d r e s h a r p e n in g to o ls d u lle d b y u s e ( H e in d e l 2 0 0 8 ) . T h is is c o n s i s t­ e n t w i th f in a l- s ta g e , p o i n t- o f - s a le p r o d u c tio n b y m a n u f a c tu r e r s w h o a re a ls o v e n d o r s , a p a tte r n a ls o s u g g e s te d b y K e ll e r ( 2 0 0 6 ) a t X u n a n tu n ic h . T h e id e n tif ic a tio n o f m a r k e tp l a c e s a t X u n a n tu n i c h a n d B u e n a v i s ta a d d s a c r itic a l c o m p o n e n t to o u r u n d e r s ta n d i n g o f th e M o p a n V a ll e y 's e c o n ­ o m y . A c e n tr a lly lo c a te d m a r k e tp l a c e is a n e f f ic i e n t m e c h a n is m to m e e t c o n s u m e r d e m a n d in a la rg e p o p u l a ti o n ( B e a ls 1 9 7 5 ) . F u r th e r m o r e , a s P y b u r n ( 2 0 0 8 ) h a s a r g u e d , m a r k e tp l a c e s w e r e p r o b a b ly im p o r ta n t s o u rc e s o f in c o m e f o r th e r u le r s a n d e l ite s w h o g o v e r n e d M a y a c itie s , a s re g u la tin g a n d ta x in g e x c h a n g e a n d d is tr i b u tio n is m u c h m o r e e f f ic i e n t th a n a tte m p t­ in g to d ir e c tly c o n tr o l p r o d u c tio n . T u rn in g to th e im p a c ts o f m a r k e tp l a c e s

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 7 4 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 7 4 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

174

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C u lt u r es o f C o m m o d it y B r an d in g

o n c o n s u m e r s a n d e x c h a n g e r e la ti o n s , m a r k e tp l a c e s re m o v e th e p o i n t o f e x c h a n g e a n d th u s th e c o n s u m e r f r o m th e lo c u s o f p r o d u c tio n . In th a t w a y , m a r k e tp l a c e s c a n im p e d e c o n s u m e r s ' r e a d y e v a lu a tio n o f th e re s o u r c e s ( tim e , e n e rg y , ra w

m a te r ia l s , e x p e r ti s e ) n e e d e d to p r o d u c e a p a r tic u la r

o b je c t a n d li m it th e ir a b il ity to u s e th o s e f a c to r s in n e g o tia ti n g a n e x c h a n g e v a lu e f o r th a t o b je c t. C o n s e q u e n tly , s e lle r s a re in a s tr o n g e r p o s itio n to s e t th e te r m s o f e x c h a n g e a n d m a k e c la i m s o f v a lu e th a t a re d is a s s o c ia te d f r o m p r o d u c tio n te c h n o lo g y a n d d is e n ta n g l e d f r o m m a n y lo c a l s o c ia l r e l a ­ tio n s . A t le a s t f o r m a n y s to n e to o l s a t X u n a n tu n i c h a n d B u e n a v is ta , h o w ­ e v e r, p r o d u c e r s a n d c o n s u m e r s e n g a g e d d ir e c tl y a t th e p o i n t o f e x c h a n g e , w i th o u t in te r m e d i a r ie s , a s s to n e to o l v e n d o r s a ls o m a d e to o ls . W h il e m a r k e tp l a c e s w e r e im p o r ta n t a t B u e n a v is ta a n d X u n a n tu n ic h , it is im p la u s ib le th a t th e y w e r e th e o n ly v e n u e s f o r e x c h a n g e in re g io n .

So m e tr a n s a c tio n s o c c u r r e d b e tw e e n n e ig h b o u r s a n d

th e

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( V a n d e n B o s c h e t a l. 2 0 1 0 ) , w h e r e a s o th e r s p r o b a b ly in v o lv e d itin e r a n t m e r­ c h a n ts . T h e g o o d s e x c h a n g e d a t m a r k e tp l a c e s li k e ly in c lu d e d o b je c ts m a d e o f r a w m a te r ia ls im p o rte d f r o m lo n g d is ta n c e s s u c h a s o b s id ia n ( C a p 2 0 0 8 ; K e ll e r 2 0 0 6 ) a n d m a r in e s h e l l; re g io n a l im p o rts li k e g ra n ite g r i n d i n g s to n e s f o r d a il y f o o d p r e p a r a tio n ( A b r a m iu k a n d M e u r e r 2 0 0 6 ; G r a h a m 1 9 8 7 ) , p in e f o r f u e l ( L e n tz e t a l. 2 0 0 5 ) , m e a t ( Y a e g e r a n d Fr e iw a ld 2 0 0 9 ) , a n d p r o b a b ly s a l t ( M c K il lo p 2 0 0 2 ) ; a n d lo c a lly m a d e o b je c ts li k e c h e r t s to n e to o l s , c lo th , b a s k e tr y , a n d p o tte ry . O f a ll c la s s e s o f g o o d s , h o w e v e r , c h e r t to o ls a n d p o t­ te r y v e s s e ls w e r e p r o b a b ly th e m o s t c o m m o n ly e x c h a n g e d o b je c ts in M a y a m a r k e tp l a c e s , a lth o u g h w e s til l la c k c o n c lu s iv e e v id e n c e o f th e latte r.

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P r o d u c t io n a n d C o n s u m p t io n in

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O u r u n d e r s ta n d i n g o f p o tte r y p r o d u c ti o n i n th e M o p a n V a ll e y is l a r g e ly d e r i v e d f r o m s ty l i s ti c a n d f o r m a l a n a ly s e s , c o u p le d w d th c h e m ic a l a n d p e tr o g r a p h i c c h a r a c te r i s a ti o n . D e s p i te a lo n g h i s to r y o f r e s e a r c h in th e v a ll e y , a r c h a e o l o g i s ts h a v e i d e n tif i e d o n l y o n e lo c u s o f p o tte r y p r o d u c ­ tio n , a w o r k s h o p f o r p a i n ti n g e l a b o r a te p o l y c h r o m e v e s s e l s lo c a te d i n a n e l i te r e s i d e n ti a l c o m p l e x a t B u e n a v i s ta ( B a ll 1 9 9 3 a ; R e e n ts - B u d e t e t a l. 2 0 0 0 ) . A l th o u g h m a n y c r i ti c a l f a c e ts o f th e v a l l e y ' s c e r a m i c p r o d u c tio n s y s te m s r e m a i n p o o r l y u n d e r s to o d o r e n ti r e l y u n k n o w n , w e a r e ju s ti f i e d ( o n th e b a s i s o f e v i d e n c e f o r o th e r i n d u s tr i e s ; s e e a b o v e ) i n c o n s i d e r i n g w h e th e r c o n s u m e r d e m a n d h a d a s i g n i f i c a n t ro le to p l a y in s h a p i n g th e a c ti v i ti e s o f lo c a l p o tte r y m a k e r s . I w i l l e l a b o r a te o n th i s b e lo w , th r o u g h th e e x a m i n a ti o n o f th r e e c la s s e s o f c e r a m i c v e s s e l s f r o m th e L a te C la s s ic H a ts ' C h a a k p h a s e ( a

d

6 7 0 - 7 8 0 ) . I h a v e s e le c te d th e s e ty p e s b e c a u s e th e y

s p a n th e r a n g e f r o m th e m o s t e l a b o r a te v e s s e l ty p e to o n e o f th e s i m p l e s t ty p e s ( f o l l o w i n g L e C o u n t 1 9 9 6 ) .

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 7 5 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 7 5 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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b r a n d s is w h e th e r c o n s u m e r s h a d a c c e s s to f u n c tio n a l ly e q u iv a le n t v e s ­ s e ls o f d i s ti n c t k in d s , r e g a r d le s s o f w h e th e r th e y w e r e a c q u ir e d th r o u g h m a r k e tp l a c e e x c h a n g e o r s o m e o th e r m e a n s . H o w m a n y c h o ic e s d id c o n ­ s u m e r s h a v e , a n d th u s w h a t w a s th e p o te n tia l r o le f o r b r a n d i n g to d if ­ f e r e n tia te a m o n g s t c o m m o d i ti e s a n d s h a p e c o n s u m e r c h o ic e ? In th e c a s e o f s o m e o f th e m o s t w i d e ly u s e d p o tte r y f o r m s , u ti lita r i a n b la c k - s l ip p e d b o w l s a n d ja r s o f th e M o u n t M a l o n e y B la c k ty p e , d is c u s s e d b e lo w , c o n ­ s u m e r s c o u ld a n d d id a c q u ir e s i m ila r ite m s m a d e b y d if f e r e n t w o r k s h o p s . T h is r a is e s th e p o s s ib il ity o f th i n k in g o f p a r tic u la r c o m b in a tio n s o f v is u a ll y d is ti n c t s ty li s tic a n d / o r f o r m a l a ttr ib u te s a s a b r a n d . A s u n d e r ­ s to o d b y m o s t e c o n o m i s ts , c o m m o d i ty b r a n d i n g is a p r o c e s s f o r d if f e r e n ti­ a tin g a m o n g s t g o o d s th a t h a v e s im il a r u s e v a lu e s a n d th u s a r e a m e n a b l e to p r i c e - b a s e d c o n s u m e r d e c is io n - m a k in g . F r o m th e p r o d u c e r ' s p e r s p e c tiv e , th e r e a re th r e e k e y s to s u c c e s s f u l b r a n d i n g : T h e b r a n d m u s t b e d is ti n c tiv e a n d r e c o g n is a b le ; th e b r a n d m u s t b e c o n tr o ll a b l e ; a n d th e b r a n d m u s t h o ld s o m e u n i q u e p r o m is e o f v a lu e . B y b r a n d i n g , a p r o d u c e r d if f e r e n ti a te s h is o r h e r p r o d u c t a n d a d d s s o m e p e r c e iv e d v a lu e th a t f o r m s th e b a s i s o f a s p e c ia l b o n d b e tw e e n c o n s u m e r s a n d th e b r a n d e d g o o d s . T h u s , th e b r a n d m o tiv a te s c o n s u m e r s to f a v o u r th a t p a r tic u la r b r a n d o v e r a lte r n a tiv e s a n d a ll o w s p r o d u c e r s to c a p tu r e m a r k e t s h a re . F r o m th e p e r s p e c tiv e o f th e c o n s u m e r , b r a n d s h a v e s e v e r a l p u r p o s e s . W e n g ro w ( 2 0 0 8 ) e m p h a s i s e s th e w a y s th a t b r a n d s s e r v e to g u a r a n te e th a t a c o m m o d i ty h a s p a r tic u la r q u a litie s , th e p r o m i s e o f v a lu e ju s t m e n tio n e d . T h e y c a n a ls o b e im p o r ta n t f o r m e d ia ti n g s o c i a l re l a ti o n s h ip s ( B e v a n , th is v o lu m e ) , a n d c o n s u m in g b r a n d s a ls o c a n b e p o w e r f u l s ta te m e n ts o f id e n ­ tity . In w h a t f o l lo w s , I w ill d is c u s s th r e e d is ti n c t c la s s e s o f M a y a c e r a m ic s a n d c o n s i d e r w h e th e r th e y c a n b e u n d e r s to o d p r o d u c tiv e ly a s b r a n d e d g o o d s . M u c h o f th e d e ta il e d e v id e n c e I p r e s e n t m a y b e o f in te r e s t p r im a r ­ i l y to s p e c ia li s ts , b u t is n e v e r th e le s s e s s e n ti a l b a c k g r o u n d to m y w i d e r c o n c lu s io n s r e g a r d i n g th e n a tu r e o f c o m m o d i ty p r o d u c tio n a n d c ir c u la ­ tio n in th e C la s s ic M a y a e c o n o m y .

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P a i n t e d S e r v i n g V e s s e ls

A m o n g s t th e b e s t- k n o w n p r o d u c ts o f C l a s s ic - p e r i o d M a y a a r tis a n s a re p o l y c h r o m e v e s s e ls p a i n te d w i th c o m p l e x n a r r a tiv e s c e n e s ( e .g ., F ig u r e 7 .2 ) . M a n y o f th e s e a re ta ll c y li n d r ic a l v a s e s , w h ic h o f te n b e a r h ie r o g ly p h i c te x ts th a t n a m e th e m a s v e s s e ls f o r d r in k i n g k akaw , a c h o c o la te b e v e r a g e ( S tu a r t 2 0 0 6 ) . In f a c t, th is f u n c tio n h a s b e e n v e r if ie d th r o u g h r e s id u e a n a l­ y s i s ( H a ll e t a l. 1 9 9 0 ) . O th e r c o m m o n f o r m s in c lu d e s m a lle r b o w ls a n d la r g e p l a tte r s , f o r d r in k s li k e s a' ( a c o r n - b a s e d b e v e r a g e ) a n d f o r s e r v i n g f o o d lik e w ah ( t am ale s ) , r e s p e c tiv e ly ( H o u s to n e t a l. 1 9 8 9 ) . M o s t s c h o l a r s

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 7 6 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 7 6 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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b e l i e v e th a t th e s e f in e v e s s e ls w e r e u s e d b y th e r o y a l ty a n d h ig h e s t e lite o f M a y a s o c i e ty f o r c o n s u m in g f o o d , p a r tic u la r l y in f e a s ts a n d o th e r c e r e ­ m o n ia l m e a l s ( R e e n ts - B u d e t 2 0 0 0 ) . T h e c lo s e a s s o c ia tio n b e tw e e n n o b le in d iv i d u a ls a n d th e s e v e s s e ls is c o n f ir m e d b y th e ir p l a c e m e n t in th e to m b s o f e l ite in d iv i d u a ls a n d th e te x ts o n v e s s e ls th a t n a m e th e m a s b e lo n g i n g to p a r tic u la r h i g h - s ta tu s in d iv i d u a ls ( e .g ., F ig u r e 7 .2 ) . T h e s e v e s s e ls w e r e n o t li k e ly p r o d u c e d

in la rg e n u m b e r s — th e y a re

e x c e e d i n g ly ra re , a n d e a c h o n e w o u ld h a v e re q u ir e d a c o n s i d e r a b l e in v e s t­ m e n t o f tim e , s p e c ia li s e d k n o w l e d g e o f s y m b o l is m a n d h ie r o g ly p h i c w r i t­ in g , a n d a r tis ti c e x p e r ti s e . P a in te r s li k e ly p r a c tic e d f o r y e a r s to h o n e th e ir s k ill s ( R e e n ts - B u d e t 1 9 9 4 ) . A lth o u g h w e h a v e n o t id e n tif ie d w i th c e r ta in ty a s i n g le w o r k s h o p f o r th e p r o d u c tio n o f th e s e f in e v e s s e ls , m o s t s c h o la r s b e l i e v e th e y w e r e p r o d u c e d

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a n d c o n tr o ll e d b y th e ro y a l f a m il ie s o f M a y a p o l itie s ( B a ll 1 9 9 3 a ) . T h e y a re u n lik e ly to h a v e b e e n e x c h a n g e d f r e q u e n tly , a n d w h e n th e y w e r e , th e e x c h a n g e li k e ly e n ta il e d th e ru le r w h o c o n tr o ll e d th e p a l a c e w o r k s h o p b e s to w i n g o n e a s a g i f t to a v a s s a l a n d ally , w h e th e r e x i s tin g o r p r o s p e c ­ tiv e . A c c e p ta n c e o f th e g i f t a c k n o w l e d g e d a b o n d b e tw e e n th e r e c e iv e r a n d th e g iv e r a n d p r e s u m a b ly e n ta il e d a n e x p e c ta tio n o f r e c ip r o c a tio n o n th e p a r t o f th e re c ip ie n t. T h u s , th e y h e lp e d c o n s titu te f a r - r e a c h in g , in te r ­ e l ite h ie r a r c h i c a l p o l itic a l n e tw o r k s th a t c o u ld b e m o b il iz e d in s tr a te g ie s o f te r r ito r ia l e x p a n s i o n a n d th e c o n tr o l o f lo n g - d is ta n c e tra d e . T h e u s e o f

Figure 7.2.

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1992, w ith p e rm is sio n ) .

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 7 7 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 7 7 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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th e s e v e s s e ls in c e r e m o n i a l m e a ls m a d e th e s o c ia l a n d p o l itic a l b o n d s th a t c o n s titu te d th o s e n e tw o r k s m a te r ia l ly m a n if e s t to a ll p a r tic ip a n ts . U n f o rtu n a te ly , b e c a u s e o f th e ir v a lu e o n th e a n tiq u itie s m a rk e t, th e m a jo r i ty o f th e s e v e s s e ls a v a il a b le f o r s tu d y to d a y a re u n p r o v e n a n c e d p ie c e s h e ld in m u s e u m s a n d p r iv a te c o lle c tio n s . D e s p ite th e ir la c k o f p ro v e n ie n c e , a r t h is to r ia n s h a v e id e n tif ie d d if f e r e n t s c h o o ls o f p o ly c h r o m e v e s s e l p a in t­ in g , e a c h w i th d is ti n c t c a n o n s o f ic o n o g r a p h y , n a r r a tiv e , p a in tin g s ty le , a n d c o l o u r s c h e m e s . C h e m ic a l c h a r c te r is a tio n o f th e c la y u s e d in v e s s e ls h a s a ll o w e d a r c h a e o lo g is ts ( e .g ., R e e n ts - B u d e t 1 9 9 4 ) to d e te r m in e th e lo c a tio n s o f m a n y s c h o o ls . T h is , in tu rn , h a s a l lo w e d a r c h a e o lo g is ts to d e m o n s tr a te th a t v e s s e ls s o m e ti m e s m a d e th e ir w a y s in to th e h a n d s o f in d iv id u a ls in p o litie s f a r f ro m th e ir p o i n t o f p r o d u c tio n , lik e ly th r o u g h in te r- e lite g if tin g . O n e o f th e b e s t e x a m p l e s o f th i s p h e n o m e n o n w a s d o c u m e n te d

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B u e n a v is ta . T h e r e , Je n n i f e r T a s c h e k a n d Jo s e p h B a ll ( 1 9 9 2 ) d is c o v e r e d a n o b le to m b th a t c o n ta in e d , a m o n g s t o th e r o b je c ts , a C a b r i to C re a m P o ly c h r o m e v a s e w i th a h ie r o g ly p h i c te x t ( F ig u r e 7 .2 ) . A lth o u g h it is c a ll e d th e B u e n a v is ta V a s e , e v id e n c e s u g g e s ts i t w a s m a d e in a p a l a c e w o r k s h o p in th e m u c h la r g e r k in g d o m o f N a r a n jo , lo c a te d s o m e 15 k m to th e w e s t. In s tr u m e n ta l n e u tr o n a c tiv a ti o n a n a ly s is ( IN A A ) o f th e v e s s e l ' s c la y ra w m a te r ia l ( R e e n ts - B u d e t a n d B is h o p 2 0 0 3 ) , th e s ty le in w h ic h i t is p a in te d ( R e e n ts - B u d e t 1 9 9 4 ) , a n d th e te x t it b e a r s ( H o u s to n e t al. 1 9 9 2 ) a ll p o in t to th e o b je c t's o r i g in a t N a r a n jo . T h e s c e n e o n th e B u e n a v i s ta V a s e s h o w s th e s o - c a lle d H o lm u l D a n c e r, a d e p i c ti o n o f a n o b le m a n d a n c in g a s th e M a iz e G o d , o f te n w e a r i n g a n e l a b ­ o r a te b a c k - r a c k a n d a c c o m p a n ie d b y d w a r f s ( R e e n ts - B u d e t 1 9 9 1 ; T a u b e 1 9 8 5 ) . T h e te x t s ta te s th a t th e v a s e w a s th e d r in k i n g v e s s e l o f th e N a r a n jo 's p o w e rfu l

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G r u b e 2 0 0 8 ) , h e b u i l t a ll ia n c e s a n d p u r s u e d c o n q u e s t to e x te n d h is in f lu ­ e n c e o v e r n e ig h b o u r in g p o l itie s in th e e a s te r n P e te n a n d th e M o p a n V a lle y ( H e lm k e a n d A w e 2 0 0 8 ; H o u s to n e t a l. 1 9 9 2 ; L e C o u n t a n d Y a e g e r 2 0 1 0 b ; M a r tin a n d G r u b e 2 0 0 8 ; T a s c h e k a n d Ba ll 1 9 92 ). K 'a h k ' T ili w C h a n C h a a k li k e ly g a v e o n e o f h i s p e r s o n a l d r in k i n g v e s s e ls to th e r u lin g f a m il y o f B u e n a v i s ta i n h is e f f o r ts to e x te n d h is k i n g d o m ' s in f lu e n c e in to th e M o p a n V a lle y ( H o u s to n e t a l. 1 9 9 2 ; T a s c h e k a n d Ba ll 1 9 9 2 ) . V e s s e ls li k e th e B u e n a v i s ta V a s e b e a r li ttl e r e s e m b la n c e to c o m m o d ­ itie s . A s n o te d , th e y o f te n b e a r te x ts n a m in g th e ir o r ig in a l o w n e r , a n d th e y w e r e im p o r ta n t h e ir l o o m s , b u r i e d w i th e lite in d iv i d u a ls . T h e s e f a c ts in d i­ c a te a n in tim a te c o n n e c tio n b e tw e e n o w n e r a n d o b je c t. F u r th e r m o r e , th e ir c ir c u la tio n a s g if ts in p o l itic a l ly c h a r g e d e x c h a n g e s a tta c h e d v a lu e s a n d m e a n in g s to th e m th a t w e r e d e n s e l y e n ta n g le d in th e s o c i a l a n d p o l iti­ c a l r e l a ti o n s h ip s th a t s tr u c tu r e d

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. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 7 8 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 7 8 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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a p p lie s to th e s e e l a b o r a te a n d r a r e p o l y c h r o m e v e s s e ls a s w e l l a s it d o e s to F a b e r g e e g g s . In d e e d , i t is o n ly w i th in th e v a s tly d if f e r e n t c o n te x t o f 2 0 thc e n tu r y c a p ita l is m th a t M a y a p o l y c h r o m e s h a v e b e c o m e c o m m o d i f ie d to s o m e e x te n t th r o u g h th e a r t a n d a n ti q u i ti e s m a rk e t. T h e N a r a n jo s c h o o l o f C a b r i to C r e a m - P o ly c h r o m e v e s s e ls d o e s h a v e m u c h in c o m m o n w i th c o n te m p o r a r y b r a n d s , h o w e v e r ( s e e B e n n e t [ 2 0 0 8 ] f o r a s i m ila r e x a m p l e f r o m th e A e g e a n ) . T h e v e s s e ls f r o m th is p a r tic u la r p a l a c e s c h o o l w e r e d is ti n c tiv e a n d re c o g n is a b le ; th e ir p r o d u c tio n w ith in a p a l a c e w o r k s h o p c o n te x t w o u ld h a v e a ll o w e d f o r c lo s e c o n tr o l o f th e ir d is ti n c tiv e f e a tu r e s , a n a lo g o u s to b r a n d m a n a g e m e n t; a n d th e s o c i a l tie s to th e r o y a l h o u s e o f N a r a n jo th a t th o s e f e a tu r e s im p l ie d c o n s titu te d a u n iq u e p r o m is e o f v a lu e to th e ir u s e r s . F u r th e r m o r e , th e y w e r e u s e d in s o c ia ll y g e n e r a ti v e p r a c tic e s , d u r in g w h ic h p e o p le p l a u s i b l y e x p r e s s e d i m p o r ta n t f a c e ts o f th e ir s e lf - id e n tity ( s u c h a s e lite s ta tu s a n d s o p h is tic a ­ tio n ) a n d re p r e s e n te d th e ir c o n n e c tio n s to th e in d iv id u a l w h o h a d g iv e n th e m th e g if t. In a s m u c h a s c o n s u m e r c h o ic e is a p r o d u c tiv e c o n s tr u c t in th e e x c h a n g e o f th e s e v e s s e ls , s u c h c h o ic e w a s in f lu e n c e d s tr o n g l y b y th e r e a lp o lit ik c a lc u lu s o f f o r g i n g a ll ia n c e s w i th th e r u le r s o f N a ra n jo .

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A t X u n a n tu n i c h a n d B u e n a v i s ta , lo c a l p o tte r s m a d e s e r v i n g v e s s e ls th a t w e r e m u c h m o re w i d e ly d is tr ib u te d th a n th o s e ju s t d is c u s s e d . S o m e o f th e s e , li k e th e la r g e p l a te s a n d d is h e s o f th e m o n o c h r o m e B e liz e R e d g r o u p , a re c o m m o n a c ro s s th e e n tir e u p p e r B e liz e R i v e r V a ll e y ( G if f o rd 1 9 7 6 ; L e C o u n t 1 9 9 6 ) . O th e r s a re m o re r e s tr ic te d in th e ir d is tr ib u tio n . A t X u n a n tu n i c h a n d in a d ja c e n t h in te r la n d s i te s , v e s s e ls w i th r e l a ti v e ly s i m ­ p le d e s ig n s p a i n te d o n a n o r a n g e b a c k g r o u n d p r e d o m in a te ; a t B u e n a v is ta , v e s s e ls w i th d e s ig n s p a in te d o n a d is ti n c t c r e a m b a c k g r o u n d a re m o re co m m o n.

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b o tto m e d d is h e s w i th o u tf l a r in g w a l ls a n d s m a l l , s tr a ig h t- s i d e d v a s e s ( R e e n ts - B u d e t e t a l. 2 0 0 0 : 1 0 3 ) . T h e m o s t c o m m o n d e c o r a ti v e m o tif s a re r e l a ti v e ly s i m p le k' in s o la r o r f lo w e r s y m b o l s a n d s ty li s e d r e p r e s e n ta tio n s o f in s e c ts , p a i n te d in b l a c k o n a c r e a m b a c k g r o u n d . T h e C h i n o s B la c k - o n C r e a m ty p e p r e s e n ts s tr o n g i c o n o g r a p h ic a n d f o r m a l s i m ila r i tie s to th e C h u n h u itz O r a n g e g r o u p th a t is u b i q u ito u s a t X u n a n tu n i c h , in w h ic h k' in s i g n s a re th e m o s t c o m m o n m o tif a n d th e f la t- b o tto m e d o u tf l a r i n g d is h

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 7 9 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 7 9 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

C o m m o d it ies , B ran ds , an d V illag e E c o n o m ies in t he C las sic M ay a L o w lan d s

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is th e m o s t c o m m o n s h a p e . D e s p ite th e s e s h a r e d f e a tu r e s , th e d is ti n c ­ tiv e c r e a m b a c k g r o u n d o f C h i n o s B la c k - o n - C r e a m s e ts th e m a p a r t f r o m C h u n h u itz O r a n g e . A lo c a lly p r o d u c e d p o tte r y ty p e m o r e e l a b o r a te th a n C h i n o s B la c k - o n C re a m

is th e G r o u p l a s u b ty p e o f C a b r i to C r e a m - P o ly c h r o m e ( R e e n ts -

B u d e t e t a l. 2 0 0 0 ) . M a n y o f th e s e v e s s e ls a r e b a r r e l- s h a p e d v a s e s , a n d th e y o f te n b e a r f ig u ra l s c e n e s s u c h a s th e H o lm u l D a n c e r, r e n d e r e d in o r a n g e a n d re d p a i n t o n a c r e a m b a c k g r o u n d . T h e f ig u re s a re s o m e ti m e s s e p ­ a r a te d b y v e r tic a l b a n d s o f m o tif s o r p s e u d o g ly p h s , e l e m e n ts ta k e n f r o m h ie r o g ly p h i c w r i ti n g th a t d o n o t f o r m c o h e r e n t te x ts . A b a n d o f p s e u d o ­ g ly p h s r u n s a r o u n d th e e x te r i o r ri m o f m a n y v e s s e ls , a s w e ll, in th e s a m e a r e a w h e r e f a n c ie r v e s s e ls o f te n b e a r a tr u e h ie r o g ly p h ic te x t. G r o u p l a s h a r e s m a n y c h a r a c te r is tic s w i th th e f in e r v a r ie tie s o f C a b r ito C r e a m - P o ly c h r o m e p r o d u c e d in th e p a l a c e s c h o o l o f N a ra n jo : th e c o l o u r s c h e m e , th e H o lm u l D a n c e r th e m e , a n d th e u s e o f b a n d s o f g ly p h s . T h e y te n d

to b e p o o r e r in e x e c u ti o n a n d a tte n ti o n to d e ta il, h o w e v e r, la c k ­

in g th e c o m p l e x ity o f ic o n o g ra p h y , th e f in e c o n tr o l o f lin e a n d c o l o u r g r a d a tio n s , a n d le g ib le te x ts ( R e e n ts - B u d e t e t a l. 2 0 0 0 : 11 0) . T h e y c o u ld b e s e e n in s o m e w a y s a s im i ta tio n s o r k n o c k - o f f s o f th e f a n c ie r C a b r ito C r e a m - P o ly c h r o m e v e s s e ls m a d e in th e N a r a n jo s c h o o l ( b u t s e e P in h e ir o M a c h a d o , th i s v o lu m e , f o r a c a u ti o n a r y ta le a g a in s t s i m p li s tic a s s u m p tio n s a b o u t th e c o n s u m p tio n o f k n o c k - o f f b ra n d s ) . T h e d is tr i b u tio n o f G r o u p l a th r o u g h o u t th e B u e n a v i s ta p o l ity h a s n o t b e e n f u lly p u b lis h e d , b u t Ba ll ( 1 9 9 3 a ; a ls o R e e n ts - B u d e t e t a l. 2 0 0 0 ) h a s s u g g e s te d th a t th e m o s t e l a b o r a te v e s s e ls w e r e u s e d b y th e e lite f o r f o o d a n d b e v e r a g e s e r v i c e a n d s e r v e d a s s o c i a l c u r r e n c y in th e lo c a l p o litic a l e c o n o m y . G i v e n th e ir r e s tr ic te d d is tr i b u tio n a n d h ig h v a lu e , B a ll ( 1 9 9 3 a ; a ls o R e e n ts - B u d e t e t a l. 2 0 0 0 ) h a s a r g u e d th a t th e s e ty p e s w e r e p r o d u c e d in o n e o r m o re p a l a c e s c h o o l s c o n tr o ll e d b y th e ro y a l f a m il y o f B u e n a v is ta , p e r h a p s e v e n lo c a te d w i th in th e p a l a c e i ts e l f ( R e e n ts - B u d e t e t al. 2 0 0 0 : 1 13 ) . T h u s , in B a ll 's m o d e l, th e s e v e s s e ls n o t o n ly p a r a l le l th e f i n e r N a r a n jo C a b r i to C r e a m - P o ly c h r o m e ty p e in th e ir d e s ig n a n d e x e c u ti o n , b u t in th e ir p r o d u c tio n , d is tr i b u tio n , a n d c o n s u m p tio n a s w e ll: th e y w e r e p r o d u c e d in a tta c h e d w o r k s h o p s , d is tr i b u te d th r o u g h e l ite g if tin g n e tw o r k s , a n d u s e d in s o c i a ll y d ia c r i ti c a l e l a b o r a te m e a ls . B a ll ( 1 9 9 3 a : 2 5 8 ) h a s a r g u e d th a t th e d is tr i b u tio n o f v e s s e ls p r o d u c e d in B u e n a v i s ta 's p a la c e s c h o o ls s h o u ld d e f i n e th e lim its o f th e p o litic a l re a c h o f th e r u le r s w h o c o n tr o ll e d th a t w o r k s h o p . M o r e re c e n tly , B a ll a n d T a s c h e k ( 2 0 0 4 :1 5 9 - 6 0 ) h a v e a r g u e d th a t a d e c o r a ti v e m o tif th a t th e y te rm th e B u e n a v is ta D e v i c e a p p e a r s o n lo c a lly p r o d u c e d c r e a m - s l ip p e d p a in te d p o tte ry . T h e y te n ta ti v e l y s u g g e s t th a t th is s y m b o l re f e r s e x p l ic itly to th e B u e n a v i s ta p o l ity o r its r u li n g h o u s e a n d m e n tio n a p o s s ib le C a h a l P e c h D e v ic e , e m b le m a tic o f th a t n e a r b y p o l ity ( B a ll a n d T a s c h e k 2 0 0 4 : 1 6 5) .

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 8 0 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 8 0 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

180

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C u lt u r es o f C o m m o d it y B r an d in g

T h e r e a re tw o a d d itio n a l lo c a ll y m a d e c r e a m - s l ip p e d c e r a m ic g ro u p s ( G r o u p s l b a n d 3) th a t a re c lo s e ly re la te d to G r o u p l a s ty li s tic a l ly a n d c h e m ic a ll y b u t a re s o m e w h a t c r u d e r i n th e ir m a n u f a c tu r e a n d th e e x e c u ­ tio n o f th e d e s ig n s p a i n te d o n th e m . A lth o u g h B a ll a n d h is c o l le a g u e s s u g ­ g e s t th e y w e r e p r o d u c e d i n th e s a m e p a la c e s c h o o l a s th e f in e r G r o u p l a v e s s e ls ( R e e n ts - B u d e t e t a l. 2 0 0 0 :1 1 4 ) , th e s e f e a tu r e s , c o u p le d w i th a w id e r ra n g e o f f o r m s , le a d th e m to a r g u e th a t v e s s e ls o f th is g r o u p w e r e u s e d f o r d a il y f o o d s e r v ic e in b o th h ig h - a n d lo w - s ta tu s e l ite h o u s e h o ld s , a n d p e r h a p s e v e n in n o n e li te h o u s e h o ld s . A t X u n a n tu n i c h , c r e a m - s lip p e d p o tte r y is r a r e a f te r c a.

a d

6 7 0 , a n d th e

v a s t m a jo r i ty o f th e p a i n te d p o tte r y b e lo n g s to th e C h u n h u itz O r a n g e g r o u p ( L e C o u n t 1 9 9 6 ) . T h e m o s t c o m m o n v e s s e l s h a p e s in th is g r o u p a re s e r v in g f o r m s : p la te s , d is h e s , a n d b o w ls w i th f la r in g o r s l ig h tly o u tc u r v in g s i d e s ; b a r r e l- s h a p e d v a s e s a n d in c u r v in g b o w ls a re a ls o c o m m o n ( L e C o u n t 1 9 9 6 ; a ls o G if f o rd 1 9 7 6 ) . L is a L e C o u n t ( 2 0 0 1 : 9 4 6 ; a ls o 1 9 9 6 ) u s e s e th n o ­ g r a p h ic a n a lo g y to a r g u e th a t s m a l l b o w ls a n d d is h e s w e r e u s e d f o r in d i­ v id u a l f o o d s e r v i c e in b o th s a c r a m e n ta l a n d q u o ti d ia n c o n te x ts a n d v a s e s w e r e u s e d to d r in k c h o c o la te a n d o th e r b e v e r a g e s in th o s e s a m e c o n te x ts . C h u n h u itz O r a n g e g r o u p v e s s e ls h a v e a m a tte o r a n g e b a c k g r o u n d , c re ­ a te d e i th e r b y th e p o lis h e d s u r f a c e o f th e v e s s e l ' s v o lc a n ic a s h - te m p e r e d b o d y o r a th in o r a n g e w a s h . A lth o u g h th e y a re o c c a s i o n a ll y f lu te d , a p p l i­ c a tio n o f re d - a n d b la c k - p a in te d m o tif s is th e u b i q u ito u s d e c o r a ti v e te c h ­ n iq u e w i th in th is g r o u p ( F ig u r e 7 .3 a ) . U n f o r tu n a te ly , th e

v o lc a n ic a s h

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f r i a b l e , a n d th e y a r e o f te n r e c o v e r e d

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in g s y s te m a ti c a n d d e ta il e d a n a l y s i s o f th e p a i n te d m o ti f s c h a lle n g in g . N o n e th e l e s s , p a i n te d tr i a n g l e s , k' in s y m b o l s , a n d w a v y E a n d S f o r m s a re m o s t c o m m o n , u s u a l l y f o u n d o n th e e x te r i o r s o f d is h e s a n d b o w l s ( L e C o u n t 1 9 9 6 : 4 1 8 , 1 9 9 9 : 2 4 9 ; T h o m p s o n 1 9 4 2 ) . S o m e v e s s e l s c le a r ly w e r e m o r e c o m p l e x in th e i r d e c o r a ti o n , b e a r i n g m u l ti p l e g e o m e tr ic m o tif s a n d v e r y r a r e l y a b a n d o f h i e r o g l y p h i c te x t o r p s e u d o g l y p h s a r o u n d th e r im . F i g u r a l r e p r e s e n ta tio n s o f a n im a ls a n d p e o p l e a r e a l m o s t u n k n o w n , in s ta r k c o n tr a s t to th e C r e a m - P o l y c h r o m e tr a d i ti o n d o c u m e n te d a t n e a r b y B u e n a v i s ta . T h e C h u n h u i tz O r a n g e g r o u p v e s s e l s h a p e s s u g g e s t th e y w e r e p r e ­ d o m i n a n tl y s e r v i n g v e s s e l s , a n d th e i r d i s tr i b u ti o n i n d i c a te s th e y w e r e u s e d b y m a n y w i th i n th e X u n a n tu n i c h p o l ity . T h e i r d i s tr i b u ti o n , h o w e v ­ e r, is u n e v e n . In th e f u l l e s t a n a l y s i s o f th e d i s tr i b u ti o n o f c e r a m i c ty p e s in th e X u n a n tu n i c h p o lity , L e C o u n t ( 1 9 9 9 : 2 5 2 ) te n ta ti v e l y s u g g e s ts f in e v e s s e l s li k e th o s e o f th e C h u n h u i tz O r a n g e g r o u p o w e d th e i r d i s tr i b u ­ ti o n to g i f ti n g n e tw o r k s w i th i n a p r e s ti g e - o r i e n te d p o l i ti c a l e c o n o m y . T h u s , s h e i n te r p r e ts th e ir i n c r e a s i n g s c a r c i ty a s o n e m o v e s f r o m

e l ite

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. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 181 h t t p :/ /s ite . e b ra ry .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 8 1 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

C o m m o d it ies , B ran ds , an d V illag e E c o n o m ies in t he C las s ic M ay a L o w lan d s

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( a f te r T h o m p s o n

1942: Fig u re 35); (b ) M o u n t M a lo n e y Bla c k b o w ls a n d

re s tric te d ja r s ( a f te r T h o m p s o n 1 942: Fig u re s 2 6 a n d 28 ) . n o n e l i te h i n te r l a n d h o u s e h o l d s a s e v i d e n c e o f th e i n c r e a s i n g l y m a r g i n a l ­ i s e d p o s i ti o n s o f th e s e g r o u p s w i th i n X u n a n tu n i c h ' s p o l i ti c a l e c o n o m y . T h i s c o n c l u s i o n is in li n e w i th B a l l ' s i n te r p r e ta ti o n o f th e f in e r C r e a m P o l y c h r o m e s a t B u e n a v i s ta , d i s c u s s e d a b o v e . A lte r n a tiv e l y , th e s e m o r e e l a b o r a te v e s s e l s m a y h a v e b e e n m o r e c o s tl y to m a k e ( d e m o n s tr a te d b y L e C o u n t [ 1 9 9 6 , 1 9 9 9 ] a n d s u g g e s te d e x p l i c i tl y in L e C o u n t 2 0 0 1 : 9 4 7 ) ,

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 8 2 h tt p :// s it e . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 8 2 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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C u lt u r es o f C o m m o d it y B r an d in g

a n d th u s th e f a l l - o f f in th e i r d is tr i b u ti o n a s o n e m o v e s to n o n e l i te h o u s e ­ h o l d s c o u ld b e e x p l a i n e d b y d i f f e r e n c e s i n d i s p o s a b l e h o u s e h o l d w e a l th . L e C o u n t ( 2 0 0 1 ) h a s a l s o a r g u e d th a t th e p r e s e n c e o f r e l a ti v e l y f e w s m a l l b o w l s a n d v a s e s in c o m m o n e r h o u s e h o l d s s u g g e s ts a r e d u c e d e m p h a ­ s i s o n f e a s ti n g a n d r e l a te d p u b l i c c o n s u m p ti o n e v e n ts ( s e e a ls o Y a e g e r 2000a). I f in d it q u i te p l a u s i b l e th a t b o th m e c h a n is m s s u g g e s te d b y L e C o u n t f o r th e d is tr i b u tio n o f C h u n h u itz O r a n g e v e s s e ls w e r e o p e r a ti n g s i m u l ta n e ­ o u s ly in th e M o p a n V alle y . It is li k e ly th a t th e s e v e s s e ls c o u ld h a v e b e e n a c q u ir e d a t th e X u n a n tu n i c h m a r k e t b y th o s e w i th th e m e a n s a n d d e s ir e to d o so . A t th e s a m e tim e , th e ir e l a b o r a te d e c o r a ti o n a n d r e la tiv e h ig h c o s t, c o u p le d w i th th e ir h ig h ly v is i b l e ro l e in f e a s ts a n d c e le b r a tio n s , m a d e th e m a p p r o p r ia te g if t ite m s , a s th e ir la te r u s e in m e a l s w o u ld r e c a ll a n d e v o k e th e o r ig in a l g if t. I f u r th e r s u g g e s t th a t th e ir s m a l l s i z e w o u ld h a v e m a d e th e m id e a l ite m s to b e g iv e n a s m e m e n to s d u r in g e lite - s p o n s o r e d f e a s ts a n d p u b l ic c e r e m o n i e s a t X u n a n tu n ic h . B is h o p D i e g o d e L a n d a ( T o z z e r 1 9 4 1 :2 7 ) d o c u m e n te d th e c e n tr a l im p o r ta n c e o f g if t- g i v i n g d u r in g c e r e m o n i e s a n d f e a s ts in M a y a c iv il iz a tio n a t th e tim e o f S p a n i s h C o n ta c t ( H e lm k e 2 0 0 1 ; R e e n ts - B u d e t 2 0 0 0 ,2 0 0 6 ; s e e a ls o V a u g h n [ 2 0 0 4 ] f o r a So u th A m e r i c a n e x a m p le ) .

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S e r v i n g v e s s e l s li k e th o s e ju s t d e s c r i b e d w e r e c o m p l e m e n te d b y u ti l i ta r ­ ia n v e s s e l s u s e d f o r f o o d p r e p a r a ti o n a n d s to r a g e . T h e m o s t c o m m o n c e ra m ic M a lo n e y

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in g th a t th e y w e r e m a d e w i th l o c a l c l a y s a n d te m p e r s ( G a r c i a 2 0 0 8 ) . A l th o u g h th e y w e r e f a s h i o n e d in a r a n g e o f s h a p e s , th e tw o m o s t c o m ­ m o n f o r m s a r e d e e p , i n c u r v i n g b o w l s ( F ig u r e 7 .3 b ) a n d r e s tr i c te d - n e c k ja r s ( F ig u r e 7 .3 b ) , b o th o f w h i c h a r e u b i q u i to u s in h o u s e h o l d a s s e m b l a g e s ( L e C o u n t 1 9 9 9 ) a n d c o m m o n in b u r i a l s a n d r i tu a l c o n te x ts ( L e C o u n t 2 0 1 0 a ). L e C o u n t (1 9 9 6 , 2 0 1 0 b ) h a s a rg u e d

th a t th e d e e p b o w l s w e r e

u s e d to p r e p a r e d o u g h f o r m a i z e - b a s e d f o o d s li k e t a m a le s th a t w e r e th e s ta p l e o f th e C l a s s i c M a y a d i e t, a n d th a t th e r e s tr i c te d ja r s w e r e u s e d f o r c a r r y i n g a n d s to r i n g w a te r . A l th o u g h c o m p a r a b l e s ta ti s ti c s h a v e n o t y e t b e e n p u b l i s h e d , v e s s e l s o f th e M o u n t M a l o n e y B la c k g r o u p p r e d o m i n a te i n d o m e s ti c a s s e m b l a g e s a n d a re f o u n d i n b u r i a l s a n d r i tu a l d e p o s its a t th e la r g e c e n tr e s i m m e d i a te l y s u r r o u n d i n g X u n a n tu n i c h i n c l u d i n g B u e n a v i s ta a n d A r e n a l, a n d a t s m a l l e r s i te s a s w e l l , l i k e N o h o c h E k ( T a s c h e k a n d B a ll 1 9 9 2 , 1 9 9 9 , 2 0 0 3 ) .

