Cross-Cultural Collaboration and Leadership in Modern Organizations 9781466683761, 9781466683778, 1466683767

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Cross-Cultural Collaboration and Leadership in Modern Organizations Nancy D. Erbe California State University Dominguez Hills, California Anthony H. Normore California State University Dominguez Hills, California

A volume in the Advances in Human Resources Management and Organizational Development (AHRMOD) Book Series

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Lindsay Johnston Austin DeMarco Jan Travers Kayla Wolfe Christina Henning Brandon Carbaugh Tucker Knerr Jason Mull

Published in the United States of America by Business Science Reference (an imprint of IGI Global) 701 E. Chocolate Avenue Hershey PA, USA 17033 Tel: 717-533-8845 Fax: 717-533-8661 E-mail: [email protected] Web site: http://www.igi-global.com Copyright © 2015 by IGI Global. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, without written permission from the publisher. Product or company names used in this set are for identification purposes only. Inclusion of the names of the products or companies does not indicate a claim of ownership by IGI Global of the trademark or registered trademark. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data CIP Data Cross-cultural collaboration and leadership in modern organizations / Nancy Erbe and Anthony H. Normore, editors. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. Summary: “This book provides an interdisciplinary analysis of how organizations can responsibly embrace complex problem-solving and creative decision making, offering essential practical tools and critical guidelines”-- Provided by publisher. ISBN 978-1-4666-8376-1 (hardcover : alk. paper) -- ISBN 978-1-4666-8377-8 (ebook) 1. Diversity in the workplace-Management. 2. Multiculturalism. 3. Leadership. 4. Organizational behavior. I. Erbe, Nancy, editor. II. Normore, Anthony H., editor. HF5549.5.M5C76 2015 658.4’092--dc23 2015008246 This book is published in the IGI Global book series Advances in Human Resources Management and Organizational Development (AHRMOD) (ISSN: 2327-3372; eISSN: 2327-3380) British Cataloguing in Publication Data A Cataloguing in Publication record for this book is available from the British Library. All work contributed to this book is new, previously-unpublished material. The views expressed in this book are those of the authors, but not necessarily of the publisher. For electronic access to this publication, please contact: [email protected].

Advances in Human Resources Management and Organizational Development (AHRMOD) Book Series Patricia Ordóñez de Pablos Universidad de Oviedo, Spain

Mission

ISSN: 2327-3372 EISSN: 2327-3380

A solid foundation is essential to the development and success of any organization and can be accomplished through the effective and careful management of an organization’s human capital. Research in human resources management and organizational development is necessary in providing business leaders with the tools and methodologies which will assist in the development and maintenance of their organizational structure. The Advances in Human Resources Management and Organizational Development (AHRMOD) Book Series aims to publish the latest research on all aspects of human resources as well as the latest methodologies, tools, and theories regarding organizational development and sustainability. The AHRMOD Book Series intends to provide business professionals, managers, researchers, and students with the necessary resources to effectively develop and implement organizational strategies.

Coverage

• • • • • • • • • •

Talent Identification and Management Employee Benefits Compliance Training and development Entrepreneurialism Outsourcing HR Coaching and Mentoring Employee Communications Organizational development Workplace Culture

IGI Global is currently accepting manuscripts for publication within this series. To submit a proposal for a volume in this series, please contact our Acquisition Editors at [email protected] or visit: http://www.igi-global.com/publish/.

The Advances in Human Resources Management and Organizational Development (AHRMOD) Book Series (ISSN 2327-3372) is published by IGI Global, 701 E. Chocolate Avenue, Hershey, PA 17033-1240, USA, www.igi-global.com. This series is composed of titles available for purchase individually; each title is edited to be contextually exclusive from any other title within the series. For pricing and ordering information please visit http://www.igi-global.com/book-series/advances-human-resources-management-organizational/73670. Postmaster: Send all address changes to above address. Copyright © 2015 IGI Global. All rights, including translation in other languages reserved by the publisher. No part of this series may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means – graphics, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping, or information and retrieval systems – without written permission from the publisher, except for non commercial, educational use, including classroom teaching purposes. The views expressed in this series are those of the authors, but not necessarily of IGI Global.

Titles in this Series

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Handbook of Research on Internationalization of Entrepreneurial Innovation in the Global Economy Luisa Cagica Carvalho (Universidade Aberta, Portugal & CEFAGE, Universidade de Évora, Portugal) Business Science Reference • copyright 2015 • 547pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781466682160) • US $335.00 (our price) Cases on Human Performance Improvement Technologies Jill E. Stefaniak (Old Dominion University, USA) Business Science Reference • copyright 2015 • 409pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781466683303) • US $205.00 (our price) Cases on Sustainable Human Resources Management in the Middle East and Asia Stephanie Jones (Maastricht School of Management, The Netherlands) and Sheena Graham (Graham Reid Associates, Hong Kong) Business Science Reference • copyright 2015 • 374pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781466681675) • US $195.00 (our price) Business Ethics and Diversity in the Modern Workplace Philippe W. Zgheib (Lebanese American University, Lebanon) Business Science Reference • copyright 2015 • 326pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781466672543) • US $235.00 (our price) Impact of Diversity on Organization and Career Development Claretha Hughes (University of Arkansas, USA) Business Science Reference • copyright 2015 • 342pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781466673243) • US $215.00 (our price) Organizational Innovation and IT Governance in Emerging Economies Jingyuan Zhao (University of Toronto, Canada) Patricia Ordóñez de Pablos (Universidad de Oviedo, Spain) and Robert D. Tennyson (University of Minnesota, USA) Business Science Reference • copyright 2015 • 304pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781466673328) • US $205.00 (our price) Utilizing Evidence-Based Lessons Learned for Enhanced Organizational Innovation and Change Susan McIntyre (Defence Research and Development, Canada) Kimiz Dalkir (McGill University, Canada) Perry Paul (Lessons Learned Consultant, Canadian Armed Forces (Retired), Canada) and Irene C. Kitimbo (McGill University, Canada) Business Science Reference • copyright 2015 • 323pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781466664531) • US $195.00 (our price) Approaches to Managing Organizational Diversity and Innovation Nancy D. Erbe (California State University, USA) Business Science Reference • copyright 2014 • 387pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781466660069) • US $205.00 (our price)

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Table of Contents

Preface.................................................................................................................................................. xiv Acknowledgment................................................................................................................................. xxi Section 1 Field-Proven Practices Chapter 1 Tools Deepening Cross Cultural Collaboration and Leadership............................................................. 1 Nancy D. Erbe, California State University – Dominguez Hills, USA Swaranjit Singh, California State Education Vendor, USA Chapter 2 Coordinating Meaning and Joint Identity: Cultivating Leadership and Cross-Cultural Communication in a Divided Community............................................................................................. 13 Samuel Peleg, Rutgers University, USA Chapter 3 Exploring Opportunities and Challenges of Cross-Cultural and International Teaching, Research, and Service for Higher Education Faculty Members............................................................................. 35 Melanie C. Brooks, University of Idaho, USA Jeffrey S. Brooks, Monash University, Australia Section 2 Promising Approaches Chapter 4 Integrative Conflict Resolution: Tools for Loving Praxis in Organizational Leadership...................... 50 Amanda Smith Byron, Portland State University, USA Chapter 5 Effective Training for International Cross-Cultural Collaboration and Leadership.............................. 63 Yvette Durazo, National University San Diego, USA Margaret Manning, California State University – Dominguez Hills, USA Giuseppina Wright, California State University – Dominguez Hills, USA 



Chapter 6 Partnering for Purpose: Cross-Cultural Model to Encourage Participation, Exploration, Appreciation, Reflection, and Learning in Undergraduate Education and Beyond............................... 83 Kirti S. Celly, California State University, USA Charles E. Thomas, California State University, USA Section 3 Effective Service of Underserved Communities Chapter 7 Effective School Leadership for Māori Achievement: Building Capacity through Indigenous, National, and International Cross-Cultural Collaboration..................................................................... 99 Andrés P. Santamaría, Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand Melinda Webber, The University of Auckland, New Zealand Lorri J. Santamaría, The University of Auckland, New Zealand Chapter 8 Culturally Responsive Educational Leadership in Cross-Cultural International Contexts.................. 120 Lorri J. Santamaría, The University of Auckland, New Zealand Chapter 9 Cross Cultural Collaboration and Leadership: A Success Story......................................................... 140 Kenneth Campa, City Year Los Angeles, USA Section 4 Mediating Institutions Chapter 10 Transnational and Cross-Cultural Approaches in Undercover Police Work........................................ 157 John Irwin, University of Guelph-Humber, Canada Anthony H. Normore, California State University – Dominguiez Hills, USA Chapter 11 Stakeholder Positioning and Cultural Diversity in the Creative Sector: A Case Study of the London Modern Architecture Scene.................................................................................................... 176 Hendrik Leendert Aalbers, Radboud University, The Netherlands Annemarie Charlotte Kamp, Deloitte Consulting, The Netherlands Chapter 12 Diversity and the Need for Cross-Cultural Leadership and Collaboration.......................................... 196 Kenneth R. Roth, California State University – Dominguez Hills, USA Zachary S. Ritter, University of the Redlands, USA Chapter 13 Principal Leadership in Diverse Cultures: A Comparative Study....................................................... 216 Allan Walker, Hong Kong Institute of Education, China Haiyan Qian, Hong Kong Institute of Education, China



Section 5 Cross Cultural Crucible for Critical Transformation Chapter 14 Paths to Success: Leveraging Culture, Leadership, and Learning Strategies...................................... 236 Ana Martins, Zirve University, Turkey Albino Lopes, University of Lisbon, Portugal Isabel Martins, Zirve University, Turkey Orlando Petiz, University of Minho, Portugal Chapter 15 Cross-Cultural Collaboration for Community-Oriented Policing and Restorative Justice.................. 255 Anthony H. Normore, California State University – Dominguez Hills, USA Brian Ellis, Sacramento Police Department, USA Kerry Clamp, University of Western Sydney, Australia Craig Paterson, Sheffield Hallam University, UK Chapter 16 Developing Global Competences through Learning Mobility: A Discussion of the Host Institution’s Role in Erasmus+ Student Mobility................................................................................ 273 Peter Finell, Centria University of Applied Sciences, Finland Section 6 Pressing Challenges with Visionary Futures Chapter 17 Combating Human Trafficking: Recommendations for Police Leadership in Establishing Transnational Collaboration................................................................................................................. 286 Michael Pittaro, American Military University, USA Chapter 18 The Philosophy of Using Communicative Intelligence for Cross-Cultural Collaboration.................. 303 Kendall Zoller, Sierra Training Associates, USA Chapter 19 Beyond Environment, Economy, and Equity: Implementing Power Balancing and Inclusive Process for Integrating our Agreed Framework of Sustainability........................................................ 321 Jill Sourial, The Relational Center, USA Compilation of References................................................................................................................ 335 About the Contributors..................................................................................................................... 378 Index.................................................................................................................................................... 386

Detailed Table of Contents

Preface.................................................................................................................................................. xiv Acknowledgment................................................................................................................................. xxi Section 1 Field-Proven Practices Chapter 1 Tools Deepening Cross Cultural Collaboration and Leadership............................................................. 1 Nancy D. Erbe, California State University – Dominguez Hills, USA Swaranjit Singh, California State Education Vendor, USA This chapter offers several practical tools and approaches that the authors have used and evaluated in their combined fifty plus years of effective cross-cultural collaboration and leadership with stakeholders and participants from over eighty countries. They highlight and stress several advanced skills from the interdisciplinary field of negotiation, conflict resolution and peacebuilding. These include reflective practice, suspending judgment, process observation and other means of learning about various cultural norms regarding communication and relationship building as well as reframing for deep accurate understanding and regularly seeking common ground. Chapter 2 Coordinating Meaning and Joint Identity: Cultivating Leadership and Cross-Cultural Communication in a Divided Community............................................................................................. 13 Samuel Peleg, Rutgers University, USA This chapter describes in rich detail effective cross-cultural dialogue being conducted and evaluated in Israel between Palestinians and Israelis who initially held great bias against each other. It provides a deeply transformative approach that can be adopted by any organization seeking to further cross-cultural collaboration and leadership along with theoretical foundation.

 



Chapter 3 Exploring Opportunities and Challenges of Cross-Cultural and International Teaching, Research, and Service for Higher Education Faculty Members............................................................................. 35 Melanie C. Brooks, University of Idaho, USA Jeffrey S. Brooks, Monash University, Australia The authors of this chapter share several years of earned wisdom as a result of collaborating with colleagues from several countries. This chapter provides the reader with practical tips and guidance to help them in effectively collaborating across culture with an emphasis on academic organizational settings. Section 2 Promising Approaches Chapter 4 Integrative Conflict Resolution: Tools for Loving Praxis in Organizational Leadership...................... 50 Amanda Smith Byron, Portland State University, USA This chapter introduces the history of contemporary conflict resolution as the foundation for effective organizational cross-cultural collaboration and leadership. Specifically, it advocates for curiosity, compassion and creativity as the keys to optimal collaboration and leadership within diverse organizations around the globe. Chapter 5 Effective Training for International Cross-Cultural Collaboration and Leadership.............................. 63 Yvette Durazo, National University San Diego, USA Margaret Manning, California State University – Dominguez Hills, USA Giuseppina Wright, California State University – Dominguez Hills, USA This chapter presents the latest research on effective cross cultural-training and education. By using two exemplary case studies in different parts of the world, the authors first describe the contemporary challenges being faced by Sweden - a pioneering nation for embracing multicultural community. The second describes conflict resolution training and education in the context of Mexico. Engaged experiential learning is highlighted. Chapter 6 Partnering for Purpose: Cross-Cultural Model to Encourage Participation, Exploration, Appreciation, Reflection, and Learning in Undergraduate Education and Beyond............................... 83 Kirti S. Celly, California State University, USA Charles E. Thomas, California State University, USA This chapter presents innovative interdisciplinary pedagogy designed and evaluated by two authors who are professors of business. One author focuses on marketing and the other on law. They detail their success in a highly-diverse organization of learners with teaching case studies, active experiential learning in a collaborative learning community, and authentic assessment.



Section 3 Effective Service of Underserved Communities Chapter 7 Effective School Leadership for Māori Achievement: Building Capacity through Indigenous, National, and International Cross-Cultural Collaboration..................................................................... 99 Andrés P. Santamaría, Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand Melinda Webber, The University of Auckland, New Zealand Lorri J. Santamaría, The University of Auckland, New Zealand The authors describe their work as part of a multicultural international collaboration of educators focused on effectively serving the underserved community of Māori in New Zealand. The resultant wisdom of effective practice should inform many cross-cultural collaborations and leadership in a variety of organizations. Chapter 8 Culturally Responsive Educational Leadership in Cross-Cultural International Contexts.................. 120 Lorri J. Santamaría, The University of Auckland, New Zealand The author describes her personal experience as an African-Indigenous American working with a multicultural international collective of educators and researchers as they aspire to more effectively serve Maori and other learners in New Zealand. She offers several practical pointers to cross-cultural collaboration and leadership. Chapter 9 Cross Cultural Collaboration and Leadership: A Success Story......................................................... 140 Kenneth Campa, City Year Los Angeles, USA The author details a case study of his experience working with a collaboration of ethnically similar partners seeking to serve their own underserved ethnic community. He presents cultural diversity that can exist within the same ethnic culture with practical tools from the field of negotiation, conflict resolution and peacebuilding used to balance power and otherwise create inclusive and productive collaboration. Section 4 Mediating Institutions Chapter 10 Transnational and Cross-Cultural Approaches in Undercover Police Work........................................ 157 John Irwin, University of Guelph-Humber, Canada Anthony H. Normore, California State University – Dominguiez Hills, USA It is predictable in publications on diversity and cross-cultural collaboration and leadership to find that law acts as an essential mediating institution, particularly when those with more power and status interact with those with less. That is the conclusion of this chapter on global undercover police work. It introduces requisite Canadian as well as international norms and practice.



Chapter 11 Stakeholder Positioning and Cultural Diversity in the Creative Sector: A Case Study of the London Modern Architecture Scene.................................................................................................... 176 Hendrik Leendert Aalbers, Radboud University, The Netherlands Annemarie Charlotte Kamp, Deloitte Consulting, The Netherlands Architects and curators play the mediating role between the cultures of artists and organizational clients in this London research study. Findings are reviewed in detail with explanation in the hope of stimulating further research into artistic and related creative organizations. Chapter 12 Diversity and the Need for Cross-Cultural Leadership and Collaboration.......................................... 196 Kenneth R. Roth, California State University – Dominguez Hills, USA Zachary S. Ritter, University of the Redlands, USA This chapter identifies current issues and methods for enhancing organizational climate by and through practices that embrace, promote and accommodate diversity and cross-cultural collaboration. We identify ongoing areas of insensitivity and focus on practices that individuals and organizations need to develop in order to accommodate diversity, and to cultivate cross-cultural collaboration and leadership development. Future leaders must possess skills that are just and respectful of increasing difference in organizations. We believe higher education is the logical site for developing these skills and practices but before we can fully enjoy the benefits of diverse organizations and communities, we must develop and practice these skills at colleges and universities – organizations whose ongoing social relevance may very well depend on their efforts and abilities to prepare culturally-competent graduates for work in the globalizing workplace. Chapter 13 Principal Leadership in Diverse Cultures: A Comparative Study....................................................... 216 Allan Walker, Hong Kong Institute of Education, China Haiyan Qian, Hong Kong Institute of Education, China In contemporary times, culture may mediate global leadership and collaboration. In this chapter the authors provide a cross-cultural comparison of leaders operating in comparable organizations but in three distinct cultures of the world. Findings indicate a the need for critical understanding of how global reforms and leadership policies are transformed and implemented in culturally diverse settings. Each setting requires culturally aware and sensitive policies and practices.



Section 5 Cross Cultural Crucible for Critical Transformation Chapter 14 Paths to Success: Leveraging Culture, Leadership, and Learning Strategies...................................... 236 Ana Martins, Zirve University, Turkey Albino Lopes, University of Lisbon, Portugal Isabel Martins, Zirve University, Turkey Orlando Petiz, University of Minho, Portugal This chapter reviews the myriad ways traditional organizations must grow and change in the present global economy. The authors focus on the tensions between traditional and contemporary organizational cultures and offer several cross- cultural leadership tools to facilitate organizational transformation and effectiveness. Chapter 15 Cross-Cultural Collaboration for Community-Oriented Policing and Restorative Justice.................. 255 Anthony H. Normore, California State University – Dominguez Hills, USA Brian Ellis, Sacramento Police Department, USA Kerry Clamp, University of Western Sydney, Australia Craig Paterson, Sheffield Hallam University, UK This chapter analyzes the tensions between traditional, community and restorative police cultures with an emphasis on Western organizations in Australia, Great Britain and the United States. It specifically reviews policing principles for cross-cultural leadership in these same societies. The authors assert that as international police agencies work to transform the long-standing culture of traditional police leadership and organization, they can embrace culturally transformative and promising restorative police practices. Chapter 16 Developing Global Competences through Learning Mobility: A Discussion of the Host Institution’s Role in Erasmus+ Student Mobility................................................................................ 273 Peter Finell, Centria University of Applied Sciences, Finland This chapter evaluates the cross-cultural learning of students who have embraced opportunities for studying abroad and recommends that global organizational needs be matched with contemporary learning and learning outcomes. The good news is that living abroad by itself apparently has potent impact on students’ demonstrated ability to be open to and collaborate across difference. It is hoped that future researchers will closely align their evaluation of international learning with the employee competences being sought by international organizations.



Section 6 Pressing Challenges with Visionary Futures Chapter 17 Combating Human Trafficking: Recommendations for Police Leadership in Establishing Transnational Collaboration................................................................................................................. 286 Michael Pittaro, American Military University, USA Human trafficking has become one of the global economy’s most daunting and tragic challenges, absolutely demanding the most effective cross-cultural collaboration and leadership possible in contemporary times. This chapter details specifics with several recommendations for moving forward. Chapter 18 The Philosophy of Using Communicative Intelligence for Cross-Cultural Collaboration.................. 303 Kendall Zoller, Sierra Training Associates, USA The author uses his years of consulting and training with various cultures around the world to propose a new intelligence. Such communication and leadership consciousness and proficiency with several related capacities are needed to fully embrace future cross cultural collaboration, realize our global potential and effectively tackle all challenges we share. Chapter 19 Beyond Environment, Economy, and Equity: Implementing Power Balancing and Inclusive Process for Integrating our Agreed Framework of Sustainability........................................................ 321 Jill Sourial, The Relational Center, USA The author uses her years of environmental work and study of negotiation, conflict resolution and peacebuilding to analyze her experience and observation of climate change negotiation talks. She details several proposals grounded in integrative negotiation, impartial mediation and sustainability literature to help future talks move forward with cross-cultural collaboration and leadership at their heart. Compilation of References................................................................................................................ 335 About the Contributors..................................................................................................................... 378 Index.................................................................................................................................................... 386

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INTRODUCTION For the purposes of this book, culture will be defined as broadly as possible to encompass not only ethnic and gender difference but all the difference protected and promoted by United States law as well as professional and philosophical difference. Organizations today must somehow find ways to effectively bridge, blend and lead all to be their most productive. Years ago Nancy Erbe interviewed several practitioners working globally with development, environmental and other organizational projects. They described professionals working at odds and in silos focused only on their restrictive professional mandate and traditional style. Several displayed professional biases and framed issues accordingly. For example, engineers and scientists stressed individual achievement and failed to effectively partner with the communities they served. Economists measured development without considering lawyers’ concerns for justice. At their worst, they fought over “turf” rather than collaborating for common good (Erbe, 2006). Several years ago as part of an international collaborative partnership editor Normore lead a team of educators to work with one of the world’s poorest countries in South Central Asia. In efforts to help develop the country’s education system, he was part of a leadership contingency of educators from various parts of North America. Among the litany of lessons learned from the experience was his understanding about how easy it is for western cultures – whether intentional or unintentional – to impose their values systems on other cultures. For example, when teaching math scales and weight balances to a group of Nepalese educators he found himself using western teaching math manipulators (which was advised from Canada) to explain how math processes work. He soon realized the meaninglessness of his teaching tools and strategy and as a result he deliberately and intentionally changed his communication approach by asking his students to share their own approaches. He subsequently asked how he could help them improve their system rather than tell/show them how they could improve it. In the end, he felt he learned far more from his students than they did from him, and while being aware of cultural differences is critical it is even more critical to honor the integrity of cultural differences (Normore, 2009). People sometimes express and communicate their particular concern that their cultural knowledge and practices are not being maintained to the extent that they would like. This concern is especially common for populations under pressure to change from forces which are seen as controlled by a dominant group. Nancy Erbe was born into a multicultural family speaking three languages that included relatively recent immigration from Norway. Having now worked with clients, colleagues and students from about eighty countries and even more cultures, including many second and third generation immigrants, she believes that the world may be witnessing a rapidly growing critical mass of what she calls “born mediators”: those who by birth and childhood have learned how to intuitively and effectively bridge  

Preface

cultural difference. The binational and multilingual; even more so multicultural, individuals, marriages and families have special gifts to share with cross cultural collaboration and leadership. Several have contributed chapters to this book. The theme emerging from many chapters is that experiential learning including living abroad is critical to cross-cultural collaboration and leadership. Throughout this collection of chapters, collaboration will also be defined broadly as well as simply to include any time and the myriad ways organizational constituencies are able to effectively bridge difference for a shared goal. This book will introduce several proven practices for going even further: transforming prejudice; entire organizational and professional cultures, and serving traditionally underserved communities. Cross-cultural collaboration is increasingly recognized as a catalyst for organizational innovation (Erbe, 2014). This can encompass a wide range of possibilities. Engineers can embrace social justice through reflective practice of access and sustainability as just one promising instance (Erbe, 2014). Educators can do likewise as they embrace their leadership praxis through global social justice. Although leadership has been widely studied, there is a persistent lack of agreement about what constitutes the most effective leadership styles. For example, some authors understand an effective leaders as somebody who people follow, or as someone who communicates well and guides people. Others define leadership as more collaborative and include team facilitation: the ability to organize to achieve a common goal. Recent scholars in educational leadership have paid considerable attention to practices and policies that have marginalized special populations (e.g., disabilities, race, socio-economics, ethnicity, gender, aged, sexual orientation, homelessness, etc.,) and pose challenging questions to leaders, scholars, and the broader community to engage in discussions about leadership for social justice, global cultural literacy, and intercultural, multicultural, and cross-cultural proficiency (Normore & Brooks, 2014). Leadership theory and leadership practice are responding to societal changes by shifting focus from what leaders do, and how they do it, to the purpose of leadership. For our purposes, effective leadership is broadly operationalized as a process of cultural and social influence in which various people enlist the help and support of others in the accomplishment of a common task.. Ef There is a belief by some scholars that leadership can be taught (e.g., Parks, 2005). If that is true, one of the core questions might be, “What do you teach?” One of the more common approaches used to understand leadership is the study of great leaders. Others may focus on the traits and behaviors that successful leaders represent (Northouse, 2012). We argue that emphasis placed on biographies, traits, and behaviors are not the most fruitful path for one seeking to understand leadership. Rather, the key to more effective leadership lies at the end of the path that begins with considering leadership as a way of thinking about being true to the self, acting with honesty, respect, and integrity, and not following the crowd but inspiring the crowd to move toward achieving a great vision in support of holistic and life-long learning about leadership, collaboration and cross-cultural proficiency. Effective leadership encompasses an array of personal and professional elements including ethical and moral literacy, care, critique, peace, principles, morality, values, global literacy, credibility, cultural proficiency and authenticity—to name a few. Effective cross-cultural collaboration is closely linked to leadership. For example, Scott Page, professor at the University of Michigan, has demonstrated that diverse groups lead better decision making. Diverse groups solve problems better than very similar groups by drawing on wider range of experiences. What is also clear from research is that serving cultures across diverse communities requires a unique set of leadership skills and knowledge reflective of and responsive to the cultural and linguistic diversity of populations.

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Cross-cultural collaboration and leadership is inherently and potently transformative for the individuals bridging across difference, the organizations encouraging the most innovative and effective of collaboration and leadership, and the communities served. If organizations lack even the basics of what is being advocated throughout this book, they may benefit from investigating the contemporary role of organizational ombuds and other professionals with cross cultural mediation skills. Such organizational conflict resolution experts are prepared to coach leadership in impartial inclusive process, mediate across difference and otherwise assist all members of organizations develop the skills and consciousness needed to effectively collaborate across culture and other difference.

THE STRUCTURE OF THIS BOOK This book is comprised of 19 chapters organized into 6 sections: “Field Tested Practices,” “Promising Approaches,” “Effective Service of Underserved Communities,” “Mediating Institutions,” “Cross Cultural Crucible for Critical Transformation,” and “Pressing Challenges with Visionary Futures.”

Section 1: Field Tested Practices This section features three chapters, one introducing pragmatic tools from the emerging interdisciplinary field of negotiation, conflict resolution and peacebuilding while another vividly demonstrates their potency in practice through a case study of cross-cultural progress and leadership in the face of great odds. The third likewise presents and recommends several field- tested practices from years of international collaboration. Such applied and case study research is essential for discerning optimal and effective cross-cultural collaboration and leadership. Unlike communications, anthropology and related cultural research, collaboration and leadership cannot be studied with an in depth focus on one culture alone. While this scholarship provides critical insight that is helpful to cross-cultural collaboration and leadership, in today’s organizations and organizational processes, collaboration and leadership is likely to involve multiple cultures. The editors, as one example, teach in one of the most diverse academic institutions in the United States. In one recent survey, the organizational employees reported speaking eighty languages. In chapter 1, Nancy Erbe, professor of negotiation, conflict resolution and peacebuilding at California State University Dominguez Hills and Swaranjit Singh, retired lieutenant colonel from India’s Army bring together a combined fifty plus years of applied experience and reflective practice with crosscultural collaboration and leadership. They explain their effectiveness with several concepts and tools from their emerging interdisciplinary field and invite readers to study these concepts, practice these tools and experience for themselves their effectiveness. In chapter 2, Samuel (Muli) Peleg, professor at Rutgers University, demonstrates the effectiveness of cross-cultural dialogue and other conflict resolution and peacebuilding processes through his own work in facilitating and leading dialogue between Israelis and Palestinians. He explains the transformative potency of his work through the theory of Coordinated Management of Meaning. This theory, once understood, can guide any reader in more effectively understanding and bridging any cross-cultural communication and interaction. When applied in practice as author Peleg emulates, it is guaranteed to improve cross-cultural collaboration and leadership.

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In chapter 3, Melanie and Jeffrey Brooks, professors of education and leadership at the University of Idaho, offer several practical recommendations for effective cross-cultural collaboration based on the hard earned wisdom they have gained. Both have numerous experiences engaging in cross-cultural collaborations with partners from a variety of cultures and countries.

Section 2: Promising Approaches This section offers three chapters presenting theory, research (case study and applied) and experience which look highly promising for organizational cross-cultural collaboration and leadership. In chapter 4, Amanda Byron, a lecturer of conflict resolution at Portland State University, presents integrative (or “win-win”) conflict process itself as a compass for organizations. She asserts that curiosity, compassion and creativity guide effective cross-cultural collaboration and leadership—conclusions that receive strong support in several of this book’s chapters. Chapter 5 is presented by Yvette Durazo, Margaret Manning, Giuseppina Wright - all alumni of the Negotiation, Conflict Resolution and Peacebuilding program at California State University Dominguez. These authors discuss research-based practices for effectively teaching cross- cultural collaboration and leadership and present two real-world case studies. Author Durazo details her experience training lawyers in Mexico. Author Wright describes her home country of Sweden with both successes and challenges in cross cultural collaboration and leadership. The authors represent a rich cross-cultural collaboration themselves with author Manning born and raised in New Zealand. They readily find common ground in their wholehearted concurrence that experiential learning is necessary for enlightened cross cultural collaboration and leadership. In chapter 6, Kirti Celly and Charles Thomas, both faculty of business at California State University Dominguez Hills, continue this modeling of innovative and effective cross-cultural collaboration. Author Celly was born and raised in India before coming to the United States to complete her higher education. Author Thomas is African American. They share a passion for the best of engaged teaching and learning and describe their co-created case study collaborative curriculum with the shared belief that myriad organizations can benefit from their practices.

Section 3: Effective Service of Underserved Communities Innovative and effective cross-cultural collaboration and leadership may be enough for many organizations, but those most benefiting from contemporary global diversity are prioritizing the service of underserved communities. This section likewise prioritizes such service and describes several practical and recommended practices to that end. In chapter 7, Andrés P. Santamaría, Melinda Webber and Lorri J. Santamaría describe their multicultural collaboration among Maori and non-Maori colleagues seeking to more effectively serve the needs of Maori students and communities. New Zealand, by treaty, has established this priority. The actual practices and processes of effective service, however, are complex. Several are described in the hope that others seeking to serve underserved communities as part of multicultural collaboratives will benefit. Author Lorri Santamaria of chapter 8 continues to explore her experience in the above collaborative. As an African-Choctaw Nation American she offers insight that only scholars who have lived the experience of those they are attempting to serve can offer. Author Kenn Campa of chapter 9 describes

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his experience as a member of the ethnic community that his multicultural collaborative is serving. He offers invaluable insight into the reality that diversity also exists within ethnic communities and the tools of effective cross-cultural collaboration and leadership may be needed within our own groups. As an alumni of Negotiation, Conflict Resolution and Peacebuilding at California State University Dominguez Hills, he describes several conflict resolution tools and skills that he used and observed in his successful collaboration.

Section 4: Mediating Institutions This section features four chapters with a wide variety of mediating institutions, or structures and processes that bridge cultures and facilitate positive collaboration; even require inclusive leadership: law, third party professional mediators (here architects), universities and colleges (institutions of learning) and culture itself. The field of Negotiation, Conflict Resolution and Peacebuilding trains and develops third party professional mediators, ombuds, advocates and facilitators of dialogue for organizations in need of the skills described throughout this book. Organizational leaders, managers and team members aspiring to effective and optimal cross-cultural collaboration are advised to seek such education. In chapter 10, Authors John Irwin and Anthony Normore provide a contemporary update of undercover policing around the world. Its interplay between those with power and those scrutinized, often those with less power, reminds us of the critical importance that law and legal institutions play in monitoring and prohibiting power abuse with cross-cultural interactions and leadership. Law, its institutions and servants have been tasked with the critical tasks of eradicating discrimination and other injustice against the cultural groups with least power. With this noble purpose, it plays a critical mediating and educational role, domestically and internationally. In chapter 11, Authors Hendrik Leendert Aalbers, Radboud University, Institute of Management Research, Nijmegen,The Netherlands, Annemarie Charlotte Kamp, Deloitte Consulting, Amsterdam, take the personal mediator rather than the abstract approach, exploring the often neglected relationships and collaboration between architects/curators and artists in responding to customer needs. While most readers may not appreciate the intricacies of creative organizations, this chapter still offers them the insight that professional cultures can differ as much, even more, than ethnic cultures. Such differences also require skillful mediation or facilitation of cross cultural collaboration and leadership for organizational effectiveness. In chapter 12, Ken Roth, professor of digital media arts at California State University Dominguez Hills, and Zack Ritter, University of Redlands, remind us that higher education, like law, has been tasked with effectively and ethically mediating between different cultural groups. In the United States and other Western societies, this includes several protected classes. If universities and colleges fail at effective and ethical cross cultural collaboration and leadership, whole societies suffer. Authors Roth and Ritter scrutinize current realities including deficits in the United States and offer several important remedial approaches. In chapter 13, Allan Walker and Qian Haiyan show how culture can mediate and influence leadership and collaboration within the same profession. These authors share their comparative study of principal leadership in Hong Kong, Singapore and Australia. They find that each culture mediates cross-cultural collaboration and leadership practices in unique ways, indicating that such comparative analysis of crosscultural collaboration and leadership provides rich possibilities for future research.

