Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador: A Study of Pottery from the Early Regional Development Funerary Precinct 9781407359977, 9781407359984

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Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador A Study of Pottery from the Early Regional Development Funerary Precinct RICHARD LUNNISS

B A R I N T E R NAT I O NA L S E R I E S 3 1 0 9

2022

Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador A Study of Pottery from the Early Regional Development Funerary Precinct RICHARD LUNNISS

B A R I N T E R NAT I O NA L S E R I E S 3 1 0 9

2022

Published in 2022 by BAR Publishing, Oxford, UK BAR International Series 3109 Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador isbn isbn doi

978 1 4073 5997 7 paperback 978 1 4073 5998 4 e-format

https://doi.org/10.30861/9781407359977

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library © Richard Lunniss 2022 Double compotera decorated with iridescent paint from the Early Regional Development funerary precinct at Salango. Photograph by Richard Lunniss. cover image

The Author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. Links to third party websites are provided by BAR Publishing in good faith and for information only. BAR Publishing disclaims any responsibility for the materials contained in any third party website referenced in this work.

BAR titles are available from: BAR Publishing 122 Banbury Rd, Oxford, OX2 7BP, UK [email protected] www.barpublishing.com

Of Related Interest Vessels Explored: Applying Archaeometry to South American Ceramics and their Production Edited by Emily M. Stovel and Guillermo De La Fuente BAR International Series 2808 | 2016 Sex, Metaphor, and Ideology in Moche Pottery of Ancient Peru Andrew Turner BAR International Series 2739 | 2015 Chaupisawakasi y la formación del estado Pukara (400 a.C. - 350 d.C.) en la Cuenca norte del Titicaca, Perú Henry Tantaleán and Carlos Zapata Benites BAR International / British Series 2687 | 2014 The Pottery Figurines of Pre-Columbian Peru Volume II : The Figurines of the Central Coast Alexandra Morgan BAR International Series 2845 | 2017 The Pottery Figurines of Pre-Columbian Peru Volume III: The Figurines of the South Coast the Highlands and the Selva Alexandra Morgan BAR International / British Series 2441 | 2012 Frayer la route d’un monde inversé Sacrifice et offrandes animales dans la culture Mochica (100-800 apr. J.-C.), côte nord du Pérou Nicolas Goepfert BAR International Series 2278 | 2011 The Pottery Figurines of Pre-Columbian Peru Volume I: The figurines of the North Coast Alexandra Morgan BAR International Series 1941 | 2009 Mortuary Practices and Ritual Associations Shamanic Elements in Prehistoric Funerary Contexts in South America Edited by John E. Staller and Elizabeth J. Currie BAR International Series 982 | 2001 Prehistory of the Southern Manabí Coast, Ecuador. López Viejo Elizabeth J. Currie BAR International Series 618 | 1995

Contents List of figures...................................................................................................................................................................... vii List of tables......................................................................................................................................................................... xi 2022 Preface and Acknowledgements................................................................................................................................ xii 2004 Preface and Acknowledgements............................................................................................................................... xiii 1. Introduction..................................................................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Aims and Scope of the Study..................................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Previous Research...................................................................................................................................................... 3 1.2.1 Guangala............................................................................................................................................................. 3 1.2.2 Bahía II............................................................................................................................................................... 5 1.2.3 Guangala and Bahía II: Absolute Chronology................................................................................................... 7 1.3 Salango and the Biogeography of the Central Coast................................................................................................. 7 1.4 OMJPLP–141B–T3 Salango.................................................................................................................................... 10 2. The Pottery.................................................................................................................................................................... 17 2.1 The Sample and the Method of Analysis................................................................................................................. 18 2.2. Serving Bowls......................................................................................................................................................... 19 2.2.1 Machalilla Serving Bowls................................................................................................................................ 19 2.2.2 Early Engoroy Serving Bowls.......................................................................................................................... 20 2.2.3 Serving Bowl Form 1....................................................................................................................................... 20 2.2.4 Serving Bowl Form 2....................................................................................................................................... 22 2.2.5 Serving Bowl Form 3....................................................................................................................................... 22 2.2.6 Serving Bowl Form 5....................................................................................................................................... 23 2.2.7 Serving Bowl Form 8....................................................................................................................................... 26 2.2.8 Serving Bowl Form 9 Short............................................................................................................................. 26 2.2.9 Serving Bowl Form 9 Long.............................................................................................................................. 28 2.2.10 Serving Bowl Form 10 Open......................................................................................................................... 30 2.2.11 Serving Bowl Form 10 Short.......................................................................................................................... 35 2.2.12 Serving Bowl Form 10 Long.......................................................................................................................... 37 2.2.13 Serving Bowl Form 11................................................................................................................................... 37 2.2.14 Serving Bowl Form 10/11.............................................................................................................................. 41 2.2.15 Serving Bowl Form 12................................................................................................................................... 41 2.2.16 Serving Bowl Form 13................................................................................................................................... 43 2.2.17 Serving Bowl Form 14................................................................................................................................... 45 2.2.18 Serving Bowl Form 15................................................................................................................................... 51 2.2.19 Serving Bowl Form 16................................................................................................................................... 51 2.2.20 Serving Bowl Form 17................................................................................................................................... 53 2.2.21 Miscellaneous Serving Bowl Forms.............................................................................................................. 53 2.2.22 Serving Bowls of Uncertain Form................................................................................................................. 57 2.2.23 Serving Bowl Bases....................................................................................................................................... 57 2.2.24 Exterior Flanges on Serving Bowls................................................................................................................ 61 2.2.25 Notched and Nicked Lips on Serving Bowls................................................................................................. 61 2.2.26 Serving Bowl Decorative Techniques............................................................................................................ 61 2.3 Kitchen Bowls.......................................................................................................................................................... 71 2.4 Thickwalled Bowls................................................................................................................................................... 77 2.5 Funerary Urn............................................................................................................................................................ 82 2.6 Serving Jars.............................................................................................................................................................. 82 2.6.1 Bottles............................................................................................................................................................... 82 2.6.2 Serving Jars with Flaring Rims........................................................................................................................ 82 2.6.3 Serving Jars with Dark Brown or Black Slip................................................................................................... 86 2.6.4 Serving Jars with Red Slip............................................................................................................................... 88 2.6.5 Wide-necked Serving Jars................................................................................................................................ 88 2.6.6 Serving Jars with Vertical Rims....................................................................................................................... 88 v

Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador 2.6.7 Serving Jars with Structured Rims................................................................................................................... 91 2.6.8 Unplaced Body Sherds..................................................................................................................................... 94 2.6.9 Decorative Techniques Applied to Serving Jars............................................................................................... 94 2.7 Kitchen Jars.............................................................................................................................................................. 96 2.7.1 Standard Kitchen Jars....................................................................................................................................... 96 2.7.2 Red Finger Paint Decoration.......................................................................................................................... 100 2.7.3 Unusual Fabrics, Rim Forms, Painted Designs, and Finishes........................................................................ 110 2.7.4 Jars with Polished Red Slip or Paint.............................................................................................................. 112 2.7.5 Jars with Paint in Narrow Bands.................................................................................................................... 112 2.7.6 Jars with Incised Decoration.......................................................................................................................... 112 2.7.7 Massive Jars................................................................................................................................................... 117 2.8 Neckless Jars.......................................................................................................................................................... 117 2.9 Miscellaneous Jars................................................................................................................................................. 117 2.10 Rims of Uncertain Form...................................................................................................................................... 117 2.11 Ceramic Figurines................................................................................................................................................ 117 2.12 Miscellaneous Ceramic Objects........................................................................................................................... 121 3. Analysis of the Assemblage......................................................................................................................................... 123 3.1 Residuality............................................................................................................................................................. 124 3.2 Sample Composition and Distribution................................................................................................................... 124 3.3 Trends in Form, Decoration, and Finish................................................................................................................ 125 3.3.1 Serving Bowls................................................................................................................................................ 125 3.3.2 Kitchen Bowls................................................................................................................................................ 126 3.3.3 Serving Jars.................................................................................................................................................... 126 3.3.4 Kitchen Jars.................................................................................................................................................... 126 3.3.5 Summary........................................................................................................................................................ 126 3.4 Ceramic Phases and the Context of Change.......................................................................................................... 127 3.5 Unusual Vessels, Imports, and their Depositional Context.................................................................................... 127 3.6 Comparison, Correlation, and Chronology............................................................................................................ 129 3.6.1 Guangala......................................................................................................................................................... 129 3.6.2 Bahía............................................................................................................................................................... 133 3.6.3 Serving Jars with Flaring Rims...................................................................................................................... 134 3.6.4 The Double Compotera.................................................................................................................................. 134 3.6.5 Dragons.......................................................................................................................................................... 135 3.6.6 Summary and Chronology............................................................................................................................. 135 4. Discussion.................................................................................................................................................................... 137 5. Conclusions.................................................................................................................................................................. 143 References ........................................................................................................................................................................ 145

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List of figures Figure 1.1. Map of coastal Ecuador with Salango and other sites mentioned...................................................................... 2 Figure 1.2. Map of the Salango site showing areas excavated 1979–1989........................................................................ 11 Figure 1.3. View to the northeast of OMJPLP–141B......................................................................................................... 11 Figure 1.4. OMJPLP–141B–T3 before the excavation of the clay wall of Structure 11.................................................... 12 Figure 1.5. Secondary urn burial with grave goods and primary burial with grave goods in the west corner of Trench 3............................................................................................................................................................... 14 Figure 1.6. Secondary bundle burial with grave goods...................................................................................................... 14 Figure 2.1. Key to pottery illustrations............................................................................................................................... 21 Figure 2.2. Serving bowls: Machalilla carinated forms (a–d), Early Engoroy forms (e, f), and Middle Engoroy Form 1 (g, h) and Form 2 (i, k)............................................................................................................................ 24 Figure 2.3. Serving bowls: Form 3 Short (a-h) and Form 3 Long (i–l).............................................................................. 25 Figure 2.4. Form 3 Short serving bowl: stepped interior with iridescent paint.................................................................. 26 Figure 2.5. Serving bowls: Form 5..................................................................................................................................... 27 Figure 2.6. Form 5 serving bowl: exterior with unpolished red slip................................................................................... 28 Figure 2.7. Form 5 serving bowl: smudged interior with iridescent paint.......................................................................... 28 Figure 2.8. Serving bowls: Form 8A (a–i) and Form 8C (j, k)........................................................................................... 29 Figure 2.9. Form 8A serving bowl: exterior rim with iridescent paint............................................................................... 30 Figure 2.10. Form 8A serving bowl: smudged interior with unclear iridescent paint........................................................ 30 Figure 2.11. Serving bowls: Form 8B (a–h) and Form 9 Short (i–q)................................................................................. 31 Figure 2.12. Serving bowls: Form 9 Long.......................................................................................................................... 32 Figure 2.13. Serving bowls: Form 9 Long.......................................................................................................................... 33 Figure 2.14. Serving bowls: Form 9 Long.......................................................................................................................... 34 Figure 2.15. Form 9 Long serving bowl: complex design in iridescent paint. Rim diameter 188 mm.............................. 35 Figure 2.16. Form 9 Long serving bowl: Phase VI undulating exterior with iridescent paint........................................... 35 Figure 2.17. Serving bowls: Form 9 Long.......................................................................................................................... 36 Figure 2.18. Form 9 Long serving bowl: modelled turtle head at rim................................................................................ 37 Figure 2.19. Form 9 Long serving bowl: appliqué frog on rim exterior............................................................................. 37 Figure 2.20. Serving bowls: Form 10 Open (a–k) and Form 10 Short (l–r)....................................................................... 38 Figure 2.21. Serving bowls: Form 10 Long........................................................................................................................ 39 Figure 2.22. Serving bowls: Form 11................................................................................................................................. 40 Figure 2.23. Serving bowls: Form 11: the unfolded interior design for i) is shown at half-scale relative to the bowl outline................................................................................................................................................................... 42 Figure 2.24. Form 11 serving bowl: differential exterior finish.......................................................................................... 43 Figure 2.25. Form 11 serving bowl: polished black interior............................................................................................... 43 Figure 2.26. Serving bowls: Form 11................................................................................................................................. 44 Figure 2.27. Form 11 serving bowl: interior and exterior both with iridescent paint. Rim diameter:180 mm................... 45

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Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador Figure 2.28. Form 11 serving bowl: interior and exterior both with iridescent paint......................................................... 45 Figure 2.29. Serving bowls: Form 11 (a–d) and Form 10/11 (e–l)..................................................................................... 46 Figure 2.30. Serving bowls: Form 12................................................................................................................................. 47 Figure 2.31. Form 12 serving bowl: bowl exterior with nubbins at flattened lip............................................................... 48 Figure 2.32. Form 12 serving bowl: bowl interior with nubbins at flattened lip................................................................ 48 Figure 2.33. Form 12 serving bowl: bowl interior with step.............................................................................................. 48 Figure 2.34. Serving bowls: Form 13................................................................................................................................. 49 Figure 2.35. Serving bowls: Form 13................................................................................................................................. 50 Figure 2.36. Form 13 serving bowl: modelled leg with red, yellow, and white paint........................................................ 51 Figure 2.37. Form 13 serving bowl: modelled leg with red, yellow, and white paint........................................................ 51 Figure 2.38. Form 13 serving bowl: interior stepped surface of polished black slip.......................................................... 51 Figure 2.39. Serving bowls: Form 14. Exterior iridescent design...................................................................................... 52 Figure 2.40. Serving bowls: Form 14. Interior iridescent design. Reprinted with permission of the University Press of Florida from Lozada and Tantaleán (2019)......................................................................................... 52 Figure 2.41. Form 14 serving bowl: double compotera with iridescent paint.................................................................... 53 Figure 2.42. Serving bowls: Form 14................................................................................................................................. 54 Figure 2.43. Form 14 serving bowl: half of a double compotera with incised design....................................................... 54 Figure 2.44. Serving bowls: Form 14 (a, b) and Form 15 (c, d)......................................................................................... 55 Figure 2.45. Form 14 serving bowl: double compotera with red and black paint. Rim diameter: 248 mm....................... 56 Figure 2.46. Form 15 serving bowl: pedestalled bowl with post-fire paint. Rim diameter: 184 mm................................. 56 Figure 2.47. Serving bowls: Form 16 (a) and Form 17 (b)................................................................................................. 57 Figure 2.48. Serving bowls: miscellaneous forms.............................................................................................................. 58 Figure 2.49. Serving bowls: miscellaneous forms.............................................................................................................. 59 Figure 2.50. Serving bowl bases: concave bases (a–c), annular bases (d–h), and pedestal bases (i–p)............................. 60 Figure 2.51. Serving bowl bases and flanges: hollow cylindrical legs (a–d), modelled hollow legs (e–g), modelled solid legs (h, i), and exterior flanges (j–o).......................................................................................................... 62 Figure 2.52. Serving bowl: modelled hollow leg................................................................................................................ 63 Figure 2.53. Serving bowl: modelled hollow leg................................................................................................................ 63 Figure 2.54. Serving bowl: modelled solid leg................................................................................................................... 63 Figure 2.55. Designs in iridescent paint on serving bowl rim interiors.............................................................................. 65 Figure 2.56. Serving bowls: designs in iridescent paint..................................................................................................... 66 Figure 2.57. Serving bowls: designs in iridescent paint..................................................................................................... 67 Figure 2.58. Designs in iridescent paint on serving bowl rim exteriors............................................................................. 68 Figure 2.59. Serving bowls: designs in negative paint (a, b), bichrome paint (c), red paint (d, e), and patterned line burnish (f–n). The designs in line burnish are all on the interior surface.................................................... 69 Figure 2.60. Serving bowl: polished exterior red slip with negative paint......................................................................... 70 Figure 2.61. Serving bowl: unpolished exterior red slip with negative paint..................................................................... 70 Figure 2.62. Serving bowl: interior patterned line burnish on grey background................................................................ 71 Figure 2.63. Serving bowl: interior patterned line burnish on brown background............................................................. 71 Figure 2.64. Serving bowls: Form 10 Long bowl with iridescent paint and patterned line burnish................................... 72 Figure 2.65. Serving bowls: designs in patterned line burnish (a–g) and incision (h)....................................................... 73 viii

List of figures Figure 2.66. Kitchen bowls................................................................................................................................................. 74 Figure 2.67. Kitchen bowl: exterior with red-painted rim.................................................................................................. 75 Figure 2.68. Kitchen bowl: grey interior with design in red paint...................................................................................... 75 Figure 2.69. Kitchen bowls................................................................................................................................................. 76 Figure 2.70. Kitchen bowl: buff interior with design in red paint...................................................................................... 77 Figure 2.71. Kitchen bowls................................................................................................................................................. 78 Figure 2.72. Kitchen bowls: d–j are all probable imports................................................................................................... 79 Figure 2.73. Thickwalled bowls.......................................................................................................................................... 80 Figure 2.74. Thickwalled bowl........................................................................................................................................... 81 Figure 2.75. Funerary urn: interior decoration with spots (a) and patches (b) of red paint................................................ 83 Figure 2.76. Funerary urn: section of interior decorated with red paint............................................................................. 84 Figure 2.77. Funerary urn: stains on section of exterior..................................................................................................... 84 Figure 2.78. Serving jars: jars with flaring rims, Type A.................................................................................................... 85 Figure 2.79. Serving jar with flaring rim, Type A: rim interior with iridescent paint......................................................... 86 Figure 2.80. Serving jar with flaring rim, Type A: rim exterior with notched flange......................................................... 86 Figure 2.81. Serving jar with flaring rim, Type A: body with incised design..................................................................... 86 Figure 2.82. Serving jars: jars with flaring rims, Type A (a, b) and Type B (c–e).............................................................. 87 Figure 2.83. Serving jar with flaring rim, Type B: rim interior with iridescent paint......................................................... 88 Figure 2.84. Bottles and serving jars: bottles (a–c) and jars with dark brown or black slip (d–o)..................................... 89 Figure 2.85. Serving jars: jars with dark brown or black slip (a, b) and jars with red slip (c–l)........................................ 90 Figure 2.86. Serving jar with polished brown slip. Rim diameter: 66 mm......................................................................... 91 Figure 2.87. Serving jars: wide-necked jars (a–f), jar with vertical rim (g), miscellaneous body sherds (h–j), and designs in iridescent paint (k–p).................................................................................................................................. 92 Figure 2.88. Serving jars: jar with vertical rim................................................................................................................... 93 Figure 2.89. Serving jar with vertical rim and iridescent paint.......................................................................................... 94 Figure 2.90. Serving jars: jars with structured rims............................................................................................................ 95 Figure 2.91. Serving jar with structured rim and polished brown slip............................................................................... 96 Figure 2.92. Serving jars: jars with structured rims............................................................................................................ 97 Figure 2.93. Serving jar with structured rim, nubbins on the lip, and polished red brown slip.......................................... 98 Figure 2.94. Serving jars: jar with structured rim and patterned line burnish.................................................................... 99 Figure 2.95. Serving jar with structured rim and patterned line burnish.......................................................................... 100 Figure 2.96. Serving jar with structured rim and polished grey brown slip..................................................................... 100 Figure 2.97. Serving jars: designs with patterned line burnish (a–e), incision (f–j), and excision (k, l).......................... 101 Figure 2.98. Kitchen jars: squared rims (a) and curved rims (b–m)................................................................................. 103 Figure 2.99. Kitchen jar: convex rim exterior with red paint on black surface................................................................ 104 Figure 2.100. Kitchen jar: convex rim interior with red paint on black surface............................................................... 104 Figure 2.101. Kitchen jar without decoration. Rim diameter 94 mm............................................................................... 104 Figure 2.102. Kitchen jar without decoration. Rim diameter 112 mm............................................................................. 105 Figure 2.103. Kitchen jars: inflected rims (a–i) and horizontal inflected rims (j–t)......................................................... 106 Figure 2.104. Designs in red finger paint on kitchen jar rim interiors.............................................................................. 107

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Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador Figure 2.105. Kitchen jars: designs in red finger paint..................................................................................................... 108 Figure 2.106. Kitchen jars: designs in red finger paint..................................................................................................... 109 Figure 2.107. Designs in red finger paint on kitchen jar body and rim exteriors............................................................. 110 Figure 2.108. Kitchen jars: designs in red finger paint......................................................................................................111 Figure 2.109. Kitchen jar: red finger paint design with large spots.................................................................................. 112 Figure 2.110. Kitchen jar: red finger paint design with small spots................................................................................. 112 Figure 2.111. Kitchen jar: red finger paint design with wide vertical bands.................................................................... 112 Figure 2.112. Kitchen jars: designs in red finger paint..................................................................................................... 113 Figure 2.113. Kitchen jars: designs in red finger paint (a–g) and unusual sherds (h–k)................................................... 114 Figure 2.114. Kitchen jar: red finger paint design with short vertical bands.................................................................... 115 Figure 2.115. Kitchen jar: red finger paint design with horizontal tear drops.................................................................. 115 Figure 2.116. Kitchen jar: red finger paint design with ovals on rim interior.................................................................. 115 Figure 2.117. Kitchen jar: red finger paint design with wavy band on neck exterior....................................................... 115 Figure 2.118. Kitchen jar: red finger paint design with ovals on rim interior.................................................................. 115 Figure 2.119. Kitchen jars: decoration with polished red paint (a–g), paint in narrow bands (h, i), and incision (j–n).............................................................................................................................................................. 116 Figure 2.120. Kitchen jars: massive vessels..................................................................................................................... 118 Figure 2.121. Neckless jars (a–c) and miscellaneous jars (d–k)....................................................................................... 119 Figure 2.122. Ceramic figurines and miscellaneous ceramic objects: solid figurines (a, b), hollow figurines (c–e), roller stamp (f), and disc (g).................................................................................................................... 120 Figure 2.123. Solid figurine.............................................................................................................................................. 121 Figure 2.124. Solid figurine.............................................................................................................................................. 121

x

List of tables Table 1.1. Bahía Ceramic Types Defined by Estrada (1962)................................................................................................ 6 Table 1.2. Radiocarbon Dates from Guangala Contexts....................................................................................................... 8 Table 1.3. Radiocarbon Dates from Bahía Contexts............................................................................................................. 9 Table 1.4. Sequence Divisions at Site OMJPLP–141B–T3 Salango.................................................................................. 13 Table 1.5. Radiocarbon Dates from Phase V Graves, Site OMJPLP–141B....................................................................... 15 Table 2.1. OMJPLP–141B–T3: Period 2 Sherd Count....................................................................................................... 19 Table 2.2. Values for Pottery Texture and Surface Finish................................................................................................... 19 Table 2.3a. Major Vessel Categories: Absolute Frequencies.............................................................................................. 20 Table 2.3b. Major Vessel Categories: Percentage Frequencies........................................................................................... 20 Table 2.4a. Serving Bowl Form Categories: Absolute Frequencies................................................................................... 22 Table 2.4b. Serving Bowl Form Categories: Percentage Frequencies................................................................................ 23 Table 2.5a. Serving Bowl Decorative Techniques: Absolute Frequencies......................................................................... 64 Table 2.5b. Serving Bowl Decorative Techniques: Percentage Frequencies...................................................................... 64 Table 2.6a. Iridescent Paint on Serving Bowls: Absolute Frequencies............................................................................... 64 Table 2.6b. Iridescent Paint on Serving Bowls: Percentage Frequencies........................................................................... 64 Table 2.7a. Kitchen Bowls: Absolute Frequencies............................................................................................................. 77 Table 2.7b. Kitchen Bowls: Percentage Frequencies.......................................................................................................... 77 Table 2.8a. Serving Jar Form Categories: Absolute Frequencies....................................................................................... 84 Table 2.8b. Serving Jar Form Categories: Percentage Frequencies.................................................................................... 84 Table 2.9a. Kitchen Jar Rim Forms: Absolute Frequencies.............................................................................................. 102 Table 2.9b. Kitchen Jar Rim Forms: Percentage Frequencies.......................................................................................... 102 Table 2.10a. Kitchen Jar Decorative Categories: Absolute Frequencies.......................................................................... 102 Table 2.10b. Kitchen Jar Decorative Categories: Percentage Frequencies....................................................................... 102 Table 3.1a. Smudged Slip and Red Slip on Serving Bowls: Absolute Frequencies......................................................... 125 Table 3.1b. Smudged Slip and Red Slip on Serving Bowls: Percentage Frequencies...................................................... 125 Table 3.2a. Serving Bowls with Unpolished Surfaces: Absolute Frequencies................................................................. 126 Table 3.2b. Serving Bowls with Unpolished Surfaces: Percentage Frequencies.............................................................. 126

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2022 Preface and Acknowledgements A draft of this monograph was originally submitted to the Banco Central del Ecuador in 2004. After many years of not knowing whether the study would ever see the light of day, I am extremely grateful to Jacqueline Senior and the other editors at BAR for agreeing to publish it. I thank them and three reviewers for all their advice for improvements, and Tansy Branscombe for her cheerful enthusiasm in helping me prepare the manuscript for publication. The Universidad Técnica de Manabí generously created the conditions in which I could carry out this work. My friends and neighbours in Portoviejo made it possible for me to finish it.

UNIVERSIDAD TÉCNICA DE MANABÍ

INSTITUTO NACIONAL DE PATRIMONIO CULTURAL

xii

2004 Preface and Acknowledgements The central coast of Ecuador was the setting for some of the most intense and elaborate cultural experiments of the North Andean region prior to the arrival of the Spanish in the early sixteenth century. The south coast of the Province of Manabí was a zone of special richness, and its Pre-Columbian remains have attracted the curiosity of Ecuadorian and foreign archaeologists since the first recorded investigations by George Dorsey on Isla de la Plata in 1892. Many towns and villages of today are founded on settlements established in antiquity, and amongst these is Salango, which was the subject of major archaeological excavations over the years 1979–1989, when evidence was recovered of a sequence of occupation from Early Valdivia up to Late Manteño and contact with the Spanish conquistadores. This work was carried out by the Programa de Antropología para el Ecuador, under the general direction of Presley Norton, and was largely financed by the Banco Central del Ecuador, with further support from the British Council, the Ecuadorian State Petrol Corporation (CEPE), the Earthwatch Foundation, the Museo del Banco del Pacífico, Guayaquil, and the Organization of American States.

the Banco Central apparatus, and Pedro Valeiro, who guided me though the reserve collections at the Banco Central’s Museo Antropológico y de Arte Contemporáneo in Guayaquil, gave me friendship as well as good advice. In Salango, Patrick Bredthauer kindly allowed me to use the facilities at the research center while it was under the management of Fundación ProPueblo; Patrick Gay gave his unswerving support and friendship throughout, lent me his digital camera and steered me through the byways of his computer so that I could create the photographic archive; and Julia Pincay helped with the tasks of describing and drawing the pottery, and then loaded the ceramic data onto computer. Karen Stothert gave me continuing friendship, encouragement, books, and advice. Freddy Acuña helped me in several ways on many occasions and was always a good friend of the family. I have previously thanked many who helped in Salango both with the excavation of 141BT3 and with the processing of the T3 pottery. I should like now to acknowledge Rosa Malavé, Rosa Lucas, Letty Ascencio, Margaret Medina, Lélia Mero, Carmen Lucas, Nancy Lucas, and Briz Salazar, who all worked over the years following the excavations to keep the pottery collection intact and accessible. Susy and Nicolas Parducci took us into their home on our arrival in Ecuador, and their kindness since then has given our lives comfort and meaning. As always, the warmth and generosity of the people of Salango gave me daily incentive to continue study of the prehistory of their village. Richard and Constance Lunniss, my parents, helped me, as they had always helped me, through the years of preparing my dissertation in England, though my father died while I was still writing. My mother later helped us make the journey back out to Ecuador. Without their love and support, none of my work at Salango would have been possible. Most of all, my thanks go to Deirdre and all our beautiful children.

The archaeology of Salango is important for several reasons. First, there is its continuity of occupation, with the opportunity it affords to examine the history of a site over more than 5,000 years, a length of time unmatched by most other sites in the country. Second, there is its wealth of material evidence, including different types of buildings, human burials, structured artefact depositions, abundant pottery (with many complete vessels), stone, shell, bone, and metal artefacts, and a large assemblage of faunal remains. Third, there is Salango’s symbolic and sacred value, particularly during the Late Formative and Early Regional Development periods. And finally, there is the high quality of stratigraphic preservation, which has allowed unusually precise register and reconstruction of the history of site formation. This volume follows my doctoral dissertation as the second in what is hoped to be a series of detailed studies of the main elements of Late Formative and Regional Development Salango. In accordance with its aspiration not only to safeguard material artefacts of national heritage, but also to foster a deeper understanding of the peoples who created them, the Banco Central del Ecuador generously financed the study. I owe thanks to Freddy Olmedo Ron, former Cultural Director for the Banco Central in Guayaquil, for accepting my proposal and encouraging me to return to Salango at the end of 2001, and also to Mariella García Caputi, who succeeded Freddy Olmedo, and to Paulina Terán, for helping me to complete the study. Maritza Freire, who was my initial liaison with xiii

1 Introduction Abstract. This monograph presents a sample of pottery associated with the west corner (T3) of a sequence of Early Regional Development funerary enclosures excavated at site OMJPLP–141B, Salango, on the central coast of Ecuador. Salango lies just inside the Guangala region, but the pottery from 141B is strongly associated with Bahía II. Salango also lies within a ceramic subregion centred on the Salaite site. To provide background for the study, a review is made of current knowledge of Guangala and Bahía II, their respective pottery traditions, and evidence for and thinking on their absolute and internal chronologies, and the biogeography of the area is summarised. The Late Formative (Period 1: Building Phases I–IIIL) and Regional Development (Period 2: Building Phases V–VII) ceremonial structures as excavated at OMJPLP–141B–T3, and the transition between these periods (Phase IV), are outlined, with emphasis on the Early Regional Development funerary enclosures (Building Phases V) which provide the main body of material for the pottery study. Resumen. Esta monografía trate de una muestra de cerámica asociada con la esquina oeste (T3) de una secuencia de recintos funerarios Desarrollo Regional Temprano excavados en el sitio OMJPLP–141B, Salango, en la costa central de Ecuador. Salango se encuentra justo dentro de la región Guangala, pero la cerámica de 141B está fuertemente asociada con Bahía II. Salango también se encuentra dentro de una subregión cerámica centrada en el sitio Salaite. Para fundamentar el estudio, se presenta una revisión del conocimiento actual sobre Guangala y Bahía II, sus respectivas tradiciones alfareras, y las evidencias e ideas sobre sus cronologías absolutas e internas, y se hace un resumen de la biogeografía del área. Se delinean las estructuras ceremoniales del Formativo Tardío (Período 1: Fases de Construcción I–IIIL) y Desarrollo Regional (Período 2: Fases de Construcción V–VII) excavadas en OMJPLP–141B–T3, y la transición entre estos períodos (Fase IV), con énfasis en los recintos funerarios Desarrollo Regional Temprano (Fase de Construcción V) que proporcionan el cuerpo principal de material para el estudio de la cerámica. 1.1 Aims and Scope of the Study

After Engoroy, the picture in the south of Manabí is more complicated. The Regional Development Guangala culture (100 BC–AD 800; Bischof 1982; Bushnell 1951; Estrada 1957, 1962; Masucci 1992; Paulsen 1970; Simmons 1970; Stothert 1993; Zeller and Bischof 1960) has been seen both to be largely based on Engoroy, and to follow Engoroy’s general geographical distribution, having a northern boundary somewhere in the region of Puerto Cayo and Machalilla. Beyond this lay the zone of the two-part Bahía culture (Huerta 1940; Estrada 1957, 1962; Stirling and Stirling 1963). Bahía I was contemporary with Middle and Late Engoroy, Bahía II was coeval with Early and Middle Guangala, and Bahía II was followed by the Chirije culture (Estrada 1962:76–79), itself perhaps a northern extension of late Guangala.

OMJPLP-141 Salango is a multi-component site of the central coast of Ecuador with occupation from Valdivia through to late Manteño (Figure 1.1; Lunniss 2001; Norton et al. 1983). At its core is a sequence of ceremonial structures spanning the period 600 BC–AD 600 from Middle Engoroy to a middle stage of the Regional Development period. OMJPLP–141B–T3 (i.e., Trench 3 of Sector B of Site OMJPLP–141) encompassed the west corner of that sequence of buildings and was excavated under the direction of the author in the years 1983–6. Its stratigraphic sequence, architectural components, and secondary features have been reported in detail elsewhere, with discussion of pottery and other artefacts of the Middle and Late Engoroy phases (Lunniss 2001). The present study, in turn, offers a description and analysis of the ceramics from the succeeding Early Regional Development period (100 BC–AD 300).

Salango falls south of the originally proposed boundary between Guangala and Bahía II, but in the Early Regional Development period, ceramics from 141B–T3 bear a stronger relation to Bahía II than they do to Guangala. At the same time, while Early Guangala ceramics or styles are present as a secondary component in the 141B precinct, in the non-ceremonial area identified 50 m to the north at 141C (Kurc 1984), the pottery used there is reported as having been almost entirely of Guangala styles, with minimal Bahía II influence, such that it appears possible that in the Early Regional Development period functionally

Engoroy (Beckwith 1996; Bischof 1982; Bushnell 1951; Lunniss 2001; Paulsen 1982; Paulsen and McDougle 1974, 1981; Simmons 1970; Zeller and Bischof 1960) is the name given to the Late Formative period ceramic phase of the Ecuadorian coast from La Libertad to Puerto Cayo and Joá, and there is little problem in correlation of the Salango material of that period with the wider coastal sequence. 1

Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador

Figure 1.1. Map of coastal Ecuador with Salango and other sites mentioned.

2

Introduction 1.2 Previous Research

distinct zones of Salango were occupied or managed by groups who each maintained a different set of social affiliations. And there are further questions of definition and terminology that need consideration, since Bahía II itself is little documented, and from what we do know, it seems likely that Bahía II in the south of Manabí employed certain ceramic forms not yet recovered from the Bahía II heartland of Manta and Bahía de Caráquez. Accordingly, this study is aimed in part towards a resolution of the problems of nomenclature and definition just indicated.

Occupation of the central coast of Ecuador between 100 BC and AD 800 is understood in terms of two neighbouring cultures that met or overlapped in south Manabí. One, Guangala, was mainly limited to the Guayas coast north from Punta Arenas and seems to have had its greatest population densities in the southern Chongón Colonche hills and on the Santa Elena Peninsula.1 Bahía II, the other, occupied coastal Manabí south from the Río Chone, and had its largest settlements at Manta and Bahía de Caráquez. Ceramic figurines and settlement and site types suggest that Bahía II was a well-developed chiefdom culture but Guangala, though sharing many traits with Bahía II, was less overtly hierarchical.

Presentation of the Early Regional Development pottery from OMJPLP–141B–T3 follows the principle that ceramic assemblages from individual sites need to be understood in terms of their own attributes and internal structure before it is possible to consider questions of regional identity and ceramic zones. Accordingly, I define the individual elements of the assemblage, trace their affinities with other assemblages, and from this develop a picture of the dynamic processes at work in the creation of the assemblage. Although the study is in the first place concerned with describing the Bahía II and Early Guangala period pottery from OMJPLP–141B–T3, it also assesses the transition at Salango from the Late Formative to Early Regional Development, looks at relations between Bahía II and Early Guangala, and examines the likelihood that a south Manabí Bahía II cultural sub-region can be identified based on ceramic variants. In short, the location of Salango at a point simultaneously of socio-cultural intersection and divergence, the highly formalised ritual function of the site, and the site’s unusually well-defined and preserved stratigraphic context, all combine to allow a ceramic analysis that, in the context of coastal Ecuadorian studies, is novel for the complex content of the assemblage it examines, for the precision with which the assemblage can be examined, and for the contribution it makes to understanding of cultural process and interaction. In so doing, it also presents a summary comparative analysis of Early Guangala and Bahía II assemblages all the way from the Santa Elena Peninsula to Bahía de Caráquez

1.2.1 Guangala It was Bushnell (1951) who first isolated, named and described the Guangala culture, presenting contextual data and an account of pottery and other artefact types recovered in the 1930’s from two house mounds and associated burials at La Libertad, on the Santa Elena Peninsula of the Province of Guayas, and from household midden deposits at Guangala itself, inland up the valley of the Río Javita. Locating sites up the Tambo valley, he also noted the existence of extensive Guangala shell middens along the shore from Real to Puerto de Chanduy. Mistakenly, he placed Guangala earlier than Engoroy. Estrada (1957) later excavated a Guangala component at Olón, where he was able to show the correct sequence, with Guangala coming after Engoroy. Zeller and Bischof (Bischof 1982; Zeller and Bischof 1960) excavated Guangala midden deposits and graves at Palmar and cut into Guangala deposits at Olón and La Entrada. A University of Colombia survey of the Santa Elena Peninsula in 1964 (Lanning 1967) was followed by more detailed fieldwork in 1968, this being the basis for an analysis of the Guangala pottery sequence by Paulsen (1970). Paulsen (1970:30–33, 44–51) reported a total of thirty-six Guangala sites for the peninsula, its hinterland, and from as far north as Manglaralto and Loma Alta, and excavated two cuts at La Libertad, one at Palmar, and one at Tigre. Marcos excavated an Early Guangala lithic manufacturing site at La Pampa de Pichilingo (Marcos 1970) and recovered Early Guangala pottery from midden deposits at Los Morros (Marcos 1982). Stothert (1981) identified thirty-four Guangala sites in a survey of the Tambo valley. At one of these, she recovered evidence of household production of grinding stones (Stothert et al.1998:223). She also excavated an Early Guangala cemetery and household contexts at Valdivia (Stothert 1993) and excavated a ceramic production site at Las Balsas (Stothert et al. 1998). Masucci (1992) investigated rural domestic settlement and economy at El Azúcar, identifying thirty-five sites through survey, and excavating two of them. Other work includes Ferdon’s excavations at La Libertad (Ferdon 1941a, 1941b, 1942; Simmons 1970),

The rest of this Chapter 1 reviews previous research into the Early Regional Development on the central coast and examines current views on the ceramic and cultural chronology of that period. There follows a brief description of the environmental conditions of the central coast, and the chapter ends with a summary of the archaeological context of the ceramic sample to be described. For full treatment of the site, its setting, formation, and architectural and other components, the reader should refer to the earlier study (Lunniss 2001). Chapter 2, after an explanation of the selection of the sample and the methodology used in its analysis, presents a close description of the ceramics. Chapter 3 analyses the composition and structure of the assemblage and compares its elements to those of collections recovered from contemporary sites of the central coast. Chapter 4 follows with discussion of the broader cultural implications of the Salango sample along with consideration of the more elaborate vessel forms and iconography. Chapter 5 concludes with suggestions for further study.

  In 2007, the Santa Elena Peninsula and coastal Guayas as far as the border with Manabí became the separate Province of Santa Elena. 1

3

Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador and Disselhoff’s excavations at La Libertad and Olón, at both of which sites he found Guangala graves (Disselhoff 1949). Estrada and Meggers and Evans excavated Guangala deposits and a Guangala grave during their investigations at Valdivia (Meggers et al. 1965:16, 17). Lippi identified a possible Guangala habitation site at Río Perdido (Lippi 1980) and recovered Guangala pottery at La Ponga (Lippi 1983:152–164). Jarrín cut through Guangala deposits at Sube y Baja and collected pottery from Guangala middens at other sits of the Guayas coast (Jarrín 1982:361, 364). And Zevallos (1982) excavated a Guangala cemetery in 1941 at El Manantial de Guangala.

iridescent paint. They noted differences in fishhooks and spindle whorls that corresponded with the three ceramic phases, and identified Guangala as a coastal culture that spread inland up valleys such as those of the Río Javita and Río Valdivia. They saw Guangala as having evolved out of Engoroy and noted an overall unity to the Javita valley sequence from early Machalilla to late Guangala (Zeller and Bischof 1960:7). Estrada (1957:53–58) recognised fourteen Guangala ceramic types, including four shared by the Guayas Basin, and two others that carried on from the earlier Olón (i.e., Engoroy) phase. He postulated improved agriculture and consequent greater wealth as stimuli to a surge of craft production (Estrada 1957:172), and noted that settlements consisted of small, dispersed groups of houses set on low mounds from 1 to 2 m tall, produced by rubbish discard, with primary burials, mostly unaccompanied by goods, set in graves beneath the houses (Estrada 1958:15).

Most research, then, has been conducted at sites around the main Guangala zone, between Valdivia and the south coast of the Santa Elena Peninsula. But Piana and Marotzke (1997:32–71) recovered Guangala ceramics from the Jambelí site of Punta Brava, on the west shore of Isla Puná. And to the east of the Cordillera Chongón Colonche, Early Guangala sites have been located along the Río Daule (Raymond et al. 1980), and in the northern Guayas Basin, Guangala ceramics have been identified at El Vergel (Guillaume-Gentil 1998:161, 162). Additionally, Estrada crossed into Manabí to collect Guangala material from shoreline sites up as far as Puerto Cayo and Machalilla, and thereby defined its northern limit (Estrada 1957:163; 1958:53, 54). More recent surveys (López, Acuña, and Castro 1997; López, Castro, et al. 1997) along the coastal valleys of south Manabí have located further widespread evidence of settlement.