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 8 3 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 8 3 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

C o m m o d it ies , B ran ds , an d V illag e E c o n o m ies in t he C las sic M ay a L o w lan d s

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183

G i v e n th e re l a ti v e ly h ig h d e g r e e o f s ta n d a r d is a ti o n o f b o th th e ir f o r m a l a n d s ty li s tic a ttr ib u te s ( L e C o u n t 1 9 9 9 ) a n d th e c la y a n d te m p e r c o m b in ­ a tio n s th a t c o m p r i s e th e ir c e r a m i c p a s te s ( G a rc ia 2 0 0 8 ) , i t s e e m s li k e ly th a t th e r e g i o n 's M o u n t M a l o n e y B la c k v e s s e ls w e r e p r o d u c e d b y h o u s e h o ld o r c o m m u n i ty - s c a le w o r k s h o p s . P e tr o g r a p h i c a n a ly s is o f th i n - s e c tio n s o f v e s s e ls f r o m X u n a n tu n i c h a n d tw o h in te r la n d s i te s r e v e a le d f o u r d is c r e te p a s te r e c i p e s , a ll o f w h ic h e n d u r e d f r o m th e e a r ly 7th c e n tu r y th r o u g h th e la te 9 th c e n tu r y li v e d

a d

( G a rc ia 2 0 0 8 ) , s u g g e s ti n g th e p r e s e n c e o f f o u r lo n g -

u n its o f p r o d u c tio n , p r o b a b ly

f o u r d is ti n c t w o r k s h o p s . G a r c i a 's

a n a ly s is s u g g e s ts th a t th e s a m e w o r k s h o p s m a d e M o u n t M a l o n e y B la c k v e s s e ls a n d C a y o U n s li p p e d s to r a g e ja r s , s u p p o r ti n g e a r l ie r m o d e l s th a t p o ttin g w o r k s h o p s m a d e a v a r ie ty o f u ti li ta r i a n v e s s e l f o r m s in s e v e r a l d is ti n c t w a r e c a te g o r i e s ( B a ll 1 9 9 3 a : 2 4 5 ) . T h e p r e s e n c e a t th r e e w id e ly d is p e r s e d s ite s o f v e s s e ls m a d e w i th e a c h o f th e f o u r d is ti n c t p a s te r e c ip e s s u g g e s ts th a t v e s s e ls f r o m th e s e f o u r w o r k s h o p s w e r e e x c h a n g e d a t a c e n tr a l lo c a tio n , li k e ly th e m a r k e tp l a c e s a t X u n a n tu n i c h . T h e r e is n o e v id e n c e th a t th e s e w o r k s h o p s o p e r a te d u n d e r a n y k in d o f e lite s u p e r v is io n o r c o n tro l, a lth o u g h w e h a v e n o t id e n tif ie d a n y p r o d u c tio n lo c a le s to d a te . A s o n e m o v e s e a s t d o w n th e v a ll e y f r o m B u e n a v i s ta a n d X u n a n tu n i c h to w a r d s C a h a l P e c h a n d b e y o n d to B a k in g P o t a n d B a r to n R a m i e , M o u n t M a l o n e y B la c k b o w ls a n d ja r s b e c o m e in c r e a s in g ly u n c o m m o n , a n d th e y a re r e p la c e d b y v e s s e ls o f th e s a m e b a s i c s h a p e c la s s e s th a t b e lo n g to th e G a r b u tt C r e e k R e d a n d V a c a F a ll s R e d ty p e s . T h e s e r e d - w a r e ty p e s a re v is u a ll y d if f e r e n tia te d f r o m M o u n t M a lo n e y B la c k ty p e s b y th e ir re d s lip s , b o d y s h a p e s , a n d d is ti n c t r im a n d lip tr e a tm e n ts ( G if f o r d 1 9 7 6 ; L e C o u n t 1 9 9 6 ) . T h e s e re d w a r e s p r e s u m a b ly w e r e p r o d u c e d in w o r k s h o p s in th e e a s te r n r e a c h e s o f th e v a lle y , w h e r e th e y d o m i n a te th e c e r a m ic a s s e m b la g e in th e s a m e w a y th a t M o u n t M a l o n e y B la c k d o e s a r o u n d X u n a n tu n i c h a n d B u e n a v is ta . A im e e P r e z io s i ( 2 0 0 3 ) a n d S a m C o n n e ll ( 2 0 0 3 , 2 0 1 0 ) h a v e a r g u e d th a t M o u n t M a l o n e y B la c k p o tte r y w a s e m b l e m a ti c o f a p o l i ti c a l i d e n ti ty tie d to X u n a n tu n i c h . A t th e h i n te r l a n d s i te o f C h a a C r e e k , C o n n e l l h a s s h o w n th a t M o u n t M a l o n e y B la c k v e s s e l s b e c a m e m o r e p o p u l a r th a n r e d - s lip p e d v e s s e l s in b o th n o n e l i te a n d e l i te h o u s e h o l d s a s X u n a n tu n i c h ro s e to a p o s i ti o n o f p o l itic a l d o m i n a n c e in th e r e g i o n d u r i n g th e la te 7 th a n d e a r l y 8 th c e n tu r i e s

a d

. T h e r a tio o f b l a c k to re d v e s s e l s s h if te d

f r o m a p p r o x im a te ly 1 :1 to 3 :1 d u r i n g th i s tim e ( C o n n e ll 2 0 1 0 ) . T h is s h if t is m o s t p r o n o u n c e d

a m o n g s t th e s i te 's e l i te le a d e r s , l e a d i n g C o n n e ll

to a r g u e th a t th e y w e r e m o r e a c ti v e l y e x p r e s s i n g p o l i ti c a l a f f il ia tio n to th e r e g i o n 's n e w d o m i n a n t p o w e r a s p a r t o f th e i r s tr a te g i e s to m a in ta in th e ir p l a c e w i th i n th e r e g i o n ' s s h if tin g p o w e r s tr u c tu r e s . In c o n tr a s t to th i s i n s tr u m e n ta l i s t i n te r p r e ta ti o n o f th e r o l e s o f M o u n t M a l o n e y B la c k

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 8 4 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 8 4 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

184

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C u lt u r es o f C o m m o d it y B r an d in g

p o tte r y in p r a c ti c e s o f p o l i ti c a l id e n ti f i c a ti o n , L e C o u n t ( 2 0 1 0 a , 2 0 1 0 b ) h a s a r g u e d th a t M o u n t M a l o n e y B la c k v e s s e l s w e r e k e y m a te r i a l c o m p o n e n ts o f q u o ti d i a n b o d i l y p r a c ti c e s a s s o c ia te d w i th p r e p a r i n g m a iz e a n d c a r ­ r y i n g w a te r , a n d th a t th e y th u s c o n tr ib u te d to a c o l l e c ti v e a n d e m b o d ie d c o m m u n i ty id e n tity in th e r e g io n . A th ird e x p l a n a ti o n , n o t in c o m p a tib le w i th th e o th e r s , is th a t th e r is e o f X u n a n tu n i c h la te in th e 7th c e n tu r y

a d

d r e w m o r e p e o p le to th e s i te a n d

i ts m a r k e tp l a c e a n d th a t p e o p le f r o m C h a a C r e e k m o r e f r e q u e n tl y tr a v ­ e l le d to X u n a n tu n i c h ' s m a r k e tp l a c e , w h e r e th e y o b ta in e d b la c k - s l ip p e d v e s s e ls , a s o p p o s e d

to th e r e d - s lip p e d v e s s e ls th a t w e r e m o r e r e a d ily

a v a ila b le a t C a h a l P e c h a n d o th e r c e n tr e s to th e e a s t. E li te f a m il ie s m ig h t h a v e h a d m o re r e a s o n to tr a v e l to th e n e w c e n tr e o f p o l itic a l p o w e r, a s th e y s o u g h t to n e g o tia te a f a v o u r a b l e p o s itio n f o r th e m s e lv e s a s r e g io n a l p o w e r s tr u c tu r e s s h if te d d u r in g th e c o m p e ti ti o n b e tw e e n X u n a n tu n i c h a n d B u e n a v is ta . T h e b la c k s l ip a n d lip a n d rim a ttr ib u te s o f M o u n t M a l o n e y B la c k v e s s e ls s e t th e m a p a r t f r o m o th e r c o n te m p o r a n e o u s r e d - w a re g ro u p s o f th e s a m e v e s s e l c la s s e s . T h is d if f e r e n ti a ti o n e v o k e s th e w a y a b r a n d s e rv e s to d is ­ tin g u is h o n e s u b s e t o f a g iv e n c o m m o d ity f r o m o th e r s u b s e ts o f th a t c o m ­ m o d ity . It is n o t c le a r , h o w e v e r , th a t th e s e re d - s li p p e d a n d b la c k - s lip p e d a lte rn a tiv e s w e r e w i d e ly

a v a il a b le in

th e s a m e m a rk e ts . F u rth e r m o re ,

w h e n w e tu rn to th e f o u r M o u n t M a lo n e y B la c k w o r k s h o p s id e n tif ie d n e a r X u n a n tu n ic h , w e f in d n o e v id e n c e o f b r a n d in g . P o tte rs o b v io u s ly c o n tro ll e d th e ir r e c ip e s — p e r h a p s e v e n g u a rd e d th e m je a l o u s ly — a n d p a s s e d th e m d o w n o v e r g e n e r a tio n s , m a in ta in in g a h ig h d e g r e e o f p r o d u c t c o n s is te n c y , b u t th e y d id n o t s e e k to c re a te s tr o n g v is u a l d is ti n c tio n s b e tw e e n th e v e s s e ls p r o d u c e d b y d if f e r e n t w o rk s h o p s . In s te a d , th e m o s t o b v io u s d if f e r e n c e s in v is ib le a ttr ib u te s r e l a te to c h a n g e o v e r tim e ( G a rc i a 2 0 0 8 ; L e C o u n t 1 9 9 6 ) , n o t u n i t o f p ro d u c tio n ( c o m p a re T a s c h e k a n d B a ll 2 0 0 3 :3 7 8 ) . It is d if f ic u lt to a s s e s s w h e th e r th e s ta n d a rd s lip c o lo u r a n d v e s s e l f o r m s a n d lip tre a tm e n ts e m p lo y e d b y m u ltip le w o r k s h o p s w e r e th e r e s u lt o f a n a g r e e m e n t a m o n g s t th o s e w o r k s h o p s to m a n u f a c tu r e a s ta n d a r d a n d d is ti n c t b la c k - s lip p e d p r o d u c t o r s im p ly th e lo c a l c u s to m a r y w a y o f m a k in g p o tte ry . A lth o u g h m o re r e s e a r c h is r e q u ir e d

to

id e n tif y

th e lo c i o f p r o d u c ­

tio n a n d d is tr i b u tio n o f re d - a n d b la c k - s l ip p e d v e s s e ls , a t th is ju n c tu r e it s e e m s m o s t li k e ly th a t th e f a c to r s g o v e r n i n g th e a c q u is itio n o f M o u n t M a l o n e y B la c k v e s s e ls w e r e th e p r o x i m ity o f p r o d u c e r s a n d c o n s u m e r s to th e v a l l e y 's d if f e r e n t m a r k e tp l a c e s a n d th e s o c ia l, e c o n o m i c , a n d p o litic a l f a c to r s th a t d r e w c o n s u m e r s to th e s ite s w i th th o s e m a r k e tp l a c e s . If th is w a s th e c a s e , th e n , a s w i th th e s to n e to o l e c o n o m y ( s e e a b o v e ) , e x c h a n g e w a s d is ta n c e d f r o m th e lo c i o f p o tte r y p r o d u c tio n , a ll o w i n g v e n d o r s to m o r e e f f e c tiv e l y s e t th e te r m s o f e x c h a n g e a n d c la i m s p e c ia l p r o p e r tie s a n d p r o m i s e s o f v a lu e f o r th e ir w a re s .

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 8 5 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 8 5 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

C o m m o d it ies , B ran ds , an d V illag e E c o n o m ies in t he C las sic M ay a L o w lan d s

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185

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A lth o u g h th e d a ta c u r r e n tl y a v a ila b le p r o v id e a n i m p e r f e c t a n d f r a c tu r e d u n d e r s ta n d i n g o f th e e c o n o m i c o r g a n i z a ti o n o f th e M o p a n V a lle y , th e y d o p e r m i t s o m e te n ta ti v e in f e r e n c e s p e r ti n e n t to th e th e m e s a d d r e s s e d i n th is v o lu m e . O n e o f th e q u e s tio n s r a is e d in th i s v o lu m e is w h e th e r c o m m o d ity b r a n d i n g is a p h e n o m e n o n u n iq u e to c a p ita l is t e c o n o m i e s ( a ls o W e n g r o w 2 0 0 8 ) . T h is c a s e s tu d y s u g g e s ts th a t b r a n d e d c o m m o d i ti e s lik e th o s e f o u n d i n to d a y 's b r a n d e d e c o n o m y d id n o t e x i s t in L a te C la s s ic M a y a c iv il iz a tio n . S o m e g o o d s c e r ta in ly c o u ld b e c o n s id e r e d c o m m o d i ti e s , b u t th e y w e r e n o t c le a r ly b r a n d e d g o o d s . In th e c a s e o f b o th c h ip p e d s to n e to o ls a n d u ti lita r i a n p o tte ry , m u l tip l e c o n te m p o r a r y w o r k s h o p s p r o d u c e d th e s a m e k in d s o f o b je c ts , s u c h a s c h e r t a x e s a n d c e r a m i c ja r s a n d b o w ls . P o tte r s a n d f li n t- k n a p p e r s ta il o re d th e ir p r o d u c tio n d e c is io n s in lig h t o f th e c h a r a c ­ te r is ti c s o f th e ra w m a te r ia ls th e y u s e d , a n d th e y c e r ta in ly p a id a tte n tio n to c o n s u m e r n e e d s a n d d e s ir e s . T h a t s a id , a t le a s t in te r m s o f p o tte r y f o r e v e r y d a y u s e , s u c h a s M o u n t M a l o n e y B la c k b o w l s a n d ja r s , c o n te m p o r ­ a r y a n d p r e s u m a b ly c o m p e ti n g w o r k s h o p s d id n o t o b v io u s ly d if f e r e n ti­ a te th e ir p r o d u c ts th r o u g h s tr a te g i e s th a t w e m ig h t id e n tif y a s b r a n d i n g , a lth o u g h s u c h d if f e r e n ti a ti o n m ig h t h a v e a ll o w e d o n e w o r k s h o p to m a k e c la i m s o f s u p e r i o r q u a lity . G i v e n th e p o te n tia l v a lu e o f a b r a n d in th i s c o n te x t, w h y d id p o tte r s n o t u s e th e m ? O n e c o u ld s p e c u l a te th a t p r o f it m o tiv e w a s to o w e a k in th i s n o n c a p ita li s t s o c i e ty o r th a t c u l tu r a l n o r m s d is c o u r a g e d s u c h d if f e r ­ e n tia tio n . M o r e c o n v in c in g ly , I w o u ld s u g g e s t, th e s tr u c tu r e o f th e la rg e r e c o n o m y , p a r tic u la r l y in te r m s o f its s o c i a l d im e n s io n s , r e d u c e d th e u ti li ty o f b ra n d in g . T h e u ti lita r i a n s to n e to o l a n d c e r a m ic e c o n o m y o f th e M o p a n V a ll e y s e e m s to h a v e e n ta il e d a h ig h d e g re e o f in tim a c y b e tw e e n th e c o n s u m e r s a n d p r o d u c e r s . A s s u m in g c e r a m i c m a r k e tin g p a r a lle le d s to n e to o l m a r ­ k e tin g , c o n s u m e r s o b ta in e d b o th o f th e s e ty p e s o f g o o d s d ir e c tl y f r o m p r o d u c e r s , w h e th e r th e e x c h a n g e o c c u r r e d in a w o r k s h o p o r a c e n tr a ll y lo c a te d m a r k e t. T h is d ir e c t c o n n e c tio n b e tw e e n c o n s u m e r a n d p r o d u c e r is c h a r a c te r is tic o f a v ill a g e e c o n o m y , a n d it s e r v e s to re d u c e th e u n c e r ­ ta in tie s a b o u t c o m m o d i ty q u a l ity th a t p e r m e a te th e b a z a a r e c o n o m y a n d b r a n d e d e c o n o m y , in w h ic h g r e a te r s o c ia l d is ta n c e s e p a r a te s c o n s u m e r s f r o m p r o d u c e r s . In th e v ill a g e e c o n o m y , th e p r o m is e o f v a lu e th a t c a n b e a c h ie v e d th r o u g h b r a n d i n g d e r iv e s in s te a d f r o m c o n s u m e r s ' r e la ti o n s h ip s w i th v a r io u s p r o d u c e r s a n d th e ir k n o w le d g e o f p r o d u c tio n p r o c e s s e s . T h e s a m e m a y h a v e b e e n tr u e o f s o m e f a n c ie r p o tte ry , li k e lo c a lly p r o d u c e d c r e a m - a n d o r a n g e - s lip p e d p a i n te d s e r v in g v e s s e ls . A l th o u g h n o f o r m a l d i s ta n c e - d e c a y s tu d i e s h a v e b e e n c o n d u c te d , i t s e e m s l i k e l y th a t u ti l i ta r i a n p o tte r y w o r k s h o p s i n th e M o p a n V a ll e y

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 8 6 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 8 6 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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w e r e f a i r l y c l o s e l y s p a c e d , a n d th a t th e s e p o tte r s d id n o t tr a v e l to d i s ta n t m a r k e ts to s e l l th e i r w a r e s . T h i s is n o t p a r ti c u l a r l y s u r p r i s i n g , g i v e n th a t p o tte r y v e s s e l s a r e h e a v y a n d e x p e n s i v e to tr a n s p o r t a n d th a t C la s s ic M a y a tr a n s p o r ta ti o n te c h n o l o g i e s la c k e d

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v e h i c l e s . T h u s , m a r k e tp l a c e s w e r e l i k e ly d o m i n a te d b y l o c a l p o tti n g w o r k s h o p s . A n o th e r f a c to r c o u l d a l s o h a v e a d v a n ta g e d l o c a l p r o d u c e r s : G u a r a n te e s o f q u a l i ty f r o m p r o d u c e r s w h o w e r e a ls o m e m b e r s o f th e lo c a l c o m m u n i ty p l a u s i b l y w o u ld h a v e i n s p ir e d m o r e c o n f i d e n c e a m o n g c o n su m e rs. If th a t w a s th e c a s e , th e p r e s e n c e o f th e o c c a s i o n a l n o n lo c a l u ti li ta r ia n v e s s e l in d o m e s ti c c o n te x ts in th e M o p a n V a ll e y c o u ld r e f l e c t e i th e r c o n ­ s u m e r s d ir e c tly o b ta in in g ite m s in m o r e d is ta n t m a r k e tp l a c e s o r m a in ta in ­ in g e x c h a n g e re l a ti o n s h ip s w i th p e o p le in th o s e m a r k e t z o n e s . In th e c a s e o f C h a a C r e e k , th e h ig h f r e q u e n c ie s o f b o th b la c k - a n d re d - s li p p e d u ti li ta r ­ ia n p o tte r y s u g g e s t th a t th e c o m m u n i ty 's re s id e n ts f r e q u e n te d d if f e r e n t m a r k e t c e n tre s , li k e ly th o s e o f C a h a l P e c h a n d X u n a n tu n ic h , w h ic h w e r e r o u g h ly e q u id is ta n t f r o m C h a a C re e k . T h u s , th e p r o d u c tio n a n d e x c h a n g e o f u ti lita r i a n p o tte r y a n d c h ip p e d s to n e to o l s s h o w f e w s tr u c tu r a l s i m ila r i tie s w i th e i th e r m o d e r n o r a n c ie n t p r o c e s s e s o f th e p r o d u c tio n o f b r a n d e d g o o d s a n d b r a n d m a n a g e m e n t. A lth o u g h th e u s e o f M o u n t M a l o n e y B la c k v e s s e ls m a y v e r y w e l l h a v e b e e n im p o r ta n t i n e m b o d y in g c e r ta in a s p e c ts o f id e n tity ( L e C o u n t 2 0 1 0 a ) , I s e e li ttl e e v id e n c e o f th e m o re c o n s c io u s s tr a te g i e s o f c o n s u m e r id e n tif i­ c a tio n a s s o c ia te d w i th b r a n d c o n s u m p tio n ( c o m p a r e C o n n e ll 2 0 1 0 ) . A p o s s i b l e e x c e p ti o n to th i s p a tte r n is p r o v i d e d b y th e e l a b o r a te p o l y c h r o m e v e s s e l s p r o d u c e d i n p a l a c e s c h o o l s l i k e th o s e a t N a r a n jo an d

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a l l o w e d f o r g r e a te r c o n tr o l o v e r th e e n d - p r o d u c ts o f e a c h w o r k s h o p , r e c a l l i n g th e e m p h a s i s o n c o n s i s te n c y t h a t is o n e o f th e k e y s to b r a n d m a n a g e m e n t. M e a n w h i l e , th e s a m e v i s u a l c h a r a c te r i s t i c s th a t a l l o w a r t h i s t o r i a n s to p e r io d

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g o u s in s o m e r e s p e c ts to a b r a n d l o g o ( a l s o B e n n e t 2 0 0 8 ) . F i n a l l y , th e s e w o r k s h o p s p r o d u c e d s e r v i n g v e s s e l s t h a t w e r e u s e d i n p u b l i c e v e n ts li k e f e a s t s a n d c e r e m o n i e s . In th e s e c o n te x ts , p e o p l e u s e d th e v e s s e l s to m a k e s ta te m e n ts a b o u t id e n ti ty , c l a s s , a n d p o l i t i c a l a f f i l i a t i o n , m u c h a s p e o p l e to d a y u s e b r a n d e d g o o d s to m a k e p u b l i c s ta te m e n ts a b o u t th e i r p e r s o n a e . D e s p i te th e i r o s te n s i b l e s i m i l a r i t i e s w i th b r a n d e d c o m ­ m o d i ti e s , h o w e v e r , th e s e e l a b o r a te c e r a m i c v e s s e l s d o n o t f i t c o m f o r t ­ a b l y w i th i n o u r s ta n d a r d d e f i n i ti o n s o f c o m m o d i ti e s . T h e y w e r e v e r y

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 8 7 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 8 7 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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c o m p e te d i n a g i v e n m a r k e tp l a c e ; a n d th e s c h o l a r l y c o n s e n s u s h o l d s th a t th e y c i r c u l a te d l a r g e l y th r o u g h g i f ti n g n e tw o r k s r a th e r th a n m a r ­ k e tp l a c e e x c h a n g e . C o n v e rs e ly , th e p o tte r y th a t le a s t c o n f o r m s to o u r n o tio n s o f a b r a n d e d g o o d — u ti lita r i a n v e s s e ls li k e M o u n t M a l o n e y B la c k b o w ls a n d ja r s — w a s th e m o s t c o m m o d if ie d , a s c o n s u m e r s in a g iv e n c o m m u n i ty a c q u ire d n e a r l y id e n tic a l v e s s e ls f r o m m u l tip l e w o r k s h o p s . F u r th e r m o r e , th e ir d is ­ tr ib u tio n s u g g e s ts th a t c o n s u m e r c h o ic e w a s s tr o n g l y c o n d itio n e d b y p ro x ­ im i ty to th e m a r k e tp l a c e s w h e r e v e s s e ls w e r e a v a il a b le . T u rn in g to s o m e o f th e l a r g e r q u e s tio n s ta k e n u p in th is v o lu m e , th e s e d a ta s u g g e s t th a t c o m ­ m o d i f i c a ti o n a n d b r a n d i n g a r e in d e p e n d e n t p r o c e s s e s th a t n e e d n o t w o r k in ta n d e m . W h e n th e y d o , th e y c a n b e p o w e r f u l, re s u l ti n g in th e m a s s p r o d u c e d a n d w i d e ly c o n s u m e d g o o d s th a t c a n s h a p e e c o n o m i c d e c is io n s , s o c ia l r e la ti o n s h ip s , id e n tity , a n d c u l tu r a l re p r o d u c tio n in im p o r ta n t w a y s ( H o lt 2 0 0 4 ) . T h e a b o v e d is c u s s io n p e r ta i n s to l o c a lly m a d e ite m s , b u t s o m e o f th e g o o d s u s e d i n th e M o p a n V a lle y w e r e im p o rte d . A lth o u g h m o s t o f th e v a l­ le y 's p o tte r y a n d c h e r t s to n e to o l s w e r e p r o d u c e d in lo c a l w o r k s h o p s , c o n ­ s u m e r s a ls o a c q u ir e d ite m s th a t e n ta ile d m u c h lo n g e r c o m m o d i ty c h a in s (s e n s u C o ll in s 2 0 0 6 ) . T h e s e in c lu d e d g o o d s li k e o b s i d i a n f r o m th e d is ta n t G u a te m a la n h ig h la n d s th a t w e k n o w w a s e x c h a n g e d in m a r k e tp l a c e s ( C a p 2 0 0 8 ) , a s w e l l a s g o o d s th a t p r o b a b ly w e r e e x c h a n g e d in m a r k e tp l a c e s , s u c h a s s a l t a n d f is h f r o m th e C a r ib b e a n a n d h o n e y a n d c ac ao f r o m z o n e s to th e e a s t a n d n o rth . W ith n o n lo c a l g o o d s li k e th e s e , p r o d u c tio n p r o c e s s e s w e r e e f f e c tiv e l y in v is ib l e to c o n s u m e r s , a n d c o n s u m e r k n o w le d g e w a s h e a v ily m e d ia te d b y m e r c h a n ts a n d v e n d o r s . S o m e o f th e s e c o m m o d i ti e s c a m e f r o m m u l tip l e p o in ts o f o r ig in , w h ic h r a is e s th e p o s s ib il ity , a s y e t u n v e r i f ie d , th a t b r a n d i n g a n d / o r a p p e lla tio n w e r e im p o r ta n t f a c to r s in d e f in in g th e s e g o o d s a n d s h a p i n g c o n s u m e r c h o ic e s . W h y , th e n , is th e r e n o t g r e a te r e v id e n c e o f c o m m o d i ti e s o r b r a n d s in th e C la s s ic - p e r i o d M o p a n V alle y , in c o n tr a s t to th e O ld W o rld c a s e s d is c u s s e d b y W e n g ro w a n d B e v a n ( th is v o lu m e ) ? A lth o u g h th e r e is a m p le e v id e n c e o f lo n g - d i s ta n c e tr a d e o f e x o tic m a te r ia l s s u c h a s ja d e i te , o b s id ia n , s a lt, a n d m a r in e s h e ll, M a y a n i s ts h a v e g e n e r a l ly a s s u m e d th a t b u l k g o o d s a n d s ta p l e s w e r e n o t tr a d e d r e g u la r ly o v e r lo n g d is ta n c e s d u r in g th e C la s s ic p e r io d , d u e to th e n a tu r e o f M a y a tr a n s p o r ta tio n te c h n o lo g ie s . G o o d s h a d to b e c a r r ie d b y h u m a n b e a r e r s o n th e ir b a c k s u s in g tu m p lin e s , a s th e M a y a d id n o t u s e d r a f t a n im a ls , w h e e l e d v e h ic le s , o r s a i l b o a ts ( D r e n n a n 1 9 8 4 ) . T h u s , f o r th e g r e a t m a jo r i ty o f th e g o o d s e x c h a n g e d in th e M o p a n V a lle y , w h e th e r a t m a r k e tp l a c e s o r o th e r v e n u e s , c o n s u m e r s li k e ly o b ta in e d th e ir w a r e s d ir e c tl y f r o m th e p ro d u c e rs . In a v ill a g e e c o n o m y li k e th is , m a r k e d b y r e la ti v e ly little s o c i a l d is ta n c e b e tw e e n p r o d u c e r a n d c o n s u m e r, th e

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 8 8 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 8 8 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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u n c e r ta i n tie s a b o u t q u a l ity a n d p r i c in g th a t m a r k a b a z a a r e c o n o m y a n d b r a n d e d e c o n o m y a re s ig n if ic a n tly r e d u c e d . T h is r e e v a lu a tio n o f th e M a y a e c o n o m y in lig h t o f c o n s tr u c ts o f c o m ­ m o d ity a n d b r a n d a ls o le a d s to s o m e o b s e r v a tio n s r e g a r d in g th e d u a l m o d e l o f th e M a y a e c o n o m y , p a r tic u la r l y th e d is tin c tio n i t m a k e s b e tw e e n p r e s tig e g o o d s a n d u ti lita r i a n g o o d s . T h is d ic h o to m y h o ld s r e l a ti v e ly w e ll f o r p r o d u c tio n : T h e p r o d u c tio n o f s o m e g o o d s s e e m s to b e c o n tr o ll e d b y e l ite s ; m o s t u ti lita r i a n g o o d s a p p e a r to h a v e b e e n p r o d u c e d i n r e l a ti v e ly a u to n o m o u s w o r k s h o p s . B e y o n d th a t, h o w e v e r , th i s d is ti n c tio n b e g i n s to b l u r v e r y q u ic k ly : G i f t n e tw o r k s li k e ly c ir c u la te d g o o d s m a d e in a tta c h e d w o r k s h o p s a s w e l l a s ite m s c o l le c te d a s tr ib u te a n d ite m s a c q u ir e d in th e m a r k e tp la c e . In d e e d , w h y s h o u ld w e e x p e c t th e e l ite to r e s tr i c t th e ir g if t­ in g to h ig h - v a lu e ite m s m a d e in a tta c h e d w o r k s h o p s ? Sim il a rl y , it is li k e ly th a t m a n y s o - c a lle d p r e s tig e ite m s w e r e a ls o a v a ila b le f o r p u r c h a s e a t m a r ­ k e ts ( a ls o P y b u r n 2 0 0 8 a n d S h e e ts 2 0 0 0 f o r re la te d c r itiq u e s ) . Fin a lly , b e y o n d its re le v a n c e to th e to p ic o f c o m m o d i ty b r a n d i n g , o u r g r o w in g u n d e r s ta n d i n g o f th e n a tu r e o f p r o d u c tio n a n d e x c h a n g e o f v a r i­ o u s ty p e s o f p o tte r y a n d s to n e to o ls in th e M o p a n V a lle y s h o w s th e li m ita ­ tio n s o f s o m e tr a d itio n a l a r c h a e o l o g ic a l a p p r o a c h e s to a r te f a c ts . T h e c a s e s tu d y h e re u n d e r m i n e s th e d is ti n c tio n s a r c h a e o l o g is ts s o m e ti m e s d ra w b e tw e e n " u ti l i ta r i a n g o o d s " a n d " p r e s ti g e g o o d s ," a s th e v e r y s a m e ite m s m ig h t b e m o r e c o m m o d i ty - l ik e o r m o re g if t- li k e d e p e n d in g o n h o w th e y w e r e e x c h a n g e d . T h e s e to ta lis in g la b e l s a ls o o b s c u r e th e d if f e r e n t m e a n ­ in g s a s i n g le o b je c t c a n h a v e a n d th e a r r a y o f s o c i a l re l a ti o n s h ip s th a t a n o b je c t c a n m e d ia te . T h e m e a n in g , u s e , a n d s o c ia l e f f ic a c y o f a g iv e n a r te f a c t a re n o t in h e r e n t to th e a r te f a c t its e lf , b u t r a th e r e m e r g e a t th e in te r s e c ti o n o f th a t a r te f a c t's m a te r ia l ity a n d th e s o c ia l re l a ti o n s h ip s th a t s tr u c tu r e its p r o d u c tio n , c ir c u la tio n , a n d u s e .

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e n c o u r a g in g m e to th in k m o re d e e p ly a b o u t c o n s u m p tio n a s a k e y f o rc e in a n c ie n t M a y a s o c i a l p r o c e s s e s a n d f o r o u r s tim u la tin g e x c h a n g e s o n th a t to p ic . A n d r e w

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re v ie w e r s o f f e re d s u g g e s ti o n s th a t im p r o v e d th is c h a p te r c o n s i d e ra b l y . I a c c e p t re s p o n s i b il ity f o r a n y e r r o r s o f f a c t a n d in te r p r e ta tio n .

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P re ss. V a u g h n , K . J. 2 00 4 . H o u s e h o ld s , c ra f ts , a n d f e as tin g in th e a n c ie n t A n d e s: T h e v illa g e c o n te x t o f e a rly N as c a c ra f t c o n s u m p tio n . L atin A m e ric an A n t iq u it y 1 5 :6 1 - 8 8 . W e b ste r, D . 1997. C ity - s ta te s o f th e M ay a. In D . N ic h o ls an d T. C h a rlto n ( Ed s.) , T h e A r c h ae o lo g y o f C it y - S t at e s : C r o s s - C u lt u r al A p p r o ac h es : 1 3 5 - 5 4 . W a sh in g to n ,

D C : Sm ith s o n ia n In s titu tio n P re ss.

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 9 5 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 9 5 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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W e b ste r, D ., A . Fre te r, a n d N . G o n lin . 200 0 . C o p an : T he R ise an d F all o f an A n c ie n t M ay a K in g do m . N e w Y o rk : H a rc o u rt C o lle g e P u b lis h e rs.

W e lls, E. C . 2 0 0 6 . R e c e n t tre n d s in th e o riz in g p re h is p a n ic M e s o a m e ric a n e c o n ­ o m ie s. Jo u r n al o f A r c h ae o lo g ic al R e s e arc h 1 4 :2 6 5 - 3 1 2 . W e n g ro w , D . 2 00 8. P re h is to rie s o f c o m m o d ity b ra n d in g . C u r r e n t A n t h r o p o lo g y 4 9 :7 - 3 4 . W u rtz b u rg , S. 1991. S ay il: In v es t ig at io n s o f U r ban ism an d E c o n o m ic O rg an iz atio n at an A n c ie n t M ay a C it y . P h .D . d is s e rta tio n , State U n iv e rs ity o f N e w Y o rk ,

A lb an y . A n n A rb o r: U M I. W y att, A . 2008 . G ar d e n s o n H ills : A n c ie n t M ay a T errac in g am i A g r ic u lt u r al P r o du c t io n at C h an , B eliz e. P h .D . d is s e rtatio n , U n iv e rs ity o f Illin o is -C h ic a g o .

A n n A rb o r: U M I. Y ae g e r, J. 2 00 0a . C h an g in g P at t er n s o f S o c ial O r g an iz at io n : T he L at e an d T erm in al C las sic C o m m u n it ie s at S an L o r en z o , C ay o D ist r ic t , B e liz e . P h .D . d is se rta tio n ,

U n iv e rs ity o f P e n n s y lv a n ia , P h ilad e lp h ia . A n n A rb o r: U M I. Y ae g e r, J. 2 0 00 b . T h e s o c ia l c o n s tru c tio n o f c o m m u n itie s in th e C la s s ic M a y a c o u n try s id e : Stra te g ie s o f a ff ilia tio n in w e s te rn Be liz e . In M . A . C a n u to an d J. Y ae g e r ( Ed s.) , T he A r c h ae o lo g y o f C o m m u n it ie s: A N e w W o rld P e rs p e c t iv e: 1 2 3 - 4 2 . L o n d o n : R o u tle d g e . Y ae g e r, J. 200 3. U n ta n g lin g th e tie s th a t b in d : T h e c ity , th e c o u n try s id e a n d th e n a tu re o f M a y a u rb a n is m a t X u n a n tu n ic h , Be liz e . In M . L. Sm ith (Ed .), T he S o c ial C o n s t ru c t io n o f A n c ie n t C it ie s: 1 2 1 - 5 5 . W a sh in g to n , D C : Sm ith s o n ia n

In s titu tio n Pre ss. Y ae g e r, J. 201 0. L a n d s c a p e s o f th e X u n a n tu n ic h h in te rla n d . In L. J. L e C o u n t a n d J. Y ae g e r ( Ed s .) , C las s ic M ay a P r o v in c ial P o lit ic s : X u n an t u n ic h an d It s H in t e r lan d s : 2 3 3 - 4 9 . T u c so n : U n iv e rs ity o f A riz o n a Pre ss.

Y ae g e r, J. a n d C . R . Fre iw a ld . 2009 . C o m p le x e c o lo g ie s : H u m an a n d a n im al re s p o n se s to a n c ie n t la n d s c a p e c h a n g e in c e n tra l Be liz e . R e se arc h R e p o rt s in B eliz e an A r c h ae o lo g y 6 :8 3 - 9 1 . N a tio n a l In s titu te o f C u ltu re a n d H isto ry ,

Be lm o p an , Be liz e . Y ae g e r, J. a n d C . R o b in . 200 4. H e te ro g e n e o u s h in te rla n d s : T h e s o c ia l a n d p o liti­ c a l o rg a n iz a tio n o f c o m m o n e r s e ttle m e n ts n e a r X u n an tu n ic h , Be liz e . In J. C . L o h s e a n d F. V ald e z , Jr. ( Ed s .) , A n c ie n t M ay a C o m m o n e rs : 1 4 7 - 7 3 . A u stin : U n iv e rs ity o f T e x as P re ss.

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 9 6 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 9 6 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 9 7 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 9 7 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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C lo th h a s b e e n tr a d e d f o r c e n tu r ie s o v e r v e r y lo n g d is ta n c e s , s o m e ti m e s e v e n b e tw e e n c o n tin e n ts . Its h ig h r a tio o f v a lu e to w e i g h t o r v o lu m e a n d its li m ite d p e r is h a b ili ty h a s m e a n t th a t i t h a s o f te n b e e n o n e o f th e m o s t s i g n if ic a n t tr a d e c o m m o d i ti e s . C lo th f r o m d is ta n t s o u r c e s te n d s to g a in v a lu e f r o m its ra r e o r u n iq u e f e a tu re s . Y e t th e m a n y v a r ia tio n s a v a ila b le in q u a l ity , q u a n tity , a n d s ty le o f c lo th p o s e d e f in ite p r o b l e m s f o r lo n g ­ d is ta n c e tra d e . S p e c if ic p i e c e s o f c lo th a re n o t n e c e s s a r il y in te r c h a n g e a b le ; s tr e n u o u s s o c ia l e f f o r t is re q u ir e d to e n s u r e u n i f o r m ity w i th in e v e n a s i n g le to w n o r f ac to ry . C r e a tin g s te a d y in te r n a tio n a l d e m a n d f o r s p e c if ic ty p e s o f c l o th h a s m e a n t c o n v e y in g k n o w l e d g e o f th e ir id e n titie s a n d q u a l itie s to g e o g r a p h ic a ll y s e p a r a te d p o p u l a ti o n s , a n d , in th e p a s t, th is h a s o f te n b e e n w i th o u t th e b e n e f its o f m a s s lite ra c y , a d v e r tis i n g , o r g lo b a l m a s s m e d ia . F u ll c o m m o d i f ic a ti o n r e q u ir e s th a t th e b u y e r c a n r e ly o n g e ttin g w h a t h e o r s h e p a y s f o r. Q u a li ty g r a d e s a n d q u a n tity m e a s u r e s , a t le a s t, s h o u ld b e e a s y to v e rif y . C r o s s in g m u ltip le f r o n tie r s o f la n g u a g e a n d c u ltu r e p o s e s a n in f o r m a tio n c h a lle n g e f o r c o m m e r c i a l n e tw o r k s . R e lia b le b r a n d n a m e s a c t a s s h o r th a n d

f o r s ta n d a r d s o f q u a l ity a n d q u a n tity th a t c u s to m e r s

w o u ld o th e r w i s e f in d d if f ic u lt to v e r if y f o r th e m s e lv e s . T h e s e s ta n d a r d s m a y in c lu d e in ta n g ib le q u a litie s , s u c h a s c o n f o r m i ty w i th th e la te s t f a s h ­ io n , w h ic h a p u r c h a s e r re lie s o n th e m a k e r to k n o w o r to s e t. D u r a b le u ti li­ ta r ia n c lo th in g m a y r e q u ir e f a b r ic a tio n te c h n i q u e s u n k n o w n o r in v is ib le to th e c o n s u m e r . I h a v e o n ly th e v a g u e s t id e a w h y je a n s la s t, f o r e x a m p l e , th o u g h I s u p ­ p o s e th a t g o o d - q u a li ty c lo th a n d th r e a d , r iv e ts , a n d f e l le d s e a m s h a v e s o m e th i n g to d o w i th it. B u t I k n o w , b y th e ir r e p u ta ti o n , th a t L e v i S tr a u s s je a n s " w e a r li k e i r o n ." T h e y a r e n o t g o i n g to b e b u l le tp r o o f o r w a te r p r o o f , b u t th e y a r e g o i n g to b e s tr o n g a n d d u r a b le , w h e r e a s g e n e r i c b r a n d s m a y o r m a y n o t b e . M y p a s t e x p e r ie n c e w i th L e v i's m a k e s th e ir a d v e r tis e m e n t p l a u s ib le : i f I w e r e s tr a n d e d o n a d e s e r t is la n d I w o u ld w a n t to b e w e a r i n g

197

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 9 8 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 9 8 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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L e v i's . T h e y s h o u ld a ls o b e " r e a l " L e v i's , th e l e g e n d a r y " 4 0 9 " s ty le , n o t th e f lim s y , f a s h io n a b le o n e s n o w m a d e b y th e s a m e c o m p a n y , a n d c e r ta in ly n o t p r e f a d e d o r p re r ip p e d . T h e 4 0 9 n a m e h a s e v e n ta k e n o n a m e a n in g o f its o w n in th e U n ite d S ta te s ; it a p p e a r s a s th e n a m e o f a h o u s e h o ld c le a n s ­ e r, p r e s u m a b ly a ls o s tr o n g a n d lo n g la s tin g . B r a n d la b e l s d o n o t s o lv e a ll th e is s u e s o f a u th e n tic ity b y a n y m e a n s . C o u n te r f e i t d e s i g n e r c lo th in g is ra m p a n t, a n d a u th e n tic a tin g in d iv id u a l ite m s th r o u g h a d o c u m e n te d c h a in o f c u s to d y is a s c o m p l e x a s a n y b a z a a r e c o n o m y . E v e n w h e r e d o c u m e n ta tio n o f o r i g in is l e g a lly r e q u ir e d , a s in th e U n ite d S ta te s to k e e p o u t b lo o d d ia m o n d s o r C u b a n c ig a r s , i t c a n s til l b e fak ed . P r o v e n a n c e n a m in g r ig h ts c a n b e h o tly c o n te s te d , a s s h o w n b y th e W o rld T ra d e O r g a n i z a tio n c o n tr o v e r s y o v e r c h a m p a g n e , c a m e m b e r t, a n d c h e d d a r .1 T h e c lo th in d u s tr y a b o u n d s w i th g e n e r ic c a te g o r y n a m e s o n c e b a s e d o n p r o v e n a n c e : c a li c o f r o m C a lc u tta , p l a id c o tto n s f r o m M a d r a s , a n d p a i s le y s h a w l s ( p r in te d w i th p a tte r n s f r o m In d ia n e m b r o id e r y ) . N o o n e n o w e x p e c ts d e n im c lo th to c o m e f r o m th e F r e n c h to w n o f N im e s ( h e n c e d e N im e s ) . T w e e d n o lo n g e r c o m e s f r o m th e R iv e r T w e e d ; i n f a c t, p r e m iu m

H a r r is T w e e d c o u ld n o t d o s o b y d e f in i ti o n , s i n c e its n a m e r e f le c ts its p r o v ­ e n a n c e f r o m th e S h e tla n d s . F a k e r y h a s a ls o b e e n p r a c tis e d w i th b a s i c q u a l­ ity f e a tu r e s o f c lo th , s u c h a s w e i g h t o r s tif f n e s s , th r o u g h th e u s e o f s iz in g o r h e a v y m e ta l rin s e s . D i s tin c ti v e s e lv e d g e s , th e w o v e n e d g e s o f a l e n g th o f c lo th , h a v e tu r n e d o u t to b e a n e f f e c tiv e w a y to e s ta b li s h a k in d o f b r a n d id e n tity in th e c lo th tr a d e . P h y s ic a l ly a n i n s e p a r a b le p a r t o f th e c lo th , th e y c a n b e m a d e r e c o g ­ n is a b le to a n il li te r a te o r p a r tly l i te r a te c o n s u m e r w i th o u t c o m p r o m is i n g th e u s e v a lu e o f th e m a in e x p a n s e o f c lo th . T h is c h a p te r c o m p a r e s th is u s e o f s e lv e d g e p a tte r n s b y m e d ie v a l g u il d w e a v e r s in F la n d e r s , in n o r th ­ w e s te r n E u r o p e , to th e c o n te m p o r a r y u s e o f s e lv e d g e s to m a r k o r i g i n a n d q u a l ity in c o tto n p r i n ts m a d e f o r th e W e s t A f r ic a n c o n s u m e r . C lo th s m a d e in th e s a m e r e g io n a s F la n d e r s , th e N e th e r la n d s o f n o r th w e s te r n E u r o p e , n o w c a r r y th e h i g h e s t p r e s tig e a s " g e n u i n e D u tc h w a x ."