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Section 5: Cross-Cultural Crucible for Critical Transformation Anyone working with cross cultural-collaboration and leadership in contemporary globalized times knows the vast intricate need for change at all levels: personal, leadership and organizational to name a few. At the same time, cross-cultural contact is inherently transformational. This section, comprised of three chapters, introduces and explores how professional and organizational cultures are transformed within as a result of interplay between traditional and visionary cultures; bureaucratic and modern approaches to organizational success. It also presents research showing that individual students are transformed by the experience of moving to and living in cultures other than their own. In chapter 14, professors Ana Martins (Zirve University) Albino Lopes (University of Lisbon) Isabel Martins (Namibia University of Science and Technology) and Orlando Petiz (University of Minho) explore in great detail the transformation of traditional organizations through embracing and learning contemporary technology and otherwise staying competitive in the global economy. Chapter 15 is presented by Anthony Normore, Brian Ellis, Kerry Clamp and Craig Paterson. These authors focus on a different but also common global challenge: effectively changing a professional culture to be more effective with cross-cultural collaboration and leadership. They study the transformation of law enforcement in four Western societies (Australia, Canada, Great Britain and the United States) from a traditional to a restorative practice approach. In contrast, Peter Finell who works in international relations at Centria University in Finland, presents chapter 16 and focuses his inquiry on evaluating the results of Europe’s Eramus program for international education. He presents research assessing student learning outcomes with a specific look at intercultural competence including openness (tolerance). He discovers that international education alone, or living in another country and culture for an extended period of time, is transformative in ways enhancing cross-cultural collaboration and leadership. He recommends additional research specifically assessing organizational needs with employees working internationally—research that could help higher and other education prepare truly global citizens.

Section 6: Pressing Challenges with Visionary Futures Our world now faces several dire challenges that require effective cross-cultural collaboration and leadership. This section presents three chapters to this effect: human trafficking, the development of communicative intelligence, and negotiating and meeting the challenges of climate change. In chapter 17, Michael Pittaro at American Military University presents the alarming news that human trafficking has exponentially increased to disturbing levels for all concerned with the welfare of women, children, the poorest-least powerful members of the world, basic human dignity and principled ways of living compromised. He introduces several international initiatives to counter this crime along with recommendations for doing more. Chapter 18 is presented by Kendall Zoller and proposes a new intelligence that can facilitate effective cross cultural collaboration and leadership. He details several related traits and skills that fascinate. Future research of their effectiveness with additional cultures should illuminate and guide our global future.

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Jill Sourial, an alumni of the Negotiation, Conflict Resolution and Peacebuilding program at California State University Dominguez Hills who attended climate change negotiations as an interested observer for a non-governmental organization. She uses her education and experience to recommend several practical steps and skills for advancing future negotiations at this critical time in human history. Like other authors in this book, she emphasizes empathy along with several skilled conflict resolution and negotiation practices. Nancy D. Erbe California State University – Dominguez Hills, USA Anthony H. Normore California State University – Dominguez Hills, USA

REFERENCES Erbe, N. (2003). Holding these truths: empowerment and recognition in action (interactive case study curriculum for multicultural dispute resolution). Berkeley, CA: Berkeley Public Policy Press. Erbe, N. (2011). Negotiation alchemy: global skills inspiring and transforming diverging worlds. Berkeley, CA: Berkeley Public Policy Press. Erbe, N. (2014). Approaches to managing organizational diversity and innovation. Hershey, PA: IGI Press. doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-6006-9 Normore, A., & Erbe, N. (2013). Collective efficacy: interdisciplinary perspectives on international leadership. Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing. Normore, A. H. (2009). Culturally relevant leadership for social justice: Honoring the integrity of First Nations communities in Northeast Canada. In J. Collard & A. H. Normore (Eds.), Leadership and intercultural dynamics (pp. 47–68). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. Normore, A. H., & Brooks, J. S. (2014). Educational leadership for social justice: Views from the social sciences. Charlotte, North Carolina: Information Age Publishing. Northouse, P. G. (2012). Leadership: Theory and practice. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Parks, S. D. (2005). Leadership can be taught: A bold approach for a complex world. Boston, MA: Harvard Business Review Press.

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Acknowledgment

As editors and authors we aspire to courageously examine issues that deal with a plethora of challenges in our appreciation of cross-cultural collaboration and the pivotal role of leadership in modern organizations. The contributors push the reader to tackle cultural issues found in our global society and their impact on our society as a whole. They challenge us to consider the changes we need to make, conduct personal examination of how we teach, learn; lead and pose difficult questions about why we engage the ways we do. Our hope is that these chapters will serve as catalysts for further discourse and research on collaboration within and across cultures so the world can be more harmonious and appreciative of what each brings to table in support of sustainability. We wish to acknowledge a myriad of people who have influenced our lives and our professional work. Our sincere gratitude goes to IGI Global Publishers, particularly Brandon and the other staff who supported us, for the opportunity to disseminate our work, and to all the contributing authors and to reviewers who reviewed the original manuscripts. They share in our passion for cross-cultural collaboration and leadership. Editor (and author) Erbe was fortunate to be born into a family of three languages and several cultures who taught her cross-cultural collaboration through their marriages, examples (fascinating adventurous lives), leadership and love. She is particularly appreciative of the strong Norwegian and women on both sides of her family who encouraged her to full potential and her own life adventures and the men who modeled exemplary open-mindedness and principled caring leadership—that the best of living is multicultural community. As a result, she is in her own cross-cultural marriage and the wonderful lessons for living continue and deepen. She would like to thank all cross cultural partners, colleagues, clients and students from the last forty years. They have been her teachers, from her first multicultural dialogue group to mediating child welfare cases with the Minneapolis American Indian Center; to facilitating cross ethnic dialogue with the Nansen Network during the Balkans war. Effective cross cultural collaboration and leadership are critical to the welfare of so many in our world. It must be a priority. Of course, she must also acknowledge the role who mother played speaking against segregation in the early 1950’s as one potent example, the support and example her father has provided since birth, and the joy and support of her multicultural family around the world. Editor (and author) Normore is grateful for all the opportunities he has had working within and across cultures throughout the world. In particular, he acknowledges family, friends, the men, women and children who have played a pivotal role in shaping his belief that successful citizenship goes far beyond his community. It acts as a working model of civil society, and thereby helps to create, sustain, and improve communities. His cultural curiosity, advocacy, and experiences are governed by a process that is open to every member of the community regardless of disadvantage or difference. As such, he is grateful for 

Acknowledgment

all leaders, teachers, and learners who promote civil democracy in preference to any sectarian perspective as the basis for thriving communities; and, celebrate diversity among people and communities from different backgrounds, outlooks and experiences. He is equally grateful for the impact of those who believe in high-quality education for an ethnically and culturally diverse population where a system is committed to peace, diversity, multiculturalism, and social justice across borders in order to improve the human condition while advancing anti-oppressive, socially equitable, and racially just solutions to enigmatic problems.

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Section 1

Field-Proven Practices

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Chapter 1

Tools Deepening Cross Cultural Collaboration and Leadership Nancy D. Erbe California State University – Dominguez Hills, USA Swaranjit Singh California State Education Vendor, USA

ABSTRACT The authors have led cross cultural collaboration in their organizations for twenty two and thirty years respectively. They have also been in a cross cultural partnership for the last decade. In this chapter they share the practices, attitudes and insights earned over years of cross cultural collaboration with an emphasis on professional reflective practice, or evaluation of impact, and tools and skills from the interdisciplinary field of negotiation, conflict resolution and peace building. Based on their experience, particularly author Erbe’s work with those from an estimated eighty countries, they advocate these practices for all cross cultural collaboration and leadership in modern organizations. Rather than introduce relevant literature and research separately from pragmatic tools, the chapter integrates scholarship to help explain skills and empower readers to immediately begin practicing what is advocated here.

INTRODUCTION We live in interesting and dynamic times. Increasingly, organizations of all kinds, public, non profit, for profit, both small and large, are globally crossing cultural boundaries in employees, markets and other constituents. Yet organizational practices are not necessarily keeping pace with this challenging change. It is not uncommon to hear contemporary stakeholders assert that business culture as one example transcends and unites all difference—much like diplomatic culture (Erbe,

2014). These stakeholders assume that all are committed to polite surface discourse and that such commitment eliminates the need for understanding difference. To some degree, these assumptions do explain how global business and diplomacy are able to occur in spite of myriad and vast cultural differences. At the same time, they may be used to tolerate; even justify, an inability to progress further: to acknowledge cultural difference with the belief that all might benefit from deeper appreciation and understanding; that innovation as one instance could exponentially flourish as a result.

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-8376-1.ch001

Copyright © 2015, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

 Tools Deepening Cross Cultural Collaboration and Leadership

Alternatively, leaders of business and diplomatic organizations might actually fool themselves that material profit and superficial manners are sufficient. To paraphrase a Japanese manager recently quoted by one of our students, just because an employee is polite across culture does not mean that they like or even respect the person they are tolerating. In fact, a focus on profit alone or surface manners may mask preference for one’s own cultural approach and an insistence that this cultural approach dominate all organizational transactions. It could also simply be that those concerned are naive or simply do not know any other approach to organizational leadership. In short, they do not know how to collaborate across culture. This book and chapter aspire to fill this critical gap in organizational knowledge and practice forleaders seeking ways to truly embrace cross cultural potential and facilitate productive collaboration. It provides several topics for organizational reflection and tools to assist with development of cross cultural collaboration and leadership. Together they can be used to enhance organizations at many levels of progress or challenge, including an organization troubled by power abuse. For the purposes of this chapter, collaboration will be defined simply as the constructive management of difference (Gray, 1989). Since the interdisciplinary field of NCRP will be at the chapter’s heart, several of its communication processes and creative problem solving tools will be used to elaborate and demonstrate this constructive management. The management described is team, partnership and relationship based with co facilitation and mutual influence for shared gain rather than any type of top down or hierarchical approach. The authors have led cross cultural collaboration for twenty to thirty years each. Author Singh has led perhaps the most culturally diverse organization throughout the world: the military. He retired as a Lieutenant Colonel after serving in the army for over twenty years. Author Erbe has led cross cultural dialogue since the early 1980s

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and has taught the leadership of cross cultural and multicultural collaboration for almost twenty years. Author Singh and Erbe will share proven practices from their leadership experience as well as their cross cultural partnership of the last decade. Rather than introduce relevant literature and research separate from cross cultural practices, skills and tools, they will intertwine literature with pragmatic approaches. We hope to thus explain, illuminate and reinforce these applied steps to effective cross cultural collaboration and leadership so readers are prepared and inspired to practice.

APPLIED INSIGHT AND GUIDANCE Reflective Practice of Real World Viability The earlier discussion of global organizations’ myopic focus on profit alone or diplomacy reminds author Erbe of her field’s discussion of neutrality. The concept of neutrality within the interdisciplinary field of negotiation, conflict resolution and peacebuilding (hereinafter “NCRP”) is hotly debated and scrutinized (Mayer, 2004). Some scholars within NCRP even assert that alleged neutrality is impossible in practice unless the international organization is as respected and trusted as the International Red Cross---an extremely rare occurrence (Erbe, 2011). More likely is the dangerous phenomena of a global stakeholder glibly claiming neutrality without any awareness of its own bias across culture/nation-state, its perceived bias within the world community, and an often deluded hope that no one will recognize how it is prioritizing only its self interest (perceived and actual) in the circumstances being addressed. In fact, such global players are ill equipped to describe and explain their own culture(s) and simultaneously are quite comfortable using broad simple generalizations to describe and explain others’ culture(s). In response to this lack of knowl-

 Tools Deepening Cross Cultural Collaboration and Leadership

edge and awareness, NCRP and other scholars advocate for rigorous reflective practice: individual, team and organizational (Erbe, 2011). Reflective practice is applied action research popularized by teacher education (Parsons & Brown, 2002). Teachers are taught to identify and attempt solving classroom problems with reflective practice evaluating the effectiveness of their attempts. Experiential education promotes a similar process in which learners develop what are called “action theories” about their behavior. They are then encouraged to “test the waters” of such theories and once again evaluate impact (Johnson & Johnson, 1997). In her twenty plus years of teaching, author Erbe has found that these practices work well with practitioners and students of NCRP skills and techniques. While observing collaborative process of which they are participants, they are schooled in evaluating the impact of their own and others’ behavior so that they can continually assess cross cultural and other effectiveness. Rather than neutrality, NCRP promotes what is termed impartiality or even multipartiality, which stands for conscious inclusion and equal treatment of all concerned in a particular process (Erbe, 2006).

COMMUNICATION AND IMPARTIALITY To be capable of effectively and consistently exercising impartiality across culture/difference, requisite reflective practice must begin with challenging the denial and self serving bias inherent in alleged neutrality through consciously becoming aware of one’s own bias or internal barrier. In short, organizational leaders and constituents must start with a commitment to opening their minds to actual difference. Otherwise, they risk continuing to misjudge/interpret difference thereby missing great opportunity. The above process is much easier described than practiced. The authors have routinely observed Americans struggle with internal mental

blocks to hearing and understanding those not born in the United States (hereinafter U.S.) with the simple difference of accent. Speakers of English who are more articulate than U.S. born speakers face this roadblock repeatedly. Many Americans appear to close their minds to hearing and understanding another as soon as they detect an accent. The challenge is even greater if the speaker does not adopt the conversational rules and expectations of American speakers. For more than a decade author Erbe has observed her Californian born students who have grown up in the midst of a richly diverse community whose diversity reflects the world more than most of the globe. Despite her and others’ teaching of cultural difference in the minute variables of communication with a focus on interpersonal conversation, many are still deeply challenged when they experience such difference. One example is eye contact. Most Californians expect direct and sustained eye contact and use it to measure the speaker’s trustworthiness, honesty and other character traits. A recent billboard even correlates lack of eye contact with a learning disability, specifically, autism. Another communication which some Americans misinterpret is interruption (Goldberg, J., 1990). Despite repeated reminders that the rest of the world cultures do not necessarily hold or practice a no interruption rule like Californians do, author Erbe still regularly hears Californian students misjudging students from other countries and cultures solely because they interrupted someone. In fact, they personally attack and mislabel interrupting students. Still another cultural difference is personal disclosure in a public setting like an organizational or classroom meeting. Many international students from a variety of cultures and countries have approached author with concern regarding Californian students freely sharing highly personal and what the international students see as embarrassing information about themselves in a public setting. Sensitive and sustained reflective practice at the individual level is necessary to help all individuals start to see themselves as those from other cultures see and judge them. We will begin

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to introduce this reflective practice here and continue later in the chapter. All interested in learning how to effectively bridge difference must begin with the NCRP practice of suspending judgment. This may be the most challenging way to become more effective across culture. With globalization and integration of world markets, it is natural that different cultures will meet, interact, collaborate, disagree, conflict and resolve. Communication and collaboration are difficult simply due to differences in language. When translation is involved, misunderstanding can multiply. Fear of the unknown is likely. As soon as students are introduced to the concept and practice of suspending judgment, they become acutely aware of how judgmental they are---of themselves as well as others. Any growth, however, in becoming aware of internal bias and attempting to quiet or disregard while aspiring to open one’s mind and become curious to learning about another will reap rich rewards. The importance of learning to suspend judgment to improve accurate understanding is not unique to NCRP. It is at the heart of all scientific research methods. It is explored in many other disciplines, like philosophy as one example. Students of NCRP are also schooled in astute process observation—an essential part of reflective practice at the group level. They are asked to observe and evaluate who is participating in any particular process with special attention to noting who is speaking, who is not, who is influencing and so forth. This is the vehicle for requisite reflective practice at the group level, or the tool for measuring true practiced impartiality. All involved and concerned must consistently experience and perceive equal treatment along with principled power sharing.

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CROSS-CULTURAL COLLABORATION Fundamentally, cross cultural collaboration wishes to exchange information and ideas through different ethnicities, cultures, education levels, affluence levels, languages and “races.” While collaborating across culture, participants from different cultures will interpret the same information and communication differently as they assess it from varied standpoints depending upon their cultural characteristics and social background. It is important that participants in cross cultural dialogue are well trained to take note of cultural effects and biases to arrive at a correct and logical assessment of communication; thus overcoming their preconceptions about eye contact, accent, cultural values, beliefs and behavior, gestures, body language and other non verbal communication. Cross cultural leadership should strive to get educated on such preconceptions, preferably leading the way for their organizations or at least doing so simultaneously with their workforce. Thus leaders can set an organizational tone or at least communicate an expectation that such awareness is expected throughout the organization. This will help immensely in cross cultural collaboration as this learning will establish trust amongst parties involved in cross cultural process by correct deciphering of the intended views and communication by the opposite party. The leadership should also improve listening and observation skills incorporating respect, tolerance, open-mindedness and avoiding sudden outburst reactions. All cross cultural collaboration aims to achieve intended goals and bridge differences to realize higher mutually benefitting situation(s) for overall good (Walker, D. & Walker, T., 2003; Moodian, M., 2009; Trompenaars, F. & Hampden-Turner, C. 2012). This involves showing deep interest in another’s point of view with a reciprocal attitude to effectively arrive at the envisioned objective(s) (Erbe, 2014).

 Tools Deepening Cross Cultural Collaboration and Leadership

Often times those from various cultures can help introduce their cultures’ approaches to interpersonal communication and other interactions. At some point, enough trust and safety, or positive cross cultural climate, needs to be built so that all concerned are open to receiving honest feedback across culture and simultaneously trained to give such feedback in supportive and encouraging rather than personally attacking ways. Learning the NCRP and communication studies’ practice of “I statements” is a relatively easy step to this end. Members of softer cultures can help those from more rigid cultures by guiding and modeling actual inclusivity (rather than mere tolerance).

LEADERSHIP AND CROSSCULTURAL COLLABORATION Leaders of cross cultural collaboration in organizations must be masterful in the above self-awareness and group reflective practice. Otherwise, they risk being perceived as discriminating which fuels toxic in-out group dynamics within organizations. Most global organizations prioritize trying to or at least appearing to avoid the costly liability and damage to reputation that results from actual discriminatory practice, but few seem to appreciate the costs to productivity, loss of talented personnel and other practical losses occurring from nurturing organizational resentment through perceived discrepancies or favoritism. Such damage to organizational morale and relationships is particularly costly when the groups organized in reaction to perceived and actual mistreatment and disregard have suffered historic and long standing injustice. Even the common organizational practice of gossip can erupt these wounds and destroy social capital, or organizational good will (Reuben, 2005). Cultures where dominance is a historic and key part of executive strategy need particular help in transforming so they are capable of cross cultural collaboration.

As members of cultural and gender groups that have and still face horrific and unjust discrimination and oppression, the authors face the daily reality and challenge that allowing themselves to be “triggered” with reminders of past wrongs can hurt their own well-being, principles and “causes.” As organizational leaders with influence, they cannot afford the luxury of harboring resentments regarding other organizational members simply because they belong to cultural groups affiliated with long standing injustice. Instead, we are challenged to daily model balancing respect for ourselves and respect for others as we walk in “the middle” of in-out groups. Otherwise, we cannot inspire the principled leadership necessary for cross cultural collaboration and leadership in modern organizations. Not surprisingly, this rare and essential practice presents great challenge. Most organizational members, at least within the U.S. are accustomed to group loyalty and will perceive organizational leaders “not taking their side” as betraying them, or against their group. Even practicing communication approaches that are culturally inclusive may be uncomfortable to those accustomed to different approaches. A quick review of popular commentary on diversity and inclusion reveals the theme of discomfort in the face of difference: perspective, professional mandate, gender as well as cultural. Organizational leaders must constantly be persuading their members that their needs and perspectives matter equally with all other, or emulating the impartiality introduced earlier. Otherwise, if organizational members do not perceive their leaders as actually prioritizing and responding to their needs, they and their groups are likely to rally and organize against leadership. The common organizational and human practice of avoidance, or diplomatically not addressing or even acknowledging a problem, is also likely to backfire and serve to worsen toxic organizational dynamics and performance. A lifelong advocate for unions and labor was asked how unions can justify protecting the worst of employees, particu-

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 Tools Deepening Cross Cultural Collaboration and Leadership

larly in public organizations like schools where vulnerable students are harmed. In his experience, this horrific situation is as much the responsibility of organizational leadership who have failed in their responsibility of documenting and proving injustice. So how does organizational leadership begin to shift such troubled dynamics while simultaneously taking steps forward with actually bridging culture to promote constructive collaboration? Some of the essential tools and training are introduced above. The organizational literature and practices recommended for creating learning organizations can be quite helpful and relevant here, particularly that which is proving itself in practice. (Erbe, 2014). Everything promoted in this chapter as effective cross cultural collaboration and leadership simultaneously promotes learning at all levels of an organization. While organizational members are learning reflective practice at the individual and group levels that includes process/leadership evaluation and suspension of judgment to open their minds to difference, the organizational concept and practice of appreciative inquiry can be helpful in bridging difference.

APPRECIATIVE INQUIRY In the field of NCRP, appreciative inquiry provides the basis for what is taught as reframing, or laundering-detoxifying toxic language (frames) (Erbe, 2011). Students of NCRP are taught to listen for, find and articulate the “gold” in any negative message: the essential message that can help with building productive relationships and proceeding with constructive problem solving. Likewise, organizational members attempting and aspiring to bridge cultural difference can be taught to reverse habitually judgmental minds that misunderstand and create defensive barriers to cross cultural collaboration (Johnson and Johnson, 1997). They begin by consciously suspending judgment, or interpretation of difference, and seeking under-

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standing. Appreciative inquiry asks them to focus on and prioritize seeing assets or strengths as the foundation for capacity building (Kretzman & McKnight, 1993). Reframing asks the listener to hear and identify to the speaker’s satisfaction the speaker’s most important message (Moore, 1996; Bennett, M. and Hermann, M., 1996). Both practices potently guide organizational members and leaders in effectively bridging difference across culture, deepening understanding and otherwise laying the foundation for collaboration. As stated by one of author Erbe’s international students at the University of California Berkeley, appreciation transcends and connects culture (Erbe, 2003). Any cross cultural collaborator who has sustained their cross cultural working relationship for an extended period of time knows how invaluable consistently assuming and seeing the best of what a cross cultural partner is intending with communication and behavior is. At the very least, cross cultural collaborators must be prepared for periodic misunderstandings and unintended cultural clashes. At such times, suspending judgment and seeking to find the positive intent and message present will potently sustain and even strengthen the cross cultural relationship. Simultaneously, new cultural information and knowledge results. Through a continuous and conscious practice of appreciative inquiry, a productive spiral of learning is created.

REFRAMING The reframing introduced above is the most masterful level of the active and skilled listening taught within NCRP (Erbe, 2011). In contrast, most organizational members are likely only acquainted with surface or diplomatic paraphrasing of the words actually said. Many Northern Americans expect direct open expression and do not attend to silence or subtleties (Oetzel & Ting-Toomey, 2013). They must be taught to listening more openly and deeply to transcend culture. The next

 Tools Deepening Cross Cultural Collaboration and Leadership

level of paraphrasing taught by author Erbe is at the level of emotions: sincere empathetic listening at its best (Erbe, 2003). Depending on the cultures involved, sincere acknowledgment of and concern for speaker emotions can help bridge culture. Guides and consultants from the cultures concerned can help organizational members and leaders assess whether addressing emotions and showing genuine compassion will be appropriate and welcome. Reframing, however, can be used and will lead to important insight with all cultures even if explicit and direct communication is not the practice. Historically, the organizational expectation is often that members from minority cultures will learn the norms of the dominant. Embracing the full potential of cross cultural collaboration and leadership in contemporary times, however, requires organizational members from the dominant culture in that organization to also learn the norms and expectations of minority cultures present. Reframing done well leads to essential understanding across culture, or information about the other’s culture. That alone starts to lay requisite foundation for cross cultural collaboration and leadership. Even more potent, however, is the resultant ability to identify common ground between different cultures. Any cross cultural mediator, like author Erbe, has observed, experienced and felt the shift in energy, perspective and approach that occurs when parties who have been obsessed and fixated on difference suddenly amaze themselves with the discovery that there is something they share (Deutsch, 1973). This resultant shock can be deeply transformative and motivational, especially when those leading emphasize, validate and encourage.

TRANSFORMATIONAL LEARNING Recognizing and building on common ground may be as important to effective cross cultural collaboration, particularly that which needs to last

for extended periods, as the appreciative inquiry described earlier. When cross cultural partners can focus on shared values, as one example, or goals, such focus provides strength and motivation for facing the inevitable challenges, trials and tests of their relationship. The most masterful of transformational leaders, in practice rather than mere rhetoric, know the organizational power of shared principles and interests (Erbe, 2014). The NCRP tools introduced in this chapter can help organizational leaders go further with organizational transformation. Learning to consistently recognize, validate and encourage organizational, team and individual interest shared across culture, including all existing agreement, will continue to build a strong cross cultural foundation for collaboration. All shared interests represent organizational building blocks. North American scholars and consultants have been so focused on intellectually understanding other cultures that they may have missed these important truths (Lindsay, 2009). First, intellectual understanding of oneself, another, another group (culture) will inevitably be a work in progress— never complete. Anyone working with cultures knows that they are internally diverse and ever changing. The youngest of generations within cultures will always remind the elders of this inevitable evolution and challenge. Yet, simultaneously, many are bridging culture and building collaborative relationships with rich results. Some leaders are collaborating and leading across culture through practicing the transformational leadership mentioned earlier (Erbe, 2014). Others are doing so as servant leaders (Normore & Erbe, 2013). Author Erbe has done evaluative research of cross cultural leaders in four distinct parts of the world and learned how important the earlier described impartiality is in practice as well as careful skilled listening and elimination of negative judgment (Erbe, 2004). Those who evaluated their cross cultural process and experience in the Balkans, Cameroon, Nepal and Ukraine also revered an inspirational leader who energized them;

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engaged with them. They further recommended including all voices, or equal participation, and authenticity (Erbe, 2004). An open mind with no prejudice and skillful facilitation were critical.

BARRIERS AND OBSTACLES TO CROSS-CULTURAL COLLABORATION Some readers might be imagining that they are far from being the leader needed to collaborate across difference. Yet any improvement in careful or conscious listening can reap important rewards that generate progress—even if steady and relatively slow. The increasingly popular and widespread practice of learning to paraphrase what is heard at the level of surface communication, or repeating a summary of what has been heard, can be an important first step to realizing one’s own interpretative/cultural biases (filters of interpretation) and learning that others use language (even when using/speaking “the same”) to emphasize and communicate different meanings (Garmston, R. & Wellman, B., 2013). The communication theory of coordinated management of meaning illuminates the step by step process of communication: using verbal and non verbal symbols; noticing receiving and interpreting those cues with cultural rules, or expectations (Erbe, 2003). By simply summarizing and verbally sharing what one thinks one has “heard,” the opportunity to explore different rules and expectations of communication occurs. The above exercise may create anxiety and frustration especially in those who have rarely if ever ventured outside of their cultural comfort zone. NCRP education in negotiation tactics may be helpful here. Students of negotiation are regularly schooled to “not react” to perceived nasty tactics including attempts to intimidate and dominate a relationship and negotiation process (Erbe, 2011). Of course, this is much easier to

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say than to practice in the face of anything that threatens. Human beings researched in the U.S. are more likely to react with the infamous “fight flight response”: avoiding contact entirely or responding defensively with aggression (Deutsch & Coleman, 2000). Neither serves to build the relationships needed. The relationships needed to bridge cultures must be even stronger and more resilient than relationships within a comfortable cultural group. The authors assert that these relationships must also be more forgiving. Negotiation students are taught what some call “forgiveness math” and others name “generous tit for tat” (Erbe, 2011). They are asked to consciously withhold and contain the urge to return a perceived negative with a negative and instead to attempt to extend an olive branch of collaborative opportunity in the hope that the other involved will reciprocate with good will. Thus, the entire relationship dynamic is transformed from a destructive downward spiral to a co-creation of collaboration. Of course, this practice is likely to need continual repeating in the face of perceived challenge/misunderstanding. The authors predict that any new cross cultural relationship is ripe for such perceived challenge/ misunderstanding even when all concerned objectively are doing their best to collaborate and extend olive branches. Unless those concerned are already intimately familiar with the cultures involved and their specific approaches to communication, problem solving, power, gender and myriad other variables, perceived challenge and misunderstanding is predictable until those involved in the collaboration learn more about each other and each other’s cultures. An additional challenge to be faced is that several of the above recommended cross cultural practices are likely to backfire if the listener is perceived as inauthentic or manipulative. Students of NCRP are taught to consciously attempt to “walk their talk” and ensure consistent congruence between words and behavior in the interests of building trust (Erbe, 2003).

 Tools Deepening Cross Cultural Collaboration and Leadership

The only way to do this across cultural difference is ironically to build enough trust and open honest communication to ensure that those with whom an employee or leader is seeking to build a relationship across difference will give that employee or leader regular honest feedback about how they are experienced and perceived. This level of intimacy is not the norm in many organizational relationships, climates and cultures. Without such candid feedback, however, little avenue exists for evaluating cross cultural collaboration and leadership. An alternative possibility recommended by the authors is seeking cultural guides and building trusted relationships with these guides and mentors in advance of cross cultural collaboration. Cultural coaches will be thus prepared to help organizational leaders and employees explore how they might be perceived by other members of the mentors’ cultures. The authors have not researched whether organizational consulting has stretched to include such cultural guides like the field of mediation now includes interpreters and translators. If it has not, it is recommended as critically needed by so many contemporary organizations: international, transnational and domestic organizations in the many countries around the world, especially emerging global powers, employing from many cultures and countries. Of course, organizations can continue to evaluate collaboration and leadership with performance criteria. Cultures and persons are so closely intertwined, however, evaluating cross cultural collaboration must include some form and level of personal relationships, communication, understanding, trust and other good will. The organizational literature on social capital is helpful here (Reuben, 2005). Researchers of organizational social capital have studied organizational goodwill, trust and reciprocity. All correlate with the preceding discussion of measuring cross cultural collaboration and leadership.

CONCLUSION Readers perceiving themselves as grossly lacking in the attitudes and skills introduced above might also be interested in learning more about the organizational ombuds, a trained and seasoned NCRP practitioner who is hired by international organizations, corporations and public organizations like universities and colleges, to help leaders and other organizational members learn the NCRP tools described throughout this chapter. Simultaneously, at their best, they are principled and masterful impartials who will start bridging difference, resolving toxic dynamics and building organizational good will through cross cultural collaboration and leadership (Erbe and Sebok, 2008). In short, they model what is promoted in this chapter. Since not all can or will master NCRP collaborative art, those who do become essential. We do not know of any organization that exemplifies the best of cross cultural collaboration and leadership at the moment. Sadly, even the United Nations and its critically important organizations like the World Health Organization and World Food Organization are riddled with alleged and actual corruption and challenged with the inherent inequities of power abuse. The time is ripe for one or more organizations to capture the world’s attention and admiration through not only treating women and minority employees well but showing and promoting progressive models of and approaches to cross cultural collaboration and leadership. Consider how the world resonates with, appreciates and celebrates global events like the Olympics (Para-Olympics). Not only do they thrill in their country’s opportunity for victory and pride, but they are drawn to the inclusion, presence and participation of so many from places large and small somehow competing on a more level and just playing field. The world welcomes seeing myriad talents emerge and be seen rather than dismissed or missed as part of unknown groups or people. We challenge the readers of this book and chapter to follow their lead and astonish the world.

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 Tools Deepening Cross Cultural Collaboration and Leadership

Fulbright U.S. scholar and student programs have contributed a lot towards understanding between the U.S. and 160 plus countries by professional exchange and partnerships. The Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs (State Department) in partnership with Fulbright aims to increase mutual understanding between the people of the United States and the people of other countries by means of educational and cultural exchange that assists in the development of peaceful relations through overcoming cultural and language barriers. As the world is becoming a global village (due to technology and real time exchange of information), there has been increased effort by universities across the world to have more student and faculty exchanges. Students participating optimally have broken some cultural fences and thus been propelled towards better understanding of the world where they live. In practice, they fit more flawlessly. Those having cross cultural knowledge and information at their command are the global citizens who have broken the traditional cultural obstacles. There is a need for incorporation of more exchange programs at the high school level to achieve more by starting the process at early formative years. To prepare future citizens of the world to achieve ideal cross cultural collaboration, the readers might even want to consider ways to provide such cross cultural life experience even earlier in children’s and family’s lives. Strong, even at times, ideal examples of cross cultural collaboration are the militaries of the world where soldiers of diverse and conflicted cultures (ethnicity, class, gender and sexual preference depending on the country) train and live together to achieve military training standards. The training and living blend binds soldiers in better understanding and, at its best, builds mutual trust. This leads to developing cohesiveness and achieving better team spirit in a military unit. Participation in combat / joint training hopefully leads to respect and appreciation of other soldiers’ contribution and achievements. This mutual bond

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and buddy system leads to synergy and friendship which are so vital to achieving success in combat missions; thus displaying perfect teamwork (collaboration) and integration amongst soldiers of myriad difference.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS We are presenting the above recommendations from our collective sixty plus years of leading and teaching cross cultural collaboration involving over eighty cultures. Each of our practical recommendations could serve as the foundation for case study, program evaluation and other applied research. We hope that this chapter will stimulate readers’ interest in conducting such research and welcome proposals to collaborate. Simultaneously, we envision that most readers will be inspired to become reflective practitioners developing, testing and revising action theories about their own cross cultural collaboration and leadership. The reality is that our globalized world is changing so quickly; constantly creating opportunities for cross cultural work. Unless readers learn to act as their own reflective practice researchers, they will be ill equipped to effectively bridge and progress. Traditional academic research will simply not keep pace.