Paulsen (1970:58–126) saw regional Guangala as having an internal chronology to be defined in terms of an eightphase sequence, the phases being identified by modal differences through time in six basic vessel forms. The use of painted decoration in Phases 1 to 5, and its absence in Phases 6 to 8, suggested two broader periods. She saw climate change as a determining factor in culture change within the Guangala sequence (Paulsen:155–160). Specifically, she explained an apparent impoverishment of the ceramics from Phase 6 onwards as the product of social stress caused by drought and environmental recession.

At Salango, Site OMJPLP–140 included evidence of Guangala shell processing (Allan 1988), and at Site OMJPLP–141C Kurc (1984) found Guangala habitation deposits accompanied by human burials and identified three stages of occupation. Other Guangala domestic occupation is reported at three small sites in the Salango valley (Allan and Allan 1989). Immediately south from Salango, Site OMJPLP–170 at Río Chico has a Guangala domestic component with associated human burials (Oyola-Coeur 2000).

Simmons (1970:65–71, 311–414) identified thirteen specifically Guangala types and thirty-two varieties for his sequence from La Libertad, breaking down some of the categories defined by Estrada. He also identified three varieties of an important type (Guangala Sombre) that carried over from Engoroy into Guangala (Simons 1970:263–289). But he was unable to identify any subphases for Guangala. Bischof (1982:161), like Paulsen, saw Guangala as growing out of Engoroy but distinguished from it by a repertoire of new forms and decorative techniques. The gradual adoption of these new elements suggested to him a process of local evolution and absorption of ideas from outside, rather than the arrival of a different people. Marcos (1982:178–179), on the other hand, saw Guangala as a product of invasion that destabilised the existing Engoroy order and subsumed its ceramic styles.

While social, economic, and political aspects of the Guangala culture have all been considered, definition of ceramics and ceramic chronology has continued to be a major concern. Bushnell (1951:31–79) recognised ten Guangala pottery types but made no attempt at an internal chronology. Noting especially its polypod bowls with anthropomorphically decorated legs and its anthropomorphic ocarinas, he suggested that an apparent regional variability in Guangala’s painted ceramics (he found trichrome at la Libertad and bichrome at Guangala) should be compared directly with the complex pattern of social division observed among the native population at the time of the Spanish conquest (Bushnell 1951:22).

Stothert (1993:70–93; Stothert et al. 1998), drawing on specialised reports on faunal remains from Valdivia (Wing and Scudder 1984), El Azúcar (Reitz 1990), and Las Balsas (Sánchez 1995), and on botanical remains from Valdivia (Pearsall 1984) and Las Balsas (Veintimilla 1995), identified Early Guangala as a culture with a mixed and diverse economy, according to local resources, whether marine, estuarine, or terrestrial, with craft specialisation and local exchange as well as agriculture, fishing, and

Zeller and Bischof (1960:21–30) found instead at Palmar that the bichrome and trichrome painted wares represented the second and third successive phases in a sequence of Guangala decorative paint techniques that began with 4

Introduction hunting. The population was dispersed amongst many small settlements occupied over short periods. Early Guangala rural sites are represented by extensive middens and associated graves, or by smaller and shallower rubbish scatters with no graves. These sites tended to occupy virgin land, which may reflect population expansion or changes in agricultural practice. Stothert noted a total absence of direct evidence for habitation structures, save perhaps at Río Perdido (Lippi 1980), and suggested that houses were raised on posts above the ground. She also noted that no ceremonial centres have yet been associated with the Guangala culture on the Guayas coast.

Estrada made just a few references to internal chronology. In Table 2 (Estrada 1957:22), over the Olón phase, he correlated Bahía I with Guangala as the Regional Development cultures of central Manabí and the Guayas coast respectively. In Table 13, he placed Guangala in south Manabí, and suggested an exclusive correlation with Bahía I, leaving Bahía II’s south Manabí correlate unspecified. He indicated (Estrada 1957:62) that the La Plata figurine type was exclusively of Bahía I. Another comment relevant to discussion of chronological change refers to polypod bowl supports (Estrada 1957:159–161). He identified three leg types for Bahía. For Bahía I there were pointed conical legs, hollow or solid, and hollow cylindrical legs. For Bahía II, on the other hand, there was a hollow pointed leg, decorated with the features of a human face. This type he identified as a variant of the more elaborately decorated Guangala solid leg first shown by Bushnell (1951:Figs. 12, 13). There is little discussion beyond description of its artefact types, but Estrada referred the reader to Jijón y Caamaño (1997b:Figs. 23, 24) for plans of large Bahía culture ceremonial platforms and stone structures at Manta. He also indicated (Estrada 1957:61, 62) that Isla de la Plata was an important ceremonial centre, and that the Bahía people must have been competent navigators to be able to reach it.

Masucci (1992) interpreted the El Azúcar Guangala ceramic sequence in terms of three, perhaps four successive complexes. Complex I correlated with Paulsen’s Phases 1–3, Complexes II and III with Paulsen’s Phases 3–6, and Complex IV, though not materially matched by pottery described by Paulsen, would be contemporary with her late Phases 6–8 (Masucci 1992:430–444). Her analysis identified sixteen vessel forms and sixteen types, themselves broken down into thirty-one varieties (Masucci 1992:154–375). She also pointed to the frequency of small rural settlements, and emphasised adaptation to a semi-arid landscape with variable resources (Masucci 1992:39–48), positing a wide system of exchange of essential foodstuffs linking coastal and inland populations (Masucci 1989), but suggested that crafts such as shell bead manufacture were home-based rather than fully-fledged craft specialisations (Masucci 1995).

For his last publication, Estrada had more excavated material from both Manta and Bahía de Caráquez to expand his view of the Bahía culture. In 1960, land clearance and levelling at Esteros, across the river to the east of Manta, saw the destruction of a Bahía settlement that Estrada was able to map (Estrada 1962:Fig. 116) and test with a single cut, denominated Estero A. Revising his analysis of material previously excavated in two other cuts, Estero 1 and Estero 3 (Estrada 1962:Fig.107), he identified the former as belonging to Bahía I, and the latter to Bahía II. At Estero A he found his distinction confirmed, with Bahía II material overlying that of Bahía I (Estrada 1962:60, Fig. 108). He also excavated cuts at five areas of Bahía de Caráquez, looking for correlations with the Esteros sequence and investigating further the cemetery that had produced the artefacts first described by Huerta. He noted that Bahía settlements extended along both banks of the Río Chone, but that material on the north side contained Jama-Coaque elements (Estrada 1962:22).

1.2.2 Bahía II Although Dorsey (1901) had recovered Bahía-type artefacts on Isla de la Plata in 1892, it was Huerta (1940) who first postulated the existence of a Bahía culture. This was based on ceramic vessel fragments and ceramic figurines informally collected from a cemetery at Bahía de Caráquez. Estrada (1957, 1962) later made more extensive descriptions and, following his own excavations at Manta and Bahía identified two stages, Bahía I and Bahía II.2 Estrada’s initial definition was based on four stratigraphic cuts at the Esteros site, Manta. He identified six Bahía anthropomorphic figurine types (Estrada 1957:61, 62), and eleven Bahía ceramic types, six of them shared with the Jama-Coaque culture (Estrada 1957:76–78). The principle characteristic pottery was an engraved polished ware and a three-colour polychrome ware, using black and red paint on a yellow background. But also important was the use of iridescent paint, and he pointed to its shared use as a link between Bahía and Guangala and the earlier Olón phase. He also noted the resemblance between Bahía three colour polychrome and the more refined version found among Guangala assemblages.

Ultimately, Estrada (1962:Table 3) identified Bahía I at the two Estero cuts 1 and A, at Balletine (Bahía de Caráquez), at Veliz cut B (up the Chone valley from Bahía de Caráquez), and at Pepa de Huso (on the north slopes of Cerro de Hojas, near Montecristi). For Bahía II he had the two Estero cuts 3 and A, and at Bahía de Caráquez the cuts C and Santos J. He had Bahía I and II both as Regional Development phases, alongside Guangala, spanning 500 BC to AD 500, the break between Bahía I and II occurring around the time of Christ (Estrada 1962:Tables 3, 10).

  Jijón y Caamaño (1997a, 1997b), excavating at Manta in 1923, had recovered a small quantity of Bahía pottery, but he erroneously ascribed it to coastal variants of his highland Tuncahuan and Proto-Panzaleo II cultures (Estrada 1957:8). 2

This is curious, as in an intervening publication, he had, albeit uncertainly, placed Bahía I as a Formative phase contemporary with Chorrera, with Bahía II belonging 5

Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador Table 1.1. Bahía Ceramic Types Defined by Estrada (1962).

to the Regional Development alongside Guangala and other cultures, the division between the two phases and periods lying at AD 1 (Estrada 1958:12–14). It also led to much confusion. By erroneously correlating, in the more important publications of 1957 and 1962, Bahía I with Guangala as contemporary ceramic phases of the Regional Development, Estrada also left himself little room for relating Guangala to Bahía II. Later investigators have since generally ignored Estrada’s equivocating distinction between Bahía’s two stages. In his later publication, Estrada (1962:34–43) redefined Bahía ceramics in terms of thirteen major types and five minor types (Table 1.1) mostly shared by both stages, though one (Bahía Bruñido) was more common in Bahía II, and another (Bahía Incisa Línea Ancha) was limited to Bahía I. An elsewhere unmentioned and undefined type (Decorado en Uñas) appears in his stratigraphic charts (1962:Figs. 107, 108). In addition, he saw two Chorrera types (Iridiscente and Punteado en Zonas) as continuing into Bahía (1962:31, 32).3 He also reassessed the figurines (1962:53–55), identifying nine types (including an imported Tipo Chone) of which one (Tipo Bahía) had an exclusive association with Bahía II.

Major Types

Minor Types

Bahía Bruñido

Bahía Rojo y Negro

Bahía Calado

Bahía Pulido en Líneas

Bahía Grabado

Bahía Negro sobre Gris

Bahía Gris Pulido

Bahía Salpicado sobre Pulido

Bahía Inciso y Pintado Post-cocción

Vasijas antropomorfas o con adornos zoomorfos y antropomorfos

Bahía Inciso Línea Ancha Bahía Muescas al Reborde Bahía Negativo Bahía Ordinario Bahía Rojo Pulido Bahía Rojo sobre Amarillo Rojizo Bahía Tricolor Santos Grabado

Estrada (1962:69–76) saw Bahía as something very distinct from the Chorrera culture that had preceded it, being marked by the appearance of semi-urbanism and the mass-production of moulded figurines, these in turn implying an expanding population and the emergence of a theocratic caste capable of governing such a population. He was also (Estrada 1962:92–96) driven to postulate that several cultural elements, for which he was unable to find antecedents in the Americas, were the product of a transPacific voyage by a small group of Asians. Bahía period Manta would have had two main population centres, one at Manta itself, the other at Esteros, across the Río Manta and about a kilometre to the east (Estrada 1962:Fig. 5). He noted that sherds were present in great quantity on top of the mounds at Esteros, but not on the low ground around them, and from this determined that the mounds were each the site for a large structure, mostly for collective habitation, though one platform, marked by a stone wall on its northeast side, may have been a temple. A series of depressions he interpreted as water storage facilities. Clay models indicated the form of temple buildings, and had priests seated at their entrances. Isla de la Plata was a major ceremonial site, perhaps used for rituals at the December solstice, prior to the rainy season, but only for the early Bahía period. Estrada reported blocks of solidified volcanic lava over the tops of the Estero mounds, and he excavated human skeletons which had been burnt and crushed. He saw this as combined evidence for a cataclysmic volcanic explosion that brought the Bahía II

culture to an abrupt end, the disaster leaving the landscape uninhabitable until later reoccupation by people of the little documented Chirije culture. Subsequent studies of Bahía sites were conducted at a midden at Tarqui (Stirling and Stirling 1963), between Manta itself and Esteros, and at a habitation zone of Chirije (Mejía 2005). The material published in both cases appears to be of Bahía I, trailing into Bahía II, but with no clear break or point of transition noted. Isla de la Plata (Carlucci 1966; Dorsey 1901; Marcos and Norton 1981) was a major Bahía sacred site that has produced much important material. Holm (1969:5) excavated a cemetery at Joá, which lay on the frontier of Bahía I and Late Engoroy interaction and possibly included Bahía II elements. Jarrín (1982:365) also collected pottery there. There was an extremely important Bahía cemetery at Salaite, 26 km. up the coast from Salango. Passing references to its tombs and magnificent artefacts are made in the literature (Bischof 1982:165; Lathrap et al.1975:Fig. 79; Piana 1970; Marcos 2000:27), but there has never been even one scientific study of the site, and all the material from it has been collected by huaqueros. In 1979 Norton (Lunniss 2001; Norton et al. 1983) instigated excavation at Salango. The Bahía II ceremonial structures uncovered by excavations at Sector OMJPLP-141B, which provide the material described in this report, are discussed in a following section. Other limited occurrences of Bahía ceramics are reported for El Vergel (Guillaume-Gentil 1998:162), in the north Guayas Basin, and for Punta Brava (Piana and Marotzke 1997:32–71) on Isla Puná.

  It is notable, however, that in presentation of the Estero A sequence, Estrada (1962:Fig. 108) had both Bahía Bruñido and the undefined Decorado en Uñas type present only in Bahía II levels, while a total of six types (Muescas al Reborde, Tricolor, Negativo, Modelado, and Inciso sobre Ordinario, as well as Incisa en Línea Ancha), all present in Bahía I levels, are absent from Bahía II levels. 3

6

Introduction 1.2.3 Guangala and Bahía II: Absolute Chronology

230–390.Thirdly, Masucci’s one sample (SMU–2460) for her Complex II (also the only date available to represent the period of Paulsen’s Phases 4 – 6, which Masucci correlates with Complex II) has a range of AD 240–540. Finally, there is a date (L–1042H) given by Paulsen for a Phase 8 context at San Jacinto, with a range at 68.2% probability of AD 690–960.

For the following summary (and Section 1.4 also), the published dates were calibrated using the OxCal Program v3.9 (Bronk Ramsey 1995, 2001). And to make them more compatible with the other results, the four dates from El Azúcar have been recalibrated, using the estimates of radiocarbon years before present given by Masucci (1992).

With respect to Bahía chronology (Table 1.3), in the Manta-Bahía de Caráquez area there is no secure direct dating available. The five latest results from contexts, all Bahía I, at the Esteros site at Manta, and the single date from the Tarqui site, have age ranges at 68.2% probability that embrace the latter half of the first millennium BC and extend up to AD 100. Though they all overlap the main portion of the range of the first group of dates for Early Guangala contexts, they also have much earlier starting dates, allowing that Bahía II would have begun around the same time as Guangala. At Salango, Feature 28 at site 141A gave a radiocarbon date with a range at 68.2% probability of 90 BC to AD 60. This would set it firmly within Paulsen’s range for Guangala Phase 1. The context has been identified as Bahía, and future analysis will help determine whether it of Bahía I or II affiliation. For the end of Bahía II also there is only indirect dating available. In its heartland, Bahía II was followed by the Chirije culture (Estrada 1962:75). Estrada (1962:76–79) suggested that Chirije ceramic types included Bushnell’s (1951:48) Frog Ware, which Paulsen (1970:89, 90, 94–97) has used as a marker for her Phase 5. If we use Paulsen’s postulated range for Phase 5 of AD 500–600, Bahía II may have ended by sometime around the end of the fifth century.

Paulsen (1970) was the first to provide radiocarbon dates and a preliminary internal chronology for the Guangala culture. She postulated eight phase divisions for a ninehundred-year period spanning 100 BC to AD 800. Within that period, the phases were variously estimated at between 50 and 250 years long, and the break between her two larger stages (Phases 1–5 and Phases 6–8) was set at AD 600 (Paulsen 1970:125, 126). However, she had just three radiocarbon samples from Guangala contexts, belonging to Phases 1, 3, and 8 respectively (Paulsen 1970:56), and although there have been additional dates from other sites, most work and most subsequent radiocarbon dates relate to Early Guangala material, and the details of the middle and end sections remain uncertain. Most Guangala dates (Table 1.2) fall into one or other of three main groups. Additionally, there are two charcoal samples from Early Guangala contexts at Salango (GX– 9993) and Valdivia (Tx–4456) which appear to be residual from Machalilla and Middle to Late Engoroy contexts respectively. And a sample from Palmar (Hv–1295), cited by Bischof (1982:171) as coming from a Late Guangala context, possibly derived from material residual from an Early Guangala occupation. In the first group, a sample from Palmar (L–1232V), which was the basis for the original estimate of 100 BC to AD 100 for Paulsen’s Phase 1, has a calibrated age range of 200 BC to AD 70 at 68.2% probability. Two other samples (SMU–2462, GX–10633) from Early Guangala contexts at El Azúcar and Salango 141C coincide with this range estimate, extending the upper end to AD 130, and a fourth (Tx–4455) from Valdivia falls within the latter part of that range. The second group consists of four further dates from Early Guangala contexts with a combined span at 68.2% probability of AD 70–320. The earliest of these is from Palmar (Hv–1294), with a span at the same probability of AD 70–230. This is matched closely by three dates from Salango 141A Feature 164, El Azúcar (SMU– 2463), and another sample from Palmar (Hv–2976), which give results of AD 80–220, AD 80–250 and AD 80–320 respectively. There are then three dates from slightly later contexts. First, Paulsen’s basis (L–1232T) for her Phase 3 estimate of AD 200–400 has a range at 68.2% probability of AD 130–410. Second, from El Azúcar, Masucci’s latest date (SMU–2461) for her Complex 1 has a range of AD

In sum, the Guangala ceramic sequence probably extends from the first or second century BC to around AD 800. Whether it is best divided into two periods and eight phases (Paulsen 1970), or into three or perhaps four complexes (Masucci 1992), is unclear, and an alternative scheme may be required. Bahía II probably begins in the first century BC, and ends by perhaps AD 500, but there is no evidence yet for any sub-divisions for its ceramic history. 1.3 Salango and the Biogeography of the Central Coast The central littoral of the Ecuadorian Pacific lowlands, from Jama in the north to the Gulf of Guayaquil in the south, is a region of tropical dry forest and scrub (Dodson and Gentry 1991; Josse 1996; Parker and Carr 1992). This forest, which is characterised especially by algarrobo (Prosopis sp.) extends further south as far as Lambayeque in Peru. The eastern limit of the littoral is formed by a series of low mountain ranges, from which westward running river valleys intersect the coastal strip. The Cordillera Chongón Colonche, with some peaks of over 800 m, reaches northwest from west of Guayaquil to the south of the Province of Manabí, before heading northeast to Portoviejo and, beyond that, to the slightly lower hills of the Jama range. These ranges separate the

  This and a second sample from Salango 141A, listed in Table 1.3, were dated at the Subdepartment of Quaternary Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, England in 1983. The laboratory sample numbers, however, were not returned. 4

7

Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador Table 1.2. Radiocarbon Dates from Guangala Contexts. Site and Context

Sample #

Material

RCYBP

Calendar Years at 68.2% Probability

Calendar Years at 95.4% Probability

Source

Guangala Phase/ Complex

Salango 141C Grave 13

GX–9993

Charcoal

3020 +/- 175

1440–1000 BC

1700–800 BC

Kurc 1984

Residual

Valdivia OGSEMA–172 Corte 12

Tx–4456

Charcoal

2370 +/- 60

760–380 BC

800–200 BC

Stothert 1993: 66

Residual

Palmar 2 Level 3

Hv–1295

Not given

2145 +/- 70

360–50 BC

380 BC–AD 1

Bischof 1982: 162, 163, 172

Residual (given as Late)

Palmar OGSE–166E–1 Level D

L–1232V

Shell

2050 +/- 100

200 BC–AD 70

400 BC–AD 250

Paulsen 1970: 56

Phase 1

El Azucar * 47–X–C

SMU–2462

Charcoal

2030 +/- 120

200 BC–AD 130 (210 BC–AD 90)

400 BC–AD 250

Masucci 1992: 67, 419

Complex I

Salango 141C Grave 3

GX–10633

Human bone

2015 +/- 120

180 BC–AD 130

400 BC–AD 250

Kurc 1984

Early

Valdivia OGSEMA–172 Corte 12

Tx–4455

Charcoal

2030 +/- 60

110 BC–AD 60

200 BC–AD 130

Stothert 1993: 66

Early

Palmar 1 Level 5

Hv–1294

Not given

1875 +/ -65

AD 70–230

AD 1–330

Bischof 1982: 162, 163, 171

Phase 1

Salango –141A Feature 16

Not available

Charcoal

1870 +/- 45

AD 80–220

AD 20–250

Norton et al. 1983: 61

Early

El Azucar * 47–X–B

SMU–2463

Charcoal

1850 +/- 70

AD 80–250 (AD 60–240)

AD 1–350

Masucci 1992: 67, 419

Complex I

Palmar 1 Level 5

Hv–2976

Not given

1830 +/- 80

AD 80–320

AD 20–400

Bischof 1982: 162, 163, 171

Phase 1

Palmar OGSE–166E–1 Level B2

L–1232T

Shell

1750 +/- 100

AD 130–410

AD 70–540

Paulsen 1970: 56

Phase 3

El Azucar* 47–X–B

SMU–2461

Charcoal

1750 +/- 60

AD 230–390 (AD 195–365)

AD 130–420

Masucci 1992: 67, 419

Complex 1

El Azucar* 47–X–A

SMU–2460

Charcoal

1670 +/- 60

AD 250–440 (AD 290–450)

AD 240–540

Masucci 1992: 67, 419

Complex II

San Jacinto OGSE–19b

L–1042H

Shell

1200 +/- 100

AD 690–960

AD 660–1020

Paulsen 1970: 56

Phase 8

* The El Azúcar calibrated dates at 68.2% probability include both OxCal derived results and, in parentheses, those given by Masucci.

8

Introduction Table 1.3. Radiocarbon Dates from Bahía Contexts. Site and Context

Sample #

Material

RCYBP

Calendar Years at 68.2% Probability

Calendar Years at 95.4% Probability

Source

Estero Cut 1 40–80 cm

W–834

Charcoal

2200 +/- 240

800 BC–AD 100

900 BC–AD 400

Meggers et al. 1965: 152, 153

Tarqui 250 cm

M–734

Charcoal

2170 +/- 200

500 BC–AD 100

800 BC–AD 250

Stirling and Stirling 1963

Estero Cut 1 280–320 cm

W–833

Charcoal

2150 +/- 240

550 BC–AD 150

800 BC–AD 400

Meggers et al. 1965: 152, 153

Estero Cut A 400–420 cm

M–1316

Not given

2120 +/- 120

360 BC–AD 10

450 BC–AD 150

Meggers et al. 1965: 153

Estero Cut A 400–420 cm

M–1319

Not given

2110 +/- 120

360 BC–AD 10

400 BC–AD 150

Meggers et al. 1965: 153

Estero Cut A 320–340 cm

M–1315

Not given

2050 +/- 120

350 BC–AD 80

400 BC–AD 250

Meggers et al. 1965: 153

Salango 141A Feature 28

Not available

Charcoal

2020 +/- 45

90 BC–AD 60

170 BC–AD 80

Norton et al. 1983: 61

coastal strip proper from the more humid interior lowlands of the Guayas Basin. Off the mainland of south Manabí there are several uninhabited islands, which range from barely exposed rocks, occasionally occupied as perches by sea birds, to Salango Island and La Plata Island (Dorsey 1901:253, 254; Wilkinson 1987:123–128), formations of over 100 m altitude that are vegetated with dry scrub.

From Cinco Cerros northwards, the hills remain close to the shore as far as Puerto Cayo, delineating a small subregion measuring some 40 km from north to south, with up to 20 km lying between the watershed and the sea. Much of this area of south Manabí, including its offshore islands and waters, has since 1979 been incorporated within the Machalilla National Park (Iturralde and Josse 2000; Fundación Natura 2002). Within this sub-region, differences in aspect, altitude, and distance from the sea, with concomitant differences in rainfall and soil, often result in rapid vegetation changes (Parker and Carr 1992:36). Moving from the shore to the ridge tops, there is a sequence of four distinct vegetation formations (Josse 2000) from dry scrub, which occupies the ground up to 150 m or 200 m, through dry forest, reaching 320 m, a transitional zone at 300 m to 400 m, and finally the garúa or cloud forest of the hill tops. Valley bottoms are sites for a fifth, riparian formation. Mangrove, now only vestigially preserved in minor lagoons, would have constituted a sixth, though one never as developed here as around the estuaries of the Ríos Guayas and Chone.

The extreme regimes of the northern wet forests of Colombia and Panama and the southern deserts of Peru and Chile that bound the dry forest are products of the two converging oceanic currents that flow past them, i.e., the Panama Current and the Humboldt Current. And the conditions generated by convergence of the currents are what give rise to the complex vegetation patterns of the central Ecuadorian coast. Dry forest is the dominant vegetation regime, but the tops of the hills support fog (Parker and Carr 1992) or garúa forest (Josse 1996:16). This coastal garúa forest matches Andean foothill wet forest in many ways, such as to suggest that it was originally connected to it (Parker and Carr 1992:57). Unusually, the Cordillera Chongón Colonche permits such forest to grow close to and even directly adjacent the edge of the sea, since the hills reach the ocean itself between La Entrada and Ayampe, a point known as Cinco Cerros.

Furthermore, the vegetation changes as one moves north along the coast from Ayampe towards Puerto Cayo, tending to become drier, this being a result of variations in precipitation and insolation that are themselves a factor of aspect and the proximity of the hills to the sea. It is especially notable that the rise known as Bola de Oro, which separates the bays of Salango and Puerto López, acts as a barrier both to winter rains coming from the north, and summer garúa coming from the south. South of this rise, vegetation is much denser, increasingly so as one approaches the Cinco Cerros.

The Guangala and Bahía cultures thus occupied neighbouring sectors of a single, though graded and variable, ecological zone, the geographical boundary between them being formed by the interruption of the Cinco Cerros. And Salango at 1° 35’ 30” S, 80° 50’ 30” W (IGM Map CT MIV-3), about 12 km north of the Cinco Cerros, was situated more or less midway both between the Río Chone, northern limit of the Bahía zone, and Punta Arenas, the southern limit of the Guangala zone, and between their main population centres, 70 km away, at Manta and La Libertad respectively.

South Manabí is generally much wetter, and more heavily vegetated than La Libertad and the Peninsula of Santa Elena (Svenson 1946: 403–406, 417–420; Stothert and 9

Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador Piperno 2000:52–56). It is also much wetter than Manta, although there is dense garúa forest on the plateau behind Cabo San Lorenzo (Saville 1910:13, 14), to the west of the port, and on the peaks of Montecristi, 12 km to the southeast (Dodson and Gentry 1991; Saville 1910:31). While precipitation on the shore itself may average only 300 mm a year, hill ridges in the Machalilla National Park can see more than 1500 mm in a year (Josse 1996:11, 12). Much of the precipitation falls as garúa, a low fog associated with the presence of the Humboldt Current between the months of June and October. 75% of precipitation, however, falls as rain during the months of January to April, when the Humboldt is temporarily displaced by the Panama Current.

better conditions for agricultural production than those experienced by contemporary campesinos. 1.4 OMJPLP–141B–T3 Salango Site OMJPLP–141 lies beneath the fish factory of the Empresa Pesquera Polar, at the south end of the bay at Salango (Figure 1.2). It is an area of flat ground around 6 m above sea level, at the base of Punta Piedra Verde, identified as a Pre-Columbian site by Norton and Marcos during their investigation of the south Manabí coast in 1979 (Lunniss 2001; Marcos and Norton 1981; Norton et al. 1983), and probably also the source of material collected by Estrada (1957:19, 21, Table 1). Adjacent to OMJPLP–141 is OMJPLP–140, a pair of man-made terraces that run south along the shoreline (Allan 1988).

The coast in general has suffered immense degradation, particularly in the past fifty years (Dodson and Gentry 1991; Josse 1996:15; Piperno and Pearsall 1998:183), but it still retains some remarkable characteristics. The large number of extant faunal species gives a good idea of the diverse supply of food and other materials that would have been available for earlier inhabitants of this region. Surveys of the Machalilla National Park, for example, have identified 234 species of bird, 69 of terrestrial mammals, 12 of marine mammals, and 24 of amphibians and reptiles, including three marine turtles (Albuja and Muñoz 2000). Béarez (1996a) registered 251 species of marine fish in the waters of the park. The rock-pools, sandy bottoms, and reefs along the continental shores and around the islands, especially Salango and La Plata, are also rich in life, supporting algae, sponges, anemones, corals, molluscs, crustaceans, and other macro-invertebrates (Iturralde 2000). It is especially noteworthy that the waters between the Salango Island and the mainland attracted rich shoals of several valuable fish species (Prieto et al.1989: Chapter 3, p.39), and that the island was, until recently at least, an exceptional and important coastal migration site for tuna (Béarez and Lunniss 2003).

Sector B of OMJPLP–141, Salango, was opened for excavation in 1982. A small test pit, cut from the uppermost Manteño layers at the surface down to Valdivia cultural material at over 3.50 m below present ground level, revealed Regional Development period burials with elaborate ceramic grave goods. A series of other small cuts were dug close to the original test pit, before all were brought together as part of a single large unit, designated 141B. Surrounding the burials was a complex series of rectangular clay and wooden structures of ceremonial function, oriented to a main northeast-southwest axis. To expose the full extent of these structures, 141B was opened to a final size of 20 m by 22 m (Figure 1.3). From the end of 1983, excavation focused on the west corner of the structures, examining in detail their individual nature and collective sequence, their relation to the burials, and through associated pottery, their cultural affiliations (Figure 1.4). This west corner was Trench 3 (T3) of OMJPLP–141B. The edges of Trench 3 were placed at right angles to the structures to provide profile views of their northwest and southwest-facing sides. Excavation of Trench 3 was by the single context method (Harris 1979).

Archaeological evidence from coastal Guayas and south Manabí currently suggests that general climatic conditions around the time of Early Guangala and Bahía II were little different from those of today (Béarez 1996b:115; Stothert 1993:90), and earlier arguments (Lanning 1967, 1968; McDougle 1967; Paulsen 1970, 1976; Sarma 1974) that this was a time of significantly elevated rainfall have been shown to be faulty or poorly founded (Masucci 1992:13– 17; Stothert 1995:152–154). But direct human impact on the landscape through forest clearance and the creation of elaborate agricultural systems was already well under way during the Late Formative over much of the Ecuadorian coastal lowlands (Piperno and Pearsall 1998:257, 258), and Early Guangala period settlement and agricultural expansion (Stothert 1993:91) will have had a continuing deleterious effect on native plant and animal populations. Nevertheless, both the forests and their creatures will have been greatly more abundant and widespread than we now find them. No less importantly, the more extensive woodland itself would have resulted both in more effective interception of garúa cloud (Becker 1999) and in higher systemic retention of water falling as rain, providing

Analysis of data from OMJPLP–141B–T3 (Lunniss 2001) indicates that the first structure was associated with Middle Engoroy ceramics. A further seventeen structures followed, after which the site was perhaps abandoned until some moment in the Manteño period. The sequence of structures falls into two main parts, Periods 1 and 2 (Table 1.4). For Period 1, which is of the Late Formative, differences in configuration suggest that its seven structures be divided into Building Phases I, II and III, the last of which itself has an early (IIIE) and a late (IIIL) stage. Building Phases I, II, and IIIE are associated with Middle Engoroy ceramics, and Building Phase IIIL with Late Engoroy. Phase IV is a short episode without building. The eleven structures of Period 2, which are of Early and Middle Regional Development, are divided among the three stages of Building Phases V–VII. Building Phase V is associated with Bahía II and Early Guangala pottery, while Building Phases VI and VII are probably associated with Middle Guangala. The ceramic transition from Late 10

Introduction

Figure 1.2. Map of the Salango site showing areas excavated 1979–1989.

Figure 1.3. View to the northeast of OMJPLP–141B.

11

Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador

Figure 1.4. OMJPLP–141B–T3 before the excavation of the clay wall of Structure 11.

Engoroy to Bahía II and Early Guangala correlates exactly with the transitional Building Phase IV.

structured artefact depositions, and other features, such as careful burning of the clay floors and subsequent surfacing.

Evidence from 141B–T3 for the structures of Period 1 Building Phases I–III consists principally of: a yellow clay floor with a rectangular wooden building set on top (Structure 1); a low platform of the same yellow clay, set directly over the floor of Structure 1, also with a rectangular wooden superstructure (Structure 2); an extended version of the Structure 2 platform with wooden superstructure, the outer edge of the platform being defined by a sunken clay wall and, beyond that, a clay floor (Structure 3); two clay walls set either side of the Structure 3 wall (Structures 4 and 5); and, set over them, two clay walls, entirely sunken so that only their tops were visible, with a thick clay exterior floor and with resurfacing of the clay of the interior area, now more or less at the same level as the exterior (Structures 6 and 7). Five human burials were associated with Structure 1. A further twentythree belong to Phase III, when they lie over and to the south of the central platform, and are associated with fire pits and rubbish pits, these being particularly rich in pottery. Structured artefact depositions occur throughout Phases I-III, and late Phase III is especially notable for the deposition of stone figurines under one of its walls (Structure 7) and in small holes cut into the clay floor around the exterior. A ceremonial function is inferred from the elaborate and highly organised design of the buildings, their size, their careful maintenance, their association with

The transitional Phase IV, which saw capping of the late Phase III walls with a yellow clay floor, also included two Late Engoroy-type graves, these being associated with rubbish pits with a high pottery content5, and fire pits6. In Period 2, Structures 8 to 14 of Building Phase V were successively superimposed low clay walls, two of them stepped, that defined a rectangular or square funerary enclosure with internal dimensions of 12 m or more. The walls themselves, though never more than 40 cm tall, had foundation trenches up to 50 cm deep. A front entrance lay to the northeast. At least one structure had a rear entrance to the southwest. Associated with and around the exterior edges of some of the walls were large wooden posts set in holes up to 2 m deep. The walls were each also associated with a surface of prepared clay that extended several metres away from the enclosure. The clay used for walls and exterior floors was either of natural yellow colour, or artificially rendered   Two rubbish pits, Contexts 651 and 638, previously identified (Lunniss 2001:159–162) as elements of Phase V, have since been reassigned to Phase IV, meaning that Phase V saw no continuation of the practice of pottery and other rubbish disposal that was associated with funerary ritual in late Engoroy times. 6   One of the Phase IV features, Context 920, earlier discussed in relation to fire-pits (Lunniss 2001:162–166), also appears to have served as a rubbish pit for pottery disposal. 5

12

Introduction Table 1.4. Sequence Divisions at Site OMJPLP–141B–T3 Salango.

Site 141B Period

Site 141B Building Phase

Site 141B Structure

VII

18 17

VI

16

Ceramic Phase

Cultural Period

Middle Guangala

Middle Regional Development

Bahia II + Early Guangala

Early Regional Development

15 14 13

2

12 V

11 10 9 8

IV IIIL

7

Late Engoroy

6 5

1

IIIE

4 Middle Engoroy

3 II

2

I

1

reddish brown. The outside of the funerary enclosure was kept mostly empty, but between one resurfacing of the area and the next, pottery sherds and other artefacts, as well as bone and shell, were allowed to accumulate.

Late Formative

structure (Structure 18) of Phase VII consisted of a singlecoursed wall of stone set in a shallow trench around the edge of the top of the Phase VI platform. Exterior floors may have been associated with the Phase VI and Phase VII structures, but these levels were excavated before single context planning was begun, and the relevant site records have yet to be analysed.

The enclosure itself was hollow on the inside. That is, its initial level was that of the ground outside the walls. Human interments were set in circular pits. Mostly the burials were primary, seated, and probably wrapped in textiles, but some were secondary and placed either in urns or cloth bundles (Figures 1.5, 1.6). A total of around seventy burials, mostly oriented to the northeast and accompanied by three or more ceramic vessels as well as other goods, have been recovered from 141B. Eight came from Trench 3. As each new grave was dug and partly filled by its burial, soil that could not be put back in the pit was spread around it, and gradually the level of the interior rose until it filled the enclosure.

Radiocarbon dates are available for bone samples taken from eight skeletons of the Phase V funerary assemblage at OMJPLP–141B (Table 1.5).7 Two of them (GX–10635 and GX–10634) have age ranges at 68.2% probability of 170 BC–AD 220 and 40 BC–AD 390, and these coincide with the dates for Early Guangala and Masucci’s Complex I. A third sample (GX–10632) has an earlier range of 380–50 BC, and a fourth (GX–10630) has a later range of AD 50–600, falling within the estimated ranges for Paulsen’s Guangala Phases 1–6 and for Bahía II as a whole.

At this point, Phase VI (Structures 15–17) began. Building episodes here saw the top of the interior surfaced with clay, and the edges of the platform redefined with clay borders, set either in shallow trenches or added directly. Tall corner posts are associated with Structure 15. The one

The other four results, all from T3, are not satisfactory. They all have large standard deviations, and only one   A previous listing of these dates (Lunniss 2001: Table 24) included some inaccuracies which are here corrected. 7

13

Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador

Figure 1.5. Secondary urn burial with grave goods and primary burial with grave goods in the west corner of Trench 3.

Figure 1.6. Secondary bundle burial with grave goods.

14

Introduction Table 1.5. Radiocarbon Dates from Phase V Graves, Site OMJPLP–141B. Context

Sample #

RCYBP

Calendar Years at 68.2% Probability

Calendar Years at 95.4% Probability

Grave 771

GX–13668

3770 +/- 800

3400–1200 BC

4300–200 BC

Grave 765

GX–13669

2660 +/- 480

1500–200 BC

2100 BC–AD 40

Grave 3624

GX–13672

2500 +/ -460

1300 BC–AD 1

1800 BC–AD 600

Grave 467

GX–13667

2530 +/- 340

1050–200 BC

1500 BC–AD 300

Entierro 88

GX–10632

2160 +/- 130

380–50 BC

550 BC–AD 150

Entierro 56

GX–10635

1980 +/- 135

170 BC–AD 220

400 BC–AD 350

Entierro 79

GX–10634

1855 +/- 165

40 BC–AD 390

250 BC–AD 550

Grave 662

GX–10630

1700 +/- 220

AD 50–600

200 BC–AD 800

of them (GX–13672) has a range at 68.2% probability that covers the estimated start of the Early Regional Development period, though two others come close. It is certain, however, that the bone sampled belonged to the skeletons; and the stratigraphy, burial structure, and grave goods all indicate that the skeletons were of the Early Regional Development. The discrepancy and imprecision of the results, therefore, reflect deterioration of the bone collagen during extended storage, in Salango, between excavation and testing. Samples of Engoroy material from the same site, and subjected to testing at the same time, only two to three years after excavation, produced similarly poor results (Lunniss 2001: 288) for that same reason. Although the 141B results are not all as ideal as they could be, they allow that the Phase V funerary assemblage is broadly contemporary both with Early Guangala, whether Complex I as identified by Masucci (1992) or Phases 1–3 as identified by Paulsen (1970), and with Bahía II as tentatively described by Estrada (1957, 1962).