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In la te m e d ie v a l E u r o p e , th e m o s t r e n o w n e d w o o l c lo th w a s th e g r a n d d r a p e r ie f r o m

th r e e F le m is h to w n s : B r u g e s , G h e n t, a n d Y p re s ( P ir e n n e

1 9 0 9 - 1 9 3 2 ) . It w a s tr a d e d a ll o v e r w e s te r n a n d e a s te r n E u r o p e a n d m u c h o f A s i a , th r o u g h c o m m e r c ia l n e tw o r k s th a t li n k e d th e H a n s e a tic L e a g u e , th e Ita lia n p o r ts o f G e n o a a n d V e n ic e , th e A r m e n ia n d ia s p o r a , a n d th e S i lk R o a d ( P r e v ite - O r to n 1 9 5 3 : 5 4 8 ) . T h e p r o x im ity o f F la n d e r s to th e E n g li s h C h a n n e l , to g e th e r w i th a n e s ta b li s h e d e x p e r ti s e i n w o o l w e a v in g f r o m th e ir o w n s h e e p , g a v e th e F le m is h a n e a r m o n o p o ly o n E n g l a n d 's w o o l,

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 1 9 9 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 1 9 9 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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th e n its p r im a r y e x p o r t ( D e s M a r e z 1 9 2 7 : 3 9 ) . F le m is h m e r c h a n ts c o lle c te d th e y e a r ' s ra w c li p e a c h s p r in g f r o m w o o l f a ir s in Y o r k s h ir e , L in c o ln s h ir e , B e r k s h ir e , a n d th e W e l s h b o r d e r c o u n tie s ( P e e k 1 9 5 9 : 191). T h e y s h ip p e d th e w o o ls a c k s v ia L o n d o n o r D o v e r to F la n d e r s , w h e r e it w a s s to r e d in h u g e c e ll a r s to b e p r o c e s s e d th r o u g h o u t th e w in te r. T h e re p u ta tio n o f F le m is h w o o l c lo th w a s b a s e d

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E n g li s h w o o l, w h ic h h a d th e lo n g f ib re s m u c h p r e f e rr e d b e f o r e th e s p in ­ n in g w h e e l .2 T h is m a d e it id e a l f o r s tr o n g w o r s te d f a b r ic s e w n in to c lo th ­ in g th a t c o u ld b e h a n d e d d o w n in w i lls b e c a u s e i t la s te d s o lo n g . So m e C is te r c i a n m o n a s te r ie s in n o r th e r n E n g la n d b r e d s h e e p w i th e s p e c ia l ly lo n g - s ta p le w o o l. M o r e th a n 1 0 0 E n g li s h a b b e y s w e r e lis te d o n th e w o o l e x c h a n g e in B r u g e s ( Jo u r e t 1 9 3 7 ) . E a c h o f th e th r e e to w n s h a d its c h a r a c te r is tic c lo th s o f s ta n d a r d c o l o u r a n d s i z e , s u c h a s B ru g e s b lu e , G h e n t b r u n e ta , a n d Y p re s w h ite a n d g re e n ( H e r e n t 1 9 0 4 ) . T h e s e c lo th s w e r e s o ld b y r e p u ta ti o n a n d n a m e a ll o v e r th e c o n tin e n t. B e f o r e th e s e li c e n s e d to w n c lo th s c o u ld b e c o m e s o w i d e ly re c o g n i s e d th e y h a d to b e e a s ily id e n tif ie d . A d is ti n c tiv e s e lv e d g e p a tte r n w a s p a r t o f th e " c o p y r i g h t" e n f o r c e d f o r e a c h c h a r te r e d c lo th . T h is is th e e d g e th a t is w o v e n o n e i th e r s i d e o f th e lo o m , u s u a l ly w i th a tig h te r w e a v e a n d e x tr a th r e a d s to k e e p th e e d g e s s tr a ig h t a n d f ir m ( s e e F ig u re 8 .1 ) . T h e s e lv e d g e c o u ld e a s ily b e in s p e c te d b y a b u y e r e v e n w h e n th e c lo th re m a in e d f o ld e d , w i th th e w h o l e p ie c e s e w n to g e th e r a n d s e a le d w i th th e s ta m p o f th e lo c a l a u th o rity . It c o u ld b e c o u n te r f e ite d , b u t it c o u ld n o t e a s ily b e a lte r e d w i th o u t o b v io u s ly d a m a g in g th e c lo th . M e r c h a n ts a n d w e a l th y c u s to m e r s c o u ld b e c o m e f a m il ia r w i th th e s e lv e d g e p a tte r n s a n d s e a ls o f p o p u l a r c lo th s w h e r e th e y li v e d w i th o u t d ir e c t c o n ta c t w i th F la n d e r s o r f u r th e r k n o w le d g e o f th e ir m e th o d s o f m a n u f a c tu r e . T h e F l e m i s h g r a n d d r a p e r ie 3 g a in e d its p r e s tig e f r o m its h u g e v o lu m e r a th e r th a n its m a tc h l e s s q u a l ity . T h e s e s tu rd y , u ti l i ta r i a n c l o th s w e r e p l a i n ta b b y w e a v e a n d

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s tr e tc h in g , a n d c l i p p i n g , w h i c h r e q u ir e d s tr o n g e d g e s . Ita l i a n c l o th s c o s t m o r e ; th e y w e r e k n o w n f o r e l a b o r a te m u l ti c o l o u r e d f in is h e s ; a n d w e r e s o f te r . B u t lu x u r y c lo th d id n o t w e a r a s w e l l a n d h a d a m o r e li m ite d m a r k e t. T h e r a r e f r a g m e n ts o f m e d i e v a l w o o l c l o th s u r v iv in g ( f r o m C ity o f L o n d o n w a r e h o u s e e x c a v a ti o n s ) i n c lu d e e x a m p l e s o f p l a in w e a v e w i th c o n tr a s ti n g s e lv e d g e th r e a d s , b u t n o n e tr a c e a b l e to F l a n d e r s ( C r o w f o o t e t. a l. 2 0 0 2 ) . C i ty a u th o r i ti e s a n d th e p o w e r f u l c l o th g u i l d s c o n tr o l l e d e v e r y a s p e c t o f th e p r o d u c ti o n i n th i s p r e s ti g i o u s in d u s tr y . S o u r c e s a n d g r a d e s o f r a w m a te r i a l s , w e i g h t o f th r e a d , a n d m e th o d s o f m a n u f a c tu r i n g w e r e s p e ­ c if i e d in m i n u te d e ta i l in m u n i c i p a l r e g u l a ti o n s u n d e r c h a r te r s g r a n te d b y th e C o u n ts o f F l a n d e r s ( D e s M a r e z 1 9 2 7 ; Jo u r e t 1 9 3 7 ) . W o r k s h o p s h a d

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 2 0 0 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 0 0 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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th e i r m i l i ta r y e x p e d i ti o n s , w h i c h d e s tr o y e d w o r k s h o p s

a n d b u r n e d lo o m s ( H e r e n t 1 9 0 4 ) . In te n s e p r o to - i n d u s tr i a l d e v e lo p m e n t in th is s m a l l r e g io n s tr a in e d f o o d s u p p l ie s a n d p o l itic a l r e l a ti o n s h ip s th a t e n s u r e d a c c e s s to f o o d a n d w o o l i m p o r ts , b u t it f a c il ita te d e x p o r ts ( P ir e n n e 1 9 0 9 - 1 9 3 2 ) . T h e th r e e g r e a t to w n s e a c h h a d a p o p u l a ti o n o f m o r e th a n 2 0 ,0 0 0 p e o p le d u r in g th e 1 2 th c e n tu r y , th e p e a k o f th e ir d o m in a n c e o f E u r o p e a n c lo th p r o d u c tio n . T h e m a jo r i ty w e r e e m p l o y e d in w a s h i n g , s p in n in g , w e a v in g , a n d f in is h in g

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 20 1 h t t p :/ /s ite . e b ra ry .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 0 1 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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w o o l c lo th ( V a n d e rk in d e r e 1 8 7 9 ) . In G h e n t a n d Y p re s , w e a v e r s a lo n e m a d e u p m o r e th a n o n e - th ir d o f th e w o r k e r s ( F ri s 1 9 1 3 ) . T h r e e F le m is h c l o th f a ir s f o l l o w e d e a c h o th e r a ll s u m m e r , s o th a t f o r ­ e i g n m e r c h a n ts m o v e d f r o m o n e to th e n e x t, s e r v i c e d b y b r a n c h e s o f th e m a jo r b a n k i n g f ir m s b a s e d in Italy . D u r in g th e 1 3 th c e n tu r y , th e a u to n o ­ m o u s D u k e o f C h a m p a g n e f o u n d e d a p o p u l a r s e t o f p a r a l l e l f a ir s s tr a ­ te g i c a l l y lo c a te d b e tw e e n F l a n d e r s a n d Ita l y ( P i n o t 1 9 0 6 ) . T h e Ita l ia n s e a g e r ly s to p p e d c o m i n g a s f a r a s F l a n d e r s to b u y F l e m i s h c l o th s f o r r e s a le , l e t a l o n e to E n g la n d i ts e l f to b u y w o o l f o r th e i r o w n lu x u r y c lo th s ( D e s M a r e z 1 9 2 7 : 4 6 ; P r e v ite - O r to n 1 9 5 3 : 5 4 8 ) . A f te r F r e n c h n a ti o n a l in te ­ g r a tio n e x te n d e d to C h a m p a g n e i n th e 1 4 th c e n tu r y , C h a m p a g n e 's f a ir s q u i c k ly f o u n d e r e d ( P in o t 1 9 0 6 ) . F la n d e r s a ls o g r a d u a lly s u c c u m b e d to F re n c h d o m i n a tio n , d u r in g a s e r ie s o f r e b e lli o n s in th e 1 3 th a n d 1 4 th c e n tu r i e s , a f te r w h ic h F le m is h re f u ­ g e e s w e r e w e l c o m e d to E n g la n d b y r o y a l s p o n s o r s h i p ( L ip s o n 1 9 2 1 ) . T h e i r e x a m p le in s p ir e d a s e r ie s o f n a m e d c lo th s in E n g li s h to w n s in th e w o o lp r o d u c in g re g io n s , w h e r e th e y w e r e d e l ib e r a te ly s e e d e d ( D o e h a e rd 1 9 4 6 ) . T h e f a m o u s L in c o ln G r e e n w a s o n e o f th e e a r l ie s t, a h ig h - q u a l ity c lo th th a t w a s d y e d in th e w o o l,4 a n d its s ta n d a r d s w e r e lik e w is e b a c k e d b y c iv ic a u th o r i ty a n d r o y a l c h a rte r . R o b in H o o d a n d h is m e n in S h e r w o o d F o r e s t m a y h a v e c h o s e n L in c o ln G r e e n f o r c a m o u f la g e , b u t th e y a ls o s u p p o r te d o n e o f th e e a r l ie s t " b u y B r i ti s h " c a m p a ig n s .

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T h e ju m p f r o m th e m e d ie v a l w o o l tr a d e to W e s t A f r ic a n c o tto n p r in ts d o e s n o t c r o s s a s g a p i n g a c h a s m a s o n e m ig h t im a g in e f r o m th e l a p s e o f 5 0 0 y e a rs . F le m is h c lo th lo s t its E u r o p e a n d o m i n a n c e in th e 1 4 th c e n tu r y , w h e n th e s p i n n i n g w h e e l m a d e S p a n i s h m e r i n o w o o l m o re d e s ira b le . B r u g e s c itiz e n s tu rn e d to m a k in g la c e a n d ta p e s tr i e s , a n d n e ig h b o u r in g N e th e r la n d s c itie s g a in e d c o m m e r c ia l d o m in a n c e . B y th e e n d o f th e 1 5 th c e n tu r y , tr a d e w i th W e s t A f r ic a h a d s ta r te d to f u e l E u r o p e a n e c o n o m ic g ro w th . P o r tu g u e s e s h ip s w e r e s a ili n g r e g u la r ly to E lm i n a C a s tle , o n th e c o a s t o f p r e s e n t- d a y G h a n a a n d p r o v i d in g C o lu m b u s w i th h is tr a in in g v o y a g e . C o n ti n u in g to p u s h o n to w a r d s p r e s e n t- d a y In d ia a n d In d o n e s ia , P o r tu g u e s e tr a d e r s s o u g h t to b u y p e p p e r a n d g o ld a t E lm in a , a n d e v e n ­ tu a l ly s l a v e s . A s th e y s c r a m b le d

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A f r ic a n c o n s u m e r s , th e y b e g a n b r in g in g c o tto n c lo th b a c k f r o m In d ia a n d In d o n e s ia ( H a rr o p 1 96 4 ). C lo th w a s a s u c c e s s f u l tr a d e ite m f o r s e v e r a l re a s o n s . In la n d f r o m th e c o a s t, W e s t A f r ic a n s h a d a lr e a d y b e e n u s in g c l o th a s c u r r e n c y f o r c e n tu r ie s in th e S a h e l ia n tra d e n e tw o r k s s tr e tc h in g th r o u g h N o r th A f r ic a , d a tin g f r o m th e e r a o f C a r th a g e . C o tto n f r o m W e s t A f r ic a n s a v a n n a h f a rm s w a s

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 2 0 2 h tt p :// s it e . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 0 2 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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w o v e n in to n a r r o w s tr ip s tra d e d in s ta n d a r d lo n g ro lls , w i th s o m e w ild s i lk a s a lu x u r y ite m ( H o p k i n s 1 9 7 3 ) . F a r th e r s o u th , o n th e A tla n tic C o a s t, th e e a r l ie s t P o r tu g u e s e e x p l o r e r s r e p o r te d th a t o n ly c h ie f s w o r e c lo th , w h il s t c o m m o n e r s th e n w o r e f in e ly p o u n d e d b a r k c lo th , li k e P o ly n e s ia n t ap as ( D e M a r e e s 1 9 8 5 ) . C h i n e s e s i lk s w e r e a ls o b o u g h t in q u a n tity b u t m y s te r i o u s ly d is a p p e a r e d , u n r a v e lle d to w e a v e in to th e f a m o u s A s a n te k e n te c lo th a n d u s e d f o r u n d e r w e a r ( Jo h n s o n 1 9 6 6 ) . D u tc h c o l o n ia l a u th o r i ti e s to o k o v e r E lm in a f r o m th e P o r tu g u e s e in th e 1 8 th c e n tu r y a n d c o n q u e r e d Ja v a in In d o n e s ia b y 1 8 3 0 . W h il s t r u lin g b o th , th e y re c ru ite d F a n ti m e n f r o m th e c o a s t a r o u n d E lm in a in to th e D u tc h E a s t In d ia A r m y a s f r e e v o lu n te e r s f r o m 1 8 5 5 to 1 8 7 2 ( K ro e s e 1 9 7 6 ) .5 T h is v is i b l e m in o r i ty o f b l a c k D u tc h m e n w o n m e d a ls f o r th e ir o w n u n its , w i th l iv e ly f a m il y q u a r te r s i n Ja v a . S o m e re tir e d th e re , b u t m a n y e v e n tu a l ly r e tu r n e d to E lm in a , w h e r e th e ir o l d n e ig h b o u r h o o d s till b e a r s th e n a m e Ja v a H ill. T h e y re ta in e d th e h a b i t o f w e a r i n g Ja v a n e s e s a r o n g s , a n d th e f a s h io n s p r e a d a m o n g th e ir n e ig h b o u r s , s p a r k in g im p o r ts o f Ja v a n e s e w a x p r i n ts b y D u tc h tra d e r s . In tr i c a te Ja v a n e s e b a ti k s a re h a n d p r i n te d u s in g c a r v e d w o o d b lo c k s r e p e a te d ly to a p p ly a w a x r e s is t p a tte r n f o r e a c h c o l o u r b e f o r e th e c lo th w a s d y e d . T h e m u l tis ta g e p r o c e s s r e q u ir e s a s tr o n g e r c lo th to w i th s ta n d it, b u t p r o d u c e s in te n s e c o l o u r s th a t la s t lo n g e r th a n p a tte r n s p r i n te d in c o l o u r e d in k , w h ic h f a d e o r ru b o f f f a s te r. In f a c to r y p r o d u c tio n , la rg e r o l l­ e r s p r i n t th e r e s is t p a tte r n o n to c o n tin u o u s r o lls o f c lo th in w a x o r re s in . T h is p r o te c tiv e c o a tin g s til l m u s t b e r e m o v e d a f te r d y e i n g e a c h c o l o u r to r e v e a l th e c o m p l e te p a tte rn . F a c to r y - m a d e w a x p r i n ts re m a in m o re c o lo u rf a s t th a n " Ja v a p r i n ts ," w h ic h s h o w s im il a r p a tte r n s b u t u s e s c r e e n o r o f f ­ s e t p r in tin g to p u t e a c h c o l o u r o n . A s th e In d u s tr ia l R e v o l u tio n p r o g r e s s e d , f a c to r y - m a d e c lo th b e c a m e s ig n if ic a n tly c h e a p e r a n d m o r e p r o f ita b le th a n h a n d m a d e c lo th f r o m th e c o lo n ie s . T h e f ir s t im i ta tio n b a ti k s w e r e p r o d u c e d in th e m id - 1 9 th c e n tu r y b y H a a r le m m a n u f a c tu r e r P r e v in a ir e , o f th e H a a r le m P r in tin g C o m p a n y ( K r o e s e 1 9 7 6 ) . T h e G l a s g o w te x til e tr a d e r w h o b e g a n im p o r tin g th e m to th e G o ld C o a s t to w a rd s th e e n d o f th e 1 9 th c e n tu ry , E. B. F le m in g , tr a c e d h is f a m il y b u s i n e s s to a n c e s to r s f r o m 1 6th- c e n tu r y F la n d e r s . T h e B ri tis h h a d ta k e n o v e r E lm i n a in 1 8 7 2 , w 'ith th e l a s t D u tc h h o ld i n g s i n th e G o ld C o a s t. S c o ttis h a n d E n g li s h te x til e m a n u f a c tu r e r s w e r e a lr e a d y im i ta tin g In d ia n c o tto n te x til e s li k e c a li c o s a n d m a d r a s i n la r g e q u a n titie s ( H o p k in s 1 9 7 3 ) . F le m in g u s e d H a a r le m d e s ig n s to c o m m is s io n Ja v a n e s e - s ty l e w a x p r in ts i n G la s g o w , a n d M a n c h e s te r s o o n f o llo w e d . T o d ay , E n g li s h w a x is r a te d o n ly s lig h tly lo w e r th a n D u tc h w a x i n G h a n a 's c l o th m a r k e ts , f o llo w e d b y p r in ts f r o m Iv o ry C o a s t, S e n e g a l, N ig e r ia , T o g o , a n d G h a n a . B u y e rs

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p r i n t s e lv e d g e m a r k s u s e p r i n te d w o r d s in s te a d o f w o v e n p a tte r n s , b u t e v e n il l i te r a te o r s e m i l i te r a te b u y e r s a re f u l ly f a m il ia r w i th th e q u a l ity c a te g o r i e s th e y r e p r e s e n t a n d th e p r i c e o f e a c h . T h o s e s a m e A f r i c a n c a t­ e g o r ie s a ls o h a v e a h o tly c o n te s te d h i s to r y f il le d w i th i m i ta tio n s a n d m is ­ n o m e r s . T h i s h i s to r y c r e a te d th e m , r a n k e d th e m , a n d a d a p te d th e m to c h a n g i n g in te r n a ti o n a l b a l a n c e s o f p o w e r . T h e d is p la y o f s e lv e d g e s r e f le c ts a p e r s is te n t r a n k in g o f E u r o p e a n o v e r o th e r p r o v e n a n c e s th a t g o e s b e y o n d s i m p le q u a l ity a s s u r a n c e . S e lv e d g e s th a t re a d " g e n u i n e D u tc h w a x " o r " r e a l Ja v a p r i n t" a re f r e q u e n tl y w o r k e d in to th e d r e s s d e s ig n s o m e h o w , to f la u n t th e a u th e n tic ity o f th e c lo th to th o s e w h o m ig h t n o t n o tic e . T h e la rg e p r i n te d g o ld s e a l m a r k i n g th e e n d s e c tio n o f th e p ie c e m a y a ls o b e d is p la y e d p r o m in e n tly in th e f in a l p r o d ­ u c t. F o r th o s e w h o c o n s i d e r s u c h b r a n d p l a c e m e n t r a th e r ta c k y , it c a n b e m a d e a v a ila b le m o r e s u b tly in h id d e n lo c a ti o n s li k e s e a m a ll o w a n c e s o r

Figure 8.2.

(a) a " R e a l Ja v a P rin t" f ro m G h an a T e x tile P ro d u c e rs , b o u g h t 1 978;

( b ) a " R e a l W ax P rin t" w ith o n e c o lo u r, f ro m G T P, b o u g h t 1 979; (c ) a s am p le o f Iv o ry C o a s t w a x p rin t c lo th , w i th o u t se lv e d g e , b o u g h t 1979 an d th e n c a lle d " A b id ja n W a x " in K u m as i; an d (d ) lig h te r w e ig h t w a x p rin t f ro m En g lan d , b o u g h t 1995 ( a u th o r' s p h o to g rap h s) .

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 2 0 4 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 0 4 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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s h o u ld e r p a d s . F ig u r e s 8 .2 - 8 .3 s h o w th e s e lv e d g e la b e l s a n d q u a l ity d if f e r ­ e n c e s in A f r ic a n p r in ts , f r o m a b lu r r y lo c a l p r o d u c t to th e r e a l th in g . T h e d is c e r n in g A f r ic a n c o n s u m e r c a n r e p o r te d ly te ll th e e x a c t q u a lity le v e l o f a g iv e n s e w n o u tf i t f r o m a c ro s s th e ro o m . Q u a li ty c r ite r i a in c lu d e w e i g h t, s tif f n e s s , n u m b e r o f c o l o u r s u s e d , a n d th e p r e c i s io n o f c o l o u r p l a c e m e n t in th e d e s ig n , c a ll e d r e g is tr a tio n . S h o p p e r s c a n c o n f ir m w h ic h p r o c e s s h a s b e e n u s e d b y e x a m in i n g th e ty p e s o f im p e r f e c tio n s a p p e a r ­ in g a t th e s e lv e d g e s , w h e r e th e p a tte r n b lo c k s o v e r la p . A w a x p r i n t a ls o s h o w s d is ti n c tiv e h a ir l in e c r a c k s in its la rg e s o li d c o l o u r a re a s , m a d e b y h a n d l in g th e s tif f w a x y c lo th d u r in g th e d y e i n g s ta g e . S o m e p r i n te d - o n d e s ig n s in c lu d e f a k e c r a c k s , w h ic h s u g g e s t u n s o lv e d te c h n i c a l is s u e s s u c h a s c o l o u r f a s tn e s s . W a x p r i n ts r e m a in m o re e x p e n s iv e th a n th e s a m e d e s ig n a p p lie d d ir e c tl y o n to th e c lo th , e v e n b y th e s a m e m a n u f a c tu re r. T h e r e a re s e v e r a l o th e r te c h n i c a l c o n tin u i ti e s b e tw e e n th e tr a d e s in F le m is h a n d Ja v a n e s e c lo th s b e s id e s th e u s e o f s e lv e d g e s . T h e s a le o f n a m e d c lo th s b y th e w h o l e p i e c e w a s th e o r i g in o f th e E n g li s h w o r d " w h o l e s a l e r ," c o m p a r e d to th e " r e - ta i l l e u r " o r r e ta il e r w h o w a s w i lli n g to c u t in to th e p i e c e a n d s e ll s h o r te r le n g th s . T h e " w h o l e p i e c e " a n d " h a l f p i e c e " a re s til l c o m m o n u n its o f s a le in th e W e s t A f r i c a n c lo th tr a d e to d a y , a n d a w h o le p i e c e is s til l s e w n to g e th e r a n d s e a le d b y th e m a n u f a c tu re r.

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. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 2 0 5 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 0 5 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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m a k e s c h e a p im ita tio n s o f th e s e " A f r i c a n

p r i n ts " i n li g h te r w e i g h t c o tto n s s o ld b y th e y a rd f r o m la r g e b o lts . In d o n e s ia o r o th e r A s ia n c o u n tr i e s a ls o im i ta te c h e a p ly tr a d itio n a l E u r o p e a n c lo th ty p e s p o p u l a r w i th W e s t A f ri c a n s . D a m a s k s , b r o c a d e s , a n d e y e le t la c e h a v e b e e n re in te r p r e te d to m e a n a f f lu e n c e a n d p o w e r f o r A f r ic a n m e n a s w e l l a s w o m e n , e v e n w h e n w o v e n i n S in g a p o r e . T h e y h a v e th e ir o w n q u a l ity s ta n d a r d s b u t le s s f ir m ly b o u n d e d c a te g o r ie s . F a b r ic s s o ld b y th e y a r d , n o t b y th e w h o l e p ie c e , a re n o t e v e n c a ll e d c lo th . T h e E n g li s h w o r d

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g o o d s , r a th e r th a n " c l o t h ," o r th e A k a n w o r d n t am a. R e a l c lo th r e ta in s its v a lu e a n d w a s u s e d a s a s to re o f v a lu e th r o u g h d e c a d e s o f r a m p a n t in f la ­ tio n . It c a n b e s to r e d in tr u n k s , h a n d e d d o w n , a n d r e s o ld in tim e o f n e e d , e s p e c ia l ly i f it r e m a in s u n c u t. T h e p r a c tic e o f s e lli n g i n w h o l e p i e c e s s u p p o r ts b o th th e h ig h v o lu m e o f tr a d e in W e s t A f r ic a n p r i n ts a n d th e ir e x te n s iv e m a r k e t p e n e tr a tio n . B u y in g in b u l k w o u ld b e c u m b e r s o m e in d e e d i f e v e r y s e a le d p i e c e o f c l o th h a d to b e o p e n e d f o r its d im e n s io n s a n d q u a l ity to b e v e r if ie d . O n l y th o s e w i th c lo s e p e r s o n a l re l a ti o n s h ip s to th e s u p p l ie r c o u ld f e e l c o n f id e n t e n o u g h to re tu rn d e f e c tiv e g o o d s . In th is c o n te x t, p r o d u c t b r a n d i n g d o e s n o t b r in g d e c o m m o d i f ic a tio n , b u t re d u c e s th e n e e d f o r p e r s o n a l e c o n o m ic tie s to c o m p e n s a te f o r r is k f r o m in d e te r m in a c y . R e ta il s h o p p in g a n d b a r g a in in g a re a ls o g r e a tly s im p li f i e d b e c a u s e th e b u y e r c a n c o m p a r e p r i c e s a n d p a tte r n s w i th in a f a m il ia r f r a m e w o r k o f c a te g o r i e s th a t s tip u l a te q u a l ity a n d q u a n tity ( s e e F ig u r e 8 .4 ) . E v e n s e ll e r s

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 2 0 6 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 0 6 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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Figure 8 .4.

A c lo th s ta ll in K u m a s i C e n tra l M a rk e t ( a u th o r 's p h o to g ra p h ) .

w h o s e ll c lo th i n 2 - , 3 - , o r 4 - y a r d le n g th s c u t f r o m w h o le p i e c e s g e n e r a l ly k e e p th e s e s h o r te r p i e c e s i n th e ir o r i g in a l f o ld s to v e r if y th e ir l e n g th a n d s h o w th e s e lv e d g e . D u tc h w a x is v ir tu a l ly n e v e r c u t. O n e o f th e m o re f le x ib le q u a l ity is s u e s th a t a f f e c ts th e p ri c e o f a n A f r ic a n p r i n t c lo th is its s p e c if ic p a tte r n . S o m e p a tte r n s a re m o r e f a s h io n a b le th a n o th e r s , a n d f a s h io n s c h a n g e . W h o le s a le r s tr y to n e g o tia te e x c lu s i v e ri g h ts to a n e w p a tte r n th e y th in k w i ll b e p o p u l a r w h e n th e y o r d e r i t f r o m th e ir d i s tr i b u to r s .6 H a v i n g th e la te s t p a tte r n b r i n g s a p r e m i u m to th e tr a d e r a n d to th e w e a re r, w h o h a s i t s e w n u p i n th e la te s t s ty le . It s e ll s f a s te r a n d a t a h ig h e r p r i c e th a n g e n e r ic p r i n ts o f th e s a m e q u a lity . P a tte r n s a re th e m s e lv e s s u b je c t to m a r k e tin g p r e s s u r e s a n d s tr a te g ie s a n d h a v e im p o r ta n t b r a n d i n g a s p e c ts ( K ro e s e 1 9 7 6 ) . A c a tc h y lo c a l n a m e

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 2 0 7 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 0 7 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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f o r a p a tte r n , li n k e d to c u r r e n t e v e n ts o r p r o v e r b s , m a k e s it m o re a ttr a c ­ tiv e . T h e g la m o u r o f n a m i n g p a tte r n s is a ls o e f f e c tiv e w i th in th e p e r s o n ­ a li s e d c r a f t re a lm o f k e n te c lo th , n o r m a ll y w o v e n to o rd e r. T h e c u s to m e r c a n c h o o s e a m o n g p a tte r n s n a m e d f o r a n c ie n t p r o v e r b s o r f o r c o n te m ­ p o r a r y e v e n ts , s u c h a s th e " N k r u m a h lo v e s F a ti m a " p a tte r n d a tin g f r o m P r e s i d e n t N k r u m a h 's m a rr ia g e . O th e r p a tte r n s a re o ld s ta n d a r d s a n d s o m e b e c o m e d a te d . L ik e o u t­ d a te d s ty le s o f s l e e v e o r n e c k li n e , th e y a d v e r tis e h o w lo n g it h a s b e e n s i n c e th e w e a r e r c o u ld a f f o rd a n e w c lo th . S till , m a n y G h a n a ia n s f a ll in to th a t c a te g o ry , a n d o l d p a tte r n s r e a p p e a r in g m a y in d ic a te th e e x te n t o f th e s e h a rd tim e s a s w e l l a s th e c y c le o f f a s h io n s . W o m e n h a v e b o u g h t g o o d q u a l ity c lo th a s a s to re o f v a lu e f o r m a n y d e c a d e s . It h e ld its v a lu e m u c h b e tte r th a n m o n e y d u r in g d e c a d e s o f h ig h in f la tio n a f te r 1 9 6 0 , d e s p ite lo s s e s s u f f e r e d f r o m m o th s , m ic e , a n d m o u ld . F u ll p i e c e s w i th s e w in g a n d s e a ls in ta c t s o ld a s n e w , m o r e o r le s s . S e w i n g a c l o th to f it th e w e a r e r a n d h e r tim e d o e s n o t d e s tr o y its c o m m m o d ity v a lu e o r re q u ir e la te r r e c o m m o d if ic a tio n . A v ig o r o u s m a r k e t e x is ts f o r s e c o n d - h a n d c lo th s , a lr e a d y s e w n in to s ty le s o f lo n g a g o o r n o t s o lo n g a g o . T h e s e c a n s o m e ti m e s b e m o d if i e d to lo o k m o r e u p - to - d a te , b u t u s u a l ly b e tr a y th e ir s e c o n d - h a n d

o ri g in .

W e a ri n g a g o o d o ld e r c lo th s til l c a r r ie s m o r e p r e s tig e th a n th e s a m e ty p e o f c lo th in g s e w n f r o m c h e a p e r f a b r ic s . T h e in e x p e n s iv e lo c a l tie - a n d - d y e c o tto n s h a v e a n ic k n a m e " M y h u s b a n d 's w o r k i s s p o i l e d ," im p ly in g h e c o u ld n o t a f f o r d to b u y a re a l c lo th . S e c o n d - h a n d s e w n c lo th s a re a ls o m o re re s p e c ta b le f o r f o r m a l o c c a s i o n s th a n s e c o n d - h a n d c lo th e s o f E u r o p e a n o r A m e r i c a n o r ig in . D i s c u s s i o n s o f c o m m o d i f ic a ti o n in E u r o p e n e e d to c o n s i d e r th e li n k s b e tw e e n th e n e i g h b o u r h o o d g a r a g e s a l e a n d th e g l o b a l m a r k e t in s e c o n d ­ h a n d c l o th i n g , c a r s , a n d o th e r g o o d s . S e c o n d - h a n d c l o th e s f r o m A m e r i c a o u tr a n k th o s e f r o m E u r o p e , e x c e p t f o r c u s to m - m a d e B r iti s h s u its . T h e d is tr i b u ti o n c h a n n e l s f o r s e c o n d - h a n d c l o th e s a r e c o m p l e x , r e p e a te d l y c r o s s i n g b o u n d a r i e s b e tw e e n th e f o r m a l a n d i n f o r m a l s e c to r s , c a p i ta l ­ is m , a n d

th e g i f t ( H a n s e n 2 0 0 0 ) . T h e s a m e c h a n n e l s c a r r y a n d p r i c e

a p p r o p r i a te l y c a s t- o f f s , d o n a te d c l o th e s , b r a n d k n o c k o f f s , a n d u n s o ld c l e a r a n c e ite m s . P o i n t o f o r i g in , p r o d u c ti o n p r o c e s s , p r e v i o u s u s e , a n d b r a n d l a b e l l i n g a ll b e c o m e a ttr ib u te s o f a c o m m o d i f i e d ite m th a t is th e n c a r e f u l l y e v a l u a te d

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. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 2 0 8 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 0 8 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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d e s ig n s . B r a n d in g a ls o g iv e s A f r ic a n c u s to m e r s s o m e le v e r a g e o v e r th e d is ta n t p r o d u c e r s . T h e re p u ta tio n o f th e b r a n d , li k e th a t o f th e s u p p lie r, b e c o m e s s o m e th i n g th a t c a n b e lo s t o r w o n . D u tc h f a c to r y o w n e r s m ig h t d is c ip li n e th e ir w o r k e r s v e r y d if f e r e n tl y th a n m e d ie v a l g u ild m a s te r s , b u t th e ir g lo b a l s a l e s s til l d e p e n d e d o n th e ir re p u ta ti o n f o r d e l iv e r in g a c o n s i s ­ te n t p r o d u c t. Sy s te m s o f c o n tr o l h a d to b e a d e q u a te to m a in ta in s ta n d a r d s o f q u a l ity th a t th e f in a l c o n s u m e r in W e s t A f r ic a w a s q u ite c a p a b le o f e v a l­ u a tin g . B r a n d m a g ic m ig h t b e m a r k e d b y th e s e lv e d g e s e w n a n d s e a le d in H o ll a n d , b u t s u b s ta n tia l q u a l itie s h a d to c o r r e s p o n d : w e i g h t, s iz e , a n d p r e c i s io n o f p r i n ti n g , p lu s th e c o n tin u o u s in n o v a tio n i n d e s ig n s th a t m e t c o n su m e r d em an d . T h e a tta c h m e n t o f W e s t A f r i c a n b u y e r s to b r a n d e d c o m m o d i ti e s th a t a s s u r e d th e m o f h i g h - q u a l i ty s ta n d a r d s f o r th e ir u n e x p e c te d ly s o p h is ti­ c a te d

ta s te s s o m e ti m e s f r u s tr a te d th e E u r o p e a n f ir m s o p e r a ti n g th e re .

E a r ly D u tc h tr a d e r s a r o u n d 1 6 0 0 w a r n e d th a t c o p p e r p o ts , o n e o f th e ir s ta p l e ite m s , h a d b e tte r b e o f g o o d s o lid th i c k n e s s a n d n o t th e c h e a p E n g li s h k in d , o r th e W e s t A f r ic a n s w o u ld r e f u s e th e m a n d th e tr a d e r w o u ld e n d u p b r i n g i n g th e m b a c k ( D e M a r e e s 1 9 8 5 ) . A p o l i ti c a l s c a n d a l a r o s e in th e 1 9 4 0 s w h e n B r iti s h f ir m s tr ie d to u n l o a d u n p o p u la r k in d s o f c l o th b y c o n d itio n a l s a le s , w h e r e b y c u s to m e r s h a d to b u y a c e r ta in a m o u n t to o b ta in s o m e o f th e s c a r c e c l o th th e y r e a l ly w a n te d ( N A A 4 , 5 , a n d 6 ) . A s th o s e s a m e f ir m s c o n te n d e d w i th p o s tw a r s h o r ta g e s , th e y c o m ­ p l a in e d th a t G o ld C o a s t c u s to m e r s i n s i s te d o n p r e m i u m Sc h w i n n b ic y c le s a n d w o u ld n o t s e ttle f o r c h e a p e r b r a n d s ( U A C 1 9 5 0 ) . T h a t b r a n d lo y a lty w a s c o n d itio n a l a n d d id n o t p r e v e n t th e m f r o m

s w i tc h i n g to C h i n e s e

b i c y c l e s i n th e 1 9 8 0 s w h e n in c o m e s f e ll. T h e A f r ic a n b u y e r th e n a n d n o w d o e s n o t p a s s iv e ly a c c e p t c o m m o d i­ tie s b r a n d e d f o r E u r o p e a n ta s te s b u t p r e s s u r e s m a n u f a c tu r e r s to c o n tin u e a n d e l a b o r a te b r a n d s th a t s u it th e m . T h e b ig g e s t w h o l e s a le r s a re c o n s u lte d b y f a c to r ie s a b o u t f u tu re d e s ig n s . T h e y a re th e o n e s w h o m a k e o r b r e a k a n e w p a tte r n b y th e ir f a c to r y o rd e r, th e ir lo c a l n a m e s , a n d th e ir d e c is io n s to re s e r v e o r ra tio n a c c e s s . T w o f a ir l y r e c e n t v id e o d o c u m e n ta r i e s g iv e d if f e r ­ e n t p e r s p e c tiv e s o n th e p o w e r f u l r o le o f th e s e le a d in g w h o l e s a le r s , o f te n c a ll e d M a m a B e n z o r N a n a B e n z f o r th e ir ic o n ic c a r s .7 P a tte r n s o f c lo th a re d e s i g n e d f o r p a r tic u la r c o u n tr i e s o r e th n ic p r e f ­ e r e n c e s . In G h a n a , d is ti n c tiv e a e s th e tic s a n d c o l o u r p a l e tte s s i g n a l c lo th p a tte r n s in te n d e d to a p p e a l to A s a n te o r E w e b u y e r s o r n o r th e r n c o m ­ m u n itie s . Id e n ti c a l c lo th s a re o rd e re d in b u l k to s e r v e a s a n e m b le m o f u n i ty f o r m e m b e r s o f o c c u p a ti o n a l o r r e lig io u s g ro u p s , o r f o r li n e a g e m e m b e r s o r g r a n d c h ild r e n a t a n im p o r ta n t f u n e r a l. Im p o r ta n t n a ti o n a l o r r e lig io u s e v e n ts s u c h a s in a u g u r a tio n s , p a p a l v is i ts , a n d c e n te n n i a ls m e r it a c o m m e m o r a ti v e c lo th . T h e c lo th m a r k i n g th e 1 5 0 th a n n iv e r s a r y o f th e P r e s b y te r ia n C h u r c h in G h a n a , f o r e x a m p le , f e a tu r e d la rg e m e d a ll io n s w ith

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 2 0 9 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 0 9 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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p o r tr a i ts o f th e f o u n d i n g f a th e r s . It re m a i n e d c o n s p i c u o u s a t P r e s b y te r ia n C h u r c h s e n d e e s f o r d e c a d e s a f te rw a rd s . D u tc h w a x r e m a in s th e g o ld s ta n d a r d o f tr a d itio n a l W e s t A f r ic a n d re s s lo n g a f te r D u tc h c o m m e r c ia l d o m i n a n c e h a s w a n e d

i n o th e r re s p e c ts .

G h a n a 's c lo th tr a d e r s m a y tr a v e l b y a ir to L o n d o n f o r th e b e s t s e le c tio n a n d p r ic e , b u t th e y c o n tin u e to p a y m o r e f o r D u tc h w a x th a n f o r L o n d o n w a x . D u tc h w a x is e x p e n s iv e , b e y o n d th e m e a n s o f u n i v e r s ity le c tu r e r s e x c e p t f o r th e ir o n e b e s t c lo th . Its e v e r y d a y u s e h a s b e c o m e th e e m b le m o f s u c c e s s f o r b i g b u s i n e s s w o m e n , c a b i n e t m in is te r s ' w i v e s , a n d c o c a in e tr a f f ic k e r s . S o m e D u tc h m a n u f a c tu r e r s tr ie d to p r o m o te it a s a h i g h f a s h io n ite m b u t w i th li m ite d s u c c e s s .8 T h e c o r e c li e n te le f o r D u tc h w a x is m id d l e a g e d a n d p r o u d o f it. T h e y a r e f a r m o r e c o n c e r n e d to d is p la y th e i r w e a l th th a n to lo o k y o u n g a n d th i n , w h i c h c a r r ie s li ttl e p r e s tig e a m o n g th e ir p e e r g r o u p . In c r e a s in g ly , m a le b u s i n e s s m e n a re a ls o a d o p ti n g th is ty p e o f c l o th f o r s ty le s o r i g in a ll y e x e c u te d in s o lid - c o l o u r c lo th m a r k e te d a s m a s c u lin e . Y o u n g e r w o m e n w h o m i g h t h a v e c o n s i d e r e d E u r o p e a n - s ty le d r e s s e s a re te m p te d w i th s ty le s th a t e c h o th e i r a s p i r a tio n s to c o m b in e m o d e r n i ty w i th

th e ir p r o s p e r o u s m o th e r s ' s ta tu s . O n e n e o tr a d itio n a l

s ty le f r o m th e V l i s c o w e b s i te is m o d e l le d in B la c k S ta r S q u a r e , th e s h r i n e o f G h a n a 's in d e p e n d e n c e ( V li s c o 2 0 0 8 ) . It h i g h l i g h ts a s l im b u t r o u n d e d f ig u r e , a n d its d e ta il s e c h o p o p u l a r u p - a n d - d o w n s ty le s a l o n g w i th tr a ­ d itio n a l w a i s t b e a d s . B y c o m b i n i n g W e s te r n f a s h io n a e s th e ti c s w i th W e s t A f r ic a n a e s th e ti c s o f d is p la y , s u c h r e p r e s e n ta tio n s h e lp k e e p th e b r a n d v ia b le in c o n te m p o r a r y e l ite c ir c l e s . I t s ti l l a p p e a ls to

a n e l ite c o h o r t

s tr o n g l y i n v e s te d in b o th W e s te r n a n d A f r ic a n d ir e c ti o n s , w h e th e r m a te r ­ ia l ly o r in im a g i n a ti o n .

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L essT h a n a B r a n d ?