REFERENCES Barge, K. (2001). Integrating theory, research and practice in select conflict contexts: Creating healthy communities through affirmative conflict communication. Conflict Resolution Quarterly, 19(1), 89–101. doi:10.1002/crq.3890190107 Bennett, M., & Hermann, M. (1996). The art of mediation. Notre Dame, IN: NITA. Deutsch, M. (1973). The resolution of conflict. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

 Tools Deepening Cross Cultural Collaboration and Leadership

Deutsch, M., & Coleman, P. (2000). The handbook of conflict resolution. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Moodian, M. (2009). Contemporary leadership and intercultural competence. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Erbe, N. (2003). Holding these truths: empowerment and recognition in action (an interactive case study curriculum for multicultural dispute resolution). Berkeley, CA: Public Policy Press.

Moore, C. (1996). The mediation process. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Erbe, N. (2011). Negotiation alchemy: global skills inspiring and transforming diverging worlds. Berkeley, CA: Public Policy Press. Erbe, N. (2014). Approaches to managing organizational diversity and innovation. Hershey, PA: IGI Global Press. doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-6006-9 Garmston, R., & Wellman, B. (2013). The adaptive school. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. Goldberg, J. (1990). Interrupting the discourse on interruptions: An analysis in terms of relationally neutral, power and rapport oriented acts. Journal of Pragmatics, 14(6), 883–903. doi:10.1016/03782166(90)90045-F Gray, B. (1989). Collaborating: finding common ground for multiparty problems. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Johnson, D., & Johnson, F. (1997). Joining together: group theory and group skills. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Kretzman, J., & McKnight, J. (1993). Building communities from the inside out: a path toward finding and mobilizing a community’s assets. Skokie, IL: ACTA Publications. Lindsay, R., Robins, K., & Terrell, R. (2009). Cultural proficiency. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Mayer, B. (2004). Beyond neutrality. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Normore, A., & Erbe, N. (2013). Collective efficacy: interdisciplinary perspectives on international leadership. Bingley, UK: Emerald Press. doi:10.1108/S1479-3660(2013)20 Oetzel & Ting-Toomey. S. (2013). The handbook of communication. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Parsons, R., & Brown, K. (2002). Teacher as reflective practitioner and action researcher. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thompson Learning. Reuben, R. (2005). Democracy and dispute resolution systems design in the new workplace. Harvard Neg. Journal, 10, 11. Trompenaars, F., & Hampden-Turner, C. (2012). Riding the waves of culture. New York, NY: McGraw Hill. Walker, D., & Walker, T. (2003). Dong Business Internationally. New York, NY: McGraw Hill.

ADDITIONAL READING Normore, A. (2013). Collective efficacy: interdisciplinary perspectives on international leadership. Bingley, United Kingdom: Emerald Press. doi:10.1108/S1479-3660(2013)20 Paupp, T. (2000). Achieving inclusionary governance. Ardsley, New York: Transnational Publishers, Inc. Paupp, T. (2014). Redefining human rights in the struggle for peace and development. New York, New York: Cambridge University Press.

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 Tools Deepening Cross Cultural Collaboration and Leadership

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Appreciative Inquiry: Art and practice of asking questions that strengthen a system’s capacity to apprehend, anticipate and heighten positive potential. Authenticity: Genuineness; sincerity; integrity that resists external pressures. Common Ground: Mutual interest or agreement; basis for mutuality.

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Reframing: In conflict process, changing a description to emphasize the essential content or meaning productively or positively. Reflective Practice: The capacity to reflect on actions and evaluate their impact so as to engage in a process of continuous learning and improvement. Suspending Judgment: Cognitive process emphasizing the rational state of mind in which one aspires to mental openness while acknowledging judgments.

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Chapter 2

Coordinating Meaning and Joint Identity:

Cultivating Leadership and Cross-Cultural Communication in a Divided Community Samuel Peleg Rutgers University, USA

ABSTRACT This chapter is based on an ongoing research of intercultural relationships in a mixed Jewish-Arab town in Israel. The goal of the project is to establish patterns of constructive communication between the two groups, using the methods and models of Coordinated Management of Meaning (CMM) practical theory (Pearce, 1997) to promote the viability and sustainability of the community. Our case-study depicts Jews and Arabs in the human organization called the town of Ramla, where two cultural communities are divided along several reinforcing rifts including ethnic, religious, lingual and cultural (Horowitz & Lissak, 1989). These dissimilar backgrounds generate psychological, emotional and communicational difficulties, which encumber coexistence and impairs prosperity for the town’s 62,000 residents. The keys to grapple with such challenges are prudent and inspiring leadership and effective cross-cultural collaboration. These two goals—finding adept leaders and establishing cross-cultural cooperation--are primary in the strategic intervention in the divided society of Ramla.

A. THE CHALLENGE OF RAMLA Ramla is a deeply-divided society in the middle of Israel. The separation between the two communities is perpetuated in every aspect of daily life as Jewish and Arab live in secluded neighborhoods, and their children go to different kindergartens and schools and play in disparate playgrounds. This division is further augmented by fear, suspicion

and mistrust anchored and preserved in a broader context of bitter historical rivalry between Arabs and Jews in Israel/Palestine. The two adjacent communities are locked in an accusative and vilifying discourse of mutual defamation, fueled by negative images, labeling and stereotyping of each other. In such context, the role and responsibility of local community leaders become indispensable. They carry the burden of urging their prospective

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-8376-1.ch002

Copyright © 2015, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

 Coordinating Meaning and Joint Identity

communities to embark on a new path of communication with the Other. “Other” is an exclusion mechanism that delineates the ‘us’ from the ‘them’ in order to more effectively consolidate our own identity in contrast to all those who are not us (Rabinowitz, 2001; Hammack, 2006; Bresner, 2010). They must create and cultivate a new social reality in which the other transformed into a partner rather than an enemy to enable a new beginning for their town. The research focuses on a bottomup endeavor of building a shared identity to Arab and Jewish Ramlians beyond their apparent differences. The gist of this undertaking is to initiate cross-cultural collaboration which traverses labels, generalizations and stigmata and lowers the walls of animosity and rancor. The chapter depicts the Ramla project and its progress. The Ramla involvement has three basic phases: the first is selecting core groups of community leaders from both nationalities and running constructive communication workshops and training sessions with them. Then in the second phase, these leaders, acting as agents of change, will mobilize and stimulate their respective communities to participate in the workshops. Finally, once acquaintance with the Other, including mutual dignity and empathy and a shared vision for the future, is achieved, Arabs and Jews will jointly initiate and carry out public projects in Ramla as a realization of their newly established relationships and shared identity. The CMM intervention is depicted in detail culminating in preliminary conclusions and prospective suggestions for the expansion of the study.

B. LEADERSHIP AS A LEADERSFOLLOWERS NEXUS Several key terms and concepts converge in the Ramla Project: communication, culture, identity, conflict, acculturation and leadership (Peleg, 2010). They are all linked and jointly supply the theoretical backbone for this experiment. Com-

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munication is understood in an existential and substantive way rather than instrumental: it is the explaining factor which ties together human behavior. Communication is the opportunity and the path to construct reciprocal reality, shared and mutually accepted by people who decide to live together: a couple, family, tribesmen, a nation, a culture (Pearce & Littlejohn, 1997; Pearce, 2007). Culture is a system which facilitates and promotes communal life and carries the potential of transforming divergence to coexistence. In other words, culture is “the tending of natural growth” (Williams, 1970). This chapter describes an endeavor to promote meaningful change in cross-cultural relationships between Jews and Arabs. Leadership is the decisive factor in the success or failure of change processes. This is valid to all types of human engagement including family, business, politics, education and spiritual (Ahmad, Franciss, & Zairi, 2007; Sommers & Nelson, 2001; Yukl, 2001) .The common human default is status-quo; change can be daunting and unnerving. It takes people who deviate from conventionality to harbinger breakthroughs in every field of human progress. Overcoming categorical thinking and vestiges of animosity and hostility should be exercised with prudence and caution by people who can motivate, animate and empower others. In short, reconciliation is best handled by visionary, passionate and responsible leaders. But what is the most effective kind of leadership to be employed in an intercultural conflict, in which two communities share the same sociopolitical space? What is the basis of authority from which leaders of cross-cultural communication spring? If we go by elimination, Machiavellian realistic authority bases such as cunning, deceit and instilling fear (2004) are not suitable. Max Weber’s three sources of power--legal-rational, traditionalemotional, and charismatic (2009)--are equally inappropriate in a context of eliciting voluntary dedication to social and cultural interaction. Charisma, one of the most enigmatic qualities of leadership, is not tantamount to being visionary

 Coordinating Meaning and Joint Identity

or passionate. The origins of charisma are vague, elusive and sometimes dubious and thus, charisma is an effective way to gain leadership but not necessarily to sustain it. One can be charismatic for all the wrong reasons, for example, the right hairdo, the jokes, the affability and other attractive tenets, but to lack the mastery of performance. Passionate and vision are judged by process and result which charisma alone are incapable of providing.Three other faculties of leadership—personal sacrifice; empathy or affability; and the ability to provide hope can partially work since they underline only one side of the leadership equation, the leader’s side. This chapter highlights another basis for leadership, perhaps the most significant one--the nexus between leaders and supporters. From this perspective, leadership is understood as a two-way street: constituents longing for a leader and leaders yearning for people to lead. Such interdependency is reminiscent of the relationship between authority and legitimacy: they define and confer meaning upon each other, thereby granting saliency to their prospective functions. Thus leadership, like power and identity, is a socially relevant concept that flourishes primarily in the context of human community. A socially detached person has scant chances of becoming a leader even if she embodies all the traits and skills for the role. Leadership is predominantly a societal engagement and awareness, cultivated and sustained by the meeting of expectations and interests between agenda-setters and the agenda consumers. People, tribes, groups and nations do not tag along after their leaders merely due to their elocution abilities or wit but because they are eager to realize a dream, to accomplish a plan or to be redeemed from grievance and they trust that their leaders are best suited to expedite the task. Leaders on the other hand, rise up to the occasion because they believe they can deliver on these wishes and hopes. These two complementary orientations are able to promote and gratify each other and this most advantageously occurs when both sides are candidly and thoroughly aware of their

mutual interests and know how to transmit them to their counterparts. This sociological approach to leadership is relatively new. It gained recognition in leadership studies in the late 1970’s and the early 1980’s, with a shift from unidirectional to interactional and reciprocal concepts, or from the ‘great man’ approach of Carlisle and Freud to a communicational approach, reviving Kurt Lewin’s notion of interdependency between leaders and followers (Brass & Krackhardt, 1999; Carlyle, 2003; Freud, 1939; Hackman & Johnson, 2013; Lewin, Lippit & White,1939; Northouse, 2013). Awareness of this type is best attained through constructive communication-- flowing, transparent and honest, in which every party keenly endeavors to understand the messages of the other. This is precisely the context for the attentive and considerate leader to thrive, listening and comprehending the needs of those she is serving. Such candid and honest interaction encourages compliance as well, since abiding the leader’s instructions is best based on understanding and shared cause rather than fear and imposition. The leaders-followers bond is best served on the emotional level rather than the rational level. Rational-strategic relations are instrumental and mechanic and as such, bear limited capacity to entice adherents to grand assignments or self-sacrifice. The leadership model emphasized here is basically a dialectical story of interaction between leaders and the led. Good, responsible and successful leadership emerges from a flowing, transparent and constructive communication between the two sides. The literature of organizational leadership and social capital leadership is fraught with examples and recommendations for this type of leadership (Bryman, 2013; Gutiérrez, Hilborn & Defeo, 2011; Hitt & Duane, 2002; Mayo, Meindl, & Pastor 2003). In other words, leadership is really a set of relationships between people, and as such it relies on and is expressed by communication. Leadership prospers or fails on the quality of communication between the guides and the guided. The leader is the spark, the constituents are the burning material

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 Coordinating Meaning and Joint Identity

and the right circumstance is the oxygen which determines the height and vigor of the flame (Antonkins & House, 2002). This has also been our criterion of searching and selecting the leaders, both Arabs and Jews, to comprise the core group for the Ramla Project. Bearing in mind that this was a pilot effort that if succeeded, it is aimed to be expanded to other mixed towns in Israel and later, to other countries around the world, the research team that I led needed to maximize our prospects by choosing adept leaders. We also knew that in our three-pronged approach—engaging leaders first, sending them back to their prospective communities to mobilize others, and ultimately engaging the communities at large, the stakes were too high for bad decisions in the selection of leaders. Therefore, we were looking for communicative, approachable and stimulating leaders, with proven record and excellent rapport with their people. More precisely, we were looking for resonant leaders. A resonant leader paves the way to a better reality by adhering her vision, creativity and optimism to the expectations, aspirations and hopes of the followers. But in order to do that, a leader must be fully cognizant and mindful of what these needs really are. Some leaders are tempted to create, manipulate or fabricate the needs of their flock in order to better suit them to what they are capable of supplying or to their pre-planned redemption route. Such scheme could be successful for a while until genuine wants and requirements surface from the ground up and force leaders to readjust (McKee, Boyatzis & Johnston 2008). Goleman et al. (2002) believe that the most important tool to identify authentic needs and thus become better leaders is emotional intelligence. This is the seismograph or the sensitivity gadget to understand others’ feelings and therefore, a key for responsible and effective leadership. This is the case of leaders-followers communication which relies not on exchange of tangible benefits but on normative values and principles upon which unhindered affinity and loyalty are built.1

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Resonant leadership is highly relevant in the context of voluntary associations and non-profit organizations that advocate and pursue a social agenda. In social movements, protest groups or even terrorist cells, an inspiring leadership which encourages self-sacrifice and perseverance is crucial. More often than not, these frameworks cannot offer any selective incentives (Olson, 1971) or material stimuli2. On the contrary, political activists are more likely to experience disappointment, frustration, imprisonment or death. Motivating followers under such circumstances is substantially facilitated by hooking into their social, cultural and political background. There is a degree of manipulation in attentive and responsive leadership, but not in the deceptive and scheming way, rather the handling and maneuvering fashion of balancing and preserving an ongoing fit between what followers need and what leaders can provide (Goodin, 1980; Ware, 1981; Coons & weber, 2014) This is pure resonant leadership: leaders’ decisions find resonance and amplification among followers because those decisions fit their heart’s desires3. Communication between leaders of social movements and their committed activists is transmitted through special filters or schemata called framing (Gamson & Modilgiani, 1989; Entman, 1993). Their function is tremendously important: to establish a narrative or an account which serves and promotes the objectives the leaders strive to accomplish. These formulations are geared to shape and validate congruity between the leaders’ staging and the followers’ reading of the situation and thereby augment the bond between them. Framing is significant in any human organization or grouping since it creates accommodation between supply and demand and synchronization between needs of leaders and led. In the specific case of social movements--absence of immediate tangible inducements--the leaders of protest and social change would fare better in their assignment by deftly adopting their frames to the changing needs of their recruits so that “a certain system of interests, values and beliefs of

 Coordinating Meaning and Joint Identity

the individual and a set of activities, objectives and ideologies of SMO (social movement organizations) will correspond and complement each other“(Snow & Benford, 1988). This is the tedious but imperative process of frame alignment in which power wielders compromise their self-image of omnipotent know-it-all supermen in an effort to act in accordance with the unadulterated claims and volitions of their people. This is communication fine-tuning and concurrence to find the right balance of the leadership equilibrium between authority and consent. Notice however the term social movement organizations, which underlines the formal structures, norms and regulations of such movements. In ongoing and protracted struggles, even the most spontaneous and extemporaneous groups acquire features of hierarchy, division of work, and coordination (Cress &Snow, 1996; Lofland 2009; Zald & Ash, 1966;).

C. THE RAMLA PROJECT: PREMISES AND PRINCIPLES C:1 Why Ramla Leadership and cross-cultural collaboration were the two cornerstones of the research project. They emerged from an existing infrastructure of contending cultures and identities in an ongoing collision course of conflict. The interplay among them supplied fascinating opportunities to examine cross-cultural collaboration in a non-formal human organization, which was the group of local leaders and community activists we convened as our research population. The challenge was to transform relationships from hostile and confrontational to mutually beneficial through a change of attitude and image of the Other as a partner rather than an enemy. Collaboration in the attempt to establish mutually beneficial outcomes is the desired mindset and orientation toward such transformation (Gray, 1989; Winslade & Monk 2000). The setting of our endeavor included two contending

cultures, Jewish and Arab, with distinct collective identity, honed and crystallized by an ongoing and intractable conflict. These two disparate identities emanate from incompatible cultures spawning incongruities along religious-secular, Western-Eastern and modern-traditional faultlines in addition to majority-minority tensions and socioeconomic disparities (Horowitz & Lissak, 2012; Reiter 2009; Yuchtman-Yaar & Shavit 2004). Our task was to manage this conflict in its local Ramlaic manifestation and divert it from its destructive and damaging course by establishing constructive patterns of communication such as Coordinated management of Meaning (CMM) and dynamics of acculturation. The latter is a process which strives for the accommodation of two different cultures through collaborative processes of mutual awareness, recognition and acceptance. In the context of mixed towns in Israel, acculturation is an indispensable basis for the viability of coexistence. We started out with a group of 20 local leaders, ten Arabs and ten Jews. They were introduced to us by several agencies and community centers in Ramla and were picked due to their leadership experience and communal background. My first acquaintance with the town of Ramla and the chief reason for working there rather than in other mixed communities in Israel, occurred in 2006 when I hosted in Israel a delegation of the Realizing the Dream organization headed by their president, Martin Luther King III, the son of the revered Citizens Rights Movement. In the last day of their visit, MLK asked me to show him a place whereby Arabs and Jews live together and peacefully share the same living space. I had a personal friend in the Ramla Municipality and he invited the entire delegation to his town. This is how the initial contact was created. Ramla is truly a microcosm of the Israeli society. Despite its relatively small population, it is home to several ethnic, religious, lingual and national entities4, which endeavor to coexist under a municipality of scant resources and occasionally biased priorities such as refusing to give Arab

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 Coordinating Meaning and Joint Identity

names to the streets of the Arab neighborhoods (Greenberg, 2007). This is an ideal location for social research: it is relatively small and hence, tenable, conducive and effective for rigorous investigation, and it boasts all possible cleavages a society could wish or dread: socio-economic, political, cultural and generational. We approached our target population--town leaders and social activists—with hesitancy and uncertainty. We couldn’t tell for sure whether we would be welcomed. In spite of our positive and constructive introduction, we still had doubts with regard to how the locals would perceive us as outsiders offering our expertise to improve their lives. After all, what did we know about their concerns, fears, hopes and aspirations? What could we possibly offer Ramlians that would stimulate them to dedicate their precious time to us? Our focus is on communication--meaningful, constructive and transparent to try and construct a common identity to the Ramla citizens beyond their apparent differences in order to prevent structural dissimilarities from erupting into destructive and debilitating strife. The town of Ramla with its rich historical legacy and ongoing coexistence of Arabs and Jews, Muslims and Christians in the former, Israeli-born, Ethiopian, Russian, Latin-American and Bucharian Jewish immigrants among others in the latter, compose a fascinating multicultural mosaic. As in many other mixed towns, relationships among the various factions are a protracted balancing act between contending priorities, ambitions and concerns. Jews worry that their majority status, as well as the character of the city, will be jeopardized by the superior birth rate of Arabs, while Arabs suspect that the Jewish administration of the city constantly marginalizes them. This sensitive reality is even more delicate and volatile in Israel, where the stability and trust among its Arab and Jewish citizens is daily tested. Ramla, therefore, is a seismograph of the inter-communal fluidity in the country. Composed of 80% Jews and 20% Arabs of whom 16% are Muslims and 4% Christians, the

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town consists all the familiar tensions between the two populations along the national, religious and cultural fault-lines. The two groups of population live separate lives: they dwell in distinct neighborhoods (except from few individuals, usually Arabs, who choose to reside in Jewish areas due to the better living conditions), they go to different schools; they participate in dissimilar youth movements, and hang out in disparate locations. They periodically bump into each other in offices, the market place or public places but camaraderie and amity are rare. Ramla is a barometer of the Israeli mood and the ostensible calm might shift in any given moment with any probable ArabJewish confrontation not only in Israel but in the entire region. The challenge facing us was how to introduce our influence without antagonizing any of the participants we invited. It looked like a formidable task: how to meet vastly diverged expectations and satisfy all sides. The objective was not to impose fancy solutions or magical panaceas but to elicit Ramlians own stories and their own frames of the reality they live in. Our intervention aimed at encouraging the local leaders, composed of Community organizers, young leadership, youth movements’ activists, to take control of the rapprochement process, a reciprocal warming-up and reconciliation of differences. This change of attitude would not work as an external dictation or imposition and must be cultivated from within by responsible and prudent leadership. Abundant literature demonstrates this principle to be valid and significant for many diverse human organizations in various sectors (see among others; Austin, 2010; Brown, 1983; Lawrence & Lorsch, 1967) We facilitated the onset by invoking simple questions: “What does it mean to be a Ramlian from your perspective”, and “How would you define yourself”. These ‘simple’ questions triggered very complex and multi-layered answers, which reflected the volatile reality our respondents experienced as residents of a mixed town with cross-cutting allegiances, blurred commitments and an ambivalent sense

 Coordinating Meaning and Joint Identity

of belonging. Such discrepancies emanate from incompatible affiliations of state (Israeli), nation (Palestinian), ethnicity (Arab) and religion (Islam). The issue of identity, individual or collective, is pivotal. In the context of socialization, identity strives to align all factions in a community under one banner, one single disposition to which all is loyal and committed. Identity purports to answer the question who I am, who I belong to and who I wish to be like. In other words, identity is the way we associate ourselves with others, a kind of membership card to join the reference group we wish to affiliate with or we were classified to by others. Identity elucidates who we share our destiny with and who we like to develop solidarity and bonding. At the same time, it delineates and distinguishes among dissimilar groupings: while we choose, verify and establish our own, we clearly eschew other identities. This is valid in any sphere of human activity in which an individual becomes a part of society, a member of culture or an employee in a new company. Take for example the case of Jalil, a 26 year old man born and raised in Ramla, whose family has been there for five generations. He is an Arab who does not define himself as such; He is a Christian Orthodox who does not practice religion; He is a Palestinian who does not share Palestinian militancy, and he is an Israeli who is not allowed to serve in the military and is constantly reminded he is not a Jew. When asked how he defines himself, Jalil unequivocally replies “I am from Ramla”. But what does it mean? Do other Ramlians feel the same? Can all residents of Ramla be categorized under the same label? Is there a common Ramlian identity? Another member of the young leaders’ core group was Hila, a 26 year old Jewish woman, who served in the Israeli army with distinction. She is the exact opposite of Jalil in every aspect but one: she defines herself as a proud Ramlian. Is there anything else common to Jalil and Hila besides sharing the same geographical space? Should there be? Is this foundation sufficient enough to create and cultivate a sustainable community?

This was one of the major impetuses in our Ramla engagement: how to introduce prospects for capacity building and sustainability to a potentially rifted society. Although the initial reaction from town officials when we first approached them was “everything is fine here”, repeated visits allowed us to detect potential fissures and concealed discontent. This is our great task for the next trips to Ramla: how to delicately reach those deeper layers of insecurity and frustration through cross-cultural dynamics and constructive communication channels of story-telling, contextualizing and getting to know the other, and then setting the course for the people of Ramla to establish their own common ground.For such task, indicators of measurable impact must be planned; We had three: 1) Change of Attitude: Identical questionnaires will be disseminated to Arab and Jewish youth asking them about opinions, attitudes, beliefs and images they hold of each other. A second round of questionnaires will be administered after the constructive communication sessions are held. A significant shift of attitude is expected following the rapprochement process both sides will be experiencing, 2) Change of identity: a key question in the survey will ask about identity. It is expected that prior to the intervention, Arabs and Jews will compose their identity from their respective exclusive affiliations. In the end of the project it is expected that their shared identity as Ramlians will become more salient than before. 3) Change of Behavior: the Arab and Jewish participants conjointly, as Ramlians, will carry out public assignments in their town, such as excavations (Ramla is world-famous in its archeological sites), communal gardening, neighborhood rehabilitation, and tutoring. Such activities were habitually done separately and their successful execution in both the Arab and Jewish parts of Ramla, will be a strong indication that the communication intervention has had an impact.

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C:2 The Communication Perspective Communication can also be perceived as the capacity or the possibility of turning variance into coexistence (Peleg, 2010). But how could this utopian task be achieved in a volatile and capricious reality in which every individual, family, group, culture, nation, or civilization competes for breathing space by stressing their uniqueness and exclusivity? Is harmonious coexistence based on dignity and tolerance a viable option in a region laden with power relations, coercion, and violence such as the Middle East? In an attempt to comprehend how such constructive and beneficial communication works, and what it is capable of doing, it is worthwhile to adopt the communication perspective which duly redirects the attention from communication as means to communication as substance (Pearce, 1989). To put it differently, conversation and dialogue are not merely channels to send messages, and they are not only the medium to enable meaning and understanding; they are the content and substance of the interaction. Such logic depicts communication as the essence and guiding principle of community building. The emphasis is laid on the character and pace communication forms, the trust and mutual respect it promotes and the acquaintance and familiarity it cultivates between the various members of the burgeoning human gathering. To succeed in these intrepid undertakings, two important faculties are required: coordination and meaning (Pearce & Littlejohn 1997; Pearce, 2007; Creede, Fisher-Yoshida & Gallegos 2012). Coordination is highly useful for a meaningful discussion because it steers discussants toward each other and renders their interaction more valuable, collaborative and effective. Coordination takes place while communication occurs and not subsequently and it thrives precisely because it is carried out during and not after discourse. It is dialogue itself which enables the understanding and the openness toward the other and it is dialogue which permits the identification of critical

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moments where judgment of what to say next is employed to produce a more attentive and more meaningful exchange. Each conversation with its explicit timing and distinctive circumstances, binds its participants in a shared experience in which a specific universe is formed and exclusive norms and values are created. The fault-lines of this universe are gradually woven by utterances and counter utterances bouncing off each other as the conversation progresses. Such understanding of coordination requires a high degree of ingenuity. It cultivates a spirit of creativity to invent and design relations while communicating, and thus, invokes adaptability, flexibility and tolerance for the relationship to survive unexpected shifts. This is where the social construction model of communication becomes handy (Burr, 2003; Gergen & Gergen, 2003). In this model communication creates an opportunity or space for speakers to interact. They nurture and inspire each other to share an affluence of diverse assertions, perceptions, convictions and images, which together compose a universe. Unlike the ‘objective’ reality which is supposedly just hanging out there, dialogue constructs subjective reality, which is contingent upon the vocabulary, the opulence of imagery and the variance of topics. In this fashion, the participants or the contributors to the discussion assign over meaning to each other’s existence. Interpretations and explanations to the world around them are culled from what they hear and understand from others. This is what we sought to establish between Arabs and Jews in Ramla: to motivate the young leaders to freely deliberate and create a new social environment through conversation unfettered by preconceived notions and prejudgment. This was no easy task by any means because free-flowing and constructive communication between the participants was encumbered by cultural differences that for years were exacerbated and inflamed by reciprocal negative images and associations. The initial attitude was suspicion and cynicism (“this won’t lead to anything meaningful”, “they will

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not be truthful”), and participants refrained from addressing one another in name. Arabs and Jews sat separately lumped in their original reference groups. There was no coordination and no conjoint meaning generated in these early discussions. CMM was urgently needed to be introduced as theory with guiding principles, and later, as a practice method and as an alternative way to run a conversation. CMM was the central stimulus that set the entire acculturation process in motion (Pearce & Pearce, 2000). The challenge was to change the rules of social behavior by practicing new patterns of communication between Arabs and Jews during a designated series of dialogical episodes. The aim was to establish a co-constructed process of communication in which new meaning is conjointly created by the participants. As a result of configuring their communication design, the Arabs and Jews of Ramla were expected to alter their mutual negative images, labeling and prejudice to be able to conjointly erect a new social world around them. For the long run, these upgraded channels of communication generate new social environments, which if sustained and expanded, replace deep-rooted animosity and mistrust. Our methods of bringing about such changes included: Story-Telling, Contextualization, Reversed Role Simulations and Coordination. These activities intended to be held indoors in a theoretical learning environment. They were planned to be followed in service and communitybuilding activities outdoors. Undertakings such as gardening, fencing, social and cultural activities with children, youth and senior citizens and excavations in archeological sites are to be pursued together by Jews and Arabs as Ramlians. Such intervention, we surmised, will enable Arabs and Jews for the first time to experience a candid, transparent and poignant dialogue. The project was geared at empowering Arabs and Jews by changing discursive habits and communication patterns through dialogue strewn with various joint trustbuilding events such as focus groups, town hall

meetings, study circles and public deliberations. This project was designed as a pilot endeavor to be followed by future rounds of accommodation. The main transformative tool, as already mentioned, is a training workshop in which Arabs and Jews participate together in acquiring CMM skills to enable them to create cross-cultural collaboration for a better common future.

C:3 The CMM Workshop CMM is a practical theory composed of techniques and models, in which a new social reality is co-constructed and improved relationships are established through applications and dynamics of constructive communication. To exercise a more open and flowing interaction between Arab and Jews, we employed CMM techniques. The need for transparency and honesty emerges from the severe lack of confidence and mistrust of the Other. Our first challenge was to dispel this psychological obstacle by getting to know the Other beyond simplistic generalizations and stereotyping. This is the potency of the CMM techniques that we used: a) Story-Telling: Listening to each other’s narratives and be attentive to the “how” and the “why” rather than the “what”, in order to eliminate preconceived notions and prejudice; b) Contextualization: Broaden the context of the Other’s narrative to include more nuances and richer meaning; c) Reversed Role Simulations: participants of each faction are assigned the role of their counterparts and enact typical scenes from Ramla as felt by ‘the other’. This exercise enhances the Ramla experience and promotes empathy and solidarity; d) Coordination: Once more openness and recognition of the Other are achieved, coconstructing the common social reality and shared vision of the future can be established. Alongside the CMM techniques, CMM models were utilized to advance discussions and demonstrate in real time how patterns of communication change attitudes and opinions to create a new social reality. The models we applied were: a) The Daisy

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Model, which shows the many concurrent influences on what we say in a conversation; b) The Storytelling (LUUUUTT) Model that underscores the array of meanings, given or hidden, behind and around every utterance and each entry of the discussion; and c) The Serpentine Model, which highlights the reciprocal effect of the participants and the context of the situation on what is being said. All these models aim to clarify and facilitate a conversation to yield the best productive results on the road to a trustworthy and stable social context. In summation, the ultimate goal of the project is to enable Ramlian Arabs and Jews a candid, transparent and poignant dialogue. The project will empower young people of both camps by changing discursive habits and communication patterns through attentive dialogue, contextual reconstruction and reframing separate identities as common. In a joint action of a rhetorical-responsive nature, the process is not one of convincing or influencing, but one of inclusivity and fairness, whereby both parties compose together a congenial environment unfamiliar to neither of them prior to their engagement. A successful completion of this effort will result in an enhanced commitment to civil society and social inclusion, or more specifically, to the town of Ramla.