15

2 The Pottery Abstract. The Early Regional Development pottery at OMJPLP–141B–T3 Salango discussed in this study derives from Phase IV–VI layers, rubbish pits associated with Phase IV funerary ritual, and Phase V grave lots and grave fills, and includes all material diagnostic of vessel form or decorative design. The final sample consisted of 23 complete vessels, 936 rim sherds, 93 neck sherds, and 520 body sherds. The modal analysis used is the same as that previously applied in a study of the Late Formative pottery. Based on specific combinations of fabric, form, and surface treatment, the four main functional vessel categories identified are serving bowls, kitchen bowls, serving jars, and kitchen jars. Sub-divisions are made based on variation in morphology and decoration. Minor categories include thickwalled bowls, neckless jars, and miscellaneous jars, and there is one example of a funerary urn. Fabric, morphology, decoration, and surface finish are described, and chronology and context are discussed. All variant forms, decorative techniques, and designs are fully illustrated with line drawings, and the designs in iridescent paint on serving bowls and in red finger paint on kitchen jars are classified. Most complete vessels and many sherds are also illustrated with colour photographs. Attention is brought to likely imports. Serving bowls, represented by seventeen main forms, have fine fabrics, interiors that are generally slipped, polished, and smudged, and exterior surfaces that may or may not be slipped and polished. They often carry decorative design on the interior and occasionally on the exterior also, and iridescent paint was the most common decorative medium. Most were self-supporting on rounded bases, but some were carried by concave, annular, or pedestal bases, and others had hollow cylindrical, modelled hollow, or modelled solid legs. Kitchen bowls have medium fine to medium fabrics. These open, generally shallow bowls were often of large diameter. Decoration is with red paint applied to the rim exterior, rim interior, and body interior. Serving jars are fineware vessels with polished and smudged slips, and iridescent paint is the most common decorative medium. Kitchen jars have medium fine to medium fabrics. Most are decorated with red finger paint, and some are of massive proportions. Resumen. La cerámica Desarrollo Regional Temprano de OMJPLP–141B–T3 Salango discutida en este estudio se deriva de las capas de las Fases IV–VI, de los pozos de basura asociados con los ritos funerarios de la Fase IV, y de los ajuares y rellenos de tumbas de la Fase V, e incluye todo el material diagnóstico de forma de vasija o diseño decorativo. La muestra final consistió en 23 vasijas completas, 936 tiestos de borde, 93 tiestos de cuello, y 520 tiestos de cuerpo. El análisis modal utilizado es el mismo que se ha aplicado previamente en el estudio de la cerámica Formativo Tardío. Con base en combinaciones específicas de pasta, forma, y tratamiento de superficie, las cuatro principales categorías funcionales de vasija identificadas son cuencos de servir, cuencos de cocina, ollas de servir, y ollas de cocina. Se definen subdivisiones en base a variaciones en cuanto a la morfología y decoración. Las categorías menores incluyen cuencos de pared gruesa, ollas sin cuello, y ollas misceláneas, y hay un ejemplo de una urna funeraria. Se describen la pasta, la morfología, la decoración, y el acabado de la superficie, y se analizan cronología y contexto. Todas las formas, técnicas decorativas, y diseños variantes están completamente ilustrados con dibujos, y se clasifican los diseños en pintura iridiscente en los cuencos de servir y en pintura de dedos roja en los cuencos de cocina. La mayoría de las vasijas completas y muchos tiestos también están ilustrados con fotografías a color. Se llama la atención a las probables importaciones. Los cuencos de servir, representados por diecisiete formas principales, tienen pastas finas, interiores generalmente engobados, pulidos, y manchados, y superficies exteriores que pueden o no estar engobadas y pulidas. A menudo llevan un diseño decorativo en el interior y ocasionalmente también en el exterior, y la pintura iridiscente era el medio decorativo más común. La mayoría se 17

Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador apoyaban sobre bases redondeadas, pero algunos se sostenían sobre bases cóncavas, anulares, o de pedestal, y otros tenían patas cilíndricas huecas, modeladas huecas, o modeladas sólidas. Los cuencos de cocina tienen pastas medio-finas a medianas. Estos cuencos abiertos, generalmente poco profundos, eran a menudo de gran diámetro. La decoración es con pintura roja aplicada al exterior del borde, al interior del borde, y al cuerpo interior. Las ollas de servir son vasijas finas con engobe pulido y manchado, y la pintura iridiscente es el medio decorativo más común. Las ollas de cocina tienen pastas medio-finas a medianas, la mayoría están decoradas con pintura de dedos roja, y algunas son de proporciones enormes. 2.1 The Sample and the Method of Analysis

into two groups: bowls, which are generally open forms that tend to have decorated interiors, and jars, which are generally closed forms with everted rims and undecorated interiors. Bottles can be seen as specialised jars. Forms were further divided according to characteristics of fabric and surface treatment suggestive of likely general function (Table 2.2): those with finer fabrics and slipped and polished surfaces were classed as serving vessels to be used in the presentation and consumption of foods and beverages, and those with less fine fabrics and unpolished surfaces were classed as kitchen vessels to be used in the preparation and/or storage of foods and beverages. The result is a vessel set of four main categories: serving bowls, kitchen bowls, serving jars, and kitchen jars (Tables 2.3a, 2.3b). While they remain to be tested and refined, these categories, referring to specific combinations of fabric, form, and surface treatment, are useful heuristic devices for assessment of the functional characteristics of the larger portion of the assemblage. Vessels within each category were, where appropriate, sub-divided based on differences in morphology, mostly relating to the shape of the rim or upper body. Other sub-divisions were based on differences in decoration. Designs created using the major decorative techniques were also classified. Minor categories include thickwalled bowls, funerary urns, neckless jars, and miscellaneous jars.3

The first intention of the analysis was to identify all difference within the assemblage of Period 2 ceramics, and wherever possible to identify a precise context for any such variation or change. The ceramics associated with the Period 1 sequence of ceremonial structures at 141B–T3 belonged to Middle and Late Engoroy. Analysis of that sequence included material of Building Phases I to III and extended part way into Phase IV. The present analysis of Period 2 begins at the start of Phase IV, and extends through to Phase VI, no material being available for Phase VII. As a result, there is a slight overlap with the Period I sample, some of the pottery discussed previously being incorporated here as well. Selection of the sample followed the principles of the earlier study (Lunniss 2001: 172–4). The material includes all sherds diagnostic of specific vessel form or decorative design, with a main emphasis on contexts of primary deposition, i.e., layers (Phases IV– VI), rubbish pits associated with funerary ritual (Phase IV), and grave lots (Phase V). Grave fills (Phase V) are also included as a fourth context class that provides useful supplementary data.1 The final sample consisted of 23 complete vessels, 936 rim sherds, 93 necks, and 520 body sherds (Table 2.1). It should be mentioned here that all rim sherds of the selected contexts were registered, irrespective of the percentage of rim circumference represented. This resulted in a much more complete final picture of the assemblage than could have been achieved with a sampling limited to sherds representing over 10% of original vessel circumference, as is often the practice, or even 5%.

The classification generally follows that established for the Engoroy ceramics, reflecting an overall similarity of function of the vessel sets of the two periods. However, there are some differences in respect of morphology that required the addition of new sub-divisions, and these new sub-divisions are the larger part of the grounds for distinguishing the Regional Development assemblage from what preceded it. For while Late Engoroy forms of serving bowls persist strongly, new forms appear alongside. The original serving bowl form categories have, accordingly, been in general maintained. But some have been dropped, some have been slightly modified, and several entirely new categories have been added. Not all the new categories are common, and indeed some forms are represented by just one example. Also, while the classification focuses on rim morphology, in certain cases, such as double pedestal plates and pedestal cups, the vessel support is clearly also a primary defining attribute.

The Middle and Late Engoroy pottery from 141B–T3 was the subject of a modal analysis (Lunniss 2001:171, 172), and the same classificatory method has been applied here to the succeeding Early Regional Development period pottery.2 Vessels were initially sorted on the basis of form   Grave fills encompass all fills deposited within the Phase V funerary enclosure. They include: 1) true or certain grave fills (Contexts 205, 467, 532, 662, 765, 771, and 3624); 2) the contents of two features (Contexts 518 and 680) that shared location and certain other characteristics with the graves, even though they did not contain skeletons; 3) horizontal layers of redeposited material, first dug up in the course of creating the grave pits, and afterwards spread about inside the funerary enclosure (Contexts 409, 410, 411, 424, 439, 441); and 4) three arbitrary layers cut through the upper levels of intersecting grave fills (Contexts 436, 678, 755). 2   The Microsoft Access 2000 database management system was used to help organise the data. 1

  In the previous study (Lunniss 2001), the terms used for kitchen bowls, thickwalled bowls, and kitchen jars, were “widebowls”, “widewalled bowls”, and “cooking jars”. 3

18

The Pottery Table 2.1. OMJPLP–141B–T3: Period 2 Sherd Count. Complete Vessels

Rims Examined*

Necks Examined

Body Sherds Examined

Total Sherds Examined

Total Sherds Recovered*

Phase IV–VI Layers

0

581

53

281

915

11168

Phase IV Rubbish Pits

0

122

10

46

178

1561

Phase V Grave Goods

22

22

0

0

22

22

Phase V Grave Fills

0

232

30

191

453

2445

Other Negative Features

1

2

0

2

4

10161

Total

23

959

93

520

1572

25357

* Includes complete vessels.

All variant forms or decorative techniques are illustrated with line drawings (see Figure 2.1 for the key to illustrations), and special attention is brought to designs rendered in iridescent paint on serving bowls and red finger paint on kitchen jars. Ceramic figurine fragments, a ceramic seal fragment, and a ceramic disc are also described. Rim sherds were each counted separately unless they were adjoining fragments. Red paint generally refers to something between 10R and 5R on the Munsell charts, and exceptions are given specific readings. An extensive CD archive of digital photographs was created, both as a source of illustrative material for this publication, and as an aid to any future research involving consideration of the assemblage. Six vessels (Figures 2.13f, 2.44a, d, 2.47b, 2.64, and 2.85a) were not available for my inspection, and the data and drawings given here are based on earlier registers, one of these (Figure 2.64) being based on a drawing by M.C. Another illustration (Figure 2.40) is based, in conjunction with reference to the actual artefact, on a drawing by C.P.C.

Table 2.2. Values for Pottery Texture and Surface Finish. Values for Pottery Texture Very fine

No inclusions under (x10) hand lens

Fine

Only a few fine inclusions visible under hand lens

Medium fine

A few inclusions (< 1 mm) visible under hand lens

Fine medium

Inclusions visible without aid of lens

Medium

Many inclusions visible without lens

Coarse medium

Many inclusions present, easily visible Values for Surface Finish

2.2. Serving Bowls Serving bowls (Tables 2.4a, 2.4b) have fine fabrics, interiors that are generally slipped, polished, and smudged, and exterior surfaces that may or may not be slipped and polished. They often carry decorative design, usually only on the interior, but occasionally on the exterior, and usually through the medium of iridescent paint. Vessels may be self-supporting, or may stand on legs, short ring bases, or taller pedestal bases. 2.2.1 Machalilla Serving Bowls There are three rims (Figure 2.2a–c) from restricted bowls with carinated shoulders and dark brown to black polished slips, all from Machalilla vessels (Meggers et al. 1965, Lippi 1983). All derive from contexts within the Phase V funerary

Scraped

Surface overall even but pitted and with tiny lumps

Fine scraped

Surface overall even with tiny parallel corrugations

Wiped

Surface even, no pits or lumps, but no lustre either

Smooth

Lustre, but matte

Low polish

Between Smooth and Polish – polish lines obvious

Polish

Lustre and continuous gloss – polish lines visible

Good polish

Gloss with silky feel – polish lines just visible

High polish

Glassy – no sign of polish lines

Note: The values as listed above and used in this paper are the same as those employed in the study of Middle and Late Engoroy pottery from OMJPLP-141B-T3 (Lunniss 2001) and were checked by reference to material registered in the earlier study.

19

Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador Table 2.3a. Major Vessel Categories: Absolute Frequencies. Phase IV–VI Layers

Phase IV Rubbish Pits

Phase V Grave Goods

Phase V Grave Fills

Other Negative Features

Total

Serving Bowls

328

53

11

138

1

531

Kitchen Bowls

55

11

0

22

0

88

Thickwalled Bowls

5

0

1

3

0

9

Funerary Urns

0

0

1

0

0

1

Serving Jars

28

8

8

10

0

54

Kitchen Jars

146

46

1

50

1

244

Neckless Jars

3

0

0

0

0

3

Miscellaneous Jars

2

3

0

1

0

6

Bowl/Jar?

14

1

0

8

0

23

Total

581

122

22

232

2

959

Table 2.3b. Major Vessel Categories: Percentage Frequencies. Phase IV–VI Layers

Phase IV Rubbish Pits

Phase V Grave Goods

Phase V Grave Fills

Other Negative Features

Total

Serving Bowls

56.5

43.4

50.0

59.5

50.0

55.4

Kitchen Bowls

9.5

9.0

0.0

9.5

0.0

9.2

Thickwalled Bowls

0.9

0.0

4.5

1.3

0.0

0.9

Funerary Urns

0.0

0.0

4.5

0.0

0.0

0.1

Serving Jars

4.8

6.6

36.4

4.3

0.0

5.6

Kitchen Jars

25.1

37.7

4.5

21.6

50.0

25.4

Neckless Jars

0.5

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.3

Miscellaneous Jars

0.3

2.5

0.0

0.4

0.0

0.6

Bowl/Jar?

2.4

0.8

0.0

3.4

0.0

2.4

100.1

100.0

99.9

100.0

100.0

99.9

Total

enclosure, as does a sherd from a similar form (Figure 2.2d) that is decorated with thin diagonal excised lines, and all will have been redeposited from Machalilla levels.

Fabric. All are of fine or medium fine textures, generally fired to brown on the interior and exterior, with grey or black cores.

2.2.2 Early Engoroy Serving Bowls

Form. The bowl is unrestricted, deep, and carinated. The rim is direct and unmodified (Figure 2.2g), though one variant has the lip exterior notched (Figure 2.2h). Rim diameters range from 200 mm to 340 mm, and rim thicknesses are 4.5 mm or 5 mm.

One rim from a Phase IV layer (Figure 2.2e) has a polished, light yellowish brown interior slip, and a polished red slip on the exterior. From the back fill of a Phase V grave, two nonadjoining sherds off a single annular based vessel (Figure 2.2f) show a polished, smudged, dark red brown interior, and a less well polished dark red exterior slip. The bowls compare with Beckwith’s (1996:148–154) Forms 6 and 6b, and the sherds will have been redeposited from Early Engoroy contexts.

Decoration and Finish. Interiors are slipped and smudged to brown or dark brown, save for two that are red. Seven have iridescent paint. All are polished. On the exterior, seven have red slips, and all but one are polished.

2.2.3 Serving Bowl Form 1

Observations. These sherds derive from vessels of the dominant composite unrestricted form of Phases I to III (Lunniss 2001:176–179, Figs. 90, 91). They are probably all residual.

These are unrestricted carinated fineware bowls, with direct, unmodified rims. 20

The Pottery

Figure 2.1. Key to pottery illustrations.

21

Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador Table 2.4a. Serving Bowl Form Categories: Absolute Frequencies. Phase IV–VI Layers

Phase IV Rubbish Pits

Phase V Grave Goods

Phase V Grave Fills

Other Negative Features

Total

Machalilla

0

0

0

3

0

3

Early Engoroy

1

0

0

2

0

3

Form 1

7

0

0

4

0

11

Form 2

3

0

0

0

0

3

Form 3 Short

12

2

0

1

0

15

Form 3 Long

5

2

0

1

0

8

Form 5

14

10

0

14

0

38

Form 8

31

3

0

4

0

38

Form 9 Short

20

0

0

5

0

25

Form 9 Long

52

13

3

28

0

96

Form 10 Open

20

5

0

7

0

32

Form 10 Short

20

3

0

3

0

26

Form 10 Long

19

1

0

8

0

28

Form 11

49

3

2

16

0

70

Form 10/11

17

3

0

15

0

35

Form 12

9

0

0

0

0

9

Form 13

15

3

0

8

1

27

Form 14

0

0

4

0

0

4

Form 15

0

0

2

0

0

2

Form 16

0

0

0

1

0

1

Form 17

0

0

0

1

0

1

Miscellaneous Forms

13

2

0

9

0

24

Uncertain Forms

21

3

0

7

0

31

Total

328

53

11

138

1

531

2.2.4 Serving Bowl Form 2

Form. The bowls are unrestricted and simple. They are distinguished by a short (< 20 mm long) thickened or stepped interior rim. The step may be single (Figure 2.3a), and more sharply defined, or multiple (Figures 2.3b, c, 2.4). Two rims (Figure 2.3d) have very shallow stepping and an exterior flange that is itself notched. One rim (Figure 2.3e) has the rim marked off by a wide, deep groove, rather than by thickening, and two other sherds (Figure 2.3f, g) show a similar tendency. Two sherds have attachments for hollow legs. Rim diameters range from 150 mm to 380 mm, with one perhaps reaching 440 mm.

These are unrestricted fineware bowls (Figure 2.2i–k) with transposed rims and a marked angle at the exterior base of the rim (Lunniss 2001:179–181, Fig. 92). All have iridescent paint on the interior. The first two have polished red exterior slips, which suggest Middle Engoroy origin. The unpolished and unslipped exterior of the third sherd is characteristic of Late Engoroy or Early Regional Development. 2.2.5 Serving Bowl Form 3 Form 3 Short. These are simple unrestricted bowls with short thickened or stepped interior rims.

Decoration and Finish. Interiors are coated with slips that are brown to black, seven have iridescent paint, and all are polished, save one (Figure 2.3h) that is very smooth. On the exterior, the rim is generally given a higher finish, in seven cases a polish, than the lower body, which is usually simply wiped.

Fabric. Textures are fine or medium fine, mostly fired to brown on the exterior, grey or black on the interior, with grey or black cores. 22

The Pottery Table 2.4b. Serving Bowl Form Categories: Percentage Frequencies. Phase IV–VI Layers

Phase IV Rubbish Pits

Phase V Grave Goods

Phase V Grave Fills

Other Negative Features

Total

Machalilla

0.0

0.0

0.0

2.2

0.0

0.6

Early Engoroy

0.3

0.0

0.0

1.4

0.0

0.6

Form 1

2.1

0.0

0.0

2.9

0.0

2.1

Form 2

0.9

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.6

Form 3 Short

3.7

3.8

0.0

0.7

0.0

2.8

Form 3 Long

1.5

3.8

0.0

0.7

0.0

1.5

Form 5

4.3

18.9

0.0

10.1

0.0

7.2

Form 8

9.5

5.7

0.0

2.9

0.0

7.2

Form 9 Short

6.1

0.0

0.0

3.6

0.0

4.7

Form 9 Long

15.9

24.5

27.3

20.3

0.0

18.1

Form 10 Open

6.1

9.4

0.0

5.1

0.0

6.0

Form 10 Short

6.1

5.7

0.0

2.2

0.0

4.9

Form 10 Long

5.8

1.9

0.0

5.8

0.0

5.3

Form 11

14.9

5.7

18.2

11.5

0.0

13.2

Form 10/11

5.2

5.7

0.0

10.9

0.0

6.6

Form 12

2.7

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

1.7

Form 13

4.6

5.7

0.0

5.8

100.0

5.1

Form 14

0.0

0.0

36.4

0.0

0.0

0.8

Form 15

0.0

0.0

18.2

0.0

0.0

0.4

Form 16

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.7

0.0

0.2

Form 17

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.7

0.0

0.2

Miscellaneous Forms

4.0

3.8

0.0

6.5

0.0

4.5

Uncertain Forms

6.4

5.7

0.0

5.8

0.0

6.0

100.1

100.3

100.1

99.8

100.1

100.3

Total

Observations. Simple shallow uncarinated bowls with stepped interior rims first appeared in Phase IIIE, and multiple stepping first appeared in Phase IIIL (Lunniss 2001:182, Fig. 95 d–f). Here, the few rim sherds are mainly limited to Phase IV and early Phase V contexts.

have upper walls that are slightly inverted, and they are distinguished by a lip that is bevelled on the interior, commonly pinched, and frequently notched on the exterior. Fabric. All are of fine texture, fired mostly to grey, light brown, or brown, with grey cores.

Form 3 Long. These are simple unrestricted bowls with shallow sloping sides and thickened interior rims (Figure 2.3i–l) of 20 mm or more length. They have polished dark brown to black interiors, four of them with iridescent paint. The exteriors are all unslipped and unpolished, generally with a fine wipe at the rim, and beneath that an ordinary wipe.

Form. The bowl is carinated, with an upper body of short to medium length that is mostly vertical or slightly everted. The lip is bevelled on the interior, mostly with some pinching of the exterior (Figure 2.5a–c). Half (n=19) of the lips are also notched on the exterior (Figures 2.5d– g, 2.6, 2.7), the notches being 2 mm to 8 mm across and closely spaced. Two rim sherds carry hollow legs (Figure 2.5h). Rim diameters range from 160 mm to 330 mm and rim thickness from 5 mm to 8 mm. Upper body lengths range from 8 mm to 35 mm.

2.2.6 Serving Bowl Form 5 These are fineware carinated bowls with short to medium length upper bodies, mostly unrestricted though a few 23

Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador

Figure 2.2. Serving bowls: Machalilla carinated forms (a–d), Early Engoroy forms (e, f), and Middle Engoroy Form 1 (g, h) and Form 2 (i, k).

24

The Pottery

Figure 2.3. Serving bowls: Form 3 Short (a-h) and Form 3 Long (i–l).

25

Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador Fabric. Textures are fine, mostly fired to light brown or grey on the exterior, slightly darker on the interior, with grey, black, or brown cores. Form 8A. The bowls (n=27) are essentially simple and unrestricted, with a shallow to moderate slope. High up the wall, there is a sharp angle to a short tapering rim, upright or slightly inverted, with a triangular or sub-triangular profile (Figure 2.8a–i). Lips are rounded or pointed. One rim sherd (Figures 2.8h, 2.9, 2.10) has a very short hollow leg attached. Rim diameters range from 120 mm to 390 mm, and wall thicknesses from 2.5 mm to 8 mm. The rims are between 4 mm and 15 mm tall on the interior. Form 8B. These bowls (n=9) have an upright rim with an everted lip (Figure 2.11a, b). In three cases (Figure 2.11c–e), this tendency is taken further, and the rim flares out horizontally. Three other rims are even more removed from the simple triangular profile and have steeper walls (Figure 2.11f–h). Form 8C. The rim of these bowls (n=2) has an additional exterior lip (Figure 2.8j, k).

Figure 2.4. Form 3 Short serving bowl: stepped interior with iridescent paint. See Figure 2.3b.

Decoration and Finish. Interiors are all polished, with dark brown to black slips, and most (n=21) carry iridescent paint. On the exterior, many rims (n=15) have a polished or well-polished dark brown or black slip, some (n=10) with iridescent paint. Exterior bodies below the angle point are simply wiped.

Decoration and Finish. Most interiors have a brown, dark brown, or black slip, but four have red slips. Almost half (n=18) have iridescent paint as well. All interiors are polished, some well (n=5). On the exterior, the upper bodies are occasionally painted red (n=7, including all bowls with interior red slip), and may be polished (n=17) or just wiped, with occasional differential finish, the lip being given a fine wipe in place of the ordinary wipe or polish that is applied to the rest. Lower bodies are usually simply wiped, but one is polished. Just one bowl (Figure 2.5i) has iridescent paint on the exterior upper body. It is further distinguished by an incomplete polish to surfaces that are slightly irregular in their shaping, though the fabric is unexceptional.

Observations. The rims are found mainly in layers of Phases IV and V. They represent continuing production of a form found in Phase IIIL rubbish pits (Lunniss 2001:188–190, Figs. 98, 99), along with a small number of new extreme variants. There is no obvious time-related change. The smaller triangular rims of Form 8A are very close to the short rims of Forms 9 and 10. 2.2.8 Serving Bowl Form 9 Short These are restricted fineware bowls with shallow to moderate slopes and with unelaborate, short, inverted rims that are mostly concave on the interior and convex on the exterior.

Observations. Sherds are found in both Phase IV and Phase V contexts. Bowls of this form have been identified as elements of the Late Engoroy repertoire of composite serving bowls (Lunniss 2001:184–186, Fig. 97). While some of the Phase V material may be residual from Phase IIIL and Phase IV occupation, it seems likely that there was also continued manufacture of the form in Phase V. Application of red slip to the exterior upper body is less frequent in Phase V, following the trend of decrease through the early and late stages of Phase III.

Fabric. All textures are fine or thereabouts, fired mostly to brown or light brown, with grey to black cores. Form. These bowls have shallow to moderately sloping walls, short inverted rims, and a marked exterior point (Figure 2.11i–k). The sides of the rim tend to be concave on the interior and convex on the exterior. Lips are rounded or pointed. Rim diameters range from 80 mm to 300 mm, rim lengths from 8 mm to 14 mm, and vessel wall thicknesses from 3 mm to 8 mm.

2.2.7 Serving Bowl Form 8 These are simple fineware bowls, unrestricted or only slightly restricted, whose short upright rims have triangular profiles. Decoration is with iridescent paint, applied to the interior body and often also to the exterior rim. They are divided into three groups.

Decoration and Finish. All have dark brown to black slipped interiors with polish that may be good. Two have iridescent paint on the interior, and a further two have 26

The Pottery

Figure 2.5. Serving bowls: Form 5.

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Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador

Figure 2.6. Form 5 serving bowl: exterior with unpolished red slip. See Figure 2.5e.

Figure 2.7. Form 5 serving bowl: smudged interior with iridescent paint. See Figure 2.5e.

it on the exterior rim. However, the rim interiors, being short and inverted, would have made less useful fields for painted design than would the body. For this reason, the low incidence of iridescent paint among the sample may reflect the general absence from the sherds of lower body portions, rather than a weak association between the form and the paint. The smallest bowl (Figure 2.11l) has a red slipped interior and rim exterior. On the exterior, rims are polished and lower bodies are wiped.

bevelled (n=2). The majority present variation along the various dimensions of curve, length, thickness, degree of carination, and orientation of the upper body or rim (Figures 2.12a–n, 2.13a–d). With this majority, there is no obvious correlation between any such variation and depositional context. Four rims are from vessels with steep walls leading to a marked carination before slightly shorter (15 mm) upper bodies or rims (Figure 2.13e). From Phase V contexts, and apparently specific to Phase V, there is a group of at least five carinated bowls with upper bodies of medium length (30 mm to 35 mm) and rims that taper from the inside to the lip. Amongst these are three complete vessels from grave goods (Figures 2.13f, 2.14, 2.15, 2.64), and two rim sherds. A further seven sherds, with similar rims, but lacking the carinated point, may also belong to this group. From Phase VI layers there are four rim sherds of variant forms. One (Figure 2.13g), with its concave interior upper body, might be a variation of the Phase V bowl just described. The remaining three are more different: two (Figures 2.13h, i, 2.16), from the same layer, have stepped or undulating exterior upper bodies, and the third (Figure 2.13j) has exterior thickening of the upper body immediately above the carination and a thinner rim.

Variants. Slight variants include more upright rims, either curved and with a brown slip, (Figure 2.11m), or straighter and thinner (Figure 2.11n). Two are shorter and slenderer (Figure 2.11o, p), also rising off a steeper wall. One has a bulbous lip (Figure 2.11q) with low polish over its interior and rim exterior. Observations. Bowls with these rims are principally associated with early Phase V layers. They are close morphologically to Form 8A and Form 10 Short. 2.2.9 Serving Bowl Form 9 Long These are restricted fineware bowls with medium to long upper bodies. Rims and lips are mostly simple. Fabric. All are of fine or medium fine fabric, save for two that have medium fabrics and two that are fine medium. Surfaces are commonly (around 50%) fired to light brown or brown, and cores tend (around 66%) to be grey to black.

Though rim diameters range from 120 mm up to 400 mm, only three are greater than 320 mm. Nearly a third (n=28) are from 220 mm to 260 mm, and the remainder lie either side of that size with some bias in favour of those that are smaller (n=48). Rim thicknesses range from 4 mm to 9.5 mm, but minimum wall thicknesses can be as little as 2 mm.

Form. The bowls are restricted, carinated, or simple, with medium to long upper bodies (mostly 25 mm to 60 mm). Rims are mostly direct and simple. Lips are usually rounded, fine rounded, or pointed, but a few are flattened (n=4), squared (n=5), inverted (n=3), or

Decoration. Slips are mostly black or dark brown, though some are red or a lighter brown. Twenty rims have iridescent paint on the interior, and of these eleven have it 28

The Pottery

Figure 2.8. Serving bowls: Form 8A (a–i) and Form 8C (j, k).

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Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador

Figure 2.9. Form 8A serving bowl: exterior rim with iridescent paint. See Figure 2.8h.

Figure 2.10. Form 8A serving bowl: smudged interior with unclear iridescent paint. See Figure 2.8h.

on the exterior upper body also. A further eleven have it on the exterior only. One vessel (Figure 2.13f) had patterned line burnish reported for the interior and exterior lower bodies, as well as iridescent paint on the exterior upper body; one (Figure 2.64) has line burnish on the exterior lower body, with iridescent paint on the upper body and interior; and one (Figure 2.13j) has line burnish on the interior, with iridescent paint on the upper exterior.

head is an oval disc, measuring 28 mm by 23 mm, and 13 mm thick, with incised mouth and appliqué eyes, and it is decorated with red paint over the lower eyes and over part of the rest of the head. The paint is unpolished. The upper eyes and the crest of the head are polished brown, as is the interior of the vessel. A narrow band of red paint appears to lead from the head around the exterior of the lip. What else survives of the exterior is unpolished brown. The fabric is unexceptional, being fine and fired to brown either side of a grey core.

Finish. Most vessels are polished on the interior. Six, however, though polished on the exterior, are only wiped (Figure 2.17a) or fine wiped (Figure 2.17b) on the interior upper body.4 Another (Figure 2.17c) is polished on the exterior and on the interior rim, below which it is wiped. Seven rims, though polished on the interior, are not polished on the exterior. Of these, four have differential exterior finish, i.e., a finer wipe at the rim and an ordinary wipe on the lower body (Figure 2.17d). One (Figure 2.17e) is polished on the interior and on the exterior rim, but below that the exterior is wiped and decorated with what appears to be an irregular line burnish, executed as short vertical strokes.

From a Phase V layer within the funerary enclosure is a sherd whose rim breaks slightly from the line of the upper body, with the break marked by a shallow groove. It carries the two right side legs, modelled in clay appliqué, of a frog that is climbing up the vessel wall (Figures 2.17h, 2.19). The lip is rounded but marked by clear points at either side. The vessel surfaces are a polished brown (10YR 5/3). The fabric is of medium fine texture, itself fired to brown either side of a black core, and carries small grey-white inclusions, angular and slightly transparent. Fabric, form, decoration, and surface colour are all unusual.

Exceptional Vessels. Of the standard forms, one bowl (Figure 2.12a) has an unusual (7.5YR 6.5/5) light brown to reddish yellow slip over both surfaces. One vessel with a relatively short upper body (Figure 2.17f), also marked by an unusually bevelled lip and slightly odd firing colours (dark brown:brown), is distinguished by a light reddish brown slip over both interior and exterior, and a low polish on the interior.

From a Phase V grave fill, a third sherd (Figure 2.17i) has a rim thickened on the exterior, a pointed lip, and an oval button applied to the exterior lip. Interior and exterior are both polished red. The fabric is fine, fired to grey on the outside and light reddish brown on the inside. The paste and surfaces suggest a Phase IIIL origin. Observations. These comprise the largest set of serving bowls in the assemblage.

There are three rim sherds with modelled or appliqué decoration. One (Figures 2.17g, 2.18) from a Phase V grave has a turtle head attached to the exterior rim. The

2.2.10 Serving Bowl Form 10 Open These are very shallow to moderately sloped unrestricted fineware bowls with a short or short medium length sloping rim.

  The lower bodies are missing.

4

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The Pottery

Figure 2.11. Serving bowls: Form 8B (a–h) and Form 9 Short (i–q).

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Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador

Figure 2.12. Serving bowls: Form 9 Long.

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The Pottery

Figure 2.13. Serving bowls: Form 9 Long.

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Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador

Figure 2.14. Serving bowls: Form 9 Long.

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The Pottery

Figure 2.15. Form 9 Long serving bowl: complex design in iridescent paint. Rim diameter 188 mm. See Figure 2.14.

Fabric. All are of fine textures, mostly fired to brown or light brown on the surfaces, with cores mostly grey or dark grey.

Figure 2.16. Form 9 Long serving bowl: Phase VI undulating exterior with iridescent paint. See Figure 2.13i.

Form. The bowls are unrestricted, with bodies that range from flat to moderately sloped, and with short to shortmedium rims that may be to differing degrees distinguished from the body (Figure 2.20a–g). Rim diameters mostly range from 200 mm to 360 mm, though one is greater (420 mm), and three (Figure 2.20h–j) are smaller (100 mm to 140 mm). Exterior rim lengths are from 13 mm to 23 mm. Rim thicknesses range from 4 mm to 7 mm.

Form. These bowls are shallow or moderately sloped with short upright rims (Figure 2.20l, m). Interiors and exteriors of the rims tend both to be convex, and lips are rounded or pointed. The point where body and rim meet may be sharply angled or more curved. One bowl (Figure 2.20n) has a very slightly thickened rim rising in a simple curve. Rim diameters mostly range from 200 mm to 400 mm, rim heights from 6 mm to 14 mm, and body thicknesses from 3.5 mm to 7 mm.

Decoration and Finish. Interiors are generally dark brown to black, polished or well-polished, and twelve have iridescent paint. Three have red slips. On the exterior, two rims have traces of iridescent paint, and four have continuous unpolished red paint. The rim is mostly given a fine wipe, less commonly a polish (n=10), and the lower body is generally just wiped, though four have a light incomplete polish over wipe. A single rim sherd (Figure 2.20k) is from a bowl whose lip is decorated with nubbins. Both surfaces carry a polished dark brown slip.

Decoration and Finish. Interiors are polished or wellpolished, over slips that are mostly dark brown or black. Six have iridescent painted designs. On the exterior, rims are mostly polished and lower bodies wiped. Two vessels have red slip over the interior and the rim exterior.

These are unrestricted fineware bowls with short upright rims and shallow to moderately sloped bodies.

Variants. One bowl (Figure 2.20o) has a fine fabric distinguished by tiny quartz pieces and unusual reddish brown surfaces over a dark grey core; and it is further marked by a polished yellowish red slip over the interior, though the exterior is unslipped and unpolished. Another (Figure 2.20p) has a very short rim that is little more than an emphasised lip, and the exterior polish extends down the lower body. A third (Figure 2.20q), also with polish over the underside, has an odd blocky black fabric, though the texture is basically fine. A fourth (Figure 2.20r) has a slightly everted lip, with polished red slip over the interior and rim exterior.

Fabric. Textures are mostly fine, with brown or light brown exteriors, brown to black or grey interiors, and grey or dark grey cores.

Observations. These bowls derive mainly from early Phase V contexts. They are to be compared with vessels of Form 8A and Form 9 Short.

Observations. Rims of this form are found throughout the sequence from Phase IV onwards, with no observable change. They are close to the shallow open bowls of Form 11. 2.2.11 Serving Bowl Form 10 Short

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Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador

Figure 2.17. Serving bowls: Form 9 Long.

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The Pottery

Figure 2.18. Form 9 Long serving bowl: modelled turtle head at rim. See Figure 2.17g.

Figure 2.19. Form 9 Long serving bowl: appliqué frog on rim exterior. See Figure 2.17h.

2.2.12 Serving Bowl Form 10 Long

form is further distinguished by patterned line burnish over its wiped lower exterior. Another (Figure 2.21l) has a polished exterior red slip and red paint on its interior brown slip.

These are unrestricted, composite, self-supporting fineware bowls with medium to long upper bodies and simple rims. Fabric. All are of fine texture, fired mostly to brown, with grey cores. There are no unusual fabrics.

Finish. Interiors are all polished, occasionally less well (n=4), occasionally very well (n=5). On the exterior, upper bodies are distinguished from wiped lower bodies by a better finish, sometimes (n=11) a polish, else a fine wipe. In three cases, the lip or rim is given a fine wipe while the rest of the upper body is simply wiped.

Form. The bowls are unrestricted and composite. Upper bodies are medium to long and rise from the carination either vertically or occasionally at a slightly everted angle. They are also mostly concave on the interior and convex on the exterior. Rims are simple, and lips mostly rounded, though there may be some flattening or pointing. Upper bodies are mostly from 20 mm to 45 mm long (Figure 2.21a–e), and from 4 mm to 8 mm thick, though one (Figure 2.21f) is 60 mm long and 9 mm thick. Rim diameters range mostly from 180 mm to 340 mm.

Observations. These vessels relate morphologically to bowls with unelaborate rims and medium to long upper bodies of Form 11 (simple unrestricted) and Form 9 (restricted). 2.2.13 Serving Bowl Form 11

Of the vessels with everted upper bodies, two (Figure 2.21g, h) are unexceptional. One (Figure 2.21i), however, with a very small diameter of 120 mm, has a notched lip and an exterior polished red slip that suggests a Phase III origin. The fourth (Figure 2.65a) has a very shallow lower body, thickened as it approaches the carination. One rim (Figure 2.21j) from a Phase IV rubbish pit, is shorter than the rest, biconvex, and has a steep lower body.

These are simple, unrestricted fineware bowls with direct rims. They are found throughout the sequence in all context types. They range from the shallow to the steep-walled, there is a wide range of rim diameters, and while the rims are usually unmodified, some have bevelling of the lip. Fabric. Textures are mostly fine, and the exceptions, slightly coarser, also show differences in form and finish that are described below. Surfaces tend to be fired to brown or light brown, and cores to grey.

Decoration. Interiors are slipped and smudged to dark brown or black. Over half (n=16) carry iridescent paint on the interior. None have it on the exterior. One rim (Figure 2.21k) has a narrow band of red paint along the exterior lip. One rim (Figure 2.65a) already noted for its unusual

Form. These bowls are unrestricted and simple. There is a continuous range of slope from the vertical and steep (Figure 2.22a–e), through the moderately sloped (Figure 37

Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador

Figure 2.20. Serving bowls: Form 10 Open (a–k) and Form 10 Short (l–r).

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The Pottery

Figure 2.21. Serving bowls: Form 10 Long.

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Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador

Figure 2.22. Serving bowls: Form 11.

40

The Pottery 2.22f–j), to the shallow (Figure 2.22k–m). Lips tend to be rounded, but some rims have a bevelled exterior and so taper towards a lip that may be pointed (Figure 2.22n). There is a small group (n=7) of shallow bowls that have a more marked exterior angle at the base of the rim before the taper to the lip (Figure 2.22o). One lip (Figure 2.22e) is pinched to a fine point. Two rims have slightly pinched lips (Figure 2.22c) that relate to the Phase IIIL Form 6 (Lunniss 2001:186, 187, Fig. 96g–l). Two others have notched lips (Figure 2.23a, b), and another (Figure 2.23c) has a nicked lip. The bowls are probably all selfsupporting. Rim diameters range from the small, at 70 mm (Figure 2.23d), 90 mm (Figures 2.23e, 2.24, 2.25), 100 mm (Figure 2.23f) and 110 mm (Figure 2.23g), to the very large, at 380 mm (Figure 2.23h). Rim thicknesses range mostly from 3 mm up to 6.5 mm.

wide range of variation, with several small clusters around distinct tendencies. However, attribute variation cannot for the most part be securely correlated with contextual difference, though the three bowls with tapering rims and iridescent paint on interior and exterior (Figures 2.23i, j, 2.26) seem likely to be of a type specific to Phase V. 2.2.14 Serving Bowl Form 10/11 These are unrestricted fineware bowls whose rim sherds, generally falling within the parameters of Form 10 Long and Form 11, lack the transition from upper to lower body, so that it is not possible to say whether they were carinated or simple. Fabric. All fabrics are of fine texture, save two that are fine medium.

Decoration. Interiors are mostly smudged to dark brown or black, though nine have red slips and of these four also have red slipped exteriors. Twenty-seven of the smudged interiors have iridescent paint. Three of these also have iridescent paint on the exterior body and are further distinguished by a tapering rim that narrows from the interior: two (Figures 2.23i, 2.26, 2.27, 2.28) are Phase V grave goods, and the third (Figure 2.23j) is from a Phase V grave fill. A fourth sherd (Figure 2.23h) has unclear iridescent paint on its exterior rim.

Form. In general, the forms of these bowls fall within the parameters already described for vessels of Form 10 Long and Form 11 and need not be further discussed. One bowl (Figure 2.29e), however, is much larger than most of the others, and has both a very wide rim diameter (400 mm) and a thick upper body (11.5 mm). Lips are generally rounded. One is notched (Figure 2.29f) and another nicked (Figure 2.29g) on the exterior, both these sherds coming from Phase IV layers. A third, from a Phase V layer (Figure 2.29h), is notched on the top of the lip.

Three other decorative techniques are applied. One rim (Figure 2.59f), with a polished black exterior, has an interior with black patterned line burnish on a grey wiped background. Another (Figure 2.59a), coated with polished red (10R 4/6) slip on inside and out, has the exterior further decorated with a negative design. Though fired to an unusual red either side of a grey core, the fabric is otherwise not exceptional. The third rim (Figure 2.59d) has an interior red paint design over a brown slip, and a red slipped exterior.

Decoration. Interiors are given a slip that is usually smudged to dark brown or black, though three are brown and five are red. Eight have interiors with iridescent paint, and of these three also have exterior iridescent paint (Figure 2.29i, j). One rim has iridescent paint on the exterior only. One rim (Figure 2.59g), with a polished black exterior, has the interior decorated with patterned line burnish. One rim (Figure 2.29k) has red slip (2.5YR 4/6) on the interior extending over the lip to the exterior rim, while the remainder of the exterior has a light brown slip (7.5YR Pink). The sherd is further distinguished by its very fine fabric, fired to reddish brown with a brown core. One rim (Figure 2.29l) has a band of red paint along the lip. Another (Figure 2.29h), already noted for its notched lip, also has a fine incised line running just below the lip and an excised line a little beneath that.

Finish. On the exterior, the majority have undifferentiated finish: either a polish (n=28), a fine wipe (n=9), or an ordinary wipe (n=7). There may, however, be differential finish (n=18), the rim being more finely treated than the rest, usually as a fine wipe instead of an ordinary wipe, though in two cases it is a polish. (The remaining exteriors are eroded.) Interiors are mostly polished. There are, however, five exceptions. Two of these are moderately sloped bowls with coarser fabrics, one fine medium (Figure 2.29a) and the other coarse medium (Figure 2.29b). While the former is wiped on both sides, the latter is wiped on the inside but polished on the outside. A third rim, with an eroded exterior (Figure 2.23b), fired to reddish yellow around a black core, has no slip, paint, or finish beyond a poor wipe. The remaining two are wiped inside and smoothed outside (Figure 2.29c), and fine wiped on both sides (Figure 2.29d). There does not appear to be any correlation between finish and form.