A s in th e f ir s t c a s e o f m e d ie v a l F le m is h w o o l c lo th s , th e m u l tilo c a l o r ig in s o f " A f r i c a n p r i n t" c lo th s h a v e in te r lo c k e d f ir m ly to f o r m a s ta b le , u n i ta r y i d e n tity th a t s til l e n c o d e s a n d d is p la y s th e m . In th i s s e c o n d c a s e , D u tc h w a x , th e g e n e r ic D u tc h o r H o llan d ais p r o v e n a n c e id e n tity in c o r p o r a te s a n u m b e r o f c o r p o r a te b r a n d s th a t a re f a m il ia r to r e le v a n t c o n s u m e r s . T h is k in d o f in te g r a te d q u a l ity c a te g o r y w a s n o b lin d a r te f a c t o f th e m a r k e t, b u t i n e a c h c a s e w a s h is to r ic a ll y c o n s tr u c te d a n d c u l tu r a l ly r e in f o r c e d w ith c o n s i d e r a b l e c a r e a n d a tte n tio n . L ik e c o n te m p o r a r y in d u s tr ia l b r a n d s , th e in ta n g ib le q u a l ity o f r e p u ta ­ tio n p r o v id e d a tr a n s c e n d e n t e l e m e n t th a t c o m m u n i c a te s i ts e lf to th e c o n ­ s u m e r o f " D u tc h w a x ." T h e a u th e n tic n a m e o n th e s e lv e d g e r e le a s e s s o m e o f th e s e m a g ic q u a l itie s , b u t th e c o n c r e te m a te r ia l q u a l itie s o f th e c lo th la id th e f o u n d a tio n . B o th D u tc h w a x a n d L e v i ' s a re v u l n e r a b l e to th e s a m e

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 2 1 0 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 1 0 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

210

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C u lt u r es o f C o m m o d it y B r an d in g

th r e a ts to th e v a lu e o f b r a n d a u th e n tic ity f r o m c o u n te r f e its , r e p li c a s , a n d im ita tiv e c o m p e ti to r s a im in g to a p p r o p r ia te th a t m y s tiq u e . T h e c o n v e n ie n c e to c o n s u m e r s o f b r a n d e d m e r c h a n d is e is o n e f a c to r th a t g r e a tly e x te n d s its m a r k e t p e n e tr a tio n , e s p e c ia l ly w h e n c u l tu r a l d if ­ f e r e n c e a n d d is ta n c e a re s i g n if ic a n t f a c to r s . C u s to m e r s s o p l a c e d m a y h a v e li ttle d ir e c t a c c e s s to in f o r m a tio n o n m a n u f a c tu r i n g te c h n iq u e s , to w n s o f p r o v e n a n c e , o r s ta n d a r d m e a s u r e s o f s iz e a n d w e ig h t. T h e y c a n b e c o m e f a m il ia r w i th th i s k in d o f c a te g o r y , its in te r n a l d if f e r e n ti a ti o n a n d th e ir v is i b l e m a r k e r s w i th in th e ir h o m e e n v ir o n m e n t. B y m o n ito r i n g in d ic a to r s s u c h a s w o v e n o r p r i n te d s e lv e d g e s , il li te r a te c o n s u m e r s a r o u n d th e g lo b e c a n b u y w i th e n o u g h c o n f id e n c e to s u s ta in a v ig o r o u s tr a d in g n e tw o r k a t e v e r y le v e l f r o m g lo b a l to lo c a l v il la g e . T h is r e la ti o n s h ip

u n d e n ia b ly

s u b o r d in a te s A f r ic a n s o n o n e le v e l to

m a n u f a c tu r e r s in m o re in d u s tr ia l is e d a re a s , n o t le a s t b y d is p la c in g ru ra l p o p u l a ti o n s a n d s u b m e r g in g th e ir s o u r c e s o f in c o m e . S till , i t a ls o g iv e s c o n s u m e r s s o m e le v e ra g e . P r e s s u r e f r o m c o n s u m e r s to m a in ta in a s u p ­ p l y o f g o o d s s u c h a s c lo th , in f o r m s th a t h a v e m e a n in g a n d u ti lity in th e ir o w n li v e s , d o e s h e lp p r o te c t th e ir s ta n d a r d o f li v i n g a s th e y s e e it. W ith o u t “ D u tc h w a x ," a n A s a n te f u n e r a l w o u ld n o t b e th e s a m e . W h e n m e d ie v a l w a r s d is p e r s e d F le m is h w e a v e r s in to E n g la n d , th e v e n e r a b le n a m e s o f th e ir c o n q u e r e d h o m e l a n d c o u ld n o t c o m p e te w i th th e a c tu a l s k ill s th e y to o k w i th th e m . D e s p ite th e a r g u a b ly n e f a r io u s in te n tio n s o f c o n te m p o r ­ a r y a d v e r tis i n g , e f f e c tiv e b r a n d s o p e r a te in a d ia le c tic p r o c e s s th a t h a s b o th m a te r ia l a n d id e o lo g ic a l p a ra m e te rs .

N o t es

1. V a rio u s w o r ld tra d e o r g a n iz a ti o n s a re h e a r in g a s e r ie s o f d is p u te s o v e r th e r ig h ts o f s im ila r p r o d u c ts f r o m

o u ts id e th e o r i g in a l p r o v e n a n c e

a r e a s ( c h a m p a g n e f o r s p a r k lin g w i n e a n d c a m e m b e r t a n d c h e d d a r f o r ty p e s o f c h e e s e , a m o n g o th e r s ) to u s e th o s e n a m e s a s a g e n e r ic d e s ig n a ­ to r f o r th e ir p ro d u c ts . 2 . L o n g e r h a ir s m a k e a s tr o n g e r th r e a d w h e n th e r a w w o o l is c o m b e d a n d th e n s p u n w i th a d ro p s p in d le . T h e s p i n n i n g w h e e l p r o d u c e s th r e a d m u c h f a s te r b u t b r e a k s th e lo n g e r h a ir s , r e m o v i n g th is a d v a n ta g e . C a r d in g a ls o b r e a k s th e h a ir s b u t p r e p a r e s w o o l f o r s p i n n i n g m u c h f a s te r th a n c o m b in g it. T h e tw o te c h n o lo g i c a l c h a n g e s m e a n t f e w e r s p in n e r s c o u ld k e e p a w e a v e r in th r e a d , a n d m e a n t th a t th e s h o rte r, f in e r, d e n s e r w o o l o f S p a n i s h m e r i n o s h e e p c o m p e te d e f f e c tiv e l y w ith E n g li s h f le e c e s . 3. T h is is , lite ra lly , g r e a t c lo th b u s i n e s s . 4 . T h is d y e in g m e th o d u s e d m o re d y e , b u t th e c o l o u r d id n o t w e a r o f f a s th e c lo th b e c a m e w o rn .

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 21 1 h t t p :/ /s ite . e b ra ry .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 1 1 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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5 . E a r li e r E lm i n a r e c r u its ( 1 8 3 7 - 1 8 4 3 ) h a d m a in ly b e e n f o r m e r s l a v e s a n d s o h a d d is ta n t e th n ic o r ig in s . T h e y c o u ld b u y th e ir f r e e d o m w i th th e r e c r u itm e n t b o n u s . 6 . B o th o f th e v id e o s title d M am a B e n z s h o w th is e x p e c ta tio n o f e x c lu s i v e r ig h ts . 7. T w o e x c e l le n t v id e o s c o n f u s in g ly c a r r y th e s a m e title M am a B e n z . O n e s u b title d G o d G av e H e r a M e r c e d e s ( 1 9 9 3 ) p ro f il e s a le a d in g L o m e m a r k e t w h o le s a le r. T h e s e c o n d , s u b title d T h e T as t e o f M o n e y ( 2 0 0 2 ) r e c o u n ts th e u n s u c c e s s f u l a tte m p t to b y p a s s s u c h a w h o l e s a le r in O u a g a d o u g o u , le d b y th e lo c a l m a n a g e r o f a D u tc h f irm . 8 . T h e v id e o s u b title d T h e T as t e o f M o n e y s h o w s th i s im a g e d is ju n c tu r e in te ll in g d e ta il.

R

ef er enc es

C o o rn a e rt, E. 1930.

Un

C e n t r e In d u s t r ie l d ' A u t r efo is, La D rap e r ie - S ay e t t e r ie

d ’H o n d sc ho o t e. P a ris: L e s P re ss e s U n iv e rsita ire s d e Fran c e .

C ro w f o o t, E., F. P ritc h a rd , an d K . Sta n ila n d . 2002. T ex t iles an d C lo t hin g , c .1 1 5 0 c .1 4 5 0 . R o c h e s te r, N Y : Bo y d e ll P re ss.

D e M a re e s , P. 1985. C hr o n ic le o f t he G o ld C o as t o f G u in ea. T ra n slate d b y A . V an D a n tz ig a n d A . Sm ith f ro m th e 160 2 e d itio n . O x f o rd : O x f o rd U n iv e rs ity P re ss. D e s M a re z , G . 1927. La D ro it . P riv e a Y pres au X V Ilie Siec le. Br a in e - lA ll a u d , Be lg iu m : R e n e Be rg e r. D o e h a e rd , R . 1946. L ' ex p an sio n E c o n o m iq u e B e ig e au M o y e n A g e . Bru sse ls: L a R e n a is s a n c e d u L iv re . Fris, V. 1913. H is t o ir e d e G arn i. Bru sse ls: G . V an O e st. H a n se n , K . 200 0 . Salau la. C h ic a g o : U n iv e rs ity o f C h ic a g o P re ss. H a rro p , S. 1964. T h e e c o n o m y o f th e W e st A f ric a n c o a s t in th e 16111 c e n tu ry . E c o n o m ic B u lle t in o f G h an a 8 :1 5 - 2 9 .

H e re n t,

J.

1904.

La

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L ille ,

Fra n c e :

Im e r

de

L e fe d re -N u c ro c q . H o p k in s , A . G . 1973. A n E c o n o m ic H is t o r y o f W est A fr ic a. N e w Y o rk : C o lu m b ia U n iv e rs ity P re ss. Jo h n s o n , M . 1966. T h e o u n c e in 18th c e n tu ry W e st A f ric a n tra d e . Jo u r n al o f A fric an H is t o r y 7 :1 9 7 - 2 2 1 .

Jo u re t, G . 1937. H is t o ir e E c o n o m iq u e d e la B elg iqu e . M o n s , Fra n c e : L a P ro v in c e . K ro e s e , W . T. 1976. T he O rig in o f t he W ax B lo c k P r in t s in t he C o ast o f W est A fr ic a. H e n g e lo , N e th e rla n d s : Sm it. L ip so n , E. 1921. T he H is t o r y o f t h e W o o llen an d W o rst ed In d u s t ries . L o n d o n : A . & C . Blac k . M am a B en z & t h e T aste o f M o n e y . 2 0 0 2 . N e w Y o rk : Film m a k e rs L ib rary . M am a B e n z : G o d G av e H e r a M e r c e d e s B en z . 1993. N e w Y o rk : Film m a k e rs L ib rary .

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 2 1 2 h tt p :// s it e . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 1 2 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

212

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C u lt u r es o f C o m m o d it y B r an d in g

P e e k , G . S. 195 9. T h e A n g lo - F le m is h C o n flic t ( 1 2 7 0 - 1 2 7 4 ) an d It s E ffe c t s. A n n A rb o r, M I: U n iv e rs ity M ic ro f ilm s . P in o t, J. 1906. E t u d e H is t o r iq u e s u r les R e lat io n s C o m m e rc iale s e n t r e la F lan d r e e t la R e p u b liq u e d e G e n e s au M o y e n A g e. P a ris: P ic ard .

P ire n n e , H . 1 9 0 9 - 1 9 3 2 . H is t o ir e d e B elg iqu e. Bru ss e ls : H . L a m e rtin . P re v ite - O rto n , C . W . 1953. T he S h o r t e r C am b r id g e M e d ie v al H ist o r y . C a m b rid g e : C a m b rid g e U n iv e rs ity P re ss. So c ie te d 'e m u la tio n d e Bru g e s ( SEB). 1930 [ 1842] . C o llec t io n d es K eu r en ou S t at u t s d e T on s les M e t ie r s d e B ru g es. G a n t [ G h e n t], Be lg iu m : A n n o o t- Bra e c k m a n .

U n ite d A f ric a C o m p a n y (U A C ) . 1950. M e rc h a n d is e T rad in g in W e s t A f ric a . S t at is t ic al an d E c o n o m ic R e v ie w 5 a n d 6.

V an d e rk in d e re , L. 1879. L e S ie c le d es A r t e v e ld e . Bru sse ls: J. Ja n ss e n s . V lisc o . 200 8. T h e D u tc h W ax . h ttp : / / w w w .a f ric a n e w s .c o m / s ite / lis t_ m e s s a g e s / 156 0 ( a c c e ss e d

15 M a rc h , 2 008) .

So u rc e s f ro m th e G h an a N atio n a l A rc h iv e s, A c c ra , c ite d u n d e r its f o rm e r s y s ­ te m o f c la s sif ic atio n , a s f o u n d in 1980: N A A 4 . N o . 0 8 6 6 ST 17. C o m p la in ts a g a in s t p ro f ite e rin g b y tra d in g f irm s. A n o n y m o u s le tte r to th e G o v e rn o r, 2 3 / 9/ 4 1. N A A 5 . N o . 0 8 6 6 ST 1 7. L e tte r f ro m P re sid e n t o f th e Jo in t P ro v in c ia l C o u n c ils to th e Se c re ta ry f o r N a tiv e A f f airs , 20/ 11 / 41. N A A 6 . N o . 0 02 8 SF8 . " Irr e g u la ritie s in Im p o rt C o n tro l." M o tio n b y H o n . D r. J. B. D a n q u a h , 2 6 / 3/ 4 7 .

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 2 1 3 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 1 3 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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M o s t a r c h a e o l o g is ts a n d a n th r o p o lo g is ts a c c e p t th a t th e p r o d u c tio n a n d c o n s u m p tio n o f m a te r ia l c u ltu r e p r o v id e a n im p o r ta n t m e c h a n is m f o r th e n e g o tia ti o n o f p e r s o n a l a n d c o lle c tiv e id e n titi e s a n d b o n d s . In m a k in g , e x c h a n g in g , a n d u s in g th in g s , in d iv i d u a ls c o n s tr u c t a n d e x p r e s s th e ir o w n p o s itio n w i th r e f e r e n c e to w i d e r s o c ia l s tru c tu re s . E x p li c itly o r im p lic itly , c o m m o d i ty c o n s u m p tio n is a lw a y s e n ta n g le d w i th c u l tu r a l c o n s tr a in ts a s m u c h a s w i th e c o n o m ic n e tw o r k s ; th u s , in s tu d y in g c o n s u m p tio n , w e m a y o b ta i n in s i g h t n o t o n ly in to e c o n o m i c o r g a n is a tio n , b u t a ls o in to h u m a n a s p i r a tio n s a n d b e li e f s , o r th e d e v e lo p m e n t a n d tr a n s m is s io n o f id e a s in d if f e r e n t c o n te x ts . T h e c o n tr ib u to r s to th is v o lu m e e x p l o r e th e c o n c e p t o f b r a n d i n g a s a p a r tic u la r m e c h a n is m f o r s tr u c tu r in g th e m a r k e tin g o f m a s s - p r o d u c e d , r e p la c e a b le g o o d s in s o c ia l c o n te x ts w h e r e th e r e is o f te n a s ig n if ic a n t s e p a r a tio n b e tw e e n p r o d u c e r s a n d c o n s u m e r s . In th e s e s itu a tio n s , th e la b e l lin g , p a c k a g i n g , o r o th e r m a r k i n g o f s u b s ti tu ta b l e c o m m o d i ti e s s e e m e f f e c tiv e w a y s o f a ll o w i n g c o n s u m e r s to n a v i g a te th e m a r k e t a n d id e n tif y d e s ir a b le g o o d s . H o w e v e r , b r a n d i n g is n o t ju s t a f o r m o f c o n s u m e r p r o te c ­ tio n a g a in s t a d v e r s e s e le c tio n o r f r a u d ; im p o rta n tly , b r a n d e d c o m m o d i­ tie s f o s te r lo y a lty a n d m u tu a l r e c o g n i ti o n a m o n g c o n s u m e r s , d e v e lo p in g b o n d s th a t a re re in f o r c e d b y s h a r e d v a lu e s a n d e x p e c ta tio n s , w h e th e r r e a l o r assu m e d . R e s e a r c h in g

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b r a n d i n g b e c o m e s a r g u a b ly m o re d if f ic u lt w h e n w e d e a l w i th p a s t s o c i­ e tie s . T h is is p r o b a b ly d u e to th e f r a g m e n ta r y n a tu r e o f th e d a ta a s m u c h a s to o u r p r e s e n tis t b ia s a n d c o m p a r a tiv e l a c k o f f a m il ia r ity w i th h o w s o c ia l r e l a ti o n s h ip s m ig h t s tr u c tu r e th e c o n s u m p tio n o f g o o d s in c u l tu r a l c o n te x ts a l i e n to o u r o w n . H o w e v e r, th is is n o t a n a lto g e th e r im p o s s i b l e e n d e a v o u r.

213

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 2 1 4 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 1 4 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

214

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F o r e x a m p le , B e v a n 's s tu d y ( th is v o lu m e ) c o n v in c in g ly e x p lo r e s h o w th e v a lu e s a s s ig n e d to d if f e r e n t b r a n d e d p r o d u c ts c h a n g e d a s th e s e g o o d s m o v e d a c ro s s d if f e r e n t s o c ia l s e c to r s in th e B r o n z e A g e M e d i te r r a n e a n , a n d h o w th o s e v a lu e s w e r e c o n tin g e n t o n th e s p e c if ic m e c h a n is m s s tr u c ­ tu r in g b r o a d e r s o c ia l r e la ti o n s h ip s . T h is c h a p te r is c o n c e r n e d

w i th th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f s p e c if ic v a lu e s

a n d c u l tu r a l tie s b e h in d w h a t a p p e a r s to b e a n e a r ly m o d e m E u r o p e a n " b r a n d ." In p a rtic u la r, I i n v e s tig a te th e in s ti tu ti o n a l s tr u c tu r e s a n d c h a n g ­ in g id e a s th a t m a y e x p l a in th e p r e s e n c e o f a s ta m p o r m o n o g r a m f o u n d in a r a n g e o f g o o d s , in c lu d in g b o o k s , c e r a m ic s , a n d m e ta lw a r e , th a t h a v e b e e n c o n s u m e d a c ro s s E u r o p e d u r in g s e v e r a l c e n tu r i e s s in c e la te m e d i­ e v a l tim e s . T h u s , th e f ir s t p e c u li a r ity o f th is c a s e s tu d y is th a t i t d o c u ­ m e n ts a p o s s ib le b r a n d i n g s tr a te g y th a t c u ts a c ro s s d if f e r e n t p r o d u c e r s a n d m a te r ia l c a te g o r i e s o v e r a n e x tr e m e l y lo n g tim e s p a n . In th is c a s e , th e li n k b e tw e e n th e b r a n d e d g o o d s is c le a r ly n o t a s i n g le p r o d u c e r o r th e ty p e o f p r o d u c t b u t th e id e a s a s s o c ia te d w i th th e m : n a m e ly , a c o m p le x m ix o f re l ig i o u s te n e ts , la te a lc h e m i c a l im a g e r y , a n d e m e r g in g f r e e m a s o n ic id e a ls . T h e s e c o n d p e c u li a r ity is th e c la i m th a t, in a c c o r d a n c e w i th m u c h a lc h e m i c a l a n d f r e e m a s o n ic p r a c tic e , th e id e a s e x p r e s s e d b y th e s ta m p in q u e s tio n a re s e c r e ti v e a n d u n d e r s ta n d a b le o n ly to th o s e in itia te d in th e re l e v a n t c o d e s . B a s e d o n th e s e a n d o th e r c o n s i d e r a tio n s , th is c h a p te r w ill re c o g n i s e th e v a lu e o f " b r a n d i n g " a s a u s e f u l m o d e l to e x p la in p a tte r n s o f c o m m o d i ty p r o d u c tio n a n d c o n s u m p tio n , b u t it w i ll a ls o h ig h li g h t s o m e o f th e g r e a t v a r ia b il ity o f h u m a n b e h a v i o u r s th a t ta k e p l a c e u n d e r s u c h s i n g le c o n c e p tu a l u m b re lla .

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T h e h is to r y o f f r e e m a s o n r y re m a in s e lu s iv e . T h is is p a r tly b e c a u s e o f th e s e c r e c y in h e r e n t to its in itia l o r g a n i s a tio n a n d m u c h o f its la te r h is to r y , to g e th e r w i th its e l a b o r a te la n g u a g e , c o m p l e x s y m b o lis m , a n d a w e a lth o f f o u n d a ti o n a l m y th s th a t c o n f u s e th e h is to r ia n . A f u r th e r c o m p lic a tio n s te m s f r o m th e f a c t th a t m o s t o f th e tr a d itio n a l w o r k s o n th e h is to r y a n d s y m b o l is m o f f r e e m a s o n r y w e r e w r i tte n b y m a s o n s , n a tu r a l ly m o re f a m il ­ ia r w i th th e to p ic th a n m o s t, b u t s o m e ti m e s m o r e s tir r e d b y la u d a to r y e n th u s i a s m th a n b y a c a d e m ic rig o u r. In th e l a s t c o u p le o f d e c a d e s , s o m e e x e m p l a r y w o r k , m o s t n o ta b l y b y M a r g a r e t Ja c o b ( 1 9 9 1 , 2 0 0 6 ) h a s b r o u g h t g r e a te r c l a r i ty to th e o r i g in s , s o c i a l im p l i c a ti o n s , p o l i ti c a l a c ti v i ti e s a n d

h i s to r i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t o f

m a s o n i c lo d g e s . O n e o f th e a s p e c ts th a t w e h a v e b e g u n to u n d e r s ta n d b e tte r is th a t o f th e i n s ti tu ti o n a l b a c k g r o u n d to th e ir f o r m a tio n . It s e e m s c l e a r th a t f r e e m a s o n r y r e l ie d o n th e s tr u c tu r e o f e a r l i e r a r ts a n d c r a f ts g u i l d s th a t, f r o m th e la te 1 7 th c e n tu ry , s ta r te d to a c c e p t s e le c te d f e e - p a y i n g

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 2 1 5 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 1 5 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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la y m e n in o r d e r to f a c e f in a n c ia l b u r d e n s . P r o g r e s s iv e l y , in a c h a n g i n g m a r k e t e c o n o m y , th e p r o f e s s i o n a l s p e c i a l i s a ti o n a n d e c o n o m i c ro le o f th e g u i l d s d e c r e a s e d , w h i l s t th e i r r o le a s s tr u c tu r e s f o r th e s o c i a l i s a ti o n o f “ g e n tl e m e n " d e v e lo p e d . A n o th e r s u b je c t o f h is to r ic a l e n q u i r y f re e m a s o n ry , a lc h e m y , a n d

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c o n n e c tio n s s til l r e m a i n to b e e x p lo r e d in d e ta il ( Y a te s 1 9 6 4 , 1 9 7 5 ) . It is w i d e ly a c c e p te d th a t m a s o n i c m y th s a n d s y m b o l s d r a w s u b s ta n tia l ly f r o m a lc h e m i c a l im a g e r y , a s th e s e c r e ti s m , a u s te r ity , a ll e g o r i c a l la n g u a g e , a n d a ll e g e d l y h ig h a s p ir a tio n s o f b o th a lc h e m is ts a n d f r e e m a s o n s h a v e m u c h in c o m m o n . A s f a r a s I a m a w a r e , h o w e v e r , n o w o r k h a s a s y e t a tte m p te d to in v e s ­ tig a te th e m u l tip l e c o n n e c tio n s b e tw e e n th e s e th r e e d im e n s io n s : th e la te m e d ie v a l g u il d , th e a lc h e m i c a l la b o ra to ry , a n d th e e a r l y m o d e r n m a s o n ic lo d g e . T h is n e tw o r k is th e p a r tic u la r f o c u s o f th i s c h a p te r. U s i n g a r c h a e o ­ lo g ic a l m a te r ia l c u ltu r e to g e th e r w i th h is to r ic a l a n d ic o n o g r a p h ic s o u rc e s , I d is c u s s th e tr a n s f e r o f id e a s a n d s y m b o ls b e tw e e n a lc h e m i s ts , p o tte r s , p r i n te r s , f r e e m a s o n s , a n d o th e r in d iv i d u a ls , in w h a t a p p e a r s to b e a p e c u ­ li a r c a s e o f f r e e m a s o n s ' b r a n d in g . E v e n s o , th e b r a n d i n g o f m a te r ia l c u ltu r e b y e a r ly m o d e r n f r e e m a s o n s is a s l ig h tly o d d s u b je c t o f in q u iry , a n d th is s tu d y m a y re q u ir e s o m e f o r m o f ju s tif ic a tio n . T h e o r i g in a l s p a r k b e h in d th is c h a p te r w a s s im p ly a s e r ie s o f in i ti a lly p e r p le x i n g c o i n c i d e n c e s a n d c h a n c e d is c o v e r ie s th a t a ttr a c te d m y c u r io s i ty in th e c o u r s e o f a d if f e r e n t p r o je c t, r a th e r th a n a p l a n n e d re s e a rc h p r o g r a m m e . I r e p o r t m y id e a s b e lo w in th e o r d e r th e y d e v e lo p e d , w h il s t a c c o m m o d a tin g m o r e e x te n d e d d ig r e s s i o n s a n d a c k n o w l e d g in g c a v e a ts w h e r e r e l e v a n t.

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T h e s ta r tin g p o in t o f th is r e s e a r c h w a s a p r o je c t o f a r c h a e o l o g ic a l a n d s c ie n tif ic a n a ly s e s f o c u s e d o n th e a r c h a e o l o g y o f a lc h e m y a n d a ls o a im e d a t re c o n s tr u c tin g th e p r o d u c tio n a n d c o n s u m p tio n o f c r u c i b l e s in th e p o s tm e d ie v a l w o r ld ( M a rtin o n - T o rr e s 2 0 0 5 ,2 0 0 7 ; M a r tin o n - T o r r e s a n d R e h re n 2 0 0 5 , 2 0 0 9 ) . C r u c i b l e s a re c e r a m i c v e s s e ls n o r m a ll y u s e d f o r c h e m ic a l a n d m e ta ll u r g i c a l o p e r a ti o n s . F ro m

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a lc h e m i c a l la b o r a to r i e s , m e ta ll u r g i c a l, a n d je w e l l e r s ' w o k s h o p s , g la s s ­ w o r k s a n d m in ts , w h e r e th e y w e r e u s e d f o r m ix in g , m e lti n g , c a lc i n i n g , r e d u c in g , e v a p o r a ti n g , o r o th e r w is e p r o c e s s i n g s u b s ta n c e s u n d e r h ig h te m p e r a tu r e s ( F ig u r e 9 .1 ) . T w o m a in c r u c i b l e p r o d u c e r s c a n b e id e n tif ie d w h o s e p r o d u c ts w e r e e x p o r te d a c ro s s e a r ly m o d e r n E u r o p e a n d e v e n to

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 2 1 6 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 1 6 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

216

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c o l o n ia l A m e r ic a : ( 1 ) th e f a m o u s m u lli te c r u c ib le s p r o d u c e d in th e r e g i o n o f H e s s e , i n c e n tr a l G e r m a n y ( M a rtin o n - T o rr e s e t al. 2 0 0 6 , 2 0 0 8 ; S te p h a n 1 9 9 5 ) , a n d ( 2 ) th e g r a p h i ti c c r u c i b l e s m a n u f a c tu r e d i n B a v a r ia a n d s u r­ r o u n d in g r e g i o n s ( B a u e r 1 9 8 3 ; M a rtin o n - T o rr e s a n d

R e h re n 20 0 9 ). T h e

la tte r g r o u p is o f p a r tic u la r re le v a n c e to th i s c h a p te r , g iv e n th e p r e s e n c e o f a s ta m p im p r in te d o n th e e x te r i o r b a s e o f s o m e e x a m p l e s , w h ic h h a s e n c o u r a g e d th e r e s e a r c h re p o r te d h e re . T h e s ta m p in q u e s tio n i s c h a r a c te r is tic a l ly o r g a n is e d a r o u n d th e n u m ­ b e r 4 , u s u a l ly w i th a s e c o n d h o r i z o n ta l c ro s s b a r , a n d tw o in i ti a ls o n e ith e r s i d e s o f th e v e r tic a l s te m . T h is d e s i g n is u s u a l ly e n c lo s e d b y a n ic h e - s h a p e d o u tli n e , w i th th e lo n g e s t a x is b e i n g b e tw e e n 2 a n d 3 c m i n le n g th . In s o m e c a s e s , th e s ta m p is m o r e n e a tl y d e lin e a te d , a s i f im p r in te d w i th a m e ta ll ic , r a th e r th a n a c e r a m i c , d ie . V a ri a tio n s in th is d e s ig n a re n o tic e a b le o n d if ­ f e r e n t c r u c ib le s , c h ie f ly in th e f o r m o f d if f e r e n t in iti a ls ( o r th e s a m e o n e s in

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. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 2 1 7 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 1 7 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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s e v e ra l s ta m p s re c o rd e d o n th e b a s e s a v a rie ty o f c ru c ib le s ( a f te r C o tte r 1992 a n d Ba u e r 1 98 3 ) ; 6, se al o f th e D u tc h m e rc h a n t Ja c o b v a n C o s v e lo e ( M iln e 2 0 0 3) ; 7, se al o f H a n s H e ll o f A f le n z , A u s tria ; 8 , c e n tra l e m b le m o n a B ar t n ian n s kru g b y Ja n Em e n s M e n n ic k e n ( G a im s te r 1 997 ); 9 , s y m b o l im p r in te d o n th e b a s e o f s o m e o f th e 1 8 ,h- 1 9 lh c e n tu r y c ru c ib le s re c o v e re d in R io d e Ja n e iro ( a f te r L im a a n d d a Silv a 2 0 0 3 ) ; 10, e m b le m u s e d b y Jo h n Sib e rc h in C a m b rid g e d u r in g th e 1 6 th c e n tu ry ( Fis h e r 1 521 ). T h e b o tto m ro w s h o w s th e s ta m p o f a c ru c ib le fro m O b e r n z e ll ( A u s tria) , a n d th e se rie s o f s y m b o ls it in c lu d e s: f ro m le f t to rig h t, th e s ta m p its e lf ( w ith th e in itia ls IK ) , a L a tin c ro s s , a G re e k c ro s s, a d o u b le c ro s s , a n u m b e r fo u r, an an c h o r, a n d a n ic h e - s h a p e d o u tlin e , (b ) s o m e e x a m p le s o f a lc h e m ic a l s y m b o ls illu s tra te d in th e M e d ic in is c h - C h y m is c h - u n d A lc h e m is t is c h e s O r ac u lu m o f 1755.

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 2 1 8 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 1 8 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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C u lt u r es o f C o m m o d it y B r an d in g

th e ir g u ild c u s to m s . G a th e r i n g p a r ti c u l a r im p o r ta n c e a f te r th e E u r o p e a n u r b a n a n d e c o n o m i c r e v iv a l o f th e 1 2 th a n d 1 3 th c e n tu r i e s , c r a f t g u i l d s h a d o p e r a te d a s s e lf - r e g u l a to r y c o r p o r a ti o n s th a t p r o te c te d b o th th e i r o w n tr a d e a n d th e ir c u s to m e r s b y o r g a n i s i n g a p p r e n ti c e s h i p , m a n u f a c tu r i n g s ta n d a r d s , a n d c o n tr o l l i n g th e q u a n tity , q u a lity , a n d p r i c e o f th e i r s to c k a s w e l l a s o f f e r i n g o th e r s e r v i c e s to th e ir m e m b e r s s u c h a s p r o te c ti o n a g a i n s t p r o f e s s i o n a l e n c r o a c h m e n t o r e v e n r e l i g i o u s c e r e m o n i e s f o r th e d e c e a s e d ( B la c k 1 9 8 4 ; E p s te i n 1 9 9 1 ; G a d d a n d W a ll is 2 0 0 2 , 2 0 0 6 ) . In a m a r k e t f lo o d e d w i th c o u n te r f e i t g o o d s a n d w h e r e tr a d e w a s c h a n n e l l e d th r o u g h in te r m e d i a te m e r c h a n ts , p o tte r s w o u l d u s e th e i r g u i l d s ' s ta m p o n th e ir p r o d u c ts , a m o n g o th e r c o n s p i c u o u s c h a r a c te r i s ti c s , a s a n i n d i ­ c a tio n o f r e p u ta ti o n a n d q u a l i ty f o r p o te n ti a l b u y e r s ( R i c h a r d s o n 2 0 0 8 ) . M e r c h a n ts ( G i r l i n g 1 9 6 2 ) , p r i n te r s ( R o b e r ts 1 8 9 3 ) , s to n e w o r k e r s ( Jo n e s B a k e r 1 9 9 6 ) , a n d c l o th w e a v e r s ( C la r k , th i s v o lu m e ) a m o n g s t o th e r s , a ls o m a r k e d th e ir p r o d u c ts . T h e u s e o f s ta m p s to m a r k " a u th e n ti c " o r r e p u ta b l e g o o d s s e e m s p a r ­ tic u la r ly a p p r o p r ia te f o r c r u c i b l e s , a s th e s e w e r e th e k e y in s tr u m e n ts o f a lc h e m y — a n a r e a o f a c tiv ity w h e r e s e r io u s s c h o l a r ly w o r k w a s e n c u m ­ b e r e d b y c o m m o n ly r e c o g n i s e d p a tte r n s o f c h a r la ta n r y , f r a u d , a n d d e c e it, a n d a ls o a n in te r n a tio n a l m a r k e t n ic h e o f v e r y s u b s ta n ti a l w o r th . A s a c a s e in p o i n t, i t is e s ti m a te d th a t m il l i o n s o f c r u c i b l e s w e r e i m p o r te d f r o m G e r m a n y in to B r ita i n a lo n e d u r in g th e p o s t- m e d i e v a l p e r io d , c a u s in g s u c h a f in a n c ia l b u r d e n th a t th e R o y a l S o c i e ty o f A r ts a c tiv e ly p r o m o te d th e m a n u f a c tu r e o f c r u c i b l e s b y lo c a l p o tte r s — a l b e i t w i th li m ite d s u c c e s s ( C o tte r 1 9 9 2 ) . It m a y a ls o b e s i g n if ic a n t th a t, o u t o f th e in n u m e r a b l e m e ta ll u r g i c a l to o l s i l lu s tr a te d in th e n e a r ly 3 0 0 w o o d c u ts in A g r i c o l a ' s D e r e m e t allic a, c r u c i b l e s s e e m to b e th e o n ly in s tr u m e n ts c l e a r l y s h o w i n g a s ta m p ( F ig u r e 9 .1 ) . T h e r o le o f th e s ta m p a s a p r o p o s i ti o n a l d e v i c e in c r u c i b l e s th u s s e e m e d a n e s ta b li s h e d a n d u n d e r s ta n d a b le p r a c ti c e i n th e c o n te x t o f a la r g e - s c a le , lo n g - d i s ta n c e , c o m p e ti ti v e m a r k e t in s ta n d a r d is e d

g o o d s.

B a s e d o n s u c h p r e m i s e s , m y in i ti a l in te r p r e ta ti o n o f th e s ta m p f o u n d o n th e a r c h a e o l o g ic a l c r u c i b l e s w a s s tr a ig h tf o r w a r d a n d e v e n o f f e re d s o m e e f f o r t- s a v in g a d v a n ta g e s to m y in i ti a l m a te r ia l s s c i e n c e p r o je c t— th o s e c r u c i b l e s b e a r i n g th e f a m i l i a r s ta m p w o u ld n o lo n g e r n e e d to b e s u b je c te d to s c ie n tif ic a n a ly s e s to d e te r m in e th e ir p r o v e n a n c e , a s th e s ta m p i ts e l f w o u ld p r o v e th e ir B a v a r i a n o ri g in . T h in g s , h o w e v e r , tu r n e d o u t to b e m o re c o m p l ic a te d , w h e n s i m ila r s y m ­ b o l s b e g a n to b e n o tic e d in c o m p l e te ly d if f e r e n t m e d ia — o f te n , o n o b je c ts th a t h a d n o k n o w n c o n n e c tio n s w i th B a v a r ia ( F ig u re 9 .2 ) . O n e o f th e m o s t s ta r tli n g c a s e s a p p e a r e d in th e m a r k u s e d b y Jo h n S i b e r c h , a p r i n te r w h o w o r k e d in C a m b r i d g e in th e e a r l y 1 6 th c e n tu r y ( e .g ., F is h e r 1 5 2 1 ) . A p a r t f r o m th e n ic h e - s h a p e d o u tlin e ( a b s e n t i n th e p r i n te d v e r s i o n ) , th e s y m b o l

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 2 1 9 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 1 9 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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o n th e l a s t p a g e o f s o m e o f h is b o o k s is v ir tu a l ly id e n tic a l— e v e n in th e in iti a ls , IS— to th a t f o u n d o n th e b a s e s o f th e c r u c i b l e s p r o d u c e d o v e r 2 0 0 y e a r s la te r a n d r e c o v e r e d in th e m i n t o f R io d e Ja n e ir o , B r a z il ( L im a a n d d a S i lv a 2 0 0 3 ; F ig u r e s 9 .2 .9 a n d 9 .2 .1 0 ) . M o r e e x a m p l e s c o n tin u e d to e m e rg e : F o r i n s ta n c e , o n e o f th e e m b le m s o n th e f a m o u s s to n e w a r e B ar t m an n s k r u g o r " B e a r d e d M a n Ju g " m a n u f a c ­ tu re d i n th e la te 1 6 th c e n tu r y b y th e B e lg ia n p o tte r Ja n E m e n s M e n n ic k e n ( 1 5 4 0 - 1 5 9 3 ) , n o w a t th e V ic to ri a a n d A lb e r t M u s e u m i n L o n d o n ( G a im s te r 1 9 9 7 : 2 2 5 , 2 3 6 ) , a g a in b e a r s a re s e m b la n c e th a t s e e m e d to o s tr o n g to b e c o i n c i d e n ta l ( F ig u r e 9 .2 .8 ) . A s im ila r m a r k is e n g r a v e d o n th e w a l l o f th e w e s t to w e r o f th e O b e r n z e l l c a s tle in G e rm a n y , n e x t to a n a n n o ta ti o n o f th e y e a r 1 5 7 3 ( B a u e r 1 9 8 3 : 3 6 ) , a n d d e p i c te d in th e s e a l o f th e D u tc h m e r c h a n t Ja c o b v a n C o s v e lo e ( M iln e 2 0 0 3 : p t. 3 ; s e e F ig u re 9 .2 .7 ) , o r in th a t o f H a n s H e ll o f A f le n z , A u s tr ia ( e x h ib ite d in P r o p s te i A f le n z in 2 0 0 6 ; s e e F ig u r e 9 .2 .6 ) , a s w e l l a s m a n y o th e r s e e m in g ly u n c o n n e c te d in s ta n c e s . In s h o r t, v a r ia tio n s o f th i s p e c u li a r s y m b o l s e e m e d to h a v e b e e n e m p l o y e d b y e a r l y m o d e r n g o l d s m ith s , e n g r a v e r s , s c u lp to r s , p o tte r s , g la s s m a k e r s , p a in te r s , d r a w e r s , s to n e m a s o n s , p r i n te r s , a n d m a n y o th e r s p e c ia li s ts .