D. PROCESS D:1 The Questionnaires The engagement in Ramla began with an expeditionary visit to the town in December 2011. In that visit, acquaintance meetings were held with the municipality’s representatives headed by the town’s Mayor. In these initial encounters, the project’s goals were discussed and a green light was given by the authorities of the host town to start in the following visit. Since then, the research team has had eight visits to Ramla with regular intervals of a month and a half on average. The next stage was to select our core group of 20

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community activists and young leadership, ten of each denomination. A network of voluntary and nonprofit organizations was introduced to us and prospective leaders of each agency were recommended based on their longevity and perseverance in the field, their reputation as community ‘movers-and-shakers’ and record of accomplishments. They were interviewed preliminary interviews about their desire and commitment to participate in such a project and their feeling about being a part of a bi-national experiment. Before the interactive process began, we asked the participants to fill out questionnaires. We wanted to get an initial reaction, a baseline attitude of Arabs and Jews toward each other, in order to be able to detect progress or change in a followup questionnaire after our intervention. Here is a sample of the questions we thought would be relevant to extract data about how people think about the Other: 1. How do you define yourself? (nationally, religiously, culturally, locally, or other); 2. On a scale of 1 to 5 (with 1 being the least), to what degree are you familiar with the Other’s culture, history and/or religion?; 3. What is your view about Arab/Jewish relations in Ramla (open-ended question); 4. Would you say that Arab-Jewish relations in Ramla are: a) Excellent b) good c) average d) bad e) unbearable 5. What do you think are the main reasons for the quality of these relationships? (open-ended question). 6. What do you think is the future direction of Arab-Jewish relations in Ramla? a) They will improve b) they will remain the same c) they will deteriorate. A set of specific questions was added as well: 1. Would you consider going out with a boy/girl of the Other denomination? y/n/don’t know; 2. Have you ever invited/hosted or was invited/ hosted by someone from the Other reference group?; 3. Have you ever read a scripture of the other religion or a history book of the other nationality?; 4. Were you exposed to prejudice/labeling/generalizing/ stigmatization of the Other, and if so, how and to what extent?; 5. How do you see the town of

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Ramla in 10 years? a) Harmoniously Integrated b) Practically Integrated b) Divided but peaceful c) Deeply-divided and violent. The results were neither encouraging nor surprising. We anticipated distance and suspicion but not to that extent. Most respondents were ignorant about the Other’s world. To the larger extent, they were oblivious to their counterparts’ concerns, fears and ambitions. Most of them never hosted or were hosted by a member of the opposite reference group (except two Jews and one Arab who visited the homes of the Other; one of the Jews even spent the night). No-one read the Other’s scriptures and they only had a limited and selective exposure to history textbooks of the alternative school system. Almost everyone admitted familiarity with prejudice and stereotyping of the Other, as well as feeling it against them. Nobody had friends of the opposite camp let alone going out or becoming romantically involved. Arabs and Jews split on the reasons for this predicament. The former were united behind their conviction that Jews patronize or don’t respect them while the Jewish participants to various degrees believed that Arabs hated Jews and constantly sought to eliminate them. They were less divided on the present and future of their town: 70% thought that relations between Jews and Arabs fall between average and bad; 45% feared relations will deteriorate, and 30% envisioned a deeply-divided and violent Ramla in 10 years. The somber mood the answers reflected was not held by derelicts or outcasts but by educated, intellectual and politically active young leaders who composed our core group. This was the atmosphere we set out to change. The next step was to get the core group together. The first two rounds in February and April 2012 were introductory: the participants got to know each other, their ethnic and cultural backgrounds, their roles in their respective organizations, and their expectations from these meetings. The research team, in their roles as moderators, presented its vision and prospective goals: to offer new patterns of communication between the participants,

perceived to be representatives and delegates of various factions in the Ramla society. Our intention was to consider these delegates as agents of change, who would spread the word and their newly acquired skills among their colleagues. For most of the participants it was the first opportunity to get to know their fellow Ramlians from up close. Our core group had a wide representation of the town’s population: women and men, young and older, religious and secular, Jews and Arabs, and within each ethnic camp different denominations such as Christians and Muslims in the former, Ethiopians, Latin Americans, Moroccans, Bucharians and Sabras in the latter. The first round of introduction touched upon the collective and individual aspects of the Ramla affiliation. Most people were born and raised in the town, the minority have moved in later in life and found a new home and others were only working there but developed a sense of belonging and care for the place nevertheless. In our second visit in April, we brought a documentary film crew with us. We planned to have a film documenting our effort, especially tracking down the change in people’s attitude and behavior following the patterns of communication we introduce. The second round was fascinating particularly because participants began to gradually open up. Feeling more comfortable and secured in our presence and in each other’s, some of the representatives began to raise more personal and emotional perspectives. This gradual shift has rendered the conversation more profound and more complicated as people became less formal and ceremonial and more candid. This transition has exposed some private and shared concerns among the participants. Some talked about identity, other about sense of purpose and belonging, and others about images and prejudice. One common theme that kept resurfacing was the negative reputation of Ramla and its people have in the eyes of outsiders. All participants were equally adamant about the necessity to improve the town’s image. Discussion at this stage was semi-constructed and it revolved mainly around

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impressions, gut-feelings and associations. This allowed for several revelation and confessions of people’s mutual emotions about each other’s group affiliation, labeling and categorical references. In the next round in June, we advanced a notch. If the first two rounds were deliberately semi-constructed ice-breakers in order to form a group and to raise interest and curiosity among our activists, we felt that the third round should be structured and controlled and that it was time to start administrating our method—CMM (Coordinated Management of Meaning) to the members of our core group. We kept having a loyal core of several individuals who kept coming but there was quite high turnover of people dropping out, mainly due to pressures from their prospective communities, and for a few, loss of faith in the process, and newcomers filling their vacancies. In the next two rounds of June and August, we started in a methodological and systematic manner to discuss CMM methods with the group. But this was not a regular and simple study-group and our intention was not merely to teach. The emphasis from the beginning was on practice and training rather than theories and models. Every new term and concept we presented was immediately put within the relevant context of people’s areas of expertise and engagement. Better communication was exercised and simulated in service, education, voluntary organizations, family life and other social exchanges. The cultural variety among the participants helped us reach colorful and highly intriguing conversations throughout the sessions. In order to make the engagement more consistent and the communication more fluent, we added two important contribution to our effort at this point: 1) a coordinator who would be in charge of recruiting and updating participants as well as logistics such as rooms, equipment and schedule; 2) Simultaneous translation, mainly from Hebrew to English for the American moderators to fully understand every expression of the discussants and vice versa. These factors, which came into full effect during the October and December

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rounds, consolidated the relationships among the core of regular participants and facilitated the conversation, which advanced more smoothly. We continued with the CMM principles which were occasionally accompanied by home assignments, but due to the ever-changing and dynamic sociopolitical context in Israel, the discussions were constantly peppered with current events and relevant references to outside developments. Gradually we notice that the participants gain more and more command of the practical aspects of what we discuss and some of them admitted that they had used it at work and realized the advantage they could draw out of it.

D:2 Working with the CMM Techniques and Models The CMM models and techniques are supposed to augment and expedite the acculturation process, which is, at the same time, the context and the corollary of the CMM intervention. The techniques correspond with the models in the following manner: story-telling is the essence of the Daisy Model and the LUUUUTT Model; Contextualization and Reversed Role Simulations appear in all three models, and coordination is the crux of the Serpentine Model. The CMM workshop started with the introduction of the Daisy Model. This is an analytical tool that call attention to the multiple layers of meaning from which intention emerge. A single expression or statement, in the center of a daisy can emerge from so many different, even conflicting, sources, or petals, if we stay consistent with the daisy metaphor. In order to more effectively comprehend the messages of our partners and to maximize our attention to what is being said and meant, we must be cognizant and mindful of all the potential origins that feed the final saying we encounter to the same extent that the other side takes heed of the various bases that cultivate our message. Once we are aware of these disparate bases and the compound nature of the Other’s stands, we become more tolerant and

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more appreciative of that statement. The disagreement, although still genuine and sincere, might be moving in a more constructive and positive path now that each side is more knowledgeable of the Other’s keen interests and desires. In our Ramla experience, the expressive statement the core group members were given to grapple with was “I am a Ramlian”. We divided the core group to four smaller teams mixing Jews and Arabs, and each group received individual pads and one big collective sheet of paper with the daisy drawing and the clear statement in the middle of the flower: “I am a Ramlian”. Their assignment was to individually compose the different components of their Ramlian identity and then collectively, to fill in the blank petals in the team’s sheet with their respective observations. This way they had to undergo a process of adjusting to each other’s statements and trying to piece them together into one single flower. This was clearly an identity issue of who I am and what is the meaning of declaring that one was a Ramlian: do Arabs and Jews mean the same thing when they utter an identical proclamation of identity? Surely they do not. The petals of the daisy reveal how dissimilar the foundations of that opening assertion were. The red claims were made by the Jewish participants whereas the blue ones represent the Arabs. Each side backed the initial statement of being a Ramlian by declaring their national affiliation “I am Jewish” and “I am a Palestinian*5”. Another gap is discerned with regard to the nature of the town. While Jews believe Ramla is a model mixed town and economic opportunities abound, the Arabs maintain that Ramla is all but a model town and that they are treated as second class citizens deprived of economic opportunities. Three positions are similarly stated but they emanate from opposing directions. The first, “we were here first” is claimed by both sides and this is basically the gist of the Arab-Israeli conflict. The Jews invoke Biblical times and God’s promise to Abraham while Arabs rely on lineage and generations upon generations of living in and

of that land. Similarly, both sides are weary of Ramla’s bad reputation in the eyes of outsiders and of the fact that young people prefer leaving the place. However, the reason for the bad name is conflicting: Jews attribute it to the fact that Arabs live in Ramla and this scares away new residents and scares out Jews who were born there. Arabs are sure that the negative image is due to the intolerant attitude and discrimination against them, which causes young Arabs to shy away of the town. Lastly, there is the key year of 1948 and the war of that spring. This is a critical factor in the identity formation of all Jewish and Arab members of the core group, albeit with utterly different connotations and associations. Jews admire 1948 as the year of liberation and they term it the War of Independent. Arabs see it as Al-Nakba, Arabic for the catastrophe, and the year that started the predicament of the Palestinian refugees, the calamity and the occupation of their land by the Zionist invaders. Here is a graphic illustration of the Daisy Model in the context of Ramla (figure no. 1): While expressing their positions on the various topics on the petals, participants had an opportunity to explore the broader context of opposite stories. This gave coherence and logic to contrary views and perceptions that were previously met with unqualified disbelief and disdain. This trend was amplified by reversed role simulations, in which Jews and Arabs presented each other’s narratives and experiencing in a more profound and emotional way where the Other was coming from. The next day we introduced the story-telling model of CMM. Similarly to the Daisy Model, the purpose here was to exemplify the manifold nature of positions and expressions so that each side would be more considerate and more patient of the other’s attempts to present an argument. Taking things for granted, generalizing, or categorizing encourage simplification, superficiality and debilitating communication. This, in turn, jeopardizes cross-cultural understanding and reconciliation. The storytelling model or the LUUUUTT model

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Figure 1. The Daisy Model

(stories Lived, Unheard stories, Untellable stories, Unknown stories, Untold stories, Told stories and story Telling), details the wide array of versions, manifest and hidden, that vie and ultimately shape the final story we tell or hear from the other side. Storytelling is the narrative or the account of things as perceived by each actor. Listening to others, particularly adversaries or enemies we don’t agree with, is a definitive experience of humility and sharing. Every party foregoes the reassuring feeling that they have the sole possession of ‘the truth’ and lending itself to hear other versions of that truth, as credible as their own. This often is a painful realization with long-range benefits of compassion and appeasement. This was the objective in the Ramla Project as well. Jewish and Arab members of the leadership group were asked to tell their story, their own private biography or timeline as Israelis and as Ramlians. The first versions were restrained, formal and familiar. The told stories repeated the familiar representation of Ramla as a successful experiment of Arabs and Jews sharing a common living space. Then, some participants, mostly Arabs, ventured into ‘real-life’ stories, and mentioned

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episodes they live and witness daily. These did not match the formal story. The image that began to emerge was of populations living together but separately: they all live in Ramla but in different neighborhoods, they go to different schools, play in different playgrounds, and go to different youth movements. This discrepancy between stories told and lived surfaced concealed accounts of living in Ramla: unheard stories of Arabs and Jews that do live together in certain houses (rundown buildings in which poor Arabs and Jews, mostly new immigrants from Third World Countries, share). Another story in that category is Christian Arabs who prefer studying in Jewish schools, where they are frequently marginalized, than to go to Arab schools, which are predominantly Muslims. Unknown stories include previous generations’ legacies and motivations to the current strife: were they indigenous? Were they foreigners? What were their stands and attitudes toward the Other? Are today‘s protagonists offsprings of ancient combatants or peacemakers? Untold stories or untouched controversies are usually various peaks of the Arab-Israeli conflict. These are disagreements that are best not mentioned among Ramlians if they

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covet tranquility. Predominant in this category is the 1948 war. Jews unalterably call it the War of Independence while Arabs insist on terming it Al Nakba. Each side adheres to these labels as part of their collective identity. In Ramla, as in other mixed town, this is a moot point, a huge elephant in a tiny room. Conceptually close are the untellable accounts, the taboos. They consist of undercurrents of racism, discrimination, bigotry and intolerance. Rumors about mixed marriages, the ultimate taboo, resurfaced less frequently. Taken together, these various renditions of stories exhibit the mosaic of layers upon which a conversation is built and consolidated. Recognizing and admitting the multitude of stories, the richness of substructure that nurtures the very essence of conversation, award consideration, sensitivity and humanity to the story-tellers. This storytelling endeavor creates a mindset of openness, lenience and acceptance that is capable of bridging the most daunting cultural misunderstandings. Here as well, the atmosphere is conducive to contextualization and reverse role playing. With every rendition of Arab or Jewish narrative, the participants take turns in telling the other side’s accounts. In the process they enquire about details and particulars, thereby delving into the deeper origins of their rivals’ motivation and impetus. Figure 2 depicts the Storytelling Model and its various options:

On the third day, the Serpentine model of CMM was introduced. The basic idea here is that in each turn, speakers are influenced by what their partner had said before. Every statement is predicated upon what has been stated in the previous sentence. This is how a new understanding or a new social situation is constructed through communication. While people converse, they adjust themselves to one another in real time. They relate their responses to concrete observations of their partner and they constantly change and adapt their perspective according to what they heard. Such pattern of communication requires attentiveness and active listening from all participants lest they won’t be able to contribute and enrich the discussion. The serpentine model, evoking a serpentine move from side-to-side, back and forth between elocutionists, is a good depiction of this type of exchange. The discussants are empowered by one another; they are vested in each other and they gradually attenuate the gap between their dissimilar accounts to coconstruct a joint story. It is a learning experience that does not take place instantly. The wider the breach between the speakers, the more it takes to bridge it. In the Ramla project, we paired up Arabs and Jews and let them conduct their own dialogue before showing them the Serpentine Model. They were only instructed to pay full attention to what the other was saying. The serpentine dynamics

Figure 2. The Storytelling Model

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Figure 3. The Serpentine Model

started to gradually kick in and conversants began to pick up on what their counterpart had said as a launching pad for their turn. It took several trials and repeating runs to start detecting patterns of conciliation, ‘softer’ versions of expressions and compromises on previously steadfast claims. This type of conversation, whereby each partner nurtures and inspires the other, eliminates rigid prearranged speeches or scolding monologues. It transforms unilateral preaching to an interchange of thoughts and concerns that sets an approachable tone. At one point, after a long and at times tedious discussion between Jihan, an Arab youth leader and Gabi, a Jewish community organizer, the latter turned to some of his fellow Jewish participants and cried “folks, we should really understand how they feel when we celebrate Independence Day” . The Serpentine Model is the typical example of how coordination begins: elocutionists start conversing from remote points of departure and gradually they abridge their distance by carefully listening to each other and reshape their entries to the conversation according to what the other had said. This mutual accommodation leads to trust-building, and next, co-construction of social

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reality and shared vision become possible (Pearce & Pearce, 2000; Spano, 2001). The Serpentine Model is depicted in Figure 3:

E. WHAT’S NEXT The project has concluded the first stage. The core group of 20 leaders, trained and counseled on CMM methods, is ready to be dispatched to their prospective communities and start mobilizing more participants to engage in constructive communication with their Ramla neighbors. There is one last activity to complete: to test how the rapprochement achieved indoors will be played out outside, in the ‘real world’. The joint activities planned for Ramlian Jews and Arabs for the benefit of their town should be first tried by their representatives at the core group. This is what we set to do in our upcoming visits to Ramla. Our concern is whether the bond we established among the pioneers would hold in the hiatus between our visits. The community organizers and leaders return to their families and immediate vicinities, where they are exposed to the daily vagaries and

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vicissitudes of the Israeli precarious reality. The empathy and understanding our participants assiduously formed can evaporate in the haze of hostility augmented by occasional flares of the regional conflict. Our shimmering hope relies on the dynamics of amicability we saw nourishing in front of our eyes, and the leadership quality of our core group: consistency, courage, optimism and belief in the ability of people to change their own destiny. We had another reason to be hopeful, a concrete reason. We ran the second questionnaire in our last day in Ramla, the “after” version. The questions were similar to the first trial, but not the answers. Since the project started, two Arab participants were invited for dinner at the homes of Jewish participants, and one Jewish was hosted by an Arab family. Most of the group members had at least a cursory reading of the Other’s scriptures and history textbooks; There were friendships (and one budding romantic relationship) starting to form among representatives of the two camps. There was a general spirit of reconciliation and understanding that things could and should improve: only 30% (as opposed to70% in the ‘before’ run) thought that relations between Jews and Arabs stand between average and bad; 35% (as opposed to 45%) feared relations will worsen, and only 15%, half of the earlier responses, envisioned a deeply-divided and violent Ramla in 10 years. From the three paths we constituted to measure impact, the first one, a change of attitude, was certainly bearing fruit. The second one—a change of identity, from separate, antagonistic and confrontational to collaborative and shared—is still to be obtained, whereas a change of behavior will be our ultimate goal as we venture taking the young leaders outside, to the public spaces and venues of Ramla.

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Kriesberg, L. (1998). Constructive Conflicts: From Escalation to Resolution. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.

Pearce, B. (2007). Making social worlds: a communication perspective. London: Blackwell.

Lawrence,P. & Lorsch, J. (1967).”New management job: the integrator” Harvard Business Review, (November-December 1967) Lewin, K., Lippit, R., & White, R. K. (1939). Patterns of aggressive behavior in experimentally created social climates. The Journal of Social Psychology, 10(2), 271–301. doi:10.1080/0022 4545.1939.9713366 Lofland, J. (2009). Social movement organizations: guide to research on insurgent realities. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books. Machiavelli, N. (2003). The Prince. New York: Penguin Classics. doi:10.1522/cla.man.pri Mayo, M. C., Meindl, R., & Pastor, J. C. (2003). Shared leadership in work teams: A social network approach. In Shared leadership: Reframing the Hows and Whys of Leadership. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. doi:10.4135/9781452229539.n9 McKee, A. R., Boyatzis, R., & Johnston, F. (2008). Becoming a resonant leader: develop your emotional intelligence, renew your relationships, sustain your effectiveness. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business School. Northous, P. (2013). Leadership: theory and practice (6th ed.). Thousand oaks, CA: Sage. Olson, M. (1971). The Logic of Collective Action. Cambridge, MA: Harvard College. Padilla, A. (1980). Acculturation, theory, models, and some new findings. New York: Westview Press.

Pearce, B., & Littlejohn, S. (1997). Moral Conflict: When Social Worlds Collide. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Pearce, B., & Pearce, K. (2000). Extending the theory of the coordinated management of meaning (“CMM”) through a community dialogue process. Communication Theory, 4(4), 405–423. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2885.2000.tb00200.x Peleg, S. (2002). Zealotry and vengeance: quest of a religious identity group. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books. Peleg, S. (2003). If words could kill: the peace process and the failure of the Israeli political discourse. State and Society, 2(3), 421-444 (Hebrew). Peleg, S. (2010). Normative Dialogue in a MultiCultural Community: an Analytical and Practical Model. Peace Studies journal, 3, 33-48. Pruitt, D., & Kim, S. (2004). Social conflict: escalation, stalemate and settlement. New York: McGraw-Hill. Rabinowitz, D. (2001). Natives with jackets and degrees. Othering, objectification and the role of Palestinians in the co-existence field in Israel. Social Anthropology, 9(1), 65–80. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8676.2001.tb00136.x Reiter, Y. (2009). National minority, regional majority: Palestinian Arabs versus Jews in Israel. Syracuse University Press. Snow, D., & Benford, R. (1988). Ideology, frame resonance and participant mobilization. In B. Klandermans, H. Kriesi, & S. Tarrow (Eds.), From Structure to Action. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.

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Sommers, T., & Nelson, K. (2001). The impact of critical success factors across the stages of enterprise resource planning implementations. Proceedings of the 34th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences. doi:10.1109/ HICSS.2001.927129

Yuchtman-Yaar, E., & Shavit, Z. (2004). The Cleavage between Jewish and Arab Israeli Citizens. In U. Rebhun & C. I. Waxman (Eds.), Jews in Israel: contemporary social and cultural patterns. Hanover, London: University Press of New England/Brandeis University Press.

Spano, S. (2001). Public dialogue and participatory democracy: The Cupertino community project. New York: Hampton Press.

Yukl, G. (2001). Leadership in organizations. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Thompson, M., Ellis, R., & Wildavsky, A. (1990). Culture theory. Boulder: Westview Press. Vroom, V. (2000). Leadership and the decision making process. Organizational Dynamics, 28(4), 82–94. doi:10.1016/S0090-2616(00)00003-6 Vroom, V., & Yetton, P. (1973). Leadership and decision-making. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press. Ware, A. (1981). The Concept of manipulation: Its relation to democracy and power. British Journal of Political Science, 11(02), 163–181. doi:10.1017/ S0007123400002556 Weber, M. (2004). Politics as a vocation (D. Owen & T. Strong, Trans.). Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing. (Original work published 1919) Weber, M. (2009). Essays in Sociology. London: Routledge. Williams, R. (1970). American Society: A sociological interpretation. New York. Alfred: Knopf. Winslade, J., & Monk, G. (2000). Narrative mediation: a new approach to conflict resolution. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

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Zald, M., & Ash, R. (1966). Social movement organizations: Growth, decay and change. Social Forces, 44(3), 327–341. doi:10.1093/sf/44.3.327

ADDITIONAL READING Creede, C., Fisher-Yoshida, B., & Gallegos, P. (Eds.). (2012). The reflective, facilitative, and interpretive practices of the coordinated management of meaning: making lives, making meanings. Teaneck, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson Press. Pearce, B. (2007). Making social worlds: a communication perspective. London: Blackwell. Pearce, B., & Littlejohn, S. (1997). Moral Conflict: When Social Worlds Collide. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Pearce, B., & Pearce, K. (2000). Extending the theory of the coordinated management of meaning (“CMM”) through a community dialogue process. Communication Theory, 10(4), 405–423. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2885.2000.tb00200.x Peleg, S. (2010). Normative Dialogue in a MultiCultural Community: an Analytical and Practical Model. Peace Studies Journal, 3, 33-48. Spano, S. (2001). Public dialogue and participatory democracy: The Cupertino community project. New York: Hampton Press.

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Acculturation: A process in which two cultures accommodate each other through an ongoing reciprocal learning experience. CMM (Coordinated Management of Meaning): A specific theory that emerges from the communication perspective. It proposes that social worlds are shaped an reshaped between people coordinating meanings and interpretations through conversation. Leadership: A relational concepts connoting relationships between leaders and followers based on exchange of authority and legitimacy. Othering: An exclusion mechanism that distinguishes between human collectivities by depicting the other reference group as inferior. The Communication Perspective: Closely related to social constructivism, this is a theoretical approach that underlines communication as the setting and the medium from which meaning is created.



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ENDNOTES

1

Emotional intelligence is a term taken from psychology but it is useful in many other disciplines as well. In its original definition, it is the capacity or proficiency of an individual to identify, evaluate and manage her or his emotions and be cognizant and appreciative of others’ emotions. Goleman expanded on this original understanding and added additional dimensions such as effectiveness and accomplishment in the workplace, efficiency in organizations and leadership skills. In the realm of the workplace, Goleman identifies several qualifications of the most diligent and successful employees: self-awareness, social awareness, and relationship management. According to his study, each of the emotional capabilities could be a basis for organizational proficiencies. These are



3

learned and not innate qualities and as such, are amenable to cultivation and improvement. Similar conclusions are drawn with regard to leadership: emotional intelligence is imperative for good leadership and for the inspirational leaders-followers nexus. Good leadership can also be learned and developed (Goleman et al. 2002). Mancur Olson, a leading American economist, wrote extensively about how, when and why activists join social struggles (1971). As a rational choice theorist, he doubted pure voluntarism and altruism to fan enthusiasm and collective behavior. In his view, the chief motivation for social activism is the quest for personal benefits, or as he called it, selective incentives. Every potential activist always asks “what’s in it for me?” before choosing what to do. This is the pursuit of concrete, individual and tangible gain, which doesn’t have to be material. Spiritual, emotional and psychological rewards are similarly, if not more, attractive: pride, happiness, solidarity and a sense of fulfillment are formidable driving forces. Mark Granovetter (1978) added the threshold model to support this reasoning. In his scheme, every person has his or her own threshold whether to participate in social actions: the 100% people (“I will go to the town square only if it is full!”), the 0% people (“I will go even is the square is empty, just me and my sign!”), and the 50% people (“half full is enough for me to go”). Most folks occupy the convenient middle ground. Resonant leadership may be relevant to business organizations and communities which are perceived as natural hosts for the transactional sort. Resonance or accordance between leaders and the led in profit-based environments can be expressed for example in employees participating in decision making processes. The disadvantages of a longer, parochial and more complicated practice are

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outweighed by supplying the workers with motivation and responsibility which in turn increase their commitment and affiliation to their job. Vroom and Yetton combined two directions of inquiry, leadership and decision making processes, to develop a practical model of leadership according to contingencies and emerging conditions. The model suggests various scenarios for leadership in disparate situations. A salient option is the one amenable for resonant leadership whose centerpiece is listening to and consulting with the employees (Vroom, 2000; Vroom& Yetton, 1973). Vroom and Yetton were students of Fred Fiedler and they adopted his idea that there is no single overpowering leadership model apt for any occasion. Fiedler who dedicated his academic career to leadership theories of adaptability to modifying circumstances, focused on leadership styles and behaviors (1967, 1971, 1981, 1994). Ideal leadership, he thought, emerges in the meeting point between leadership style and an auspicious

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4



5

situation or what he coined as “situational favorableness or situational control”. The human diversity of Ramla is attributed to the fact that in addition to the historically established mix of Jews and Arabs, it was one of the towns the Israeli authorities selected as an absorption hub for Jewish immigrants from various diasporas. Consequently, the more religious, traditional and conservative Moroccan, Ethiopian, Bukhari, and Tunisian Jews found themselves living side by side with the more secular, modern and progressive Latin America and Russian Jews. As a result, cultural, social and psychological tensions were abound. The latter is very specific: not merely an Arab but more poignantly, a Palestinian Arab. This specification of many Israeli Arabs identifying themselves as Palestinians, gained traction in recent years and especially after the Second Intifada (uprising), in which the struggle of Palestinians in the West Bank and Gaza became more militant and visible, thereby attracting the identification of most Arabs citizens of Israel.

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Chapter 3

Exploring Opportunities and Challenges of CrossCultural and International Teaching, Research, and Service for Higher Education Faculty Members Melanie C. Brooks University of Idaho, USA Jeffrey S. Brooks Monash University, Australia

ABSTRACT In this chapter, we relate themes derived from an analysis of literature related to international collaboration and cross-cultural communication. Our analysis helped identify five critical areas that present challenges and opportunities for improvement: (1) communication and language; (2) cultural differences; (3) funding and time; (4) co-authorship and memorandums of understanding; and (5) ethics, respect and trust. We complement presentation of these themes by also including some of our personal reflections on international work as faculty members working at institutions of higher education in the United States. One of the key insights of this inquiry is that the roles and perspectives of many administrators and leaders in institutions of higher education should be reconsidered and reframed in a global perspective to effect meaningful change and improvement.

INTRODUCTION Institutions of higher education in the United States often emphasize the benefits of international partnerships and collaborative research through

their strategic plans and in mission and vision statements (Spencer-Oatey, 2012). These institutions rely on establishing strong international relationships, for they are central to increasing institutional prestige, enhancing knowledge capac-

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-8376-1.ch003

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 Exploring Opportunities and Challenges

ity, and expanding financial opportunities, among other benefits (Altbach & Knight, 2007; Cooper & Mitsunaga, 2010). Yet not all institutions enjoy strong international partnerships. For some, having strong international relationships is aspirational rather than established. Further, this varies greatly from discipline to discipline and from college to college (Altbach, 2006). Many universities rely on faculty resourcefulness and creativity to provide the foundation for developing and sustaining these partnerships. These collaborative efforts are often hindered by myriad individual, institutional and cross-cultural challenges (Black, 2004; Brookes & Becket, 2001; Stohl, 2007). The twofold purpose of this inquiry was to (a) identify common issues that undermine the establishment and sustainability of international collaborations and (b) make actionable suggestions on how to improve or overcome such issues, being particularly mindful of the role of administrators as facilitators of such endeavors. To better understand these challenges, we begin this study with an integrated and multidisciplinary literature review designed to identify issues and dynamics related to international collaboration. The methods used in this study were in keeping with recommendations for critical literature reviews outlined by Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee and Podsakoff (2003). We conducted a search in electronic databases with specific educational leadership collections (JSTOR, SAGE Education, Emerald Insight, Academic Search Premier, etc.) and Google Scholar by cross-referencing keywords such as international partnership, international collaboration, international higher education, international education linkages, cross-cultural communication, etc. This technique guaranteed that many peer-reviewed journals and works published by major publishing houses were part of the sample. We extended this search through “bibliographic branching that entailed review of the reference lists in the literature identified to locate additional resources that did not emerge in database searches” (886). After identifying relevant data, we reviewed, analyzed articles, reports, books and policy documents and coded 36

them into categories that became the main key findings discussed in this chapter (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007). After analyzing recurring themes in the literature, we identified five critical areas that faculty members and institutions should consider when working internationally, whether it be through teaching, research, leadership, or service activities. These five critical areas are: (1) communication and language; (2) cultural differences; (3) funding and time; (4) co-authorship and memorandums of understanding; and (5) ethics, respect and trust. In addition to identifying and discussing what the literature suggests about each of these critical areas, we draw on our own experiences engaging in international collaborative work in Thailand, England, Kosovo, the Philippines, and the United States. Lastly, we conclude with a discussion that seeks to untangle the complexities of international collaboration and offer suggestions for improving these relationships. We begin the chapter by discussing some trends and issues related to the internationalization and globalization of higher education. It is important to note at the onset that we are analyzing, interpreting and explaining this work from a US-based higher education perspective, and that we approach this writing as two professors of educational leadership. We note that this entails certain limitations that are field and country-specific. We endeavor to make our discussion as expansive as possible but most certainly acknowledge a certain degree of bias and ignorance. That said, we feel the insights gained through this analysis will be of use in identifying and addressing certain dynamics and issues (Altbach & McGill Peterson, 2006).

INTERNATIONAL COLLABORATION IN HIGHER EDUCATION Over the last two decades, international activities of American institutions of higher education have increased substantially, from traditional study abroad experiences and faculty-led inter-

 Exploring Opportunities and Challenges

national programs to innovative partnerships with overseas universities and colleges for research, teaching, curricular development, service, and outreach activities (Haigh, 2014). While the broadening of American perspectives is generally a positive and exciting development, Altbach and Knight (2007) warn that international collaboration often favors those with the most resources, namely those situated in the global north—it is important for American institutions and faculty members to be careful not to exploit partnerships and to conceive of them as relationships of mutual benefit (Spring, 2009). Although southto-south initiatives are growing, established institutions often disproportionately reap the benefits from international collaboration, which can exacerbate existing inequalities. Further, the internationalization of higher education has taken a decidedly neoliberal turn—becoming more competitive and commercialized, with for-profit private organizations, supported by the World Trade Organization, offering new services in a global academic marketplace (Giroux, 2014; Spring, 2009). Money is the main factor in these programs, and many for-profit higher education providers are large multi-national organizations that are accredited by Western organizations and use Western curricula (Althbach & Knight, 2007). Also working in this space are traditional nonprofit institutions of higher education, which are not solely motivated by money. Rather, their focus centers on collaborations that contribute to advancing their strategic plans, institutional missions, and vision statements (Dewey & Duff, 2009). Yet, these efforts are often not streamlined and faculty members who embark on these partnerships face uncertainties and challenges, for which they may be inadequately prepared (Cooper & Mitsunaga, 2010). Building and sustaining relationships that are mutually beneficial can be challenging for faculty members. Differing understandings, viewpoints, and values may hinder cooperation (Shore & Groen, 2009). Organizational systems

and formal policies may obstruct collaboration. Even with the challenges, institutions of higher education, whether nominally or actively supporting internationalization, acknowledge that the benefits of this type of faculty work are wide-ranging (Spencer-Oatey, 2012). These benefits include, but are not limited to: increased intercultural skills for students and faculty, heightened foreign language development, enhanced cross-cultural understanding, and the internationalization of curricula and research for both institutions (Haigh, 2014). For example, a joint degree program offered by Iowa State University and Beijing Normal University in Higher Education Leadership allows students at both universities to begin their studies at one university and finish their work at the other, with credits being accepted at both institutions. Faculty members are also able to take advantage of semester-long exchanges that allow them to learn new teaching and research skills and apply them in a new context. Considered as a whole, international work at US-based universities is inconsistent. There are examples of excellent and long-established partnerships such as the University of Missouri’s 30-year reciprocal arrangement with Thailand’s Prince of Songkla University. This is a standing arrangement for students from either country to pay a reduced schedule of fees and to have various other forms of institutional support to help ensure that the experience is positive for all involved. There are also numerous examples of failed partnerships or initiatives that failed to meet their objectives (Altbach, 2006). That said, studies have identified several common benefits from such partnerships and problems that faculty members and institutions face as they seek to establish and sustain such partnerships. In the following section we present literature that identifies and explores these areas. Additionally, as we have experience with these partnerships, we will supplement the literature review with our own experiences and observations.

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FIVE CRITICAL AREAS OF INTERNATIONAL COLLABORATION Successful international collaborations navigate and identify common goals and expectations between institutions, faculty members, and students. They are also built on recognition of the importance of effective communication based on common understandings and goals (Dunn & Wallace, 2008). They are often framed by memoranda of agreement, which are signed with much promise and excitement. Yet, even with good intentions, misunderstanding, conflicting interests, and incorrect assumptions about processes and outcomes can occur. Acknowledging errors and miscalculations respectfully can be awkward at best or ruinous at worst. The five critical areas presented below emerged from a review of scholarship on international collaboration and is supplemented by our experiences. It is our hope that these topical areas will inform those considering, planning, or actively involved in cross-cultural partnerships.