Finish. All interiors are polished or well-polished. On the exterior, the rim is generally given the same treatment as the rest of the upper body, i.e., a polish (n=21), fine wipe (n=6), or wipe (n=6), though three have differential treatment. 2.2.15 Serving Bowl Form 12 These are shallow bowls with upright rims whose lips are generally flattened and carry nubbins.

Observations. This is the second largest set of serving bowls after that of Form 9 Long, and it presents a

Fabric. All are of fine texture fired to brown either side of a grey or black core. 41

Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador

Figure 2.23. Serving bowls: Form 11: the unfolded interior design for i) is shown at half-scale relative to the bowl outline.

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The Pottery

Figure 2.24. Form 11 serving bowl: differential exterior finish. See Figure 2.23e.

Figure 2.25. Form 11 serving bowl: polished black interior. See Figure 2.23e.

Form. The bowls are unrestricted and generally shallow and simple (Figure 2.30a, b), though the interior rim may be elaborate (Figures 2.30c, 2.31–2.33), with diameters from 230 mm to 320 mm. They are especially distinguished by the application of small nubbins to a squared or flattened lip, though the lip may be rounded (Figure 2.30d). Squaring of the lip may also be accompanied by the creation of a narrow interior projection (Figure 2.30a, e, f). The oval or circular nubbins are from 4 mm to 10 mm long and may rise 2 mm proud of the lip. One variant form (Figure 2.30g), less well finished than the others, has a tall everted rim rising from the lower body.

each different in form and surface treatment from the main group. Two, from Phase V layers, are a Form 10 (Open) bowl with a shallow sloping upper body and rounded lip (Figure 2.20k), and a bowl with a flaring upper wall and exterior bevelled lip (Figure 2.49a). The third (Figure 2.44c) is a shallow bowl with an annular base that was buried as a Phase V grave offering.

Decoration and Finish. The surfaces are covered with a polished dark brown to black slip, though the lower body of the exterior may be unpolished (Figure 2.30d). Two sherds have interior iridescent paint applied as vertical bands from the lip.

Fabric. All textures are fine except for six that are medium fine, with surfaces mostly fired to light brown, brown, or grey, and cores mostly to grey or black.

2.2.16 Serving Bowl Form 13 These are unrestricted fineware shallow bowls or plates with a thickened or stepped rim and an exterior flange.

Form. The form is characterised by the combination of a thickened or stepped rim leading from the vessel wall with little or no change of angle, and an exterior flange situated roughly at the base of the rim (Figure 2.34a). The rim is usually thickened on the interior, and there is a marked step down to the body wall. But in at least four cases the step leads up from the rim to the body wall (Figure 2.34b). Lips are usually rounded but may be more pointed. Twenty rims include enough of the flange to allow identification of two possible profiles. The majority have an undulating or scalloped flange, the points falling more steeply to one side (usually the left) than the other, with the further detail that, between the high points of the undulation, there is a shallow groove cut into the lip (Figure 2.34a). Five have

Observations. The use of nubbins to decorate the lips of fineware bowls occurs suddenly in early Phase V. Apart from the application of nubbins, the bowls described share several characteristics, including general form and surface treatment, which distinguish them from the rest of the assemblage, and suggest that they all derive from a single unusual source. The fabrics, on the other hand, are none of them exceptional. The few sherds are found in layers outside the funerary enclosure. In addition to those cases just described, however, there are three other instances of lips nubbins on serving bowls, 43

Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador

Figure 2.26. Serving bowls: Form 11.

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The Pottery

Figure 2.27. Form 11 serving bowl: interior and exterior both with iridescent paint. Rim diameter:180 mm. See Figure 2.23i.

Figure 2.28. Form 11 serving bowl: interior and exterior both with iridescent paint. See Figure 2.26.

flanges with simple rounded profiles (Figure 2.34b, c). One variant bowl (Figure 2.35a), with a depressed rim, has two exterior flanges.

Finish. Vessel interiors are polished or well-polished. On the exterior, there is usually a fine wipe on the rim and an ordinary wipe over the lower body. Just one rim (Figure 2.35d) has polish on the exterior rim.

In addition to the rim sherds, there are nine body sherds with flanges that probably belong to vessels of this category. Six of these have grooved, undulating lips, and three have simple rounded profiles. The bottom of the body was probably in all cases rounded but supported by up to at least five hollow cylindrical legs. Four sherds have leg attachments. A fifth (Figures 2.35h, 2.36–2.38) carries the only complete leg, itself of a type unique in the assemblage.

Observations. These vessels first make their appearance in Phase IV rubbish pits, and carry on through Phase V. They are morphologically related to Forms 3 Long and Short and 8B but are distinguished either by the undulation of the flange, the use of unpolished paint on the exterior, or both.

Dimensions. Rim thicknesses range from 5.5 mm (Figure 2.35b) to 11.0 mm (Figure 2.35c), with the mode at 7–8 mm (n=16), and rim lengths range from 12 mm (Figure 2.35d) to 40 mm (Figure 2.35e). Rim diameters are spread across the range from 170 mm to 360 mm, with two modes perhaps suggested at 180–200 mm (n=10) and 300–340 mm (n=12). Wall thicknesses range from 3 mm to 9 mm.

2.2.17 Serving Bowl Form 14 These are double compoteras or pedestalled plates. Each consists of a pair of unrestricted pedestal-based bowls joined by bridges at the bowl and at the foot of the pedestal. Three complete examples, and half of a fourth, were recovered as goods from Phase V graves.

Decoration. Vessel interiors are mostly (n=26) covered with a smudged dark brown or black slip, occasionally the slip being lighter or reddish. Most interiors (n=21) also carry iridescent paint. On the exterior, thirteen carry unpolished paint. Mostly this is red, and it is applied to the rim, either just to the upper base of the flange, or as far as its lip. However, it may also be applied along the upper face of the flange as a series of oval spots, alternating with other spots of yellow paint (Figure 2.35f), or as spots set around or close to the tops of the hollow legs (Figure 2.35g). In one instance (Figure 2.35h), already noted for its unique leg, red paint reaches the base of the flange, yellow and white paint is applied in spots to the outer face of the flange, and yellow paint covers the leg and its immediate surrounds. One body sherd (Figure 2.35i) has green postfire paint in addition to red and yellow.

The first (Figures 2.39–2.41) has bowls carinated at the point between lower body and upper wall, and with rounded bottoms. The rims flare slightly, and the lips are rounded. The bowls are not quite round, having collapsed between shaping and firing. The pedestal bases are themselves complex, each having a carinated, bulbous upper section before the flaring lower section, which terminates in a rounded lip, and they are connected by a short horizontal lower bridge. Between the top of the base and the carination of the bowl, there is a small horizontal rib or flange. It is from this rib that the upper bridge leads from one bowl to the other. Rim diameters are each of 180 mm to 185 mm. Overall, the vessel is 380 mm long and 190 mm tall. The bowl interiors and pedestal exteriors 45

Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador

Figure 2.29. Serving bowls: Form 11 (a–d) and Form 10/11 (e–l).

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The Pottery

Figure 2.30. Serving bowls: Form 12.

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Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador

Figure 2.31. Form 12 serving bowl: bowl exterior with nubbins at flattened lip. See Figure 2.30c.

Figure 2.33. Form 12 serving bowl: bowl interior with step. See Figure 2.30c.

almost flat lip. Once more, horizontal ribs mark the exterior lower bodies and merge with the upper bridge that connects the bowls, and a short lower bridge connects the two pedestals. The flaring skirt of each pedestal also has two horizontal ribs or flanges, and these define the upper and lower edges of a horizontal band decorated with a row of thirty-nine vertical incisions. The cuts, 1.5 mm wide, 1.5 mm deep, and up to 10 mm long, were made with a sharp point while the clay was still wet, leaving slightly raised edges. The bowls have rim diameters of 178 mm and 180 mm. Overall, the vessel is 370 mm long and 155 mm tall. The interiors of the bowls have a polished black slip. On the exterior, the bowls are unpolished grey, but the pedestals are polished black, save for the incised zone and the surfaces between the bridges, which are unpolished and grey. The use of incision and its combination with differential finish is unique in the assemblage of fineware vessels.

Figure 2.32. Form 12 serving bowl: bowl interior with nubbins at flattened lip. See Figure 2.30c.

are coated in polished slip, smudged to very dark brown on the inside, and reddish brown to dark brown on the outside. The exteriors of the bowls are finely wiped. The bridges are given an ordinary wipe. The slipped surfaces are further decorated with designs in red iridescent paint: the bowl interiors each have a tall, crested head, and the pedestals have groups of vertical bands.

The half vessel (Figures 2.44b, 2.45) has a fine fabric, fired to reddish brown. The upper body is lightly inflected, the wall thickening towards a direct rim with both a pinched, vertical lip and a secondary, exterior horizontal lip. The transition from the sloping side to the almost flat base of the interior is marked by a shallow step. There is a broad horizontal rib on the exterior, meeting the juncture of the upper bridge. The pedestal is relatively simple and short, ending with a lip that is sharp-edged and flat. Unlike the other double compoteras just described, there was no lower bridge, and this may explain why the vessel broke. This surviving half has a bowl rim diameter of 248 mm, and an overall height of 90 mm. A minimum overall complete length would have been around 530 mm. The interior of the bowl is worn and smooth. It has a surface of light reddish brown that is decorated with a circle of red paint at the centre, a concentric band of red paint around that, and, at the rim, a band of black, which extends over to the base of the rim on the exterior. The edges of the

The second complete specimen (Figure 2.44a) is of a medium fine fabric, reddish brown either side of a grey core. It has simple bowls with direct rims, slightly thickened at the lips, which are bevelled on the interior. Again, there is a single horizontal rib around the lower exterior body to which the upper bridge is attached, and the pedestals have bulbous upper sections and are joined by a short lower bridge. Rim diameters are 180 mm and 190 mm. Overall length is 380 mm, with a height of 130 mm. The surfaces of the bowl interior and pedestal exterior are covered in a variable brown to black slip and finished with a low polish. There is no other decoration. The bowls of the third example (Figures 2.42, 2.43) have a slight carination and a direct rim that ends in a thickened, 48

The Pottery

Figure 2.34. Serving bowls: Form 13.

49

Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador

Figure 2.35. Serving bowls: Form 13.

50

The Pottery

Figure 2.38. Form 13 serving bowl: interior stepped surface of polished black slip. See Figure 2.35h. Figure 2.36. Form 13 serving bowl: modelled leg with red, yellow, and white paint. See Figure 2.35h.

bands are irregular and diffuse. There appears to be polish around the lip. On the exterior, the bowl as far as the rib was finished with a fine wipe, while the rest is wiped very evenly. The vessel therefore differs significantly from the others in terms of fabric, form, dimensions, proportions, decoration, and finish. Observations. All examples of double compoteras are Phase V grave goods, and there are not even fragments from any other sort of context. Not only is this a very rare form, but it is specific to funerary ritual. 2.2.18 Serving Bowl Form 15 These are simple, unrestricted bowls with low annular bases. Both bowls come from Phase V graves. One vessel (Figures 2.44c, 2.46) is shallow, and has a rounded, slightly thickened lip with eight evenly spaced nubbins. It has a low polish over the very dark brown slip of the interior, and this extends over the lip to the outside rim. The base is decorated with red and yellow post-fire paint applied in thirteen alternating vertical bands of each colour. The other bowl (Figure 2.44d) has a bevelled interior lip, an interior surface with a low polish, and an exterior that is simply wiped and unpainted. Rim diameters are 184 mm and 140 mm respectively. 2.2.19 Serving Bowl Form 16 This form is a small, deep bowl or cup supported by a pedestal base. A single example (Figure 2.47a) is

Figure 2.37. Form 13 serving bowl: modelled leg with red, yellow, and white paint. See Figure 2.35h.

51

Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador

Figure 2.39. Serving bowls: Form 14. Exterior iridescent design.

Figure 2.40. Serving bowls: Form 14. Interior iridescent design. Reprinted with permission of the University Press of Florida from Lozada and Tantaleán (2019).

52

The Pottery

Figure 2.41. Form 14 serving bowl: double compotera with iridescent paint. See Figures 2.39, 2.40.

represented by two adjoining sherds, representing 60% of the rim, which came from the fills of two graves, 4 m apart, within the Phase V funerary precinct. The fabric is of fine texture, fired to light brown with a grey core. The form is simple, unrestricted, and deep, with a rim diameter of 120 mm and an interior vessel depth of 80 mm. The vessel wall has a minimum thickness of 3 mm, and a maximum thickness, at the base, of 8 mm. The lip is slightly flattened. The exterior is embellished with two small horizontal ribs or flanges, one just below the rim, the other just above the pedestal. The pedestal itself is missing, leaving just the scar where it joined the main body. The surfaces are coated with a light yellowish brown slip (10YR 6/4–6/6), which was itself given a low polish on the exterior and on the upper interior body, while the lower interior was left unfinished.

polished slip, and the wiped exterior is decorated with red post-fire paint. Rim diameter is 160 mm. 2.2.21 Miscellaneous Serving Bowl Forms The rim sherds are from vessels of five general forms whose lip or rim configuration in each case falls outside the norms for the assemblage. One body sherd is of a sixth form. All fabrics are fine unless otherwise indicated. Simple Unrestricted Bowls with Thickened Lips. There are two rims from Phase V grave fills, and both appear to have been imported. One (Figure 2.48a) is of medium fine fabric with tiny grey grit, fired to light brown either side of grey. The rim rises directly from the upper body, thickening slightly on the inside towards a squared lip. The interior has a polished dark brown slip, perhaps with a line of red paint along the edge of the lip. The exterior is a polished brown. The second rim (Figure 2.48b) is of medium fine fabric, fired to brown either side of a very dark grey core. Little remains, but the slightly rounded lip is thickened inside and out and carries smoothed red paint. The interior has a polished brown slip, and the exterior is simply wiped. A third rim (Figure 2.48c), from a Phase V layer, has a fine fabric, fired to light brown either side of a grey core. The bowl is steep walled, with a direct rim and a flat, slightly thickened lip, the interior has a polished red slip, and the exterior is simply smoothed.

Observations. The vessel is unique in the assemblage both for form and surface treatment. 2.2.20 Serving Bowl Form 17 This form is a simple, unrestricted polypod bowl. From a disturbed grave within the Phase V funerary precinct came the partial remains of just one example (Figure 2.47b). On the exterior there are two small horizontal ribs or flanges, one at the lip and the other partway down the upper body. The legs bifurcate slightly at the feet. The interior has a 53

Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador

Figure 2.42. Serving bowls: Form 14.

Figure 2.43. Form 14 serving bowl: half of a double compotera with incised design. See Figure 2.42.

54

The Pottery

Figure 2.44. Serving bowls: Form 14 (a, b) and Form 15 (c, d).

55

Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador

Figure 2.45. Form 14 serving bowl: double compotera with red and black paint. Rim diameter: 248 mm. See Figure 2.44b.

Figure 2.46. Form 15 serving bowl: pedestalled bowl with post-fire paint. Rim diameter: 184 mm. See Figure 2.44c.

Simple Bowls with Everted Lips. There are three subgroups. First there are five rim sherds from Phase V contexts. All interiors are polished dark brown or black, and all but one have iridescent paint. Four (Figure 2.48d– g) have short everted rims leading from slightly thickened upper bodies. The fifth (Figure 2.48h) has the rim flattened and the lip notched (see Form 5), and the exterior is decorated with an unpolished red slip.

Bowls with Wide Flaring Rims. There are seven wide flaring rims, none with exceptional fabrics. One (Figure 2.49b), very worn, with a wide diameter of between 340 mm and 400 mm, leads from an upright upper body with an interior that has a smudged and polished brown slip. The exterior is fine wiped on the rim and wiped over the body. Another sherd (Figure 2.49c) may derive from a similar vessel, of fine medium fabric, that has an even wider suggested diameter of 460 mm. The rim is polished, the reddish brown body interior roughly wiped, while the grey exterior has a better wipe. There is no sign of decoration.

Second, there are three sherds from Phase V and Phase VI contexts off moderately sloped bowls with rims that rise and flare slightly. Two, probably from the same vessel (Figure 2.48i), have a hard fabric fired to brown either side of grey, and surfaces coated with a distinctive, unsmudged, strong brown slip (7.5YR 4.5/6). The interior is polished, and on the exterior the rim has a fine wipe and the body an ordinary wipe. The third rim (Figure 2.48j) is of an unusual medium fine fabric fired to light reddish brown either side of black. The surfaces are very worn but had polish over a dark slip on the interior with a red slip, probably polished, over the exterior upper body at least.

Of the remaining rims, only one (Figure 2.49d) has its attachment to the upper body, and the overall form of the other four (Figure 2.49e–h) is unclear. One of these rims (Figure 2.49e), of relatively narrow diameter (160 mm), is a well-polished dark brown on both sides. The others have polished black or dark brown interiors but the underside just wiped or fine wiped. One (Figure 2.49f) has an exterior red slip.

Third, two other rims attached to upright upper bodies, both from the same Phase V layer, have unusual fine medium fabrics. One (Figure 2.48k) is fired to light reddish brown on the outside and black on the inside. It has a thicker wall, at 7 mm, than most bowls of its diameter (100 mm). The rim is short and slightly thickened at the base. The interior has red paint over a light reddish brown wash or selfslip. Both sides are smoothed, the outside less well than the inside. The other sherd (Figure 2.48l) is fired to light red. The rim is pinched at the base, has a concave interior surface, and is painted red. The interior of the body has patches of red paint on a brown slip. Interior and exterior are both smoothed, though not well.

Restricted Bowls with Short Everted Rims. There are three rims from restricted bowls with short everted rims. One (Figure 2.49i), from a Phase IV rubbish pit, fired to light brown either side of grey, has a wide diameter (420 mm). It has a lightly polished brown slip and iridescent paint on the interior, and a smooth light brown exterior. One from a Phase V layer (Figure 2.49j) is even wider (at 460 mm) and has polished dark brown slip with iridescent paint on both sides. The third (Figure 2.49k), from a disturbed Phase V grave fill, is smaller (at 120 mm), and of medium fine fabric fired to reddish brown either side of black. The surfaces are unusual being lightly polished, dark reddish brown (2.5YR 3.5/3.5) on the inside, and red (7.5R 4/5) on the outside.

Bowls with Flaring Upper Bodies. A single sherd (Figure 2.49a) comes from a bowl with a flaring upper body. The lip has an exterior bevel and carries nubbins. The surfaces are both a well-polished dark brown.

Unrestricted Bowl with Inflected Body. One body sherd (Figure 2.49l) comes from a bowl with a hard, fine fabric fired to red and buff either side of grey. The wall is inflected, and from 5.5 mm to 7.0 mm thick. On the 56

The Pottery

Figure 2.47. Serving bowls: Form 16 (a) and Form 17 (b).

interior, the upper body is polished brown, and the lower body is red slipped, smooth but slightly crackled. On the exterior, there is again differential finish, the upper body being wiped, the lower smoothed. Fabric firing, form, surface colours, and finish are all unusual.

have red slipped interiors, and three others have red slipped exteriors. On the interior, three have red paint, and three have iridescent paint. On the exterior, one has iridescent paint, and three have red paint. All but four have interior polish. At least twelve are not polished on the exterior.

Observations. Most of these vessels, in spite of their unusual forms, are otherwise unexceptional. Eight of them, however, have qualities of fabric and surface treatment that further mark them apart and suggest that they were imported (Figures 2.48a, b, i–l, 2.49k, l).

2.2.23 Serving Bowl Bases

2.2.22 Serving Bowls of Uncertain Form

Concave Bases. Concave bases are represented by four sherds from Phase V contexts. All interior surfaces are polished and smudged to dark or grey-brown, and three (Figure 2.50a–c) have iridescent paint. Exterior surfaces are all wiped.

Most fineware bowls would have stood on rounded, convex bases, but some were supported by concave bases, annular bases, pedestal bases, hollow legs, or solid legs.

These are bowls whose rim sherds are too poorly preserved to allow certain identification of form. Textures are mostly fine. Surfaces are generally smudged, through four rims 57

Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador

Figure 2.48. Serving bowls: miscellaneous forms.

58

The Pottery

Figure 2.49. Serving bowls: miscellaneous forms.

59

Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador

Figure 2.50. Serving bowl bases: concave bases (a–c), annular bases (d–h), and pedestal bases (i–p).

60

The Pottery Annular Bases. Other than two complete vessels (Figure 2.44c, d), there are five sherds from low annular bases. The bases range from 3 mm to 4 mm thick, and from 7 mm to 26 mm in length. One (Figure 2.50d) has a polished red slip on the exterior, but the rest (Figure 2.50e–h) are undecorated and unpolished.

leg, also from a Phase V layer, also represents a human head (Figures 2.51f, 2.53). Appliqué nose, ears, eyes, and mouth decorate the main vertical section, while the foot of the leg is drawn forward to a point that represents the chin. There is post-fire yellow paint above and behind each ear, part of a wider application typically made to the vessel base around the foot. The leg is 45 mm tall on the outer side, with a diameter of about 25 mm, and is 39 mm from front to back. There is an air vent part way up the back. From a Phase V layer there is also an ear (Figure 2.51g) with ear spool, decorated with red and yellow post-fire paint, which may have been applied to a hollow leg.

Pedestal Bases. Tall pedestal bases of varying degrees of complexity were used as supports for three of the double compoteras (Figures 2.39, 2.42, 2.44a) and the pedestalled cup (Figure 2.47a), and shorter examples were used on the fourth double compotera (Figure 2.44b). In addition, there are sherds from eight other pedestal bases. They range in thickness from 5 mm to 10 mm, and in length from 37 mm to 60 mm. One (Figure 2.50i) with red paint but no polish, has odd reddish brown (2.5YR 6/5) surfaces. The rest are all polished and decorated with red slip (Figure 2.50j), simple brown (Figure 2.50k) or black (Figure 2.50l) smudged slip, a smudged slip with iridescent paint (Figure 2.50m, n), post-fire red and yellow paint (Figure 2.50o), or incision against a wiped background (Figure 2.50p).

Modelled Solid Legs. From a Phase V layer (Figures 2.51h, 2.54) and a Phase VI platform perimeter wall (Figure 2.51i) there are two legs each formed by folding a length of rolled clay into a U-shape, with one end attached but the other not quite reaching the bowl. One leg has two small appliqué pellets that represent the two eyes of a human face, while the other, slightly larger, also has a third which represents the mouth. Both have red post-fire paint over the outer side, and one also has yellow paint descending from the vessel exterior. The lower edges are shaped flat and slightly worn. The larger leg is about 33 mm tall, 46 mm wide, and 14 mm thick.

Hollow Cylindrical Legs. Hollow cylindrical legs are represented by 40 complete examples, fragments, or leg attachment scars, and this material is found in all context types. Rims with evidence of such support are found with Forms 3 (n=2), 5 (n=2), 8 (n=2), and 13 (n=4). There are just nine complete or near complete examples, all but two from Phase IV rubbish pits. The overall form tends to be parallel-sided, with diameters at the foot of from 20 mm to 25 mm. The smallest (Figure 2.8h) is 22 mm tall on its outer side, and taller examples are from 50 mm (Figure 2.51a) to over 60 mm (Figure 2.5h). Another tall example (Figure 2.51b) has a more conical form, with a diameter of 35 mm at the foot. All legs are simply wiped around their exterior surface, though all associated bowl interiors are polished. Three fragments, all from Phase V layers, have red and yellow post-fire paint (Figure 2.51c, d).

2.2.24 Exterior Flanges on Serving Bowls Exterior flanges are mostly associated with bowls of Form 13 (Figures 2.34–2.37), and most of these have hollowed lips and an undulating contour unique to that category. Two rims from other bowls with thickened or stepped interior rims have flanges with carefully notched lips (Figure 2.3d). The double compoteras (Figures 2.39, 2.42, 2.44a, b), pedestalled cup (Figure 2.47a), and simple polypod bowl (Figure 2.47b) all have simple, shallow flanges or ribs. There are a further nine sherds from bowls with exterior flanges, and of these six are well preserved. Three flanges are notched (Figure 2.51j–l), the latter alone having exterior polish to just above the flange. One has nubbins applied (Figure 2.51m). Of the two undecorated examples, one (Figure 2.51n) is from a bowl with no sign of thickening or step, and the other (Figure 2.51o) is from a bowl of rounded form with a well wiped grey interior and a polished exterior red slip.

Modelled Hollow Legs. Modelled hollow legs are represented by examples of four different types. From a Phase V grave fill, a partially preserved simple polypod bowl (Figure 2.47b) was recovered with four legs, three complete and one incomplete. The legs, though hollow, are closed, and have rounded, slightly bifurcating feet. They are about 53 mm long on the outer side and 30 mm wide. Red post-fire paint is reported for the vessel exterior, though it is not clear whether the paint extended to the legs. From the backfill of a Phase VI pit, the leg of a Form 13 bowl (Figure 2.35h) has a leg that is initially cylindrical, but at the foot the edges are pressed together and folded outwards. The leg is coated in yellow post-fire paint. The exterior height is 60 mm, its diameter is 27 mm, and the foot is 44 mm wide. At the lower back side is a small air vent. From a Phase V layer is half of a hollow leg (Figures 2.51e, 2.52) with an enclosed and rounded foot, 60 mm tall and about 25 mm wide when complete. The outer side is decorated with two elements of a face: an incised mouth and a modelled ear with appliqué spool or ring. There is no paint. The air vent is situated half-way up the back. The most elaborate

2.2.25 Notched and Nicked Lips on Serving Bowls While seven rims, including the two with nicked lips (Figures 2.23c, 2.29g), are of simple unrestricted vessels from Late Engoroy-Early Regional Development contexts, the majority (n=23) are of Middle-Late Engoroy carinated forms, in particular Form 5, that continue to be made in Period 2. Nicking and notching of the lip is not associated with any exclusively Early Regional Development form. 2.2.26 Serving Bowl Decorative Techniques Iridescent Paint. Iridescent paint is found on 212 rims, including six complete vessels, i.e., 39.9% of serving bowls 61

Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador

Figure 2.51. Serving bowl bases and flanges: hollow cylindrical legs (a–d), modelled hollow legs (e–g), modelled solid legs (h, i), and exterior flanges (j–o).

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The Pottery

Figure 2.52. Serving bowl: modelled hollow leg. See Figure 2.51e.

Figure 2.53. Serving bowl: modelled hollow leg. See Figure 2.51f.

(Tables 2.5a, 2.5b). On the vessel interior alone, it occurs 158 times, on the exterior alone 22 times, on both interior and exterior 32 times (Tables 2.6a, 2.6b). Of the rims with iridescent paint, 173 have an identifiable element or motif. Fifty-nine body sherds that carry recognisable design were also included in the study. The paint is normally associated with a dark brown or black smudged slip. However, there are three exceptions: two (Figures 2.2j, 2.56d) are probably residual sherds, of Middle Engoroy forms, with the paint applied over a simple red slip on the interior; the third sherd (Figure 2.13i), from a Phase VI layer, has the paint applied on the exterior to a slip that is dark red and possibly smudged. Iridescent paint is also normally applied without any additional decorative technique. It is, however, occasionally (n=4 rim sherds) used in combination with patterned line burnishing, though paint and burnish are applied to separate fields. The paint varies, and ranges from a definite red to a colourless or silvery sheen. And unless the surface has been dampened, it is often very difficult, even impossible, to see the paint. A red colour is more commonly associated with unsmudged backgrounds, so that where a bowl has a less well smudged rim, the paint will be redder there than over the rest of the vessel. Designs on vessels interiors (Figure 2.55) are created using several different elements, either alone or in combination. These include vertical, diagonal, horizontal, and curvilinear bands, V’s, zigzags, N’s, triangles, arcs,

Figure 2.54. Serving bowl: modelled solid leg. See Figure 2.51h.

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Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador Table 2.5a. Serving Bowl Decorative Techniques: Absolute Frequencies. Phase IV–VI Layers

Phase IV Rubbish Pits

Phase V Grave Goods

Phase V Grave Fills

Total

121

26

6

59

212

Red Paint (I)

2

0

0

1

3

Negative Paint (E)

0

0

0

1

1

Line Burnish (I/E)

3

0

2

1

6

Incision (I)

1

0

0

0

1

Iridescent Paint (I/E)

Note: I/E= Interior and/or Exterior; I= Interior; E= Exterior

Table 2.5b. Serving Bowl Decorative Techniques: Percentage Frequencies. Phase IV–VI Layers

Phase IV Rubbish Pits

Phase V Grave Goods

Phase V Grave Fills

Total

Iridescent Paint (I/E)

36.9

49.1

54.5

42.8

39.9

Red Paint (I)

0.6

0.0

0.0

0.7

0.6

Negative Paint (E)

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.7

0.2

Line Burnish (I/E)

0.9

0.0

18.2

0.7

1.1

Incision (I)

0.3

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.2

Note: I/E= Interior and/or Exterior; I= Interior; E= Exterior

Table 2.6a. Iridescent Paint on Serving Bowls: Absolute Frequencies. Phase IV–VI Layers

Phase IV Rubbish Pits

Phase V Grave Goods

Phase V Grave Fills

Total

Interior Only

97

23

0

38

158

Exterior Only

12

1

0

9

22

Interior & Exterior

12

2

6

12

32

With Line Burnish

1

0

2

1

4

Table 2.6b. Iridescent Paint on Serving Bowls: Percentage Frequencies. Phase IV–VI Layers

Phase IV Rubbish Pits

Phase V Grave Goods

Phase V Grave Fills

Total

Interior Only

80.2

88.5

0.0

64.4

74.5

Exterior Only

9.9

3.8

0.0

15.3

10.4

Interior & Exterior

9.9

7.7

100.0

20.3

15.1

With Line Burnish

0.8

0.0

33.3

1.7

1.9

and large and small spots. For the most part, designs involve relatively simple radial repetition of the elements with no indication of figurative representation. The more complex design configurations are usually limited to the flatter surface of the lower body.

of more complex motifs, rather than being independent elements. The bands may be single or in groups of up to four (Figure 2.55.1). In one case (Figure 2.29j) they do not quite reach the lip. In at least eight cases, they are combined with a horizontal band at the internal angle point (Figures 2.23j, 2.55.2). A single body sherd (Figure 2.56a) has short vertical bands in a row just beneath the angle point.

Vertical bands from the lip are relatively common (n=36) but include some that would originally have formed parts 64

The Pottery

Figure 2.55. Designs in iridescent paint on serving bowl rim interiors.

Diagonal bands from the lip are also common (n=42), but some may have been elements of triangles or arcs. The bands may be in groups of up to three (Figures 2.55.3, 2.56b). In ten cases they are combined with a horizontal band at the internal angle point (Figures 2.49j, 2.55.4). One complex design (Figure 2.23i) has them in combination with large spots and vertical bands (Figure 2.55.5).

2.14, 2.26). At least two Form 9 Long bowls have the entire upper body occupied by a triple width horizontal band (Figures 2.14, 2.55.10). On body sherds, triple thickness bands are found below the angle point (Figure 2.56f). Single triangles (Figure 2.55.11) occur twice on rim sherds (Figures 2.3g, 2.8h), with more elaborate examples on lower body sherds (Figure 2.56g, h).

Single V’s (Figure 2.55.6) occur on just one rim (Figure 2.2i), nested V’s (Figure 2.55.7) on two others (Figures 2.5h, 2.48d). Zigzags (Figure 2.55.8) are found perhaps twice on rims (Figure 2.56c, d), and on one body sherd (Figure 2.56e).

Arcs are found on twenty-three rims. Single arcs are usually associated with a series of concentric bands (Figures 2.8j, 2.55.12). Arcs may be nested in pairs (Figure 2.64) or in groups of three (Figures 2.21c, 2.55.13), and it appears that they may also occur as curved bands of double or triple thickness (Figure 2.56i). Usually, if the arcs are associated with horizontal bands, they are directly attached to them. A single body sherd (Figure 2.56j), however, has triple arcs, but with the difference that only the two inner arcs are connected to the horizontal band.

Horizontal bands at the internal angle point are the most common element (n=49). They are usually combined with other elements: vertical bands from the lip (n=8), diagonals from the lip (n=10), a horizontal band at the lip (n=2), horizontal bands below the angle point (n=11), pendant triangles (n=3), and pendant arcs (n=12).

Rectangular elements are limited to two very uncertain examples (Figure 2.57a, b).

A horizontal band at the lip occurs only very occasionally (n=4), and in at least two of these cases it is combined with other horizontal bands (Figure 2.55.9). One, two, or more horizontal (concentric) bands below the angle point (n=12) are usually associated (n=10) with a band at the angle point and other elements of complex design (Figures

Large oval spots (up to 22 mm by 15 mm) are found on five rims. In one case (Figures 2.23i, 2.55.5), the ovals are placed between diagonal and vertical lines. In another (Figure 2.57c) they are associated with paired arcs. In the 65

Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador

Figure 2.56. Serving bowls: designs in iridescent paint.

66

The Pottery

Figure 2.57. Serving bowls: designs in iridescent paint.

67

Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador other three instances, they are set in a row immediately beneath the angle point of a short upper body (Figures 2.20d, 2.55.14, 2.57d, e), in groups of at least two each. Lower body sherds have them in regular array (Figure 2.57f) and in a less ordered arrangement inside a double arc (Figure 2.57g).

On the exteriors of bowls, designs (Figure 2.58) are also simple. Most (n=37) consist of vertical bands running down from the lip, in separate groups of two (Figures 2.11n, 2.58.1), three (Figures 2.23j, 2.58.2) or four (Figure 2.8h), and perhaps in continuous series (Figures 2.13c, 2.58.3), though this may just be a group of five or more. There are five cases of diagonal bands, possibly in pairs (Figures 2.12c, 2.58.4). One rim has a zigzag (Figures 2.12f, 2.58.5), one (Figure 2.49j) has what might be nested V’s or a double zigzag (Figure 2.58.6), and one (Figure 2.12h) perhaps has an N-shaped element (Figure 2.58.7; see also Figure 2.23i).

Circular spots, of 13 mm, 14 mm, and 16 mm diameter, occur in simple rows or as individual elements on the lower bodies of three complete vessels (Figures 2.14, 2.26 bottom, 2.64) in association with multiple horizontal bands and paired arcs. Grouped spots of 13 mm are found inside a double arc on a single body sherd (Figure 2.57h). An array of very small spots of 8–10 mm diameter is found on a single body sherd (Figure 2.57i).

Pedestal bases provide another field for iridescent paint. On the complete double compotera (Figure 2.39), the pedestals each have five groups of three vertical bands that run down both their upper and their lower sections. There is also, either side of the central group of three, a single vertical band down the upper sections alone. Two sherds (Figure 2.50m, n) also carry the paint.

A curvilinear design (Figure 2.55.15) is found on one rim (Figure 2.34a) of Form 13, and probably occurs also another of the same form (Figure 2.57j). Other complex designs include one with a ladder-like arrangement (Figure 2.55.16) on a Phase IV rim sherd (Figure 2.22f) and one with curved bands on a single body sherd (Figure 2.57k).

Negative Paint. Two examples of negative painting come from the fills of Phase V graves. In each case, the vessel is red slipped inside and out, and the design is applied to the exterior. On the rim sherd (Figures 2.59a, 2.60), smudging is used to create a black to weak red background for the design in red (10R 4/6). There are two columns of small spots descending from the lip to a horizontal band, and on either side are three narrow vertical bands, the outer bands having small teeth extending outwards. While both surfaces are polished, the interior has a lustre, but the finish of the decorated exterior is matte. The fabric is fine and fired to red either side of a grey core, with a narrow yellowish red on the interior. On the body sherd (Figures 2.59b, 2.61), the design is in red (10R 6/5) against black smudge and is represented by four irregularly executed horizontal bands. The interior has a low polish, and the exterior is unpolished. The fabric is fine and fired to brown and reddish brown.

Out of the entire assemblage, clear figurative design is found on just one double compotera (Figure 2.40), a rare and elaborate ceramic form. Each bowl bears the head of a mythical being whose features, including eye, teeth, crest, and neck, are executed with a combination of circular spots and straight, curved, and zigzag bands. The heads are opposed and inverted with respect to each other, and the combined design has rotational symmetry through 180 degrees. However, the heads are slightly different, one having a longer neck than the other, and consequently a shorter zigzag crest. Given the skill needed to create these designs, it seems likely that the differences were intended. The flaring rims of Forms 8 and 13 serve as borders to the main interior designs. They carry simple motifs such as short vertical bands, diagonals, V’s, oval spots or halfovals, and arcs.

Bichrome Paint. From the fill of a Phase V grave comes a single example (Figure 2.59c) of Guangala Bichrome

Figure 2.58. Designs in iridescent paint on serving bowl rim exteriors.

68

The Pottery

Figure 2.59. Serving bowls: designs in negative paint (a, b), bichrome paint (c), red paint (d, e), and patterned line burnish (f–n). The designs in line burnish are all on the interior surface.

69

Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador

Figure 2.60. Serving bowl: polished exterior red slip with negative paint. See Figure 2.59a.

Figure 2.61. Serving bowl: unpolished exterior red slip with negative paint. See Figure 2.59b.

paint, applied to the exterior of the bowl. The medium fine fabric is fired to brown and reddish brown either side of grey. The geometric design is made up of fine lines done in dark brown against a very pale brown (10YR 7.5/4) background. The interior has a reddish brown (5YR 4.5/4) slip. Both surfaces are polished.

The design may be applied either to the interior or to the exterior, or to both. Though mostly applied to wiped surfaces, it is occasionally found as a more deeply pressed pattern against a polished background (Figures 2.59h, j, l, 2.65b). Lines are mostly 0.5 mm to 1 mm wide, though they may reach 2 mm. On the interior, wider borders of polish (up to 10 mm) may be used to define design fields. Some vessels with patterned line burnish also have iridescent paint (n=4 rim sherds, 7 body sherds). In these cases, the line burnish is usually applied to the exterior lower body, though twice it is found on the interior lower body.

Red Paint. One rim (Figure 2.59d), with a red slipped exterior, has a design of bands executed in red paint over a brown slipped interior. A single body sherd (Figure 2.59e) has small spots of red paint on a brown slipped interior. Both are probably residual from Phase IIIE occupation. Two rim sherds of odd form (Figure 2.48k, l) have unclear painted designs in red over smoothed brown backgrounds Post-fire Paint. Post-fire paint is found on bowls supported by annular bases or by hollow or solid legs. It is particularly associated with a set of bowls (Form 13) with exterior flanges (Figures 2.34, 2.35). Generally, red paint is applied as a continuous band along the rim exterior. But there may also be oval spots, either along the upper edge of the flange or around the tops of the legs. Mostly, the paint of the spots is red, but occasionally there are yellow spots, more rarely they are green, and there is one instance of white paint. Red and yellow paint is also found on a single annular-based plate with lip nubbins (Figure 2.44c), on a simple polypod bowl (Figure 2.47b), and on a small number of detached legs.

Interior motifs include reticulated patterns (Figures 2.59f, g, 2.62), parallel lines (Figures 2.59h–j, 2.63), zigzags (Figure 2.59k), wavy lines (Figure 2.59l, m), and perhaps other motifs (Figure 2.59n). On the exterior, only reticulated patterns are found (Figures 2.64 top, 2.65a–g), the decoration being confined to the lower body. One complete vessel (Figure 2.13f) had the lower body decorated with patterned line burnish in a reticulated design on the exterior and in a radial design of straight lines and zigzags on the interior, while the upper body inside and out had iridescent paint.

Patterned Line Burnish. Patterned line burnish occurs on grey and brown-surfaced fineware bowls from contexts of Phase V and Phase VI. The bowls are carinated or simple.

Brown Slip. Two sherds, probably from the same bowl (Figure 2.48i), have a unique strong brown (7.5YR 4.5/6) slip on both surfaces, though only the interior is polished. 70

The Pottery

Figure 2.63. Serving bowl: interior patterned line burnish on brown background. See Figure 2.59i.

2.3 Kitchen Bowls These are bowls of medium fine to medium fabric, with brown to reddish brown surfaces over grey or black cores. The form is an open bowl with a short rim or upper body folded slightly inwards. Rim diameters are often large. Characteristic is a differential surface treatment that sees the exterior body scraped and the exterior rim finely wiped, and on the interior a fine wipe to the upper body/rim and an ordinary wipe to the lower body. Decoration is done with red paint applied to the rim exterior or body interior. Vessels of this sort are found throughout the sequence, in all context types.

Figure 2.62. Serving bowl: interior patterned line burnish on grey background. See Figure 2.59f.