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R e s e a r c h in g th e p o s s ib le o r ig in s a n d m e a n in g s o f th e s y m b o l , I w a s d r a w n in to p r e v i o u s w o r k o n th e ro le o f m a r k s a n d m o n o g r a m s in d if f e r e n t a rts a n d c r a f ts . In te r e s tin g ly , o th e r s h a d b e e n p u z z le d a n d s o m e w h a t f r u s ­ tr a te d b e f o r e m e . A m o n g s t th e s e , W il li a m R o b e r ts ( 1 8 9 3 ) d e s e r v e s a m o re e x te n d e d q u o te , a s h e , in tu rn , s h o w s th a t th a t u n c e r ta i n ty o v e r th e im p li­ c a tio n s o f th is c h a r is m a tic m a r k is n e a r l y a s o ld a s th e s y m b o l its e lf :

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W h y are th e in itia ls o f a p rin te r o r b o o k s e lle r so o f te n ... s u rm o u n te d b y a c ro s s ? W h y a t th e e x tre m e to p o f th e c ro s s is th e la te ra l lin e f o rm e d in to a s o rt o f tr ia n g u la r fo u r? W h y , w ith o u t th is in e x p lic a b le s ig n , h a s th e c ro s s a n u m b e r o f c y p h e rs , tw o , o r e v e n th re e , c ro s s ­ b a rs ? W h y s h o u ld th e ta il o f th e c y p h e r 4 its e lf b e tra v e rs e d b y o n e o r s o m e tim e s tw o p e rp e n d ic u la r b a rs w h ic h th e m s e lv e s w o u ld ap p e a r to f o rm a n o th e r c ro s s o f a n o th e r k in d ? A ll th e se a re p ro b le m s w h ic h it w o u ld b e e x c e e d in g ly d if f ic u lt to s o lv e w ith s atis f a c tio n . W e d o n o t p ro p o s e o f f e rin g a n y k in d o f e x p la n a tio n fo r th e se s in g u la r m a rk s; b u t it w i ll n o t b e w ith o u t in te r­ e s t to p o in t o u t th a t a m o n g th e m o re in te re s tin g e x a m p le s a re th o se u s e d b y [ p rin te rs o r b o o k s e lle rs o f P a ris, L y o n , Stra s s b u rg , L o n d o n ,

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 2 2 0 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 2 0 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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C u lt u r es o f C o m m o d it y B r an d in g

St. A lb a n s , A n tw e rp , L e ip z ig , Ba rc e lo n a, Se v ille ] a n d h u n d re d s o f o th e rs th a t m ig h t b e m e n tio n e d . ( R o b e rts 1893: 2 3 - 2 4 )

R a th e r m o re e n li g h te n in g w a s th e w o r k b y L im a a n d d a Si lv a ( 2 0 0 3 ) . A s in m y c a s e , th e ir re s e a rc h b e g a n w ith th e s tu d y o f c ru c ib le s b e a r in g th e s a m e m a rk , f o r w h ic h th e y th e n s o u g h t p a ra lle ls a n d m e a n in g s . T o m y k n o w le d g e , th e y w e r e th e f ir s t to s u g g e s t c o n n e c tio n s w ith a lc h e m y a n d f re e m a s o n ry . So m e o f th e ir s ta te m e n ts , p a r tic u la r ly w ith re g a rd s to th e h is to r y o f b o th a lc h e m y a n d f re e m a s o n r y , re f le c t h is to r io g ra p h ic m is c o n c e p tio n s ( f o r re c e n t re v ie w s , s e e re s p e c tiv e ly P r in c ip e a n d N e w m a n 2 0 0 1 a n d Ja c o b 2 0 0 6 ) , a n d th e y w e re n o t a c q u a in te d w ith e v e r y th in g w e n o w k n o w a b o u t th e p ro d u c ­ tio n a n d tra d e o f c ru c ib le s in th e e a rl y m o d e r n w o r ld ( s e e M a rtin o n - T o rre s a n d R e h re n 2 0 0 9 ) . H o w e v e r, th e ir w o r k re m a in s e x e m p la ry i n its e m p h a s i s o n th e f a c t th a t th e m a r k c a n b e b r o k e n d o w n in to a s e rie s o f s im p le r, s u p e r ­ im p o s e d s y m b o ls w h o s e in d iv id u a l s o c ia l a n d e c o n o m ic li v e s a re w o r th s e p a ra te c o n s i d e ra tio n b e f o re a tte m p ti n g a n o v e ra rc h in g in te rp re ta tio n . W h a t f o llo w s th u s o w e s m u c h to th e ir a p p ro a c h , a lth o u g h I h a v e m o v e d a w a y f r o m a n u m b e r o f th e ir id e n tif ic a tio n s a n d in te rp re ta tio n s . A s illu s tr a te d in o n e o f its m o s t c o m p l e x v e r s i o n s i n F ig u r e 9 .2 , th e s ta m p c a n b e d e c o n s tr u c te d in to a s e r ie s o f s im p le r s h a p e s : A p a r t f r o m th e le tte r s ( m o s t li k e ly th e in i ti a ls o f th e m a s te r o r s p o n s o r o f th e w o r k ) , th e re is a L a tin c r o s s , a G r e e k c ro s s , a d o u b le c r o s s , a n u m b e r 4 , a n a n c h o r, a n d , f r e q u e n tly , a w e l l- d e l in e a te d n ic h e . E a c h o f th e m , a n d th e ir c o m b in a tio n , a p p e a r to b e c o m e m e a n in g f u l in th e c o n te x t o f R e n a i s s a n c e a n d la te r r e l i­ g io n , a lc h e m y , a n d f re e m a s o n ry . T h e L a tin c r o s s ( i.e ., th a t w i th th e lo n g e r v e r tic a l a x is ) is u n i v e r s a ll y re c o g n i s e d

a s a r e p r e s e n ta tio n

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c a ll y e m p l o y e d a s th e d e f in in g e m b le m o f C h r is tia n ity . T h e G r e e k c ro s s ( c r u x q u ad r at t a o r e q u i- a x e d ) is c u r r e n tl y u s e d

m o re f r e q u e n tl y b y th e

E a s te r n O r th o d o x C h u r c h , b u t w a s a ls o a c o m m o n s y m b o l u s e d b y e a r ly C h r i s tia n s . M o r e g e n e r a l ly , th e c r o s s is o f te n s e e n a s " t h e c o s m ic s y m b o l p a r e x c e l l e n c e " a n d a p o i n t o f in te g r a tio n b e tw e e n th e r a tio n a l a n d th e s p ir itu a l ( C o o p e r 1 9 9 0 : 4 5 ) . It is w o r th n o tin g th a t i n E n g li s h a s i n L a tin a n d m a n y o th e r la n g u a g e s , th e w o r d f o r " c r u c i b l e " s e e m s e ty m o l o g ic a l ly ro o te d in th e te r m " c r o s s ," a n d b o th o f th e m ( th e c r u c ib le a n d th e c ro s s ) a re a s s o c ia te d w i th id e a s o f s y n th e s i s a n d p u r if i c a ti o n in r e lig io u s a s m u c h a s a lc h e m i c a l c o n te x ts . T h e d o u b le c r o s s m a y a ls o c o n v e y v a r io u s m e a n in g s , w h ic h a re n o t m u tu a lly e x c lu s iv e . W h e n th e to p c r o s s b a r is s m a l le r th a n th e m a in o n e , th i s c r o s s is o f te n te rm e d a " P a tr i a r c h a l c r o s s ," a n d is u s e d b y E a s te r n O r th o d o x C h u r c h e s b u t a ls o b y R o m a n C a th o lic a r c h b i s h o p s to d if f e r ­ e n tia te th e ir o f f ic e . H e re , th e to p b a r re p re s e n ts th e p l a q u e b e a r in g th e in s c r i p tio n IN R I o f th e C r u c if i x io n . T h e d o u b l e c r o s s , h o w e v e r, m a y a ls o

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 22 1 h t t p :/ /s ite . e b ra ry .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 2 1 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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c o n s titu te a d e l ib e r a te s u p e r p o s iti o n o f th e L a tin a n d th e G r e e k c ro s s e s . If o n e a c c e p ts th a t th e L a tin c r o s s re p r e s e n ts th e m ic r o c o s m , a n d th e G r e e k c r o s s re p r e s e n ts th e m a c r o c o s m ( L im a a n d d a S ilv a 2 0 0 3 : 4 7 ) , th e n th e ir s u p e r p o s iti o n m ig h t b e a s ta te m e n t o f th e th e o r y o f id e n tity b e tw e e n b o th : T h e id e a th a t th e s a m e p a tte r n s a re re p r o d u c e d a t a ll le v e ls o f th e u n iv e r s e w a s s tr o n g ly p r e s e n t in C la s s ic a l G r e e k p h il o s o p h y a n d in s u b s e q u e n t N e o p l a to n i s m a n d i t w a s c e n tr a l to l a te r a lc h e m y , w h ic h s o u g h t to re p ro ­ d u c e in th e la b o r a to r y th e p h e n o m e n a ( s u c h a s m e ta l tra n s m u ta tio n ) th a t w e r e b e li e v e d to ta k e p l a c e in n a tu re . T u r n in g to th e n u m b e r 4 , th i s m a y a ls o c o m b in e r e l i g i o u s ic o n o g r a p h y w i th a lc h e m i c a l te n e ts . O n th e o n e h a n d , th e f i g u re c a n b e s e e n a s a L a tin c r o s s to w h ic h a d i a g o n a l b a r h a s b e e n a d d e d , th u s s u b tl y c o n c e a l i n g th e r e l ig i o u s ic o n . S u c h u s e o f th e n u m b e r 4 a s a w a y o f s h a r i n g r e l ig i o u s v a l ­ u e s in d is g u i s e is th o u g h t to h a v e b e e n e m p l o y e d b y 1 6 ,h- c e n tu r y p r i n te r s in L y o n d u r in g th e tim e o f th e R e f o r m a ti o n ( L im a a n d d a S i l v a 2 0 0 3 : 2 0 ) , a n d it is p l a u s i b l e th a t m o r e p e o p l e c o u ld h a v e a d o p te d th i s s y m b o l in c o n te x ts o f r e l ig i o u s s tr u g g le . O n th e o th e r h a n d , 4 is a to ta l i s i n g n u m b e r w i th a s tr o n g p r e s e n c e i n l a te m e d i e v a l a lc h e m y a n d p h il o s o p h y . F o u r is th e n u m b e r o f r a ti o n a l o r g a n i s a tio n ( C i r l o t 1 9 9 3 : 2 3 2 ; C o o p e r 1 9 9 0 : 1 1 5 ) . F o u r w e r e th e p r i n c i p a l e l e m e n ts ( air, e a r th , f ir e , w a te r ) in w h ic h th e p r i m e m a tte r m a n if e s te d i ts e lf ; 4 , to o , w e r e th e h u m o u r s th a t h a d to b e in p e r f e c t b a l a n c e to e n s u r e h u m a n h e a lth ; 4 a re th e c a r d in a l p o i n ts , th e a r m s o f th e c r o s s , th e p h a s e s o f th e m o o n , th e s e a s o n s . . . a n d , a c c o r d in g to s o m e a u th o r s , th e m a i n s ta g e s in th e q u e s t f o r m e ta l tr a n s m u ta tio n . T h e a n c h o r is n o t a lw a y s p r e s e n t, n o r is i t e a s y to in te rp re t. T h is s y m b o l h a s b e e n s tr o n g ly e n tr e n c h e d in th e p u b l is h i n g tr a d e s i n c e it w a s f i r s t u s e d in a n e m b le m b y la te 1 5 th- c e n tu r y p r i n te r s o f th e A ld i n e P re s s ( R o b e r ts 1 8 9 3 : 2 1 8 - 2 3 ) , a n d i t p e r s is ts in th e p r e s e n t- d a y lo g o s a n d n a m e s o f s o m e p u b l is h e r s , s u c h a s A n c h o r B o o k s . Its o r i g in a p p e a r s to h a v e re l ig i o u s o r m o r a l c o n n o ta ti o n s , to o , a s it w a s o f te n p r i n te d to g e th e r w i th th e m o tto A n c h o r a s p e i ( " a n c h o r o f h o p e " ) . T h e B ib li c a l E p is t le t o t h e H e b r e w s s a y s :

" W h i c h h o p e w e h a v e a s th e a n c h o r o f o u r s o u l " ( C ir lo t 1 9 9 3 : 9 ) . M o re g e n e r a l ly , th e a n c h o r a p p e a r s in re l ig i o u s ic o n o g r a p h y a s a r e p r e s e n ta tio n o f th e tru e f a ith ( C o o p e r 1 9 9 0 :1 2 ) . Q u ite s ig n if ic a n tly , d if f e r e n t c o m b in a tio n s o f s in g le a n d d o u b le c r o s s e s , to g e th e r w i th th e n u m b e r 4 , a re e x tr e m e l y f r e q u e n t in e a r l y

m o d e rn

a lc h e m i c a l s y m b o lo g y , to d e n o te s u c h im p o r ta n t m a te r ia l s a s th e c r u c ib le , g o ld , m e rc u r y , s u lp h u r, o r s a lt, to g e th e r w i th r e a c tio n s s u c h a s d is ti lla ti o n ( e .g ., A n o n 1 7 5 5 ; F ig u r e 9 .2 .b ) . A ll o f th e s e m a r k s a re r e l a ti v e ly s i m p le , b u t a s th e d is c u s s io n b e lo w e m p h a s i s e s , it is d if f i c u lt to e x p l a in th e ir re c u r ­ r e n c e in r e lig io u s , a lc h e m i c a l , a n d o th e r a r tis a n a l c o n te x ts w i th o u t o f f e r in g a n e x p l a n a ti o n th a t d e l ib e r a te ly b r id g e s th i s s e r ie s o f r e l ig i o u s , s o c i a l, a n d e c o n o m i c m o tiv a tio n s .

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 2 2 2 h tt p :// s it e . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 2 2 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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T h e c r u c i b l e s ta m p w a s , to r e ite r a te th e p o i n t, a m o n o g r a m th a t c o m b in e d a p e r s o n 's in iti a ls w i th o th e r s y m b o ls e x p r e s s i n g r e lig io u s a ll e g ia n c e s b u t a ls o , q u ite p o s s ib ly , p h il o s o p h i c a l id e a s th a t w e r e e n tr e n c h e d in a lc h e m i­ c a l p r a c tic e . A lth o u g h f a s h io n a n d e m u la tio n p r o b a b ly p l a y e d a ro le in th e s p a tia l a n d te m p o r a l e n d u r a n c e o f th e m a r k , n e v e r th e le s s its u s e a c ro s s d if f e r e n t m e d ia a n d a c ro s s in n u m e r a b l e g u il d s , a r tis ts , a n d w o r k s h o p s in E u r o p e f o r s e v e r a l c e n tu r i e s d e m a n d s a m o r e c o n v in c in g e x p l a n a ti o n . In f a c t, a f in a l s y m b o l p r e s e n t in th e s ta m p — th e n ic h e - s h a p e d o u tli n e o f te n e n c a s i n g th e m a r k — m a y p a r tly a c c o u n t f o r its w id e s p r e a d a c c e p ta n c e . A s n o te d a b o v e , th e s ta m p id e n tif ie d o n th e e x te r i o r c r u c i b l e b a s e s is o f te n f r a m e d b y a n o u tlin e th a t is s q u a r e a t th e b a s e a n d r o u n d e d a t th e to p . S u c h a s h a p e d o e s n o t s e e m in c id e n ta l, f o r it is r e c u r r e n t in m a s o n ic b o o k s , a rc h ite c tu r e , a n d p a r a p h e r n a l ia a s a r e p r e s e n ta tio n o f th e tw o c o l­ u m n s a n d th e v a u l t o f S o l o m o n ' s T e m p le ( L im a a n d d a Si lv a 2 0 0 3 ) . T h e u to p ia n n o tio n o f S o l o m o n ' s T e m p le r e v o lv e s a r o u n d

th e O ld

T e s ta m e n t K in g S o lo m o n , w i d e ly r e n o w n e d f o r h is w i s d o m a n d f a ir n e s s . In s p ir e d b y th is f ig u re , F r a n c is B a c o n h a d d e v e lo p e d th e id e a o f th e te m ­ p l e a s a u to p ia n h o u s e o f w i s d o m , w h e r e k n o w l e d g e w o u ld b e g e n e r a te d , a p p lie d , a n d d is s e m in a te d f o r th e s a k e o f p r o g r e s s , a n d w h e r e h u m a n v a lu e s w o u ld b e in s p ir e d b y a c tu a l r e s e a r c h a n d te s te d in f o r m a tio n . In h is o w n w o r d s , p u b l is h e d p o s th u m o u s ly , B a c o n s a y s : " T h e E n d o f O u r F o u n d a ti o n Is th e K n o w le d g e o f C a u s e s a n d S e c r e tt M o ti o n s o f T h in g s ; a n d th e E n la r g i n g o f th e B o u n d s o f th e H u m a n E m p ir e , to th e E f f e c tin g o f A ll T h in g s P o s s i b l e " ( B a c o n 1 6 5 8 : 2 6 ) . E x p li c itly o r im p l ic itl y , B a c o n 's e l a b o r a ti o n o n S o lo m o n ' s T e m p le tr ig g e r e d th e f o u n d a ti o n o f s u c h lo n g li v e d in s ti tu ti o n s a s th e B r itis h R o y a l S o c ie tie s o r th e A s h m o l e a n M u s e u m ( B e n n e tt e t a l. 2 0 0 0 ) , b u t th e id e a w a s e m b r a c e d w i th p a r tic u la r f e r v o u r b y m y r ia d f r a te r n a l in s ti tu ti o n s th a t e m e r g e d a c ro s s E u r o p e f r o m th e la te 1 7 th c e n tu r y o n w a r d s — th e m a s o n ic lo d g e s ( L im a a n d d a S ilv a 2 0 0 3 ; M a c o y 1 9 8 9 ; F ig u r e 9 .3 ) . N o tw i th s ta n d i n g a n e x tr e m e l y c o m p l e x in te r n a l d iv e r s ity , i n n u m e r ­ a b le p r e s e n t- d a y m a s o n s ( a n d th e i r d e tr a c to r s ) d e f in e th i s in s ti tu ti o n a s " a s y s te m o f m o r a l i ty v e i l e d in a l l e g o r y a n d il l u s tr a te d b y s y m b o l s ." T h e h i s to r i c a l r o o ts o f f r e e m a s o n r y a p p e a r to r e s t in e a r l i e r a r ts a n d c r a f ts g u ild s , w h o s e o r g a n i s a ti o n a l s tr u c tu r e a n d f o u n d a ti o n a l v a l u e s a re m ir ­ r o r e d i n m a s o n i c lo d g e s . In s p ir e d b y th e i d e a s o f th e E n l i g h te n m e n t, th e f ir s t f r e e m a s o n s w e r e m a le s o f m o d e r a te to v e r y w e a l th y s o c i a l c la s s w h o g a th e r e d to g e th e r u n d e r th e a v o w e d p r e m i s e o f m u tu a l r e s p e c t a n d p r o ­ te c tio n , d e f e n s e o f h o n o u r a b l e v a l u e s , a n d a n ti c i p a ti o n o f a b e tte r s o c ie ty . A lth o u g h s o m e o f th e ir f o u n d a ti o n a l m y th s tra c e a n im a g i n e d a n c e s tr y b a c k to K in g S o lo m o n , H e r m e s T ri s m e g is tu s , o r th e K n i g h ts T e m p la r, th e re

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 2 2 3 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 2 3 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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is n o h is to r ic a l e v id e n c e f o r th e e x i s te n c e o f m a s o n ic lo d g e s b e f o r e th e la te 1 7 th c e n tu r y ( Ja c o b 2 0 0 6 ) . It s e e m s p l a u s i b l e th a t th e ir in s ti tu ti o n a l d e v e lo p ­ m e n t r e lie d o n m e d ie v a l s tru c tu re s : A s th e ir e c o n o m i c o r p r o f e s s i o n a l ro l e d is s ip a te d , g u ild s in c r e a s in g ly a c c e p te d w e a l th y l a y p e o p l e w h o e m p lo y e d th e s e a s s tr u c tu r e s f o r th e ir o w n s o c i a li s a tio n ( H a m ill 1 9 8 6 ; Ja c o b 1 9 9 1 ) . T h e y o f te n k e p t p r e e x is tin g h ie r a r c h i e s o f m a s te r s , o f f ic e r s , a n d a p p r e n ­ tic e s a n d s y m b o ls s u c h a s th e f a m o u s c o m p a s s a n d s q u a r e o f s to n e m a s o n s , w h i l s t s tr e n g th e n in g th e m o r a l c o m m itm e n t o f th e ir m e m b e r s . M a n y lo d g e s a tta c h e d

a f u n d a m e n ta l im p o r ta n c e to s e c re c y , w h ic h ,

in tu rn , re q u ir e d th e u s e o f c o d e s a n d s y m b o l s id e n tif ia b le b y th e in i ti­ a te d o n ly . T h e u s e o f m o n o g r a m s th a t in c o r p o r a te d s e v e r a l o v e r l a p p in g s y m b o l s is c o m m o n , a n d th e s e a re f r e q u e n tl y d r a w n f r o m r e lig io n a n d a lc h e m y , a s b o th re a lm s in c o r p o r a te c o n c e p ts a n d a ll e g o r i e s o f id e a li s m , tr a n s f o r m a tio n , a n d p e r f e c ti o n . In f a c t, w h e n o n e lo o k s a t s o m e o f th e s y m ­ b o l s e m p l o y e d b y e a r ly m o d e r n a n d m o r e r e c e n t f r e e m a s o n s , a ll o f th e m a r k s id e n tif ie d in th e c r u c i b l e s ta m p a re e n c o u n te r e d a g a in ( D e n n is 2 0 0 5 ; L im a a n d d a S ilv a 2 0 0 3 ; M a c o y 1 9 8 9 ; R o o b 2 0 0 5 ; F ig u r e 9 .3 ) . O f p a r tic u la r in te r e s t is th e r e la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n th e ic o n o g r a p h y a n d s y m b o l is m o f a lc h e m i s ts a n d f r e e m a s o n s . A lth o u g h th is p o s itio n w a s f a r f r o m w id e s p r e a d ( s e e P ri n c ip e a n d N e w m a n 2 0 0 1 ) , a g o o d n u m b e r o f e a r l y m o d e r n a lc h e m i s ts s a w s tr o n g c o n n e c tio n s b e tw e e n th e ir p r a c tic a l e x p e r im e n ts a n d e s o te r ic a n d h e r m e tic id e a s : T h e tr a n s m u ta tio n o f m a tte r w a s u s e d a s a m e ta p h o r f o r th e tr a n s f o r m a tio n o f th e a d e p t h im s e lf , a n d k n o w l e d g e w a s s o u g h t in th e w r i ti n g s a ttr ib u te d ( o f te n e r r o n e o u s ly o r

Figure 9.3.

D e ta il o f th e in itia tio n o f a f re e m a s o n , a s e n g ra v e d b y L e o n a rd

G a b a n o n in 1745, s h o w in g th e tw o c o lu m n s o f So lo m o n 's T e m p le a n d o th e r m a s o n ic sy m b o ls.

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 2 2 4 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 2 4 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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d e c e iv in g ly ) to a n c ie n t s a g e s . T h e c o n tin u e d f a il u r e o f a lc h e m y a s a p r a c ti­ c a l d is c ip li n e to u n c o v e r th e P h i lo s o p h e r s ' S to n e ( th e s u b s ta n c e o r m e c h a ­ n is m b y w h ic h b a s e m e ta l m ig h t b e tr a n s m u te d in to g o ld ) , th e in c r e a s in g m a r g i n a l is a tio n o f m o r e e s o te r ic a lc h e m i s ts f r o m

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s c ie n c e ,

a n d a n a c c o m p a n y in g d e c li n e in s o c ia l s ta n d in g le d s o m e to tu r n to m o r e s tr o n g ly h e r m e tic e n d e a v o u r s a n d e v e n to f o r m s e c r e t s o c i e tie s ( P ri e s n e r 2 0 0 7 ) . T h e a ll e g o r y o f th e a lc h e m i s t s e e k in g h u m a n a n d m a te r ia l p e r f e c ­ tio n , th e s e c r e c y a n d ra r if ie d n a tu r e o f h e r m e tic w o r k , a n d th e w id e s p r e a d u s e o f s y m b o ls u n d e r s ta n d a b le o n ly b y a d e p ts s e e m e d a lto g e th e r f i ttin g to s o m e f o r m s o f f r e e m a s o n r y ( P r ie s n e r 2 0 0 7 ; Y a te s 1 9 6 4 ,1 9 7 5 ) . W h e n a ll o f th e s e f a c to r s a re ta k e n in to a c c o u n t, it is p o s s ib le to s e e th e e a r l y m o d e r n m a s o n i c lo d g e a s a s y n th e s is o f la te m e d ie v a l in s titu tio n s s u c h a s g u ild s a n d p h il o s o p h i c a l f r a te r n itie s , in c o r p o r a tin g h ie r a r c h ic a l s tr u c tu r e s , in itia tio n r ite s a n d te s ts , s e c r e t c o d e s a n d v a lu e s , a n d m u tu a l lo y a lty . R a th e r th a n b e i n g a n e n tir e l y n e w c r e a tio n , f r e e m a s o n r y a p p e a r s a s a p r o d u c t o f v a r io u s h is to r ic a l c o n tin g e n c ie s . C o n s id e r in g th e s e d iv e r s e h is to r ic a l b a c k g r o u n d s , o n e c a n m o re e a s ily u n d e r s ta n d th e e x tr e m e h e t­ e r o g e n e ity o f th e m a n y s e c r e t, c iv ic , o r r itu a li s e d s o c i e tie s th a t s p r a n g u p a c r o s s e a r l y m o d e r n E u r o p e , s o m e o f w h ic h e v e n h a d li ttle o r n o th in g to d o w i th f r e e m a s o n r y ( C la r k 2 0 0 0 ; Ja c o b 1 9 9 1 ,2 0 0 6 ) . A lth o u g h th e a b o v e id e a s re q u ir e m u c h f u r th e r r e s e a r c h a n d c la r i f ic a ­ tio n , th e y p r o v i d e s u f f ic ie n t b a c k g r o u n d to re tu r n n o w to th e m a in s u b je c t o f th e p r e s e n t c h a p te r : th e s ta m p f o u n d in p r i n ts a n d o n p o ts . In its m o s t d e v e lo p e d f o r m , th is p h y s i c a l p r o d u c t m a r k s e e m s to h a v e b e e n a s y m ­ b o li c e x p r e s s io n o f s o m e o f th e m o s t p r e c io u s m a s o n ic id e a ls , c o m b in in g h e r m e tic m y s tic i s m a n d a lc h e m i c a l a lle g o ry , a n d to h a v e s p r e a d s u c c e s s ­ f u lly th r o u g h th e m e d iu m o f m a te r ia l c u ltu re .

F r e e m a s o n s ’ B r a n d in g ?

P re v io u s s tu d ie s ( H a m il to n a n d L a i 1 98 9 ; W e n g r o w 2 0 0 8 ) a n d o th e r c o n ­ trib u to r s to th is v o lu m e h a v e d e m o n s tra te d th a t b r a n d s h a v e a r is e n in a w i d e ra n g e o f id e o lo g ic a l a n d s o c ia l s e ttin g s . F o r th e p u rp o s e s o f th is c h a p ­ te r, I w i ll n o t th e re f o r e d is c u s s d if f e r e n t d e f in itio n s o f " b r a n d " o r e l a b o r a te f u r th e r o n n o n - o r p r e - W e s te rn b r a n d i n g a s a p h e n o m e n o n b u t w o u ld lik e to re c a l l th r e e c h a ra c te ri s tic s th a t m a y re a s o n a b ly b e a c c e p te d a s d e f in in g f e a ­ tu r e s o f a b ra n d . A s u c c e s s f u l b ra n d : ( 1 ) D ra w s o n h u m a n e m o tio n s in s o m e s tr u c tu re d m a n n e r; ( 2) O f te n e m p lo y s c o m m u n ic a ti o n c o d e s th a t a re d if ­ f e re n t a n d / o r c o m p le m e n ta r y to la n g u a g e ; a n d (3) P ro m o te s c o n s u m p tio n p a tte rn s th a t a l lo w m u tu a l re c o g n itio n a m o n g c o n s u m e r s . T h e s e p o i n ts w i ll b e b r ie f l y d e v e lo p e d b e f o re I d is c u s s th e ir a p p lic a b il ity to th is c a s e stu d y . A b r a n d e d c o m m o d i ty h a s to b e r e c o g n is a b le . W h e th e r th is is a c h ie v e d th r o u g h s p e c if ic s e a li n g , la b e l lin g p r a c tic e s , o r o th e r m e a n s , th e c o n s u m e r

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 2 2 5 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 2 5 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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n e e d s to b e m a d e a w a r e th a t h e o r s h e is a c q u i r in g a p r o d u c t w i th a c e r ta in b r a n d e d id e n tity ( R ic h a r d s o n 2 0 0 8 ) . S u c h a w a r e n e s s w i ll g o b e y o n d th e id e n tif i c a ti o n o f a c e r ta in p r o d u c e r o r o r i g in ( s o m e tim e s th e s e m a y e v e n b e c o n c e a le d o r ir r e le v a n t) ; i n p u r c h a s in g s u c h a c o m m o d ity , th e c o n s u m e r w i ll f e e l th a t a n e c e s s ity o r d e s ir e h a s b e e n f u lf il le d , o f te n o n a d im e n s io n th a t g o e s b e y o n d th e s h e e r s o lu ti o n o f a p r a c tic a l p r o b le m

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q u e n c h in g o f th e ir th i r s t o r p r o te c tio n f r o m c o ld te m p e r a tu r e s . F u r th e r m o r e , b r a n d s c a p ita l is e o n a n e e d f o r b e lo n g i n g th a t e n g a g e s th e ir c o n s u m e r s : E x p li c itly o r im p lic itly , c o n s u m e r s a re p e r c e iv e d to s h a re v a lu e s , p r e f e r e n c e s , o r li f e s ty le s th a t a re m u c h m o r e m e a n in g f u l th a n th e m e r e c o n s u m p tio n o f th e s ta n d a r d is e d , r e p la c e a b le c o m m o d i ti e s th a t a re ty p ic a l ly th e s u b je c t o f b r a n d i n g e f f o r ts . In f a c t, th e a c t o f c o n s u m p tio n is o f te n a c e le b r a tio n o f th o s e v a lu e s a n d s tr e n g th e n s th e tie s a m o n g th o s e lo y a l to a b ra n d . T h e w a y s in w h ic h th e s e c o n n e c tio n s a m o n g c o m m o d i ti e s , c o n s u m p ­ tio n p r a c tic e s , a n d p a tte r n s o f e m o tio n a n d m u tu a l re c o g n i ti o n d e v e lo p a re v a r ie d . T h e y r a r e l y e m e r g e f r o m u n ili n e a r , s e lf - c o n s c io u s l y lo g ic a l a r g u ­ m e n ts b u t r a th e r th r o u g h a n e tw o r k o f c o n n e c tio n s b e tw e e n im a g e s a n d id e a s th a t is o f te n im b u e d w i th a g r e a t d e a l o f s u b je c tiv ity . T h is is p r o b ­ a b ly o n e r e a s o n w h y o r d i n a r y s p o k e n o r w r i tte n la n g u a g e is n o t th e m o s t a p p r o p r ia te s tr a te g y f o r c o m m o d i ty b r a n d in g : In s te a d , m o d e r n m a r k e tin g te a m s , f o r e x a m p l e , d r a w o n d ir e c t s e n s o r ia l o r in te ll e c tu a l a s s o c ia tio n s b e tw e e n c o m m o d i ti e s a n d c e r ta in o b je c ts , p e o p le s , id e a s , o r e x p e r ie n c e s . In m a n y w a y s , th e a b o v e id e a s w o u ld s e e m to f it q u i te w e l l th e s c e n a r io o f th e m a r k e d c r u c ib le s a s w e l l a s th a t o f th e b o o k s , w a r e s , a n d o th e r a r te ­ f a c ts m a r k e d w i th th e s ta m p a t th e c o re o f th is c h a p te r. T h e m a r k w o u ld c o n v e y s tr o n g e m o tio n a l a s s o c ia tio n s w i th h ig h m o r a l a n d c iv ic v a lu e s ; th o s e w i th s u f f ic ie n t c o n n o is s e u r s h ip to u n p ic k th e s u b c o m p o n e n ts o f th e m o n o g r a m w o u ld f e e l f u r th e r d r a w n to a c q u ir e th o s e o b je c ts in s te a d o f th e u n m a r k e d e q u iv a le n t, o r th a t o f a d if f e r e n t p r o d u c e r . P e r h a p s o th e r s w o u ld d e c id e a g a in s t th o s e o b je c ts p r e c i s e l y b e c a u s e o f th o s e c o n n o ta ­ tio n s , a n d n o t o n g ro u n d s o f q u a l ity o r p ri c e . It s e e m s s e n s ib le to a s s u m e th a t k n o w l e d g e a b le c o n s u m e r s o f " m a s o n i c c o m m o d i ti e s " w o u ld r e c o g ­ n is e e a c h o th e r m u tu a lly a s m e m b e r s o f a s p e c if ic s o c i a l o r m o r a l c a te g o ry , w h e r e a s o th e r s m a y o n ly h a v e b e e n m o r e c a s u a lly r e a s s u r e d a b o u t th e q u a l ity a n d a u th e n tic ity o f s u c h m a r k e d p r o d u c ts . In o th e r w o r d s , th e s ta m p e d c r u c ib le , s i lv e r r in g , o r c e r a m ic p o t w o u ld p r o m is e n o t o n ly to a c c o m p l is h th e ir im m e d i a te p r a c tic a l r o l e s b u t a ls o to f u lf il l b r o a d e r s o c ia l o r p s y c h o lo g i c a l a s p ir a tio n s — a n d th e la tte r m a y w e l l h a v e b e e n m u c h m o r e im p o r ta n t in d e te r m in i n g s p e c if ic c o n s u m p tio n p a tte r n s . T h e p o s s i b il ity o f a b ra n d id e n tity a s s o c ia te d w ith f r e e m a s o n 's im a g e ry is c o n s is te n t w ith a g ro w in g tre n d , p o p u la r in Eu ro p e s i n c e th e la te M id d le A g e s , to c o n s u m e im a g e ry in a v a r ie ty o f m a te r ia l m e d ia . T h e d e v e lo p m e n t

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 2 2 6 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 2 6 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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R e n a i s s a n c e f a c ilita te d th e s w if t s p re a d o f p ri n te d im a g e ry a c ro s s d if f e r e n t s o c ia l s e c to r s , le a d in g to a " d e m o c r a tis a tio n in th e c o n s u m p tio n o f im a g e r y " ( G a im s te r 199 7: 1 4 2 [ s e e a ls o p p . 3 7 - 4 0 , 1 2 6 - 3 6 , a n d 1 4 2 - 5 5 ] , 2 0 0 3 ) . D u rin g th e 15th c e n tu ry , c ra f ts m e n in c o rp o ra te d s o m e o f th is p ri n te d im a g e ry in to d if f e r e n t m e d ia , in c lu d in g s c u lp tu re , m e d a ls , m e ta l v e s s e ls , w o o d e n f u r n i­ tu re , d o m e s tic f u r n is h in g s , a n d p o tte ry . In th e u p h e a v a l o f th e R e f o rm a tio n , re l ig io u s a n d p o litic a l im a g e s in s p ire d b y p ri n t m e d ia b e c a m e re c u rre n t in d o m e s tic a n d o th e r o b je c ts . Sto n e w a re p o tte r s , f o r e x a m p le , a p p l ie d m o u ld e d m o tif s to th e ir p ro d u c tio n s , re p re s e n tin g b ib li c a l e p is o d e s , s a tiri c a l c a ric a tu re s , m o r a lis in g s c e n e s , a n d p o litic a l p o r tr a its a n d s l o g a n s ( G a im s te r 1 9 9 7 :1 4 2 - 5 5 ) . T h u s , c e r a m i c s b e c a m e a m o re o r le s s e x p l ic it c h a n n e l f o r th e c o m m u n i­ c a tio n o f v a lu e s , b e li e f s a n d b o n d s . T h e im a g e s u ti lis e d w e r e p r o b a b ly th e r e s u lt o f e a c h p o tte r ' s i n d iv i d u a l p r e f e r e n c e s , b u t th e y m u s t h a v e f o u n d a m a r k e t o f p e o p le f r o m a ll s o c ia l le v e ls w h o w i s h e d

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o w n le a n i n g s in th e r e lig io u s a n d p o l itic a l a r e n a . A s a m a tte r o f f a c t, th e o v e r t P r o te s ta n t a ll e g ia n c e o f s o m e tr a d e g u ild s le d th e m to m ig r a te to r e g io n s w h e r e th e y f o u n d m o r e s y m p a th y . N o t o n ly s to n e w a r e v e s s e ls , b u t a ls o d e v o tio n a l p i p e c la y f ig u r in e s a n d g la z e d e a r th e n w a r e s to v e - til e s c o n v e y e d b la ta n t p o l itic a l a n d re l ig i o u s m e s s a g e s i n th e f o r m o f im a g e s ta k e n f r o m p r i n ts a s w e l l a s f r o m e c c le s ia s ti c a l a lta r p i e c e s a n d s ta tu a r y ( G a im s te r 2 0 0 3 ) . A ll o f th e s e w e r e u b i q u ito u s a r te f a c ts th a t m a d e it p o s ­ s ib le f o r a n y o n e to c e le b r a te th e ir p e r s o n a l b e li e f s in a v is i b l e m a n n e r, e v e n th o s e w h o w e r e h a r d ly li te ra te . A g a i n s t th is b a c k g r o u n d , th e p o s s ib il ity o f f r e e m a s o n s — a n in f lu e n tia l, c o n f id e n t, a n d a f f lu e n t s o c ia l s e g m e n t— c o n s u m in g c h e r is h e d im a g e r y a s p a r t o f p h y s i c a l g o o d s m a d e in a r a n g e o f m e d ia d o e s n o t s e e m s u rp r is in g . A n y lo o s e la b e l lin g o f th is p r a c tic e a s p r o to - W e s te r n b r a n d i n g , h o w e v e r, is n o t w i th o u t its p ro b le m s . F ir s t, th e d e l ib e r a te ly h e r m e tic s e m a n tic s o f th e s y m b o l w o u ld s e e m a t o d d s w i th w h a t w e m ig h t c o n s tr u e a s c o n v e n ­ tio n a l m o d e r n b r a n d i n g s tr a te g ie s . T h e f a c t th a t a n 1 8 lh- c e n tu r y w r i te r ( s e e a b o v e ) is b e w il d e r e d b y th is s ta m p a t th e s a m e tim e a s th e s e m a r k e d c o m ­ m o d itie s a re b e in g p r o d u c e d d e m o n s tr a te s th is p o in t. S u c h s e c r e c y a n d h e r m e tis m a re a t th e c o r e o f f re e m a s o n ry , th u s th e y m a y h a v e m a d e th e s e c o m m o d i ti e s p a r tic u la r l y a p p e a lin g to th e m a s o n s ' ta s te . N e v e r th e le s s , o n e is le f t w o n d e r i n g th e e x te n t to w h ic h n o n - m a s o n s w o u ld ta k e n o tic e o f th e m a rk . Sim il a rl y , o n e m a y a s s u m e th a t a m a s te r c r u c i b l e m a k e r w o u ld o r i g in a l­ ly b e a c q u a in te d w i th th e m e a n in g o f th e ir o w n h o u s e m a r k ( b u t s e e b e lo w f o r w h e th e r th is is tru e f o r th e m a k e r s o f b e c h e r o v k a , a tr a d itio n a l h e r b a l d ri n k ) . H o w e v e r , w o u ld th e p o tte r s w o r k in g f o r th e m b e a w a re o f th is ? A ll e g e d ly , th is w o u ld o n l y b e th e c a s e i f th e p o tte r s w e r e a ls o in iti a te s w h o

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 2 2 7 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 2 7 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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th u s s h a r e d th e b e li e f s a s s o c ia te d w i th th e s e c r e t s y m b o l. In th is s e n s e , w e s h o u ld b e c a u ti o u s b e f o r e a s s u m in g c o n n e c tio n s b e tw e e n m a s o n ic c o m m o d i ti e s in th e a r c h a e o l o g ic a l a n d h is to r ic a l re c o r d a n d th e s p r e a d o f a c tu a l m a s o n s , m a s o n ic lo d g e s , o r m a s o n ic id e a s . O f r e l e v a n c e to th is p o i n t is B e v a n 's d is c u s s io n o f th e d if f e r e n t w a y s in w h ic h e q u a lly b r a n d e d c o m m o d i ti e s m a y c h a n g e h a n d s a n d m e a n in g s in th e m a r k e t; in p a rtic u la r, th e " l e a k a g e " o f b r a n d e d c o m m o d i ti e s a n d th e ir id e o lo g ic a l a s s o c ia tio n s , w h ic h h ig h li g h ts th e a c tiv e ro l e th a t c o n s u m e r s m a y h a v e in th e c o n s ta n t r e d e f in itio n a n d d i s tr i b u tio n o f b r a n d e d g o o d s ( B e v a n , th is v o lu m e ) . It s e e m s o b v io u s th a t th e g o o d s m a r k e d w i th th e s ta m p d is c u s s e d i n th is c h a p te r c o u ld h a v e e v o k e d v e r y d iv e r s e a s p i r a ­ tio n s a m o n g d if f e r e n t s o c ia l s e c to r s , r a n g in g f r o m th e o v e r t c o m m itm e n t to s p e c if ic id e o lo g ie s , to th e m e r e re c o g n i ti o n o f a h ig h - q u a l ity p r o d u c t a n d its r e a s s u r in g la b e ls , to p o s itio n s o f c o m p l e te in d if f e re n c e . A n o th e r c o n te n ti o u s is s u e is th e o c c u r r e n c e o f th i s p o te n tia l f o r m o f m a r k i n g o r b r a n d i n g in s u c h a w i d e r a n g e o f m e d ia . A s m e n tio n e d a b o v e , v a r ia tio n s o f th i s s ta m p w e r e u s e d b y c r u c i b l e m a k e r s , b u t a ls o b y p o tte r s , s i lv e r s m i th s , m e r c h a n ts , e n g r a v e r s , a n d m a n y o th e r c r a f ts p e o p le a c ro s s E u r o p e , w h o h a d n o in s titu tio n a l o r c o m m e r c i a l c o n n e c tio n s a m o n g th e m . T h is w a s n o t a s in g le c o m p a n y b r a n d i n g a r a n g e o f p r o d u c ts , ju s t a w i d e a r r a y o f p r o d u c e r s w h o m a y n o t h a v e e v e n k n o w n o f e a c h o th e r, b u t w h o n o n e th e le s s e m p l o y e d s im ila r m a r k s . S u c h a r e a lis a tio n a g a in e m p h a s is e s th e p o s s ib il ity th a t a v e r y s im ila r s ta m p m ig h t h a v e c o n v e y e d d if f e r e n t id e a s in d if f e r e n t c o n te x ts . M o re o v e r, i n s o m e in s ta n c e s a t le a s t, th e s ta m p c o u ld b e a n e x p r e s s io n o f th e p r o d u c e r ' s v a lu e s o r a ll e g ia n c e s m u c h m o re s o th a n a n a p p e a l to th e c o n s u m e r 's e m o tio n s . If th is w a s th e c a s e , p e r h a p s w e m ig h t s p e a k o f p a tte r n s o f s p o n s o r s h ip in a d d itio n to o r in s te a d o f b r a n d i n g . In f a c t, th e in f lu e n c e o f th e m a s o n ic lo d g e s m a y h a v e b e e n m o re m a r k e d a t th e m a n u f a c tu r i n g r a th e r th a n a t th e c o n s u m p tio n e n d o f th e e c o n o m y , e s p e c ia l ly in li g h t o f th e h is to r ic a l e n ta n g le m e n t o f p r o f e s s io n a l g u ild s a n d m a s o n i c lo d g e s d is c u s s e d a b o v e . Fin a lly , a r e la te d is s u e th a t s h o u ld n o t b e o v e r lo o k e d is th e e x tr e m e ly lo n g te m p o r a l s p a n d u r in g w h ic h th is m a r k w a s u s e d . S i m il a r itie s b e tw e e n 1 5 th- c e n tu r y a n d 1 9 ,h- c e n tu r y m o n o g r a m s c o m b in in g c r o s s e s , a n c h o r s , a n d th e n u m b e r 4 c a n n o t b e ig n o r e d — b u t i t w o u ld b e e r r o n e o u s to u s e th e s e s im ila r i tie s to d r a w a n y e a s y c o n c lu s io n s . It is p a r tic u la r l y im p o r ta n t to n o te th a t th e u s e o f th i s m a r k s ta rts w e l l b e f o r e a n y d o c u m e n te d e x a m p le o f a m a s o n ic lo d g e , a n d th u s la b e l lin g a ll o f th e s e a s " m a s o n i c s ta m p s " w o u ld b e m is le a d in g . A r e l e v a n t c a s e is th a t o f th e K a u f m a n n f a m il y o f O b e r n z e l l, li k e ly th e s u r n a m e b e h in d th e le tte r " K " f r e q u e n tl y f o u n d in th e s e c r u c i b l e s ta m p s ( F ig u re 9 .2 ) : In th e 1 7 th c e n tu r y , G a b r ie l K a u f m a n n e n jo y e d th e c o m m is s io n o f s u p p l y in g c r u c i b l e s to th e Im p e r ia l M i n t ( B a u e r 1 9 8 3 :3 1 ) . T w o c e n tu r i e s la te r, w e f in d a li k e ly d e s c e n d a n t, Jo s e f K a u f m a n n ,

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 2 2 8 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 2 8 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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a s s o c ia te d w i th G g . S a x i n g e r a n d p r o d u c in g c r u c i b l e s w i th r e m a r k a b ly s i m ila r s ta m p s . W e r e th e la te r g e n e r a ti o n s p r e s e r v in g th e il lu s tr io u s s ta m p a s a s i g n o f tr a d itio n o r r e p u ta tio n , a n d w e r e th e y a w a re o f its p a r tic u ­ la r s i g n if ic a n c e ? D e s p ite th e p o te n tia l lin k s b e tw e e n th e o r g a n i s a tio n a n d c u ltu r e o f m e d ie v a l g u il d s , a lc h e m i c a l la b o r a to r i e s , a n d m o d e r n m a s o n ic lo d g e s , s u c h c o n n e c tio n s n e e d to b e f u r th e r q u e s tio n e d a n d te s te d ra th e r th a n g e n e ra lis e d . T h e a b o v e c o n c e r n s a r e u s e f u l l y r e v is ite d v ia o n e f in a l e x a m p l e : th e m o d e r n b o ttl e o f b e c h e r o v k a . B e c h e r o v k a i s a n h e r b a l a l c o h o l i c d r in k th a t h a s b e e n p r o d u c e d in th e C z e c h R e p u b li c f o r th e l a s t 2 0 0 y e a r s . It w a s o r i g i n a l l y s o ld

a s a m e d i c i n a l to n ic b y its in v e n to r , th e p h a r m a ­

c i s t Ja n B e c h e r , b u t to d a y th e b e c h e r o v k a b r a n d b e l o n g s to th e m u l ti ­ n a ti o n a l P e r n o r d R i c h a r d , a n d th e s p i r i t is s o ld to to u r i s ts a n d lo c a ls a l i k e a s th e C z e c h " n a ti o n a l d r i n k ." T h e c o n s u m p ti o n p a tte r n s a n d s o c ia l c o n n o ta ti o n s o f th i s l i q u o r h a v e c h a n g e d s u b s ta n tia l ly , b u t th e m a r k e t­ in g te a m h a s m a d e a n e f f o r t to p r e s e r v e its tr a d itio n a l a p p e a r a n c e — f o r e x a m p l e , b y k e e p i n g Ja n B e c h e r a s a tr a d e m a r k a n d , ju s t a s im p o r ta n tly , b y m a i n ta i n i n g th e h o u s e m o n o g r a m : o n e th a t, in c id e n ta ll y , c o m b i n e s a n u m b e r 4 , a d o u b l e c r o s s , a n d w h a t c o u ld b e s e e n a s a s ty li s e d a n c h o r ( F ig u r e 9 .4 ) . I d o n o t k n o w w h e th e r p r e s e n t- d a y m a k e r s o f b e c h e r o v k a k n o w th e h i s to r y o f th e i r h o u s e m a r k o r h o w m a n y d r in k e r s n o ti c e o r c a r e a b o u t th e s ta m p . In a n y c a s e , a n y s w e e p i n g c o n n e c ti o n to a l c h e m y a n d s e c r e t s o c i e ti e s s e e m s h i g h l y u n lik e ly , b u t th e o v e r a l l e f f e c t o f th e m a r k is s til l a r g u a b l y to i n v e s t th e p r o d u c t w i th a s tr o n g s e n s e o f c r a f t li n e a g e a n d , h o w e v e r in d i r e c tl y a n d / o r s u b c o n s c io u s ly , to a s s o c i a te i t w i th o th e r s e e m i n g l y a u th e n ti c p r o d u c ts , m a r k s , a n d c o n c e p ts w r a p p e d u p in c e n ­ tu r i e s o f E u r o p e a n e c o n o m i c , r e l ig i o u s , a n d s o c i a l li f e .