Critical Area 1: Communication and Language Effective communication is essential to successful collaborative partnerships (Spencer-Oatey, 2012). One of the first priorities is to jointly identify and prioritize objectives and deliverables (Dunn & Wallace, 2008). Clear discussions of goals and objectives, if not agreed upon early in the collaborative process, can lead to relational problems grounded in misunderstandings and conflicting interests (Altbach, 2006). Further complicating communication is the potential for goals to change and adjust as the project progresses (Dewey & Duff, 2009). Frequent communication that revisits these key points while simultaneously re-examining the processes and outcomes of the partnership is vital. Other aspects of communication may be less obvious than formal agreements but are equally influential in the development of cross-cultural

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and international partnerships (Hall, 1990). Questions to consider include, but are not limited to: What language will we use for communication? What communication format will we use: email or video conferencing? How often will we communicate? How timely will emails be returned? Will we meet face-to-face? If so, where and how will expenses be shared? Dialogue that achieves working agreements on organizational processes helps facilitate agreements on mutual expectations, which minimizes confusion and misguided assumptions. In addition, it is important that key terms are defined. Problems can occur if a “workshop” to one partner is interpreted as “lecture” to another. Being cognizant of differences in language and asking clarifying questions will move the collaborative process forward. Additionally, linguistic cues mean different things in different cultures, and individuals often infer meanings. Maintaining a willingness to negotiate meanings and modify definitions as needed to fit the working context is critical but can be problematic and require a great deal of patience (Spencer-Oatey, 2012). Spoken language is an important form of communication, but it is only one of many ways that people interact, and it is important for faculty members at higher education institutions to be aware of as many as possible. Faculty can make errors as a result of imposing their own cultural assumptions and values when interacting, not recognizing the limitations of their own language to describe cultural phenomena, and not seeking to identify the many ways in which a culture is expressed internally and in relation to other cultures with which members enter into cultural exchange and interaction (Seale, 1998). Hall (1959, 1983, 1990) acknowledged and sought to take some of these issues into account by identifying discrete ways any culture expressed itself. Collectively, these modes of expression constitute a “silent language” by which members and groups in a culture communicate to each other

 Exploring Opportunities and Challenges

and to others. Here we discuss several of them: interaction, association, subsistence, sexuality, territoriality, temporality, learning, and play (Hall, 1966, 1968, 1984). We have found that paying attention to this silent language can be extremely helpful during cross-cultural interactions. Here we will briefly explain each and provide examples of their application: •

•

Interaction encompasses speech, “which is reinforced by tone of voice and gesture,” and writing, “a special form of interaction which uses a particular set of symbols and specially developed forms” (Hall, 1959, p. 38). When teaching a course in the Philippines, one of the authors (Jeffrey) delivered his course in what he had come to feel was a “standard” lecture style format, accompanied by interactive group discussions and activities. The first night of teaching, he asked the students to get into small groups, discuss an issue and engage in a creative activity where they would express their perspectives on the topic at hand. He was initially met with dismay that students would be asked to interact in such a manner. Working with these students over the course of a semester he came to appreciate that they were comfortable with a more traditional lecture and examinations over the material. Coming to an understanding took much cultural negotiation and discussion, but eventually resulted in a class format that combined the two approaches. Association has to do with the way a culture creates and maintains social arrangements, whether these are between two people, a family, or a tribe; association is also manifest through organizational structures, whether these are hierarchical, nonlinear, or dyadic. In our experience giving workshops in Kosovo, it became clear that hierarchies were evident and influenced the interactions between people. In one ses-

•

•

sion for administrators and faculty members, the administrators kept to themselves. When prompted and separated in a manner that integrated them with faculty members, they had a profound influence on the way that the group interacted—each group like this became instantly formal rather than informal and deferred to the administrators perspective. This is perhaps institutionspecific rather than any kind of indication of culture at Kosovo universities. It is certainly easy to imagine this happening in many organizations with clear hierarchical structures. A culture also expresses itself through subsistence, “its nutritional requirements; what does it eat and how does it go about getting food in its natural state?” Hall (1959) suggested that “not only are people classified and dealt with in terms of their diet, but each society has its own characteristic economy” (p. 40) based on the consumption of food stuffs. In our experience, food was a great opportunity to learn about culture and a wonderful way to observe and experience cultural values. In Thailand and the Philippines, for example, there is often great ceremony around meals taken together, especially when a foreign visitor is present. The cultural study of sexuality examines not only the interactions between men and women, but also the patterns by which gender-specific mores are established and challenged. In the Philippines and Thailand we observed that gendered norms dictated the way that people communicated and the way they interacted. It was striking that in certain cases gendered societal norms trumped positional authority in terms of the way that people interacted. As one senior administrator explained, “I may be the most powerful person in the organization, but many of the men I supervise still ex-

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 Exploring Opportunities and Challenges

•

•

•

40

pect me to take care of details like meals and the appearance of the offices.” Territoriality is described as “the taking possession, use, and defense of a territory” (1959, p. 44). This can come into play when discussing many issues related to international and cross-cultural interactions, especially when deciding where certain activities in a partnership will take place. In our experience the norms of interacting change dramatically depending on location. For example, in Thailand, it was common for us to have meetings in a formal setting, often the most impressive in the entire university. When reciprocating, we noticed initially that our conference rooms were spartan by comparison, and later our friends opened up that they wondered if the modest rooms in which we met were an indication of holding them in low regard. Temporality deals with the way a culture perceives and relates to time. Learning entails both formal and informal forms of education and also entails logics of action and decision-making. Each culture certainly constructs different norms around time! When working in the Philippines, we were told that there were three kinds of time observed in the country. If you had an appointment at 1 pm, and were on American time, you would arrive at 12:45. Arriving at 1 pm meant that you were on Japanese time, and arriving at 2 pm meant that you were practicing Filipino time. Certainly, these are stereotypes and not to be trusted across the board, but this explanation explained much and helped us understand as a cultural difference what might have been construed as a slight. Learning entails both formal and informal forms of education and also entails logics of action and decision-making. Obviously, in educational endeavors it is crucial to

•

discuss expected processes and outcomes related to learning. It is likewise important that collaborators constantly revisit these expectations. For example, in delivering workshops in Kosovo, we were surprised when we were asked for a comprehensive explanation of the intended learning outcomes we planned for a certain session. At first, it seemed liked the institution’s goals and ours were at odds, but after wrestling with terminology, it became apparent that there were certain assumptions about what a learning experience entailed that were different from ours. Play has to do with the examination of cultural expression via recreation choices, sporting activity, rules of competition, jokes, and the sorts of games children play. Whether it be watching or participating in local sports like Muay Thai, Cock Fighting, Sepak Takraw or local parlor games, we found that in each country a basic understanding of humor and the way that people play will help in understanding culture. By way of an example, we watched a sparsely attended soccer match in Thailand with some friends, who were in turn dismayed when we reciprocated by taking them to a packed college football game in the United States. Everyone concerned had a good laugh about how the support for college athletics in the two countries was entirely different. These experiences helped us understand what was normal and acceptable in certain aspects of culture, and the cultural touchstone was very helpful moving forward with our partnership.

Communication challenges also include concealed power hierarchies and may differ between those working in hierarchical organizations and those working in laterally organized or egalitarian organizations (Durkheim, 1984; Mintzberg,

 Exploring Opportunities and Challenges

1979). While hierarchies can streamline decisionmaking, it can also impede a willingness to give opinions, ideas or express viewpoints from those individuals more accustomed to hierarchical structures. For international and cross-cultural partnerships, it is essential that openness is valued and that active listening—listening for deeper meaning beyond what words mean when literally translated—occurs. Wang (2008) suggests a need for “intercultural dialogue” which entails the understanding that “individuals from different cultures [have] inherited frameworks infused with differing perceptions and values” (p. 59-65). Good communication, then “offers possibilities for building emergent understandings and new frameworks rather than submission to imported wisdom” (p. 65). Communication is a challenging component of international and cross-cultural work. Coping with these challenges takes forethought and flexibility. Without good communication practices, goal attainment can be substantially diminished. When working cross-culturally and internationally, language issues emerge. Altbach (2006) sees English to be as important to international communication today as Latin was up through the eighteenth century. Brock-Utne (2002) named English the “globalization language” (p. 292). Those that use English as their lingua franca are more advantaged than those individuals and institutions of higher education that use languages other than English (Stromquist, 2002). Donker (1993) suggested English to be the gateway language to membership in academe. Thus, in international collaboration where one group does not speak English and the other does, an implicit hierarchy exists that privileges those that speak and understand English. Adding to this complexity of language dominance is establishing nuances in meaning. Finding common or agreed upon understandings for key terms can be more problematic when working cross-linguistically and can take a great deal of time (Haigh, 2014).

Critical Area 2: Cultural Differences Differences in cultural norms and values are often unspoken and can have implicit and explicit influence on collaborative processes (Kamaara, Vasko, & Viau, 2012). Culture is a difficult term to define and broadly speaking it encompasses all ways of life for a group of people, including but not limited to: religion, language, customs, etiquette, and values (Hall, 1990; Healey, 2010). Emert and Pearson (2007) emphasized the importance of having competence in intercultural skills as this is essential for successful partnerships. Intercultural competence is defined as one’s “ability to communicate effectively and appropriately in intercultural situations based on one’s intercultural knowledge, skills, and attitudes” (Deardorff, 2006, p. 247). In other words, individuals need to have the ability to understand that their perspective is only one of many perspectives, and to be open to new information and experiences (Ting-Toomey, 2005). It is a process that occurs over time and through “a set of intensive and evocative situations…[which lead] to new levels of consciousness and understanding” (Adler, 1972, p. 7). Different paradigms and belief systems can challenge how we come to topics central to the partnership. For example, during a collaborative project in Thailand, we participated in a two-day multicultural workshop. What was interesting about working with our Thai partners was the way multiculturalism was conceived. We came to the topic from a western paradigm, viewing multiculturalism as openly honoring cultural diversity through policies and practices. In Southern Thailand, the context of a Muslim insurgency challenged this viewpoint. Muslim and Buddhist teachers were hesitant to openly discuss cultural differences, as doing so put them at risk of insurgent attack. Intercultural competency skills were central as we navigated this specific cultural and contextual difference. Such skills included, for example, active listening, paying attention to non-verbal cues, studying the culture in advance and in context

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It is important to note that culture is fluid and not a fixed or monolithic construct; cultures are constantly evolving and there is a great deal of variation within a single culture. Being flexible about concepts, ideas, interaction, processes and outcomes is important. It is also important to be mindful to not develop binary thinking, such as Western/Asian or good/bad. Within groups there are multiplicities of cultures to consider and different ways of being, understanding, learning, and doing (Dimmock & Walker, 2005). Deal and Peterson (1999) state that it is the “culture of an enterprise [that] plays the dominant role in exemplary performance. Highly respected organizations have evolved a shared system of informal folkways and traditions that infuse work with meaning, passion, and purpose” (p. 1).

Critical Area 3: Funding and Time In international and intercultural collaboration, funding and time commitments are vital. In fields like education, there are usually limited funds available to support international and crosscultural work, but faculty can find funding from several sources, some outside of academe. Certainly, this varies from institution to institution, from college to college and from discipline to discipline. Several of our international partnerships were funded through internal grants focused on establishing such collaborations, start-up accounts, and annual travel budgets. Others were U.S. government sponsored and funded through partner research centers. Generally speaking, there are funding opportunities available for international and cross-cultural collaborative work. In addition to US-based University and government funding, support can also come from international governments, universities, foundations and agencies. Regardless of the source, issues such as travel costs and accommodations, compensation for participants, and material needs must be discussed. There is always a chance that expenses

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will be unequal. Dialoguing about funding as it relates to partnership goals and deliverables can help stabilize inequities and workloads. Cooper and Mitsunaga (2010) found that funding is both a support and a barrier. Funding supports travel, but bureaucratic regulations can hinder creativity, outreach, and allowable time. In addition to funding issues, international and cross-cultural collaboration is time consuming. Key to establishing ongoing collaborative partnerships are faculty members taking the time to build relationships through social events. Relationship building, such as eating together, sightseeing, getting-to-know-you conversations, and meeting friends and family take time, but are central to working together. Having positive relationships builds trust and creates a foundation on which to tackle challenges and tensions that may emerge (Spencer-Oatey, 2013). Institutions of higher education often do not recognize the time needed to build intercultural and international relationships, rather focusing on the need to keep to a budget and produce deliverables. Rarely are education faculty members (this is often different in other disciplines) given release time to foster these partnerships, and faculty members find that this work is done on top of already full schedules, which can burden overworked faculty. This discourages many assistant professors from working in this space, as most institutions of higher education reward faculty on publishing, service, and grant obtainment, not on international collaboration. This is unfortunate as it means that during an early stage in their career when they are establishing a research agenda, these assistant professors are unlikely to include international perspectives as part of their perspective or research agenda. It seems to us this is the very time that institutions should be encouraging their faculty members to adopt a broad and expansive worldview rather than one that is narrowed by myopia and lack of support and recognition of the importance of being a global scholar.

 Exploring Opportunities and Challenges

Institutions of higher education often lack clear organization or systems to support international engagement activities and possibilities. Many see international work narrowly, as study abroad experiences for undergraduate students. Faculty members with novel and creative ideas for international collaborative work often face barriers entrenched in long-standing and rigid administrative policies and procedures. These policies can act as disincentives to participation. Additionally, universities often lack support staff to help facilitate this type of work. One small example of a barrier we faced was the purchasing of gifts. At one university where we worked, we were prohibited from using university money to purchase gifts for our international hosts. This was a problem as gift exchange is an important part of Thai culture, demonstrating mutual respect, admiration, kindness, and commitment. We had to purchase the gifts independently. This placed a financial burden on us—yet we were working to further the international mission of the university. There is a great need for flexibility in administrative policies and processes with respect to these sorts of dynamics. Having leadership that not only recognizes the value these partnerships bring, but also advocates for international and cross-cultural work is essential. This can be difficult in certain institutions without an established international orientation, but if administrators value such work they must amend reward systems and organizational structures to help accommodate the realization of this part of their mission. In our experience, international work is often viewed skeptically, sometimes with the whispered insinuation that it is simply a paid vacation. From our perspectives, this is far from reality as internationally and cross-cultural work is essential to academe, as it is a way to maximize creativity and embed scholarly work with new ways of thinking about important issues, whether it be through research, teaching, or service.

Critical Area 4: Co-Authorship and Memorandums of Agreement Memorandums of Agreement are formal bilateral or multilateral agreements that detail intentions and actions between institutions in regards to a cooperative project or general partnership (spencerOatey, 2012). It lays out the specific rules each partner agrees to follow and formalizes processes. Memorandums of Understanding are similar and the terms are often used interchangeably. In our work with our Thai colleagues, we found that they were very interested in formalizing partnerships through signed Memorandums of Agreement. On the other hand, our U.S. based administrators were reluctant to discuss and sign these memorandums. Several deans felt that agreements were legally binding and consequently, they were not interested in this type of commitment. Other deans did not see value in international partnerships, citing lack of financial resources, legal considerations, and bureaucratic red tape as reason enough to not formalize the partnerships. From our perspective as faculty, we saw this hesitancy as insincere. These Deans are in leadership roles, yet are often not trained in leadership. Perhaps it’s time for universities to revisit hiring practices so those in leadership roles (all those in upper administration) have an understanding what it means to support faculty abroad, and how such sponsorship helps create global scholars and global citizens. Deans were quick to discuss the importance of preparing their students for a rapidly globalizing world, as evidenced in their mission and vision statements; yet, these same deans refused to formalize international partnerships. Another critical area that is important to crosscultural and international work is the importance of formalizing institutional partnerships and publishing in academic journals. Since this is one of the places that U.S. based and non-U.S.-based scholars often share an interest (and imperative),

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this issue deserves special attention. English is considered by many to be the language of scholarship (Brock-Utne, 2002), and individuals from the global south view publishing in Western, English-speaking academic journals as essential to their prestige as an academic and an entrance into scholarly conversations. Conversely, in our experience, Western institutions tend to frown on their faculty members writing in non-English journals, regardless of their prestige in the mother tongue. For example, when I was being considered for promotion to Professor at one university (Jeff), one of the key criteria was that I established an international reputation. In an open-forum meeting, I asked if I could/should have external reviewers from non-US institutions. The answer was “no. Because we can’t verify that they are quality institutions.” I did mention that the person I had in mind worked at the world’s #1 ranked college of education (according to one well-regarded ranking list). I was told “no” again and told that I also shouldn’t be writing in too many international journals or in a language other than English. Joint authorship offers great possibilities but can be fraught with complications. Positively, working with a co-author can broaden ideas, expand insight or act as a motivator to complete a writing project. On the other hand, co-authorship takes time and reveals differences in ideas and writing abilities. Working with a scholar who speaks and writes English as a second language can place additional burden on the native English speaker in terms of editing and writing in the technical language required by top-tier journals. What was once a positive and promising partnership can quickly disintegrate into unfinished projects, bitterness, and frustration if the co-authorship takes a turn for the worse. Huff (1999) identified three rules for co-authorship, which can inform international writing projects. They are: (1) commit to a fast turnaround; (2) assume “ownership” of the paper while it is on your desk; and (3) don’t revive old text (p. 22). The key is to continue moving the manuscript toward completion. Academic publica-

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tion is competitive, and discussing authorship roles and expectations is essential to bring a manuscript to successful publication.

Critical Area 5: Ethics, Respect, and Trust Professional ethics, in the simplest sense, refers to a shared moral vision (Wagner & Simpson, 2009). Decisions regarding the collaboration are often ethical decisions in that they are best made if they are in the best interests of all parties involved, and if they are made with respect, care and consultation. This entails developing a spirit of cooperation rather than competition (Axelrod, 2012). It is also important to understand formal and informal norms and expectations related to issues of research, teaching and service. Concepts like informed consent and confidentiality can mean something completely different in different contexts and cultures. For example, US-based Institutional Review Board compliance procedures and protocols might seem time consuming, frustrating, and impose difficult or even inappropriate demands to use in international field research. We had an example of such frustration when conducting international research. The film “Argo” had recently come out in theaters. In the film, there is a pivotal moment when documents are seized at a border security station and it puts characters in the film in jeopardy. We were dismayed when an IRB committee evoked this film in relation to research that had no possibility for instigating such a situation. Working through the issue took time, patience and a great deal of explanation beyond standard procedures. Respect and understanding is also an important dynamic, particularly with respect to norms in different universities. In many U.S. based institutions of higher education, individual faculty members and administrators consider international research, teaching, or creative work to be central to their individual academic mission and professional success. Yet some faculty and administrators see

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international collaboration as a “perk” that is offputting or offensive. Both of us have had to justify our work to administrators and/or colleagues who see international collaboration as a vacation or holiday. It was only after we were able to secure funding or produce publications, that the work seemed legitimate. In addition to respect and trust, it is important to note the special role trust plays in establishing cross-cultural relationships. Identifying trustworthy gatekeepers that connect non-local partners with other potential collaborators, provide translation services, arrange local travel and accommodations, communicate purposes of the partnership to others, identify participants, protect confidentiality of individuals participating in research studies, and help non-local partners navigate cultural norms, amongst other roles, is essential (Lomb, Newransky, Crea, & Stout, 2013). Trust must be cultivated and sustained with gatekeepers and international and crosscultural partners through acts of benevolence, honesty, openness, reliability, and competence (Tschannen-Moran, 2004). Building trustworthy, ethically based, and respectful relationships is foundational to the success of the international and cross-cultural partnerships.

CONCLUDING THOUGHTS Many faculty members and universities value international work, even though the work can be complicated and time consuming. Although U.S. universities often proclaim their support for international work or a global perspective in their mission and vision statements, they often don’t understand the compromise, hard work, and intentional changes that are needed to make international and cross-cultural partnerships an authentic part of their work. The more willingly university administrators and faculty members embrace their place in the world—as engaged partners rather than privileged isolationists—the

sooner we will have the opportunity to learn from each other worldwide. Passion is not enough, study abroad programs are not enough, mission statements are not enough—faculty need resources, support, and strategic coordination to be global scholars, teachers and service providers—and this will only come from administrators with a global perspective, who work in institutions that likewise value connections beyond national borders. Many institutions of higher education in the United States need a new kind of authentic and internationally-engaged perspective on their work. In this chapter, we have endeavored to identify and discuss important issues related to developing and sustaining international and global partnerships between faculty members and universities. There is much promise in these collaborations, but also much hard work to do before this promise is realized.

REFERENCES Altbach, P. (2006). International higher education: Reflections on policy and practice. Chestnut Hill, MA: Boston College, CIHE. Altbach, P. G., & Knight, J. (2007). The internationalization of higher education: Motivation and realities. Journal of Studies in International Education, 11(3/4), 290–305. doi:10.1177/1028315307303542 Altbach, P. G., & McGill Peterson, P. (2006). Internationalize American higher education: Not exactly. In P. G. Altbach (Ed.), International higher education: Reflections on policy and practice (pp. 63–67). Chestnut Hill, MA: Boston College, Center for International Higher Education. Arvidson, M. (2013). Ethics, intimacy and distance in longitudinal, qualitative research: Experiences from reality check Bangladesh. Progress in Development Studies, 13(4), 279–293. doi:10.1177/1464993413490476

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Axelrod, R. (2012). Launching “The evolution of cooperation.”. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 299, 21–24. doi:10.1016/j.jtbi.2011.04.015 PMID:21540040

Dunn, L., & Wallace, M. (2008). Intercultural communities in practice. In L. Dunn & M. Wallace (Eds.), Teaching in transnational higher education (pp. 249–259). London: Routledge.

Black, K. (2004). A review of factors which contribute to the internationlisation of a programme of study. Journal of Hospitality, Leisure. Sport and Tourism Management, 3(1), 5–18.

Durkheim, E. (1984). The division of labor in society. New York, NY: The Free Press.

Brock-Utne, B. (2002). The global forces affecting the education sevtor today: The universities in Europe as an example. Higher Education in Europe, 27(3), 283–299. doi:10.1080/0379772022000015023

Emert, H. A., & Pearson, D. L. (2007). Expanding the vision of international education: Collaboration, assessment, and intercultural development. New Directions for Community Colleges, 2007(138), 67–75. doi:10.1002/cc.283 Giroux, H. A. (2014). Neoliberalism’s war on higher education. Chicago, IL: Haymarket Books.

Brookes, M., & Becket, N. (2011). Developing global perspectives through international management degrees. Journal of Studies in International Education, 15(4), 374–394. doi:10.1177/1028315309357944

Haigh, M. (2014). From internationalisation to education for global citizenship: A multi-layered history. Higher Education Quarterly, 68(1), 6–27. doi:10.1111/hequ.12032

Cooper, J., & Mitsunaga, R. (2010). Faculty perspectives on international education: The nested realities of faculty collaborations. New Directions for Higher Education, 150(150), 69–81. doi:10.1002/he.391

Hall, E. T. (1966). The hidden dimension. New York: Doubleday Publishing Group, Inc. Hall, E. T. (1959). The silent language. New York: Doubleday Publishing Group, Inc.

Deardorff, D. K. (2006). Identification and assessment of intercultural competence as a student outcome of internationalization. Journal of Studies in International Education, 10(3), 241–266. doi:10.1177/1028315306287002 Dewey, P., & Duff, S. (2009). Reason before passion: Faculty views on internationalization in higher education. Higher Education, 58(4), 491–504. doi:10.1007/s10734-009-9207-z Dimmock, C., & Walker, A. (2005). Educational leadership: Culture and diversity. Los Angeles: Sage Publications. Donker, J. (1993). The causes of growth of English education in the Netherlands: Class or internationalization? European Journal of Education, 38(3), 295–307.

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Hall, E. T. (1968). Proxemics. Current Anthropology, 9, 2-3, pp. 83-107. Hall, E. T. (1977). Beyond culture. New York: Doubleday Publishing Group, Inc. Hall, E. T. (1983). The dance of life. Garden City, NY: Anchor Press/Doubleday. Hall, E. T. (1990). Understanding cultural differences. Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press. Hall, E. T. (1995). West of the thirties: Discoveries among the Navajo and Hopi. Garden City, NY: Anchor Press/Doubleday. Healey, J. F. (2010). Diversity and society: Race, ethnicity, and gender. Los Angeles: Pine Forge Press.

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Kamaara, E., Vasko, E. T., & Viau, J. E. (2012). Negotiating Dualisms in Intercnltural Feminist Collaboration. [Indiana University Press]. Journal Of Feminist Studies In Religion, 28(2), 49–67. doi:10.2979/jfemistudreli.28.2.49 Lomb, M., Newransky, C., Crea, T., & Stout, A. (2013). From rhetoric to reality: Planning and conducting collaborations for international research in the global South. Social Work, 58(1), 31–40. doi:10.1093/sw/sws056 PMID:23409338 Mintzberg, H. (1979). The structuring of organizations. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). Common methods biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(5), 879–903. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.88.5.879 PMID:14516251 Seale, C. (Ed.). (1998). Researching society and culture. London: Sage. Shore, S., & Groen, J. (2009). After the ink dries: Doing collaborative international work in higher education. Studies in Higher Education, 34(5), 533–546. doi:10.1080/03075070802597267 Spencer-Oatey, H. (2012). Maximizing the benefits of international educational collaborations: Managing interaction processes. Journal of Studies in International Education, 17(3), 224–261. doi:10.1177/1028315312454545 Spring, J. (2009). Globalization of education: An introduction. New York: Routledge. Stohl, M. (2007). We have met the enemy and he is us: The role of the faculty in the internationalization of higher education in the coming decade. Journal of Studies in International Education, 11(3/4), 359–372. doi:10.1177/1028315307303923

Stromquist, N. (2002). Education in a globalized world: The connectivity of economic power, technology and knowledge. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. Tschannen-Moran, M. (2004). Trust matters: Leadership for successful schools. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Wang, T. (2008). Intercultural dialogue and understanding: Implications for teachers. In L. Dunn & M. Wallace (Eds.), Teaching in transnational higher education (pp. 57–66). London: Routledge.

ADDITIONAL READING Bartell, M. (2003). Internationalization of universities: A university culture-based framework. Higher Education, 45(1), 43–70. doi:10.1023/A:1021225514599 Brandenburg, U., & de Wit, H. (2011). The end of internationalization. Industry and Higher Education, 62(Winter), 15–17. Childress, L. (2007). Faculty engagement in the operationalization of internationalization plans. Ed.D. 3284307, The George Washington University, United States -- District of Columbia. Retrieved from http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb ?did=1428848091&Fmt=7&clientId=9456&R QT=309&VName=PQD de Wit, H. (2002). Internationalization of higher education in the United States of America and Europe: a historical, comparative, and conceptual analysis. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Gal, S., & Irvine, J. T. (1995). The boundaries of languages and disciplines: How ideologies construct difference. Social Research, 62(4), 967–1001. Green, M. F. (2005). Measuring internationalization at research universities. Washington, DC: American Council on Education.

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Horn, A. S., Hendel, D. D., & Fry, G. W. (2007). Ranking the international dimension of top research universities in the United States. Journal of Studies in International Education, 11(3-4), 330–358. doi:10.1177/1028315306294630

Schoorman, D. (1999). The pedagogical implications of diverse conceptualizations of internationalization: A U.S. based case study. Journal of Studies in International Education, 3(2), 19–46. doi:10.1177/102831539900300203

Kehm, B. M., & Teichler, U. (2007). Research on internationalisation in higher education. Journal of Studies in International Education, 11(3-4), 260–273. doi:10.1177/1028315307303534

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

Knight, J. (2004). Internationalization remodeled: Definition, approaches, and rationales. Journal of Studies in International Education, 8(1), 5–31. doi:10.1177/1028315303260832 Knight, J. (2011). Five myths about internationalization. Industry and Higher Education, 62(Winter), 14–15. Paige, R. M., & Mestenhauser, J. A. (1999). Internationalizing educational administration. Educational Administration Quarterly, 35(4), 500–517. doi:10.1177/0013161X99354005

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Co-Authorship: Two or more people collaborating to write a single manuscript. Cross-Cultural Communication: When two or more people from different cultures interact. This entails both output and intake. International Collaboration: When two or more people or institutions work together on an informal or formal initiative. Verbal and Non-Verbal Communication: Verbal communication entails interaction via spoken-word. Non-verbal communication includes other ways that people interact and express themselves and their culture. This includes, but is not limited to written words, gestures, body language, etc.

Section 2

Promising Approaches

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Chapter 4

Integrative Conflict Resolution: Tools for Loving Praxis in Organizational Leadership Amanda Smith Byron Portland State University, USA

ABSTRACT This chapter explores the use of integrative conflict resolution as a foundational means for loving praxis to emerge in effective cross-cultural organizational leadership. The work of Mary Parker Follett is introduced, and is recognized as formative to the disciplines of conflict resolution and organizational development. Follett’s work is compared and contrasted with other strategies for conflict management, with attention to the advantages of an integrative approach. Integrative conflict resolution is situated within a loving praxis, which occurs when the theory of loving is brought into practice to strengthen organizational leadership, specifically within the increasingly diverse landscape of globalization. Curiosity, creativity, and compassion are understood within the context of integrative conflict resolution, and are recommended as key tools for achieving a loving praxis within organizational culture.

INTRODUCTION Organizational leaders increasingly require a strong cross-cultural orientation in the everchanging and quickly diversifying landscape of globalization. Conflict is inevitably present within organizations, and the globalized marketplace requires strong leaders with conflict resolution skills to manage the increase in complexities, and in ambiguities, that result from greater diversities of people, perspectives, and cultures (Mumford, Zaccaro, Harding, Jacobs, & Fleishman, 2000). This chapter celebrates Mary Parker Follett’s groundbreaking construct of integrative conflict

resolution, which established the prevailing practice of conflict resolution, and inspired the foundational work of Fisher and Ury (2011) and their Harvard Negotiation Project. Starting with Follett’s work, I expand the ideas of integrative practice into a model of loving praxis in crosscultural organizational leadership, building upon emerging scholarship that operationalizes the idealized value of loving. The notion of loving praxis is introduced as a way to frame the value of integrative conflict resolution, and specific elements of transformative conflict resolution practice are recommended as tools to engage a loving praxis within organizational culture.

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-8376-1.ch004

Copyright © 2015, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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In the course of this chapter, I use my own experiences as a practitioner, researcher and academic, and also as an inheritor of the complex intergenerational and multicultural conflict, to exemplify the practice of integrative conflict resolution, and to introduce vital tools that facilitate the creation of loving praxis in organizational leadership.

BACKGROUND Identity and Cultural Conflict Although cultural identities are deeply imbedded within each of us, they can be difficult to articulate until we are in some way confronted, or presented with a conflict that causes us to reflect on our own values and beliefs (Avruch, 1998; Lederach, 1995). Even if we have not previously reflected on how our cultural identity influences us, conflict can provide a powerful catalyst to recognize the distinctiveness of our values and beliefs, and to find their origins in our cultural identity. This phenomenon is especially true in countries where populations are diverse, such as in the United States, and is due in part to the ways in which power and privilege operate (Johnson, 2006). Members of cultural groups that are dominant within society are less likely to face the kinds of challenges that require them to examine their identities, their relative power, or the privileges that result from their identity group; whereas, members of non-dominant or subordinate groups regularly experience challenges that require them to examine the lack of power and privilege that result from their particular identities (Johnson, 2006; Feagin, 2014). In the United States this can be most clearly illustrated in terms of race. People of color are structurally marginalized in the United States, and experience regular opportunities to acknowledge, understand, and reflect on their marginalization (Bonilla-Silva, 2006; Feagin, 2014). Michelle Fine explains, “…the cultural gaze of surveillance – whether it be a gaze of pity,

blame, or liberal hope – falls on persons of color” (1997, p. 64), providing ample opportunities to reflect on what it means to be a person of color, and to be outside of the dominant racial group. In contrast, white people have structural advantages in the United States that can make them unaware of their whiteness (Johnson, 2006; Bonilla-Silva, 2006; Feagin, 2014). The norms and behaviors associated with dominant white culture are viewed as normal by dominant culture, often regarded as plain, natural, average, and right, and wholly exempt from ‘cultural’ influences. The behaviors associated with non-white groups, by comparison, can be regarded as exotic, novel, inappropriate, deviant, or simply wrong (Feagan, 2014). While this is most true about race in the United States, this pattern can be seen in the intersectionality of non-dominant social identities throughout the world, including (but not limited to) religion, ethnicity, sexual orientation, gender, disability, and/or class.

Culture and Conflict Resolution Understanding the cultural identity of everyone, regardless of whether they are part of dominant or subordinate groups, is a first step in recognizing the corresponding advantages and disadvantages that begin to explain complex conflict behaviors. Stella Ting-Toomey (1999) developed the cultural variability perspective, a conceptual framework to explain her understanding of cultural values in a general sense, and to give specific attention to how these diverse perspectives influence conflict behaviors. While the term conflict suggests a dispute more substantive than cultural misunderstandings (Avruch, 1998; Kriesberg, 1998; Lederach, 1995), a solid understanding and ample vocabulary of cultural differences are essential for successful conflict management in a multicultural workplace. Building upon the work of intercultural communication theorists (Hall, 1989; Gudykunst, 2005), Ting-Toomey places cultural values on a continuum between

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individualistic and collectivistic. While there has been push-back about the oversimplified assumptions in this dichotomy (Gelfand, Erez, & Aycan, 2007; Oyserman, Coon, & Kemmelmeier, 2002), the terms individualistic and collectivistic continue to be used as a means to describe the full spectrum of cultural differences that exist between the two points (Oetzel &Ting-Toomey, 2003). Cultures that privilege individualistic perspectives, such dominant culture in the United States, are more likely to consider values and beliefs as arising from individual influences and decisions, rather than from cultural factors –– compounding the challenge of recognizing the cultural patterns at play, and creating greater challenges to understanding how power operates within those cultural patterns. Consistent with Ting-Toomey’s cultural variability model, Gelfand, Erez, & Avcan (2007) found individualistic cultures in the United States to be more likely to measure conflict exclusively by its resolution or outcome, and collectivistic, Non-Western (and specifically East Asian) cultures to be more likely to emphasize the process of managing the conflict, and relational concerns therein. Those who do not identify with dominant cultural norms, because of non-dominant or historically marginalized identities, frequently have values and beliefs that differ from those of the dominant culture, which can complicate the nature of interpersonal misunderstandings and organizational conflicts. Managing cultural conflicts requires knowledge of how culture complicates conflict, as well as skills to work toward successful resolution.