A single body sherd from grave fill 532, of medium fine fabric, fired to reddish yellow, 4 mm thick, has a polished light brown to reddish yellow (7.5YR 6/5) interior, and a polished very pale brown (10YR 8/3.5) exterior. Fabric and slip are both distinctive. The slip is matched only by that on the exterior body of a single Form 10/11 rim sherd (Figure 2.29k) from the same context.

Fabric. Most fabrics are medium fine (n=19), fine medium (n=43), or medium (n=18), all but one of the others being coarser. Surfaces are of shades of reddish brown or brown. Exceptions are given below. Form. Although the general body form is simple, there are variations both in the steepness of the vessel walls (or in the depth of the vessel) and in the shaping of the rim and upper body. In fact, there is so much variation in rim form that it is impossible to point to any one mode as typical. The rim may be very short, with a sharp angle to the thickened exterior and with a broader rounded lip (Figure 2.66a, b) or a more pointed lip (Figure 2.66c); or it may have a more rounded exterior (Figure 2.66d, e). It may be slightly taller (Figure 2.66f, g), or less thickened (Figure 2.66h, i), or not thickened at all (Figures 2.66j, k, 2.67, 2.68). There may be little more than a simple point (Figure 2.69a), or there may be a greater degree of elaboration (Figure 2.69b, c). The rim may be thicker and direct (Figure 2.69d), or relatively thin (Figure 2.69e). The wall may be steeper (Figure 2.69f), or the rim may rise from a flat bottom (Figure 2.69g). Occasionally (Figure 2.69h) the rim is folded inwards more markedly. Mostly the lips are rounded or pointed, but there is very occasional

Appliqué. There are three rim sherds with modelled or appliqué decoration on the exterior, all belonging to restricted vessels (Figure 2.17g–i) of Form 9 Long of Phase V contexts. A small group of vessels with lip nubbins is described for Form 12. There is also one exterior flange (Figure 2.51m) decorated with a nubbin. Incision and Excision. Around the skirt of each pedestal base of a double compotera (Figure 2.42) from a Phase V grave, there is a row of thirty-nine vertical incisions. A fragment of another pedestal base (Figure 2.50p) has a design of vertical and horizontal incised lines (up to 1 mm wide and 0.5 mm wide deep) against a background of wiped light reddish brown. One rim (Figure 2.29h) has a fine incised line just below its notched lip, with a second but excised line slightly lower down. One body sherd (Figure 2.65h) with polished red slip has two incised lines, up to 0.5 mm wide and deep, on the interior. 71

Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador

Figure 2.64. Serving bowls: Form 10 Long bowl with iridescent paint and patterned line burnish.

72

The Pottery

Figure 2.65. Serving bowls: designs in patterned line burnish (a–g) and incision (h). The designs in line burnish are all on the exterior surface.

73

Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador

Figure 2.66. Kitchen bowls.

74

The Pottery

Figure 2.67. Kitchen bowl: exterior with red-painted rim. See Figure 2.66j.

Figure 2.68. Kitchen bowl: grey interior with design in red paint. See Figure 2.66j.

flattening (Figures 2.69i, 2.70), squaring (Figure 2.69j), squashing (Figure 2.69k), or external bevelling (Figure 2.69l). One broad flat rim has very short lips projecting inside and out (Figure 2.69m).

Finish. Mostly, the exterior rim is finely wiped, and the exterior body scraped, and on the interior the rim or upper body is finely wiped, and the lower body is given an ordinary wipe. Four sherds (e.g., Figure 2.69h, m), however, have the body interior and rim exterior smoothed or polished, and three others, all eroded, suggest polish on the interior alone, on the rim exterior, or on the lip.

Dimensions. Rim thicknesses range from 5 mm to 11 mm. The minimum vessel wall thickness is 3 mm. Rim diameters range from 220 mm to 560 mm, but the majority (n=66) lie between 320 mm and 420 mm, with the modal value being 380–400 mm (n=30).

Unusual or Imported Vessels. One rim (Figure 2.72d) from Phase V grave fill has a squared lip with broad notching on the exterior. It is further distinguished by: unusual firing colours (light red either side of a black core); a brown to yellowish brown self-slip (7.5–10YR 5/4) applied to a roughly wiped exterior; and unusual decoration - a delicately applied design of curvilinear bands in a red paint (7.5R 4/6) of different quality. All of which suggests that it was imported. Two other rims, from the fill of a Phase V grave, are oddly formed, in that the wall ends with just a slight inward inflection and a very slight accentuation of the interior angle of the lip. Neither is painted. One (Figure 2.72e) has an unusually gritty fabric, and the other (Figure 2.72f) has larger inclusions (up to 1.5 mm) than is normal. A rim from another Phase V grave (Figure 2.72g) has an unusual fabric of fine medium texture, fired to reddish brown either side of a brown core. On the interior, the rim is finely wiped round to the outside of the lip, and the body incompletely polished. The exterior is given an ordinary wipe, the rim perhaps less carefully than the body. The surfaces are a distinctive brown, 7.5YR 5/3.5 where wiped, 7.5YR 5/2.5 where polished. A rim (Figure 2.72h) from a neighbouring grave fill is of identical ware. It comes from a wide vessel with an upright upper body. It has a flat lip, painted red and polished, that projects slightly inwards. The interior has

Decoration. Most rim sherds (n=75) carry red paint, and of those, most (n=51) have red paint on both the exterior rim and the interior rim or body (Tables 2.7a, 2.7b). Paint is applied to the rim exterior as a horizontal band that may run over onto the inside of the lip (Figure 2.69i). The paint may cover the rim exterior, or, more commonly, it is applied just to the top of the rim or lip (Figure 2.69l). On the interior, paint is mostly applied as roughly vertical finger-width bands that run down from the lip or upper rim (Figure 2.71a), occasionally with much overlapping of the bands (Figure 2.71b, c). In one case (Figure 2.71d) there are short bands at the rim, with small spots over the body, and in another (Figure 2.71e) vertical bands are disconnected from a horizontal band at the lip. Two rims (Figures 2.66j, 2.69i) have vertical bands from the lip, and other elements over the lower body. Two rim sherds have horizontal bands without vertical bands (Figure 2.69c), and five body sherds have horizontal bands of greater or lesser regularity (Figure 2.71f–h). The elements of one body sherd (Figure 2.71i) have the shape of teardrops. Three body sherds (Figure 2.72a–c) are decorated with spots, the first of these, wiped inside and out, also having long paint dribbles. 75

Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador

Figure 2.69. Kitchen bowls.

76

The Pottery brown on the interior, and grey at the core. One body sherd (Figure 2.72j) is distinct for the red grit in its paste. Observations. The vessels have been identified as kitchen or cooking bowls on the basis of a fabric quality designed to withstand heat, the rough finish for the exterior body, and its frequent blackening. That the rim is so short, and the body so relatively wide and generally shallow, suggests that any cooking was of non-liquids, and probably of something like a tortilla, which would require a flat surface. Members of this class generally show a great degree of coherence in terms of overall form, decoration, and finish, and the wide variation in rim form does not appear to correlate with contextual differences. Indeed, there is clear continuity from Engoroy times, and the vessels from Early Regional Development (Phase V) layers and grave fills show no significant difference from those of Late Engoroy (Phase IIIL and Phase IV) funerary rubbish pits. 2.4 Thickwalled Bowls Figure 2.70. Kitchen bowl: buff interior with design in red paint. See Figure 2.69i.

These are bowls with fine medium to coarse medium fabrics that have unusually thick walls. They are of several forms.

an incomplete polish over its brown (7.5YR 4.5/3) surface and has traces of red paint. The exterior is simply wiped. From the same grave is another exotic rim (Figure 2.72i), upright, thickened on the interior, and with a slightly rounded lip. The upper body is steep. The interior is not polished, but has a light brown wash, with a design in red paint that extends over the lip. On the exterior, the rim has a fine wipe, while the body is scraped. The fabric is standard medium fine, fired to black on the outside, reddish

From a Phase V layer (Figure 2.73a) and a Phase VI layer (Figure 2.73b) are two rims with fine medium fabrics from large, restricted bowls. Both rims are everted, inflected, and thick (13 mm). They indicate diameters of 510 mm and 760 mm respectively, which are much greater than those of the cooking jars whose rims share this form. The first sherd, fired to dark brown, is badly eroded over all its surfaces. The other (actually, two adjoining sherds with repair holes), worn but not so badly, is fired to reddish

Table 2.7a. Kitchen Bowls: Absolute Frequencies. Phase IV–VI Layers

Phase IV Rubbish Pits

Phase V Grave Goods

Phase V Grave Fills

Total

Undecorated

8

1

0

4

13

Exterior Rim Paint only

6

1

0

2

9

Exterior and Interior Paint

31

9

0

11

51

Interior Paint only

10

0

0

5

15

Total

55

11

0

22

88

Phase IV–VI Layers

Phase IV Rubbish Pits

Phase V Grave Goods

Phase V Grave Fills

Total

Undecorated

14.5

9.1

0.0

18.2

14.8

Exterior Rim Paint only

11.0

9.1

0.0

9.1

10.2

Exterior and Interior Paint

56.4

81.8

0.0

50.0

58.0

Interior Paint only

18.2

0.0

0.0

22.7

17.0

Total

100.1

100.0

0.0

100.0

100.0

Table 2.7b. Kitchen Bowls: Percentage Frequencies.

77

Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador

Figure 2.71. Kitchen bowls.

78

The Pottery

Figure 2.72. Kitchen bowls: d–j are all probable imports.

79

Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador

Figure 2.73. Thickwalled bowls.

80

The Pottery brown, but seems to have a light brown (7.5YR 8/2) wash or thin slip over its unpolished rim interior, and the wiped exterior is covered in a red slip (7.5R 4/6). From a Phase V grave came a third, convex rim of a bowl of similar general form (Figure 2.73c), but of smaller dimensions (rim diameter is 320 mm). The fabric is medium fine, fired to reddish brown either side of a grey core. The rim interior carries continuous, polished red or reddish brown paint (5YR 5/5), and the body interior, finely wiped, has faint red paint or slip. The body exterior is simply wiped and has no paint. Manufacture is notably confident.

sherd (Figure 2.73g) from a Phase VI layer is of similar dimensions and profile, though the transition to the rim is less marked on the exterior and the rim itself has a more squared face, lip, and interior angle. Its fabric is of fine medium texture. The colours are uncertain as the sherd was burnt and blackened. On the interior, the body has an ordinary wipe. The rim was given a fine wipe on both interior and exterior, and the exterior body was scraped. From an early Phase V layer, a single rim sherd (Figure 2.73d) is off a vessel of uncertain overall form. Its fabric is of medium texture, fired to light brown with a dark grey core, and contains much small quartz (< 0.5 mm). The rim, which is depressed below the horizontal, carried polished red paint, though the full extent of the paint is uncertain as much of the sherd is eroded.

From the goods of a Phase V grave is an almost complete bowl (Figures 2.73h, 2.74) of coarse medium fabric with occasional inclusions up to 6 mm in length. Its top is not quite round, having collapsed slightly between forming and firing, and measures 335 mm by 350 mm. It stands about 140 mm tall, and the wall is 5 mm to 7 mm thick. From a rounded base, the wall rises with an even curve to a point just below the everted rim, which has a convex interior face. The interior rim and body, fired to a variable red brown, are lightly and incompletely polished, the rim being a little better finished. The exterior, a light reddish brown, has a fine wipe along the rim, and a rough wipe over the slightly irregular contours of the body. A rim

From Phase V fills are two thickwalled shallow plates, both with fine medium fabrics. One (Figure 2.73e) is smaller and carries a brown to reddish grey slip (5YR 5/2.5) on the interior, both surfaces being simply wiped. The other (Figure 2.73f) has a brown to dark brown wash or self-slip over the interior, which is incompletely polished, while the exterior has a fine wipe at the rim and an ordinary wipe over the body.

Figure 2.74. Thickwalled bowl. See Figure 2.73h.

81

Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador 2.6 Serving Jars

From a late Phase V layer, there is a single sherd (Figure 2.73i) from a restricted bowl. The fabric, of medium texture and fired to light brown on the exterior and black on the interior, is odd for its abundant tiny white angular grit. The rim is oddly squared and the lip carries yellow paint (10YR 7.5/8), which is also unusual. While the exterior is very worn, the interior has an incomplete polish over a light brown slip. All suggests that this is an import.

Serving jars (Tables 2.8a, 2.8b) include several forms, not all of them easily defined on account of the small sample size and the frequently small sherd size. Although mostly finewares, there are a few with fine medium or medium fabrics. Mostly they have smudged and polished slips. Iridescent paint is the most common medium for decorative design. Interiors are well wiped.

Observations. These vessels could probably all be considered as specialised kitchen bowls, with different functions to those of the standard form.

2.6.1 Bottles Three sherds all come from fills within the Phase V funerary enclosure. A single neck (Figure 2.84a) has a polished black exterior. A fragment (Figure 2.84b) of the shoulder of a bottle, with the lower handle attachment, one air hole, and the step from the upper platform, has a polished, very dark brown body, less than 3 mm thick. There is a nubbin set at the edge of the platform, next to the base of the handle. Another shoulder fragment (Figure 2.84c), this time of a much more robust vessel, has two whistle vents passing through the handle attachment, which is sited just behind the platform edge. The body is decorated with iridescent paint over a black slip.

2.5 Funerary Urn There is a single, incomplete, very large, deep bowl (Figure 2.75) that was used as a Phase V funerary urn for the skeletal remains of a single human of undetermined sex. The edge of the grave was subject to repeated disturbance as later pits were cut, and fragments of the upper section of the urn were found distributed among the fills of six other intersecting features within the funerary precinct. Fabric. The fabric is coarse medium to coarse, though well sorted, and mostly fired to red (2.5YR) at the surface and black at the core, though there is considerable variation. The firing was not completely successful, and there is some distortion of the form and cracking of the exterior surface along one section of the upper body and rim.

2.6.2 Serving Jars with Flaring Rims This is a very small group of vessels distinguished from the majority of serving jars by a wide flaring rim. They fall into two sets.

Form. The bowl is wide, with a diameter of about 820 mm, and stands about 500 mm tall. From a rounded bottom, the wall rises with little curvature to its high maximum point, where it turns inwards very slightly before reaching the everted rim. The wall is mostly around 15 mm thick, though up to 21 mm at the base, and only 12 mm as it meets the rim. The rim itself is about 11 mm thick and has a convex interior face with a rounded lip.

Type A. This vessel form has a tall flaring rim, from the underside of which hangs a short flange. The mouth is relatively wide for a fineware jar. There is one magnificent example (Figures 2.78–2.81) represented by several adjoining fragments and one non-adjoining fragment that were recovered from two Phase IV funerary rubbish pits and the layer into which the pits were cut. The paste is hard, fine, and grey. Above the main chamber, which is at least 225 mm wide, there is narrower upper section leading to an orifice of 120 mm. The rim has a diameter of 206 mm. Notches cut into the flange are up to 6 mm wide. The rim interior (Figure 2.78a, b) has a well-polished very dark brown slip decorated with almost colourless iridescent paint applied as groups of matched pairs of diagonal bands or nested V’s. The interior body is covered in a very finely wiped dark grey wash. The exterior surface is covered in a brown slip. The outside of the rim and the lower face of the upper chamber are wiped smooth (to 7.5YR 5/3– 5/2). The upper surfaces of both chambers of the body are decorated with a pale red iridescent paint and polished (to 10YR 4/2–5/2). The upper chamber paint (Figure 2.78c) is applied as short bands, perpendicular to the circumference, in groups of four or more. The top of the lower chamber appears to be covered to the width of at least two bands from its upper edge. The painted bands both on the upper chamber and interior rim are 15 mm to 16 mm wide. In addition, however, the top of the lower chamber carries incised designs (Figure 2.78d, e) executed when the clay was still wet. The V-shaped cuts, up to 3 mm wide and

Decoration and Finish. The interior is well finished with no irregularity of surface. The rim is covered with red paint (10R 5/5). The body has a smoothly applied variable light reddish brown wash (5–7.5YR 6/4). Over the upper wall there is red paint applied either as small spots (Figures 2.75a, 2.76) flicked in horizontal and diagonal lines, or as irregular larger patches (Figure 2.75b), but the lower half is unpainted. How spots and patches were distributed in relation to each other is not clear. The exterior is simply scraped over the lower half, and variable reddish brown to dark brown in colour, but the roughly wiped upper wall is covered in a thick red slip. The lower limit of this exterior slip is at roughly the same level as that of the interior red spots. Over one area of the slipped exterior, there is a pattern of closely set small circular holes (1.5 mm to 4 mm diameter), arrayed in very regular rows and columns (Figure 2.77). The holes show as a variable greenish colour (2.5YR 6.5/2.5–5Y 5.5/1) against dusky red (10R 3/2), where the slip has darkened. The holes appear to represent the knots in a thick woven fabric that would have been used to wrap the urn. 82

The Pottery

Figure 2.75. Funerary urn: interior decoration with spots (a) and patches (b) of red paint.

83

Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador

Figure 2.76. Funerary urn: section of interior decorated with red paint. See Figure 2.75a.

Figure 2.77. Funerary urn: stains on section of exterior. See Figure 2.75.

Table 2.8a. Serving Jar Form Categories: Absolute Frequencies. Phase IV–VI Layers

Phase IV Rubbish Pits

Phase V Grave Goods

Phase V Grave Fills

Total

Flaring Rim Type A

2

1

0

0

3

Flaring Rim Type B

0

0

0

6

6

Black or Brown Slip

16

4

2

2

24

Red Slip

5

1

0

2

8

Wide Neck

5

1

0

0

6

Vertical Rim

0

1

1

0

2

Structured Rim

0

0

5

0

5

Total

28

8

8

10

54

Table 2.8b. Serving Jar Form Categories: Percentage Frequencies. Phase IV–VI Layers

Phase IV Rubbish Pits

Phase V Grave Goods

Phase V Grave Fills

Total

Flaring Rim Type A

7.1

12.5

0.0

0.0

5.6

Flaring Rim Type B

0.0

0.0

0.0

60.0

11.1

Black or Brown Slip

57.1

50.0

25.0

20.0

44.4

Red Slip

17.9

12.5

0.0

20.0

14.8

Wide Neck

17.9

12.5

0.0

0.0

11.1

Vertical Rim

0.0

12.5

12.5

0.0

3.7

Structured Rim

0.0

0.0

62.5

0.0

9.3

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

Total

1.5 mm deep, are very cleanly made, their surfaces were treated with the brown slip, and their upper faces were polished. Two designs are evident, one rectilinear and the other curvilinear. The form, fine fabric, interior wash, and exterior polish and paint, all point to the vessel having been intended for the serving of some sort of liquid. While

the fabric is not unusual, the design, incised decoration, and high quality suggest either that it was made for a very special occasion, or that it was made by someone outside the group of potters that normally supplied Salango, or both. Depositional context indicates that it was used in funerary rites of the Late Engoroy phase. 84

The Pottery

Figure 2.78. Serving jars: jars with flaring rims, Type A.

85

Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador

Figure 2.79. Serving jar with flaring rim, Type A: rim interior with iridescent paint. See Figure 2.78b.

Figure 2.80. Serving jar with flaring rim, Type A: rim exterior with notched flange. See Figure 2.78a.

There are a further two rim sherds with exterior flanges (Figure 2.82a, b), both having polished rim interiors with dark brown to black slips, the rim exteriors being simply wiped. While the flange of one is notched, that of the other is missing, leaving only the scar. Type B. Five non-adjoining rim sherds off one vessel, one rim sherd off another, and a body sherd, all of the same material and manufacture, derive from the backfills of three intersecting Phase V graves. The fabrics are fine and grey. This vessel form also has a wide, abruptly flaring rim, with no neck, but the chamber is rounded and squat, and there is no exterior flange on the rim. The lips carry nubbins, and in one instance (Figure 2.82c) these nubbins are paired. In the second case (Figures 2.82d, 2.83), the rim interior also carries a delicate rib or flange. Rim diameters are both 180 mm. The body sherd (Figure 2.82e) indicates an orifice diameter of 100 mm and a body diameter of 135 mm. The wall of the body is up to 5 mm thick, while the base of the rim is just 2.5 mm.

Figure 2.81. Serving jar with flaring rim, Type A: body with incised design. See Figure 2.87c.

Both the rim interiors and exteriors are polished, and the polish is good. The surfaces have a very finely speckled appearance on account of tiny white particles that obtrude from the paste through the very dark brown to black slip. The vessels are decorated with colourless iridescent paint. In one case (Figure 2.82c), the rim motif is a V, inside which there is a single circular spot, with further spots between the V’s. In the other case (Figure 2.82d), there are pairs of vertical bands running down from the flange, with a circular spot on either side at the top of the bands and other spots towards the bottom of the rim. The body sherd also has pairs of vertical bands on the exterior shoulder. Bands are 11 mm wide, and the spots are 9 mm wide. The interior surface of the body sherd is a very smoothly wiped, almost lustrous, dark grey wash or slip.

2.6.3 Serving Jars with Dark Brown or Black Slip

Here also the vessels were designed for serving liquids, and their rarity and quality point to use in a highly specialised, ritualistic context. Depositional context points to an Early Regional Development date, though the sherds could be residual, and an earlier date is perhaps suggested by the delicacy of the painted elements and the care of the finish. On the other hand, the interior flange of one of the rims is a feature observed on at least one other Early Regional Development vessel from site 141B.

These are jars with constricted necks, flaring everted rims that tend to be simple, and polished slips that are mostly dark brown or black, but are occasionally brown or grey. Fabrics are mostly fine. Iridescent paint can be applied to rim interior or body exterior. They occur through the sequence with no obvious time-related change. 86

The Pottery

Figure 2.82. Serving jars: jars with flaring rims, Type A (a, b) and Type B (c–e).

87

Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador 2.6.4 Serving Jars with Red Slip These are jars with constricted necks, everted rims, and polished red slip or paint on the rim interior and/or body exterior. They come mostly from Phase IV or early Phase V contexts. Fabrics range from very fine to medium. There is variation also in terms of rim posture, diameter, and thickness. The smallest rim (Figure 2.85c), only slightly everted, is 4 mm thick, has a diameter of 40 mm, and carries polished red slip on both faces. Rims are otherwise much thicker (6 mm to 9 mm), more everted, parallelsided but tapering to a rounded lip, with diameters that range from 120 mm (Figure 2.85d) and 140 mm (Figure 2.85e) to 220 mm (Figure 2.85f). One rim (Figure 2.85g) of medium fabric has a blunter lip with slight exterior thickening. Four sherds have the shallow step (Figure 2.85h) associated with the narrower necked jars with dark brown or black slips. There are two maximum points with carination (Figure 2.85i, j). Vessel walls are from 2.5 mm to 11 mm thick. One rim interior (Figure 2.85l) has red paint in horizontal bands on a Strong Brown (7.5YR 5/5) slip, all polished. 2.6.5 Wide-necked Serving Jars These are small jars whose mouths are relatively wide compared to their bodies, with simple everted rims and polished slips on the rim interior and body exterior. They are spread thinly through the sequence. Fabrics are fine or medium fine, mostly grey at the core with brown or reddish brown surfaces. Lips are rounded, as are the internal angle points. The maximum point on the exterior may be slightly carinated. Rim diameters range from 80 mm to 120 mm, rim thickness from 4 mm to 5 mm, and wall thickness are mostly from 3.5 mm to 6 mm. Body diameters are from 90 mm to 180 mm. Decoration varies. Two (Figure 2.87a, b) have reddish brown slips (2.5YR 4/4). One rim (Figure 2.87c) is perhaps decorated with horizontal bands of red paint. Three (Figure 2.87d–f) have smudged, dark brown slips, the latter two also having unclear iridescent paint.

Figure 2.83. Serving jar with flaring rim, Type B: rim interior with iridescent paint. See Figure 2.82d.

The main group has rim diameters from around 50 mm up to 170 mm (Figure 2.84d–i). Rim thicknesses vary from 3.5 mm to 6.5 mm. Shoulders tend to be high, and those of narrower necks may have a shallow step (Figure 2.84d). Maximum points are rounded or carinated, and fragments indicate that body diameters reached at least 340 mm. Bases are usually rounded, though they may occasionally be flat (Figure 2.85k). Upper body thicknesses range from 8 mm at the upper step, to 2 mm below the step. Iridescent paint is present on vessels with black or dark brown slips. Rim interiors (Figure 2.84f, i) have vertical bands, while on the body exterior the designs involve concentric bands of single or double thickness, and vertical bands, also of single or double thickness (Figure 2.84j–l). Rim exteriors are mostly unpolished.

2.6.6 Serving Jars with Vertical Rims For Phase IV, there is a single rim sherd (Figure 2.87g) from a rubbish pit. It has a simple short rim, but the lip appears to have been broken and reshaped. The body exterior is stepped at least twice, and on the polished dark brown slip there is red iridescent paint applied as a series of short vertical bands around each step. For Phase V, a complete vessel (Figures 2.88, 2.89) was buried as a grave offering. The rim exterior is thickened and rounded, with a slight undercut at its base. The body is carinated, with a diameter of 200 mm, and has a rounded bottom. Dark brown slip covers the exterior, and on the interior covers the rim and runs down part of the upper body. Iridescent paint covers the whole of the interior rim, while on the exterior it is applied as a series of twenty-six short bands down the rim, as two concentric bands around the neck, and finally as a series of ten groups, each of three vertical bands, around the shoulder down to the carination.

Outside the main group, there are three rims of unusual form. One (Figure 2.84m), as well as being more upright, has a larger diameter (200 mm) and a brown slip. Another (Figure 2.84n) is very upright, with little eversion. The third (Figure 2.84o) is everted but unusually flat. Two complete vessels (Figures 2.85a, b, 2.86) from the goods of Phase V graves are small (body diameters are 300 mm) and squat (102 mm and 110 mm tall), and have short everted rims and narrow mouths. Both have variable brown to dark brown slips. The first is polished as far as its carinated maximum point. The other is polished over the entire exterior from the neck down, may have iridescent paint, and has a simple rim that terminates in an unusual flat lip. 88

The Pottery

Figure 2.84. Bottles and serving jars: bottles (a–c) and jars with dark brown or black slip (d–o).

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Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador

Figure 2.85. Serving jars: jars with dark brown or black slip (a, b) and jars with red slip (c–l).

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The Pottery

Figure 2.86. Serving jar with polished brown slip. Rim diameter: 66 mm. See Figure 2.85b.

2.6.7 Serving Jars with Structured Rims

(Figures 2.94, 2.95) is smaller (body diameter is 164 mm, height is 150 mm), and lacks the nubbins at the lip. The upper face of the rim is polished, and the neck interior is finished with a smooth wipe. The exterior body is decorated with a roughly executed burnished design that runs from the base of the neck to just below the midline and shows as black against the wiped grey background. Between two horizontal bands of polish, and separated by vertical bands of polish, are nine panels, each decorated with one or other of two motifs. Four panels have a reticulated design, with from three to five vertical lines, and from six to eleven horizontal lines. The other five panels each have two or three vertical sections, separated by vertical lines, and each section contains one or two zigzag lines that run from top to bottom. Only one such panel has three sections, but two of the others have a section with two zigzag lines.

These are five complete vessels from the goods of four Phase V graves. They are distinguished by a definite throat at the neck and have sharply everted rims. Rim diameters are from 84 mm to 92 mm. Bodies are rounded, with no hint of carination. From one grave, two very similar jars (Figures 2.90a, b, 2.91) each have a neck that narrows as it reaches the orifice. The everted rim is horizontal, and the lip is rounded. Both have fine medium fabrics and variable brown slips. Polish is applied to the top of the rim, and to the body exterior from the neck to a point roughly half-way down the underside. Body diameters are 212 mm and 175 mm, and heights are 187 mm and 168 mm respectively. From two other graves, two vessels have necks that widen as they approach the orifice. One (Figures 2.92a, 2.93) has a horizontal rim and a slightly depressed lip, around the top of which are four nubbins, not quite evenly spaced. The slip is a reddish brown. Polish is applied from the lower angle point of the neck interior around to the underside of the lip, and from the neck to just below the maximum point of the exterior, below which the surface is smoothed. Body diameter is 182 mm, and height is 169 mm. The second

The fifth jar (Figures 2.92b, 2.96) has a vertical neck and a short, sharply everted rim with rounded lip. The rim and neck interior have a fine wipe. On the outside, a grey to grey-brown slip is given a low polish to below the midline. Body diameter is 202 mm, and height is 159 mm. Observations. These vessels generally differ from others classed as serving jars in ways that indicate some functional distinction. Except for one (Figures 2.94, 2.95), 91

Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador

Figure 2.87. Serving jars: wide-necked jars (a–f), jar with vertical rim (g), miscellaneous body sherds (h–j), and designs in iridescent paint (k–p).

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Figure 2.88. Serving jars: jar with vertical rim.

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Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador

Figure 2.89. Serving jar with vertical rim and iridescent paint. See Figure 2.88.

fabrics and finish are less fine, and bases are unfinished and worn. Yet the rims are more elaborate. It is possible that they were used in some intermediary stage between the preparation and the serving of whatever liquid they carried, i.e., as temporary storage vessels.

of jars with wide flaring rims each have slightly different elements and designs. The larger Phase IV vessel (Figure 2.78) has double nested V’s around its rim interior, and short vertical bands around the upper section of the body, the strokes all being of finger width, i.e., 14 m to 16 mm. In the case of the smaller jars of Phase V, however, the bands, either V-shaped (Figure 2.82c) or paired verticals (Figure 2.82d, e), are narrower at 9 mm to 11 mm, and small spots are also used on the rim interiors. Narrownecked jar exteriors are mostly decorated with single or multiple (two or three) concentric bands around the base of the neck and shoulder of the vessel. These are used in association with: short vertical strokes of single thickness (Figures 2.84j, 2.87k) or double thickness (Figure 2.84k); curved bands (Figures 2.84k, 2.87l) that undulate up and down to the mid-point; and, perhaps, arcs (Figure 2.87m). All bands are of 14 mm to 16 mm width. On rim interiors, designs are less easily interpreted, but appear to be either continuous bands or vertical strokes. Similar elements are deployed on the jars with vertical rims (Figures 2.87g, 2.88), where on the complete vessel the vertical bands round the body are set in ten groups each of three, while round the rim there are twenty-six strokes. There are less carefully executed vertical bands down other stepped shoulders (Figure 2.87n, o). A single body sherd (Figure 2.87p) has a V or zigzag, perhaps in conjunction with a circular spot.

2.6.8 Unplaced Body Sherds Five body sherds from fineware serving jars with polished, dark slipped exteriors, but not assignable to any vessel of specific rim form, present attribute values beyond those described above. First, there is a shoulder (Figure 2.87h) that has a deeper step than most, as well, perhaps, as small circular spots of iridescent paint. One mid-point (Figure 2.87i) indicates a body diameter of only 80 mm. Another sherd, however, suggests a body diameter of around 460 mm. There is a flat base (Figure 2.87j). And there is a single sherd of 4 mm thickness (not illustrated, from layer 677) that has both an odd fabric, very fine, grey, and flecked with tiny shiny angular inclusions, and an unusually fine wipe to the interior surface. 2.6.9 Decorative Techniques Applied to Serving Jars Iridescent Paint. The data available on iridescent paint as applied to fineware jars suggest that there are few design possibilities, and that design is linked to form. The two sets 94

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Figure 2.90. Serving jars: jars with structured rims.

95

Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador edge. From a Phase V layer, a shoulder (Figure 2.97h) of reddish black medium fine fabric, the surface smoothed, has a zone of small irregular incisions defined along its lower edge by a curved incised line 1 mm wide and 0.5 mm deep. The line ends next to an appliqué button sited just above a shallow step that marks the shoulder. Another stepped shoulder (Figure 2.97i), from a Phase VI layer, also of medium fine fabric, has incised lines, up to 1.25 mm wide and 0.1 mm deep, arranged in parallel zigzags or nested inverted V’s. Following incision, the jar was decorated with a red slip and given an incomplete polish. Also from a Phase VI layer is a shoulder (Figure 2.97j) of medium fine fabric, with unusual tiny white inclusions. It has a horizontal incised line, 2 mm wide and 1 mm deep, V-shaped in profile, with slightly raised edges. Over the line is an appliqué button. The surface is smudged to very dark brown, with polish below the line and perhaps a lower finish (smooth) above the line. And from Phase V layers, two sherds (Figure 2.97k, l) have fine parallel lines excised through polished black and dark brown slips respectively. Each of the incised sherds is treated differently. But while the technique is rare in the assemblage, only one of the sherds has an unusual fabric. It is not clear if the excision applied to the two last sherds was deliberate and decorative.

Figure 2.91. Serving jar with structured rim and polished brown slip. See Figure 2.90b.

2.7 Kitchen Jars 2.7.1 Standard Kitchen Jars

The small jars with wide flaring rims display a particular set of elements not shared by other vessels. These jars, however, are very rare, and the technique of manufacture and decoration are also unusual. The difference in motif and design perhaps reflects a different origin, rather than variation within the local repertoire. With respect to the other forms, there seems to be little overall change from designs found on Phase IIIL jars.

Fabric. These jars have medium fine to medium fabrics mostly fired to reddish brown or brown, with grey or black cores. Form. The rims (Tables 2.9a, 2.9b) can be for the most part separated according to rim shape as squared, convex, inflected, or horizontal inflected, though there is some blurring of the boundaries between squared and convex, and between inflected and horizontal inflected. Bodies are for the most part rounded, though a few have slightly carinated maximum points. Overall dimensions are hard to estimate, as most rim and neck sherds do not reach the maximum point, but most vessels probably have body diameters of between 200 mm and 400 mm.

Line Burnish. On fineware jars (Figures 2.94, 2.97a–e), line burnish is applied in reticulated patterns and zigzags, wavy lines, criss-crossing straight lines, and other less clearly represented designs. The patterned burnish is applied in the few examples available to wiped surfaces that are usually grey but may be light brown. Incision and Excision. A sherd (Figure 2.97f) from a Phase IV or early Phase V layer has a medium fine fabric, light brown either side of a grey core, and a wiped exterior. Just below the neck, there is a pattern of short (3 mm to 4 mm), shallow (0.5 mm) incisions arranged diagonally either side of a small appliqué circular nubbin (2 mm across and 2 mm thick). From a Phase V grave fill there is a sherd (Figure 2.97g) with a fine, brown fabric. Rim interior and body exterior carry a polished brown slip. Around the neck exterior, there is polished dark red paint, and between that and the brown slip of the body, a narrow (4 mm) unpolished band filled with short horizontal cuts. These slits, up to 3 mm long, 1 mm wide, and 0.5 mm deep, each have left a low ridge of clay along the upper

Decoration and Finish. Surfaces are finished with a fine wipe along the rim interior and exterior, leaving narrow horizontal parallel striations, with a less regular wipe over the exterior body. Only two rim interiors carry polish. The interior surface of the body carries a thin wash. Most kitchen jars are decorated with red paint on the rim and exterior body (Tables 2.10a, 2.10b), such that it must be considered the norm. There is change in red paint technique and design, and this correlates with change in rim form. A small number of rims have no sign of paint. A very small number have incised decoration on the body exterior. Squared Rims. Squared rims (Figure 2.98a) are mostly limited to layers and rubbish pits of Phase IV and early 96

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Figure 2.92. Serving jars: jars with structured rims.

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Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador rounded. Rim diameters range from 80 mm to 340 mm, rim thicknesses from 3.5 mm to 7 mm, with rare exceptions (n=2) exceeding 8 mm (Figure 2.98k), and rim lengths from 14 mm to 30 mm. Body thicknesses range from 3.5 mm to 10 mm. Most (n=72) carry red finger paint. Of those that do not, two share a notably inferior quality of manufacture. In addition to being small, with body diameters of 130 mm and 150 mm, the contours of their black, soot-stained exteriors are very irregular. One (Figures 2.98l, 2.101) is from a small, much truncated pit located within the Phase V funerary precinct. The other (Figures 2.98m, 2.102), part of the goods from a Phase V grave, has differential finish on the exterior, with a fine wipe to the rim and neck, a rougher wipe over the body, and an odd light polish over the base. Inflected Rims. Inflected rims are found throughout the sequence, with just over a quarter deriving from Phase IV rubbish pits, showing a similar distribution pattern to that of curved rims. The rim interior is characterised by a convex upper section and an inflection and reversal of the curve just above the angle point (Figure 2.103a, b). There is commonly a similar pinching of the interior vessel wall just before the angle point (Figure 2.103c). In addition, there may be further alteration of the vessel wall as it approaches the angle point (Figure 2.103d, e). Occasionally, thickening of the wall is associated with a very short exterior lip to the rim (Figure 2.103f). The rim is everted normally at about 45 degrees, but it may be anywhere between erect (Figure 2.103g) and almost flat (Figure 2.103h). Most lips are rounded, but there is a very occasional squaring (Figure 2.103i). Rim diameters range from 100 mm to 320 mm, rim thicknesses from 4 mm to 7 mm, rim lengths from 13 mm to 35 mm, and wall thicknesses from 2 mm to 13 mm. All but nine rims carry red finger paint. One rim (Figure 2.119l) carries no red paint but has a zoned punctate design.

Figure 2.93. Serving jar with structured rim, nubbins on the lip, and polished red brown slip. See Figure 2.92a.

Phase V (i.e., up to Structure 10). The interior surface has no curvature. All examples are everted at an angle of about 45 degrees and have rounded lips. Rim diameters range from 130 mm to 260 mm, rim thicknesses from 4 mm to 7 mm, rim lengths (lip to internal angle point) from 15 to 25 mm, and body thickness from 2.5 mm to 10 mm. All squared rims are decorated with red paint, though the designs are mostly unclear.

Horizontal Inflected Rims. This rim form is predominantly associated with Phase V, though it first appears in a Phase IV rubbish pit. The rim is as the inflected form, but with three related differences. First, the lip is so depressed that it is only slightly higher than (Figure 2.103j), level with (Figure 2.103k), or even lower than (Figure 2.103l) the interior angle point. Secondly, what in the inflected rim would have been the angle point itself now forms an interior lip. And third, beneath this interior lip there is often another angle point, usually rounded but sometimes more marked (Figure 2.103m, n), which creates a short inner throat at the orifice. Sometimes, on the other hand, the throat is emphasised barely (Figure 2.103o) or not at all (Figure 2.103p, q). There are three exaggerated examples from two Phase VI layers (Figure 2.103r–t). All lips are rounded. Rim diameters range from 130 mm to 260 mm, rim lengths from 10 mm to 22 mm, and throat thicknesses from 6 mm to 15 mm. Minimum wall thickness is 3 mm. All rim sherds have red finger paint, save for one that is heavily eroded and another that is burnt.

Convex Rims. Convex rims are found throughout the sequence. Almost a quarter appear in Phase IV rubbish pits. The rim interiors vary between a slight curvature, associated with a sharp angle to the neck (Figure 2.98b), and a more pronounced curvature, associated with a transition to the neck that may be more marked (Figure 2.98c) or more rounded (Figures 2.98d, 2.99, 2.100), the latter example having red paint on black surfaces. The rim may be simple (Figure 2.98e), but more commonly there is some elaboration involved. Occasionally the body thickens at the exterior as it meets the rim (Figure 2.98f), while in rare extreme instances (Figure 2.98g) the rim is little more than a shallow lip. There may also be thickening of the body interior (Figure 2.98h). The rim is generally everted at around 45 degrees but may be more erect (Figure 2.98i) or more depressed (Figure 2.98j). These differences appear mostly to reflect synchronous variation rather than diachronic change. Lips are generally 98

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Figure 2.94. Serving jars: jar with structured rim and patterned line burnish.

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Figure 2.95. Serving jar with structured rim and patterned line burnish. See Figure 2.94.

Unclassified Rims and Necks. These sherds mostly fall within the parameters of the four main rim categories, save for three necks from Phase V layers that have polish on the exterior body, and one Phase IV rim that has a polished rim interior. 2.7.2 Red Finger Paint Decoration Unpolished red paint is carried by 210 rim sherds (86.1%) and by 58 neck sherds. There are two main fields for its application, the rim interior and the exterior body, but on the exterior designs may also extend up from the body to include the neck and rim. For the rim interior, design or design elements were interpretable on 123 rims and 7 necks, and exterior body design or design elements were interpretable on 130 rims and 27 necks. Body sherds carried further design possibilities not represented by the rim or neck sherds. Rim Interior. On the rim interior, the designs are simple (Figure 2.104). Total cover (Figures 2.104.1, 2.105a) is suggested by six rims and one neck and is associated with all rim forms. Horizontal bands along the lip and base of the rim (Figures 2.98c, 2.104.2) occur on four rims from Phase IV and early Phase V contexts but are absent from those of horizontal inflected form. A single horizontal

Figure 2.96. Serving jar with structured rim and polished grey brown slip. See Figure 2.92b.

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Figure 2.97. Serving jars: designs with patterned line burnish (a–e), incision (f–j), and excision (k, l).