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In a r e c e n t p a p e r, R i c h a r d s o n ( 2 0 0 8 ) h a s m a d e a c o m p e l l i n g a r g u m e n t h i g h l i g h ti n g th e r o le o f m e d i e v a l g u i l d s a s " b r a n d i n g m e c h a n i s m s " th a t e n c o u r a g e d o r e n f o r c e d th e m a n u f a c tu r e o f s ta n d a r d is e d , h ig h - q u a lity , r e c o g n i s a b le p r o d u c ts a s m e a n s o f p r o te c ti n g e s ta b l i s h e d p r o d u c ts a n d in d u s tr ie s f r o m

o u ts id e i m i ta ti o n a n d in d i r e c tl y e n c o u r a g i n g th e e c o ­

n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t o f c e r ta i n to w n s a n d / o r r e g io n s . T h e p r e s e n t s tu d y h a s s h o w n th a t r e l a ti v e ly i n c o n s p ic u o u s im a g e s s u c h a s p o tte r s ta m p s , h o u s e m a r k s , a n d o th e r m o n o g r a m s m a y a l s o h a v e p r o v i d e d a s u b tle m e d iu m f o r th e e x p r e s s i o n a n d c e l e b r a ti o n o f id e a s a n d a ll e g i a n c e s a n d th a t, in c e r ta i n c a s e s , th e s e im a g e s m a y h a v e b e e n f o r m s o f c o m m o d i ty b r a n d i n g th a t d r e w o n p a r ti c u l a r e m o ti o n a l r e s p o n s e s to c e r ta i n s u b je c ts a n d p r o m o te d s p e c if ic c o n s u m p ti o n p a tte r n s . M o r e p r e c is e ly , i t w a s s u g ­ g e s te d th a t th e m a r k s s ta m p e d o n B a v a r ia n c r u c i b l e s a n d f o u n d o n a n

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 2 2 9 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 2 9 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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a r r a y o f o th e r e a r l y m o d e r n m a te r i a l c u l tu r e s y n th e s i s e d a s e t o f e l e v a te d id e a s a b o u t c o n te m p o r a r y r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f , a lc h e m i c a l a ll e g o r i e s , a n d , a t le a s t in its l a te r f o r m s , m a s o n i c c o d e s . A l th o u g h th e a b o v e a n a ly s is e m p h a s i s e s th e in te r c o n n e c te d n e s s o f th e s e i s s u e s in m e d ie v a l e c o n o m i c a n d s o c i a l li f e , I w o u ld e n d b y s tr e s s ­ in g th a t th is s h o u ld n o t e n c o u r a g e th e w r i ti n g o f c o n s p i r a c y th e o r ie s ( m a s o n i c o r o th e r w i s e ) in to th e h i s to r i c a l re c o r d . A s a m a tte r o f f a c t, it s e e m s im p o s s i b l e to tr a c e a s i n g le a g e n t e x p l a in in g w h y a n d h o w ' p e o p le h a v e u s e d th e s e m a r k s o r r e s p o n d e d to th e m , w h ic h u n d e r s c o r e s th e la c k o f a s i n g l e " c o r p o r a te " e f f o r t a s g e n e r a l l y id e n tif i a b l e b e h in d m o d e r n b r a n d i n g a m b itio n s . A t o n e le v e l, I h o p e I h a v e s h o w n th a t m a te r ia l c u ltu r e c a n re v e a l in f o r ­ m a tio n a b o u t th e tr a n s m is s io n a n d d e v e lo p m e n t o f id e a s : In p a r tic u la r,

Figure 9.4.

A m o d e m b o ttle o f b e c h e ro v k a . N o te Ja n B e c h e r 's m o n o g ra m

b o th m o u ld e d o n th e to p p a r t o f th e g la s s a n d re p ro d u c e d in th e c e n tre o f th e lab e l. T h e m o d e rn re p ro d u c tio n o n th e la b e l h a s lo s t th e se c o n d h o riz o n ta l c ro s sb a r, s till p re s e n t in th e m o u ld e d v e rsio n .

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w i th in b o th s o c i a l s c ie n c e s a n d h is to r ic a l a p p r o a c h e s to c o n s u m p tio n a n d m a te r ia l c u ltu r e s ( C la r k e 2 0 0 0 ; D e Sil v e y 2 0 0 6 ; G r e g s o n 2 0 0 7 ; C r e w e a n d G r e g s o n 1 9 9 8 ; G r e g s o n a n d C r e w e 2 0 0 3 ; H e th e r in g to n 2 0 0 4 ; L u c a s 2 0 0 2 ; R e n o 2 0 0 9 ) . D e s p ite th e tim e ly e x p a n s i o n o f r e s e a r c h b e y o n d p u r c h a s e , d is p la y , a n d c o n v e n ti o n a l m o d e l s o f o w n e r s h ip a n d c o n s u m p tio n , m o d e r n b r a n d s ( a s m a r k e d f o r m s o f m a te r ia l c u ltu r e b e lo n g i n g to a n e x c e p tio n a l h ie r a r c h y o f v a lu e w i th in f ir s t- p h a s e c o n s u m p tio n ) h a v e re c e iv e d m in im a l s c r u tin y w i th re g a r d to th e p a r tic u la r i ty o f th e ir d is p e rs a l. P r io r to th e p r e s e n t- d a y w id e s p r e a d a c c e s s to o p e n d ig ita li s e d s ite s o f c o n s u m p tio n ( s u c h a s o n - li n e a u c ti o n s ) , u s e d a n d " o u t- o f - s e a s o n " g o o d s , f r o m c lo th in g to f u r n itu r e , c ir c u la te d in m a r k e ts m a n a g e d a lm o s t e x c lu ­ s iv e ly

v ia e x p e r t m e d ia to r s o r d ir e c t f a c e - to - f a c e e n c o u n te r ( E d w a r d s

2 0 0 5 ; L e m ir e 2 0 0 4 ) . T h e g r o w th o f g lo b a l tr a d in g s ite s ( s u c h a s e B a y ) h a s w r e n c h e d s e c o n d - h a n d g o o d s f r o m th e n e tw o r k s o f e x p e r t tr a d e r s in to th e ri s k - f il le d a n d u n b o u n d e d r e a lm o f p u b l ic , in f o r m a l c o n n o is s e u r s h ip o n a m a s s s c a l e .1 T h e c o n te m p o r a r y d is p e r s a l o f u s e d g o o d s is n o lo n g e r tie d to a n y " l o g i c " o f e x p e r ti s e o r m e c h a n is m s o f re m e r c h a n d is in g . C o n tr a r y to B a u d r ill a r d 's n o tio n o f th e b r a n d a s a n e p h e m e r a l s ig n o f f e r i n g f le e ti n g , " s h o r t- te r m

g r a tif i c a ti o n " ( s e e W e n g r o w

th is v o lu m e ; B a u d r il la r d

1996

[ 1 9 6 8 ] ) in th e d is c o r d a n t, o n - li n e m a r k e t o f s e c o n d - h a n d - w a r e s , th e b r a n d ta k e s o n a n e w " v i r tu a l i s e d " s i g n if ic a n c e o f e n d u r a n c e a n d s o lid i ty ; i t c a n b e e a s ily r e c o g n i z e d , id e n tif ie d , a n d tra c k e d . A lth o u g h th e v a lu e o f a r c h e ty p a l g lo b a lis e d b r a n d s h a s lo n g b e e n u n d e r ­ s to o d a s g e n e r a te d th r o u g h " th e p r i s m o f th e l o c a l " ( C la r k e 2 0 0 0 ; M ill e r 1 9 9 5 ) , in th e in f o r m a l e c o n o m y o f th e o n - li n e a u c tio n , th e a m b iv a le n c e s o f

235

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 2 3 6 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 3 6 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

236

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a b r a n d ' s v a lu e a re s im u lta n e o u s ly g lo b a l ly n e g o tia te d a n d l o c a lly c o n te s t­ e d . F ro m a s s e s s i n g th e r is k s o f c o u n te r f e itin g to te s tin g th e s o c i a l c u r r e n c y o f s p e c if ic d e s ig n s , th e o n - li n e e n c o u n te r is c o m p o s e d o f tr a n s a c ti o n s th a t m e d ia te th e e n o r m i ty o f a p o te n tia l ly w o r l d w id e a u d i e n c e w i th th e m ic r o ­ le v e ls o f lo c a l p r o d u c t c u ltu re s . T h is c h a p te r e x p l o r e s s e c o n d - h a n d b r a n d e c o n o m i e s , a s v ie w e d th r o u g h th e p h e n o m e n o n o f o n - li n e c o n s u m p tio n , to c h a lle n g e th e a s s u m p tio n th a t u s e d b r a n d s s i m p ly m ir r o r th e lo g ic o f f ir s t- p h a s e b r a n d c o n s u m p ­ tio n o r a u to m a ti c a l ly d is s ip a te in v a lu e . In s te a d , i t a s s e r ts th a t th r o u g h th e in te r a c tiv e s o c ia l a n d c o l le c tiv e p r o c e s s e s o f o n - li n e a u c tio n s p e c if ic u s e d b r a n d s a c tu a l ly a c c r u e m o r e v a lu e th a n th e ir f ir s t- h a n d

c o u n te r ­

p a r ts , w h e r e a s o th e r s a re m a d e to d e p r e c ia te s ig n if ic a n tly . B e g i n n i n g w ith a n e x p l o r a tio n o f a g r o w in g m o v e to w a r d s " l e a s e o w n e r s h i p " ( in w h ic h b r a n d s a re li te r a ll y " h i r e d o u t" ) , th e c h a p te r r e v e a ls h o w th e c o m m e r c ia l m a r k e t i ts e l f is b e g in n in g to in c o r p o r a te th e s p e c tr e o f s e c o n d - h a n d b r a n d v a lu e in to its r h e to r ic a n d a e s th e tic . T h r o u g h e th n o g r a p h ic d e ta il o f o n - li n e a u c tio n p u r c h a s e , it g o e s o n to e x p l o r e th e p r a c tic e s o f r id d a n c e a n d d is ­ p e r s a l th a t u n d e r p in th e m a k in g o f v a lu e a r o u n d c o m p e ti n g s e c o n d - h a n d b ran d s. T h e c h a p te r c o n c lu d e s th a t th e s e c o n d a r y m a r k e t f o r b r a n d e d g o o d s h a s b e c o m e s o in f lu e n tia l th a t b r a n d s tr a te g is ts a n d e c o n o m i s ts a re b e in g f o r c e d to in c o r p o r a te th e s e c o n d - h a n d b r a n d e c o n o m y in to th e ir o v e r a ll b r a n d d e v e lo p m e n t; f ir s t- h a n d b r a n d id e n titi e s a re b e c o m in g s w a m p e d in th e s i g n if ic a n c e o f th e ir g h o s tl y c o u n te r p a r ts lu r k i n g i n th e u n p o li c e d v ir ­ tu a l w o r l d s o f p o s t- r e ta il c o n s u m p tio n . T h e a c tu a l p r a c tic e s o f d e s i g n a n d s ty li n g , p r o d u c t d e v e lo p m e n t, a n d r e s e a r c h a r e s h if tin g a s th e s e c o n d - h a n d m a r k e t a s s e r ts a b a c k w a r d in f lu e n c e o v e r th e c r e a tio n o f th e b r a n d e d g o o d its e lf . T h e p r a c tic e o f d e s ig n , o n c e u n d e r s to o d a s a p r a c tic e o f in n o v a ­ tio n , is n o w r e c a s t a s o n e o f c o n s o l id a tio n in w h ic h th e " w h o l e l i f e " o f th e p r o d u c t ( f r o m p r o d u c tio n th r o u g h to d is p e r s a l a n d d e c a y ) is

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e d g e d . D e s ig n e r s a re in c r e a s in g ly f o r c e d to in c o r p o r a te a n d r e s p o n d to th e p o s t- p r im a r y c o n s u m p tio n c u l tu r e s o f p r o d u c ts , w i th th e d is c e r n ib le c o n s e q u e n c e th a t a n th r o p o lo g is ts a n d e th n o g r a p h e r s h a v e b e c o m e c o m ­ m o n ly in c o r p o r a te d in to th e b r a n d i n g p r o c e s s its e l f a s " b r a n d a r c h a e o lo ­ g i s ts " ( C la r k e 2 0 1 0 ; D ra z in a n d G a r v e y 2 0 0 9 ) .

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in g , p r o d u c t p l a c e m e n t, c e le b r i ty e n d o r s e m e n t, b r a n d m a n a g e m e n t) a n d u n c o u p le d fro m

th e ir o r i g in a l s o c i o e c o n o m i c a n d g e o c u ltu r a l c o n te x ts ,

c o n s te l la tio n s a n d " d i a s p o r a s " o f s e c o n d - h a n d b r a n d s o c c u p y a n a r g u a b ly " tr a n s c e n d e n t" r e a lm a s c o m m o d itie s . B u t h o w a re s u c h b r a n d e d g o o d s

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 2 3 7 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 3 7 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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d is p o s e d o f in re l a ti o n to th o s e o f th e ir u n b r a n d e d c o u n te r p a r ts ? H o w d o th e m e c h a n is m s o f f ir s t- p h a s e b r a n d m e d ia tio n i m p a c t o n th e s e c o n d - h a n d e c o n o m y ? A n d w h a t im p l ic a tio n s d o e s th e n e w v is i b i lity o f th i s " b r a n d u n d e r w o r l d " h a v e f o r o u r u n d e r s ta n d i n g o f b r a n d c o n s u m p tio n ? A lth o u g h

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th r o u g h th e tr a je c to r ie s o f o n - li n e a u c tio n , b r a n d s tr a te g i s ts a re a ll to o a w a re o f th e ir in a b il ity to c o n tr o l th e " b r a n d l e a k a g e " th a t g e n e r a te s th e a lte r n a tiv e e c o n o m i e s o f v a lu e in to w h ic h th e ir b r a n d s f a ll ( a s " m o n e tiz a b le s y m b o l ic v a l u e s " ; G o r z 2 0 0 3 : 6 0 ) . A s s u m p tio n s r e g a r d in g th e v a lu e o f n e w n e s s , in n o v a tio n , a n d n o v e lty , th e li n c h p i n s o f m o d e r n c a p ita l is m a n d p r o d u c t d e v e lo p m e n t, a re th r o w n in to r e lie f b y th e d y n a m ic s o f a p r e v i o u s ly o b s c u r e d a s p e c t o f m o d e r n c o n s u m p tio n : th e th r iv in g s e c o n d - h a n d m a r k e t. M o d e ls o f b r a n d o w n ­ e r s h i p , it c o u ld b e a r g u e d , a re m o v in g a w a y f r o m m o d e l s o f p o s s e s s io n , in c r e a s in g ly re s e m b l in g in s te a d

th o s e o f le a s in g , b o r r o w i n g , a n d r e c y ­

c li n g .2 T h e s e d e v e lo p m e n ts in b r a n d a c q u i s itio n a n d c ir c u la tio n e c h o th e th e o r ie s o f p o l itic a l e c o l o g i s ts o f th e la te 1 9 7 0 s ( G o rz 1 9 8 0 ; P a p a n e k 1 9 8 5 [ 1 9 7 1 ] ) w h o c o n s i s te n tl y a rg u e d f o r th e n e c e s s ity o f r a d ic a l ly a lte r n a tiv e d e m a te r ia l is e d r e l a ti o n s to p r o d u c t c o n s u m p tio n a s th e p a th to a s u s ­ ta in a b l e e c o n o m y . T h e f o l lo w i n g e x a m p l e o f o n - li n e b r a n d c o n s u m p tio n e x p lo r e s h o w th e p h e n o m e n o n o f th e " a f te r - lif e b r a n d " in te r c o n n e c ts w ith th e m e c h a n is m s o f a m o r e f lu id a p p r o a c h to c o m m o d i ty o w n e r s h ip a n d n e w m a r k e t p r a c tic e s th a t p r o m o te b r a n d s a s " l i q u i d a s s e ts " r a th e r th a n o w n e d g o o d s ; a p r o c e s s th a t s tr ip s a w a y th e c o m m o d i ty ' s " i m m a te r i a l a s s e ts " ( A r v id s s o n 2 0 0 5 ) , le a v i n g th e b r a n d " e n a c te d " b u t u n c o n s o li d a te d a s a n a b s o l u te p u rc h a s e . U n d e r th e s lo g a n " G u i l ty p le a s u r e — m in u s th e g u i l t," th e p o p u l a r o n ­ li n e f a s h io n s ite B a g B o r r o w o r S te a l ™ o f f e r s its m e m b e r s th e p o s s ib il ity o f r e n tin g a u th e n tic d e s i g n e r b r a n d e d lu x u r y h a n d b a g s a n d a c c e s s o r ie s . D e li v e r e d to th e f r o n t d o o r in g if t- li k e p a c k a g i n g , th e " a s - n e w " c o n d i­ tio n ite m s c a n b e re n te d w e e k ly ( a s m a l l ite m c o s ti n g $ 1 0 0 ) , m o n th l y ( a t $ 3 0 0 ) , o r in d e f i n i te ly ( th e s o - c a l le d s te a l o p tio n ) , w h e r e b y th e f u l l c o s t o f th e ite m is d e b ite d to th e m e m b e r 's c r e d i t c a rd . T o f a c il ita te th e c lo s e s t p o s s ib le a d h e r e n c e to th e n u a n c e d c h a n g e s o f f a s h io n , th e le a s e d ite m s c a n b e r e p la c e d b y r e tu r n m a il a n d tr a d e d u p f o r a n e w e r " m u s t- h a v e " m o d e l w i th in 2 4 h o u r s . A f te r s u c c e s s f u ll y f u lf il li n g a s i x - m o n th m e m b e r ­ s h ip te s t p e r io d , c li e n ts a re p e r m i tte d a n u p g r a d e a ll o w i n g a c c e s s to g e n u ­ in e c o u tu r e ite m s . A V IP m e m b e r s h ip o p tio n e n a b le s c u s to m e r s to jo i n a n e x c lu s i v e w a i ti n g l i s t f o r th e m o s t s o u g h t- a f te r d e s i g n s f r o m la b e l s s u c h a s M u lb e r ry , P ra d a , L o u is V u itto n , F e n d i, a n d C h a n e l, th e b r a n d s f a m il ia r ly s e e n h a n g in g f r o m th e a rm s o f c e le b r i ti e s in th e p a g e s o f f a s h io n / g o s s ip m a g a z in e s o r s o - c a lle d f a b lo i d s .3 C u s to m e r s a re s e a m l e s s ly in c o r p o r a te d in to th e f a b lo id w o r ld o f m in u te ly o b s e r v e d b o d il y a n d f a s h io n c h a n g e

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 2 3 8 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 3 8 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

238

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a n d le n t c e le b r i ty - lik e s ta tu s b y u s u r p in g th e r e ta il li n e o f h ig h ly c o v e te d " i t " ite m s . B a g B o r r o w o r S te a l ™ c e le b r a te d its r e la ti o n to th e ra re f ie d w o r ld o f tr a n s ie n t d e s i g n e r f a s h io n b r a n d s th r o u g h its p r o d u c t p l a c e m e n t in th e S e x in t h e C it y m o v ie ( 2 0 0 8 ) , a s p i n - o f f f r o m

th e p o p u l a r U .S. te le v is io n

s e r ie s r e n o w n e d f o r its o r g ia s tic c o n s u m p tio n o f m u s t- h a v e b r a n d ite m s , f r o m d e s i g n e r s h o e s to b a b y b u g g i e s , th a t a re in te r w o v e n in to th e m a n n e r s a n d m o r e s o f w o m e n ' s o n - s c r e e n u r b a n li v e s . T h e h is to r ic a ll y in te r tw in e d re la ti o n o f g la m o u r a n d b r a n d e d lu x u r y g o o d s , f r o m H o ll y w o o d th r o u g h to f a b lo id s , i s a w e l l- d o c u m e n te d p h e n o m e n o n . A s a c o lle c tiv e d is c o u r s e , g la m o u r a n d its b r a n d s , it h a s b e e n a s s e r te d , s p e c if ic a l ly to u c h e s th o s e " o n th e m a r g i n s o f s o c i e ty o n a c c o u n t o f th e ir e c o n o m i c p o s itio n , e th n i c ity o r s e x u a l o r i e n ta ti o n " ( G u n d le 2 0 0 8 : 3 5 6 ) . T h e p o te n tia l ly tr a n s g r e s s iv e p o w e r o f g la m o u r a n d a s s o c ia te d im a g e s a n d b r a n d s is a n e s ta b li s h e d te n e t o f f e m in i s t d is c o u r s e ( M o d l e s k i 1 9 8 6 ; P e is s 1 9 9 8 ) . W h il s t r e ly in g o n a n e s ta b li s h e d f a s h io n s y s te m

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f a s h io n - d r i v e n c o m p u ls i v e o n - li n e c r e d i t c a rd s h o p p in g ( P a r k a n d D a v is 2 0 0 5 ) a n d th e th r if t o f d e f e r r e d g r a tif ic a ti o n ; th e h ia tu s b e tw e e n lo n g in g a n d o w n i n g th a t c a m e to d e f in e m o d e r n c o n s u m e r is m ( C a m p b e ll 1 9 8 7 ) . T h a t c u s to m e r s c a n " b o r r o w " b r a n d s a l ie n c e a n d th e n c a s u a lly re tra d e it s u g g e s ts a n e w ly e v o lv e d le v e l o f s o p h is tic a tio n a n d k n o w le d g e th a t u n d e r p in s a n e v e r f a s te r - p a c e d f a s h io n in d u s tr y ( O 'C a s s 2 0 0 4 ) a n d a b u r ­ g e o n i n g o n - li n e f a s h io n tr a d in g c u ltu r e ( B r o w n e t al. 2 0 0 8 ; P a r k e t al. 2 0 0 7 ) . A s a c o n d u i t f o r f a s h io n a d v ic e th a t s i m u l ta n e o u s l y c e le b r a te s a n d n e u ­ tr a li s e s b r a n d p o w e r , B a g S te a l o r B o rr o w b e lo n g s to a n e s ta b li s h e d g e n re o f f a s h io n a d v ic e . S in c e th e 1 9 7 0 s , a h ig h ly s u c c e s s f u l p r o d u c t- b a s e d s ty le c o n s u lta n c y C o lo u r - M e - B e a u tif u l ( C M B ) h a s o f f e re d , u n d e r th e s lo g a n " C o l o u r M e C o n f id e n t," a p a id s e r v i c e a im e d p r e d o m in a n tl y a t a m id d le a g e d a u d ie n c e o th e r w is e p r e c l u d e d f r o m " h i g h f a s h io n " k n o w le d g e . B y s u p p l a n tin g th e a c c e le r a te d s e a s o n a l s ty le - c h a n g e o f th e f a s h io n in d u s ­ tr y a n d its b r a n d s w i th a c o lo u r - le d a p p r o a c h to in d iv i d u a l s ty le , C M B " ta m e s " th e v a g a r ie s o f f a s h io n a n d s u b ju g a te s a s s o c ia te d s o c ia l a n x ie ty o v e r f a s h io n c h o ic e ( s e e C la r k e a n d M i l l e r 2 0 0 2 ; G r o v e - W h i te 2 0 0 1 ) . A d v is o r y r e ta il m e th o d s s u c h a s C M B r a tio n a l is e th e o f te n b e w il d e r in g , f a s t- p a c e d f a s h io n in d u s tr y a n d f il te r f a s h io n c h o ic e th r o u g h c o l le c tiv e ly n e g o tia te d e x p e r ti s e ( c o m p a r a b le to th e c o n s e n s u s g e n e r a te d th r o u g h o n ­ li n e a u c tio n ) . A t th e h ig h - e n d o f th e m a r k e t, th e B a g S te a l o r B o rr o w w e b ­ s i te s i m il a r ly a c ts a s s e c u r e f il te r f o r o p ti m i s i n g th e " r i g h t" f a s h io n c h o ic e s , b u t it a ls o a u th e n tic a te s ite m s , in te r m s o f p r o v e n a n c e a n d c u l tu r a l c a p ita l,

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 2 3 9 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 3 9 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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a n d m o s t s ig n if ic a n tly — a p p e a r s to b e a t th e h ig h ly d e v e lo p e d a n d n o to r i­ o u s ly ru th le s s b r a n d e d f a s h io n in d u s tr y a t its o w n g a m e . " I t " b a g s a n d a c c e s s o r ie s a re e x tr a c te d f r o m th e o b f u s c a te d m a y h e m o f f a s h io n m e d ia ­ tio n a n d c o n s u m p tio n — a n d d e liv e r e d q u ite lite r a ll y g if t- w r a p p e d to th e d o o r. T h e m e m b e r s h ip s c h e m e o f f e r s a d d e d v a lu e b y tr a n s f o r m in g th e b a r e ­ fac e d

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in a l ie n a b l e g if ts ( th e y a re s h a r e d a n d c ir c u la te d i n a c o g n iti v e a n d h a p tic s e n s e w i th in th e in n e r c ir c le o f li k e - m in d e d f a s h io n - s a v v y m e m b e r s ) . T h e " h o t " b r a n d s a r r iv e " n e w - l i k e " b u t w i th th e a d d e d m y s tiq u e o f a g la m o r ­ o u s p r o v e n a n c e ; w h ic h p a r ty o r s o c ie ty e v e n t th e s e le c te d h a n d b a g p re ­ v io u s l y a tte n d e d — th e r e c i p ie n t c a n o n ly p o n d e r . U n li k e th e f o r tu ito u s " f o u n d " o b je c t f r o m th e s e c o n d - h a n d b a z a a r , th e " b o r r o w e d " h a n d b a g b e a r s th e m y s te r i o u s p a tin a o f u s e b y a s e le c te d s ty le e lite ( s e e B e v a n , th is v o lu m e , f o r c o m p a r a tiv e h is to r ic a l e x a m p l e o f b r a n d s a n d e l ite s ) . T h e c u s ­ to m e r h a s th e p o s s ib il ity o f m a n a g in g th e b r a n d a n d b a s k i n g in th e a u ra o f its a s s o c ia tio n s , w h il s t a v o id i n g th e n e g a tiv e a s p e c ts o f a s h o r t- li v e d " s p l u r g e " p u r c h a s e ( F itz m a u r ic e 2 0 0 8 ) . T h is f o r m o f c o n s u m p tio n s i g n a ls a s h a r e d a c k n o w l e d g e m e n t o f th e f u ti lity o f p o s s e s s io n in a c u ltu r e o f b r a n d s a tia tio n a n d a c o lle c tiv e e f f o r t to ta m e th e e n d le s s tu r n o v e r o f s ty le s . T h is e x a m p le o f b r a n d m e d ia ti o n m ig h t a t f ir s t g la n c e s e e m a b e r r a n t o f th e o th e r w i s e m u n d a n e c u ltu r e o f o n - li n e s h o p p in g , b u t its p r e te x t o f f e rs in s i g h t in to a p o te n tia l s h if t in th e c o n s u m p tio n o f d e s ig n e d g o o d s a n d o u r u n d e r s ta n d i n g o f b r a n d e d c o m m o d i ti e s th e m s e lv e s . Is s u e s o f " b r a n d e q u ity ," r a th e r th a n th e m a te r ia l ity o f th e o b je c ts th e m ­ s e lv e s , a re th e m a in s ta y o f b u s i n e s s lite r a tu r e ( A a k e r 1 9 9 1 , 1 9 9 6 ; S c h m itt 1 9 9 9 ) a s c o n c e r n w i th th e b r a n d h a s m o v e d f r o m c o n s u m e r m a r k e tin g to m a n a g e m e n t. H o w e v e r, w i th in th e s a m e li te r a tu r e th e o r ig in s a n d u n d e r ­ p i n n in g s o f b r a n d e q u ity r e m a in v a g u e ; d e s p ite th e n o w q u a n tif i a b l e p r e s ­ e n c e o f b r a n d e q u ity in s h a r e h o l d e r s ' c a lc u la tio n s o f p r e d i c ta b le f u tu re e a r n in g s , its p r e s e n c e is m o s tl y a ttr ib u te d to " d i f f u s e f a c to r s li k e tr a d itio n , c o i n c i d e n c e o r l u c k " ( A r v id s s o n 2 0 0 5 : 2 3 9 ) . A n e s ta b li s h e d te n e t is , h o w ­ e v e r, th e ro le o f b r a n d m a n a g e r s i n g e n e r a tin g , c o n tr o ll in g , c h a n n e l li n g , a n d p o s itio n i n g th e s e " i m m a te r i a l a s s e ts " in in c r e a s in g ly d iv e r s e a n d c o m p le x c ir c u m s ta n c e s o f c o n s u m p tio n . F o r " t h e b r a n d ," o b s e r v e s A r v id s s o n in h is c r itic a l o v e r v ie w o f b r a n d c u l tu r e s , " r e f e r s n o t p r i m a r ily to th e p r o d u c t, b u t to t h e c o n t e x t o f c o n s u m p t io n . It s ta n d s f o r a s p e c if ic w a y o f u s in g th e o b je c t, a p r o p e r tie d f o r m o f lif e to b e re a liz e d in c o n s u m p ti o n " ( 2 0 0 5 : 2 4 4 ) . T h e in te r v e n tio n o f b r a n d s tr a te g i s ts in s h a p i n g th e " i m m a te r i a l la b o u r " ( A r v id s s o n 2 0 0 5 ) o f c o n s u m p tio n th a t s u r r o u n d s b r a n d s is w e l l d o c u ­ m e n te d

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. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 2 4 0 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 4 0 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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c o n c e r n e d w i th th e p h e n o m e n o n o f le a s e o w n e r s h ip a n d th e g r o w in g s i g ­ n if ic a n c e o f a b u o y a n t, u n r e g u la te d s e c o n d - h a n d m a r k e t i n u s e d b r a n d e d g o o d s . In F u t u r e s h o p , a b e s t- s e l lin g r e ta il m a n a g e m e n t b o o k , m a r k e tin g a d v is o r D a n ie l N is s a n o f f ( 2 0 0 6 ) w a r n s re ta il e r s a n d b r a n d m a n a g e r s th a t re s a le v a lu e is b e g in n in g to m ig r a te a n d b e c o m e in c o r p o r a te d a n a ly tic a l ly a s a c o m p o n e n t o f p e o p l e ' s p u r c h a s e .5 B r a n d p e r c e p tio n , in o th e r w o r d s , is b e c o m in g q u a n tif ia b le . A f te r d e c a d e s o f r e s e a r c h a n d b ill io n s o f m a r ­ k e tin g d o l la r s s p e n t o n n o tio n s s u c h a s " e m o ti o n a l e n g in e e r in g ," " h a p ti c b r a n d i n g ," a n d

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to th e e n g r a v e d f a m il y s i lv e r p a s s in a n d o u t o f th e p a w n s h o p ) re v e a ls " p o s s e s s i o n " to b e a f le e tin g a n d te n ta ti v e c o n c e p t in 1 9 lh- c e n tu r y B r itis h h o u s e h o ld s . A n e s ta b li s h e d b o d y o f h is to r ic a l li te r a tu r e a d d r e s s in g th e is s u e s o f s e c o n d - h a n d m a r k e ts a n d h o u s e h o ld d iv e s tm e n t is m a tc h e d b y a m o re re c e n t tu r n to is s u e s o f d is p o s a l, d iv e s tm e n t, a n d r id d a n c e in th e s o c i o l­ o g y a n d a r c h a e o l o g y o f c o n te m p o r a r y c o n s u m p tio n ( s e e B u c h li a n d L u c a s [ 2 0 0 1 ] , R a th je a n d M u r p h y [ 2 0 0 1 ] , a n d S c a n l a n [ 2 0 0 5 ] o n ru b b is h a n d g a r ­ b a g e ; H a w k in s a n d M u e c k e [ 2 0 0 3 ] o n c u ltu r e a n d w a s te , N o r r is [ 2 0 04 ] o n c lo th re c y c lin g ; G r e g s o n [ 2 0 0 7 ] a n d H e th e r in g to n [ 2 0 0 4 ] o n s e c o n d ­ h a n d n e s s , c o n s u m p tio n , a n d d is p o s a l) . Y e t in th e s e a c c o u n ts , th e b r a n d e d g o o d is e n tir e l y a b s e n t a s a d is ­ c r e e t f o r m o r g e n r e o f m a te r ia l c u ltu re . It i s a s if , th r o u g h th e p r o c e s s e s o f d o m e s ti c a ti o n a n d d iv e s tm e n t, th e f ir s t- h a n d c o m m o d i ty a e s th e tic th a t o r i g in a ll y " m a r k e d " th e b r a n d e d c o m m o d ity , h a s b e e n re n d e r e d im p o te n t. A lth o u g h d if f e r e n t m a te r ia l itie s a n d c u ltu r e s o f g o o d s — f r o m f u r n i s h in g to to y s , p l a s tic b o ttl e s to ja m - ja r lid s — g e n e r a te d if f e r e n t tr a je c to r ie s o f r id d in g a n d d is p e r s a l, th e b r a n d e d c o m m o d i ty is la r g e ly a b s e n t f r o m th is g r o w in g lite r a tu r e o n d iv e s tm e n t. T h e r e a p p e a r s to b e a n a s s u m p tio n th a t b r a n d e d c o m m o d i ti e s , a s m a r k e d e n titie s , w i th o u t th e ir s a l ie n c e a n d p o s t­ c o n s u m p tio n , a re n e u tr a l is e d a n d s tr ip p e d o f th e ir e n c h a n tm e n t; th e y a re f r a g ile , e p h e m e r a l, f le e tin g e n titie s th a t, u n h in g e d f r o m th e tr a n s c e n d e n t m o m e n t o f f ir s t- b r a n d p u r c h a s e a n d n o lo n g e r " b r a n d " n e w , a re d e m o c r a ­ tis e d a m o n g th e h e te r o g e n e o u s p i le s o f h o u s e h o ld f lo ts a m . In c o n tr a s t to th e f a c e - to - f a c e r e la tio n s o f s e c o n d - h a n d m a r k e ts a n d c a r b o o t ( tru n k ) s a le s , th e a n o n y m ity o f th e o n - li n e a u c tio n h a s e v o lv e d a s a k e y c o m p o n e n t o f th e p r e v i o u s ly in v is ib l e r id d i n g a n d s o r ti n g p ro ­ c e s s e s o f th e h o u s e h o ld . T h e te rm " e B a y ," a s u s e d b y th e in f o r m a n ts a n d re s p o n d e n ts i n th i s r e s e a r c h , re f e r s to b o th e B a y th e f ir m a n d e B a y a s a s e t o f e v e r y d a y c u l tu r a l p r a c tic e s . F r e e d - u p f r o m th e h is to r ic a l tie s , lo c a l­ iti e s , a n d p e r s o n a l r e la tio n s th a t a re ty p ic a l ly d e p ic te d in th e e s ta b li s h e d e th n o g r a p h ic li te r a tu r e a r o u n d s e c o n d - h a n d m a r k e ts ( f o r g a r a g e s a le s , s e e H e r m a n n a n d S o if f e r [ 1 9 8 4 ] ; f o r s ite - b a s e d a u c tio n s , s e e S m i th [ 1 9 8 9 ] ; f o r e th n i c a ll y b o u n d tr a d in g f a ir s , s e e S te w a r t [ 1 9 9 2 ] ) , th e e x p o n e n tia l g ro w th in o n - li n e s e c o n d - h a n d tr a d in g h a s p r o p e ll e d b r a n d e d c o m m o d i ti e s in to a h e te r o g e n e o u s , v ir tu a l " b a z a a r e c o n o m y ." U n li k e th e re la ti v e s a f e ty o f th e r e c ip r o c a l a n d n o r m a tiv e c u l tu r e s g e n e r ­ a te d in g a r a g e s a le s , n e a r ly n e w s a le s , s i te - b a s e d a u c ti o n s , a n d h o r s e f a ir s , th e h a z a r d o u s u n p o li c e d , f r e e - m a r k e t o n - li n e a u c ti o n s ite s o f f e r m in im a l a n d in f o r m a l m e c h a n is m s ( s u c h a s n o tic e b o a r d s a n d c o m m u n i ty f o ru m s ) to li m it h a z a r d s r a n g in g f r o m th e p u r c h a s e o f f a k e s to b e i n g d u p e d b y b o g u s s e ll e r s a n d b id d e r s ( S o te r io u 2 0 0 7 ) .. A w a s h w i th m il li o n s o f ite m s ( 4 8 ,7 6 5 w o m e n ' s a c c e s s o r ie s w e r e a v a ila b le o n th e U .K . e B a y s i te a lo n e a t

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 2 4 2 h tt p :// s it e . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 4 2 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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th e tim e I w a s w r i ti n g th is c h a p te r ) , b r a n d is a p r i n c i p a l m e a n s o f n a v i g a t­ in g e B a y s p a c e . So r e d o le n t is th e b r a n d to th e f u n c tio n i n g o f th e a u c tio n th a t th e c o r p o r a tio n h a s re c e n tly b e e n f o rc e d to o u tla w th e u s e o f b o g u s b r a n d - a ttr ib u tio n ( i.e ., " F o r s a l e - n o t V e r s a c e d r e s s " ) , h a b i tu a ll y u s e d a s a m e a n s o f c r e a tin g a " f a l s e tr a c e " a m o n g s t th e m il lio n s o f o th e r w is e in d is ­ tin g u is h a b le ite m s . In th i s b a z a a r e c o n o m y , b r a n d s a r e u s e d to m a r k o u t v i r tu a l s p a c e s o f b o u n d e d i n te r a c ti o n . F a k e o r a u th e n tic , u s e d o r n e w , b r a n d s li e a t th e c o r e o f e B a y ' s c o m m e r c i a l s u c c e s s a s o n e o f th e w o r l d ' s b i g g e s t o n - li n e r e ta il e r s . A s u c c e s s i o n o f h ig h - p r o f i le le g a l c a s e s r e g a r d i n g b r a n d p r o ­ te c ti o n ( th a t le d to c o n tr a d i c to r y ju d g e m e n ts in th e U n i te d S ta te s a n d F r a n c e o v e r q u e s ti o n s o f li a b i l i ty f o r th e s a l e o f c o u n te r f e i t g o o d s o n th e w e b ) le d to a r e c e n t i n i ti a ti v e , d u b b e d th e " c o u n te r f e i t s u m m i t," b r i n g ­ in g to g e th e r e B a y l a w y e r s a n d b r a n d

r e p r e s e n ta ti v e s k e e n to s ty m ie

th e b u r g e o n i n g o n - l i n e tr a d e in c o u n te r f e i t b r a n d s ( s e e K l e i n m a n 2 0 0 8 ; R o s e n c r a n c e 2 0 0 8 ) . T h e e B a y f ir m , a id e d b y th e le g a l a m b i g u i ty s u r ­ r o u n d in g th e q u e s ti o n o f w h e r e r e s p o n s i b i l i ty f a ll s f o r p o l ic in g c o u n te r ­ f e i t g o o d s , h a s c o n s i s te n tl y r e s is te d c a l l s b y lu x u r y a n d d e s i g n e r - b r a n d f ir m s s u c h a s L V M H a n d W a lp o le to e n f o r c e m o r e r ig o r o u s c o n tr o ls o n its v i r tu a l m a r k e tp l a c e .6 e B a y f o u n d e r s s tr o n g l y d e f e n d th e d e f in itio n o f th e ir e n te r p r i s e a s a n e o ­ li b e r a l, f r e e - m a r k e t tr a d in g s p a c e u n d e r p in n e d b y " f u n d a m e n ta l v a l u e s " ( C o h e n 2 0 0 2 : 2 8 ) a n d in d iv i d u a l c o m m u n i ty p a r tic i p a tio n th a t a p p e a ls to w h a t R o b in s a n d W e b s te r d e f in e a s a ty p e o f " te c h n o - c o m m u n i ta r i a n i s m " th a t a tte m p ts to " r e c o n c il e p o l itic a l id e a li s m w i th th e c o r p o r a te re a lity p rin c ip le " (1 99 9: 223 ). H o w e v e r, s o e n d e m ic is th e c o u n te r f e itin g o n e B a y th a t th e o n - li n e a u c ­ tio n e e r is v ie w e d b y m a n y a s a m a jo r im p e tu s b e h i n d th e c o u n te r f e itin g o f m o s t to p - e n d lu x u r y g o o d s , f r o m Ji m m y C h o o s h o e s to F e n d i c lu tc h - b a g s . T h e s a m e " f a b l o i d " e c o n o m y o f d e s ir e f o r u p - to - th e - m i n u te s ty le ite m s g li m p s e d in th e le a s e e c o n o m y o f B a g S te a l a n d B o rr o w o n - li n e r e n ta l s e r­ v ic e is s e e m in g ly g e n e r a tin g a n a n a rc h ic u n d e r w o r ld o f b r a n d tr a d in g in w h ic h th e a u th e n tic a n d th e f a k e a re l o o s e l y i n te r c h a n g e a b le a s lo n g a s th e y s e r v e th e f u n c tio n i n m a r k i n g th e f le e ti n g n u a n c e s o f s ty le c h a n g e . B u t th e p r o te c tio n is m o f th e lu x u r y b r a n d i n g g r o u p s is a im e d , n o t ju s t a t m a in ta in in g in te ll e c tu a l c o p y r ig h t, b u t o f p r e v e n tin g w h a t h a s b e e n d e s c r ib e d a s th e " c h a v i n g " o f lu x u r y b r a n d s , a n d , m o re s p e c if ic a lly , " th e a p p r o p r ia ti o n o f s ig n a tu r e p r o d u c ts b y

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c e le b r i ti e s , a n d e v e n w o r k in g - c la s s s u b c u ltu r e s " ( G u n d le 2 0 0 8 : 3 3 7 ) . B r a n d s in s e c o n d a r y c ir c u la tio n d o n o t, h o w e v e r , m e r e ly g le a n th e ir v a lu e f r o m

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e m b e d d e d in n a r r a tiv e s e n a c te d a s p a r t o f th e p e r f o r m a ti v e e B a y c u ltu r e a n d ta k e o n v a r io u s r h e to r ic a l f o r m s tie d to s p e c if ic s e c o n d - h a n d b r a n d s .

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 2 4 3 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 4 3 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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A r v id s s o n ( 2 0 0 5 : 2 4 2 ) d e s c r i b e s a s th e " c o m m u n i ty " o f b r a n d e x p e r ie n c e th a t m a r k e tin g s tr a te g i s ts a re k e e n to in v o k e , ta k e o n a n e n tir e ly d if f e r e n t g u is e in th is v a s t, in d is c r im in a te " p e o p l e ' s a r c h iv e " in w h ic h o b je c ts o f h is to r y , n o s ta lg ia , a n d lo n g in g a re in s e p a r a b le ( a s a li v e d e x p e r ie n c e ) f r o m th o s e w i th b r a n d id e n tity , e b a y s e r v e s a s a p e r p e tu a l , c o l le c tiv e ly o w n e d a r c h a e o l o g ic a l s ite o f s e c o n d - h a n d b r a n d s .