Integrative Conflict Resolution Conflict has existed since the beginning of time, but the academic study of conflict resolution began comparatively recently, with Follett pioneering the study of conflict resolution at the turn of the last century (Parker, 1984; Woodhouse, Miall, Ramsbotham, & Mitchell, 2015). Follett is often credited as the first scholar of conflict resolu-

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tion, and as the mother of organizational theory (Woodhouse, Miall, Ramsbotham, & Mitchell, 2015). Based in her visionary explorations in organizational behavior and labor-management relationships, Follett encourages a measured approach to conflict that emphasizes mutual gain. She recognizes three styles of conflict behavior: domination, compromise, and integration (Fox & Urwick, 1973). Domination is the commonly used practice of using competitive power and advantage over others when faced with difference, and compromise simply makes do with obvious solutions, even if they yield nominal benefits. Integration, in contrast, uses power with others as a way to respect differences and work toward greater resolution. This foundational sentiment of valuing a power-with approach, in lieu of powerover tactics, sets the tone and creates a precedent for a compassionate approach to managing conflict within organizations in general, and within crosscultural organizations in particular. Follett embraces a “both-and” perspective that allows multiple perspectives to co-exist harmoniously. She cautions readers not to be “bullied by an ‘either-or’” (as quoted in Graham, 2003, p. 74), and further frames integration as problem solving beyond the dichotomy of choice. Follett explains, “choice implies that one course is ‘right’ and one ‘wrong’” and credits Freud for introducing integration as a welcome alternative to this false dichotomy (1919, p. 580). In contrast to right and wrong orientation, integration encourages a dialectical, or multi-faceted, perspective that encompasses the entire gray area between binary options. Deutsch (2002; 2006; 2012) echoes this sentiment in conflict resolution and enumerates the multiple advantages of cooperative strategies such as collaboration and integration over competitive methods. He describes some of the benefits of cooperative strategies as: effective communication, greater understanding of others, stronger relationships that reflect respect, more trust and helpfulness, coordinated division of labor and higher productivity, harmonization of ideas,

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values and beliefs between parties, greater willingness to share power, and an increased recognition that while parties may have different needs from conflict, the best solutions find creative means to meet the needs of all concerned (p. 311). Integrative conflict resolution introduces the concept of integrative solutions, which are characterized by prioritizing ways to meet the needs of all parties, or sides, in a conflict situation. The practice of integrative conflict resolution, and specifically integrative solution building, evolved into the concept of integrative bargaining. This was made popular by the Harvard Negotiation Project (Fisher & Ury, 2011), and is often referred to as “win-win” negotiation. Integrative bargaining can be considered the precursor to interest-based approaches in appropriate dispute resolution (Bingham & Nabatchi, 2003), which seeks to find effective means to resolve conflicts outside of the legal system. Mediation is one such type of appropriate dispute resolution, which uses a third-party, a person who is not party to the conflict, to facilitate conflicting parties’ process toward resolution. The sentiment of working together toward resolution is typically a cultivated response to conflict, in contrast to more reactive and competitive stances. Working together is particularly challenging in situations where there is a perceived lack of resources. When faced with the possibility of lack, the human reaction to conflict is typically competitive –– or as Follett describes, dominating (Fox & Urwick, 1973). This is particularly true within the dominant culture of the United States, and less true in collectivist, or non-Western cultures (Gelfand, Erez, & Avcan, 2007). The capacity to engage integrative methods, characterized by cooperation and collaboration, requires a commitment to the possibility of mutual gain (Gelfand, Erez, & Avcan, 2007; Xie, Song, & Stringfellow, 1998).

Integration as a Compassionate Alternative To illustrate the integrative paradigm, I will share how I have experienced integrative conflict resolution as a means to resolve the intergenerational and multicultural conflict I have inherited. In my personal and professional life, I have embraced opportunities to learn from diverse practitioners who share my commitment to enact compassionate alternatives, and in 2009 I had the privilege of traveling to Germany to participate in a dialogue process designed to heal the trauma that remains in the aftermath of the Holocaust. The premise of this dialogue was that children of both Nazis and Holocaust survivors could share the stories of the trauma that we carry, thereby co-creating a space with ample room for our collective experiences of conflict, past and present. My mother is a refugee from the Holocaust in Germany, and the stories of her family’s experiences of contentious conflict, as well as the stories of their harrowing exodus, have profoundly shaped who I am in the world, filled me with stories that many of my peers cannot share, and left me with conflicts I will perhaps never resolve. And so, the dialogue in Germany was an effort to transform a conflict that many would consider far too complex and intractable to touch. There are two organizations that endeavor to facilitate this type of dialogue between Jews and Germans, the Compassionate Listening Project (www.compassionatelistening.org), and One by One (www.one-by-one.org). Both organizations typify Follett’s vision of integrative conflict resolution with their commitment to bring parties from multiple sides of a conflict to the figurative table to share stories and work toward healing. One by One’s website explains that the dialogue invites descendants of survivors, perpetrators, bystanders and resisters to participate; and each individual, regardless of

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which group they belong to, is given the opportunity to tell his or her story and share the needs they bring to the process. The process itself is designed to answer the needs of all parties, with equal concern and consideration. The dialogue process is not limited by any hierarchy of suffering, but is designed to invite each and every participant into the possibility of healing and reconciliation. I went to Germany with One by One, whose mission is to work toward transforming the legacies of conflict, war and genocide through dialogue. Despite the many challenges we experienced in the logistics of the process, the premise of the dialogue combined with our unflagging dedication to integrative principles, enabled all of the participants to benefit deeply. The life-long conflict I inherited from my Mother’s family was both addressed and transformed in the dialogue. And though history cannot be rewritten, I was able to expand my compassion for everyone who suffers from war –– made real by so many firsthand accounts of suffering, seeing so many public memorials to remember and acknowledge that suffering, and realizing that Germany has never fully recovered from the shadow of their history. Perhaps the most poignant take-away of all from this experience was my discovery that we were all human beings who had lost more than words could express, and that the process of engaging in dialogue was an effective conduit for us to feel connected to one another outside of the castigations of blame and shame that are normally key aspects of managing conflict –– albeit ineffectively. We were able to forge our own integrative process, through which we built connection and community across generations, despite long-standing harms and historic divides. Follett describes community not as a thing, but as a process, and she specifically describes community as a creative process (1919). This creative making of community is especially apparent within the process of dialogue. Dialogue actively builds community across differences, and is predicated on the belief that healing is both

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possible and necessary. The process I participated in was led by facilitators who worked together to create a community that invited participants to share stories, witness each other’s pain, and create enough space for the complexity of conflicting realities and histories to coexist in such a way as to encourage transformation. Follett says, “I do not say that there is no tragedy in life. All I say is that if we were alive to its advantages, we could often integrate instead of compromising” (as quoted in Graham, 2003, p. 74). Bringing cultural, national, and historical differences into a community of healing is a profound experience of integration, and is an essential component of dialogue across difference (Bohm, 1996; Gurin, Nagda, & Zuniga, 2013). As such, it is also a powerful tool in developing effective cross-cultural leadership. The notion of integration speaks to a deep respect for different perspectives, which is an essential ingredient of efficacious cross-cultural interactions, and is of particular importance to the success of cross-cultural collaboration. The valuing of difference that is inherent in Follett’s integrative conflict resolution has a radical depth of acceptance, which is one of the factors that distinguishes it from the rational orientation of Fisher and Ury’s ubiquitous work on negotiation (2011). This valuing of difference can also be considered an indicator of the presence of a type of loving praxis (Byron, 2011), which will be investigated further throughout this chapter. Loving praxis, defined herein as the practice of deep and enduring regard for humanity, takes place within Follett’s vision of community, and operationalizes integrative conflict resolution as a vital element in cross-cultural organizational leadership.

What Is Loving Praxis? The phenomenon of loving praxis is best described in Freirian terms as the action of loving, described as being in connection with our true vocation of being human (Freire, 1970), combined with praxis, described as “reflection and action upon the world

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in order to transform it” (p. 33). Loving praxis can be defined as bringing the theory of loving into practice, and it comes into being when the transcendent qualities of love are put into action. Loving praxis exists beyond the sentimentality of love, privileging a more radical understanding of love as the force of passionate rebellion against the status quo (Darder, 2003), and as an essential ingredient to sustainable creative problem solving (Kahane, 2010). Loving praxis emerged from my doctoral research, which used a grounded theory design to examine how postsecondary social justice educators motivated students to participate in social action, and to work toward making the world a better place (Byron, 2011). The outcome of the study was a model of loving praxis, applied in the context of education, but I have subsequently found the concept to have a far wider reach of relevance. Loving praxis is about how we step into leadership, and is characterized by a willingness to connect across difference, a receptivity to listening to voices advocating for change, and a commitment to taking action to create a better world, one that has the desire and capacity to understand culturally diverse individuals and groups. This practice of loving encourages reflection on how to act mindfully and deliberately, with regard to best practice and known theory, which fosters a reflexive style of leadership, where leaders continually reflect on the effects of their own personality, presence, and position in their practice (Alvesson, 1997; Nicholson, & Carroll, 2013). A praxis of love within organizational culture can emerge when leaders encourage the acceptance of diverse identities and perspectives, exercise skillful means to manage conflict effectively, and create safe organizational community. Follett (1919) believed whole-heartedly in the importance of community, and recognized that being in community requires a willingness to be vulnerable. When we become vulnerable, there is the potential for our points of view to be integrated into a solution that works well for all, and that contributes to the presence of loving praxis. Follett claimed community as:

… the most important word, not only for business relations, but for all human relations: not to adapt ourselves to a situation—we are all, or rather each, of too little importance to the world for that; but to take account of that reciprocal adjustment, that interactive behavior between the situation and ourselves. (as quoted in Fox & Urwick, 1973, p. 20) Follett’s recognition of the importance of community underlies the role that organizational culture plays in its success. Within any culture are the written and unwritten rules of engagement, which are put to the test in the experience of conflict. Constructive and integrative conflict engagement foster loving praxis –– where everyone’s needs are valued, and the opportunity to maximum collective gain is emphasized. This is true in individualistic cultures, which are most likely to measure the success of conflict in terms of positive conflict outcomes, and collectivist cultures, which are more likely to measure success in terms of integrity within the process of managing conflict (Ting-Toomey, 2009). For this reason, integrative conflict resolution is a vital tool for cross-cultural organizational leadership, and one that can support diverse organizational communities.

Emotions in Organizations The discussion of loving praxis, vulnerability, and integration in conflict resolution all allude to emotions, which begs some exploration of the role emotions play in cross-cultural organizational culture. Gelfand and Dyer (2000) found the open expression of emotion in organizations to be most commonly found in collectivistic cultures, and least likely to appear in individualistic cultures, which operate more rationally (p. 489). Organizational culture, however, commonly privileges logic over other forms of engagement, and often explicitly or implicitly polices the use of emotion in organizational behavior (Ashforth & Humphrey,

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1995). When the currency of logic is valued and that of emotion is refused, members of the organization can struggle to find acceptance as they experience the inevitable emotional repercussions of conflict (Bodtker & Jameson, 2001; Nair, 2008). Meeker (2012) finds that leaning into the critical discomfort of emotion in conflict resolution processes is a necessary step in bringing about significant and lasting change. When we avoid discomfort, we are less likely to delve into the pain or struggle of important issues. When we are able to access support and resources to embrace our discomfort, we are more likely to address the underlying issues of the conflict, and find creative solutions for transformation and sustainable change (Bodtker & Jameson, 2001; LeBaron, 2002). While the particulars may vary in how organizational leadership supports the emotional elements of effectively managing conflict, three skills are recommended in the following section.

The Three C’s of Integrative Conflict Resolution There are many treatises on what factors are most likely to contribute to good conflict resolution practice, but much of them come from a narrow and U.S.-centric perspective (Trujillo, Bowland, Myers, Richards, & Roy, 2008; Wing, 2009; Woodhouse, Miall, Ramsbotham, & Mitchell, 2015). This chapter recognizes integrative conflict resolution as an effective and culturally responsive path to conflict resolution, and as an essential aspect of loving praxis in organizational leadership. Consistent with Sir Ken Robinson’s (2013) acknowledgement of the necessary ingredients for student success in current educational practice, this section enumerates three specific and interrelated tools that support a culture of integrative conflict resolution, and that contribute to sustaining a loving praxis within organizations. In this section, curiosity, creativity, and compassion are offered as practical tools to operationalize integrative conflict resolution in cross-cultural leadership.

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Curiosity Curiosity, as opposed to certainty, is considered the means for innovation in organizational leadership (Wheatley, 2011). The presence of curiosity in response to conflict is regarded as a positive indication that there is openness to learning, and a willingness to listen. When parties are curious, they are more likely to gather useful information about opposing sides of the conflict, and engage critical thinking in the problem solving process. In studying character strengths, Peterson (2006) identified “core virtues recognized across world cultures and throughout history” (p. 1150), and named curiosity as an essential aspect of wisdom, one that helps us gain and use knowledge. In addition, Peterson found that curiosity is directly related to increased work satisfaction, regardless of occupational type.

Creativity When curiosity is engaged, access to creativity in enhanced. Amabile (1996) describes creativity as the “production of novel and useful ideas in any domain” (p. 1), and distinguishes it from innovation, which she defines as “the successful implementation of creative ideas” (p. 1). Sternberg (2001) believes that intelligence is a necessary prerequisite for creativity to flourish, and has found creative people more likely to redefine problems, analyze ideas, advocate for the value of their ideas, take sensible risks, find unique connections between ideas, and recognize existing knowledge can be a barrier to generating new ideas (p. 361). Both of these definitions illustrate how imperative creativity is in navigating integrative and salient solution-making in the conflict resolution process.

Compassion In their exploration of compassion, Goetz, Keltner, and Simon-Thomas (2010) define it as “the feeling that arises in witnessing another’s suffering

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and that motivates a subsequent desire to help” (p. 351). As more is known about interpersonal neurobiology, there is recognition that emotions are readily reciprocated through mirror neurons, so that distress is likely to motivate a corresponding distress in others (Cozolino, 2014). A compassionate response to conflict requires the curbing of any reactive or mirrored distress using the cultivated response of compassion. Integrative conflict resolution employs compassion in its goal of integrating the interests held by all sides of a given conflict, and is based on a shared concern for how each party fares in the process and outcome of a given conflict.

Issues, Controversies, Problems The fast paced and competitive culture of the globalized marketplace can make it a challenge to address conflict creatively, or find support for the practice of integrative conflict resolution. Because of constant pressures to achieve evermore success with ever-less time and resources, curiosity, creativity, and compassion can easily be overlooked in favor of competitive processes that can yield quicker decisions, if not sustainable solutions. Nonetheless, the ideas presented in this chapter represent proven methods of addressing intractable conflicts, particularly those that include cultural complexities (Raines, 2012; Woodhouse, Miall, Ramsbotham, & Mitchell, 2015). While creating space for loving praxis may be challenging, it can also have the tremendous benefit of contributing to employee satisfaction, productivity and happiness. In a study of how core virtues around the world and throughout history have impacted productivity and profitability, Peterson and Park (2006) found a positively correlated relationship between employees’ experience of love and life/work satisfaction in a broad range of occupations (p. 1151), and that “their strength of love predicts accomplishments as leaders” (p. 1150). Peterson and Park conclude that when these

strengths of character are “nurtured by institutional practices and norms,” greater organizational success results (p. 1153). This research supports the value of loving praxis as having an immediate and positive effect on the organizational leadership, organizational life, and employee satisfaction. Using the word love in a pragmatic context poses its own challenge, however, in that it can evoke superficial and or sentimental notions. Love is not a new topic for academic exploration. Historically, love has been of great interest within philosophical inquiry, including its central role in the legacy of nonviolence, and over time the study of love has gained currency across multiple academic disciplines. Critical theorists have instigated a conversation about love as a form of revolutionary praxis that provides a vital counter-discourse to the prevailing values of dominant culture (Darder, 2003). Psychologist Erich Fromm encouraged further consideration of love in his well-known publication, The Art of Loving (1956); others have subsequently picked up the thread from different perspectives, and in service to a number of diverse ideologies (Darder, 2003; hooks, 2000; O’Dwyer, 2009). Love has continuously been a subject of great interest within the domains of philosophy and mysticism, drawing from the suggestion of metaphor instead of relying upon a concrete description for absolute meaning. The philosophic and transcendent nature of love makes it particularly difficult to define. When love is simplified and trivialized, it is deprived of its power to deliver the promise of satisfaction, let alone its potential for transformation. This chapter proposes a reinterpretation of love by moving beyond the limitations of its objectification and embracing the transformative action of loving as praxis. Loving, in this sense, is the activity of cultivating the transcendent qualities of affection, compassion, empathy, connection, concern, and justice. Praxis is the process of situating theoretical knowledge inside of actual practice.

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Solutions and Recommendations

CONCLUSION

When conflict is handled in ways that affirm the parties involved, and when diverse perspectives and orientations have the possibility of being honored with integrity and respect, organizations are able to thrive (Kirchmeyer & Cohen, 1992; Tjosvold, 2008). Loving praxis in cross-cultural organizational leadership provides a frame of reference for bringing love into action, serving as a reminder to work toward integrative practices, and to use the tools of curiosity, creativity, and compassion to address conflict most effectively and sustainably.

Globalization brings with it both great gifts and complex challenges. In order that we might meet those challenges with the creativity they deserve, new and improved skills are required. This chapter introduced the historic and influential work of Mary Parker Follett as one method by which to re-imagine or reclaim the field of conflict resolution, and thereby support the use of loving praxis in cross-cultural organizations. Loving praxis is a reorientation away from the objective perspective that currently dominates the discipline of conflict resolution, toward a system of connection and compassion. The vast and far-reaching popularity of Fisher and Ury’s system of principled negotiation (2011) provided a simple way to understand conflict and manage resolution. Principled negotiation, however, privileges a dominant worldview that does not necessarily embrace diverse cultural perspectives. Follett’s system of integrative conflict resolution, in contrast, is not about making a choice to agree on a solution, but is about the importance of being human. This humanness requires respectful relationships within organizational community, where curiosity, creativity, and compassion have a place in the conflict resolution process. Loving praxis is the manifestation of this humanness: the radical commitment to love in practice. Love in practice encourages sustainable and creative problem solving (Kahane, 2010), and fosters reflexive leadership, where leaders are willing to connect across difference and respond to the challenges and changes that a diverse workforce brings. Embracing loving praxis in organizational leadership is a commitment to take action to create a world that has the capacity to understand and support the increasingly cross-cultural constituencies that make up organizational life, and to affirm Mary Parker Follett’s visionary work in today’s globalized world.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS Research that investigates the presence, benefit and long-term impact of loving praxis would be an excellent way to substantiate the parallels observed in this chapter. The globalization of the world, including increased access to shared information that results from social media, provide ample opportunities to examine and study the ways in which cross-cultural conflict is addressed, with or without successful outcomes. The realm of conflict resolution continues to grow, and reconciliatory practices similar to the German-Jewish dialogue I participated in, are increasingly available in the aftermath of conflict –– begging for the opportunity to bring integrative processes to the complex, intractable, and traumatic conflicts that plague the world (Bar-Tal, 2000). Specifically, additional research that addresses the implications of loving praxis in cross-cultural organizational leadership, and examines the value and impact of loving within diverse organizations, would make a lasting contribution to the study of integrative leadership.

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Cozolino, L. (2014). The neuroscience of human relationships: Attachment and the developing social brain. New York, NY: WW Norton & Company. Darder, A. (2003). Teaching as an act of love. In A. Darder, M. Baltodano, & R. Torres (Eds.), The critical pedagogy reader (pp. 497–510). New York, NY: Routledge. Deutsch, M. (2002). Social Psychology’s Contributions to the Study of Conflict Resolution. Negotiation Journal, 18(4), 307–320. doi:10.1111/j.1571-9979.2002.tb00263.x Deutsch, M., & Coleman, P. (2012). Psychological components of sustainable peace. New York, NY: Springer. Deutsch, M., Coleman, P., & Marcus, E. (2006). The handbook of conflict resolution: Theory and practice (2nd ed.). San Francisco, CA: JosseyBass. Feagin, J. (2014). Racist America: Roots, current realities, and future reparations. New York, NY: Routledge. Fine, M. (1997). Witnessing whiteness. In M. Fine, L. Weiss, C. Powell, & L. Mun Wong (Eds.), Off white: Readings on race, power, and society (pp. 57–65). New York, NY: Routledge. Fisher, R., Ury, W., & Patton, B. (2011). Getting to yes (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Penguin. Follett, M. P. (1919). Community is a process. The Philosophical Review, 28(6), 576–588. doi:10.2307/2178307 Fox, E. M., & Urwick, L. (Eds.). (1973). Dynamic administration: The collected papers of Mary Parker Follett. London, England: Pitman. Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York, NY: Seabury Press. Fromm, E. (1956). The art of loving. New York, NY: Harper.

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Gelfand, M., & Dyer, N. (2000). A cultural perspective on negotiation: Progress, pitfalls, and prospects. Applied Psychology, 49(1), 62–99. doi:10.1111/1464-0597.00006 Gelfand, M., Erez, M., & Aycan, Z. (2007). CrossCultural Organizational Behavior. Annual Review of Psychology, 58(1), 479–514. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085559 PMID:17044797 Goetz, J. L., Keltner, D., & Simon-Thomas, E. (2010). Compassion: An evolutionary analysis and empirical review. Psychological Bulletin, 136(3), 351–374. doi:10.1037/a0018807 PMID:20438142 Graham, P. (2003). Mary Parker Follett: Prophet of management. Hopkins, MN: Beard Books. Gudykunst, W. (Ed.). (2005). Theorizing about intercultural communication. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Gurin, P., Nagda, B., & Zuniga, X. (2013). Dialogue across difference: Practice, theory, and research on intergroup dialogue. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation. Hall, E. (1989). Beyond culture (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Anchor Books. hooks, b. (2000). All about love: New visions. New York, NY: William and Morrow Company, Inc. Johnson, A. (2006). Privilege, power and different (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw- Hill. Kahane, A. (2010). Power and love: A theory and practice of social change. San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler. Kirchmeyer, C., & Cohen, A. (1992). Multicultural groups: Their performance and reactions with constructive conflict. Group & Organization Management, 17(2), 153–170. doi:10.1177/1059601192172004 Kriesberg, L. (1998). Constructive conflicts: From escalation to resolution. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.

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LeBaron, M. (2002). Bridging troubled waters: Conflict resolution from the heart. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley & Sons. Lederach, J. (1995). Preparing for peace: Conflict transformation across cultures. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press. Meeker, J. (2012). Engaging emotions and practicing conflict: Emotions and teaching toward social justice. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from Proquest Dissertations and Theses. (Publication no. AAT 3508090). Mumford, M., Zaccaro, S., Harding, F., Jacobs, T., & Fleishman, E. (2000). Leadership skills for a changing world: Solving complex social problems. The Leadership Quarterly, 11(1), 11–35. doi:10.1016/S1048-9843(99)00041-7 Nair, N. (2008). Towards understanding the role of emotions in conflict: A review and future directions. The International Journal of Conflict Management, 19(4), 359–381. doi:10.1108/10444060810909301 Nicholson, H., & Carroll, B. (2013). Identity undoing and power relations in leadership development. Human Relations, 66(9), 1225–1248. doi:10.1177/0018726712469548 O’Dwyer, K. (2009). The possibility of love: An interdisciplinary analysis. Newcastle upon Tyne, UK: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Oetzel, J., & Ting-Toomey, S. (2003). Face concerns in interpersonal conflict: A crosscultural empirical test of the face negotiation theory. Communication Research, 30(6), 599–624. doi:10.1177/0093650203257841 Oyserman, D., Coon, H., & Kemmelmeier, M. (2002). Rethinking individualism and collectivism: Evaluation of theoretical assumptions and meta-analyses. Psychological Bulletin, 128(1), 3–72. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.128.1.3 PMID:11843547

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Parker, L. (1984). Control in organizational life: The contribution of Mary Parker Follett. Academy of Management Review, 9(4), 736–745. Peterson, C., & Park, N. (2006). Character strengths in organizations. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 27(8), 1149–1154. doi:10.1002/ job.398 Raines, S. (2012). Conflict management for managers resolving workplace, client, and policy disputes. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Robinson, K. (2013). How to escape education’s death valley. Paper presented at the annual TED2013 conference, New York, NY. Rusch, E. (1991). The social construction of leadership: Theory to praxis. Proceedings from Annual Conference on Research on Women and Education. San Jose, CA: ERIC ED349662. Sternberg, R. J. (2001). What is the common thread of creativity? Its dialectical relation to intelligence and wisdom. The American Psychologist, 56(4), 360–362. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.56.4.360 PMID:11330237 Ting-Toomey, S. (1999). Communicating across cultures. New York, NY: The Guilford Press. Tjosvold, D. (2008). The conflict-positive organization: It depends upon us. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 29(1), 19–28. doi:10.1002/ job.473 Trujillo, M., Bowland, S., Myers, L., Richards, P., & Roy, B. (Eds.). (2008). Re-Centering culture and knowledge in conflict resolution practice. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press. Wheatley, M. (2011). Leadership and the new science: Discovering order in a chaotic world. Retrieved from ReadHowYouWant.com

Wing, L. (2009). Mediation and inequality reconsidered: Bringing the discussion to the table. Conflict Resolution Quarterly, 26(4), 383–404. doi:10.1002/crq.240 Woodhouse, T., Miall, H., Ramsbotham, O., & Mitchell, C. (2015). The contemporary conflict resolution reader. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Xie, J., Song, X., & Stringfellow, A. (1998). Interfunctional Conflict, Conflict Resolution Styles, and New Product Success: A Four-Culture Comparison. Management Science, 44(12), S192– S206. doi:10.1287/mnsc.44.12.S192

ADDITIONAL READING Adair, W., & Brett, J. (2005). The negotiation dance: Time, culture, and behavioral sequences in negotiation. Organization Science, 16(1), 33–51. doi:10.1287/orsc.1040.0102 Gelfand, M., & Brett, J. (Eds.). (2004). The handbook of negotiation and culture. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Gelfand, M., & McCusker, C. (2002). Metaphor and the cultural construction of negotiation: a paradigm for theory and research. In M. Gannon, K. Newman (Eds.), Handbook of Cross-Cultural Management, 292–314. New York: Blackwell. Morris, M., & Fu, H. (2001). How does culture influence conflict resolution? A dynamic constructivist analysis. Social Cognition, 19(3), 324–349. doi:10.1521/soco.19.3.324.21475 Morris, M., Williams, K., Leung, K., Larrick, R., Mendoza, M., Bhatnagar, D., & Hu, J.- et al.. (1998). Conflict management style: Accounting for cross-national differences. Journal of International Business Studies, 29(4), 729–247. doi:10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490050

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Oetzel, J., Ting-Toomey, S., Matsumoto, T., Yokochi, Y., & Pan, X. (2001). Face and facework in conflict: A cross-cultural comparison of China, Germany, Japan, and the United States. Community Monogram, 68(3), 235–258. doi:10.1080/03637750128061 Ohbuchi, K., Osamu, F., & Tedeschi, J. (1999). Cultural values in conflict management: Goal orientation, goal attainment, and tactical decision. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 30(1), 51–71. doi:10.1177/0022022199030001003

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Conflict Resolution: A process for two or more parties to find solutions to conflict.

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Conflict: Competition by groups or individuals over incompatible goals, scarce resources, or sources of power. Integrative Conflict Resolution: A measured and compassionate approach to conflict resolution that strives to achieve mutual gain. Intersectionality: The study of the intersections or layers of relationship between different but related forms of oppression, domination, and/ or discrimination. Loving Praxis: The practice of deep and enduring regard for humanity. Principled Negotiation: A system of negotiation developed by the Harvard Negotiation Project, which is based on non-adversarial bargaining, and is focused on achieving win-win outcomes. Reflexive Leadership: The critical reflection of how a leader’s assumptions, values, and actions impact others.

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Chapter 5

Effective Training for International Cross-Cultural Collaboration and Leadership Yvette Durazo National University San Diego, USA Margaret Manning California State University – Dominguez Hills, USA Giuseppina Wright California State University – Dominguez Hills, USA

ABSTRACT The purpose of this chapter is to share effective training methods designed to prepare business leaders for global cross-cultural collaboration and for the preparation to be utilized by practitioners, theorists and researchers from fields as diverse as humanities, sociology, psychology, Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) and business. The chapter analyzes existing literature with real-life case studies, such as integration policy in Sweden, the teaching of International Peacebuilding, training for Alternative Dispute Resolution in Mexico and first-hand observations of Morocco. Chapter findings suggest that experiential learning or learning-by-doing works best to effectively instill cross-cultural collaboration to shape global leaders. The authors propose further research be conducted to measure qualitative and quantitative results of cross-cultural training and implementation.

INTRODUCTION Technological trends in the last 25 years not only made the world smaller, but also improved global access to the internet. Moreover, international cross-cultural growth has been fueled by trends such as (i) global business and outsourcing; (ii)

continental alliances like the European Union (EU) and the Union of South American Nations (UNASUR); (iii) common currencies, such as the Euro and BitCoin (Snyder, 2014); (iv) free trade agreements, such as North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA Secretariat); (v) Free Trade Zones, such as Tangiers in Morocco (Benchemsi,

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-8376-1.ch005

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 Effective Training for International Cross-Cultural Collaboration and Leadership

2008); and (vi) transportation advances, including the widening of the Panama Canal (Wilkinson, 2014) and the construction of the new Tanger Med II port in Morocco (Benchemsi, 2008). These modern trends enable connections around the world and, at the same time create an urgent need for training of cross-cultural collaboration and leadership. Hence, as the world has shrunk due to technology and intense global commerce, companies face barriers as they encounter different cultures, values and communication styles. Hofstede (1983) found 50 years ago that “management was something universal” (p. 75). Differences between business partners were expected to shrink and eventually dissolve according to a set of principles called the convergence hypothesis (Hofstede, 1983). However, the genesis of the European Common Market, which later became the European Union, made it clear that convergence was not the solution for future business leadership, development and practice. The chapter analyzes research on cultural framework, discusses collaborative terms, examines current global leadership training techniques, uncovers on-going problems and introduces implementation of cross-cultural collaboration tools and methods, including case studies of Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR). The case studies illustrate and propose methods to facilitate conflict resolution and global collaboration. One case study describes the challenges of Swedish integration policy, another discusses teaching International Peacebuilding to undergraduate students and the last case study focuses on practical ADR training for attorneys in Mexico. Finally, the chapter addresses challenges to successful international cross-cultural collaboration and proposes essential components for training programs for effective global leadership.

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BACKGROUND Complexity of International Collaboration Collaboration is difficult and complex, particularly “…in reality of the international field” (Marsick & Cederholm, 1988, p. 11). Pedersen’s research determines that cultural identity issues such as language, culture and religion can be more complicated than socio-political differences (2006). Therefore, training leaders on the basis of the common ground of recognition and dignity can foster collaboration and prosperous business and organizational development (2006). Western business practices typically promote scientific models with linear cause and effect, promoting what Kimmel refers to as “scientific knowledge” (2006, p. 644) that seeks to simplify complex issues. For example, Requejo and Graham (2008) observed American business models approach complex tasks sequentially and settle issues one at a time. In contrast, non-Western cultures discuss issues using a holistic approach in which “nothing is settled until the end” (Requejo & Graham, 2008, p. 29). The complexity theory of multiculturalism assumes that reality is more complex than simple theories and is described by Pedersen as “…chaotic, complex, non-linear dynamic” (2006, p.657). International collaboration frequently adds another dimension of uncertainty. For example, the giant British supermarket chain, Tesco’s Fresh & Easy markets failed in California within five years, even though Tesco “dispatched executives to live with American families, peek into their refrigerators and trail them on trips to the grocery store” (Li, 2013, para. 1).

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Global Expansion Businesses, particularly transnational corporations and technological sectors, created a global need to study other cultures. For example, the American company Nike has 715 factories in 44 countries which employ 984,136 people (Nike, Inc., 2014), making it essential to assess, define and consider the culture(s) of host countries to enable successful partnerships. Thus, as companies experience barriers and conflict while they encounter different cultures, cross-cultural training becomes not only a tool, but a global necessity. In 1982, Naisbitt predicted a global marketing expansion in the blockbuster book “Megatrends,” specifically the transition from a national to a global economy, free trade and the emergence of free markets, such as the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). NAFTA eliminated trade barriers and tariffs among Mexico, Canada and the United States and created opportunities for investment among the three countries (NAFTA). The NAFTA program opened the door for U.S. companies to relocate manufacturing plants, called Maquiladoras, throughout the Republic of Mexico, which created Mexican manufacturing jobs for U. S. import products and effectively lowered the price of goods to the final consumer (NAFTA, 2012; Ruiz, 2009). After 20 years of existence, NAFTA has had its successes and some challenges. One challenge was the different legal systems and labor laws of the three countries (NAFTA Secretariat, 2008). To overcome these inherent differences, Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) was adopted as the preferred method for resolving disputes arising from international business transactions. ADR is an alternative to the litigation process and is classified into at least six types of conflict resolution: negotiation, mediation, conciliation, conflict management coaching, collaborative law and arbitration. The NAFTA Secretariat is the Non-Governmental Organization (NGO) responsible for the administration of dispute settlement provisions of NAFTA (NAFTA Secretariat, 2008).

The NGO quickly recognized the importance of facilitating dispute resolution arising in private sectors due to international commercial contracts. As a result, author Y. Durazo is currently training attorneys in Mexico to utilize ADR processes such as mediation, conciliation and conflict resolution systems to manage business disputes between Mexico and the U.S (personal communication, August 15, 2014). The U.S. pioneered the initiative to pass the Alternative Dispute Resolution Act in 1990 by U.S. Congress, subsequently authorizing and encouraging federal agencies to use ADR processes (Katz & Flynn 2013). In March, 2014, the President of the Republic of Mexico, Enrique Peña Nieto (Presidential Office of the Republic of Mexico, 2014) made crucial changes to Mexican federal judicial process by adopting ADR processes and oral trials to provide a more agile, transparent and balanced justice system. Mexico continues to make economic progress and offer international business and labor opportunities. It can be said that NAFTA is the catalyst of change and transformation of ADR techniques into organizations (Gruben & Kiser, 2001).