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Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador Table 2.9a. Kitchen Jar Rim Forms: Absolute Frequencies. Phase IV–VI Layers

Phase IV Rubbish Pits

Phase V Grave Goods

Phase V Grave Fills

Other Negative Features

Total

Squared

11

3

0

0

0

14

Convex

43

19

1

19

1

83

Inflected

35

22

0

25

0

82

Horizontal Inflected

37

2

0

5

0

44

Uncertain

20

0

0

1

0

21

Total

146

46

1

50

1

244

Table 2.9b. Kitchen Jar Rim Forms: Percentage Frequencies. Phase IV–VI Layers

Phase IV Rubbish Pits

Phase V Grave Goods

Phase V Grave Fills

Other Negative Features

Total

Squared

7.5

6.5

0.0

0.0

0.0

5.7

Convex

29.5

41.3

100.0

38.0

100.0

34.0

Inflected

24.0

47.8

0.0

50.0

0.0

33.6

Horizontal Inflected

25.3

4.8

0.0

10.0

0.0

18.0

Uncertain

13.7

0.0

0.0

2.0

0.0

8.6

Total

100.0

100.4

100.0

100.0

100.0

99.9

Table 2.10a. Kitchen Jar Decorative Categories: Absolute Frequencies. Phases IV–VI Layers

Phase IV Rubbish Pits

Phase V Grave Goods

Phase V Grave Fills

Other Negative Features

Total

Undecorated

16

6

1

8

1

32

Red Finger Paint

129

40

0

41

0

210

Polished Red Slip

1

0

0

0

0

1

Incision

0

0

0

1

0

1

146

46

1

50

1

244

Total

Table 2.10b. Kitchen Jar Decorative Categories: Percentage Frequencies. Phases IV–VI Layers

Phase IV Rubbish Pits

Phase V Grave Goods

Phase V Grave Fills

Other Negative Features

Total

Undecorated

11.0

13.0

100.0

16.0

100.0

13.11

Red Finger Paint

88.3

87.0

0.0

82.0

0.0

86.1

Polished Red Slip

0.7

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.4

Incision

0.0

0.0

0.0

2.0

0.0

0.4

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

Total

102

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Figure 2.98. Kitchen jars: squared rims (a) and curved rims (b–m).

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Figure 2.99. Kitchen jar: convex rim exterior with red paint on black surface. See Figure 2.98d.

Figure 2.100. Kitchen jar: convex rim interior with red paint on black surface. See Figure 2.98d.

Figure 2.101. Kitchen jar without decoration. Rim diameter 94 mm. See Figure 2.101l.

band along the lip (Figures 2.104.3, 2.105b) perhaps occurs on four rims of curved and inflected forms, though it may be that other elements have been lost. A horizontal band along the base alone (Figure 2.104.4) of the rim is suggested on just one squared rim (Figure 2.105c) from a Phase IV rubbish pit.

Phase IV rubbish pits, and of these five are curved and one each squared and inflected. Vertical ovals or bands rise separately from the base (Figures 2.104.6, 2.105d) on just one squared rim and two curved rims, and these derive from Phase IV and early Phase V contexts. Separate irregular spots touching neither lip nor base but with a band along the base (Figure 2.104.7) occur on a single inflected rim (Figure 2.105e). Vertical ovals hanging from the lip with horizontal ovals in a row beneath (Figure 2.104.8)

Vertical ovals that hang separately from the lip (Figures 2.98h, 2.104.5) are found on seven rims, four of them from 104

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Figure 2.102. Kitchen jar without decoration. Rim diameter 112 mm. See Figure 2.98m.

are perhaps indicated by a single inflected rim (Figure 2.103a). Small, separately spaced ovals hanging from the lip and rising from the base (Figure 2.104.9) occur on a single curved rim (Figure 2.105f). Small ovals or spots lying horizontally along the base (Figure 2.104.10), with no sign of any other element, are found on a single inflected rim (Figure 2.105g), but the upper portion of the rim is missing.

squared. Nineteen rims and one neck have overlapping ovals both hanging from the lip and rising from the base (Figures 2.103l, m, 2.104.21–23, 2.106e). Although the rims are spread through the sequence, they are mostly (n=18) horizontally inflected, with one curved and one squared. Of the remaining design possibilities there are few examples. Regular diagonal bands of finger width with a thin horizontal band along the lip (Figure 2.104.24) occur on one curved rim (Figure 2.106f). Irregular bands or patches separated by a diagonal interval (Figure 2.104.25) occur on a rim (Figure 2.106g) of lightly inflected form. A large painted area of uncertain form and extent with a diagonal border (Figure 2.104.26) is found on a curved rim (Figure 2.106h). Large ovals, centred in the middle of the rim, that overlap and reach both the lip and the base (Figure 2.104.27), occur on an inflected rim (Figure 2.106i) from a Phase IV rubbish pit. From the same context is another inflected rim (Figure 2.103i) with broad vertical patches separated by narrow intervals but touching at lip and base (Figure 2.104.28). Finally, a more or less regular V-shape (Figure 2.104.29, 30) is suggested by three curved rims (Figure 2.106j–l), the first two coming from Phase IV layers.

Forty-four rims and two necks have overlapping ovals, of varying degrees of regularity in application, hanging from the lip and occasionally reaching the base (Figures 2.98f, j, 2.104.11–14, 2.105h, i). Roughly half of these rims are inflected and a quarter each horizontally inflected or curved. The motif occurs throughout the sequence. Ten rims and one neck have overlapping ovals hanging from the lip, but with a band along the base (Figures 2.104.15,16, 2.105j, k). Although the combination occurs throughout the sequence, it is limited to inflected and horizontally inflected rim forms. Overlapping ovals rise from the base (Figures 2.104.17, 2.106a) of six rims, four of them being inflected, and one each squared and curved. Eight rims have in addition a band along the lip (Figures 2.104.18–20, 2.106b–d), with a similar distribution among the forms: five are inflected, two curved, and one 105

Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador

Figure 2.103. Kitchen jars: inflected rims (a–i) and horizontal inflected rims (j–t).

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Figure 2.104. Designs in red finger paint on kitchen jar rim interiors.

In sum, the dominant motif on rim interiors (n=91; 74.0% of interpretable rims) is a series of overlapping ovals deployed along the lip or base of the rim, or along both lip and base. The rims that carry these designs are themselves predominantly inflected or horizontally inflected. This is to be compared with the situation in Phase IIIL, when red finger-painted designs were first applied to cooking jars. Then, the most common motif (n=17; 28.3% of interpretable rims) was the repeated single and separate oval hanging from the lip (Lunniss 2001: 248), whereas in Phases IV to VI this motif is found on only 5.7% (n=7) of interpretable rims.

2.107.2, 2.108b) or with massed vertical bands (Figures 2.107.6, 2.108e). One sherd has them each further decorated with a very small spot below the mid-point of the right side (Figures 2.107.7, 2.108f). Small circular spots (12 mm) are found applied in overlapping rows or columns (n=10; Figures 2.107.8, 2.108g, 2.110). One rim sherd (Figure 2.98j) has them deployed separately, though all body sherds have them in part overlapping (Figure 2.108h). Small, regularly overlapping spots appear in the early stages of Phase V, at the time of Structure 10, and are principally associated with horizontal inflected rims. It is also notable that the paint can be uncommonly thick (up to 1.5 mm), and the background paler (7.5YR 7/4) than on other sherds. Very small spots, up to 6 mm long, are occasionally used (n=6) as secondary elements in association with larger elements (Figures 2.107.7, 9, 2.108f, i).

Body and Rim Exterior. The vessel exterior provides the larger field for the application of paint. It is also more complex in that the different contours of neck and rim can be, and usually are, used as extensions of the body. Designs can be classified in terms of a set of individual elements and their various combinations (Figure 2.107).

Vertical bands are mostly applied (n=27) as massed groups of three or more strokes that may themselves be separate from each other (Figures 2.107.9, 2.108i, j, 2.111), overlap (Figure 2.108k), or even cover the entire shoulder (Figures 2.107.10, 2.112a). There is no special association with any particular rim form or period. Two body sherds (Figure 2.112b, c) show bands that are broader at the shoulder, overlapping or not, before trailing down to a narrower tail. A rare possibility involves a band with separate finger strokes forming a wider head that leads to a tail of single finger width (Figure 2.112d). Wholly separate bands are rare: only one sherd (Figure 2.112e) offers a secure example of separate though grouped diagonal strokes (Figure 2.107.11), while one other suggests double finger width diagonal bands (Figure 2.112f). Several body sherds, however, present the rounded or pointed trailing edges of grouped strokes (Figure 2.112g–i).

A narrow band along the lip is found on 49 rims, and in association with a variety of other elements. Repeated horizontal bands on the body (Figures 2.106d, 2.107.1) are much less frequent (n=5). Once (Figure 2.108a), they are associated with large, overlapping circular spots (Figure 2.107.2). Large usually circular spots (15–17 mm) may be either separate (n=3; Figures 2.107.3, 2.108b) or overlapping (n=13; Figures 2.107.4, 2.108c, 2.109), and they are principally associated with inflected or horizontal inflected rims, though twice they occur with curved rims. Separately they may occur in conjunction with massed vertical bands (Figures 2.107.5, 2.108d). When overlapping, they may occur in conjunction with horizontal bands (Figures 107

Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador

Figure 2.105. Kitchen jars: designs in red finger paint.

108

The Pottery

Figure 2.106. Kitchen jars: designs in red finger paint.

109

Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador

Figure 2.107. Designs in red finger paint on kitchen jar body and rim exteriors.

Short diagonal bands are present on a single body sherd (Figures 2.107.12, 2.112j). Short vertical bands are rare (n=4) on rim and neck sherds (Figures 2.107.13, 2.113a, 2.114) and occur on just one body sherd (Figure 2.113b).

difficult to distinguish, and the area of the neck is often confused. This blurring of the elements on the exterior is matched by the tendency to decorate the interior rim with overlapping ovals. While most elements were present in the Phase IIIL assemblage, spots are mostly new to the Phase IV/V material. Large spots, rare in Phase IIIL, are more common in Phases IV and V. Small spots appear for the first time in early Phase V. Vertical and diagonal bands are perhaps less common in Phases IV and V than in Phase IIIL.

Horizontal teardrops are applied in two rows around the top of the shoulder of a single rim (Figures 2.107.14, 2.113c, 2.115, 2.116). At the fat end of one pair of drops there are small circular spots. Other spots rise to the lip in short overlapping columns from the upper row of teardrops.

2.7.3 Unusual Fabrics, Rim Forms, Painted Designs, and Finishes

Commonly (n=67; 51.2% of interpretable sherds), the main design on the exterior body is linked to the neck and rim either by a series of separate or overlapping vertical elements (Figures 2.107.13–15, 2.113d–f), or by a wavy band (Figures 2.107.16, 2.113g, 2.117, 2.118).

Two rims (Figure 2.106f, g) have fabrics unusual enough to suggest that they may derive from imported vessels. They are from Phase V grave fills and share an abundant tiny white inclusion whose presence at the surface is visible as a distinctive speckle against the yellowish red of the fine medium paste. Their painted designs are also unusual. From Phase V layers, an unusual curved rim (Figure 2.113h) has a polished interior surface, though it lacks paint or slip. One shoulder (Figure 2.113i) has

Designs on the exterior body mostly consist either of spots (large or small) or massed groups of long bands. Necks are treated with irregular horizontal patches or vertical strokes, and lips may be decorated with narrow horizontal bands. For the most part, the individual elements of designs tend to overlap, so that the composition can be 110

The Pottery

Figure 2.108. Kitchen jars: designs in red finger paint.

111

Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador

Figure 2.110. Kitchen jar: red finger paint design with small spots. See Figure 2.108g.

Figure 2.109. Kitchen jar: red finger paint design with large spots. See Figure 2.108c.

a hard fabric, medium fine rather than medium though with occasional inclusions of up to 3 mm, is rougher than usual, and has an oddly angular shoulder. Another (Figure 2.113k) has a coarse medium to coarse black fabric, with occasional inclusions of up to 4.5 mm, and an unusual painted design. A single rim (Figure 2.113j) from a Phase VI layer, of medium fine fabric with a squared interior face and red paint over the exterior, has unusually sharp angles. 2.7.4 Jars with Polished Red Slip or Paint A single rim (Figure 2.119a) of medium fine fabric, with a markedly rounded profile to its interior base (see Lunniss 2001: Fig. 125t), has red slip on its smoothed interior and on the exterior body. Seventeen body sherds of medium fine to medium fabrics carry polish over red slip or red paint. One (Figure 2.119b) has polished red slip to just below the maximum point. Two (Figure 2.119c) have the polish carried beyond the red onto a light brown wash or self-slip. Painted designs are carried by six sherds and include irregular horizontal bands (Figure 2.119d), diagonal bands against a brown (2.5YR 5/5) slip (Figure 2.119e), and broad vertical bands (Figure 2.119f, g).

Figure 2.111. Kitchen jar: red finger paint design with wide vertical bands. See Figure 2.108i.

the body, which has a poor wipe. The second sherd (Figure 2.119i), from a Phase VI layer, has a polished exterior. Its paste is of medium texture fired to brown either side of very dark grey. There is a light brown slip, and the paint is dark brown. 2.7.6 Jars with Incised Decoration

2.7.5 Jars with Paint in Narrow Bands

There are sherds from five kitchen jars with incised designs on the exterior body. All are probably imports. One neck (Figure 2.119j) from a Phase IV layer is of fine medium fabric. Below a band of red paint, there is an incised line, 0.75 mm wide and with a skewed V-shaped profile, that encircles the neck, and beneath that a series of diagonal 1.75

Two body sherds carry narrow vertical bands of paint. One (Figure 2.119h) from a Phase V layer has an odd fabric, fired to red either side of weak red, of medium texture with hollow white inclusions up to 0.25 mm in diameter. The paint (7.5YR 8/4) is cream or yellow against the pale red of 112

The Pottery

Figure 2.112. Kitchen jars: designs in red finger paint.

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Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador

Figure 2.113. Kitchen jars: designs in red finger paint (a–g) and unusual sherds (h–k).

114

The Pottery

Figure 2.117. Kitchen jar: red finger paint design with wavy band on neck exterior. See Figure 2.113g. Figure 2.114. Kitchen jar: red finger paint design with short vertical bands. See Figure 2.113a.

Figure 2.118. Kitchen jar: red finger paint design with ovals on rim interior. See Figure 2.113g. Figure 2.115. Kitchen jar: red finger paint design with horizontal tear drops. See Figure 2.113c.

mm wide incisions. All excess clay was removed, leaving the surface smooth. The remaining four sherds come from Phase V grave fills. One of these (Figure 2.119k), also of fine medium texture, has diagonal incisions that define a triangular zone of unpainted clay filled with short diagonal slashes up to 1.5 mm deep, 1.25 mm wide, and 11 mm long. Most, but not all, of the excess clay was removed. Around this zone, there is unpolished red paint. Next is a barely inflected rim (Figure 2.119l) with a medium, red fabric, its surfaces wiped. Its shoulder carries a pattern of zoned incision, with straight diagonal lines, 1.1 mm wide and 1 mm deep, bounding triangular areas of short cuts of up to 6 mm dragged from top to bottom, the drag leaving shallow raised lips on either side. One shoulder (Figure 2.119m) of medium fabric has unpolished red paint and short vertical incisions, up to 1 mm wide and 0.5 mm deep, and narrower horizontal cuts. Finally, another jar of medium fabric (Figure 2.119n) has an exterior of polished black with a design of circular incisions. The holes, made

Figure 2.116. Kitchen jar: red finger paint design with ovals on rim interior. See Figure 2.113c.

115

Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador

Figure 2.119. Kitchen jars: decoration with polished red paint (a–g), paint in narrow bands (h, i), and incision (j–n).

116

The Pottery before polishing and firing, were made in pairs and are arranged in diagonal lines, probably forming a zigzag or series of inverted triangles around the shoulder. They have flat bottoms and are about 1.1 mm wide and 0.5 mm deep.

neck sherd (Figure 2.121g) from the same pit is similarly carinated, but has a fine fabric, fired to grey, weak red, and brown, and is of a much smaller diameter (35 mm at the orifice). Both rim interior and body exterior are a polished brown.

2.7.7 Massive Jars

From a Phase V layer, a lipless rim sherd (Figure 2.121h) off a narrow-necked jar (40 mm wide at the orifice), wiped over its hard fine light brown exterior and grey interior, is unusual for the absence of slip and polish. From a Phase IV rubbish pit, there is a very open vessel of medium fine fabric with black surfaces over a red fabric. The near vertical rim (Figure 2.121i) barely everts from the axis of the upper body and has an incomplete polish over the thin red paint of its interior face and the lip. The body interior is wiped. The exterior is almost smooth, and has red paint applied in a rough horizontal band. From a Phase V grave fill there is a narrow-mouthed vessel of fine fabric with a low upright lip (Figure 2.121j). Interior and exterior are both wiped, but the exterior carries a red slip that carries over to the interior of the lip. From a Phase V layer, one rim (Figure 2.121k) of fine reddish brown fabric is only roughly finished and has its lip bent down at an angle below the horizontal.

There are two necks from very large jars. One (Figure 2.120a) of fine medium fabric is from a Phase IV rubbish pit, and has a maximum thickness of 12 mm, an orifice diameter of 380 mm, and an uncertain red finger paint design on the wiped exterior. The second (Figure 2.120b), also of medium fabric, but from a Phase V layer, with a wall of up to 16 mm thickness and a suggested orifice diameter of over 800 mm, has thick, smooth red paint that covers the interior rim and the exterior body. From inside the Phase V funerary enclosure came three body sherds, all probably from a single thick-walled vessel of unusual size. The fabric is medium, fired to brown either side of a grey core. Maximum wall thickness is 19 mm, and a body diameter of 480 mm is suggested (Figure 2.120c). The surfaces are both variably wiped. On the exterior there are closely set broad vertical bands, at least 50 mm wide, of red paint. Also from fill of the funerary enclosure is a fragment (Figure 2.120d) from a vessel with a suggested body diameter of 660 mm and a maximum thickness of 11 mm. Its scraped exterior is decorated with two vertical bands of red paint about 60 mm and 90 mm wide.

2.10 Rims of Uncertain Form These are rims where it is unclear whether the complete vessel was a bowl or a jar. While thirteen have textures that are fine or medium fine, nine are fine medium or medium. Surfaces are mostly smudged, though two interiors and three exteriors have red slips. Three have interior red paint, and two have exterior red paint. There is no iridescent paint. All but five have interiors that are polished or smoothed. Thirteen exteriors are polished or smoothed.

2.8 Neckless Jars There are just three rims from neckless jars, all found in early Phase V layers. They have fine to medium fine fabrics, fired to brown or red brown with grey to black cores. Rim diameters are from 60 mm to 100 mm, and wall thicknesses from 4.5 mm to 7 mm. Exterior surfaces are polished, interiors wiped. One (Figure 2.121a) has a smudged dark brown exterior slip, the other two (Figure 2.121b, c) have red slips.

2.11 Ceramic Figurines Two solid ceramic figurines were found, one in a Phase IV rubbish pit, the other in the clay wall of Structure 16 of Phase VI. The earlier figurine (Figures 2.122a, 2.123) is 47 mm tall, 29 mm wide, and just over 9 mm thick at the mid-section. It consists of a flat body with two stubby arms projecting either side, two short legs that are folded so that the left foot lies over the right, and a flat head inclined backwards. Its appliqué nose is missing. The surface is a polished pale brown (10YR 5.5/3). The second figure (Figures 2.122b, 2.124) is a simple block, 56 mm tall, 34.5 mm wide, and 18 mm thick, from which the top has been lost. Although it is not clear how the head was represented, the arms, waist, and legs are suggested by light modelling of the otherwise flat surfaces, these being of a polished very dark brown to black, mostly worn save for the back.

2.9 Miscellaneous Jars From a Phase IV rubbish pit, two rim sherds and a neck sherd from three vessels all share the same distinctive medium fabric, with red to reddish brown surfaces and dark grey core, and they are all presumably from a single exotic source. The two rim sherds are unusually long, at more than 50 mm, and both are polished on the interior, while rim exteriors are both wiped. One (Figure 2.121d), curved, is of a suggested diameter (340 mm) that is unusually large, and has the interior surface possibly decorated with horizontal bands of red paint. The other (Figure 2.121e), more erect, and lightly inflected, with a flaring lip, is entirely covered in weak red paint (7.5R 4/4) on the rim interior, has the body interior covered in a light brown wash, and has a red finger-painted design on the polished body exterior. The neck (Figure 2.121f) is carinated (and 120 mm wide at the orifice), with a white or light brown wash on the wiped rim interior, and there is a polished weak red slip on its exterior body. A second

Hollow moulded figurines are represented by three identifiable fragments, one whistle, and six other pieces. From Phase V layers, there is firstly a piece, 45 mm long, of a head with ear and ear spool (Figure 2.122c). It is of fine fabric, fired to light brown either side of a grey core, the exterior being polished. From the fill of a Phase V 117

Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador

Figure 2.120. Kitchen jars: massive vessels.

118

The Pottery

Figure 2.121. Neckless jars (a–c) and miscellaneous jars (d–k).

119

Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador

Figure 2.122. Ceramic figurines and miscellaneous ceramic objects: solid figurines (a, b), hollow figurines (c–e), roller stamp (f), and disc (g).

120

The Pottery

Figure 2.123. Solid figurine. See Figure 2.122a.

Figure 2.124. Solid figurine. See Figure 2.122b.

or Phase VI pit, there the upper right torso and arm of a female whistling figurine (Figure 2.122d). With a medium fine fabric fired to red either side of a black core, the exterior is worn, leaving no trace of decoration or finish, but details of necklace, bracelet and fingers are clear. And from a Phase VI pit fill, there is an arm (Figure 2.122e) of rolled clay, of fine fabric fired to yellow, coated with a polished brown slip. The remaining fragments, all from Phase V contexts, are less easily identifiable as to body part, though their general shape makes it clear that they are indeed from figurines. Two have yellow paint, in one case polished, in the other not. Three others have polished slips of yellowish red, light yellowish brown, and black, and the last has an exterior that is wiped or lightly smoothed. 2.12 Miscellaneous Ceramic Objects From a Phase IV rubbish pit there is part of a ceramic roller stamp (Figure 2.122f) with a diameter of about 5 cm. It is of fine fabric fired to brown with a dark grey core. The incisions, made through wet clay, are up to 5 mm deep. The design, presented twice, has a central motif bounded by two concentric rings. From a Phase V layer came a small ceramic disc (Figure 2.122g), measuring 26 mm by 22 mm by 4.5 mm. The fabric is fine and grey. Its surface is very smooth, and the edges are rounded. If it was originally a sherd from a broken pot, there is no sign of the original surface. Neither is there any obvious differential wear that might have suggested use as a tool. 121

3 Analysis of the Assemblage Abstract. The sample consists primarily of serving bowls (55.4%) and kitchen jars (25.4%), followed by kitchen bowls (9.2%) and serving jars (5.6%). These percentages coincide with those of Period 1, suggesting that overall patterns of use did not change across the transition from Period 1 to Period 2. Many Period 2 vessels of the four main categories share the general characteristics of those of Phase IIIL, but Phases IV, V, and VI are all marked by the arrival of new vessel forms or decorative techniques, mostly for serving bowls. With Phase V there are five new serving bowl forms, including elaborate supported vessels such as double compoteras, and new variants of two earlier forms, as well as modelled legs and new iridescent paint motifs and designs. Certain or likely imports are distributed among all context types. Small clusters of exotic material are especially associated with Phase IV funerary rubbish pits and Phase V graves. Notably, in Phase V all the rare decorative techniques applied to serving bowls are represented by sherds or vessels found in graves. While the ceramics from Building Phase IV are mainly comparable with Late Engoroy, those of Phases V and VI are related to the Bahía II and Guangala complexes. The 141B–T3 assemblage is characterised by key attributes of the Bahía zone and lacks several of the key features common among Early Guangala assemblages. Thus, anthropomorphic designs on polypod legs are of Bahía II rather than Guangala style, the use of post-fire paint on fineware vessels and vessel legs is a Bahía II rather than Guangala characteristic, and, though they may be residual, the few hollow figurine fragments are also of Bahía type. On the other hand, the simple bowls with stepped interiors and iridescent paint, restricted carinated bowls with iridescent paint and pattern burnish, simple pattern burnished bowls, serving jars with narrow necks and iridescent paint, and jars with structured rims, are all part of the Early Guangala repertoire. Likewise, the cooking jars with inflected rims and the wide kitchen bowls are common Early Guangala elements. The motifs and designs in red finger paint on the jars at Salango, however, are not matched at any of the Guangala sites, probably reflecting a wider pattern of local variation. Approximate dating of the Salango Period 2 assemblage can be suggested via external correlation in conjunction with internal radiocarbon dates. Phase IV, which covers the transition from Late Engoroy to Bahía II and Early Guangala, would stand at around 200–100 BC. Phase V would then start around 100 BC and continue to perhaps AD 300, with Phase VI around AD 300–450, and the abandonment of the ceremonial site at Salango could be tentatively set at AD 600. Resumen. La muestra se compone principalmente de cuencos de servir (55.4 %) y ollas de cocina (25.4 %), seguidos de cuencos de cocina (9.2 %) y ollas de servir (5.6 %). Estos porcentajes coinciden con los de Período 1, lo que sugiere que los patrones generales de uso no cambiaron a lo largo de la transición de Período 1 a Período 2. Muchas vasijas de Período 2 de las cuatro categorías principales comparten las características generales de las de Fase IIIL, pero las Fases IV, V, y VI están marcadas por la llegada de nuevas formas de vasijas o técnicas decorativas, principalmente para cuencos de servir. Con Fase V hay cinco nuevas formas de cuencos de servir, que incluyen elaboradas vasijas con soporte, como compoteras dobles, y nuevas variantes de dos formas anteriores, así como patas modeladas y nuevos motivos y diseños de pintura iridiscente. Las importaciones ciertas o probables se distribuyen entre todo tipo de contexto, pero los pequeños grupos de material exótico están especialmente asociados con los basureros funerarios de Fase IV y las tumbas de Fase V. Cabe destacar que en Fase V todas las raras técnicas decorativas aplicadas a los cuencos de servir están representadas por tiestos o vasijas encontrados en tumbas. Mientras que las cerámicas de Fase IV son principalmente comparables con Engoroy Tardío, las de las Fases V y VI están relacionadas con los complejos Bahía II y Guangala. El conjunto de 141B– T3 se caracteriza por los atributos clave de la zona Bahía y carece de varias de las características clave comunes entre los conjuntos de Guangala Temprano. Así, los diseños antropomórficos en las patas de los polípodos son de estilo Bahía II más que de Guangala, el uso de pintura pos-

123

Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador cocción en vasijas de pasta fina y sus patas es una característica Bahía II más que Guangala y, aunque pueden ser residuales, los pocos fragmentos de figurines huecos también son de tipos Bahía. Por otro lado, los cuencos simples con interiores escalonados y pintura iridiscente, los cuencos carenados restringidos con pintura iridiscente y bruñido en líneas, los cuencos simples con bruñido en líneas, las ollas de cuello angosto con pintura iridiscente, y las ollas con bordes estructurados, forman parte del repertorio Guangala Temprano. Asimismo, los cuencos de cocina con bordes inflexionados y los anchos cuencos de cocina son elementos comunes de Guangala Temprano. Los motivos y diseños pintados a dedo en color rojo en las vasijas de Salango, sin embargo, no coinciden con ninguno de los sitios Guangala, lo que probablemente refleja un patrón más amplio de variación local. Se puede sugerir una datación aproximada del conjunto del Período 2 de Salango a través de la correlación externa junto con fechas de radiocarbono internas. La Fase IV, que cubre la transición de Engoroy Tardío a Bahía II y Guangala Temprano, se ubicaría alrededor del 200–100 a.C. La Fase V comenzaría alrededor del 100 a.C. y continuaría quizás hasta el 300 d.C., con la Fase VI alrededor del 300–450 d.C., y el abandono del sitio ceremonial en Salango podría establecerse tentativamente en 600 d.C. 3.1 Residuality

of serving bowls (43.4% as against 56.5% and 59.5%) and a higher frequency of kitchen jars (37.7% as against 25.0% and 21.6%). In addition, Phase IV rubbish pits have slightly more serving jars (6.6% as against 4.8% and 4.3%), but roughly the same frequency of kitchen bowls (9.0% as against 9.5 % and 9.5%).

Of the 531 serving bowl rims (Tables 2.4a, 2.4b), only a few (3.9%) can be securely classified as Machalilla, Early Engoroy, or Middle Engoroy (Forms 1 and 2). This suggests that there was only light contamination of Period 2 contexts by material residual from these earlier phases. Some Form 3 Short, Form 5, and Form 8 serving bowl rims may have been redeposited from Late Engoroy contexts of Period 1. However, because these forms show no clear change over the transition from late Period 1 to early Period 2, a precise evaluation of residuality amongst them is not possible. Likewise, it is not possible to identify any kitchen bowls, kitchen jars, or serving jars as securely pre-dating the transition to Period 2, since many traits are shared by vessels either side of the transition. Thus, deep mixing appears to be an insignificant problem for analysis of the sample. Less certain is the degree to which the Period 2 contexts are contaminated by material redeposited from late Period 1. However, based on the residuality estimated for Period 1 (Lunniss 2001:262), when pit digging was more widespread and intensive, contamination of Period 2 deposits was probably only light.

Among the Phase IIIL rubbish pits of Period 1, there was also a lower frequency of serving bowls and a higher frequency of serving jars, though kitchen jars were only marginally more frequent and kitchen bowls were slightly more rather than less common. Thus, while there are slight differences of emphasis, the figures confirm the interpretation (Lunniss 2001:269, 270) of rubbish pits of Phases IIIL and IV as a functionally distinct context group. The small population of ceramic vessels found among grave goods is both qualitatively and proportionally distinct from those of other contexts. First, although serving bowls are roughly as frequent as elsewhere, they are limited to four forms (Tables 2.4a, 2.4b). Two of these (Forms 9 Long and 11) are shared with other contexts. The double compoteras (Form 14) and the simple annular based bowls (Form 15), however, are limited to grave goods. Secondly, the proportions of serving jars (36.4%) and kitchen jars (4.5%) are the reverse of the general pattern (Tables 2.3a, 2.3b). Furthermore, one form of serving jar, that with a structured rim, is found only among grave goods. Finally, there are none of the standard kitchen bowls included among grave goods, though there is one example of a form of thickwalled bowl represented elsewhere only by a single rim in a Phase VI layer.

3.2 Sample Composition and Distribution The sample consists primarily of serving bowls (55.4%) and kitchen jars (25.4%), followed by kitchen bowls (9.2%) and serving jars (5.6%; Tables 2.3a, 2.3b). The remaining small fraction is composed of thickwalled bowls, a funerary urn, neckless and miscellaneous jars, and various unidentifiable vessels. Composition, therefore, as reflected by percentage frequencies of the four main vessel categories coincides with that of Period 1, and in particular that of Phase IIIL (Lunniss 2001:263–4, Table 40). This suggests that overall patterns of use did not change across the transition from Period 1 to Period 2.

It is then striking that serving bowls from Phase IV funerary rubbish pits and Phase V grave goods are more commonly decorated with iridescent paint (at 49.1% and 54.5%) than those from grave fills (42.8%) and layers (36.9%; Tables 2.5a, 2.5b). This reinforces the distinction between the ceramic content of layers, on the one hand, and funerary rubbish pits and grave goods on the other. It also follows the pattern of Period 1, when

Among the three principal context groups, there is a broad similarity between Phase IV–VI layers and Phase V grave fills, but Phase IV rubbish pits have a lower frequency 124

Analysis of the Assemblage iridescent paint was more common among Phase IIIL funerary rubbish pits than among Phase IIIL layers (Lunniss 2001:Table 29).

unelaborate restricted vessels (Forms 9 Short and Long), and the increased frequency (to 6.7%) of vessels with thickened flaring rims (Forms 8B and 13). Some bowls (Forms 8 and 13) continue to be supported by simple hollow cylindrical legs, but overall there is a wider range of legs available, including some that are modelled and decorated. The double compoteras (Form 14), the simple annular based bowls (Form 15), the pedestalled cup (Form 16), and the simple polypod bowl (Form 17), are all markedly different from supported forms of Period 1, with respect both to the bowls themselves and to the supports. And exterior flanges, mostly associated with Form 13, are more common (n=39 rims) than in Period 1, where there was just a single example found in a Phase IIIL layer (Lunniss 2001:Fig. 102k).

In terms of decoration, the overwhelmingly dominant techniques employed are iridescent paint on the serving vessels, in particular the bowls (Tables 2.5a, 2.5b), mostly applied in conjunction with smudging of the background slip (Tables 3.1a, 3.1b), and red finger paint on the kitchen vessels, in particular the jars (Tables 2.10a, 2.10b). 3.3 Trends in Form, Decoration, and Finish 3.3.1 Serving Bowls Vessel forms include most of those of Phase IIIL, and many Period 2 vessels of Forms 3 Short, 5, 8, 9, 10, and 11 are matched by examples found in that phase. They also include, however, several new forms, i.e., Forms 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, and 17. Most of the new forms are represented by only a few examples, and altogether they make up just 8.3% of the sample (Tables 2.4a, 2.4b). However, their morphology is generally elaborate and clearly differentiated, and differences in form are underscored by differences in decoration. So, while there is a broad trend of underlying continuity, there is also greater diversity of form. This diversity includes treatment of both the upper body or rim and the base. The detailed patterns of change are complicated, but there are some more obvious differences.

There is a decrease in the overall use of red slip (to 18.6%; Tables 3.1a, 3.1b) as compared with Phase IIIL (54.4%; Lunniss 2001:Table 32). There is a corresponding increase (to 83.8%) in the use of smudged slips (grey, dark grey, grey brown, dark grey brown, dark brown, or black) on the interior. And there is a reduction in the frequency of application of slips to vessel exteriors (see below). In terms of decoration (Tables 2.5a, 2.5b), there is again both an underlying broad continuity and some very marked changes and additions. Overall, Period 2 sees roughly the same frequency of iridescent paint (39.9%) as in Period 1 (37.6%; Lunniss 2001:Table 29), but Phase IV–VI layers show a decrease (to 36.9%) from those of Phase IIIL (45.5%). Designs in iridescent paint are generally similar in Period 2 to those of Phase IIIL (Lunniss 2001:203–212). However, there are several new motifs and combinations, including oval spots in association with paired arcs,

Notable are the increased frequency (to 24.0%) of vessels with short or very shallow upper bodies (Forms 8, 9 Short, 10 Short, 10 Open), the increased frequency (to 22.8%) of

Table 3.1a. Smudged Slip and Red Slip on Serving Bowls: Absolute Frequencies Phase IV–VI Layers

Phase IV Rubbish Pits

Phase V Grave Goods

Phase V Grave Fills

Other Negative Features

Total

Smudged Interior

283

44

10

107

1

445

Red Interior only

7

2

0

4

0

13

Red Exterior only

27

8

0

21

1

57

Red Interior & Exterior

10

5

0

14

0

29

Total Red Slips

44

15

0

39

1

99

Table 3.1b. Smudged Slip and Red Slip on Serving Bowls: Percentage Frequencies. Phase IV–VI Layers

Phase IV Rubbish Pits

Phase V Grave Goods

Phase V Grave Fills

Other Negative Features

Total

Smudged Interior

86.3

83.0

90.9

77.5

100.0

83.8

Red Interior only

2.1

3.8

0.0

2.9

0.0

2.4

Red Exterior only

8.2

15.1

0.0

15.2

100.0

10.7

Red Interior & Exterior

3.0

9.4

0.0

10.1

0.0

5.5

Total Red Slips

13.0

28.3

0.0

28.3

100.0

18.6

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Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador 3.3.3 Serving Jars

upright oval spots in small groups below the angle point of short upper bodies, oval spots in regular array, circular spots in regular array or simple rows, and curvilinear bands. The most significant innovation, though rare, is the use of iridescent paint to create figurative designs.

Period 2 sees a slightly wider range of rim form than was present in Phase IIIL, with increased use of smudged slips at the expense of red slips. Structured rim forms are new, and the smaller Type B flaring rim form is probably also new. Save, also, for the designs on Type B flaring rim jars, iridescent paint motifs are little different from those of Phase IIIL. New, however, to Period 2, is the use of patterned line burnish as a decorative technique. The sample suggests that bottles are less common in Period 2 than in Phase IIIL, and that there is no indication of significant difference. However, this impression is misleading. Several Period 2 bottles were recovered outside Trench 3, and these were very significantly distinct from Phase IIIL examples, as will be discussed in the next chapter.

Red paint is extremely rare in Period 2. Negative paint (very rare), bichrome paint (also very rare) and post-fire paint all appear for the first time in Period 2. Patterned line burnishing is a little more common in Period 2 (1.1% of rims) than in Period 1 (0.1%; Lunniss 2001:Table 29), more varied, and more organised. Period 2 also sees an increase in the combined use of iridescent paint and pattern burnishing. And Period 2 sees the first use, though rare (n=2), of appliqué modelled figures to decorate the exterior rims. Regarding finish, Period 2 sees an increase (to 37.5%; Tables 3.2a, 3.2b) in the withholding of polish from the exterior as compared with Phase IIIL as a whole (25.4%; Lunniss 2001:Table 32), and Period 2 layers see a marked increase (to 39.0%) compared with layers of Phase IIIL (14.3%). The withholding of polish is mostly associated with surfaces to which no slip or paint has been applied, exceptions being the Form 13 bowls with unpolished red around the exterior upper body. Thus, there were more unslipped exteriors in Period 2 than in Phase IIIL.

3.3.4 Kitchen Jars There is a gradual shift through Period 2, as squared rims disappear, and curved rims and inflected rims are supplemented by horizontal inflected rims. The primary decorative technique of red finger painting, first introduced in Phase IIIL, sees the continued use of most of the earlier design elements. However, small spots, mainly associated with horizontal inflected rims, are added to the repertoire in Phase V. There also appears to have been a shift of emphasis in application of the other design elements: independent ovals on the interior rims give way to overlapping ovals, and separate vertical and diagonal bands on the exterior give way to massed vertical bands. There is also more infilling of the exterior neck.

3.3.2 Kitchen Bowls Rim form, frequency of decoration, type of decoration, and finish are all generally close to those of Phase IIIL (Lunniss 2001:220–225, Table 35), especially those of Phase IIIL rubbish pits. Although then, a very few decorative elements, such as tear drops, appear in Period 2, and small spots mostly disappear, there is little obvious difference between the Period 2 and Phase IIIL samples.

3.3.5 Summary Many Period 2 vessels of the four main categories share the general characteristics of those of Phase IIIL. But

Table 3.2a. Serving Bowls with Unpolished Surfaces: Absolute Frequencies. Phase IV–VI Layers

Phase IV Rubbish Pits

Phase V Grave Goods

Phase V Grave Fills

Other Negative Features

Total

128

21

3

46

1

199

Unpolished Interior and Exterior

6

0

0

4

0

10

Unpolished Interior only

11

1

0

2

0

14

Unpolished Exterior only

Table 3.2b. Serving Bowls with Unpolished Surfaces: Percentage Frequencies. Phase IV–VI Layers

Phase IV Rubbish Pits

Phase V Grave Goods

Phase V Grave Fills

Other Negative Features

Total

Unpolished Exterior only

39.0

39.6

27.3

33.3

100.0

37.5

Unpolished Interior and Exterior

1.8

0.0

0.0

2.9

0.0

1.9

Unpolished Interior only

3.4

1.9

0.0

1.4

0.0

2.6

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Analysis of the Assemblage there are also major and minor innovations, both in form and decoration, as well as shifts in emphasis of design. In terms of form, the greatest differences lie with serving bowls. Although the Phase IIIL forms generally persist, along with increased numbers of vessels with short upper bodies or vessels with flaring rims, new supported forms are added to the repertoire, in particular the double compotera, and modelled decorated legs appear. Kitchen vessels see the least change: kitchen bowls remain unaltered, while kitchen jars see the adoption of a single altered rim configuration. Serving jars show little change either.

seen, there is no sudden replacement, as occurred at the end of Phase IIIE (Lunniss 2001:267–270), of old forms by new. Rather, the new forms take their place alongside the old. And the structure of change is not entirely simple. Form 13 bowls appear, for the first time, in the same Phase IV rubbish pits as vessels of the similar but less elaborate and older Form 8, and the two forms continue together through Phase V. Most, however, of the new serving bowl forms appear in Phase V, as do all the decorative techniques, elements, and designs. Of the more elaborate but less common new forms, shallow self-supporting bowls decorated with lip nubbins (Form 12) are associated with layers. But the other four elaborate forms, all supported, are all associated with graves, as elements either of the grave goods (Forms 14 and 15) or of the grave fills (Forms 16 and 17).1 It is also notable that the single instance of figurative design occurs on a double compotera (Form 14), a vessel type that is found exclusively among Phase V grave goods. In other words, the arrival both of the new supported serving bowls forms of Phase V and of figurative design is to be understood not merely as a chronological phenomenon, but one also related to particular functional context, in this case the elaborate interment of the human dead.2

In terms of decoration, the biggest changes again relate to serving bowls. Surfaces of serving bowls are less commonly treated with red slip in Period 2. Thus smudged, dark brown and black slips are more common on the interior of bowls. On the exterior, however, surfaces are more commonly left unslipped than in Phase IIIL. Iridescent paint motifs see a few additions, but the most important difference is the creation of figurative design. Interior red paint disappears from mainstream forms. Patterned line burnishing becomes more elaborate and varied. Exterior post-fire, negative, and bichrome paint are introduced. On serving jars, iridescent paint motifs are little altered, but patterned line burnishing is introduced. On kitchen bowls and jars, red finger paint sees some innovations of design element, but change is reflected more in shift of emphasis within existing repertoires. In terms of surface finish, serving bowls see exteriors more commonly left unpolished. Other vessels are treated much as in Phase IIIL.