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In h is e x te n s iv e s tu d y o f o n - li n e tr a d in g p r a c tic e s , H il lis h a s a r g u e d th a t s p a c e s s u c h a s e B a y o f f e r a c o l le c tiv e f o r u m f o r r e tr ie v in g a n d r e v iv in g m e m o ry , a c o l le c tiv e a r c h iv e o f e v e r y d a y m a te r ia l c u ltu r e in w h ic h " th e p a s t" b e c o m e s a m a te r ia l o b je c t, a n d

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re c o r d a v a il a b le f o r p r e s e n t- d a y p e r s o n a l a p p r o p r ia ti o n " ( H il lis 2 0 0 6 :1 4 1 ) . A lth o u g h i t is , i n f a c t, e B a y a u to s a le s th a t g e n e r a te s th e la r g e s t p e r c e n ta g e o f e B a y s a le s , th e c o m p a n y p r o m o te s " c o l l e c ti b l e s " a s " th e h e a r t a n d s o u l o f e B a y ," th u s a p p e a lin g to w h a t H il lis d e s c r ib e s a s " th e f e tis h i z e d W e s te rn d e s ir e to a c q u ire u n d e r th e r u b r i c o f c o l le c tin g w h a t p r e v i o u s ly w a s m is s ­ in g o r l o s t" ( p . 1 4 2 ) . The

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a r g u e s H il li s , is m e r e l y a n e x te n s io n o f th e m e d ia - f r ie n d ly , h u m a n - in te r e s t a s p e c ts o f e B a y th a t s e r v e to in c r e a s e th e o v e r a l l s ite a c tiv ity . T h e s e in c lu d e th e in f a m o u s g r i lle d c h e e s e s a n d w i c h p u r p o r te d l y e tc h e d w i th th e f a c e o f th e V ir g in M a ry , w h ic h s o ld to a n In te r n e t c a s i n o f o r $ 2 8 ,0 0 0 U S D , a n d th e c a s e o f th e e m b itte r e d p a r e n ts w h o s o ld o f f th e ir c h ild r e n 's P la y S ta tio n s o n C h r i s tm a s e v e a t a n e n o r m o u s p r o f it ( a s b i d d e r s s o r t to c o l le c tiv e ly p u n is h th e c h ild r e n f o r th e ir u n d i s c lo s e d n a u g h tin e s s ) . B o th s to r i e s h a v ­ in g a c h ie v e d th e s ta tu s o f u r b a n m y th s la r g e ly th r o u g h th e ir a p p e a l to th e n a r r a tiv e e n c ir c l in g th e tr a d e d ite m s a n d th e s ta r k w a y in w h ic h e v e r y ­ th i n g a n d a n y th i n g ( r id i c u l o u s o r s a c r e d o b je c ts , c h i l d r e n ' s C h r i s tm a s g if ts ) c a n b e in s ta n ta n e o u s ly r e le a s e d in to a b r u ta l m a r k e tp l a c e . E x c h a n g e a n d u s e v a l u e s n e g o ti a te d o n e B a y in v o k e e l a b o r a te , a t tim e s s e n s a ti o n a l , n a r r a ti v e

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it is th i s p r o c e s s th a t a c ti v e l y tr a n s f o r m s i m m a te r i a l c o m m o d i ti e s in to h i g h l y c o v e te d ite m s . T h is m a y ta k e th e f o r m o f a s i m p le s to r y d e s c r i b ­ in g h o w o n e a c q u i r e d a p a r ti c u l a r ite m , a v i n ta g e l a b e l le d ja c k e t f r o m a P a r is b o u ti q u e o r a n E r c o l 1 9 5 0 s ta b l e f r o m a n e s ta te s a l e o f a r ic h f a r m e r . T h e n a r r a ti v e tr e a d s a th i n li n e b e tw e e n e n h a n c i n g th e s a l e a b i l i ty o f th e o b je c t o r r e n d e r i n g i t i n a l ie n a b l e . F u r th e r m o r e , th e s e n a r r a ti v e d e v ic e s a d h e r e to l o c a l s ty le s a n d r e p e r to ir e s th a t a r e s e n s itiv e to v e r y s p e c if ic u n d e r s ta n d i n g s o f c o m m o d i ty c u l tu r e s . S e l l i n g th e w e d d i n g d r e s s o f a n u n f a i th f u l f o r m e r w i f e f o u n d i n th e a tti c a f te r s h e h a s ti l y m o v e d o u t m a y

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 2 4 4 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 4 4 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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b e h i l a r i o u s l y f u n n y in th e U n ite d S ta te s ( m o d e l le d b y th e a b a n d o n e d h u s b a n d , th e ite m s o ld f o r o v e r $ 6 ,0 0 0 ) , b u t m i g h t n o t tr a n s la te w e l l, f o r e x a m p l e , to a n A u s tr ia n e B a y w h e r e th e m a r k e t is i n its e a r l y s ta g e s a n d its " e c o n o m y o f f u n " i s y e t to b e e s ta b l i s h e d . It is th e n a r r a ti v e e f f e c t o f th e s e s p a ti a l i s e d p e r f o r m a n c e s , H i l l i s a r g u e s , th a t " e x c e e d s th e tr a n s ­ a c ti o n a l l o g ic th a t c o m p r i s e s th e c o m m o n s e n s e u n d e r s ta n d i n g o f e B a y a s a g i a n t g a r a g e s a l e , s w a p m e e t o r o l d - f a s h io n e d a u c ti o n h o u s e w r i t v i r tu a l " ( H ill is 2 0 0 6 : 1 4 2 ) . In th is n a r r a tiv e c o n te x t in w h ic h a ll b id d e r s , a n d e v e n w a tc h e r s a n d b r o w s e r s , c o n tr ib u te to th e s to r y lin e a n d th e n a r r a tiv e d e v ic e , th e " t r u e " s to ry , im a g e , o r p r o v e n a n c e o f a n ite m is e l u s i v e . T h e " s i tu a te d n e s s " o f b r a n d s c o u p le d

w i th a n e v e r y d a y ( r a th e r th a n s p e c ta c u la r ) s u b je c ti v e

n a r r a tiv e th a t c o n f e r s te s tim o n y o f s o c ia l s a l ie n c e m a k e s th e id e a l e B a y c o m m o d ity . T h is te n ta tiv e c o m in g to g e th e r o f b r a n d v a lu e a n d s u b je c ti v e n a r r a tiv e is v is ib le in th e p r o c e s s o f r e s e ttl in g u n w a n te d ite m s . L is ti n g s c a n re a d a s a p o lo g ie s , e v e n e u lo g ie s , to th e d is c a r d e d o b je c t a s w i tn e s s e d in th e f o l lo w i n g e x tr a c ts f r o m e B a y s e ll e r s ;

M y m o th e r b o u g h t m e th is K e n w o o d f o o d - m ix e r as a w e d d in g p re s ­ e n t. It is h a rd ly u s e d ( s o rry m u m !) a n d w e a re sad to le t it g o — I'm su re it m a k e s g re a t b re a d — b u t w ith a n e w b o m a n d a d o g to lo o k a f te r w e d o n 't h a v e tim e to u s e it! ( e Ba y .c o .u k / h o m e & g a rd e n / 14 Ju ly 2 0 09) Y o u a re b id d in g o n m y s o n 's M a x i C o s i re c lin in g c a r se at. H e h a s g ro w n o u t o f it a n d as m u c h a s h e lo v e d to k ip in it, it is n o w tim e to m o v e o n to a b o o s te r s e a t ... [ s ig n allin g c o n te m p la tiv e p au se ]. W e h av e n e v e r h ad a p ro b le m w ith th is c a r se at a n d it h as n e v e r b e e n in a n a c c id e n t. It h a s c o m e f ro m a sm o k e f re e an d p e t f re e h o m e . ( eBay . c o .u k / b a b y / c ar s e a ts 15 Ju l y 20 09) T h e f ab ric [ o f th is M a x i C o si] is b la c k in c o lo u r w ith s o m e d a rk g re y . T h e re a re n o s ta in s a n d te ars. T h e re a re a f e w m a rk s o n th e b e lt strap , a s sh o w n in th e p h o to , u n a v o id a b le w ith sm a ll c h ild re n I fe e l! ( eBay . c o .u k / b a b y / c ar s e a ts 15 Ju ly 2 009)

A tta c h in g to o m u c h e m o tio n a l s i g n if ic a n c e to a n ite m ( m e n tio n in g d e a th , ill f a te , b a d e x p e r ie n c e s , e tc .) is a h in d r a n c e to s a le — i n th is re s p e c t, i t is b r an d e d c o m m o d i ti e s th a t b e s t c ir c u m v e n t th e o v e r ly s u b je c ti v e s to r ie s o f

i n d iv id u a l s e ll e r s o f te n re q u ir e d f o r n o n b r a n d e d g o o d s th a t n e e d g r e a te r c o n f ir m a tio n o f th e ir p r o v e n a n c e . It is n o t c o l le c tib le s , a s p r o m o te d b y e B a y th e c o r p o r a tio n , th a t f u lf ill th e e B a y f o u n d e r 's id y ll o f a " f r i c ti o n f r e e - m a r k e t" b u t b r a n d e d c o m m o d i ti e s th a t p r o v i d e a " tr a c e a b l e n a r r a ­ ti v e " a n d s u c c in c t a p p e a l to th e " i n d e x i a b i l i ty " o f o n - li n e a u c tio n s ite s :

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 2 4 5 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 4 5 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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D IO R BR A C EL ET : 1 00 % a u th e n tic c o m e s w ith o rig in a l b o x . Bo x h a s a f e w d irty m ark s a s I b o u g h t th is 6 m o n th s a g o . N E V ER b e e n u s e d . Its b e ig e in c o lo u r w ith g o ld m e ta l. T h is p ic is n 't g re a t an d lo o k s p in k is h in c o lo u r b u t th e ite m is n 't. ( e Ba y .c o .u k / je w e lle ry an d w a tc h e s / b ra c e le ts 16 Ju ly 2 009)

T o c l a r i f y th e s ta n d i n g o f th e s e ll e r , i t is n o t ju s t s e l l e r r a ti n g s th a t a re v i e w e d ( th e s e a re w i d e l y u n d e r s to o d to b e s o n o r m a ti v e a s to b e r e n ­ d e r e d m e a n i n g l e s s ) b u t th e s ta n d i n g o f th e p a r ti c u l a r ite m . B y tr a c in g o th e r ite m s p r e s e n tl y f o r s a l e b y th e s e l l e r a n d th o s e p r e v i o u s l y s o ld b y th e s e ll e r , th e p o te n ti a l b i d d e r c a n p i e c e to g e th e r a c o n s te l l a ti o n o f b r a n d s a n d o th e r o b je c ts ; in d e e d a n e n ti r e m a te r i a l c u l tu r e p r o f il e th a t f e e d s - b a c k a s a te s ta m e n t to

p r o v e n a n c e th a t h e lp s c o n f e r v a l u e o n

th e li s te d a r tic le . T h e D i o r b r a c e l e t m e n tio n e d p r e v io u s ly , f o r e x a m p l e , is e n m e s h e d in a s e r ie s o f o th e r s a le s , a c r o s s e B a y ' s te m p o r a l s p a ti a lity , th a t o f f e r s i n s i g h t in to th e s e l l e r ' s s i z e , b r a n d p r e f e r e n c e s , a n d e v e n ta s te s in c o s m e ti c s . C le a r ly , th i s p r o v e n a n c e a ls o c a s ts li g h t o n w h e th e r o r n o t ite m s a c tu a l l y e v e r b e l o n g e d to a s p e c if ic s e l l e r o r w h e th e r th e y a re s to l e n g o o d s ( a s m i g h t b e th e c a s e in te r m s o f p a c k a g e d b r a n d e d c o s m e t­ ic s a n d e a s i l y " s h o p - l i f ta b l e " ite m s ) ( s e e M a s n i c k 2 0 0 8 ) . W e n g ro w

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m o d i ti e s to o l i ttl e a tte n ti o n is p a i d to th e a c tu a l p r o c e s s e s o f c o m m o d i ty m a r k i n g , e m p h a s i s b e i n g p l a c e d i n s te a d o n th e tr a n s f o r m a ti v e p o w e r o f s o c i a l r e l a ti o n s to a l te r th e s ta tu s o f o b je c ts . O n e B a y , th e m a r k o f th e b r a n d is r e d u c e d to its s u i ta b i l i ty to o n - l i n e v i s u a l r h e to r i c — th a t w h i c h c a n b e c a p tu r e d o f th e b r a n d in o s te n s i b l y a m a te u r d i g i ta l p h o to s a n d d o c u m e n ta r y e v i d e n c e . B o x e s , o r i g i n a l p a c k a g i n g , a n d o r i g i n a l l a b e l s a r e v i ta l , n o t ju s t in a u th e n ti c a ti n g th e b r a n d e d o b je c t b u t i n a u th e n ­ ti c a ti n g th e s e l l e r h i m

o r h e r s e l f . In th e s a l e s n a r r a ti v e s , a tte n ti o n is

c a r e f u l l y d r a w n to a n y s u b je c ti v e p h y s i c a l i n te r v e n ti o n s ( d i r ty m a r k s o n th e b o x , i n f a n ts ' d r i b b l e s o n th e c a r - s e a t s tr a p s ) th a t c o m p r o m i s e th e o b je c ti v e m a r k s o f th e b r a n d e d c o m m o d i ty ( b e it a D i o r b r a c e l e t o r a M a x - C o s i c a r s e a t) . It is th e c o m in g to g e th e r o f b r a n d a n d n a r r a tiv e te s ta m e n t a n d th e v a lu e g e n e r a te d th r o u g h th e m a r k s o f u s e th a t m a k e s th e a r c h e ty p a l o n - li n e s a l e . T h e b r a n d a s u s e d — o r le a s e d — c a r r ie s a n a lte rn a tiv e : n o n - f ir s t- p u r c h a s e v a lu e ; f r e e d f r o m th e m e c h a n is m s o f re ta il a n d a d v e r tis in g , it is p e r h a p s u n s u r p r is i n g th a t m a n y e B a y b r o w s e r s u s e th is " a r c h i v e o f e v e r y d a y m a te r ia l c u l tu r e " a s a p o o le d g u id e to b r a n d s a l ie n c e . B r a n d s , a s A r v id s s o n h a s o b s e r v e d , a re b a s e d o n " v a l u e s , c o m m itm e n ts a n d f o r m s o f c o m m u n i ty s u s ta in e d b y c o n s u m e r s ." T h e y a re a ls o " m e c h a n i s m s th a t e n a b le a d ir e c t v a lo r i z a tio n ( in th e f o r m o f s h a r e p r i c e s , f o r e x a m p le ) o f p e o p l e ' s a b il ity to c r e a te tr u s t, a f f e c t a n d s h a r e d m e a n i n g s " ( 2 0 0 5 : 2 3 6 ) . In th is " in te r s titia l s ite

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 2 4 6 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 4 6 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

246

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o f m a te r ia l a n d im m a te r ia l c u l tu r e s " ( H ill is 2 0 0 6 ) , th e id e a o f th e b r a n d is n o t c o n f in e d to c o n te m p o r a r y b r a n d e d g o o d s c ir c u la te d a n d m a n a g e d in th e f ir s t- s a le a re n a . E r c o l , a B r i ti s h p o s tw a r f u r n i tu r e b r a n d r e n o w n e d f o r i ts q u a l i ty a n d c o n s e r v a ti v e i n te r p r e ta ti o n o f m o d e r n i s t d e s i g n , i s a f o r m o f m a te r i a l c u l tu r e th a t l e n d s i t s e l f p e r f e c tl y to th e o n - l i n e a u c ti o n f o r m a t. T h e p o p u l a r i ty

o f E r c o l v i n ta g e f u r n i tu r e a n d

th e s u b s e q u e n t r is e i n its

c o l l e c ta b l e v a l u e is ti e d to i ts b r a n d e d s ty l e c o m m o d i ty a n d th e e a s e w i th w h i c h i ts h o m o g e n e o u s f o r m s a r e r e c o g n i s e d a n d a u th e n ti c a te d th r o u g h e B a y a r c h i v a l . T h a t th e m o d e r a te l y p r i c e d e l m f u r n i tu r e h a s b een

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m e a n s th a t th e r e is th e v o l u m e o f o b je c ts to s u s ta i n a b r a n d id e n tity , r a th e r th a n g e n e r a te ju s t a c o l l e c ti b l e n ic h e . R ic h a r d , 3 4 ( IT c o n s u lta n t, S o u th L o n d o n ) , in itia ll y u s e d e B a y w h e n it w a s r e c o m m e n d e d a s a n e f f ic i e n t m e a n s o f s o u r c in g a s p a r e p a r t f o r h is a g in g P e u g e o t. A f te r tw o s u c c e s s f u l b id s a n d p u r c h a s e s f o r c a r s p a r e p a r ts , R ic h a rd b e c a m e , i n h is o w n w o r d s , " a n E r c o l w a tc h e r ." R ic h a r d s tu m b le d a c ro s s th e E r c o l f u r n itu r e w h e n b r o w s i n g e B a y f o r a f u n c tio n a l b o o k s h e l f — th o u g h g e n e r a l ly u n i n te r e s te d in c o l le c ta b l e o r v in ta g e f u r n i­ tu re , h e h a s s u b s e q u e n tly p u r c h a s e d a n d s o ld a d o z e n E r c o l ite m s th r o u g h e Ba y . H e s a id :

I'v e n e v e r b e e n to a re a l a u c tio n a s s u c h ; it' s ju s t n o t s o m e th in g I'd d o — w a y to o s c a ry ! Bu t o n e Ba y — w e ll to b e h o n e s t I'v e d e c k e d o u t th e w h o le f la t u s in g e Ba y — I k n o w th a t i f I s a y , b u y a p ie c e o f b ra n d e d v in ta g e f u rn itu re — w ith a ll th e m a rk s — i f it d o e s n 't fit— I ju s t p u t it s tra ig h t b a c k o n a n d g e t m y m o n e y b a c k o r m a y b e e v e n m a k e a p ro f it.

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h a s e v o l v e d a s a n a r c h e ty p a l o n - li n e U .K . a u c ti o n b r a n d : Its ite m s a re h o m o g e n i s e d in to ty p e s ; its c r a f te d s m o o th e lm s u r f a c e s a n d p a tin a a re s u ite d to th e v is u a l r h e to r ic o f o n - li n e li s tin g s ; a n d th e ite m s b e a r a m a k e r ' s la b e l . T h e i r p r o v e n a n c e is tr a c e a b le a n d th e ir m o d e l s a n d p r i c e s c a n e a s ily b e c o m p a r e d , a t th e p r e s s o f a b u tto n , w i th a n in d e x o f p r e v io u s b u y e r s a n d p r e v io u s p ri c e s . It is th e v ir tu a l tr a n s la tio n o f th e f u r n i tu r e 's m a te r ia l­ ity a n d th e le g ib ili ty o f its tr a d e m a r k th a t h a s tr a n s f o r m e d E r c o l in to w h a t is e f f e c tiv e l y a p r e m iu m s e c o n d - h a n d b ra n d . O n l y th e o w n e r o f th e w i n n in g b id e x p e r ie n c e s th e m a te r ia l o b je c t. e B a y i n g , a s a c u l tu r a l p r a c tic e , m o re ty p ic a l ly in v o lv e s th e r e p e ti tiv e , s e r i­ a li s e d c o n s u m p tio n o f e B a y o b je c ts a s im a g e s a n d v ir tu a l e n c o u n te r s . T h is tr a n s ito r y m o d e o f d i s tr i b u tio n m a tc h e s w h a t G r e g s o n ( 2 0 0 7 ) d e s c r i b e s a s th e in c r e a s in g n o r m a tiv ity

o f tr a n s ie n c e a s re g a r d s th e p r a c tic e in

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 2 4 7 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 4 7 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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a c c o m m o d a tin g c e r ta in ty p e s o f o u r th in g s . D e s p ite th e p r o m o ti o n o f e B a y a s a f o r u m o f m e m o r y a n d c o l le c tib le s , a s a n a r c h iv e o f e v e r y d a y m a te r ia l c u ltu r e , it th r iv e s o n a r e c o g n i s e d te m p o r a lity o f b r a n d e d g o o d s . e B a y is w i d e ly r e c o g n i s e d a s h a v i n g o r i g in a te d a s a n a r e n a f o r s e lli n g o u t- m o d e d te c h n o lo g y . A lth o u g h E r c o l f u r n i tu r e s u s ta in s a s ta tic b r a n d e d a rc h iv a l p r e s e n c e , f o r c o n te m p o r a r y b r a n d e d p r o d u c ts i t is a ls o th e s ite in w h ic h o b s o l e s c e n c e a n d b r a n d d e p r e c ia tio n is e f f e c tu a te d . C a r o li n e b o u g h t h e r B u g a b o o s tr o l le r ( w ith a c c e s s o r ie s ) f ir s t h a n d a t th e c o s t o f £ 8 0 0 2 y e a r s a g o , a n d , a lo n g w i th a D a n is h ST O K K E c o t, B a b y B jo m b o u n c y c h a ir, a n d a M a x i C o s i c a r s e a t s h e h a s c a r e f u lly s to r e d a ll th e in s tr u c ti o n m a n u a ls , g u a r a n te e s , a n d o r i g in a l p a c k a g i n g s o th a t w h e n s h e c o m e s to r e s e ll th e m o n e Ba y , s h e w ill r e - a s s e m b le th e m a s b r a n d e d c o m m o d i ti e s . S h e a ls o k e e p s th e b o x e s f r o m h e r b r a n d e d c h ild r e n 's to y s ( s u c h a s P la y m o b il , L e g o , e tc .) , k n o w i n g th a t s h e w i ll b e r e l e a s i n g th e m b a c k o n to th e m a r k e t. P r e - e m p tiv e b r a n d re s a le , u n d e r p in n e d b y th e tra c e a b ili ty a n d in d e x i b i lity o f o n - li n e a u c tio n , th r iv e s in th e f lu id b a b y a n d c h i l d r e n ' s w a r e s m a r k e t. T o q u o te C a ro li n e :

A n y th in g th a t is b ra n d e d , b a s ic a lly , I se e w e i rd ly n o w as a b a rg a in . I m e a n h o m e - k n itte d

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d o l ls h o u s e s a re lo v e ly b u t th e y 'r e g o in g n o w h e r e o n e Ba y . Y o u n e e d a b ra n d th a t p e o p le k n o w w o rk s w e ll. It' s lik e a g re a t b ig p o o l o f k id s s tu f f a n d w e 'r e a ll ju s t b o rr o w in g it a n d p u tti n g th e m b a c k a g a in .

e B a y - b r a n d e d g o o d s ta k e o n a n in a l ie n a b l e s ta tu s ( th e y a re c h e r is h e d , p r o te c te d , a n d m a in ta in e d — k e p t in th e li v in g c o l le c tiv e b r a n d a rc h iv e o f o n - li n e a u c tio n ) , a n d th e p r e - e m p ti v e r e s a le a s s e r ts a b a c k w a r d in f lu ­ e n c e o v e r th e ty p e s o f b r a n d e d g o o d s s u ite d to th e v ir tu a l s e c o n d - h a n d m a r k e t. A s u c c e s s f u l e B a y tr a d e r o f c h ild r e n ' s w e a r e s ti m a te d th a t s o m e o f th e b r a n d e d a r tic le s s h e p u r c h a s e s f o r r e s a le in h e r v ir tu a l s h o p h a d b e e n th r o u g h a s m a n y a s 1 2 e B a y tr a n s a c ti o n s b y th e tim e s h e p u r c h a s e d th e m . A s s h e s a i d : " T h e y m a y n o t e v e n b e th a t w o r n , b e c a u s e th e m o th e r s ' h a v e k e p t th e m li k e - n e w ju s t s o th e y c a n r e s e ll e a s il y ." T h e b r a n d m a n a g e r s o f c h ild - r e la te d p r o d u c ts s u c h a s B u g a b o o a n d M a x i - C o s i h a v e re s p o n d e d to th e th r e a t o f th e s e c o n d - h a n d li q u id a s s e t a p p r o a c h to th e ir g o o d s b y g e n e r a ti n g in c r e a s in g ly d iv e r s e p r o d u c t lin e s th a t m a k e th e ir p r o d u c ts m o r e in d iv i d u a te d

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. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 2 4 8 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 4 8 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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" p r e - l o v e d " h a p tic w o r l d s a n d n a r r a tiv e s th a t le n d a p r o v e n a n c e c o m b in ­ in g f o r m a l s a n c tio n in g w i th a f o r m o f s a v v y i n v e s tm e n t in th e b r a n d . T h e e n d u r in g n e s s o f th e b r a n d in th e v ir tu a l s p a c e o f e B a y ' s p e r p e tu a l a rc h iv e a ll o w s f o r a tr a n s ie n t v e r s i o n o f p o s s e s s io n th a t is tie d to a n u n p r e c e d e n t­ e d a b u n d a n c e o f c o m m o d i ti e s a n d th e d e m is e o f p r e - o n - l in e f a c e - to - f a c e d iv e s tm e n t p r a c tic e s . A lth o u g h c e r ta in ty p e s o f b r a n d e d c o m m o d i ti e s , s u c h a s c a r s , h a v e lo n g b e e n u n d e r s to o d in re l a ti o n to th e ir d e p r e c ia tio n a n d s e c o n d - h a n d b r a n d a p p e a l, th e b o o m in th e s e c o n d a r y m a r k e t is re c o n s titu tin g th e v e r y c a te g o ­ ri e s th a t b r a n d e d c o m m o d i ti e s in h a b it. D e f i n itio n s o f lu x u r y a n d d e s ig n e r, o n c e tie d to th e m a te r ia l ity a n d s k ill s o f r e la te d in d u s tr ie s f r o m c o u tu r e to le a th e r g o o d s , a re n o w a s r e l e v a n t to f u n c tio n a l b a b y g o o d s a s th e y a re to o b je c ts o f h ig h - e n d f a s h io n . A s b r a n d m a n a g e r s tr y to e n g in e e r th e te m p o ­ ra li tie s o f th e ir g o o d s , g e n e r a ti n g o b s o le s c e n c e th r o u g h th e in tr o d u c ti o n o f e v e r - f a s te r d e s i g n c h a n g e s , it is in th e c o n s e n s u a l f o ru m o f th e m a s s s e c o n d - h a n d m a r k e t th a t in c r e a s in g ly n e g o tia te s a n d d ic ta te s th i s p ro c e s s . D e s ig n e r s a re s til l, to q u o te P a p a n e k ( 1 9 8 5 [ 1 9 7 1 ] ) th e " h a n d m a i d e n s o f c a p i ta l i s m ," b u t it is th e a lte r n a tiv e e c o n o m ie s o f d is p o s a l th a t in c r e a s in g ly s te e r th e p a c e o f b r a n d c h a n g e a n d th e a e s th e tic a n d s ty le in to n a tio n . C r itic s o f s e c o n d - h a n d o n - li n e a u c ti o n s i te s , s u c h a s Z u k in ( 2 0 0 5 ) , ta k e is s u e w i th th e c y b e r - a u c tio n c o n je c tu r e th a t e v e r y th in g in c o n te m p o r a r y c u ltu r e , f r o m f a m il y h e ir l o o m s to p r e - w o r n b r a n d e d s n e a k e r s , is u p f o r s a le . B u t h e r c o n te n ti o n , a s D e s ja r d in s p o i n ts o u t in h e r s tu d y o f e p h e m ­ e r a o n e Bay , d e n ie s th e a c c e s s to a l te r n a tiv e k n o w l e d g e s a n d in f o r m a tio n

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 2 4 9 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 4 9 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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th a t e B a y a ll o w s ( 2 0 0 6 ) . A s b r a n d d is p e r s a l a n d r e a lis a tio n h a v e b e c o m e in c r e a s in g ly

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th e s e c o n d - h a n d s e ttin g , h a v e b e c o m e k e y a g e n ts in c ir c u m s c r ib in g th e v a lo u r is a ti o n o f s o c ia l p r o c e s s e s r a n g in g f r o m th e m e m o r i a li s in g o f k in ­ s h ip to th e c o n s titu ti n g g e n re s o f p a r e n tin g . A t f ir s t g la n c e , th e p r o lif e r a ti o n o f a " l e a s e " a n d " e v e r y th i n g u p f o r s a l e " e c o n o m y s e e m s in d ic a tiv e o f a B a u m a n e s q u e ( B a u m a n 2 0 0 3 ) " li q u i d lo v e " m o d e l o f re l a ti o n s h ip s in w h ic h th e f le e tin g v a lu e o f g o o d s m a tc h e s th e s u p e r f l u i ty o f c o n te m p o r a r y s o c i a l r e la ti o n s . H o w e v e r, i t s e e m s th a t b a b i e s a r e n o t a n y le s s v a lu e d b e c a u s e th e ir b r a n d - m a r k e d c r ib s a n d s tr o ll­ e r s a re c ir c u la te d a n d r e v a lo r is e d in th e c o lle c tiv e s p a c e o f e B a y r a th e r th a n k e p t in th e f a m il y a tti c to g a th e r d u s t.

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1. A c c o r d in g to th e N i s s a n o f s tu d y , e B a y is e s ti m a te d to h a v e 1 8 0 m il li o n tr a d e r s w o r l d w id e a n d a tu r n o v e r o f $ 1 3 0 m il lio n i n d a il y tr a n s a c ti o n s . 2 . In th e g r o w in g b u s i n e s s a n d m a r k e tin g li te r a tu r e a d d r e s s in g th e s p e c ­ tr e o f th e s e c o n d - h a n d b r a n d m a r k e t, th e B u g a b o o s tr o lle r is f r e q u e n tl y c ite d a s th e p r i m e e x a m p le o f th e im p o r ta n c e o f b r a n d s tr a te g i s ts in tr y ­ in g to " m a n a g e " th e re n e g a d e c u ltu r e o f " p r e e m p ti v e s e c o n d a r y m a r k e t p u r c h a s e ." It is re c o g n i ti o n o f a n e w c o n s u m e r a p p r o a c h to f ir s t- tim e p u r c h a s e ( a n a p p r o a c h th a t p r i o r iti s e s a n d p r e e m p ts s e c o n d a r y - m a r k e t b r a n d v a lu e ) th a t h a s h e ig h te n e d th e B u g a b o o 's in v e s tm e n t in " d e s i g n o b s o l e s c e n c e " ( th e u s e o f n o v e l f a s h io n c o l o u r p a l e tte s a n d c u s to m i­ s a tio n ) a s a m e a n s o f d if f e r e n ti a ti n g b e tw e e n p r i m a r y a n d s e c o n d a r y m a rk e ts . M a d e le e n K la s s e n , B u g a b o o 's in te r n a tio n a l m a r k e tin g d ir e c ­ to r, d e s c r i b e s th e s p e c tr e o f th e " l i q u i d a s s e t," s a y in g : " T h e s o - c a lle d le a s e e c o n o m y is g e ttin g c le a r e r th a n k s to th e e B a y s o f th i s w o r ld . T h e In te r n e t is v e r y v is ib le . Y o u c a n e a s ily f o l lo w p r o d u c ts m o v in g a r o u n d ." ( C u d d e f o r d Jo n e s 2 0 0 6 : 3 ) B u g a b o o , a p r a m w h o s e p o p u l a r ity h a s b e e n tie d to its m e d ia p r o f il e a s th e m u s t- h a v e ite m o f c e le b r ity m o th e r s , is a s e lf - c o n s c io u s ly in n o v a tiv e d e s i g n e m a n a tin g f r o m th e c o n c e p tu a l E in d h o v e n D e s ig n A c a d e m y in th e N e th e r la n d s . Its r a d ic a l d e s i g n p o s itio n e d it o u ts id e th e m a in s tre a m tr a d itio n a l b a b y - w a r e s m a s s m a r k e t, a n d , a s s u c h , i t b e g a n a s a re la ­ tiv e ly o b s c u re p r o d u c t w i th n ic h e m a r k e t a p p e a l. A h ig h - e n d p r o d u c t ite m , B u g a b o o 's s a le s h a v e g r o w n i n li n e w i th th e m a r k e t g r o w th o f e Ba y , w h ic h h a s p ro v id e d th e id e a l f o ru m to r e s e ll a t a m e a s u r a b le , c a l­ c u la te d v a lu e . A lth o u g h th e s e c o n d - h a n d e c o n o m y in itia ll y th r e a te n e d to u n d e r m in e th e p r o d u c t's f ir s t- h a n d m a r k e t, th e b r a n d m a n a g e r s o f Bu g ab o o n o w

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. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 2 5 0 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 5 0 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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d e s i g n a n d p r i c in g c o n c e p ts ; to q u o te K la s s e n , " C o n s u m e r s a re r e a s ­ s u re d a r e s a le a b le p r o d u c t a n d th e n k n o w i t is w o r th in v e s tin g i n o u r b r a n d ." A f a s t tu r n o v e r o f n e w d e s ig n s a n d c o l o u r s c h e m e s h a s b e c o m e th e o n ly m e a n s o f d if f e r e n ti a ti n g f ir s t p h a s e m o d e ls f r o m th e ir s e c o n d ­ h a n d c o u n te r p a rts . 3. T in a B r o w n , le a d in g in te r n a tio n a l f a s h io n e d ito r, id e n tif ie d " f a b l o i d s " a s a d is ti n c t g e n r e o f p u b l ic a tio n in te r w e a v i n g c e le b r i ty g o s s ip , f a s h io n , a n d lu x u r y b r a n d s th a t " c o m b i n e s th e ta b lo id h u n g e r f o r s e n s a tio n w ith th e r e q u ir e m e n t to a lw a y s lo o k f a b u lo u s " ( B r o w n 2 0 0 7 : 3 3 7 , q u o te d in C h a p te r 11, " C o n te m p o r a r y G l a m o u r ," G u n d le ( 2 0 0 8 : 3 4 7 - 8 7 ) . 4 . U n li k e o th e r p ro d u c t in d u s tr ie s , th e c a r in d u s tr y a n d its b ra n d m a n ­ a g e r s h a v e a lw a y s in c o r p o r a te d th e r e s a le a n d d e p r e c ia tio n v a lu e in to th e ir b r a n d s tr a te g ie s a n d c a lc u la tio n s o f b r a n d e q u ity ( s e e , e .g ., B e tts a n d T a ra n 2 0 0 4 a n d P u r o h i t 1 9 9 2 ) . H o w e v e r, i t is th e c u lt u r al a f te r - li f e o f th e b r a n d th a t th is a n e c d o te s u g g e s ts is b e i n g s o v ig i la n tl y c o n tr o ll e d b y b ra n d m a n a g e rs. 5 . F u t u r e s h o p ( N is s a n o f f 2 0 0 6 ) , s e le c te d b y th e W all S t r e e t Jo u r n a l a s o n e o f th e f iv e b e s t b o o k s o n c o n s u m e r c u ltu r e , b e lo n g s to a g r o w in g b u s i n e s s li te r a tu r e a n d m e d ia a c k n o w l e d g in g th e im p a c t o f o n - li n e a u c ti o n s a n d s e c o n d - h a n d m a r k e ts . S e e , f o r e x a m p l e , A d le r ( 2 0 0 2 ) , B u n n e l l ( 2 0 0 0 ) , C o h e n ( 2 0 0 2 ) , a n d H e lf t ( 2 0 0 1 ) . 6 . W a lp o le B r itis h

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B r iti s h lu x u r y g o o d s c o m p a n ie s in c lu d in g Ji m m y C h o o a n d L in k s je w ­ e lle r s . L H M V is a lu x u r y g r o u p r e p r e s e n tin g 6 0 b r a n d s , in c lu d in g th e f a s h io n la b e l s L o u is V u itto n , D io r, a n d Fe n d i.

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A ak e r, D . 1991. M an ag in g B r an d E qu it y . N e w Y o rk : T h e Fre e P re ss. A ak e r, D . 1996. B u ild in g S t ro n g B r an ds . N e w Y o rk : T h e Fre e P re ss. A d le r, J. 200 2. T h e e Ba y W ay o f L ife . N e w s w e e k, 17 Ju n e , p p . 5 0 - 6 0 . A rv id s s o n , A . 2005. Bra n d s : A c ritic a l p e rsp e c tiv e . Jo u r n al o f C o n s u m e r C u lt u r e 5:235. Bau d rillard , J. 199 6 [ 1968]. T he S y s t em o f O bjec t s. L o n d o n : V erso . Ba u m a n , Z . 2 00 3 . L iq u id L o v e: O n t he F r ailt y o f H u m an B o n ds . C a m b rid g e : P o lity P re ss. Be tts , S. C . a n d Z . T aran . 2 0 04 . T h e " b ra n d h a lo " e f f e c t o f d u ra b le g o o d s p ric e s: Bra n d re lia b ility a n d th e u se d c a r m a rk e t. A c ad e m y o f M ar ke t in g S t u dies Jo u r n al 8 (1 ): 7 - 1 8 .

Bro w n , J., A . J. Bro d e ric k , a n d L. N ic k . 200 8. W o rd o f m o u th c o m m u n ic a tio n w ith in o n lin e c o m m u n itie s: C o n c e p tu a liz in g th e o n lin e s o c ia l n e tw o rk . Jo u riu il o f In t e r ac t iv e M ar ke t in g 2 1 3 :2 - 2 0 .

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 25 1 h t t p :/ /s ite . e b ra ry .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 5 1 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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In d i a n a U n iv e r s i ty , B lo o m in g to n . Sh e h a s e d ite d

T r ad e r s v s. t h e S t a t e ( 1 9 8 8 ) a n d G e n d e r a t W o r k in E c o n o m ic L ife ( A lta M ir a

P re s s , 2 0 0 3 ) , w r i tte n o n r e la tio n s o f c r e d it, le a d e r s h ip , a n d d o m e s tic w o r k , a n d a d d r e s s e d d e v e lo p m e n t i s s u e s o f f o o d s e c u rity , g e n d e r , a n d tr a d e li b ­ e r a l is a tio n . A fr ic an M a r k e t W o m e n : S e v e n L ife S t o r ie s f r o m K u m as i ( In d ia n a U n iv e r s i ty P r e s s , 2 0 1 0 ) c o m p l e m e n ts h e r 1 9 9 4 b o o k O n io n s A r e M y H u s b an d ( U n iv e r s i ty o f C h i c a g o P re s s ) .

A li s o n ] . C lar k e

U n iv e r s i ty o f A p p lie d A r ts D e s ig n H is to r y a n d T h e o r y O s k a r K o k o s c h k a - P la tz 2 A - 1 0 1 0 V ie n n a A u s tr ia A li s o n J. C la r k e is a P r o f e s s o r o f D e s ig n H is to r y a n d T h e o r y a n d R e s e a rc h D ir e c to r o f th e V ic to r J. P a p a n e k F o u n d a ti o n , a t th e U n iv e r s i ty o f A p p lie d A r ts V ie n n a , A u s tr ia . S h e h a s p r e v i o u s ly w r i tte n a n d re s e a rc h e d w i d e ly o n th e d e s ig n a n d a n th r o p o lo g y o f b r a n d s ; p u b l ic a tio n s in c lu d e T u p p e r w ar e : T h e P r o m is e o f P las t ic in 1 9 5 0 s A m e r ic a ( S m ith s o n ia n P re s s , 2 0 0 0 ) a n d , m o s t

re c e n tly , D e s ig n A n t h r o p o lo g i/ ( Sp rin g e r, 2 0 1 0 ) .

M a g d ale n a C r ac iu n

Str. R a h o v e i Blo c A 3 s c 2 a p 2 8 T u rn u M a g u r e le 145200 R o m a n ia M a g d a l e n a C r a c iu n e a r n e d h e r P h D f r o m th e D e p a r tm e n t o f A n th ro p o lo g y , U n iv e r s i ty C o ll e g e L o n d o n , in Ja n u a r y 2 0 1 0 . H e r d o c to r a l re s e a rc h w a s a m u lti- s ite d

e th n o g r a p h y o f p e o p l e ' s e n g a g e m e n t w i th f a k e b r a n d e d

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 2 5 7 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 5 7 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

A b o u t t he E d it o r s an d C o n t rib u t o r s

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257

c lo th in g o n a p e r ip h e r y o f E u r o p e , in th r e e d is ti n c t lo c a ti o n s : Is ta n b u l, a m a jo r p r o d u c e r o f f a k e b r a n d s ; E u r o p a m a r k e t in B u c h a r e s t, th e m a in s o u r c e o f c o u n te r f e its in R o m a n i a ; a n d a p r o v in c ia l R o m a n i a n to w n , a s a n o r d in a r y p la c e o f c o n s u m p tio n . Sh e is c u r r e n tl y p r e p a r in g a b o o k m a n u ­ s c r i p t a n d s e v e r a l o th e r a r tic le s o n th e s e to p i c s .

F e r e n c H am m e r

EL T E M e d ia D e p a r tm e n t M u z e u m k rt. 6 - 8 , 1 0 8 8 Bu d ap e st H u n g a ry Fe re n c H a m m e r ( P h D , EL T E U n iv e rs i ty ) is a n A s s is ta n t P ro f e s s o r a t th e In s titu te f o r A r t T h e o ry a n d M e d ia Stu d ie s a t EL T E U n iv e rsity , Bu d a p e s t. H e te a c h e s a n d c o n d u c ts re s e a rc h o n a rte f a c ts , p ra c tic e s , a n d m e m o r ie s a s s o c ia te d w ith e v e ry d a y life . H is re c e n t p u b lic a tio n s in c lu d e : " S a r to r ia l M a n o e u v re s in th e D u sk : Blu e Je a n s in So c ia li s t H u n g a ry ," in F. T re n tm a n n a n d K . So p e r ( Ed s .) , C it iz e n s h ip a n d C o n s u m p t io n ( P a lg r a v e M a c m illa n , 2 0 0 8 ) ; " M a g y a r D e n im : M e ta m o r p h o s e s in th e C lo th in g Fa c to ry ," f o rth c o m in g in D e n im : U n r av e llin g C o n t r ad ic t io n s ( a s p e c ia l e d iti o n o f T ex t ile: T h e Jo u r n al o f C lo t h an d C u lt u r e , Ju n e 2 01 0 ).

M ar c o s M ar t in o n - T o r r e s

U C L In s titu te o f A r c h a e o lo g y 3 1 - 3 4 G o r d o n Sq u a r e L o n d o n W C 1 H O PY U n ite d K in g d o m M a r c o s M a rtin o n - T o rr e s is a S e n i o r L e c tu r e r in A r c h a e o l o g ic a l S c ie n c e a n d M a te r i a l C u ltu r e a t th e U n iv e r s i ty C o ll e g e L o n d o n . W ith d e g r e e s in h is to r y , a rc h a e o lo g y , a n d a r c h a e o l o g ic a l s c ie n c e , h e h a s a s p e c ia l in te r e s t in th e in te g r a tio n o f d if f e r e n t r e s e a r c h a p p r o a c h e s to p a s t m a te r ia ls a n d te c h n o lo g ie s . M u c h o f h is re s e a rc h h a s f o c u s e d o n m e d ie v a l a n d p o s tm e d ie v a l m e ta llu rg y , w i th a s tr o n g e m p h a s i s o n th e s tu d y o f a l/ c h e m i c a l a n d m e ta ll u r g i c a l la b o r a to r i e s a n d th e p r o c e s s i n g o f n o b le m e ta ls . H e is a ls o in te r e s te d in th e tr a n s f e r o f m a te r ia l c u l tu r e a n d id e a s b e tw e e n in d ig ­ e n o u s p e o p le s a n d E u r o p e a n s in c o l o n ia l c o n te x ts . H e c u r r e n tl y w o r k s o n p r o je c ts in E u r o p e , A m e r ic a , a n d C h in a .