Organizational Learning as Alternative to ADR Mediating Culture If alternative dispute resolution is not used to bridge culture then the first step to bridge cross-cultural differences involves an understanding of the word culture. Author G. Wright (2014) defines culture as a collective of religion, language and values that defines group action, modes of communication and group interaction with its own members and other groups (personal communication, August 15, 2014). In tandem, Hofstede (1983) defines culture as “collective mental programming; it is a part of our conditioning that we share with other members of our nation, region, or group but not with other members of other nations, regions or groups” (p. 76). Understanding the dynamics of culture helps inform leadership challenges of a global economy. 65

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Individualistic vs. Collectivist Values Conducting business across cultures usually results in some form of conflict for all parties, especially between individualistic and collectivistic management styles. Khelifa (2009) found that “cross cultural conflict complicates the learning environment resulting in confusion, stress and frustration” (p. 1). In an individualistic environment, members of the group look after their own interests, while a collectivist culture offers status by in-group membership privileges. Hofstede (1983) concluded that “individualism is statistically related to that country’s wealth” (p. 79) and ranked the United States among the highest of 50 countries on individualism index (p. 80). In contrast, egalitarian countries, such as Sweden, favor group performance instead of individual success and score higher on the collective scale. As a result, doing business in Sweden requires consideration of the entire group, with a shared understanding that the organization makes decisions with everyone’s interest in mind. G. Wright (2014) observed that Swedes generally operate on the premise of equality, dislike preferential treatment and frown upon disrespectful behavior (personal communication, August 15, 2014). This observation concurs with Katz’s (2007) findings that “Swedish culture is not one of strong individualists, at least not in the workplace… [with] rare elements of competition across business teams” (p. 1). On the other hand, U.S business operations value individualism, personal responsibility and direct, low-context communication exemplified by “…the John Wayne style of shoot first, ask questions later” (Requejo & Graham, 2008, pp. 20-21). In addition, an individualistic society may provide managers with specific tasks on how to deal with other cultures, which, according to Lee (2007), “do not internalize changes in attitudes and values” (p. 17). So, what happens when businesses from individualistic and collectivist management styles must do business together? Simpson and Luinen

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(2009) suggest finding “a good fit” and define it as “…a match between the organization and its staff members, processes and systems” (p. 4). As organizations attempt to find this “good fit” they should focus on understanding how they view themselves and use this understanding to critically assess their own structure. In other words, each organization should use reflective practice, which involves on-going self-assessment and awareness. Self-awareness related to cross-cultural collaboration and leadership is defined as “…a process of reflection and learning …[to gain] insight into how they view clients that are culturally diverse” (Collins, Arthur & Wong-Wylie, 2010, p. 340). Self-reflection compels each organization to levy its own cultural values while concomitantly reviewing the values of its potential business partner. For example, an American organization doing business with a Swedish partner should respect the entire team and avoid giving any stakeholder privileged treatment. In addition, a typical Swede does not enjoy being singled out even if it is meant as a compliment. In contrast, a Swedish stakeholder should acknowledge American stakeholders in terms of rank and hierarchy within the organization.

Masculine vs. Feminine Values The first step to meld a masculine organization with one of feminine values involves understanding that feminine and masculine are not intended to be taken in a literal sense, but, rather, are regarded as “social role divisions” (Hofstede,1983, p. 83). Hofstede (1983) goes on to suggest that a masculine society reflects social values that prioritize assertive and dominant roles, such as performance, achieving goals and making money. Therefore, examples of masculine countries based on Hofstede’s definition include Japan, USA, Germany, Venezuela, Mexico and Italy. In contrast, Hofstede (1983) ascribes feminine values to societies distinguishing characteristics such as quality of life, preserving environment

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and helping others. Examples of feminine countries based on this definition include Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Finland and the Netherlands. Consequently, successful collaboration between a society of masculine values such as Japan and a feminine society such as Sweden should include leadership that is willing to understand and adapt to each stakeholder’s objective. Although performance is certainly a business factor in countries such as Sweden with its feminine values, more important considerations are made for work conditions, solidarity and horizontal management (G. Wright, personal communication, August 15, 2014). For example, a Swedish business is not likely to compromise on the safety of its workers in order to enhance the bottom line, nor is it associated with personal shame or blame should the business prove unsuccessful. Along the same lines, a Swedish business doing business in Japan should respect the personal responsibility assigned to Japanese stakeholders as well as the formal hierarchy of management. The divergence between feminine and masculine values explains why New Zealanders, who appreciate the feminine values of preserving a pristine environment, ran afoul of the masculine U.S. when it banned U.S. nuclear-powered submarines from its ports in 1986 (ABC News, 2014). Chapter authors recommend sensitivity training and cultural education take place prior to engaging in business with cultures ascribed masculine and feminine values.

Case Study: Integration Policy as Both Effective and Lacking Cross-Cultural Collaboration and Leadership in Sweden Author Wright, born to an Italian father and German mother (personal communication, August 15, 2014), was raised in the relatively small country of Sweden, which has a population of approximately 9.7 million people (Trading Economics, 2014). During the 1960’s Sweden actively recruited to expand its industrial work force, which attracted

and coincided with a supply of European labor. The lack of work in post-World War II Europe matched the demand for labor in Sweden, which led to an influx of first-generation immigrants who became part of Swedish society. Swedes and immigrants shared common ground to meet their “core concerns of survival, recognition, and dignity” (Pedersen, 2006, p. 656). The firstgeneration immigrants were humbled by the equality and opportunities Sweden had to offer and were encouraged to adapt and assimilate into their new home’s cultural framework. The democratic nation of Sweden offered language and cultural training classes to the immigrants to speed up the integration process. Growing up in Sweden, as a second-generation immigrant, author Wright appreciated the abundant opportunities and universally high standard of living in Sweden (personal communication, August 15, 2014). Wright’s parents were both products of World War II and had nothing left to gain in their home countries. They met in Sweden and made efforts to “fit in” and took pride in becoming productive members of Swedish society. Author Wright’s parents went to Swedish language school upon arrival in their new country and spoke Swedish in the home (personal communication, August 15, 2014). This exemplifies physical cultural intelligence which includes learning the language to demonstrate genuine willingness to “enter the other’s culture” (Earley & Mosakowski, 2004, p.141). In addition, G. Wright’s family acknowledged and took part in Swedish culture and traditions, while maintaining a distinct Italian heritage and family life. In other words, her parents quickly called themselves Swedish by definition, yet did not have to compromise their inherited identities (G. Wright, personal communication, August 15, 2014). This assimilation process confirms Pedersen’s (2006) theory of multiculturalism, in which conflict is reframed as cultural differences, so people can disagree without either of them being “wrong” (p. 667).

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Another example of the Swedish integration policy was the opportunity for second-generation students to participate in “home language classes,” which were voluntary classes of the second language spoken in the home (G. Wright, personal communication, August, 15, 2014). The language classes demonstrated the Swedish government’s good faith effort to accommodate the survival of the immigrant’s own language and culture. From Wright’s perspective as a second-generation citizen, the government immigration integration was effective as she identified as Swedish first, yet proudly maintained an Italian heritage (Wright, personal communication, August 15, 2014). To illustrate, G. Wright attended Swedish schools and adopted Swedish mainstream traditional celebrations such as Midsummer, but maintained links to her Italian ancestry by attending Catholic Church and Italian cultural clubs. Her observation then, and still, is that most immigrants during that time period adapted in the same manner and, as a result, there was little conflict at a national level (G. Wright, personal communication, August 15, 2014). Thus, Swedish integration during the 1960’s to the 1990’s was successful by welcoming and accommodating immigrants with equality and opportunities while simultaneously allowing the future Swedish residents to adapt, assimilate and receive mutual respect for their original cultures. In other words, the immigrants created Kimmel’s (2006) “micro culture of common meanings, norms of communication and behavior, shared perceptions and expectations, roles and relationships” (p. 625).

203 countries (2009), which is very diverse for a small size country. Furthermore, the Ministry of Integration and Gender Equality Sweden reports that present-day arrivals come predominantly from Syria, Iraq, Somalia, Russia and Afghanistan as refugees seeking asylum (2009). Thus, many come from violent backgrounds of war, torture, political persecution, famine and mass killings. Author Wright suggests that language barriers combined with psychological and emotional wounds makes it more challenging for refugees to assimilate into the Swedish workforce at the same rate as past immigrants. Pedersen’s (2006) multiculturalism theory implies that people with “...few overlapping in-group memberships” have a harder time assimilating (p. 658). The Local reported that Sodertalje, a development of Stockholm, has over 30,000 Syrian refugee residents, representing one third of Sodertalje’s population (2014), thus earning the nick name “Little Syria” by other residents of Stockholm (G. Wright, personal communication, August 15, 2014). In addition, another development called Rinkeby, is commonly referred to as “Little Mogadishu” due to its majority of Somalian residents (G. Wright, personal communication, August 15, 2014). Wright observed segregation along ethnic lines in these two communities, as a two-fold result of governmental placements and newly arrived refugees migrating to familiar territory. For example, in these two communities, newcomers can walk to the town square, speak their native tongue, attend mosque or church and enjoy the familiarity of their own culture (G. Wright, personal communication, August 15, 2014).

Recent Migration

Integration Problems

In contrast are author Wright’s concerns with challenges of the current Swedish integration trends and policies (personal communication, August 15, 2014). According to the Ministry of Integration and Gender Equality Sweden, more than one in ten inhabitants of Sweden in 2002 was born abroad. In addition, Sweden has inhabitants from

Author Wright notes the barriers of language and religion as catalysts for confusion and the failure to establish trust for host country and asylumseekers. According to the Swedish Tax Ministry, Sweden has an average tax rate of 47% (SkatteVerket, 2010, p. 10) making the cost of accepting refugees noticeable to citizens contributing to the

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common governmental welfare system. Swedish people appear to be experiencing an identity crisis (Rothman, 1997) over competition for scarce resources (Deutsch, 2006) because Sweden prides itself on universal healthcare, dental care and free public schools. This may cause parties to make attributions about the other’s character and further escalate conflict (Kimmel, 2006). In addition, Klare’s (1996) dire prediction that unemployed youth would be attracted to drug trafficking, gangs, extreme religious groups or migrate to more affluent countries has been fulfilled. Moreover, the challenges of integration seem to coincide with the expansion of the European Union (EU), which was designed to create free trade zones and common currency. However, the EU has become a victim of its own success, as there has been a backlash from the wealthier member states, such as Britain and Germany, against the “poverty migration” (Chu, 2014, A4). Hence, anti-immigrant activists spread fear of a flood of newcomers “sponging off their welfare systems” (Chu, 2014, A4).

CHALLENGES OF CROSSCULTURAL TRAINING Terms of Collaboration To create successful cross-cultural collaboration, it is advisable for each party to engage in cultural, language and communication training. However, these training sessions need to define key terms of collaboration, such as empowerment, self-determination, disclosure, reflection and truth-telling. Raider, Coleman and Gerson (2006) suggest introducing “…the use of a common vocabulary” to enhance cross-cultural group experience and training (p. 696). For example Erbe (2011) defines empowerment as “The restoration to individuals of a sense of their own value and strength and their own capacity to handle life’s problems” (p. 66).

In addition, self-determination can also be a tool to create collaborative deals because it safeguards mutual engagement and enables creativity of alternate solutions. According to Erbe (2011), self-determination involves a “…personal decision in full knowledge of different courses of action” (p. 84). In other words, self-determination would help stakeholders identify alternate teamwork tactics or help recognize other modes of collaboration. Moreover, disclosure and truth telling are other crucial terms of collaboration used to determine the most important components for stakeholders. Lerner (1993) defined truth-telling as “…closely linked to whatever is important in our lives and the foundation of self-regard which requires honesty…” (p. 15). Full disclosure in business deals may include integral values or mission statements of the organization.

Bridging Theory and Practice In addition to the challenges of defining collaboration in all its rich detail, it is equally important to understand that international training can present challenges. Often, cross-cultural training is presented as a simplistic quick-fix for collaboration, such as, the one-day crash courses touting “maximize your business success in Europe, Africa and Asia” (Leadership Crossroads, 2014, para.1). However, one of the most important challenges in an international setting to is to bridge the gap between ideal cross-cultural collaboration and the reality of how to train managers, or the gap between theory and practice (Argyris & Schon, as cited in Marsick & Cederholm, 1988). Revans, an early proponent of action-learning, or learning-by-doing, observed that “people learn best from and with one another while tackling reallife problems” (as cited in Marsick & Cederholm, 1988, p. 4). Learners developed “questioning or Q insight” from their own experience, rather than from experts teaching “programmed or P knowledge” (p.4). Revans further proposed that

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Q insight is developed through cycles of action in groups followed by reflection. Therefore, when learners are convinced they need P knowledge, they are more receptive to acquiring it. This model advocates that people have “unlimited capacity to learn Q insight,” but a “limited capacity to absorb the P knowledge” (Revans, as cited in Marsick & Cederholm, 1988, p. 4). Yet, U.S. businesses have favored expert P knowledge dispensed by coaches and trainers in corporate workshops to prepare upper management for international assignments (Coutu, et al., 2009).

Limitations of Cognitive Training Cross-cultural collaboration and training have limitations. One of these limitations is the cognitive restraints related to intelligence levels. According to Goleman, effective leadership is not limited to intelligence, but rather “IQ above 120 loses power as a predictor of success” (as cited in George, 2012, p. 34). Thus, effective leadership entails personal style and skills that can be learned, and something called “emotional intelligence” (EQ) which comprises four categories: self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, and relationship management (Goleman, as cited in George, 2012, p. 34). To support this claim, George (2012) interviewed 125 leaders who were members of True North leadership groups and found that EQ starts with each leader’s sharing and accepting his/her “life story” and “the crucibles” s/he has experienced with the group (p. 34). Therefore, George (2012) supports chapter authors’ recommendations that effective cross-cultural collaboration and training must include personal experiences, challenges and real- life scenarios. Other limitations of cognitive leadership training include providing honest feedback and sharing “blind spots” (p. 34), similar to the Johari Window (Erbe, 2003) described as “…a window [that] demonstrates the importance of seeking feedback about how others see you. Its blind corner represents what is not known

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to us but seen by others” (p. 76). Moreover, the results from M. Manning’s class where students internalized appropriate cultural behavior concur with Fambrough and Hart’s findings (2008) that emotional involvement or “Emotional Intelligence” (EI) is essential for successful training programs. They describe EI as understanding how different cultures view the role of emotions and insist that seminars, discussions and lectures alone are unlikely to get at the emotional aspects of cultural misunderstandings. Earley and Mosakowski (2004) go even further to introduce the concept of Cultural Intelligence (CQ) as “an outsider’s seemingly natural ability to interpret someone’s unfamiliar and ambiguous gestures the way that person’s compatriots would” (p. 140). They divided CQ into three sources: (i) the head, or the source of cognitive CQ, which involves “rote learning about beliefs, customs, taboos of foreign cultures”; (ii) the body, or the physical CQ, which includes speech, non-verbal body language and actions and (iii) the heart, or the emotional/motivational CQ which covers confidence, adaptation, ability to make friends and mastery (Earley & Mosakowski, 2004, p.141).

SUCCESSFUL TRAINING COMPONENTS Action Learning for Successful Training The Swedish Management Institute of Lund (MiL) action learning model requires participants to learn from each other and utilize outside resource persons to challenge traditional modes of thinking. Participants develop their personal models of leadership through a combination of activities including real-life team business projects, seminars, personal reflection and discussion (Marsick & Cederholm, 1988). In addition, Marsick and Cederholm (1988) advise that developing personalized leadership models are especially relevant

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for managers working in culturally diverse settings. They further maintain that most corporate leadership training programs tend to focus on just one aspect, such as the personality of the leader, or competence in tasks or ability to navigate an organization. However, professional competence alone is insufficient, which is why cross-cultural training programs must be innovative, fluid and should include cultural awareness and interpersonal skills.

Feedback and Reflection Successful cross-cultural training requires perpetual feedback and reflection. Self-reflection can be evaluated with the help of the Johari Window (Erbe, 2003). An example of a reflection exercise utilizing the Johari window can be a a group exercise where each member writes down 3 to 5 positive observations of self and subsequently compares notes with other group members. The reflection exercise has great significance for crosscultural collaboration because it fosters mutual understanding and reduces misunderstandings. Self-reflection frequently includes keeping journals because those who “actively reflected on their experience will be more likely to learn quickly and deeply” (Terrell, 2011, p. 201). Candid feedback is an integral part of crosscultural training, which includes debriefing videotaped role plays, 360-degree feedback from group members and their circle of supporters (Guttman, 2012). Essentially, 360-degree feedback involves each person receiving a full round-circle feedback and evaluation from peers, professor and self. Author Y. Durazo uses 360-degree feedback for attorneys who participate in mock mediations. As a result, she can observe an increase of the participant’s practical mediation techniques and self-awareness (Y. Durazo, personal communication, July 7, 2014). Guttmann concluded that feedback has to be seen “as a gift rather than a threat” (Guttman, 2012, p.11).

Author M. Manning used reflection for undergraduate students engaged in internships to train conflict resolution skills to middle-school youth in Los Angeles (personal communication, August 15, 2014). All student interns were required to write a journal entry about their expectations before they began their internship and after every meeting with the youth. Students’ entries addressed questions like (i) What did I do well? (ii) What did I need to improve upon? and (ii) How did I add to conflict? At the end of the course, each intern gave an oral presentation based on her/his internship experience and reflections, including the part they played in it (M. Manning, personal communication, July 7, 2014). Another example of reflection was author M. Manning’s daily journal during her visit to Morocco, in which she recorded events, sights, sounds, smells, music, food, people and clothing, supplemented with collected memorabilia and photographs. It was through this reflective process that M. Manning began to question why Morocco appeared to have a similar history, demographics, language, religion and geography to Algeria, yet had escaped a ten-year civil war. Organizations should also use self-reflection to evaluate their own cultural values as well as the values of potential partners. In other words, organizations should use reflective practice, which involves on-going self-assessment and awareness. Collins, Arthur and Wong-Wylie (2010) defined self-awareness as “a process of reflection and learning [to gain] insight into how they view clients that are culturally diverse” (p. 340). As a result, many practitioners agree that the first step in training is to develop the trainee’s self-awareness, which includes “how their own culture is perceived by others and how its assumptions and strategies contribute to or detract from cross-cultural interaction” (Stewart, as cited in Kimmel, 2006, p. 634). This may be done through role plays to experience misperceptions and miscommunications directly or on video with pre and post discussions (Kimmel, 2006).

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Another approach to self-reflection utilizes self-administered, pre-training surveys of a participant’s cultural intelligence (CQ) as a baseline (Earley & Mosakowski, 2014). In addition, Coleman Raider Workshops (Raider et al., 2006) are based on an experiential learning model, which teaches adult learners “to make collaboration the preferred response to conflict” (p. 696). Its first module divides the group into two opposing parties; the role play is recorded on video and played back to provide a baseline to identify skills that need work and to promote shared learning. It is specifically designed to challenge learners to examine their preexisting theories about competition, collaboration and behaviors for resolving conflict, make them feel uncomfortable and promote selfreflection to modify problem behaviors. Raider et al. (2006) noted that “people may cognitively understand the principles of collaboration, but still persist in using the same competitive mode” (p. 702). Terrell goes even further and recommends training leaders to identify and suspend personal bias (2012). With clear understanding of cultures and mutual perceptions cultural gaps may be filled, thereby enabling successful cross-collaboration.

Effective Communication When training leaders on how to collaborate across cultures it is important to recognize that each culture brings its own perspective and values to the table, especially in terms of effective communication. LeBaron (2008) notes that “the general ability to notice and respond to diverse communication, starting points and worldviews, tolerance for ambiguity, specific ability to respond effectively to power dynamics and other complexities – is essential to effective practice” (p. 47). Effective communication is not merely allowing the other party to speak, but to also listen intently, observe non-verbal cues, notice tone of speech, observe body language, gestures and facial expressions. In addition, effective communication requires parties to be tolerant and receptive to the other’s cultural values.

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Most likely, if a leadership team fails to communicate effectively, the partnership will not be successful no matter how appealing the business strategic plan. Simpson and Luinen (2009) note that although culture fosters a sense of identity, it can also create conflict by “setting up ‘an usagainst-them’ mentality” (p. 9). Therefore, effective communication includes accurate translation of language and education of respective cultural values. As an immigrant to the U.S., author Wright observed that an American might say “How are you?” without expecting an answer because it is merely a social greeting. In contrast, Wright noted that words communicate the literal message in Sweden and the same question would be regarded as an inquiry of health (personal communication, August 15, 2014). This proves that, in the best interest of each party, an organization should research accepted cultural frameworks, including as many general practices as possible before engaging in cross-cultural collaboration. Stakeholders should strive to understand what is accepted and not accepted in respective cultures. Effective communication in Western low context cultures often involves paraphrasing and reframing with stakeholders, or active listening, to ensure successful collaboration. Paraphrasing will ensure that organizational partners hear what is being said by stating the message in different words but with similar meaning. To illustrate, stakeholders may say “What I hear you say is...” or “What I think you are trying to communicate is..? Each party may include a question-and-answer session upon conclusion of the meeting or training.

Custom Designed Learning Terrell’s (2011) phenomenological study of 12 successful global leaders found that personal attributes included desire to learn, drive to develop competencies and use of intuitive learning. Other researchers identified attributes such as curiosity, a taste for risk and “courage” (Lee, 2007; Marsick & Cederholm, 1988, p. 11). According to Pedersen

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(2006) some people are more capable of accepting uncertainty because they can visualize the alternatives available and make suitable decisions. A successful cross-cultural training program includes analysis of stakeholders’ personal attributes to create a customized training program. Thus, the program recognizes personal attributes such as willingness to change and adapt (Brooke, 2012).

Ideal Behaviors Numerous researchers advocate desirable behaviors to facilitate collaboration across cultures. For example, Cohen and Sunoo (as cited in Pedersen, 2006) recommend that negotiators practice behaviors to adapt to new cultures which include saving face and recognizing “the importance of outward appearances” (p. 257). The American Psychological Association also outlined guidelines for multicultural competencies, which include awareness of one’s own assumptions in contrast to other worldviews (Sue, et al., as cited in Pedersen, 2006). In other words, cross-cultural training should include the stakeholders’ self-reflection with focus on cultural awareness.

Working in Peer Groups Another successful training component is working in peer groups over an extended period under the guidance of an experienced third-party, such as a coach, mentor, facilitator, or trainer (Coutu, et al., 2009; Hewes & Patterson 2012; Kimmel, 2006; Unruh & Cabrera, 2013). The benefits of group membership include feedback, commitment, team spirit, trust-building, accountability, sharing in a safe environment, and support. Terrell (2011) found that global leaders tested new behaviors, learned from mistakes and benefited from trial and error before the real event. Hewes and Patterson (2012) required trainees to report on their assignments at the beginning of each workshop and share how they applied key concepts between workshops.

Role of Third Parties A survey of 140 professional coaches in the U.S. concluded that coaches are used to develop the leadership capabilities of high-potential managers (Coutu, et al., 2009). The survey also supported two basic rules for hiring a coach: willingness and independence (2009). Hewes and Patterson (2012) suggest that coaches are necessary and effective because they keep people focused and make them responsible. A third party can teach trainees to be more aware of different cultures, thereby avoiding misperceptions and errors of attribution. In addition, Kimmel found that the role of a third party encompasses feedback from other negotiators, mediators and trainers for increased awareness and capabilities (2006).

Personal Responsibility for Learning Although practitioners point out the many benefits of training in peer groups, Guttman (2012) favors “self-coaching” for lower-level managers who do not qualify for high-priced coaches (p. 8). He cautions that “coachees” have to be willing to change their behavior permanently and to be held responsible for their own learning (2012). Therefore, participants ought to accept personal responsibility even in uncomfortable situations that are beyond the scope of their own culture, experience or perceptions. Basically, the participant has to be willing to train to be culturally advanced. The findings are supported by Unruh and Cabrera’s (2013) study of executives, which stated “a do-ityourself mind-set is key” and instructed managers to focus on experimental international training (p. 136). However, currently there is not enough training. Only a third of companies surveyed by the American Management Association in 2011 reported training programs for global leadership development (as cited in Unruh & Cabrera, 2013, p. 136).

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Real Life Scenarios: Role Play Author M. Manning recommends using realistic role-plays for effective cross-cultural collaboration training, as evidenced by the results of her International Peace building class described later in the chapter (personal communication, July 7, 2014). Manning’s finding is supported by Kimmel, who advocates that effective training needs to be specific, use real-life scenarios and include current relatable topics (2006). Therefore, participants can be stimulated and engaged while using realistic and relatable scenarios. Foy agrees that effective action learning in organizational settings requires “real problems in unfamiliar situations with unknown outcomes and the use of experience to find solutions to the problems” (as cited in Marsick & Cederholm, 1988, p. 7).

Global Travel Chapter authors with experience in Mexico, Sweden, Morocco and New Zealand agree that, for optimum effectiveness, trainees have to “go there” and experience direct observations of cultural interactions. In tandem, Terrell (2011) concluded that global leaders develop through “first-hand, cross-cultural and global leadership experience,” (p. 206). The premise of crosscultural collaboration is that many cultures must at least be understood in order to have successful collaboration. Chapter authors propose that access to global travel, immersion in other cultures and firsthand experiences reduces conflict and resistance to collaboration. Pedersen (2006) reported that those with “cross-cutting, high-complexity memberships tend to be more accepting of outgroups” (p. 658). Along the same lines, researchers Earley and Mosakowski (2004) sent trainees with little preparation to enter a foreign culture to test their strengths, similar to M. Manning’s experience in Morocco (personal communication, July 7, 2014). This practice reveals team’s strengths and weaknesses. For example, the person who excels at

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mimicry ventures out first to greet locals and find out where to buy coffee and a newspaper, while someone whose strength is analysis observes new cultural events and explains them to the rest of the group. In addition, Unruh and Cabrera (2013) recommend immersion in the culture by seeking opportunities to work, vacation or volunteer with other nationalities. Immersion helps develop competencies by taking risks in “…unfamiliar situations and challenging their mental models” according to Unruh and Cabrera (p. 137). Thus, trainers and trainees note differences during immersion, which are called divergence, but also focus on making cultural connections. For example, Lalit Ahuja, hired to outsource IT operations in India for Target Corporation of Minnesota, traveled to the U.S. to study its culture and noted divergences such as “lower wages and a time difference that allows Target India to maintain operations 24/7” (Unruh & Cabrera, 2013, p. 139).

Case Study: NCRP International Peace Building Class Author M. Manning teaches undergraduate students international peacebuilding. She requires classes to watch brief videos of cross-cultural business meetings showing Americans behaving in a culturally inappropriate manner with their counterparts from China, Japan, Mexico or Germany. After discussions to identify offensive behaviors, the class splits into groups and are assigned a role play based on a current event, such as the meeting between U.S. Vice President Joe Biden and Mexican President Enrique Peña Nieto, or the arrest of a Saudi princess in Orange County, California, for allegedly forcing a domestic worker to work long hours for meager pay. Half of each group represents the American contingency and the other half that of the Mexican or Saudi team. Each group prepares for the international meeting by reading textbooks on international negotiation (Lee, 2007; Requejo & Graham, 2008) and researching online (CIA World

 Effective Training for International Cross-Cultural Collaboration and Leadership

Facts, 2013; Leadership Crossroads, 2013). The students representing the Americans are required to demonstrate the culturally inappropriate way to handle the negotiation first and then switch to the appropriate way. The rest of the class acts as observers who note all of the behavioral, verbal and non-verbal nuances, such as how business cards were exchanged and the giving of gifts. After the role play ends, the observers volunteer feedback and each role-play group share their preparation, goals, feelings and evaluations of the outcome for the meeting (M. Manning, personal communication, July 7, 2014). Students report discomfort when they display inappropriate behavior and internalize more comfortable feelings as they demonstrate culturally appropriate behavior.

Case Study: Training of Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) in Mexico Author Y. Durazo, M.A., Conflict Resolution Specialist, Mediation and an Associate Certified Credential Coach (ACC) from San Diego, California was invited to provide training on conciliation and mediation to attorneys and professionals working as mediators for governmental agencies throughout Guanajuato and neighboring cities in March 2014, (personal communication, July 7, 2014). An ADR initiative was introduced to government agencies and communities throughout Mexico as part of changes decreed by President Peña Nieto (Presidential Office of the Republic of Mexico, 2014). For example, the General Council of the Judiciary in the state of Leon, Guanajuato, offers training in conciliation, mediation and overall ADR systems to government agents. In addition, the General Council developed an ADR taskforce to introduce alternatives to litigation, by inviting and encouraging Mexican companies to use mediation and conflict resolution services for employer-employee disputes (Presidential Office of the Republic of Mexico, 2014). Therefore, as a direct result of the presidential decree, Mexican jurisdictions actively seek profession-

als with advanced education and ADR expertise from countries such as the U.S., where ADR is already established as part of the judicial system and the private sector. The General Council of the Judiciary utilizes trained mediators with up to 10 years of experience to provide services for its constituents, businesses and government agencies. One of the purposes is to educate instructors at judicial educational schools by bringing lecturers specialized in ADR programs from around the world. Y. Durazo currently provides this trainthe-trainer ADR program in Mexico using an experimental approach, which is learning through reflection-on-doing (Mcleon, 2013). The attorneys and government agents in Leon, Guanajuato had already taken preliminary courses in the principles of mediation at the General Council of the Judiciary school. After assessing their level of training to date, author Durazo designed a training curriculum to expand their skills as mediators. She applied the conceptual approach of conflict resolution taught through lectures and text books combined with the experiential process, which was well-received by the students (Y. Durazo, personal communication, July 7, 2014). Durazo uses experiential learning as a basis for her peer-group training program for Mexican attorneys, by practicing mediation in role plays based on real cases (personal communication, July 7, 2014. ADR concepts are relatively new to Mexico and many attorneys trained in adversarial legal practices struggle to learn new ways of handling conflict, especially maintaining impartiality in mediation (Y. Durazo, personal communication, July 7, 2014). During the ADR training sessions, attorneys were invited to provide a scenario they already mediated or experienced. Y. Durazo noted a power imbalance in a mock mediation involving a multi-party conflict. The case example was a woman who expressed that she was afraid of her husband who psychologically abused her. In the mock mediation, the participants overlooked the woman’s fear and power imbalance and missed how it resulted in an unsuccessful mediation. At

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the end of the training session, Y. Durazo clarified that “a mediator has the responsibility to create a safe, neutral and balanced environment” (personal communication, July 7, 2014). Moreover, she also advised the participants to be mindful of power imbalances when dealing with Mexico’s powerful families, especially for the person in a powerdown position. Although it would prove difficult to challenge the status quo, she observed that the Mexican attorneys welcomed ADR processes to empower constituents to address conflicts through an alternative to litigation (Y. Durazo, personal communication, July 7, 2014). Author Durazo also provides training exercises to develop an appreciation of how the different personality styles of the mediating parties and the mediator’s own style can escalate or resolve conflict. Durazo stated, “A good conflict resolution professional must know themselves first, before becoming a neutral for the conflicted parties and to have empathy for others in conflict” (Y. Durazo, personal communication, July 7, 2014).

MEASUREMENT OF TRAINING RESULTS Positive Outcomes A study by Honeywell confirmed that managers learned best from their own experience on the job: “50% of the ways in which managers learned came from challenging job experiences, 30% from relationships with others in the organization and… 20% from training” (Marsick & Cederholm, 1988, p. 8). The study noted that managers had to invest their own time and energy to learn the most. In addition, Swedish Management Institute of Lund (MiL) reported that managers and corporations that took part in training programs saw “significant growth in leadership and personal development,

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ability to work with and through others,” confirmed by the fact that more than 50 percent of participants became company presidents (Marsick & Cederholm, 1988, p. 4).

Measurement of Training Although training programs may report positive results, there are issues of objectivity and generalization because of factors such as self-reporting, anecdotal reporting, personal observations, lack of quantitative data and the difference between practitioners’ observations versus researchers’ theories. Chapter authors propose that issues are due to inaccurate and subjective data. The finding is supported by Coutu and associates (2009), who reported that surveyed coaches claimed effectiveness of training programs anecdotally and that “…research has not followed coached executives over long periods of time to record effectiveness” (p. 93). In addition, Terrell (2011) prefaced his conclusions with a caution about the small sample size of 12 global leaders. Another issue that has not been explored in depth was whether the desirable personal attributes that enhanced training, especially for global leaders, were inherent, learned or a combination of both. For example, as in the case of ADR training in Mexico, success of the training is judged by the ability of newly trained attorneys to conduct mediation sessions that mutually satisfy the parties in conflict. Currently, the tangible measurement is the written mutual agreement that represents the stakeholders’ interests. Another indicator of success for the Guanajuato jurisdiction is collected data on the number of mediated versus litigated cases, and outcomes before and after the introduction of ADR. Rahim (2001) suggests tracking attorneys’ long-term evaluations to monitor whether the use of ADR advanced their careers or had on impact on the bottom line of organizations.

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FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS

CONCLUSION

Raider et al. (2006) strongly recommend that “researchers should consult practitioners and trainers on what they believe to be most effective from their experience and then develop methods to systematically verify it” (p. 716). Objective and measurable results that translate into desired outcomes in the real world of international organizations are necessary. The experience and observations of authors Y. Durazo, M. Manning and G. Wright also support these conclusions and suggest future research of follow-up on training programs. In addition, the authors propose future research on training program implementation and how they meet specific goals of the organization. The authors recommend that gathering this data should be the starting point for any training program. Data collection would include researching the organization’s history, mission statement, annual statements, financial reports, marketing information, competitors, litigation records, human resources practices and interviews with executive teams to articulate the vision for the future. Only then can a customized training program objectively measure its effectiveness to fulfill stated goals. The proposed effectiveness of training could be measured by recording production levels, market penetration, overhead costs and net profits. Additionally, measured results could stimulate research and development of new products or new methods of delivery, improve safety standards, restore the environment, reduce employee turnover and most importantly, introduce collaboration as an alternative to competition and conflict. Currently, there are not enough measurable and quantifiable data sets to measure the effectiveness of cross-cultural collaboration training programs.