3.5 Unusual Vessels, Imports, and their Depositional Context The sample consists primarily of what can, for their overall consistency and dominant frequency, be considered local wares. But there is a range of variation, whether of fabric, form, decoration, or finish, which extends well beyond that which is normal. A rare variant may reflect one or more of several possibilities: for example, that the vessel was made locally and according to requirements for a special occasion, or that the vessel was imported from a foreign source. Here a summary is made of the more obviously imported wares and of other unusually distinctive material. In a very few cases, a point of origin can be indicated with some certainty.

3.4 Ceramic Phases and the Context of Change Phases IV, V, and VI are all marked by the arrival of new vessels forms or decorative techniques. For Phase IV, the additions are serving bowl Form 13, with its flaring rim, exterior flange, interior iridescent paint, and exterior postfire paint; the larger, Type A serving jar with flaring rim; and the horizontal inflected rim on kitchen jars. For Phase V, additions to the repertoire of serving bowls include: new forms, such as Forms 12, 14, 15, 16, and 17, and new variants each of Form 9 Long (Figures 2.13f, 2.14, 2.64) and Form 11 (Figures 2.23i, j, 2.26); modelled legs; new iridescent paint motifs and designs; negative paint; new and more complex applications of patterned line burnish; bichrome paint; and exterior excision on pedestal bases. Among serving jars, the smaller, Type B form with flaring rim appears to be new, as well as forms with structured rims and the use of patterned line burnish. On kitchen jars, the set of red finger paint motifs is supplemented by the circular spot associated with horizontal inflected rims. And for Phase VI, there appear to be a new variant restricted serving bowls of Form 9 Long (Figure 2.13g–j).

Among serving bowls, nine examples have fabrics distinguished by the presence of unusual aplastic inclusions or firing colours, and at least one other unusual attribute. They include the Form 9 Long bowl decorated with appliqué monkey (Figure 2.17h), a Form 10 Short bowl (Figure 2.20o) with an odd yellow-red slip, five bowls of miscellaneous unusual forms (Figures 2.48a, j–l, 2.49l), the single body sherd coated with light brown slipped surfaces, and the rim sherd (Figure 2.29k) with interior red slip and exterior brown slip. One double compotera (Figure 2.44b) is odd in terms of firing, form, decoration, and finish. Stothert (pers. comm. 2003) has

But having summarised the general trends and differences between Period 1 and Period 2, we should now consider the chronology and context of some of these changes a little more specifically. Among serving bowls, we have

  The single Form 17 example may also have been a grave offering that was subsequently broken and redeposited. 2   This situation should be compared with that of Phase IIIL, when extreme or more numerous examples of new forms or decorative techniques were found in the funerary rubbish pits (Lunniss 2001:269). 1

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Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador observed similar examples near Las Balsas. In other cases, while there is nothing obviously strange about the fabric, there is at least one unusual attribute distinctive enough to demand attention. The Form 12 bowls (Figure 2.30) are distinguished by surface treatment as well as lip shape and nubbin appliqués. The single example of pedestalled cup (Figure 2.47a) has an unusual slip and finish and seems likely to have come from the Guayas Basin, several others of the form being reported by Piana and Marotzke (1997:92–95) for the Salitre site. One bowl of unusual form (Figure 2.48i) also has an unusual slip. The rare instances of negative paint (Figure 2.59a, b) and bichrome paint (Figure 2.59c), both relatively complex decorative modes, must be considered, along with the single Form 9 Long bowl decorated with a turtle head (Figure 2.17g). The modelled hollow and solid legs (Figure 2.51e–i) are rare as well as relatively complex. One double compotera (Figure 2.42) and one pedestal fragment (Figure 2.50p) each have a unique incised design.

none of the contexts were found complete, and the graves especially were often subject to disturbance. However, some smaller patterns do emerge, and certain features contain small clusters of exotic material. Thus, as we have seen, in one Phase IV rubbish pit there are sherds from three kitchen jars (Figure 2.121d–f) that all come from the same foreign source, with a fragment from one other jar that is also of unusual form (Figure 2.121g). Additionally, there was in the same feature material from the single example (Figure 2.78) of Type A fineware jar with flaring rim. Among Phase V graves, one not only has an imported double compotera (Figure 2.44b) as an offering, but also includes in its fill sherds from two imported kitchen bowls (Figure 2.72e, f), the turtle head from a possibly imported serving bowl (Figure 2.17g), two sherds with odd light brown slips (Figure 2.29k), and the single sherd from a red-painted serving bowl (Figure 2.59d.). A second grave has, again, sherds from two kitchen bowls (Figure 2.72h, i) that were both probably imported, and material (Figure 2.82d, e) from at least one if not two Type B serving jars with flaring rim. A third grave has a sherd from a bowl with negative paint (Figure 2.59a), a sherd from a serving jar decorated with incision (Figure 2.97g), and a sherd from a possibly imported kitchen bowl (Figure 2.72g). A fourth grave has a fragment of serving bowl decorated with negative paint (Figure 2.59b), and part (Figure 2.82c) of a Type B serving jar with flaring rim. One pit in the funerary enclosure, perhaps a disturbed grave (but probably overexcavated), had single sherds off three incised kitchen jars (Figure 2.119l–n), the sole sherd off a serving bowl with bichrome paint (Figure 2.59c), two rims off a bowl of odd form and slip (Figure 2.48i), and one sherd off the pedestalled cup (Figure 2.47a). Clusters, however, are not limited to rubbish pits and graves. One extensive layer had three sherds from serving bowls of miscellaneous form and unusual fabric (Figure 2.48j–l).

Five sherds from kitchen bowls (Figure 2.72d–h) are distinctive for qualities of fabric and of form, surface treatment, or design. Two of them (Figure 2.72g, h) appear to be of the same exotic ware, while another (Figure 2.72d) compares for fabric and design with examples collected by Presley Norton from the area of the airport at Manta. A sixth sherd (Figure 2.72j) simply has a very unusual fabric, and a seventh (Figure 2.72i) has a notably unusual form. Three thickwalled bowls (Figure 2.73d, h, i) each have fabrics with unusual inclusions. Among serving jars, the flaring rim forms (Figures 2.78, 2.82c, d) are outstanding for their morphology, decoration, and finish, though the fabrics are normal. Distinctive inclusions are present in only two body sherds, one from a jar of uncertain form with an odd interior wipe, and the other (Figure 2.97j) of an incised vessel with appliqué buttons and an odd finish. All other incised and excised jars have unusual surfaces, but fabrics are apparently normal.

While most of the imported material cannot for the moment be identified to source, its deposition is not random. In Phase V, all the rare decorative techniques applied to serving bowls are represented by sherds or vessels found in graves. One or even two imported kitchen bowls might be represented in a grave fill, and all but one of the sherds off incised kitchen jars, all probably imported, come from grave fills. This is to be compared with the situation of Phases III and IV, where the funerary associated pits also showed a tendency to be the depositories of exotic material.3 A possible scenario explaining their presence is as follows. The funerary rites were, in both Period 1 and Period 2, occasions for the gathering of individuals related to the dead, and among them were some who came from distant settlements. The visitors would journey to Salango carrying pottery vessels from their home. These vessels were broken at some stage during the rites. In Phases III and IV, fragments were then thrown into the rubbish pits, while in Phase V, they were thrown into the graves after

Among kitchen jars, there are five instances of unusual inclusions. Two (Figure 2.106f, g) with unusual painted designs are of the same ware. Another (Figure 2.113k), of different ware, also has an odd design. One (Figure 2.113i) has a slightly odd form. The fifth (Figure 2.119h) is a unique example of narrow banded cream paint. None of the five sherds from incised jars have obviously unusual fabrics. One of them (Figure 2.119k), however, shows a technique found among pottery from the Tarqui site at Manta (Stirling and Stirling 1963:Plate 5a), while another (Figure 2.119l) is closely matched by a sherd from the Pampa de Pichilingo site (Marcos 1970:Fig. 13g). Finally, there are four jars of miscellaneous form, all from the same Phase IV rubbish pit. Three are of the same unusual medium fabric (Figure 2.121d–f), while the fourth (Figure 2.121g) is of a fine fabric. Certain or likely imports are distributed among all types of contexts, and there are no absolute general patterns to be observed. Moreover, it must be remembered that

  See Lunniss 2001:270–272 for imported vessels, and their depositional context, of the Period 1 assemblage. 3

128

Analysis of the Assemblage the deceased person had been buried.4 It would still have to be explained, however, why only single sherds were so disposed, and what happened to the other vessel fragments.

Salango has none of Stothert’s black on red kitchen jars (Ollas A, B), though these tend to be later at the Valdivia site. And while Salango shares the rim configuration of the red on buff finger-painted jars (Ollas C, D) that are common there, the designs at Valdivia (Stothert 1993:Figs.30–32), in particular the carefully executed slightly curving sets of diagonal bands, are not found at Salango. Of the common utilitarian narrow-necked jars, those with painted red or black stripes (Vaso A) are missing from Salango. Combined punctate and incision, with or without nubbins (Vaso B), do occur very occasionally at 141B–T3, while outside T3 there is a jar (Programa de Antropología para el Ecuador (PAE) 1984:73 bottom left) that combines these attributes with the notched lip of Stothert’s Vaso D.

3.6 Comparison, Correlation, and Chronology Much of the ceramic material from Period 2 at OMJPLP– 141B–T3 is either identical to, very similar to, or based on forms and techniques of the Late Engoroy pottery of Period 1. However, there is a definite change in the character of occupation of 141B during Phase IV. And although elements of the late Phase III ceramic assemblage persist into Phase V, there are changes and innovations in sufficient number as to indicate a new order. Meanwhile, previous studies have shown both that Late Engoroy ceramics were the foundation for those of Early Guangala (Bischof 1982; Paulsen 1970; Simmons 1970; Zeller and Bischof 1960), and that Bahía I was the foundation for Bahía II (Estrada 1962), and to determine the relation of the 141B pottery to its wider cultural context, it is now necessary to compare the Salango material with the Early Guangala assemblages to the south, and the Bahía II assemblages to the north. OMJLP–141B– T3, however, does not include the whole range of Early Regional Development pottery to be found at Salango. To give a more balanced view, I also indicate the documented occurrence of types found only elsewhere at Salango.

Among the fineware decorated serving jars (Vaso C), Salango shares only the use of pattern burnish and iridescent paint. All other decorative techniques (two-colour, brown on engraved, red on yellow, Frogware), all late at Valdivia, are absent from T3, though Frogware appears elsewhere at Salango. And although the Vaso C jars have the same aperture configuration as those with structured rims at Salango, pattern burnish designs at Valdivia (Stothert 1993:Fig. 35), are different, and Salango has no combined use on jars of pattern burnish with iridescent paint. The open bowls (Platos) at Valdivia appear to be functional equivalents for the kitchen bowls at Salango. But examples with direct rims, interiors slipped black or orange red and then polished, and interior black paint (Plato A) or radial polished lines on the interior (Plato B), are all absent from Salango, and the shallow carinated bowls (Plato C), though present, are not at all typical of the Salango assemblage.

3.6.1 Guangala The published descriptions of Guangala pottery arise from the application of differing sampling and analytical methods to a variety of assemblage types recovered from different sites dispersed across a broad landscape. Rather than attempt to treat this comparative data collectively, I have chosen to look at each assemblage in turn. Although this results in some repetition, it makes it easier to consider the specific characteristics of each assemblage.

There are no so-called graters (Ralladores) in the 141B– T3 assemblage. But Kurc (1984:28) reports their presence throughout the Guangala sequence at 141C. She observes that they have thick walls, with a direct or slightly thickened rim, while the decoration occupies a circular field. There were also a few grater fragments found about 100 m north of 141B. Of these, two correspond with their gouged holes, up to 3 mm deep, to the type described by Jarrín (1982:365, Fig. 12) for Joá, while a third, with flattened lip, red-painted rim interior, circular design field, and lightly polished exterior, matches both a shallow-incised design illustrated by Jarrín (1982:363, 364, Fig. 7a) and the general description offered by Bushnell (1951:41, 42) for graters of his Red ware. None of the fragments, however, match the graters described for Valdivia (Stothert 1993:32, 49, Fig. 42).

The Early Guangala assemblage at Valdivia (Stothert 1993:30–70) is the nearest well documented example to Salango, and on this account it is worth comparing in detail. The Valdivia site consists mainly of a stratified Early Guangala component. There are also overlying and surficial ceramics that have different forms and techniques which represent Middle Guangala occupation (Stothert, pers. comm. 2003). In the text here, what I call “late” at Valdivia refers to this latter component. Stothert’s classification sees eight basic vessel forms, with subdivisions according to decoration. There, kitchen bowls are most common, followed by smaller but roughly equal proportions each of serving bowls, kitchen jars, and utilitarian serving or storage jars, and a very minor number of fineware serving jars (Stothert 1993:64, 65). Several forms are either absent from Salango or significantly different.

There are no ordinary ware polypods (Platos Polípodos) reported for Salango, though Form 17 may be an equivalent. And among the Salango polypod legs with anthropomorphic form, none match the Guangala styles of the Valdivia assemblage (Stothert 1993:Fig. 45d, g). In the T3 assemblage, there are no large or medium sized compoteras (Compotera A, B), though occasional examples of the giant form are found elsewhere at 141B (PAE 1984:Foto 33) and at 141C (Kurc 1984:32).

  It is possible that Phase IIIL and IV grave fills also included such material. However, their ceramic content has not yet been studied. 4

129

Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador The finer, smaller compotera bases (Compotera C, D), however, with polished red slip or iridescent paint, are matched at 141B–T3.

Inland from Valdivia, Loma Alta has Guangala pottery (Lippi 1983:152–164) that again appears to correspond chronologically with Salango’s Period 2 assemblage, though again there are important differences. The cooking jars, though with similar rims to those at Salango, are decorated with black finger paint on red slip. Further, the one design shown and described as typical (Lippi 1983:Fig. 36) has single or double bands relatively widely spaced and slightly angled from the vertical. This design, interestingly, is not only absent from Salango, but also different to those shown for Valdivia. With respect to fineware bowls, the Loma Alta vessels (Lippi 1983:Figs. 38, 39) are generally comparable to examples from Salango, but do not match exactly in terms either of form or decorative design.

Of the nine variants of hemispherical fineware bowls at Valdivia, only four have direct equivalents at 141B–T3 (see Form 11): two-colour (Cuenco A1), late at Valdivia, is represented by just one sherd, and is also very rare at 141C (Kurc 1984:28, Fig. 9); line burnish (Cuenco A3) is rarer than at Valdivia, where it is also late; and simple polished black and iridescent painted examples (Cuenco A6, A8) are more common. Red on yellow, yellow slip, negative on yellow, and three-colour variants, all late at Valdivia, and thick red slip, are all absent from 141B–T3, though threecolour bowls appear elsewhere and later.

Other than vessels, pottery artefacts at Valdivia included twenty-five pottery spindle whorls, and three fragments from figurines of Estrada’s (1957) type Guangala A (Stothert 1993:30). None of this material is matched at 141B.

Palmar lies slightly south of Valdivia. Though Bischof (1982:156–160) presents the Early Guangala assemblage from the midden site Palmar 2 with little detail beyond a list of traits that were both new to Guangala and, presumably, among the attributes present at Palmar, some comparisons can be made. Change from Engoroy’s simple line burnish to more complex pattern burnish in Early Guangala is matched at Salango. Of the new decorative techniques, absent from Salango are Blanco sobre Rojo on simple bowls, Crema sobre Gris Pulído on water jars, Crema Embadurnada on wide rimmed bowls and necked jars (with or without Punteado en Zonas and Botones, though versions of Punteado en Zonas do occur at Salango), Negro sobre Rojo on kitchen jars and red slipped polypods with anthropomorphic legs. Ralladores (more deeply gouged) and comales (with shallow incisions) are present outside 141B–T3, but none match the examples shown by Bischof (1982:Fig. 7a, b). The large compoteras, we have seen, are present but rare at Salango, while just one figurine of Guangala Type B (Estrada 1957: Fig 22) was found at 141C (PAE 1984:79 top left). Of the vessels illustrated, only the fineware bowls (Bischof 1982:Fig. 6a–c) are closely matched at Salango. The bowl with everted lip (Bischof 1982:Fig. 6d) and jar with everted rim (Bischof 1982:Fig. 7e) compare with Salango vessels for form, but not for decoration. Once more then, there is a wider range of decorative techniques than found at Salango, and many forms do not match.

The Valdivia site was clearly a domestic settlement with associated burials, rather than a ceremonial centre or high-status funerary precinct, as was Salango 141B. So, even though the assemblages may be contemporary, one could expect their compositions and individual elements to differ. Thus, ignoring what appears later at Valdivia, though the range of fineware decorative types there is slightly wider than that at Salango, the range of forms is narrower. Paint and pattern burnish designs differ on both fineware and kitchen vessels, and there is far less use of iridescent paint. Importantly, however, and most diagnostically, anthropomorphic figures on vessel supports are of Guangala rather than Bahía II style. All indicates that Valdivia lay well within the Guangala ceramic zone, with little or no other stylistic influence, while Salango lay on the edge of or outside that zone.

Moving further south again, the pottery excavated by Marcos (1982) from Cut B at Los Morros derived from a sequence of occupation of a house mound. An Early Guangala ascription for the upper levels is based on the presence of new, Guangala types (Sombre ware, Blanco sobre Rojo, Bicolor, asientos Guangala), and the lower layers, lacking these types, are identified as Engoroy. Marcos’s discussion focuses on changes in fineware hollow-legged polypod bowls decorated with iridescent paint, and kitchen jars decorated with red finger paint, as the transition is made from Engoroy to Guangala. The Guangala polypods at Los Morros initially have six or seven cylindrical legs, from 7 cm to 9 cm tall, and later on eight or even nine legs, up to 9.5 cm tall. At Salango, on the other hand, the Early Regional Development fineware polypods have a maximum of five legs, and none reach

Of the five variants of the carinated form, equivalent to Salango’s Form 9 Long, not only is the rare and late twocolour version (Cuenco B1) absent at Salango, but so is the commoner version with red slip and iridescent paint or white paint (Cuenco B2). Red and white with negative (Cuenco B3), also relatively common at Valdivia, is found only very rarely at 141B, but outside T3 (PAE 1984:74 bottom). On the other hand, iridescent paint on black slip (Cuenco B4), or simple black slip (Cuenco B5), both less common at Valdivia, are dominant at Salango. Of the five miscellaneous forms, only the one with grooved exterior upper body and iridescent paint (Cuenco C4) has equivalents at Salango. Large bowls (Cuencos Grandes) at Valdivia are equivalents of the thickwalled bowls at Salango, but only the variant with larger everted rim and interior red slip (Cuenco CGD) is matched closely. The commoner variant (Cuenco CGA), hemispherical, with total interior polish but exterior polish to the rim only, is absent at Salango, as are the rarer late variants with squared lip and direct rim (Cuenco CGB) and small everted rim with interior red slip (Cuenco CGC).

130

Analysis of the Assemblage 7 cm. The Guangala kitchen jars at Los Morros generally had simpler rims, different paint, and slightly or very different finger-painted designs (Marcos 1982: Figs. 3–8) to those of Period 2 at Salango. Indeed, the designs appear to have been different also to those of Early Guangala at Palmar and Valdivia. Transitional forms could have either red or black paint, applied to the unslipped body as horizontal bands. In the uppermost Guangala levels, most vessels were red slipped and decorated with black paint, the design generally consisting of sets of three vertical finger strokes. In sum, the two Guangala vessel forms presented for Los Morros (and one imagines there were others) are not matched at Salango, though they do share characteristics that indicate approximate contemporaneity.

that the Iridescent variety is more common in Engoroy levels, dropping to only 5% with Guangala (Simmons 1970:279). Again, few of the vessel forms are matched closely by examples at Salango. He creates two varieties, Fine and Sombre, out of Estrada’s Guangala Burnished type. Each Guangala Burnished type occurs in the T3 sample. Although he offers no clear definition of subphases for Guangala, Simmons (1970:70) observes that there is a clear contrast between Engoroy, characterised by Guangala Sombre: Iridescent and Engoroy Red-onBrown, and Guangala, with its brighter, more elaborate, and extensive decorative repertoire. At Salango 141B–T3, on the other hand, we have seen that Engoroy decorative techniques continue with no lessening of frequency into Period 2, though their application may be different.

Bushnell’s (1951:22–84) description of Guangala pottery, from midden and funerary contexts at La Libertad and from household deposits at Guangala, focuses on the definition of ten wares, with no attempt at internal chronology. The dominant Guangala Red ware, which includes a wide range of vessel form, is not present at Salango save for a very small number of intrusives found outside 141B– T3.5 White on Red, we have seen, and Brown and White are absent from Salango. Guangala Sombre, with pattern burnish or iridescent paint (Bushnell’s “light-coloured over-paint”) is the one ware that is matched at Salango, though only one of his vessel forms (Bushnell 1951:Fig. 16 a) has closely comparable examples.

Paulsen (1970:45–126) created her two-part, eightphase model of Guangala ceramic change through modal analysis of material recovered from surface collections on the Santa Elena peninsula and up the Guayas coast, and from test pits cut through midden deposits at La Libertad (OGSE–46B2 and 46U1), Palmar (OGSE–166E1), and Tigre (OGSE–181–A2 and B1). While initially considering a total of six different vessel forms, she found that only four of these presented variants sufficiently clear to permit their use as phase markers. Analysis of the stratigraphic sequences excavated at the tests appeared to confirm the chronological validity of her similiary seriation of the variants of these four forms, but only with respect to her Phases 1–5.

The 141B–T3 assemblage has no examples of Bushnell’s rare wares (Frog, Grey Incised, Brown Engraved, Redon-Yellow, and Red-on-Yellow Engraved), nor of his La Libertad Three-Colour, though there is the single sherd of Guangala Two-Colour. Nor are there, at 141B–T3, any of the ceramic side-flutes, whistles, figurine-whistles, human heads, animals, spindle whorls, or earplugs described by Bushnell, and the single broken roller stamp from T3 differs from Bushnell’s (1951:Fig. 21f). In sum, most of the Guangala pottery Bushnell describes, which includes much that clearly postdates Early Guangala, is not to be found at Salango 141B–T3, though some elements of Bushnell’s Guangala Sombre, in particular the use of iridescent paint and pattern burnish, are shared. Bushnell’s Guangala site, however, does include what appears to be one pedestal from a double compotera, decorated with negative on red (Bushnell 1951: Fig.32b). The form of the base is similar to the complete examples from Salango, while the elements of the negative design compares with those on the simple bowl at Salango.

Of the six forms used by Paulsen (1970:58–61), the simple open bowls with six solid legs are so far wholly absent from Salango, and although there are a few fineware jars at Salango with constricted necks and flaring rims, none of them carry incision, punctation, or appliqué. Graters (comales) occur at Salango, but not at 141B-T3. The two forms she excludes from her model of change, coarse ware decorated jars and thick pedestal plates, are both present at Salango. To compare Paulsen’s interpretation with Salango’s sequence, we are mainly limited to the fineware unsupported open bowls of Paulsen’s Phases 1–6, though there is some relevant data on the graters. For fineware unsupported bowls, Paulsen (1970:59–60) suggests a basic division between two classes: black slipped vessels with exterior iridescent paint and interior pattern burnishing occur in the early Phases 1–3, and then lighter orange, yellow, or tan slips occur from Phase 2 on, with bichrome in Phases 2 and 3, trichrome in Phases 4 and 5, and no painted decoration in Phases 6–8. Negative paint variants (Paulsen 1970:111–114) are excluded from the sequence analysis for lack of stratigraphic control.

Simmons (1970) presents a more detailed classification of Guangala ceramics from the La Libertad midden, referring both to Bushnell and to Estrada’s (1957) summary type descriptions, which are themselves largely based on Bushnell. In addition to thirty-two other Guangala types and varieties, he separates Guangala Sombre into three varieties, Iridescent, Plain, and Guangala, and indicates

For her Phase I, Paulsen (1970:66, Fig.1c) has pattern burnishing applied as cross-hatching to the interior upper bodies of carinated bowls (with simple motifs in iridescent paint on the exterior), and notes (Paulsen 1970:71) that this decorative technique is an important Guangala innovation. The design is found at Salango in Building Phases V and

  See also Lunniss 2001:Figs. 102n, o, 125s for late Period 1 examples.

5

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Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador VI, but can be applied to uncarinated as well as carinated bowls, and to vessel exteriors as well as interiors. It should also be noted that the undulating exterior upper body form of her illustration appears late in Salango’s Period 2 sequence, first occurring in Building Phase VI contexts. Paulsen makes no observation of pattern burnishing being applied to surfaces already polished, and presumably follows Bushnell (1951:45, 46) in referring solely to burnish on a smoothed, but unpolished surface. What Paulsen (1970:114–117) refers to as Clock Iridescent, a combination of vertical bands and Vs suggesting Roman numerals that is applied to the upper body of the bowl interior, also appears to be of her Phase 1. The design itself occurs in Salango’s Phases IV and V. However, for Paulsen, Clock Iridescent is associated with Branch design pattern burnish, and while the combination of iridescent paint on the upper interior body with pattern burnish on the lower does occur in Phase V, Branch design pattern burnish is absent from the Salango inventory.

In sum, the scanty comparable evidence points to some limited sharing of ideas and to a general contemporaneity between material of Paulsen’s Phases 1 and 2 (and perhaps also some of her Phase 3 and even Phase 4 markers) and that of Building Phases V and VI at Salango 141B–T3. The Salango sequence does not, however, fully support Paulsen’s distinction between or ordering of Phases 1 and 2, since the different pattern burnish markers for her two phases appear at Salango at the same time. Masucci (1992:430–432) correlates her El Azúcar Complex I with Early Guangala as described by Bischof (1982), Marcos (1970, 1982), and Stothert (1993), and with Phases 1–3 as defined by Paulsen (1970). The El Azúcar assemblages pertain to a rural settlement relatively remote from Salango, and overall show little direct comparability with material from Salango. Two points, however, are worth making. Finger-painted cooking jars comprise 45–70% of all sherds at El Azúcar, depending on the lot (Masucci 1992:427). Although, however, they share certain rim configurations (Masucci 1992:Figs. 21–24) with those of the 141B–T3 assemblage, the painted designs (see especially Masucci 1992: Fig. 35), done in black, are for the most part very different. Not only are the motifs more clearly delineated, but they also include elements, such as thin lines and curved bands, wholly absent from Salango. Secondly, Masucci (1992:447) concludes that, although there is a general chronological correspondence, “the El Azúcar ceramic sequence [as a whole] does not directly reflect or support the fine-grained subdivision of the phase as presented by Paulsen”. In fact, Paulsen’s finer subdivisions appear to be fully supported by no subsequent study.

For Phase 2, Paulsen (1970:74, 76), referring to Bushnell (1951: Fig 16a, b), has interior pattern burnish applied in alternating straight and wavy lines to the bottom of bowl interiors. This technique is of Phase V at Salango, where, however, it is again found on unrestricted as well as restricted bowls. For the same phase, bichrome paint is another Guangala innovation. Specifically, Paulsen (1970:76, 78, 79) distinguishes a Phase 2 Linear Bichrome (which she compares with Phase 2 pattern burnished designs) from three or perhaps four varieties of her chief Phase 3 marker, Guangala Bichrome, the latter including all of Bushnell’s Two-Colour ware (Bushnell 1951:75–77). It is not clear, however, how the single bichrome sherd, applied to the exterior of a simple bowl, from Phase V at Salango 141B–T3 would fit into Paulsen’s classification. For Phase 3, Paulsen (1970:82) also has an unillustrated lacy pattern burnish decoration as a marker.

Furthest away of all, the Pampa del Pichilingo site is of Early Guangala affiliation. There is an unusually high percentage of kitchen jars with zoned punctate decoration (Marcos 1970:Fig. 13), which are matched by just one sherd from 141B–T3. Once again, the red or black finger paint designs on other kitchen jars, combining rectangular elements and separate vertical bands (Marcos 1970: Fig. 15), are markedly different to those at Salango, and indeed to those from any other Guangala site reviewed. The site also produced a bridge from a double compotera (Marcos 1970: Fig. 18).

Paulsen’s main Phase 4 marker, Guangala Polychrome (1970: 83), is absent from the Period 2 assemblage at 141B–T3. Pattern burnished bowls with radial or quartered layout (Paulsen 1970:83; Bushnell 1951: Fig. 16 d, e, g, h, j, k) are, however, represented once in Phase V. Paulsen’s Phase 5 marker, Feather Polychrome (Paulsen 1970: 89), and Phase 6 marker, a red or orange slipped hemispherical bowl (Paulsen 1970:98), are both absent from 141B–T3.

Finally, one should mention the ceramic goods associated with Guangala burials excavated by Disselhoff (1949) at Olón. The precise dating of the graves is unclear, but the presence of iridescent and bichrome paint suggests Early to Middle Guangala affiliation. The small number of bowls decorated with iridescent paint (Disselhoff 1949:Tafel XXV, Nos. 2003, 2006, 2008, 2010, 2012) all have forms that are matched at Salango 141B–T3, and their painted designs are mostly matched also. No. 2012, however, has an unusual complex element, and No. 2008 is interesting for the combination of six sets each of three vertical bands, with seventh and eight sets each consisting of a pair of bands, their lower ends overlapping. Also distinctive is the finger-painted design on a kitchen jar (Disselhoff 1949:Tafel XXVII, No. 2036), with its irregular array of vertical bands beneath a horizontal band at the neck.

With respect to the painted coarse ware jars, Paulsen (1970:61) suggests that red paint is applied in Phases 1 to 3, while in Phases 4 and 5 black paint is applied to a red body. Concerning graters, she suggests that they fall into three basic types (Paulsen 1970: 61). In Phases 1 to 3 they have a rectangular design field, while in Phases 4 and 5 the field is circular and the rim is flattened or everted, and in Phases 6 and 7 the rims are rolling and everted. Her Phase 4 to 5 type, for its circular design field and rim form, is what seems to correspond best to the descriptions for 141C and the single rim sherd mentioned earlier. Unfortunately, however, only her Phases 1 to 3 type is illustrated. 132

Analysis of the Assemblage 3.6.2 Bahía

carry whistles. These lack post-fire paint, but the latter example has incision on the chamber at the base of the figure. Regarding compoteras, Period 2 at 141B–T3 has a pedestal fragment decorated with incision but lacking paint. There is an annular based bowl with paint, but it, in turn, lacks incision.

Estrada’s definition of Bahía ceramics draws on material recovered from cuts at sites in the region between Manta and Bahía de Caráquez. His account consists, essentially, of a list of Bahía ceramic types (Estrada 1962:34–43), a series of tables charting the distribution of rim forms associated with those types at three of the cuts (Estrada 1962: Figs. 46–48), and photographs to illustrate some of those types (Estrada 1962:44, 45, 49–56, 58–63). In addition, there is the list of figurine types with photographs (Estrada 1962:53–55, Figs. 74, 77–88). There is only one detailed vessel drawing (Estrada 1962:Fig. 50b). In spite, however, of the limitations of the information offered, it is mostly easy to determine which of the Bahía types are relevant to Salango.

Vessels of Form 13 from Phases IV and V at 141B–T3 have red, yellow, green, or white post-fire paint applied to the exterior body, and legs. One of Estrada’s modelled legs (Estrada 1962: Fig. 51c top centre) is attached to a bowl with an undulating external flange which appears to be identical to Form 13 at 141B–T3. More generally, Estrada (1962: Figs. 46, 47, 51) shows a wider range of legs than are found at Salango, where most are hollow and cylindrical. Salango 141B–T3 does, however, have Estrada’s Guangaloid form as well as four types (Figures 2.35h, 2.47b, 2.51h, i) not listed by Estrada.6 Absent from Salango are his mammiform and Tabuchilla types.

Seven major Bahía types (Grabado, Inciso Línea Ancha, Muescas al Reborde, Rojo Pulido, Rojo sobre Amarillo, Tricolor, Santos Grabado) and four minor types (Rojo y Negro, Pulido en Líneas, Negro sobre Gris, and Salpicado sobre Pulido) are entirely absent from OMJPLP–141B–T3. Two major undecorated Bahía types, Ordinario and Gris Pulido, may include certain forms that occur at Salango, but direct examination of specimen sherds would be necessary for useful comparison. Estrada’s Bahía Bruñido is mostly different to burnished wares at Salango, though one example of broad cross-hatch (Estrada 1962:Fig. 44f) appears similar to designs at 141B–T3. Of Bahía Calado, the more elaborate examples are absent from Salango, and though the simpler rims (Estrada 1962:Fig. 45h–k) compare perhaps with notched and wavy rims from Phases III to V, their profiles (Estrada 1962: Fig. 46) are more complex than anything at Salango. Bahía Negativo, as shown (Estrada 1962:Fig. 54e–g), differs from Salango examples, but while the dimensions given for the design elements, both spots and lines, are slightly greater than those of the Salango examples, the written description could perhaps accord both with the two sherds from bowls at 141B–T3 and with a jar (PAE 1984: 74 2nd row right) from outside T3.

Of Estrada’s Bahía figurine types, the Period 2 assemblage has only a very few fragments of La Plata Hueco. Other fragments may be of this or other hollow moulded forms, though one modelled arm (Figure 2.122e) is of a type not described by Estrada.7 In addition, however, to the Bahía ceramic types, Estrada (1962:31–33) indicates that two Chorrera types, Iridiscente and Punteado en Zonas, continued into Bahía times. The latter, a very rare type applied to simple bowls, is not found at Salango. How Chorrera Iridiscente, from Bahía contexts excavated by Estrada, compares with iridescent material from Salango is not clear. Estrada (1962:Fig. 41) illustrates only three sherds, none of which match examples from Salango. Salango has no examples of what Estrada (1962:Fig. 94) called cunas, i.e., cradles. The one roller stamp fragment at 141B–T3 (Figure 2.122f) does not compare directly with those examples shown by Estrada but is matched by a fragment observed by the author among Late Engoroy pottery sherds at Puerto López.

In fact, out of all Estrada’s major decorated types, only his Bahía Inciso y Pintado Post-cocción (Estrada 1962: 37) can be securely identified as present at Salango. Estrada has this combined technique associated with bottles and compoteras, but shows that post-fire paint, without incision, occurs also on polypod legs and figurines. There is nothing in the Period 2 assemblage from 141B to compare closely with the triple bottle illustrated by Estrada (Estrada 1962: Fig. 50), but fragments of a double bottle from a late Phase III rubbish pit (Lunniss 2001:230, 231, Fig. 117e) had, in addition to iridescent paint, a zone of green post-fire paint defined by incision. Related to this major type is Estrada’s minor type that includes vessels of anthropomorphic form, or vessels with anthropomorphic or zoomorphic figure ornaments. These are not represented by the Period 2 assemblage at 141B–T3. Elsewhere at 141B, however, Phase V grave goods include bottles with modelled mythic figures (PAE 1984:74 3rd row right, 76 2nd row right) that

Estrada, we saw, never reached a clear definition of the difference between Bahía I and Bahía II. In terms of ceramic types, Estrada’s marker for Bahía I, Incisa Línea Ancha, is absent from both Period 1 and Period 2 contexts at Salango. And his Bahía Bruñido, said to be more common in Bahía II, is not easily equated with burnishing at 141B–T3 in Period 1 or 2 either. Regarding legs, the Guangaloid form, present in Period 2 at 141B–T3, is given as a Bahía II marker in Estrada’s 1957 publication. But it is later found among material from Pepa de Huso, interpreted as a Bahía I site in the 1962 publication. Finally, of figurines, the La Plata types, diagnostic of Bahía I, though   Estrada’s “Guangaloid” legs are consistently different from true Guangala modelled anthropomorphic legs (Bushnell 1951:40, 41, Figs. 12a, b, 3a–c, e–g), and properly should be perhaps termed Bahía. 7   But see Hickmann 1987:Fig.17 and Ligabue et al.1982: Fig. 180. 6

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Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador present in Period 2 contexts are mainly limited at 141B to Period 1, while the Bahía type, a marker for Bahía II, is wholly absent from 141B. The solid figurines from the Period 2 assemblage are unmatched by any published in the literature.

Giant Modelled types. In fact, their type C corresponds to La Plata Sólido, and type E to La Plata Hueco. Type D alone is undescribed by Estrada but is perhaps matched by the arm fragment from 141B–T3 (Figure 2.122e). Finally, the stemmed cups, cradles, miniature goblets, and discs (Stirling and Stirling 1963:23, 24) are all absent from Period 2 at 141B, though ceramic discs were present in Period 1.

On balance, this scanty evidence would suggest that while Period 1 at 141B Salango correlates chronologically with Bahía I, Period 2 correlates with Bahía II. It is clear, however, that Salango’s ceramics do not as a whole match Estrada’s Bahía material, although there is a strong Bahía influence or presence, particularly evident in La Plata figurines, decorated bottles, post-fire paint, and anthropomorphic legs.

In sum, the evidence points both to a general temporal correlation between the Tarqui site and 141B Salango, especially in Phases III to V, and to specific social ties between the sites. But since the Stirlings found no evidence of change or breaks in their sequence and make no reference to a possible difference between a Bahía I and II, we cannot use their data to make any more precise comment with respect to chronology.

Stirling and Stirling (1963) published material from the Tarqui site that largely, but by no means completely, corresponds to the Bahía types described by Estrada. Broad descriptions of five basic wares are followed by mention of each of the decorative techniques found. Once again, there are just a few direct correspondences with material from Salango. Of techniques not mentioned by Estrada, circular, hemispherical, or concentric nodes on out-flaring rims of flanged vessels are wholly absent from Salango, as are notching of red polished ware, red on white paint on coarse ware, black on red or red on black on smooth and polished ware, red, orange, and black on buff, black on smooth buff, white on polished black, black and red on polished buff, polished light brown on dark brown, and dull red on polished red.

At the Chirije site, roughly halfway between Manta and Bahía, Mejia (2005) analysed a small sample of pottery recovered from midden deposits. To avoid confusion with Estrada’s designations Chirije, Balsamo, and Bahía, he identifies his material as part of a Complejo Pajonal (Mejía 2005:92, 93) whose three stages correspond broadly with the Late Formative, Regional Development, and Integration periods respectively (Mejía 2005:203). He correlates Early Pajonal partly with Engoroy and finds Bahía influence throughout the sequence (Mejía 2005:221). Red finger paint is the dominant decorative mode at Chirije (Mejía 2005:154). Though there are some resemblances between the Pajonal kitchen wares and those at Salango, the designs in red finger paint on the jars are different, especially in the combination of concentric bands with small spots or very large ovals (Mejía 2005:Fig. 37p–v). And it is notable that engraving applied to polished surfaces (Mejía 2005:144, 145, Fig. 37a–l), though not common, is the second most frequent decorative technique and that iridescent paint was found on just two sherds.

From 141B–T3, one sherd of the Phase IIIL occupation (Lunniss 2001:Fig. 133h) is undoubtedly an import of the Tarqui indented ware, and a Phase V sherd (Figure 2.119k) may also be of this type.8 Red on buff is matched by four sherds from Phase IIIL (Lunniss 2001:Fig. 114f–i) which are also undoubted imports. Designs in dull black on polished black, and pencil line, as illustrated, are close matches for examples of pattern burnish at Salango. Iridescent (lustre) paint is said to be characteristic of the Tarqui site but represents just 0.8% of all sherds (Stirling and Stirling 1963:Table 1), is slightly less common than engraving, and is only a little more common than notching of the rim and notching of the shoulder. Pencil line occurs extremely rarely. The balance, then, among fineware decorative techniques is very different from that at Salango.

3.6.3 Serving Jars with Flaring Rims The two types of serving jar with wide flaring rims are unlike anything else in the assemblage, and there are no obvious local comparable forms. However, they do bear resemblance to jars with wide flaring rims, termed escupideras, from the Guayaquil Phase site of San Pedro (Marotzke and Laborde de Marotzke 1970:7, 9; Parducci and Parducci 1975:162, 163, Fig. 39e, Cuadro 9). One of the San Pedro jar types is presented with detail (Parducci and Parducci 1975: 194, Fig. 39a) and, although the flange is lower and there is no secondary chamber, its rim form, wide neck, and dimensions are reasonably close to those of the Phase IV Type A vessel from 141B (Figure 2.78).