R o s an a P in h e ir o - M ac h ad o

P r o ta s io A lv e s , 1 2 9 6 / 7 0 2 90410-005 P o r to A le g r e / R S B ra z il

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 2 5 8 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 5 8 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

258

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A b o u t t he E d it o r s an d C o n t r ib u t o rs

R o s a n a P i n h e ir o - M a c h a d o is a L e c tu r e r in A n th r o p o lo g y a t th e S u p e r io r S c h o o l o f A d v e r tis i n g a n d M a r k e ti n g ( E S P M ) , P o r to A le g re , B r a z il , w ith a P h D in s o c ia l a n th r o p o lo g y f r o m th e F e d e r a l U n iv e r s i ty o f R io G r a n d e d o S u l, B ra z il. S h e s p e c ia li s e s in th e e th n o g r a p h y o f C h in e s e a n d L a tin A m e r i c a n s o c ie tie s a n d h a s b e e n c a r r y i n g o u t m u l ti- s i te f ie ld w o r k in b o th o f th e s e r e g io n s o v e r th e l a s t 1 0 y e a rs . P r e v io u s to p ic s o n w h ic h s h e h a s p u b l is h e d in c lu d e la b o u r p r a c tic e s , s o c ia l in e q u a liti e s , c a p ita l is m in e m e r ­ g e n t e c o n o m ie s , g n a n x i, in f o r m a l e c o n o m i e s , k in s h ip a n d m ig r a tio n , le g a l­ ity a n d ille g a lity , h u m a n r ig h ts , g lo b a lis a tio n , f a k e s , a n d b r a n d s .

Je a n - P ie r r e W ar n ie r

3 2 , ru e d e 1 'E R M IT A G E 9 1 7 0 0 S te G e n e v i e v e - d e s - B o i s Fran c e Je a n - P ie r r e

W a rn ie r ( P h D , A n th ro p o lo g y , U n iv e r s i ty

o f P e n n s y lv a n ia ,

1 9 7 5 ) ta u g h t a n th r o p o lo g y in N ig e r ia , C a m e r o o n , a n d , s i n c e 1 9 8 5 , a t th e U n iv e r s i ty P a r is - D e s c a r te s . H e is n o w a P r o f e s s o r E m e r itu s a n d a s s o c ia te d r e s e a r c h e r a t th e C e n tr e d 'E tu d e s A f r ic a in e s , P a ri s . H is b o o k s o n p o litic a l e c o n o m y in C a m e r o o n a n d o n b o d il y a n d m a te r ia l c u ltu r e in c lu d e E c h an g e s , D e v e lo p p e in e n t e t H ie r ar c h ie s d an s le B am e n d a P r e - c o lo n ial— C am e r o u n ( F ra n z

S te i n e r V e rla g W ie s b a d e n , 1 9 8 5 ) ; T h e P o t - K in g . T h e B o d y a n d T e c h n o lo g ie s o f P o w e r ( B ri ll, 2 0 0 7 ) ; a n d R e g n e r an C am e r o u n . L e R o i- P o t ( C E R I- K a r th a la ,

C o ll . " R e c h e r c h e s i n te r n a tio n a le s ," 2 0 0 9 ) .

Ja s o n Y ae g e r

D e p a r tm e n t o f A n th r o p o lo g y O n e U T S A C ir c le U n iv e r s i ty o f T e x a s a t S a n A n to n io S a n A n to n io , T X 7 8 2 4 9 U SA Ja s o n Y a e g e r is a n A s s o c ia te P r o f e s s o r o f A n th r o p o lo g y a t th e U n iv e r s i ty o f T e x a s a t Sa n A n to n io . S i n c e 1 9 9 0 , h e h a s c o n d u c te d a r c h a e o l o g ic a l f ie ld ­ w o r k in B e liz e , B o liv ia , th e U n ite d S ta te s , a n d In d ia to a d d r e s s h is in te re s ts i n th e a r c h a e o l o g y a n d e th n o h i s to r y o f M e s o a m e r i c a a n d th e A n d e s , th e o r g a n i s a tio n o f a n c ie n t h o u s e h o ld s a n d c o m m u n i ti e s , a n c ie n t u r b a n is m , a n d m a te r ia l c u ltu r e a n d id e n tity . H e h a s p u b l is h e d C la s s ic M a y a P r o v in c ia l P o lit ic s : X u n an t u n ic h a n d It s H in t e r lan d s ( w ith L is a J. L e C o u n t, U n iv e r s i ty

o f A r iz o n a P r e s s , 2 0 1 0 ) a n d T h e A r c h a e o lo g y o f C o m m u n it ie s : A N e w W o r ld P e r s p e c t iv e ( w ith M a r c e l lo A . C a n u to , R o u tle d g e , 2 0 0 0 ) .

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 2 5 9 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 5 9 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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Ba g Bo rro w o r Ste a l 2 3 7 - 3 8 , 24 2

a c c e s s o rie s 125, 237 , 239 , 2 47 " A d id a s Is S ty le " 123

Ball, Jo s e p h 1 7 7 ,1 7 8 ,1 7 9

A d o rn o , T. W . 14

b a rk c lo th ( P o ly n e sia n t ap as ) 2 0 2 , s e e c lo th

a d v e rtis e m e n t o n L e v i 134, s e e als o

Barth e s, R. 1 4 1 - 4 2

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B ar t m an t t s kr u g o r " Be a rd e d M a n Ju g "

A f ric an , c o n s u m e r 2 0 4 ; m a rk e t 156,

2 19

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b a z a a r e c o n o m y 2 2 - 2 5 , 2 7 ,2 9 ,1 6 8 , 1 8 5 ,1 8 8 ,1 9 8 ,2 4 1 ,2 4 2 ; b ra n d s in

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Be b e H y g ie n e 156

c ro s s

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A n z ie u , D id ie r 158

2 28

A p p a d u ra i, A . 112

Be n e tto n 113

A rm an i 25, 9 3 , 9 4 , 9 5 , 9 6 - 9 7 ; Je a n s

Be n ja m in , W alte r 1 7 ,1 1 8

113 a rte f a c ts 4 9 ,5 1 ,1 8 8 , 226

Be n n e t, Jo h n 4 7

a rtif a c ts , s e c u la riz a tio n o f G D R 150

Be tts, P au l 150 Be v an , A n d re w 2 3 ,1 8 7 ,2 2 7 ; o n

A s h m o re , W e n d y 171

c o m m e rc ia l m e d ia 2 4; o n v e s s e l-

A ssu r, c o m m e rc ia l le a d e rs o f 59;

c la s s 2 4

m a d e A b a rn ia n te x tile 5 9 , s e e als o

Birm in g h a m f lin tlo c k 1 6 3 - 6 4

c lo th ; te x tile s

Bis h o p , R o n a ld 178

A s s y ria n trad e 4 9 ; c a ra v a n trad e

b la c k - s lip p e d b o w ls a n d ja r s 175

58-59

Blo c h , M a u ric e 3 0

a u th e n tic ity 2 4 - 2 5 ,1 1 2 ,1 1 9 - 2 0 ,

Blu e je a n s a s f a sh io n ite m 13 3, s e e

1 1 0 - 1 4 ,1 4 9 - 5 0 , 2 1 0 ; C h a rle s

als o A m e ric an je a n s ; d e n im je a n s

L in d h o lm o n 12 6; f o r m a tio n o f 111; je a n s 1 3 4; a n d N o n lin g u is tic

Bo rg , Bjo rn 9 3 ,9 9 ,1 0 0

D e n im 1 4 4 - 4 7 ; th ro u g h p o s s e s ­

" b o r r o w " b r a n d s a lie n c e 2 3 8

s io n 1 4 7 - 4 9

Bo u rd ie u , P ie rre 1 7 ,8 7 , 111, 1 1 4 - 1 5 ;

A w e , J. 171

m o d e l o f 115

259

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 2 6 0 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 6 0 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

260

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In d ex

Bo w lb y , Jo h n 158

a n d Eu ro p e a n im p o rts tra d e 162;

Bran d 1 2 - 1 4 , 2 5 , 2 9 , 8 7 , 9 3 - 9 7 , 9 9 ,

a s te c h n o lo g y o f b o d y a n d s e lf

1 0 0 , 1 0 4 - 0 6 ,1 0 9 - 2 1 ,1 2 4 - 2 6 ,1 6 7 ,

1 6 4 - 6 5 ; a n d p ro d u c t e ff ic a c y 38;

1 6 8 ,1 7 0 ,1 7 5 ,2 2 4 ,2 2 5 ,2 3 5 - 3 9 , 241,

a n d c o m m o d itie s 2 7 - 2 9 ; a s lab e l

2 4 2 ,2 4 4 - 4 9 ; an d A f ric a n c u s to m e rs

3 6; b e h a v io u r s 35; m e c h a n ism s,

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f o r 123; A rv id ss o n o n 23 9, 24 5; b u l­

b o d y 2 5 - 2 7 ; a n d c o m m o d itie s 22;

lie s 12; c o m m u n itie s 3 7; c o n s u m p ­

p ro d u c tio n 9 1; m o d e rn , 1 4 , 2 1 , 39; lo g ic o f 3 0 ; o rig in s o f 1 2 ,1 3 - 1 5

tio n 2 8 ,1 1 6 ,1 8 6 , 23 7; c o n te m p o ra ry 2 4 ,1 7 8 ; c u ltu re 2 6 ,1 3 1 ,2 3 9 ; id e n tity

Bra z il, 1 0 9 , 1 2 1 - 2 5 ; c o n s u m p tio n o f

1 9 8 , 2 2 5 ,2 3 9 ,2 4 0 ,2 4 3 ,2 4 6 ; im ag e

f ak e lu x u r y g o o d s 1 2 1 - 2 2 ; in f o rm al

12, 39, 230; lab e ls 198; le a k a g e 4 7,

m a rk e ts in 112; lu x u ry b r a n d s in

2 37 ; m a k e rs , D a n ie l N is s a n o f f o n

1 21 ; m id d le c las s in 126; tra d e rs as " v a n d a ls " 122

2 40 ; m a n a g e rs 2 2 ,3 9 ,1 7 8 ,1 8 6 , 2 3 6 ,2 3 9 ,2 4 0 ,2 4 7 ,2 4 8 ; m e d iatio n

b ro n z e 56

2 39 ; m o d e rn 2 1 , 2 8 ,3 5 , 39, 7 3 ,2 3 5 ;

Bro n z e A g e 43 ; c o m m o d itie s 72;

m y th s 26 , 30; n a m e s 9 0 , 9 1 ,9 3 , 95, 9 6 ,1 0 0 ,1 0 5 , 2 4 8 ( s ee als o b ra n d ) ; o w n e rs h ip 2 3 7 ; p e rc e p tio n 24 0; p e rs o n a lity 3 7 ,3 9 ; p o w e r 23 8 ; p ro ­

ro y a l b r a n d s 59 Bro w n , T in a 2 50n 3 Bru g e s 1 9 8 ,1 9 9

d u c tio n 106; p ro d u c ts 2 38 ; p ro fe s­

Bru g e s b lu e 199

s io n al 22; p ro te c tio n 2 42 ; re al 118,

Bu e n av ista d e l C a y o 1 7 1 - 7 2 ,1 8 2 ; m a rk e tp la c e s a t 1 7 3 - 7 4

1 3 2 ,1 5 0 ; an d re la tio n s h ip s 3 6 - 3 9 ; sig n 14, 5 6 ,1 5 5 ; s o c ia l le g itim a c y o f 116; s trate g is ts 2 3 6 ,2 3 7 ,2 3 9 , 2 40 ; tra n s ie n t p o s s e s s io n o f 2 9 ,2 4 8 ; u n d e rw o rld s 2 4 - 2 5 ; v a lu e s 26, 28,

Bu e n av ista V ase 177 Bu g a b o o 2 4 7 , 2 4 9 - 5 0 n 2 Bu rb e rry 99

5 8 ,1 4 8 ,2 3 6 - 3 7 , 244 C

b ran d e c o n o m ie s 2 0 - 2 5 ,2 7 , 29, 30, 16 7; s e c o n d - h an d 2 3 6 b ra n d e d c o m m o d itie s 1 3 , 1 7 , 2 7 , 3 5 , 39, 42, 7 3 ,1 0 9 , 111, 1 2 1 ,1 2 5 - 2 6 , 1 6 7 - 6 8 ,1 8 5 - 8 6 , 227, 24 1, 2 4 4 - 4 5 ,

C a b rito C re a m - P o ly c h ro m e v a s e s e e Bu e n av ista V ase C a lv in K le in 25, 9 3 ; je a n s c o m m e rc ia l 138

2 4 7 - 4 8 ; D . W e n g ro w a n d 2 45 ;

c a m e m b e rt 198

g o o d s 2 1 - 2 2 ,2 6 , 2 9 , 4 1 - 1 2 , 7 2 , 9 1 ,

C a n a a n ite - s ty le , ja r s 6 3 ,6 8 ; tran s p o rt

1 0 0 ,1 0 3 ,1 0 5 ,1 2 4 - 2 6 ,1 6 7 ,1 6 8 ,1 7 5 , 1 8 5 ,1 8 6 ,2 3 6 ,2 4 0 ,2 4 6 - 1 8 ; id o l- lik e f e a tu re s o f 149; f o r lo y a lty an d m u tu a l re c o g n itio n 2 1 3; o b je c ts 26, 37, 4 2 ,1 1 5 , 24 5 ; p ro d u c ts 1 7 ,2 6 - 2 7 ,

ja r 5 5 c a p ita lis t lo g o 12 C ap t iv e M in d , T h e, C z e s la w M ilo s z

in 132

2 9 ,1 1 3 ,1 4 9 , 2 1 4 ,2 4 7 ; a n d s c h o o ls o f

C a rrie r, Ja m e s 17

G e rm a n a n d Fre n c h 1 3 - 1 4

C a r tie r w a tc h e s 114

b ran d in g 1 1 - 1 5 ,2 1 - 3 0 , 3 5 - 3 7 ,1 5 5 , 1 5 9 - 6 2 ,1 6 4 ,1 6 5 ,1 7 5 ,1 8 4 ,1 8 5 , 1 8 7 ,2 0 6 ,2 0 8 ,2 1 3 - 1 5 , 2 27 , 2 40 ; h is ­ to ry o f 12; a s p o litic a l p ro c e s s 162;

c a stin g , p ric e o f p ro d u c t in to m e ta l 1 48 ; te c h n iq u e s 54 c e ra m ic v e s s e ls 2 1 5, s e e als o C ru c ib le s

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 26 1 h t t p :/ /s ite . e b ra ry .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 6 1 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

In de x

c e ra m ic s 18, 22 6, se e als o u n d er M o p a n V alle y

©

C o n n e rto n , P. 145 c o n s u m e r( s ) 1 2 , 1 4 , 2 2 , 2 7 , 3 9 - 4 1 ,

c h am p a g n e , an d W o rld T rad e

7 2 - 7 3 , 1 1 0 ,1 1 8 - 1 9 ,1 6 7 - 7 0 ,

O rg a n iz a tio n c o n tro v e rs y 198

1 7 3 - 7 5 ,1 8 4 - 8 5 ,1 8 7 ,2 0 9 - 1 0 ,

C h a n e l 2 3 7; p u rs e 1 1 3 - 1 4

2 1 3 ,2 2 4 - 2 5 ,2 3 0 ; o f b ran d e d

c h e d d a r 198

m e rc h a n d ise 2 1 0 ; c u ltu re 17; in n o v a tio n s 41; o f " m a s o n ic c o m ­

C h in a 109; b ra n d c o n s u m e rs o f 118;

m o d iti e s " 2 2 5; a s p o litic a lly c o rre c t

Jo h n n y o n im itatio n in 118; L o u H u

113; p u rp o s e s o f b ra n d s 175; a n d

c o m m e rc ia l c ity in 1 1 8 - 1 9 ; lu x u ry

v e s s e ls o f d is tin c t k in d s 175

b r a n d s a n d 117; p a s s io n f o r b ran d s in 117; Sh e n z h e n 1 1 9 - 2 0

c o n s u m p tio n 1 8 ,1 1 5 ; o f f a k e g o o d s 1 2 4 ; J. Frie d m a n o n 12 4; o f lu x u ry

C la rk e , A lis o n 26

b ra n d s 119; o f lu x u ry g o o d s 109,

c la s s e s an d c o p ie s 1 1 4 - 1 6 ; so c ial

1 1 7 ,1 1 8 ,12 4 ; m as s 1 2 - 1 4 ; p a tte rn s

c la s s e s o f Fra n c e 115

2 2 5 ,2 2 8 ,2 3 0 ; re v o lu tio n in C h in a

c lo th , " A f ric a n p ri n t" 2 0 9 - 1 0 ; A s an te k e n te 2 0 2 ; b r a n d in g , G ra c ia C la rk o n m o d e rn 5 7; D u tc h m a n u f a c ­ tu re rs 20 9; f a c to ry - m a d e 202; " g e n u in e D u tc h Ja v a p ri n t" 2 0 5;

261

119 c o p ie s 1 1 3 - 1 4 , s e e als o f ak e b ra n d s ; im ita tio n s " c o p y ri g h t" 199

s o c ia l s tatu s a n d 135; as trad e

c o s m e tic s 1 5 5 ,1 5 7 ,1 5 8 , 245

c o m m o d itie s 1 9 7 - 9 8 ; trad e o f W e st

c o tto n f ro m W e s t A f ric a n s av a n n a h f arm s 2 0 1 - 0 2

A f ric a 2 0 4 (sec als o W e st A f ric a n Ja v a p rin ts ); trad e rs o f G h a n a 2 09 ;

c o u n te rf e ite r 8 7 , s e e als o im itatio n ; f ak e b ra n d s ; d e sig n e r c lo th in g 198

ty p e s in Eu ro p e 2 05 c lo th in g , m o d e rn W e s te rn 135

C re te ( w e s te rn ) o il f ro m 6 9; a n d s tirru p - ja rs 68

c o a rs e w a re tra n s p o rt ja rs 6 8 - 6 9 , see als o C a n a a n ite - s ty le tr a n s p o rt ja rs

c ro s s 2 20; d o u b le c ro s s o r P a tria rc h a l 2 2 0 - 2 1 ; G re e k 22 0, 22 1; in s c rip tio n

C o lo u r- M e - Be a u tif u l ( C M B) 238

IN R I 2 2 0 ; L atin 22 0, 221

c o m m o d i tie s 1 3 , 1 5 - 1 6 , 1 8 - 2 0 , 22, 2 3 , 2 7 ,3 5 - 3 6 , 4 5 - 5 0 , 5 4 - 5 6 , 6 2 - 6 4 ,

c ru c ib le s 2 1 5 - 1 9 , 22 0; Ba v aria n 2 2 8 - 2 9 ; G g . Sa x in g e r a n d 2 2 8;

1 0 9 - 1 2 , 1 5 9 - 6 2 , 1 6 7 - 6 8 , 1 7 0 , 175,

s ta m p 222

1 8 4 - 8 8 , 2 2 5 - 2 6 ; b ra n d e d in d u s ­ tria l 163; b ra n d e d s ty le 2 4 6 ; Ig o r

" C u c c i" w a tc h e s 112

K o p y to f f o n 167; in e c o n o m ic s

C u ltu ra l R e v o lu tio n 119

1 6 7 ; m a rk e te d 4 6 , 67; m a rk in g 2 0 ;

C y p rio t, im ita tio n s 6 8; s e a lsto n e 56

m a s o n ic 2 2 5 ,2 2 7 ; m o d e rn 16; n o n ­ b ra n d e d 2 2 ; s ta n d a rd is a tio n 40;

D

ty p e s 23 c o m m o d itis a tio n , b ra n d e d 125; th e o rie s o f 15 c o m m o d ity b ra n d in g 15, 7 2, 2 1 3 - 1 4 ;

d a Silv a, M . N . 220 d e c o m m o d itis a tio n 2 9 - 3 0 d e n im 1 3 3 - 3 4 ; b ra n d h ie ra rc h y o f

c u ltu re s o f 2 1 - 2 2 ; p re h is to rie s o f

1 3 3 ; v e rs u s c o rd u ro y 13 3 ; m a te ria l­

1 5 - 2 1 ; a s p ro c e s s 1 7 5; v a lu e s an d

ity o f 14 5; s to rie s 150

c u ltu ra l tie s o f 2 1 4 C o n n e ll, Sa m 183

D ie se l 93 D ille y , R o y 168

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 2 6 2 h tt p :// s it e . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 6 2 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

262

©

In d ex

D io r 2 4 5 ; w a tc h 114

Is ta n b u lite tra d e r 8 8 - 8 9 , 92; tra d in g in 9 6 - 1 0 1

d is trib u te d e c o n o m ie s 3 9 - 4 2 ; f e a tu re s o f 4 1 ; p atte rn o f " le a k a g e " 4 1 4 2 ; p ro b le m s o f 4 0 —41; D o lc e & G a b b an a ( D & G ) 9 3 - 9 5 ,

Fis k e 's re la tio n al m o d e ls 3 9 ,4 5 - 4 6 Fle m in g , E. B. 202 H e m is , c lo th 2 0 1 ,2 0 4 ; g r an d d r ap e r ie

9 6 - 9 7 ; p u rs e s 113 d re s s an d p o litic s 1 3 2 - 3 3 , s e e als o c lo th ; c lo th in g

1 99 ; m e rc h an ts 199; w o o l c lo th 199; Fliig e l, J. C . P sy c h o lo g y o f C lo t hes 149 Fo ste r, R. 1 1 7 - 1 8

D s q u are d 9 3, 99

Fo x v o g , D an ie l 13

D u tc h w a x 20 6, 20 9, 2 10

f re e m as o n ry 28, 2 1 4 - 1 5 ,2 2 2 - 2 3 ;

E

" F re e m a s o n s " b r a n d in g 2 2 4 - 2 8

b ra n d id e n tity a n d 2 25

e Ba y 2 8 - 2 9 ,2 3 5 ,2 4 1 - 4 9 ( s e e als o o n ­ lin e tra d in g ) ; b ra n d e d g o o d s 24 7;

" f u n d a m e n ta l v a lu e s " 2 4 2 F u t u r e s h o p D a n ie l N is s a n o f f in 24 0 ,

250n 5

C aro lin e o n 2 47 ; M . D e sja rd in s o n 2 4 8 - 4 9 ; se c o n d - h a n d b ra n d o n 240-43 "e c o n o m y o f fu n " 244

G

G a rc ia , K . L. 183

Ed H a rd y 100

g arm e n ts in w a ll p a in tin g s 61

Eg y p t 4 3 , 6 4; f o r a rc h a e o lo g ic a l

G h e n t b ru n e ta 199

p re s e rv a tio n 7 1; lin e n o f 6 1; " s e v e n s ac re d o il" o f 65; w ritin g s o f 13

g ifts 1 7 ,1 9 , 2 6, 3 8 , 4 1 ,4 5 , 4 6 ,6 4 ,1 2 3 , 1 6 7 ,1 6 9 ,1 7 0 ,1 7 6 - 7 8 ,1 8 2 ,2 0 7 ,2 3 9 ;

e lite e m u la tio n , c o n c e p t o f 25

f o r b o n d in g 176; o f in te r- e lite 177;

e m o tio n a l e n g in e e rin g 2 4 0

e x c h a n g e s , c o m m o d ity re latio n s

Erc o l 2 4 3 ,2 4 6 ; R ic h a rd o n 246 Eu ro p e a n c lo th p ro d u c tio n 2 0 0 - 0 1 , s e e als o c lo th

a n d 17; K o p y to f f o n 17 g lam o u r, p o w e r o f 238 g lo b al tra d in g 23 5 " g o o d s tu f f " 1 2 2 ,1 2 4 ; a n d " ju n k s tu f f " 126

fa k e 106, m a rk e t 1 1 3 ,1 1 4 ,1 2 0 ; p ro d ­

g o o d s , p re stig e 1 7 0 ,1 8 8 ; u tilita ria n 1 7 0 ,1 8 8 , s e e als o c o m m o d itie s

u c t 114 fa k e b ra n d 22, 2 5 , 3 7 , 8 7 - 8 9 , 9 9 ,

G ras s f ie ld s 1 5 5 , 1 5 8 ,1 5 9 - 6 0 ,1 6 3 ; an d tra d in g 160; m a s s a g in g b a b y in

106; c lo th in g 1 0 5 - 0 6 ; c lo th in g in

1 5 5 - 5 6 , 157, 164

Is ta n b u l 8 8; c o n s u m in g 3 7 fa k e g o o d s 1 0 9 ,1 1 0 ,1 1 2 ,1 1 4 ,1 1 5 ,

G re g so n , N . 2 4 6 - 4 7

1 2 1 ,1 2 2 ,1 2 4 ,1 2 5 ; b ra n d e d 1 1 0 ,1 1 5 ;

G u c c i 93

c o n s u m p tio n o f 2 5 , 118; m a te ria l

G u ild s 2 1 7 - 1 9 ; c lo th s, m e d ie v a l 198-201

p ro p e rtie s o f 112; tra d e rs a n d p ro ­ d u c e rs o f 1 1 2 - 1 3 Fa n se lo w , F S. 2 2 - 2 3

H

Fe n d i 2 3 7 ; c lu tc h - b a g s 2 42

H aa rle m m a n u f a c tu re r P re v in aire

Firla m a 88, d o in g im ita tio n s 9 2 - 9 6 ; a s ille g a l an d m o ral 1 0 2 - 0 5 ;

202 h abit u s 115

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 2 6 3 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 6 3 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

In de x

" h a lf read y / ' " r a w " je a n s 142 H a m ilto n , G a ry 12 " h a p tic b ra n d in g " 2 3 9 , 240 h a t- w e a rin g , T h a c k e ra y a n d 135 H e lm k e , C . 171 H o lm u l D a n c e r, a s d a n c in g M a iz e G o d 177 H o n g K o n g (s e e als o u n d e r L o u is

©

263

Je a n s 136; a s A m e ric a n o rig in 137; a n d b o d y 1 3 5 - 3 7 ; b ra n d e d 2 6 ,1 4 3 , 1 50 ; a s c h a n g e - m a k e r 1 4 2 ,1 4 4 ; as d e s ire to p o s s e s s th in g s 14 7; f o r f re e d o m 139; g irls in 1 3 9 - 4 2 ; a s in te rf a c e 15 0 ; m a te ria lity o f 146; m e m o rie s 150; a n d m id d le - c la s s c u ltu re 141; " m y f irst je a n s " 134, 1 3 6 , 1 3 8 ,1 4 1 - 4 3 ,1 4 5 ; o rig in o f 146;

V u itto n ) ; la b e l s to re s in 113; p e o p le

p e r s o n a lis a tio n o f 1 3 4 - 3 5 ; in to

o f 1 1 8 ,1 2 0

s e c o n d s k in 2 6; a n d s e n s u a l b o d y

H o o d , R o b in 201

1 3 8 - 3 9 ; a n d te e n a g e rs 143; an d

H o rk h e im e r, M . 14

tran s f o rm a tio n 26

" h o t" b ra n d s 239

Jim m y C h o o s h o e s 24 2

H u g o Bo s s 93

Jo e Bu K c k 136

h u m a n th in k in g , A la n Fis k e o n 3 7 H u n g a ry 131; s o c ia lis t re g im e 132; w o rn - o u t je a n s in s o c ia lis t 141

K o p y to f f , Ig o r 15; o n p ro d u c tio n o f c o m m o d itie s 15

im ag e s , m e th o d o f im p re s s in g 18 im it asy o n c u , s e e Firlam a

L a M a rtin a 100

im ita tio n 105, 111; o f A f ric a n p rin ts

la b e llin g p ro d u c t 1 4 ,1 5 , 2 0; o n

in In d o n e s ia 2 0 5 , s e e als o Firla m a im p o rte d p ain te d s e rv in g v e s s e ls 175-7 8 in d u s tria l b r a n d s 2 10

c o a rs e w a re c o n ta in e rs 6 7 l a b e l l i n g , c o a r s e w a r e ja r s 6 9 - 7 0 ; c o m m o d i ti e s 1 5 9 - 6 4 ; f o r m s o f 28

in d u s tria lisa tio n 119

L ai, C h i- k o n g 12

in f o rm a l c o n n o is s e u rs 24—25

" la te c a p ita lis m " 14

in g o t, Bro n z e A g e 5 1 - 5 3 ; m a rk s 54;

" la te s t m o d e l" 126

o x h id e 5 3 - 5 5 in te lle c tu a l p ro p e rty rig h ts ( IP R )

111- 12 Ista n b u l c lo th in g in d u stry 8 7, s e e als o Firlam a Ita lia n - s ty le je a n s , C a su c c i, R itt b r a n d s 144

" le a k a g e " o f b ra n d e d c o m m o d itie s 227 L e e 1 4 0 ,1 5 1 L e v e n th a l, R ic h a rd 171 L e v i Stra u s s je a n s 1 1 4 ,1 3 2 ,1 3 3 , 1 4 0 , 1 4 1 ,1 4 5 ,1 5 0 ,1 9 7 - 9 8 ,2 0 9 - 1 0 ; a d v e rtis e m e n t o f 134 L im a, T. A . 2 20 L in c o ln G re e n 201

Ja c o b , M arg a re t 2 14 ja r la b e l, D a v id W e n g ro w o n 64

liq u id a ss e ts a n d b o rro w e d b ra n d s 236-40

Ja v a n e s e , b a tik s 2 0 2; c lo th s 2 04

" liq u id a s s e ts " 2 40

Ja v a n e s e - s ty le w ax p rin ts 2 0 2

" lo o k ric h " 125

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 2 6 4 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 6 4 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

264

©

In de x

L o u is V u itto n 125 , 2 3 7; in C h in a a n d

a n d id e a s 4 4 ; s o c ie tie s 18; u rb a n

H o n g K o n g 1 1 6 - 2 1 ; p u rs e s 113, 1 2 4; f ak e 123; w a tc h 12 0, s e e als o u n d e r lu x u r y - b ra n d e d h a n d b a g

g ro w th 4 2 - 4 3 M e t alls c h o c k 5 7

m e tals 2 0 , 2 3 , 3 5 , 4 3 , 4 8 - 5 7 , 6 1 , 6 9 , 72,

2 40

1 4 8 ,1 6 7 ; c o p p e r a s c o m m o d ity 48,

L V M H 2 42

5 5 ; " D ilm u n c o p p e r " 5 0 ,5 4 ; g o ld 4 9 ,5 7 ; le ad is o to p e a n aly s is 51;

M

tra d e 48

M a m a Be n z 2 0 8

m id d le c la s s an d f ak e c o n su m p tio n 1 2 4 ; y o u n g s te rs 141, see als o je a n s

m a rk e t, f o r se c o n d - h a n d c lo th s 207 ;

a n d te an a g e rs

in s to le n p ro d u c ts 123 m ark e t- le d re la tio n s h ip s 4 6 - 4 7

M ille r, D a n ie l 1 2 2 ,1 2 7

m a rk in g 1 3 ,1 5 ,1 3 5 ,1 4 3 , 20 3 , 208,

" m im e tic s tru g g le " 137

2 13 , 2 1 7, 2 2 7, 2 4 2; o f Bro n z e A g e 72;

" M in e is f a k e " 125

o f c a ttle 13; c lo th 2 0 8 ; w ith c u ltu ral

" m is u n d e rs to o d " b r a n d 22

s y m b o ls 3 0; g o ld s e a l m a rk in g 2 03 ; a n d m a n ip u la tio n s 5 9; m e c h a n ic a l

" M iu - M iu p u r s e " 12 0, see als o f ak e b ra n d s

d e v ic e s f o r 2 0 ; f o r m o d e rn b ra n d ­ in g 2 1 ; in N e a r East 13; p o tte ry 21 7; p ro c e s s o f c o m m o d ity 2 4 5 ; p ro d u c t 13,

m ix in g b o w ls 7 2 m o n o g ra m s 2 1 4 ,2 1 9 ,2 2 2 - 2 3 , 225, 227-28

4 8; a t s ta g e s o f p ro d u c tio n 70;

f o r s ty le s o f p ro d u c ts 5 9 ; o f te x tile s

M o o re , K . 21

58; tra it 143

M o p a n V alle y 1 7 0 - 7 2 ; c e ram ic

M arx , K a rl 148; m a te ria l lif e in

p ro d u c tio n an d c o n s u m p tio n in

h o u se h o ld o f 2 4 0 - 4 1

1 7 4 - 7 5 ; c o m m o d itie s o r b r a n d s in

m a s o n ic lo d g e 2 24

1 8 7 ; m a rk e ts a n d m a rk e te d g o o d s

m ate ria l c u ltu re 1 8 ,2 0 5 ,2 1 3 ; b ra n d ­

in 1 7 2 - 7 4

in g o f 2 1 5; a n d s o c ia l re la tio n sh ip

M o u n t M a lo n e y Bla c k , b o w ls an d

38; a n d s o c ie ty 44 M a u ss , M arc e l, " te c h n iq u e s o f b o d y ,”

111 M a x i- C o s i 2 4 7

ja r s 187; p o tte ry 1 8 3 - 8 4 M u lb e rry 2 3 7 m u s k e t b e a rs 163 M y c e n a e a n , w in e s 71; " s tir ru p - ja r"

M a y a c iv iliz a tio n 1 6 9 - 7 0

6 7 - 6 8 ; p o tte ry 68

M a y a e c o n o m y 188 M e rc e d e s c o rp o ra tio n a n d b ra n d p e n e tratio n 2 40 M e s o p o ta m ia 1 3 , 1 6 , 17, 4 2 —44; C la y s e a lin g s 4 7; c o m m e rc ia l b u s in e s s e s 4 4 45; c o m m o d itie s o f 4 8; " d re a m o m e n s " 18; a n d la n g u a g e 4 4; m a rk ­ in g p ra c tic e s in 4 7 ; p a tte rn s o f m e t­ ric a l c o n v e rg e n c e in 44 ; p h y s ic a l

N

N a n a Be n z , see M a m a Be n z N a m in g T ra d itio n s 2 0 5 - 0 7 N a ra n jo s c h o o l o f C a b rito C re a m P o ly c h ro m e v e s s e ls 178 n e tw o rk s o f p ro d u c tio n 3 9 - 4 0

b ra n d in g in 4 7; se a ls a n d s e a lin g

N o L o g o o f N a o m i K le in 11

p ra c tic e s in 1 8 - 1 9 ; s h a rin g o f g o o d s

N o h o c h Ek 182

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 2 6 5 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 6 5 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

In de x

O

©

265

p ro d u c tio n , p o in t o f p u rc h as e an d

O b je c t v alu e 39 O il 4 3 , 6 1 - 7 2 ; in Bro n z e A g e 6 2 ,6 5 ; h y p e r- c ra f te d 6 5 - 6 7 ; p e rf u m e d 65; a s m a rk e rs f o r s p e c if ic c la s se s 62 ;

c o n s u m p tio n 16 8; s p e c ia lis a tio n 20 p ro lif e ra tio n o f b r a n d s 106 " p ro to - b ra n d s " 21 p ro to -in d u s tria l d e v e lo p m e n t 2 0 0

n e he h 64

o n - lin e , a u c tio n 2 9 , 2 3 5 - 3 7 ,2 4 1 , 24 6, 2 47 ; tra d in g , K . H illis o n 2 4 3 - 4 4 O p p e n h e im , L e o 4 7 “ o u t- o f - s e a s o n " g o o d s 2 3 5 o u ts o u rc e d f a c to rie s in Sh e n z h e n 113

R a lp h L au re n t 2 5 ,9 3 , 9 9 re a s s u rin g m a rk s 5 3 - 5 4 ; G e o rg e Bass o n 53 R e e n ts- Bu d e t, D o rie 178 R e f o rm a tio n , L y o n d u rin g 221 R e id , S. 21

p a c k a g in g 13, 2 0 ,4 8 ,1 5 9 - 6 4 ,2 1 3 , 2 3 7 ,2 4 5 ,2 4 7 p a in te d s e rv in g v e s s e ls 1 7 8 - 8 2 ; C ab rito C re am - P o ly c h ro m e 178; C h in o s Bla c k - o n - C re a m 1 7 8 ,1 7 9 ; C h u n h u itz O r a n g e g ro u p 1 7 8 - 7 9 , 1 8 0 - 8 1 ; G ro u p l a 1 7 9 - 8 0 P as to u re au , M ic h e l 148 P a tte rn s a n d b ra n d in g 2 0 6 - 0 7 P e a rs, b y U n ile v e r in N ig e ria 156, 164 P e e r- to - p e e r re la tio n sh ip s 38

" re in v e n te d " b r a n d 22 " re la tio n s h ip m a r k e tin g " 3 7 re p lic a 125 re p ro d u c tio n s , W alte r Be n ja m in o n 110—11, see als o im ita tio n s R e tail s h o p p in g 2 0 6 - 0 7 R o b e rts, W illiam 221 ro c k 'n ' ro ll o u tfit 132 R o le x w atc h 1 2 0 - 2 1 R o y al Bra n d in g 2 6 ,1 5 7 R o y al So c ie ty o f A rts 218

" p ir a c y is a c r im e " in Bra z il 113 p ira te d g o o d s 109, see als o im ita tio n s " p o litic a lly c o r re c t" c o n s u m p tio n 118 p o ly c h ro m e v e s s e ls 1 7 5 - 7 8 ,1 8 6 ; p a in tin g o n 177 p o tte ry 7 1 , 1 6 1 , 1 6 8 , 1 6 9 ,1 7 4 ,1 8 4 ,

s e a lin g 1 5 ,1 6 , 23, 4 7, 5 8 ,2 2 4 ; a p p li­ c a tio n to 2 0 - 2 1 ; c la y 17; im a g e ry 1 6 - 1 7 ; im p re s se d im a g e s 1 7 s e a ls 1 6 - 1 8 , 2 0 , 3 8 , 4 0 , 5 5 , 5 6 ,5 8 ,

1 8 5 ,1 8 7 ,1 8 8 ,2 2 6 ; a n d b ran d in g

1 9 9 ,2 0 7 ,2 1 7 ,2 1 9 ; b re a k in g o f 18;

187; ju g le t 55; p ro d u c tio n an d

s to n e 17

e x c h a n g e o f 168; p ro d u c tio n in M o p a n V a lle y 174 ; Su s a n Sh e rra tt a n d m a s s - p ro d u c e d 2 4 ; w o rk s h o p s f o r u tilita ria n 1 8 5 - 8 6

s e c o n d - h an d b r a n d 2 2 ,2 4 8 ; e c o n o ­ m ie s 2 36 s e c o n d - h an d m a rk e ts 2 3 5 ,2 4 1 , 24243

p o v e rty 109

s e lf -im ag e , c o n s tru c tio n o f 14

P rad a 2 3 7

Se lv e d g e s 2 0 2 - 0 3 ; p a tte rn s o f 198,

P re z io s i, A im e e 183

199

p ro d u c e rs a n d b r a n d 94

Se.t in C it y 238

" p ro d u c t s e m io tic s " 2 4 0

s e x u al p o litic s 139

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 2 6 6 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 6 6 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

266

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In d ex

Sh e r ra tt, A n d re w 20

tru s t 21 , 2 2 , 2 6 , 3 7 , 1 0 2 , 2 4 5 ; b o n d s o f 37; b re a c h o f 2 2; a n d C a m e ro o n

" s h u ttle tr a d e " 9 1, see als o s u itc a se

g ra s sf ie ld s 26

trad e s ilv e r 4 9 ,5 7 ; A s s y ria n tr a d e rs o f 5 7

T u rk e y " e x p o rt e x c e s s " 9 0 - 9 1 ; o n T o k a tli a n d K iz ilg iin 9 1 ; in g lo b a l

Sim m e l, G e o rg 1 1 4 - 1 5

c lo th in g in d u s try 9 0

s lo g a n 238 s o c ial, a lc h e m y 111; in e q u a lity 109;

U

re c o g n itio n 111; s o c ia l re la tio n sh ip s 38; w e ll b e in g 109 Sp e c ia l Ec o n o m ic Z o n e 119

u rb an h ab it u s 2 0 U ru k , c o m m o d itie s an d p a c k a g in g p r a c tic e s in 1 8 - 1 9 ; e x p a n sio n

s ta m p s 2 1 6 - 1 9 ; to m a rk " a u th e n tic "

1 9 - 2 0 ,2 3

2 1 8 ,2 2 0 s tirru p - jars 6 7 - 6 9

u tilita ria n v e s s e ls 1 8 2 - 8 5

Sto n e to o l, p ro d u c tio n 1 7 2 - 7 3 ; u tilita ria n 185 " s u itc a s e tr a d e " 91

v alu e s 28, 3 5 ,3 6 - 3 9 , 72, 8 8 ,1 1 4 ,1 2 1 , 1 2 6 ,1 3 5 ,1 3 7 ,1 4 1 ,1 6 7 ,1 6 8 ,2 1 3 ,

s y m b o ls 1 3 , 2 4 , 5 3 , 1 1 6 , 1 2 0 , 1 2 1 ,

2 1 4 , 2 2 1 , 2 2 2 ,2 2 4 - 2 7 ,2 4 2 ,2 4 3 ;

' 1 7 9 ,1 8 0 ,2 1 5 ,2 1 7 - 1 9 , 2 2 1 - 2 4 , 226;

D a n ie l M ille r o n 36; G e o rg Sim m e l

d e c o n s tru c tin g o f 2 1 9 - 2 1

o n 3 6; s o c ia l c o n s tru c tio n o f 15 v a n Bin s b e rg e n , W im 1 6 7 - 6 8 V e b le n , T. 1 1 4 - 1 5 ta g s a s m a rk in g 59

V e e n is, M . 145

T a sc h e k , Je n n if e r 177

V e n e tia n a u c tio n s , J. H in to n o n 240

te c h n iq u e s o f b o d y , M a rc e l M a u s s

V e rs ac e 93

o n 26

v e s s e ls o f M o u n t M alo n e y Bla c k g ro u p 1 8 2 - 8 3

T e m p le o f So lo m o n 2 2 2 - 2 4 ; Fra n c is Bac o n o n 2 2 2 te x tile s 13, 20, 2 3 , 2 4 , 2 8 , 35, 4 3 ,4 9 , 5 7 - 6 3 , 6 5 ,6 9 , 72, 9 0 ,1 6 2 ; A ss y ria n tra d e rs o n 5 7; o f Bab y lo n ia 57; K la a s V e e n h o f o n 5 7 T h ac k e ra y , h a t- w e a r in g 135 T h e b a n to m b o f N e b a m u n 5 4 - 5 5 tim b e r 55 tin 4 9 - 5 0 , 58; an d b ra n d in g a c tiv ity 58;

W

W alp o le 242 W e n g ro w , D av id 4 7 ,1 8 7 W e s t A f ric a s e e w id e r c lo th trad e W e s t A f ric a n Ja v a p rin ts 2 0 1 - 0 5 W illia m s , R a y m o n d 14 W in e 4 3 ,6 1 - 7 2 ; b ra n d e d Bro n z e A g e 6 4; in Bro n z e A g e 6 2 ,6 5 ; C re tan

a s g e o g ra p h ic a lly re stric te d re so u rc e

7 1; in Eg y p t 7 0 - 7 1 ; a s m a rk e rs f o r

57; " o f M e lu h h a" 54

s p e c if ic c la s s e s 6 2 ; m o d e rn an d

tra d e g o o d s 4 3 T rad e - R e la te d A s p e c ts o f In te lle c tu a l P ro p e rty R ig h ts ( T R IP s ) 111

Bro n z e A g e 7 0 w in e in d u s trie s , M e d ite rra n e a n 71 w i tc h c ra f t 162

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 2 6 7 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 6 7 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

In de x

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w o m a n 1 1 7 ,1 3 8 ,1 3 9 ,1 5 6

B u e n a v is ta 17 8; c re am - slip p e d

w o o d b lo c k p rin tin g 2 26

p o tte ry 180

w o o l, fro m En g lan d 1 9 8 - 9 9 " w o rl d - s y s te m " 41 w ra p p in g 5 8 ,1 4 0 ,1 5 0 ; p ra c tic e s 17, s e e als o p a c k a g in g

y o u th c u ltu re 1 37 Y p re s w h ite a n d g re e n 199

X

X ia o p in g , D e n g 119 X u n a n tu n ic h 1 7 2 - 7 3 ,1 8 2 - 8 4 ; m a rk e tp la c e s a t 1 7 3 - 7 4 ; a n d

Z

Z u k in , S. 248

. C u lt u r e s o f C o m m o d ity B ra n d in g . : L e ft C o a s t P re s s , . p 2 6 8 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /i d /1 0 4 1 3 4 5 6 ? p p g = 2 6 8 C o p y r ig h t © L e ft C o a s t P re s s . . A ll ri g h ts re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

267