In addition to decorative techniques, the Stirlings list seven types of vessel leg. Other than Estrada’s (1957) types, there is a rare solid rectangular form as well as rare solid conical and cylindrical forms, and loop supports. The latter may correspond to the two examples at 141B–T3 (Figure 2.51h, i), but the others are not found at Salango. The Stirlings also describe seven figurine types. They suggest (Stirling and Stirling 1963:19) that their types A, B, C, and F correspond to Estrada’s Esteros, Bahía, La Plata, and

3.6.4 The Double Compotera Four examples of the double compotera were recovered from 141B–T3, and at least a further eight were found in other parts of 141B. This is more than the total for all other reported complete specimens. The earliest documented

  Which is perhaps the same as Estrada’s (1962:Figs. 107, 108) undescribed Decorado en Uñas type. 8

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Analysis of the Assemblage example is probably the pedestal base decorated with negative on a red slip shown by Bushnell (1951:Fig. 32a) from the eponymous Guangala site. Marcos (1970:328, Fig. 18), while illustrating a bowl fragment with upper bridge attachment found at the Early Guangala Pampa de Pichilingo site, mentions the double compotera as an element of the Bahía culture. The Parduccis (1975: 223–225, Fig. 46) report eleven undecorated fragments of bridges for the Guayaquil Phase site at San Pedro, Guayaquil, and again refer to the double compoteras of the Bahía culture. They also mention three complete examples, including one at Joá found by Olaf Holm, another at a Guangala site near Julio Moreno found by the Parduccis themselves and Presley Norton, and a third found by Ubelaker as a grave offering in a cemetery at Hacienda Soledad, San Lorenzo del Mate. The example from Julio Moreno had just a single, upper bridge, and was decorated with a polished red slip, while the San Lorenzo vessel had a perforated base. Piana and Marotzke (1997:72–110), excavating at Salitre, found a complete example included as a grave offering for a male buried in a double interment with a female. The vessel carried a red slip, decorated with fine line incision. It is of interest that both the male and the female individuals were buried seated and crosslegged, with the goods in front, as this is one of the two principal burial configurations for the Phase V funerary enclosure at Salango. It is also of interest that among the Salitre sites were many cups similar to the single example from 141B–T3 (Figure 2.47a). The sharing or exchange of burial configuration, double compoteras, and cup suggests some social relationship between members of the Salango community and those of the lower Guayas Basin.

Although these are the only two examples of crested heads from Salango, at least one other vessel from south Manabí carries the design in negative on red and cream. This is a plate illustrated by Scott (1995:Fig. 1). Amongst the important elements diagnostic of the creature whose head this is, are: its long crest reaching from in front of the D-shaped eye, over the head, to the shoulder; a snout from which rises a feather like projection; and curved claws (Scott 1995:320, 321). The plate was identified by Norton as Chorrera-Bahía, and accordingly given a date of 400– 200 BC. However, the negative technique of decoration is identical to that on other vessels (e.g., PAE 1984:74 bottom row) from Phase V funerary contexts outside T3 at 141B Salango, and as in each of these other cases, the design is complex and symbolically laden. In addition, although the design shown by Scott is far more complete, and the figures face away from each other, rather than towards each other, there can be no doubt that the concept is the same as that on the Salango compoteras. It is most likely, therefore, that the plate shown by Scott is contemporary with the Salango double compoteras, and thus of Early Regional Development date. 3.6.6 Summary and Chronology While the ceramic assemblage from Building Phase IV at Salango OMJPLP–141B–T3 is mainly comparable with Late Engoroy, the material of Phases V and VI is related to the Bahía II and Guangala complexes. Direct comparison with published Early Guangala and Bahía II assemblages is not always easy on account of differences in the style and depth of their presentation. Most importantly, the Bahía II ceramic complex is itself poorly understood, and no secure Bahía II assemblage has yet been described in any systematic detail. Furthermore, the Salango material is distinguished by its ceremonial context. Nonetheless, some clear patterns of association do emerge.

The anecdotal references of Marcos and the Parduccis indicate that there have been several other examples of the double compotera found in south Manabí. Indeed Norton (1992:36, 37), talking of a Bahía tendency to extravagance, cites as examples the double compoteras decorated with iridescent paint from Salaite, Joá, and Salango. On the other hand, Stothert, as we saw, has observed examples of the double compotera, similar to the single-bridge example (Fig. 2.44b), in the area of Las Balsas, on the west side of the Cordillera Chongón Colonche. The spread of documented examples may not reflect the complete distribution pattern for the double compotera. Nonetheless, it seems certain that the form is an invention of the Early Regional Development period, with a marked concentration in south Manabí, although at least one other manufacturing site is perhaps to be identified in the hills of the Guangala zone.

First, the 141B–T3 assemblage is characterised by key attributes of the Bahía zone and lacks several of the key features common among Early Guangala assemblages. Thus, anthropomorphic designs on polypod legs are of Bahía II rather than Guangala style, the use of post-fire paint on fineware vessels and vessel legs is a Bahía II rather than Guangala characteristic, and, though they may be residual, the few hollow figurine fragments are also of Bahía type. Black finger paint on red slipped cooking jars, however, ordinary ware polypods, Guangala style hollow figurines, flutes, and spindle whorls, all typical Guangala features, are all absent.

3.6.5 Dragons

On the other hand, much material could be comfortably described as Early Guangala. Among finewares, for example, the simple bowls with stepped interiors and iridescent paint, restricted carinated bowls with iridescent paint and pattern burnish, simple pattern burnished bowls, serving jars with narrow necks and iridescent paint, and jars with structured rims, are all part of the Early Guangala repertoire. The simple pattern burnished bowls, though, are also exactly matched by examples at the Bahía site at

One of the double compoteras from 141B–T3 (Figures 2.39, 2.40), we have seen, is decorated in iridescent paint with a pair of dragon-like crested heads. Another, but slightly smaller double compotera (PAE 1984:74 3rd row left), from a grave in another area of the Phase V funerary enclosure, carries similar designs in iridescent paint in the same arrangement of rotational symmetry. 135

Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador Tarqui, and iridescent paint is also an important part of the Bahía II repertoire.

assigned by Paulsen (1970: 127) to her Phases 4 and 5 and is dated tentatively by her to AD 450–600.9 This would suggest that Phase VI lay at around AD 300–450, and if for the moment we assume Phase VII to be coterminous with Guangala three-colour pottery, the abandonment of the ceremonial site at Salango could be tentatively set at AD 600.

Likewise, the cooking jars with inflected rims and the wide kitchen bowls, both decorated with red finger paint, are common Early Guangala elements, though the motifs and designs on the jars at Salango are not matched at any of the Guangala sites. It is clear, however, that there was a wide degree of variation in the application of fingerpainted design, whether in red on buff or in black on red. This variation appears to operate at a very local scale, as each assemblage so far published presents a different set of motifs and/or designs. It may well be that the particularity of the Salango assemblage reflects such sub-regional, rather than inter-regional, variation. Dating of the Salango Period 2 assemblage can be suggested via external correlation in conjunction with internal radiocarbon dates, though for the moment the estimate must be only approximate. For the beginning of Phase V, data on Bahía II are of little use for lack of any precise chronological definition of the complex. But with respect to the Guangala sequence, the Salango Phase V assemblage is clearly contemporary as a minimum with Paulsen’s (1970:126) Phases 1 and 2, and with Bischof’s (1982) Early Guangala. While these are conventionally are estimated at about 100 BC–AD 200, the Early Guangala dates cited in Table 1.2 cover the years 200 BC–AD 320 at 68.2% probability. An end date is more problematical. Following Paulsen’s assessment of fineware chronology, the bichrome sherd at 141B–T3 would allow for Phase V extending into her Phase 3. Paulsen put this phase at AD 200–450, while her radiocarbon date from a Phase 3 context lies at AD 130–410 (at 68.2% probability). Masucci’s (1992:431) calibrated date for bichrome’s first appearance at AD 230–390 might also suggest that Phase V reached at least into the middle of the 3rd century AD. However, one should not put too much weight on the evidence of a single sherd. Correlation of the ceramics, therefore, suggests that Building Phase IV, which includes the first examples of a key marker for Phase V (Serving Bowl Form 13), and covers the transition from Late Engoroy to Early Bahía II and Guangala, would be a very brief episode standing at around 200–100 BC. Phase V would then start at some time around 100 BC and continue to perhaps AD 300. This range lies at the centre of the longer span suggested by the four more useful radiocarbon dates from Phase V graves at 141B itself (Table 1.5), which run from 380 BC to AD 600 (at 68.2% probability). Phases VI and VII are currently less easy to fix, for lack of analysis of any large body of securely correlated ceramics. The first appearance in Phase VI of restricted fineware bowls with undulating upper bodies suggests that there was some qualitative ceramic change between Phases V and VI. A further and more significant change would have occurred with Phase VII with the probable appearance then of Guangala three-colour pottery. This style is

  Masucci, on the other hand, found three-colour appearing for the first time together with two-colour finewares, sharing the calibrated date of AD 230–390. 9

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4 Discussion Abstract. The Late Formative ceramics from 141B Salango belong to the Engoroy tradition. Specifically, ceramics from Building Phases I to IIIE are Middle Engoroy, while those of Phases IIIL and IV are Late Engoroy. With Phase IV, there was an episode of transition as Late Engoroy traditions gave way to Bahía II and Early Guangala. In Phase V, although there was an underlying continuation of Late Engoroy ceramic traditions, several new ceramic forms and decorative techniques arrived, with a dominant influence deriving from the Bahía II region to the north, but also with a significant element representing styles of the Guangala region to the south. Thus, although the Guayas connections, manifest through the presence of Guangala characteristics, continued to exert themselves, they lost ground to the Bahía II influence emanating from the Manta-Bahía region, and the ceramics of the Early Regional Development funerary precinct at 141B Salango were dominated by Bahía II imagery. The general background to these changes in pottery was the transition from more egalitarian systems in the Late Formative to increasing social organisation in the Early Regional Development and, particularly with Bahía II, the emergence of hierarchy and centralisation. In parallel, the ceramic vessel iconography and ceramic figurine imagery show that there was also profound religious reorientation. Thus, the more directly natural mythic entities of the Late Formative were replaced by supernatural composites, and we see the more directly human become engaged with, subordinated by, or transformed into such spirit beings. In addition to Bahía II and Early Guangala vessels, those of a more local ceramic tradition of south Manabí played a very significant role amongst the grave goods at 141B. This tradition was centred on Salaite, and while it conformed, in general terms, to Bahía II tendencies, it operated with its own variant set of paradigms. Prominent Salaite vessels include double bottles, generally with a smudged slip, whose chambers are linked by “rope” handles and whose whistles are bedded in modelled mythic figures, and single whistling bottles with similar “rope” handles, also smudged but decorated with nubbins. Unsupported bowls with appliqué nubbins set on flattened lips also appear to be limited to the southernmost Manabí coast. Salango was, therefore, a focus for a complex set of political and social forces. The dynamics of the situation suggest competition, in so far as eligibility of the dead for access to the funerary enclosure seems to have been controlled by one main group at the expense of another. The funerary nature of the site itself suggests that the purpose of this competition may have been to establish and validate claims, as aspects of ancestral rights, to the site and the spiritual and material resources available through it. And the presence of imported ceramic grave goods may be used to suggest that marriage and other social ties were exploited by different and occasionally distant groups to achieve those rights. Resumen. La cerámica Formativo Tardío de 141B Salango pertenece a la tradición Engoroy. Concretamente, la cerámica de las Fases de Construcción I a IIIE pertenecen al Engoroy Medio, mientras que la de las Fases IIIL y IV pertenecen al Engoroy Tardío. Con la Fase IV, hubo un episodio de transición, ya que las tradiciones Engoroy Tardío dieron paso a las de Bahía II y Guangala Temprano. En la Fase V, si bien hubo una continuación subyacente de las tradiciones cerámicas Engoroy Tardío, llegaron varias formas cerámicas y técnicas decorativas nuevas, con una influencia dominante proveniente de la región Bahía II al norte, pero también con un elemento significativo que representa estilos Guangala del sur. Así, aunque las conexiones Guayas, manifestadas por la presencia de características Guangala, continuaron significantes, perdieron terreno ante la influencia Bahía II emanada de la región Manta-Bahía, y las cerámicas del recinto funerario Desarrollo Regional Temprano en 141B Salango fueron dominado por imaginería Bahía II.

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Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador El trasfondo general de estos cambios en la cerámica fue la transición de sistemas más igualitarios en el Formativo Tardío a una organización social creciente en el Desarrollo Regional Temprano y, particularmente con Bahía II, el surgimiento de la jerarquía y la centralización. Paralelamente, la iconografía de las vasijas cerámicas y la imaginería de los figurines cerámicos muestran que también hubo una profunda reorientación religiosa. Por lo tanto, las entidades míticas más directamente naturales del Formativo Tardío fueron reemplazadas por compuestos sobrenaturales, y vemos que lo más directamente humano se involucra con, subordina a, o transforma en tales seres espirituales. Además de las vasijas Bahía II y Guangala Temprano, las de una tradición cerámica más local del sur de Manabí jugaron un papel muy importante entre los ajuares funerarios de 141B. Esta tradición se centró en Salaite, y si bien se ajustaba, en términos generales, a las tendencias de Bahía II, operaba con su propio conjunto variante de paradigmas. Las vasijas Salaite prominentes incluyen botellas dobles, generalmente con un engobe manchado, cuyas cámaras están unidas por asas “de soga”, y cuyos silbatos están colocados en figuras míticas modeladas, y botellas silbato individuales, con asas “de soga” similares, también manchadas, pero decoradas con botones. Los cuencos sin soporte con botones aplicados sobre labios aplanados también parecen estar limitados a la costa sur de Manabí. Salango fue, por tanto, foco de un conjunto complejo de fuerzas políticas y sociales. La dinámica de la situación sugiere competencia, en la medida en que la elegibilidad de los muertos para acceder al recinto funerario parece haber sido controlada por un grupo principal a expensas de otro. La naturaleza funeraria del sitio en sí sugiere que el propósito de esta competencia puede haber sido establecer y validar reclamos, como aspectos de los derechos ancestrales, sobre el sitio y los recursos espirituales y materiales disponibles a través de este. Y la presencia de importados ajuares funerarios cerámicos puede usarse para sugerir que el matrimonio y otros lazos sociales fueron explotados por grupos diferentes y ocasionalmente distantes para lograr esos derechos. The Late Formative ceramics from 141B Salango belong to the Engoroy tradition. Specifically, ceramics from Building Phases I to IIIE belong to Middle Engoroy, while those of Phases IIIL and IV belong to Late Engoroy. In Phase V, several new ceramic forms and decorative techniques arrived, with a dominant influence deriving from the Bahía II region to the north, but also with a significant element representing styles of the Guangala region to the south. Through this process of change, however, there was an underlying continuation of Late Engoroy ceramic traditions.

The new building configuration saw a low wall used to create and surround a hollow space in which the dead could be buried, rather than to define the edges of a raised clay floor. Likewise, the earlier concept of erecting a wooden superstructure on top of the interior of the central area was replaced by that of using large, widely spaced wooden posts to create a symbolic fence around the outside of the enclosure. Building orientation remained the same, with the main entrance to the northeast. But burial orientation changed, with a consistent northwest-southeast axis being replaced by a general orientation to the northeast or north, and there were other changes in burial configuration. Thus, in primary interments the individual, instead of lying down, was now seated in the tomb. And while Late Engoroy burials were accompanied by a variety of goods, Early Regional Development burials were endowed principally with a set of ceramic vessels, many of them highly elaborate. Finally, while individuals of the Late Engoroy cemetery included infants and children, the Early Regional Development cemetery was exclusively of adults.

How are we to evaluate the cultural implications of the types of change that we can see in the pottery? At Salango itself, the transition from Phase III to Phase V saw several important changes in the character of the ceremonial site at 141B. With Late Engoroy, the ceremonial precinct was the setting for diverse ritual practices, including interment. Human individuals were buried on and to the side of the central floor or low platform, while small stone figurines were deposited in holes cut into the exterior floor, though other creatures, artefacts and materials were also buried on and around the central floor. With the Early Regional Development occupation of Phase V, the site became a dedicated funerary precinct, and while some burials were located at the habitation area of site 141C, a short distance away, the ceremonial structures at 141B were reserved for human burials, and the immediate environs of the enclosure were kept more or less empty.

Burial practices from the Machalilla period onwards suggests that the background to these specific differences was a broader process of change through time at this site. This process saw an increasingly select burial population, with the gradual exclusion of children, and an increasing focus on human burial at the expense of the wide range of other activities that had formerly been associated with the burial site at any one time. These changes in site function 138

Discussion and burial practice can in turn be interpreted as reflecting changes in social organisation. Specifically, they suggest that, while there was a pattern of broad continuity of occupation, there was also an increasingly differentiated community, a more centralised social structure, and perhaps also one that was increasingly hierarchical. The patterns of ceramic change through the Late Formative and Early Regional Development periods can be used to support this argument.1

zone. Stothert (1993) has identified Early Guangala society as a relatively egalitarian formation, its ties founded on exchange and inter-communal feasting and ceremony, and contrasts this image with that of a more hierarchical and centralised structure for the Bahía II culture. Supporting archaeological evidence consists on the one hand of Early Guangala’s dispersed settlement pattern, the absence of contemporary ceremonial structures and centres, and the common presence of ritual paraphernalia at domestic sites; while for Bahía II, there are the large mounds and ceremonial structures recorded by Jijón y Caamaño and Estrada at the urban centre at Manta, and other ceremonial or ritual sites such as Salaite. Given this model, the dedicated funerary precinct at Salango 141B, with its select burial population and sumptuary grave goods, can be interpreted as another manifestation of Bahía II’s more elitist cultural values.

The wider ceramic changes evident in Phase V are heralded by the arrival in Phase IV of serving bowl Form 13, whose post-fire paint and occasional anthropomorphic legs identify it as an element of the Bahía II complex. The Phase IV examples both occur in funerary rubbish pits, which also contain examples of serving bowl Form 8, the characteristic Late Engoroy polypod form of Phase IIIL. Phase IV, therefore, is an episode of complex transition. On the one hand, it presents a moment of chronological change, when Late Engoroy traditions are about to give way to early Bahía II and Guangala. On the other, it presents the arrival of a governing influence from a new geographical centre. For while the Engoroy tradition belonged to a culture zone extending along the Guayas coast from La Libertad into south Manabí, the Bahía II tradition was of the central and south Manabí coast. Thus, although the Guayas connections, manifest through the presence of Guangala characteristics, continued to exert themselves, they lost ground to the Bahía II influence emanating from the Manta-Bahía region.

In addition, however, to a process of social change, a profound religious reorientation across the transition from Late Engoroy to Bahía II is indicated by certain elements of ceramic iconography. In general terms, this is evident in the move from figures drawn more directly from nature in Engoroy, to the depiction in Bahía II of more complex mythic or spirit beings. Thus, from a Late Engoroy grave at 141B-T3, there was a whistling bottle in the form of a quadruped mammal (Lunniss 2001:Fig. 120). Comparison with looted Chorrera vessels (Cummins 2003:Fig. 18) suggests that the animal was a dog. Although the representation is not wholly naturalistic (the creature has red feet and a yellow chest and neck), it is essentially simple.

This ceramic realignment, however, had also been prefigured. The presence of Bahía I ceramic figurines at 141B (Lunniss 2001:284–287) is one indication of Late Engoroy period ties between Salango and Manta. In addition, while the dominant pottery wares during Phase IIIL are characteristic of the Engoroy zone, funerary rites involved on certain occasions the burial, in pits close to the graves, of pottery brought from the Manta region. This practice, we can suggest, reflects social ties between the dead at Salango and the living of Manta. The buried individuals, for example, were perhaps from Manta, or were married to or otherwise related to families living in Manta. We can suggest further that the changes that occurred between Phases III and V saw these occasional lower-level familial relationships replaced by wider ties of dependency, perhaps involving a marriage alliance between leading families of the Salango and Manta communities.

By contrast, two double whistling bottles from Bahía II graves at 141B outside T3 represent composite beings. One has a creature with a head like those of the Engoroy dog, but it sits upright in a somewhat human posture (PAE 1984:76 2nd row right). Around each arm and leg is a double-headed serpent, while an exaggeratedly long tongue reaches down its belly. Not only is the central creature itself an ambiguous blend of human and canine or other animal features, the two-headed snake with which it is associated is itself a clearly mythical form. These snakes also appear on the second bottle (PAE 1984: 74 3rd row right). This time, the central figure is again seated, and is more demonstrably human both in form and for its headdress, while there are just two snakes, one running on either side from the nose down the neck and under the elbow to the outside of the arm. Comparison of these Late Engoroy and Bahía II period bottles shows a significant change in three-dimensional imagery. The complex and mythic nature of Bahía II period iconography is further demonstrated by the painted design of the crested being on the double compoteras from 141B-T3 (Figure 2.40; PAE 1984:74 3rd row left).

The importance of this closer relationship with Manta lies in the social organisation suggested for the Bahía II culture, and its differences from those of the Guangala   Stothert (2003:351–360) presents an alternative interpretation of changes in mortuary practice through the Formative and into the Regional Development period on the central coast, emphasizing the marked diversity of burial practice at any one time. Clearly, we must be careful in making any general remarks concerning social behaviour and structure, when the empirical data, though limited, points to such a wide range of possible models. 1

Change in iconographic content from Late Engoroy to Bahía II at Salango mirrors change at a wider level. The Late Formative period Chorrera ceramic bottles are famous for their naturalistic forms (Cummins 2003; Lathrap et al. 139

Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador 1975). For the Regional Development period, Meggers (1966:92, 93) has pointed to the incorporation in Bahía religion of serpents and dragon-like creatures, both of which general classes of being are represented on ceramics from 141B. Scott (1995) has placed the Bahía crested dragon in the context of a new religious cult that ultimately extended along the Pacific coast from Panama to Perú. Cummins (2003:460) has alluded to a “reorientation” of Bahía and other Regional Development ceramics “away from just the natural state of being”, though he emphasises that Regional Development expression emerges from the Chorrera vision. Indeed, complex mythic beings are represented in certain Late Formative vessels. For example, there are representations of Bahía monster-like creatures on jars (Lathrap et al. 1975: Nos. 336, 337) of definite Chorreroid style. However, such representations are not common, and they can be interpreted as early manifestations of a figure that was just developing as an important religious icon. Other scattered indications on late Chorreroid pottery of a vision that extended beyond the natural may also be understood as auguries of the new cosmology.

beings comes to dominate three-dimensional ceramic figurative art, the shaman, in his role as manager of human relationships with that world, is given a position of dramatic and explicit prominence. This prominence is even more striking when we consider that while large numbers of the simple anthropomorphic figures were circulating in the Bahía I period, the masked figures of Bahía II are relatively few.2 In sum, Bahía I period artefacts suggest a more direct relationship between the human, the natural, and the spiritual, with no obvious emphasis placed on the status of the shamanic intermediary. With Bahía II, on the other hand, attention seems to have been explicitly focused on a small group of professional spirit handlers deemed capable of controlling the increasingly complex forces of the mythical dimension.3 While, however, the ceremonial centre at 141B came to be a focus for Bahía II ceremony, the overall picture of Salango in the Early Regional Development period is more complicated. First, as we have seen, Early Guangala ceramics were present in the funerary precinct. Indeed, certain individuals were buried with mixed ceramic lots that included both Early Guangala and Bahía II style vessels (Norton et al. 1983: Foto 33). But beyond the precinct, though only 50 m away, in the domestic settlement area of 141C, Bahía II ceramics are almost entirely absent, and the dominant pottery is Guangala (Kurc 1984).

A related change can be observed in the imagery of anthropomorphic ceramic figures. Bahía I figurines, while variable in form, are of easily recognisable humans (PAE 1984: 74 1st row left and centre). Some, especially the Giant Modelled examples (e.g., Ligabue et al. 1982: Nos. 228, 230, 237), are adorned with elaborate headdresses, but the human face is always visible. However, when we consider the Bahía II period, the humanity of the individuals is more ambiguous. Rather, we find that the figure has a blend of animal-like features, as we have seen on the Salango bottles, or else the figure is masked. The triple bottle, for example, from the Esteros site at Manta (Estrada 1962:Fig. 50) presents two masked figures, presumably shamans, each holding a pair of serpents. In this case the personages are controlling the snakes rather than being controlled by them. Additionally, the relation of the shamans to the spirit world, represented by the snakes, is conducted under the guise of the mask: in other words, the directly-human is subordinated to the mythical persona assumed by the shaman in his dealings with the other world.

That the Early Guangala ceramics from 141C are contemporary with the Phase V ceramics from 141B is indicated by the sharing across the two areas of certain identical forms. For example, at both sites human burials are found in association with giant Guangala compoteras. But one of the burials at 141C included amongst its goods a complete Type B Guangala figurine. This is a marker for Early Guangala. No complete example or even a fragment of such a figurine was recovered at 141B. This seems to confirm that while control of the ceremonial funerary structure lay with a group of mainly Bahía II affiliation, there also existed at Salango, occupying the area of 141C, another group with a specifically Guangala orientation. Several questions present themselves. For example: Were both groups in permanent residence? Was the ceremonial centre managed by Bahía-affiliated outsiders? Or does the Guangala presence at 141C represent a small colony at a ceremonial centre within Bahía territory? What does the Bahía dominance of the funerary precinct imply for political relations between the differently affiliated groups? Whatever the answers, and some shall be suggested later, it is interesting to note here that at this frontier site, what we find is not the merging of the ceramic styles of the two

A more extended presentation of shamanic dual identity is found on certain elaborate Bahía II jars, where the mask and the human face are both shown, but looking in opposite directions (Di Capua 1986:Fig.1; Piana 1970). It is the mask that is more clearly related to the body, while the human face is put in a secondary position, and the shaman is here shown in a moment of vision induced by the consumption of a hallucinogen (Di Capua 1986:165), when his animal or mythical spirit, depicted by the mask, fills his body, temporarily displacing his humanity, which is depicted by the face. Furthermore, the fact that the human face looks to and is adjacent to the mouth of the jar indicates that the jar itself was the vessel from which the hallucinogenic drink was served. In other words, at the same time that the visionary world of complex mythical

  The observations of Dorsey (1901) on La Plata, and of Estrada (1957, 1962) and the Stirlings (1963) at Manta, suggest that the total of Bahía I La Plata type hollow modelled figurines alone would be measured by the thousand. An estimate of numbers for Bahía II is complicated by the absence of any clear definition of its figurine repertoire. 3   A rich portrait of shamanic power in action is interpreted by Di Capua (1986:165, 166, Fig. 3) in her analysis of the designs on a ceramic flute that is probably of Early Guangala, and thus contemporary with Bahía II. 2

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Discussion neighbouring culture zones, but their simultaneous and unblended co-existence.

itself, though the use of incision and post-fire paint would place it within the larger late Bahía I complex. Most commonly, the bottle type is associated with Salaite.4 Salaite, though never excavated scientifically and only known through its looted artefacts, was not only a place of great importance, but, in view of the quality of those artefacts, perhaps the most important ceremonial site on the south Manabí coast during the Late Formative and Early Regional Development periods.5

At 141C, Kurc (1984:38) suggested a three-stage sequence for the Guangala ceramics, the fineware bowls of each stage being characterised by serving bowls with iridescent paint, rare bichrome as well as exterior iridescent paint, and three-colour paint respectively. This pattern remains to be confirmed by detailed analysis, but it suggests a continuous occupation parallel to use and reconstruction of the funerary precinct. For at 141B itself, the closure of the Phase V funerary precinct, and its transformation, in Phase VI, into a raised platform, is followed by the appearance of Guangala three-colour ware as the dominant component of the ceramic assemblage. Again, detailed analysis remains to be carried out, but the evidence suggests so far that by the time of Phase VII and Guangala three-colour, Bahía II influence had withdrawn from the ceremonial centre, and perhaps from Salango altogether.

When we come to the Early Regional Development, the evidence for a south Manabí ceramic production zone, centred on Salaite, is again primarily presented by bottles, examples of which were excavated at 141B Salango.6 In this case, there are two sets of vessels. First, there are double bottles, generally with a smudged slip7, whose chambers are linked by “rope” handles8, and whose whistles are bedded in modelled mythic figures such as those described earlier (PAE 1984:74 3rd row right, 76 2nd row right). And second, there are single whistling bottles, with similar “rope” handles, also smudged, but decorated with nubbins (PAE 1984:75 2nd row right). Unsupported bowls with appliqué nubbins set on flattened lips (Form 12) also appear to be limited to the southernmost Manabí coast.

Salango, in short, is the scene of an intricate sequence of occupation, one that presents cultural elements deriving variously from the two major culture zones to north and south. But whether we are speaking of the Late Formative or Early Regional Development occupation, there are indications of a more local influence at work. Specifically, there are grounds for hypothesising the presence of a south Manabí ceramic sub-complex during this time.

Further investigation is required of the distribution of the pottery. But no vessels with these attributes have been reported from the many excavations of Early Guangala sites in northern Guayas. Second, while the vessels generally fall within the range of types suggested by Estrada for Bahía II, they are not reported by him for the main Bahía II sites in the Manta-Bahía de Caráquez region. So, it is reasonably certain that they do represent a local tradition, centred on the southernmost Manabí coast, within the larger Bahía II ceramic complex. And Salaite is the site most reported as their place of burial. In addition, the elaborate forms would probably have been associated with controlled ritual practice and can therefore be seen as indicators of ideological difference.

The coastline of south Manabí from Ayampe to Puerto Cayo is a distinct geographical and ecological zone. It is bordered to south and east by rugged hills that in addition almost completely close its northern edge along the valley of the Río Jipijapa. A more significant northern boundary is presented by the change in orientation of the coastline, for whereas from Salango to Puerto Cayo there are several sheltered bays that favour the landing and embarkation of sea-going vessels, the shore north from Puerto Cayo to Cabo San Lorenzo faces the prevailing winds head-on with no safe anchorage afforded. The Ayampe-Puerto Cayo region is also characterised, we have seen, by peculiar climate and vegetation regimes. Without pressing for environmental determinism, one might predict that these isolating factors, together with the distance of the area from the larger population centres to north and south, would have encouraged some cultural divergence within the overall constraints imposed by influences from those centres.

We have earlier observed that kitchen jars display varied finger paint designs, and that this variation appears to reflect localised production. Likewise, while a regional study of the iridescent designs on fineware bowls has yet to be carried out, there are signs emerging that in   There are several looted examples held in the collection of the Museo del Banco Central, including the two from Salango and others from Salaite, and all of them come from south Manabí (Pedro Valeiro, pers. comm. 2003). 5   Additionally, Salaite was the one other site on the south coast of Manabí to have produced large numbers of stone figurines of the type associated with the late Phase III ceremonial structure at Salango (Olaf Holm, pers. comm. 1994). 6   Observations on distribution are again largely based on the collection at the Museo del Banco Central, Guayaquil, and the information kindly given by Pedro Valeiro concerning the sources of the artefacts. 7   One example from Salango 141B, however, has red and cream slips decorated with a negative design. 8   The “rope” may be twisted, to left or right, in which case it can be of two, three or more plies, or it may be left untwisted, in which case it will be two-ply, one ply lying next to the other. 4

For the Late Formative, the primary evidence for a local ceramic sub-complex is presented by an elaborate single whistling bottle form decorated with a small anthropomorphic figure and with an incised and painted zone that are each of them unique to this form (Lathrap et al. 1975:Fig. 79, No. 338). At 141B-T3, a Late Engoroy rubbish pit produced just one sherd off such a bottle (Lunniss 2001:Fig. 117d), but two complete examples are reported to have been looted from Salango in the 1970’s (Pedro Valeiro, pers. comm. 2003). On present evidence, the bottles seem to have been a product of south Manabí 141

Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador the Late Formative there was sub-regional variation in the morphological details of these vessels (Beckwith 1996:460; Lunniss 2001:275, 276). We have now seen that at least one Early Regional Development serving bowl form is strongly linked to south Manabí, and that in both the Late Formative and Early Regional Development, this same area was circulating its own whistling bottle forms.

that by the Manteño period Salango Island was itself the seat of a shrine. We can, then, understand the motives for human action and interaction at Salango in the following way. First, Salango was close to material and, most probably, spiritual resources related to the waters of the ocean. The ceremonial site, acting as a setting for communication with the spirit world, would have been used as a point of control in negotiating access to those resources. But in addition, by the time of Bahía II control, the ceremonial site had already functioned as a place of diverse spiritual intervention for 500 years and it would have developed extra sacred values through the weight of ritual events and interments carried out over that time. An important aspect of those extra values would have been concerned with ancestral association, expressed principally through human burial. Early Regional Development burials, therefore, were used as a means of establishing and maintaining contact with the spirit forces operative in the area. They would have served both as demonstrations of legitimacy of access, and as offerings in reciprocal exchange for the harvest from the sea.

In other words, it is not sufficient to identify the Early Regional Development ceramic assemblage at Salango 141B simply as the local product of the two larger regional influences of Bahía II and Early Guangala. South coastal Manabí was producing and circulating a range of vessels peculiar to itself, and whistling bottles show that while elaborate ceramic production in south Manabí conformed, in general terms, to the tendencies of the Bahía II complex, it operated to some extent with its own variant set of paradigms. Current evidence places Salaite as the focal point of the south Manabí ceramic sub-complex that has been postulated. At the same time, pottery was arriving directly from sites as far away as Manta, 70 km to the north, the southern Cordillera Chongón Colonche, and from the Guayas Basin over 100 km to the east. Salango was, therefore, a focus for a complex set of political and social forces. The dynamics of the situation suggest competition, in so far as eligibility of the dead for access to the funerary enclosure seems to have been controlled by one main group at the expense of another. The funerary nature of the site itself suggests that the purpose of this competition may have been to establish and validate claims, as aspects of ancestral rights, both to the site and to whatever resources might have been available through it. And the presence of imported ceramic grave goods may be used to suggest that marriage and other social ties were exploited by different and occasionally distant groups to achieve those rights. The desired resources may well have been of different types. In the first place, the site looked over the rich fishing grounds off Salango Island. Both vertebrate and invertebrate marine species abounded in the area, offering almost limitless food as well as materials for ornaments and tools. And amongst the invertebrates, the bivalves Pinctada mazatlanica and Spondylus spp. were each of local symbolic significance, while Spondylus princeps was sought after in very large quantities by the elite consumers of the coastal chiefdoms of the north Peruvian coast. In short, the value of Salango may have lain largely in its access to the material resources offered by the ocean. However, the natural world was just one dimension of existence. The spiritual world was another. Thus, not only is it likely that the abundance of the sea would have inspired reverence for the waters, it is easy to imagine also that the island was conceived as an important dwelling place for the spirits. One has only to look as far as La Plata Island (Damp and Norton 1987; Dorsey 1901; Marcos and Norton 1981), on the not-too-distant horizon, to find clear archaeological evidence reaching back to the Valdivia period for such a vision of island as sacred place. And documentary evidence (Sámano-Xerez 1937) suggests 142

5 Conclusions Abstract. This monograph has examined a heterogeneous ceramic assemblage of the Early Regional Development period from Salango, set on the frontier between the Guangala and Bahía II ceramic zones. A previously unrecognised Salaite ceramic sub-complex has been identified. Changes in ceramics have been linked to changes in social organisation, social affiliation, and religion. The study completes the description of the main features of the approximately 900year Late Formative and Early Regional Development ceramic sequence excavated at Salango OMJPLP–141B–T3. The transition at an important ceremonial site from the Late Formative to the Early Regional Development, one of the key moments of cultural reorganisation in the prehistory of the Ecuadorian coast, has thus been considered in detail for the first time. Future work will lead to a fuller evaluation of the broader cultural processes and other factors at work in the region during this dramatic period. Resumen. Esta monografía ha examinado un conjunto cerámico heterogéneo del período Desarrollo Regional Temprano de Salango, ubicado en la frontera entre las zonas cerámicas Guangala y Bahía II. Un subcomplejo cerámico Salaite, previamente no reconocido, ha sido identificado. Los cambios en la cerámica se han relacionado con cambios en la organización social, la afiliación social, y la religión. El estudio completa la descripción de las principales características de la secuencia cerámica Formativo Tardío y Desarrollo Regional Temprano de aproximadamente 900 años excavada en Salango OMJPLP–141B–T3. Por ende, la transición en un sitio ceremonial clave del Formativo Tardío al Desarrollo Regional Temprano, uno de los momentos de reorganización cultural críticos para la prehistoria de la costa ecuatoriana, ha sido así considerada en detalle por primera vez. El trabajo futuro conducirá a una evaluación más completa de los procesos culturales y otros factores más amplios que intervienen en la región durante este período dramático. The chief objective of this monograph has been the close description and analysis of a heterogeneous ceramic assemblage excavated at a ceremonial site located geographically on the frontier between two ceramic zones and chronologically at the end of one cultural period and at the beginning of another. It has been possible, then, to use the pottery to examine not only a sequence of transition, but also a point of interaction. In so doing, a previously unrecognised ceramic sub-complex has been identified. Further, changes in ceramics have been linked to changes in social organisation, social affiliation, and religion, and the complex nature of the assemblage has been interpreted in terms of competing claims for access to material and spiritual resources. It is to be noted that it was the detailed context of the setting of the assemblage that made such a structured analysis possible.

investigation of Salaite itself is essential if we are to confirm current estimates of its importance and role. And at Salango itself, before the 141B material can be correlated securely with the Guangala ceramic sequence, there is need for more precision regarding the order and timing of iridescent, two-colour, and three-colour paint techniques. Analysis of the material deriving from the layers at 141B (outside Trench 3) that are associated with Building Phases VI and VII will here be of benefit, as will analysis of the 141C sequence. Description and analysis of the full inventory of grave goods from the Phase V cemetery will also add significantly to the sample of fineware ceramics of the Early Regional Development period. More thematically, a start has been made towards understanding iridescent paint and red finger paint designs on serving bowls and kitchen jars, but Early Regional Development fineware decorative designs, whether painted or burnished, need much further attention, and there should be comparative study to determine the nature of any regional or subregional variation in all types of decorative designs. In parallel, the wealth of iconographic detail bound to hollow figurines and whistling bottles, not present in the T3 sample but well represented elsewhere at 141B, needs careful register. And an attempt could be made to consider the functional and symbolic significance of the changing and differential treatment of serving bowl rims, supports, dimensions, and exterior surfaces.

Several specific lines of future enquiry can be suggested. At a wider scale, although the difference between Bahía I and Bahía II is clearer in terms of religious vision, of primary importance is the need for examination of a wellstructured sequence of ceramics including both periods from a ceremonial site in or near Manta, as not only are the ceramic differences between Bahía I and Bahía II still uncertain, the beginning and the end of the sequence are even less well understood. More locally, study of the ceramics present at other sites in the region of Salango will help determine the relative strengths of Bahía II and Early Guangala as forces over south Manabí, and belated 143

Cultural Identity, Transition, and Interaction at Salango, Coastal Ecuador Meanwhile, this study completes the description of the main features of the approximately 900-year Late Formative and Early Regional Development ceramic sequence excavated at Salango OMJPLP–141B–T3. The sequence spans the period from Middle Engoroy, through Late Engoroy, to the end of Bahía II dominance of the ceremonial centre. The transition at a key site from the Late Formative to the Early Regional Development, one of the crucial moments of cultural reorganisation in the prehistory of the Ecuadorian coast, has thus been considered in detail for the first time. Future work will lead to a fuller evaluation of the broader cultural processes and other factors at work in the region during this dramatic period.

144

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BAR IN TERNATIONA L SE RIE S 3109

‘The sample from Salango as well as the site itself is likely among the most important and most carefully excavated for the coastal region. This author’s work is among the few detailed presentations of the data. The publication also offers very clear, concise summaries of previous research which would be an easy and useful reference for anyone trying to understand the history of ceramic research for these periods on the coast of Ecuador.’ Dr Maria Masucci, Drew University

The Early Regional Development (100 BC–AD 300) funerary precinct at Salango, on the central coast of Ecuador, was situated at the point of convergence of the Bahía II and Early Guangala culture zones. With plentiful line drawings and colour photographs, this book uses pottery from the precinct to present a detailed and closely contextualized description of Early Regional Development ceramic traditions for coastal Ecuador. As a result, we gain valuable insights into the dynamics of cultural identity, transition, and interaction as manifest in a highly structured pottery assemblage from a key Pre-Columbian site of this area. Attention is brought to designs made with the two principal decorative modes: iridescent paint on serving wares and red finger paint designs on kitchen wares. Assemblage analysis points to the complex set of cultural factors and processes involved in its composition, and an important local ceramic tradition is identified for the first time. Spanish summaries are included for each chapter.

Richard Lunniss holds a PhD from the Institute of Archaeology, University College London. Since 1982 he has been closely involved in the study of Salango, on the central coast of Ecuador. He is currently a Research Professor at the Universidad Técnica de Manabí, Portoviejo and a Research Archaeologist for Ecuador’s Instituto Nacional de Patrimonio Cultural.

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