The authors conclude that effective cross-cultural leadership training occurs when managers learn by their own experience in realistic exercises, but “going there” is the best strategy. The conclusion is supported by Revans’ research stating that disseminated expert information (P) about other cultures is useful, but the emotional component is necessary to internalize learning (Q) (as cited in Marsick & Cederholm, 1988). In addition, this chapter emphasized that learning is enhanced by training components such as self-awareness, feedback and reflective practice. The authors illustrate challenges, results and real world training programs with relevant case studies based on their own expertise and experience. The authors found that the main issue and basis for future research is a lack of objective measurable results of cross cultural collaboration. In conclusion, cross- cultural collaboration and training is essential to marry diverse cultural values in our shrinking globalized world. Effective cross-cultural collaboration requires training leaders and stakeholders to communicate effectively, optimally leading to a synergy of combined ideas to transform leadership across the globe.

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Kimmel, P. R. (2006). Culture and conflict. In M. Deutsch, P. T. Coleman, & E. C. Marcus (Eds.), The handbook of conflict resolution: Theory and practice (2nd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Klare, M. T. (1996). Redefining security: The new global schisms. Current History (New York, N.Y.), 95, 353–358. Retrieved from http:// www.u.arizona.edu/~volgy/klare.htm Leadership Crossroads. (2014). Global cultures workshops – maximizing your business success in Europe/Asia/China/India). Retrieved from http:// leadershipcrossroads.com/wk_gcul.asp#lcct LeBaron, M., & Patera, M. (2009). Reflective practice in the new millennium. Retrieved from, http://law.hamline.edu/files/4-LeBaron-PateraReflective_Practice_FINAL_May_09.pdf Lee, C. (2007). The new rules of international negotiation: Building relationships, earning trust, and creating influence around the world. Franklin Lakes, NJ: Career Press. Lerner, H. (1994). The dance of deception. New York, NY: Harper Collins Publisher, Inc. Li, S. (2013, March 21). Five years in, Fresh & Easy markets are a flop. Los Angeles Times. Retrieved from http://articles.latimes.com/print/2013/ mar/21/business/la-fi-fresh-easy-woes-20130321 Lynch, J. (2003). Integrated conflict management programs emerge as an organization-development strategy. Conflict Prevention and Resolution Institute for Dispute Resolution, 21(5), 99–113. doi:10.1002/alt.3810210505 Manning, M. (2008). Morocco: How does increasing democratization impact terrorism? Unpublished master’s thesis. Carson, CA: California State University Dominguez Hills.

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Marsick, V. J., & Cederholm, L. (1988). Developing leadership in international managers – an urgent challenge! The Columbia Journal of World Business, 23(4), 3–11. Retrieved from http://0web.b.ebscohost. com.torofind.csudh.edu/ehost/pdfviewer/ pdfviewer?vid=2&sid=0b431a02-b3a7-4e9281c3-f54f4d0366bb%40sessionmgr111&hid=115 Mayer, B. (2000). The dynamics of conflict resolution: A practitioner’s guide. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

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Ruiz, E. C. (2009). The impact of NAFTA on training and development in Mexico: the perspective of Mexican senior government agency officials. New Horizons in Adult Education and Human Resource Development 23(4), 51-66. Retrieved from http:// files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ905801.pdf

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Rothman, J. (1997). Resolving identity-based conflict in nations, organizations and communities. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

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Salmon, L. D., Gelfand, M. J., Çelik, A. B., Kraus, S., Wilkenfeld, J., & Inman, M. (2013). Cultural contingencies of mediation: Effectiveness of mediator styles in intercultural disputes. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 34(6), 887–909. doi:10.1002/job.1870 Schellenberg, J. A. (1996). Conflict resolution: Theory, research and practice. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. Secretariat, N. A. F. T. A. (2014). Methods/Forms or Private Dispute Resolution Available. Retrieved from https://www.nafta-sec-alena.org/Default. aspx?tabid=106&language=en-US Simpson, M., & Luinen, E. (2009). Is this a good fit? The connection between organizational culture and communications style. Los Angeles, CA: PSM. Skatteverket [Swedish Tax Agency] (December, 2010). Taxes in Sweden 2010. Retrieved from, http://www.skatteverket.se/download/18.616b7 8ca12d1247a4b2800025728/10411.pdf Snyder, R. (2014, July 7). Lofty ambitions for bitcoin ATMs. Los Angeles Times, pp. B1, B4. Retrieved from http://www.latimes.com/business/ la-fi-robocoin-20140708-story.html Sodertalje Kommun [Sodertalje County] (2014). Sodertalje in the world, the world in Sodertalje. Retrieved from http://www.sodertalje.se/mainupload/dokument/Kommun%20o%20demokrati/ Om%20S%C3%B6dert%C3%A4lje/Presentation_engelsk_120103_webb.pdf Terrell, S. (2011). How global leaders develop: A phenomenological study of global leadership development. Retrieved from Proquest Digital Dissertation (3432281). http://pqdtopen.proquest. com/pubnum/3432281.html The Local. (2011, August 10). Religious conflict on the rise in Sweden. Retrieved from http://www. thelocal.se/20110810/35462

Trading Economics. (2014, June 11). Sweden population 1960-2014. Retrieved from http:// wwwtradingeconomics.com/Sweden/population Unruh, G. C., & Cabrera, A. (2013). Join the global elite. Harvard Business Review, 91(5), 135–139. doi:10.2469/dig.v43.n4.60 Vado Grajales, L. C. (n.d.). Medios alternativos de resolución de conflictos [Alternate means of conflicto resolution]. Retrieved from http://biblio. juridicas.unam.mx/libros/5/2264/19.pdf Wheeler, L. A., Updegraff, K. A., & Thayer, S. M. (2013). Conflict resolution in Mexican-origin couples: Culture, gender, and marital quality. National Institute of Health, 72(4), 1-18. Wilkinson, T. (2014, February 6). Panama Canal expansion disputes cost overruns. Los Angeles Times. Retrieved from http://www.latimes.com/ world/worldnow/la-fg-wn-panama-canal-expansion-disputes-cost-overruns-20140206-story.html

ADDITIONAL READING Bowling, D., & Hoffman, D. A. (2003). Bringing Peace Into the Room, How the Personal Qualities of the Mediator Impact the Process of Conflict Resolution. San Francisco, California: Jossey-Bass. Bush, R. A., & Folger, J. P. (1994). The Promise of Mediation Responding to Conflict Through Empowerment and Recognition. San Francisco, California: Jossey-Bass Inc. Fisher, R., Ury, W., & Patton, B. (1991). Getting to yes: Negotiating agreement without giving in. New York, NY: Penguin Books. Ury, W. (1993). Getting past no: Negotiating in difficult situations. New York, NY: Bantam Books.

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KEY DEFINITIONS AND TERMS Alternative Dispute Resolution: It is a collective term for the ways that parties can settle disputes, with (or without) the help of a third party. Includes dispute resolution processes and techniques that act as a means for disagreeing parties to come to an agreement; mediation, negotiation, mini trial, early neutral evaluation, conflict coaching, mediation-arbitration and arbitration are among these ADR process. Some courts now require some parties to resort to ADR of some type, usually mediation, before permitting the parties’ cases to be tried in court. ADR imposes fewer costs than litigation. Coaching (Conflict): Conflict coaching is an alternative dispute resolution technique, defined as a set of skills and strategies used to support peoples’ ability to engage in, manage, or productively resolve conflict. In this process, the conflict coach works one-on-one with a coachee experiencing conflict with another person. Conflict coaching enables the coachee to talk about the conflict with a neutral third party (the conflict coach), consider options for managing the conflict, and design an approach to discuss the conflict with the other person. Conflict coaching can be used as a stand-alone process, or can be practiced with each of the parties in separate meetings during mediation. Conflict coaching can be useful in a variety of circumstances, including conflicts in the workplace, divorce and post-decree situations, community disputes, family disagreements, or business conflicts In such situations, the conflict coach can serve as a confidential listener, help the coachee to see the situation from all perspectives, support the coachee in considering options, and

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help the coachee to come up with a plan of action to deal with the conflict. In conflict coaching, the coachee, not the conflict coach, is responsible for the outcome. Experiential Learning: Is learning through reflection on doing. It is a method of educating through first-hand experience. The combination of skills, knowledge and experience are acquired outside of the traditional academic classroom setting, and may include internships, studies abroad, field trips, field research and service learning projects. It is based on elements which operate in a continuous cycle during the learning experience. Experiential Techniques: Experiential learning is a method of educating through first-hand experience. Skills, knowledge and experience are acquired outside of the traditional academic class room setting, and may include internships, studies abroad, field trips, field research and service learning projects. Leaders: Making reference to individuals in higher government or business position that are influencing and leading others efforts; CEO, presidents, manager, government agents. Neutral: (noun) A person or a nation that remains neutral, as in a controversy or war. Party/Parties: A person or group involved or participating in a conflict, dispute, issues, or argument. Parties participating in a process of mediation due to experiencing conflict or wanting to discuss issues. Personality Styles: The complex of characteristics that distinguishes an individual especially in relationships with others. The totality of an individual’s behavioral and emotional tendencies, the organization of the individual’s distinguishing character traits, attitudes, values, believes or habits.

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Chapter 6

Partnering for Purpose:

Cross-Cultural Model to Encourage Participation, Exploration, Appreciation, Reflection, and Learning in Undergraduate Education and Beyond Kirti S. Celly California State University, USA Charles E. Thomas California State University, USA

ABSTRACT The purpose of this chapter is to share with a wide range of organizational professionals three methods we find useful for educating a diverse undergraduate student body. Using metaphors from business, participants in two undergraduate classes were invited to co-create value by positioning their work in the context of their career goals. Following a description of our purposeful design for participation, exploration, appreciation, reflection and learning (PEARL), we arrive at the fertile delta that nurtures learning and grows a crop of confident, competent, culturally sensitive, and ethical participants with a refined understanding of success. We use narrative inquiry of participants’ writing to suggest that PEARL may be useful in arenas beyond the undergraduate business classroom as it is beneficial in the development of ethical, managerial, and leadership values.

INTRODUCTION Masaru Ibuka and the company he founded, Sony, have made enormous contributions to human well-being with their innovative products. This well-being and Sony’s products are results of Ibuka-san’s firm persuasion in a higher purpose: “To establish a place of work where engineers

can feel the joy of technological innovation, be aware of their mission to society, and work to their heart’s content” (Czikszentmihalyi, 2003, p. 70). Ibuka-san framed his responsibility as creating the conditions for maximizing the human potential of employees through their work and for the intrinsic purpose of promoting their personal growth and dignity; not just to create products for sale.

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-8376-1.ch006

Copyright © 2015, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

 Partnering for Purpose

Like Sony, the best organizations sprout from execution on a well-developed purpose. Masaru Ibuka didn’t start with a product, but rather an idea to develop an environment that was conducive to innovation. Execution of that vision led to the development of products that captivate the mind and imaginations of consumers around the world including professors in institutions of higher learning. The purpose of college instructors is to disseminate knowledge to their students, and by extension, to society in general. This chapter chronicles our exploration, development and refinement of the means utilized to achieve that purpose with our student population. What started as development of an interdisciplinary academic assignment led to the analysis of the common strategies and methods that resonate with our students. This examination of our individual and collective experiences has led us to closely examine and refine the purpose of our time in the classroom in ways that are distinguishable from our own undergraduate educational experiences. Within Western Civilization the “ivory tower” of academia has served as the gatekeeper and primary distributor of academic scholarship (Bok, 1982). Academic institutions historically reference the size of their library collections as a point of distinction, thereby highlighting the value proposition to scholars (Bok, 1982). As a consequence, the best and brightest scholars were typically concentrated at the universities with the greatest available resources (Bok, 1982). The result was the centralization of academic scholarship, which could be disseminated to the rest of society (Bok, 1982). The authors attended esteemed, top-tier research institutions that emphasized a top-down educational approach. This is not to say our undergraduate education sojourn was devoid of discussion; rather, graduate student assistants generally facilitated these exchanges. Access to meaningful discussions with the instructor did not occur until graduate school, and when they

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did, they focused the new developments of the discipline, and rarely forayed into the presumed knowledge proffered in undergraduate courses. As instructors, we face challenges that were not present in our respective undergraduate tenures. The first of which is technological. We teach college in an age where “google,” “wiki,” “Facebook,” “twitter,” and “What’s App” have become common parlance and constant companions. Through the Internet, information is accessible instantly through a point and click, or a few taps on the screen of a smartphone. In short, knowledge is more accessible today than ever before. Students today need not travel to the library collections of the top institutions to find cutting-edge scholarship, as it is routinely available on the Internet. Today, students can take classes and obtain college degrees without ever leaving their homes. This represents a shift in the role of undergraduate institutions serving as the sole repositories and curators of knowledge and a shift in faculty emphasis to how we teach is what we teach (Barnes, Christensen & Hansen, 1994). Reflectively, we pose the question: what is the role of the formal educator and how is their background, experience, and pedagogical approach likely to make a difference above and beyond the information available freely in the public domain? The authors both teach at a historically teaching university that is clearly distinguishable from their undergraduate experiences. We attended college full-time, and proceeded directly from high school for this pursuit. Our classes were largely homogeneous in this regard – while there were exceptions; the bulk of the student population had the opportunity to focus primarily, and many times exclusively, on their educational attainment. In contrast, we currently teach at the largest public university system in the United States – where the student population, preparedness and experience varies significantly. Within the California State University system, our campus is the most racially and ethnically diverse, with a 68.5% traditionally

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underserved student population as of fall 2013 (California State University, Office of the Chancellor, 2014). This student population generally lacks the history of familial educational attainment, as many are the first in their family to attend a university (California State University, Office of the Chancellor, 2013). Similarly, these students are products of often sub-standard high school preparation, as only 20.5% of regularly admitted first-time freshmen for fall 2013 matriculated to our campus proficient in English and math (California State University, Office of the Chancellor, 2014). The community of learners that we support is generally pursuing their degree part-time or at least in addition to full-time work demands, as the cost of higher education has continued to soar, with many students having extensive work careers prior to starting their educational journey (California State University, Office of the Chancellor, 2014). These students have a wealth of accumulated knowledge from the workforce that is often discounted within the formal academic setting. Cumulatively, these students generally lack the supports necessary to focus exclusively on their education, and the academic world represents a significant departure from their existing life experiences. In short, this student population often lacks a firm understanding of the relatedness of their formal academic journey to their existing world and future goals. Reflecting on the factors outlined above, the authors find that the traditional objective of knowledge dissemination is subservient to the challenges of creating appropriate expectations for college work and beyond, understanding and serving the multiple layers of diversity, and enrolling participants to contribute to their course, college and professional work. Our diverse, multi-faceted student body presents the following challenges: 1. Creating relevance of the materials to their own lives, academic pursuits and postcollege goals;

2. Providing opportunities for participants to take ownership of their own work, thereby increasing the value of their academic experiences; 3. Creating dynamic assignments that stretch across disciplinary boundaries and endeavor to take students beyond descriptive and rote learning within a discipline to higher order learning that emulates real-world problem solving (Lombardi, 2007; Raelin, 1997). Through development of an interdisciplinary collaborative case assignment (outlined below), the authors discovered that we had separately identified these educational challenges among our student population. These challenges necessitated a divergence from the “top-down” pedagogical approach that typified our undergraduate experience. Both of us utilize strategies to collaborate with our students in creating knowledge in the classroom. As we co-create value in our work, we have found greater participant engagement with materials as they connect their academic pursuits to their own contexts and existing experiences and build their own sense of its relevance for their lives and careers. Our student-instructor collaborative model for undergraduate education has yielded dividends with our student population by encouraging participation, exploration, appreciation, reflection and higher-level learning. We believe this approach sets the foundation for long-term success, well beyond mastery of the underlying course material. Consequently we have refined our purpose as college instructors to go beyond merely disseminating knowledge to providing the tools and opportunities for applying course materials to solve real-world problems (Lombardi, 2007). Our goal is to create the conditions for “flow” in our class environments, where participants lose themselves in work that challenges them, and develop personally as a result (for more, see Czikszentmihalyi, 2003, 2008; Vogt, 2005). Our thought is that designing work which is meaningful and involves participants in the framing and

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design of their work is transformative for the learning process, growth and well-being of our participants.

THE COLLABORATIVE MODEL FOR COLLEGE COURSE DESIGN Distilling our collective experiences from teaching at one of the most ethnically diverse public American universities west of the Mississippi, we have identified three basic methods we find effective. Building a frame of relevance, co-creating value through choice and exploration, and crossdisciplinary collaborative assignments all further our purpose driven knowledge-creation praxis with our student population. While we each use different means within our classrooms to achieve these goals, we both endeavor to engage students through active learning pedagogical techniques (Bonwell & Eison, 1991; Scardamalia & Bereiter, 2006). Our collaborative model includes partnerships between faculty and participants, participants with each other as they engage in active work such as role play, and between the two of us as we adapt, modify, extend and assess the design and execution of our work to improve the success of our learning endeavor. The authors serve as an example of cross-cultural collaboration, as we approach these issues with distinct cultural upbringings (immigrant and native born), genders and academic disciplines (marketing and law).

Building a Frame of Relevance It is generally presumed that students take courses related to their interests. However, this does not hold true for the many first-generation college students. As the first in their families to attend a four-year college, they may enter university halls without well-developed expectations and understanding of the higher education process and curriculum. For example, there are many core courses in a curriculum that are mandatory. The

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authors provide examples from two core courses within two departments in the college of business program--principles of marketing and the legal environment of business. While we do not question the importance and significance of these courses within the overall business curriculum, students often fail to see the larger vision of the degree program. These sentiments are often amplified when the core course appears to be unrelated to the student’s degree concentration – such as accounting. Stated differently, students often question the relevance of core courses to their degree mission. Traditionally, it has been the purview of academic counselors with expertise in the sequencing of courses towards graduation requirements, to make connect courses with one another and with degree goals. To promote active engagement within a course, it is also incumbent upon faculty to help students make the important connections of the particular course with the world at large, degree and career goals. Stated differently, without a frame of relevance, students can tune out. This is particularly true when the course content, methods, and principles appear to be foreign to the student’s present experiences. Below we describe an example of that process in action from each of the two courses. Framing within an introductory marketing course. Professor Celly employs two design elements in her introductory marketing courses-course introductions and a scavenger hunt assignment. Both attempt to have participants frame their work for the semester, thereby enrolling and engaging them with the relevance of the course material. Their introductory assignment requires each of them to include a few words about themselves, their hobbies, interests, and passions, as well as why they are enrolled at this university and in this class. At the outset, they are provided a rationale as to why they should introduce themselves and listen to others’ introductions. Besides the courtesies, the benefits include building a cohort and a network, and opening students’ minds to the possibility of brewing a successful entrepreneurial

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venture with a peer. The course provides an opportunity to explore such a venture as a collaborative community-based learning project. In order to light a spark in them to explore that possibility and to build an appreciation of possibilities, students are exposed to real examples of intercultural start-ups (such as Back to the Roots, Facebook, Google, and GoSMG.com) that began in the classroom and became runaway success stories. From the outset, the triumvirate of concept, context, and case, even though not expressly stated, are used as the central theme in all work. The scavenger hunt assignment tasks participants to review the draft course outline and materials in light of their personal aspirations. They then reflect on how this course and they themselves may contribute to those goals. Each participant is tasked with identifying a minimum of three distinct ideas that are interesting to them, stating why, and writing a concise, personal statement in the form of a commitment to themselves regarding their intended takeaways from the course, consistent with their stated aspirations and goals. This approach is an exercise in “enrolling” and generating a “spark of possibility” (Zander & Zander, 2000, p.125). These personal statements are then used to tailor the course coverage and finalize the course syllabus to ensure attention to the collective aspirations of the class. Framing within a legal environment course. The vast majority of students in our business program have no interest in future legal study beyond the required legal environment of business course. Moreover, their own experience with the legal system is typified by what they have seen on the various iterations of Law and Order episodes on American television. Consequently, students often presume the law of business is merely a guide to avoid engaging in illegal activity. In response, Professor Thomas has utilized a first day assignment highlighting the ways in which a business could be implicated by legal issues. At the beginning of the first class, participants are arranged into random groups, where they are

each given a report of the events that occurred that day at a fictional restaurant they own. The scenarios cover torts, employment, federal regulations as well as a few crimes. Participants are tasked with preparing for a discussion with their lawyer for which they must prioritize, as they will only have time to discuss six of the items. After making their selections, they are asked to discuss in class the rationale behind their group’s selections. The objective of the assignment is not to solve any of the legal issues, but rather to provide participants with a glimpse of how the legal environment impacts business decisions for all enterprises. Moreover, this assignment serves as a preview of the issues that will be explored in the course. Finally, this assignment demonstrates the importance of class discussion as a core component of the course pedagogical approach.

Co-Creating Value: Choice and Exploration We view our purpose as educators to engage students personally and emotionally with the material so that they can move beyond rote and descriptive learning to higher-order learning that includes deep understanding, integration, and creation. We have found that student-faculty and student-student interactions are integral to active pedagogy and leads to richer discussions. Absent buy-in, there is no “active,” no discussion, no partnership. Borrego and Manning (2007), in a student affairs writing project “Where I Am From,” suggest that educators in diverse environments working with students of color invite student narratives and use them meaningfully as “we rarely know all there is to know about students’ experiences or their dreams for the future. Students’ backgrounds are an integral part of the tapestry of their lives…. Awareness of culture, our own and that of others, is an essential aspect of identity development” (pp. 138-139). Students themselves speak to the importance of their stories “I am my own story. The right to say I am from where I am. And have

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the last word. Because I’m the only one who can answer that question” (Borrego & Manning, 2007, p. xix). They also speak of the challenges they overcome “Persistence to prove I could do more than others believed. Fear and overcoming it from hope and pride and endurance” (Borrego & Manning, 2007, p. xxiv). Without understanding the whole person, there is no basis for appreciation of the voice and contributions that each person brings to the project. Our strategy is to design into the architecture of every assignment elements of choice, exploration, and reflection so as to empower participants with a simple idea--you too have something to contribute; your voice and experiences have value. We include explicit opportunities for participants to select their own examples, and to reflect on their work within the course as it relates to their lives, thereby increasing the relevance, relatedness, and self-determination (Deci, Vallerand, Pelletier, & Ryan, 1991). Participants learn from the large variety of examples that allow opportunities for questioning and/or validating both disciplinary concepts and their own experiences: their choices may be similar or dissimilar to others in the class; their views on the same example may vary. Thus our approach incorporates all six elements recommended by Stone, Deci and Ryan (2009) for supporting intrinsic motivation: Asking open questions and inviting participation in exploring how to solve the important problems that are the subject of the assignment; active listening including acknowledging others’ perspectives as legitimate and the existence of multiple realities; offering choices within the overall structure of the assignment to create a fit with each student’s purpose and reinforce autonomy; providing sincere, positive feedback that acknowledges initiative, legitimizes opinions, and provides factual, non-judgmental qualitative feedback on how to support opinions using the course concepts and materials; minimizing negative feedback such as undefended scores/grades or comparisons with an absolute truth; and developing expertise and

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talent by sharing knowledge of best practices, including those generated within the course so as to enhance competence, relatedness and autonomy for use in later work. According to Rogers and Farson (1991), “sensitive listening is a most effective agent for individual personality change and group development… (making) changes in people’s attitudes toward themselves and others, …in their basic values and personal philosophy…more emotionally mature, more open to their experiences, less defensive, more democratic, and less authoritarian” (p. 167). Our role then is to help each participant organize their contributions coherently with the themes of the course and to listen to their own and others’ narratives. The result in our courses has been an active and engaged student body, which brings the tapestry of their varied life experiences to the fore. Offering meaningful choices within an overall structure is a tactic for increasing engagement (Stone et al., 2009). Participants actively engaged in work that is in part a result of their own choices will have their intrinsic motivation, the “natural inclination toward assimilation, mastery, spontaneous interest, and exploration that is so essential to cognitive and social development and that represents a principal source of enjoyment and vitality throughout life” reinforced. (Ryan & Deci, 2000, p. 70). Intentional design of learning and work environments that promotes playful exploration, building, and role play in diverse environments can lead to significant gains in understanding of multiple viewpoints (Brown, 2008; Herold, 2010). Offering choices serves an additional purpose beyond engaging students. Choice allows for an otherwise standard product to be somewhat customized to meet individual needs of a diverse student body within a class section or across sections and time. Consider for a moment the increasing prevalence of customization in a slew of products and services. For decades, fast food restaurants in the United States, even those with limited menus such as In-N-Out, the Southern California burger chain, have given their custom-

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ers options to customize their burgers. An entire crop of restaurants has mushroomed that engage their customers in the act of creating their own burger, pizza, sandwich, etc., from a menu of basic ingredients. One such chain, Stacked, offers you “Food Well Built,” the option of selecting your own ingredients to create exactly what you want. The Counter, a burger chain in the “creative construction” business, where “learning,” “being inventive, and “trying stuff” is the basis for encouraging customers to “create something special” from a menu of quality ingredients. In another industry, Nike, the sporting giant, offers its customers a range of customization options for various athletic shoes under the name NikeiD, and Converse allows you to select from a palette of colors and patterns to “make your own shoe.” As corporations embrace customer involvement in product creation, business strategy researchers have written at length on the benefits of co-opting customers in order to co-create value (Prahalad & Ramaswamy, 2000, 2003; Ramaswamy, 2009). In parallel, behavioral economists have shown that engaging folks in the act of creation increases the value of the creation to the folks that are so engaged (Norton, Mochon, & Ariely, 2012). In fact, the act of co-creating per se increases this perceived value, and does not have to result in actual customization or personalization. This phenomenon has been coined the IKEA effect as a nod to the global furniture designer and retailer that has been very successful at getting customers to make their own furniture from standardized components (Norton et al., 2012). We suggest that giving stakeholders (in our case students) choices serves to transform them into participants by engaging them in co-creating value and increasing their commitment to the outcomes, and more broadly, to being successful. Below are a few examples of this strategy in action. Choice and exploration within an introductory marketing course. To make the connection of concept to context explicit—all assignments are named “Marketing and Me” and are designed to

afford the opportunity for choice, reflection and expression within the architecture of the assignment. Each assignment explicitly frames student work as examining a broad concept with some prominent business examples, complemented by a choice of a specific personal example of interest to the individual student. The student then expresses reflectively whether the concept and examples make sense to them in the context of their own experiences and interests. Thus, choice and exploration are designed into the conceptcase-context model. To illustrate, some examples of “Marketing & Me” assignments are: How marketing creates value in society, examples of leading social entrepreneurs that have created such value, from which list a student selects the entrepreneur that most interests them and explores why this topic is of interest and how value is created; How companies create high-value global brands, the current list of leading global brands, and the student’s choice of a brand they have a strong emotional connection to and that they would like to examine more closely to understand its strategies for success. Examples of narratives excerpted from various creative assignments connecting through the “Marketing and Me” umbrella suggest that, regardless of their backgrounds, these students have thrown themselves wholly into making a difference through their education, are attentive to the views of others, are engaged with the materials, and appreciate that others are listening. Exploration practices within a legal environment course. The dominant educational approach in legal education is generally called the “Socratic method”. Named after the classical Greek philosopher Socrates, this praxis is formed by inquiry and discussion between the instructor and the students. Typically, the instructor will use the reading assignments as the basis to ask questions aimed at stimulating critical thinking and illuminate concepts with students. The Socratic Method is useful in creating knowledge collaboration between instructor and

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student. However, there are limitations of a strictly Socratic approach. First, this approach is still hierarchical, as the instructor is in the role of asking the pointed questions, and the students are limited to answering the questions posed by the instructor. Secondly, the discussion stems from prior legal opinions, that may, or may not, have any resonation in the experience of the students. To enhance resonance, Professor Thomas modifies this educational approach to foster greater collaboration within the classroom and increased exploration of the legal concepts in the course. The primary way this is accomplished is by recreating the facts of the case to incorporate the students into the hypothetical questions. So, rather than asking questions directly related to the fact patterns in the casebook, he makes a point to refashion the fact scenarios utilizing the students in the room. The legal concept being explored remains unchanged; however, the facts are modified to incorporate the experiences of my multi-cultural student population. When students are interjected as role players into these legal scenarios, they become invested in the course discussion, as they are asked to defend their choices and decisions. This approach is particularly effective when the facts in the assigned reading are foreign to the everyday experiences of the students. Similarly, hierarchy within the discussion is also limited by allowing students to participate in the directing the conversation. Students often use this opportunity to modify the factual scenarios; to explore whether those changes modify the legal analysis. It is in these moments that students begin to explore the contours of the legal principles, and actively utilize them to understand their own world. Similar to the Marketing & Me assignments in the principles class, this approach co-creates value and weaves a rich tapestry: students’ contexts place them at the fore of the analyses of case and concept.

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Capitalizing on Interdisciplinary Collaborative Opportunities As we have discussed both conceptually and with examples in practice, we currently use techniques for collaboration with students in our respective classes to promote active choice, exploration, and reflection. This approach resonates with our student population to increase student engagement. We have found that this strategy also works across seemingly disparate disciplines. Our exploration into this dynamic stemmed from development of an assignment that integrates marketing and legal environment issues. The authors have created an interdisciplinary role-play assignment that explores the interrelationship of marketing, legal liability and normative ethics. Our assignment concerns the use of a medical product by surgeons for purposes expressly prohibited by the Food and Drug Administration. We build upon a recent investigative report into this practice that led to multiple deaths and resulted in criminal convictions for some of the participants. The underlying facts, unedited from the news report, describe the experimentation on humans without their knowledge or consent and in direct contravention of FDA prohibitions. They illuminate how corporate greed results in egregious ethical and legal violations in business practice and, as such, generally evoke strong emotional responses. Students are assigned into groups where they are asked to assume the role of one of the participants in the story. After conducting their own research, they are asked to present a paper and an oral presentation to the rest of the class, while remaining true to their assigned role within the story. The assigned roles generally put the students in direct opposition to their initial emotions evoked by the news report. For example, students generally vilify the doctors performing the surgeries; however, they could be tasked with defending the doctor’s actions within the assign-

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ment. These presentations and classroom discussions then provide the opportunity to explore the course themes and principles of our respective courses. Simultaneously utilizing the same case and underlying facts and roles in multiple classes across the curriculum provides participants the opportunity to see the interrelatedness of seemingly disparate academic disciplines. The case and assignment immerse students as decision makers in complex, abstract, and ambiguous issues. By including them early in the course sequencing, students are given the opportunity to think about significant practices and problems and empowered to develop and share their insights. Considerable academic attention has been given to the notion of the first day and weeks of class as setting the tone for the entire course (Koval, 2013; Svinicki & McKeachie, 2011; Watkins, 2005). The assignments we have described in the framing and choice sections above, as well as our interdisciplinary collaborative assignment, are designed to challenge students to engage with the material in our courses on terms that make sense to them, while learning about significant real-world challenges. This, however, means stepping away from the syllabus early in the interaction to immediately and boldly simulate what students are expected to do throughout the period of engagement, similar to the approach taken in professional graduate schools. In our specific example, participants learn from the diversity of viewpoints presented on the same issue as seen from the vantage point of the multitude of roles played from deceased patient to field salesperson to surgeon to Chief Executive Officer; juxtaposition of their strong negative emotional reactions with the reality of wearing the cloak of various decision makers and governmental agencies; difficulty of making seemingly straightforward ethical decisions; marketing and legal concepts and processes that operate. Together, we find this assignment serves to provide context to our students of the importance of the core curriculum in their larger degree and career pursuits, as well as their roles as ethical decision makers, global citizens and leaders.

Interdisciplinary learning across a principles of marketing and a legal environment course. While we have not explicitly collected data on the interdisciplinary learning resulting from our collaborative approach, we see our students building perspectives on the same case using conceptual materials from our classes and bringing those from the other class into the discussion. For example, marketing students discuss the branding and product decisions that may have promoted the sales of the faulty product, the flawed sales and after sales support processes, poor decision making on the part of the buyers themselves as they failed to use appropriate buying decision processes, and the attractiveness of a large and growing demand. These processes highlight the difficulty of ethical leadership and of making ethical decisions, and help participants understand why so many seemingly impossible and even illegal decisions are made in the real-world. Similarly, students in the business law classes discuss the shifting of legal liability and its consequences for the various participants.

PEARL (PURPOSEFUL PARTICIPATION, EXPLORATION, APPRECIATION, REFLECTION AND LEARNING) OF WISDOM: EVIDENCE FROM OUR CROSSCOLLABORATION EFFORTS Attempts to engage students are not without risks, especially in core courses that are not within the student’s realm of interest. Choices require effort, as do reflection, self-expression, and writing (Ackerman & Gross, 2006; Ackerman & Hu, 2011; Ackerman, Gross, & Celly 2014; Iyengar, 2010; Schwartz, 2009). Creative work also requires effort. When there is no closed-ended, multiple choice response, there is no place to hide. As a young student educated in a convent, Celly was advised by nun-teachers “not to throw pearls before swine, lest they be trampled under their feet, and

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we be torn to pieces in the stampede.” How is this biblical reference relevant here? That “pearl” is allegedly a valuable pedagogical approach, “swine” is a reference to an unappreciative audience and “torn to pieces” a metaphor for students’ evaluations of the educational experience and perhaps the value of courses to their careers. At the outset, we spoke of the diversity in our student body, and, as we know well from the discipline of marketing, it is not possible to please all the people all the time. Where past experience has acculturated students to certain types of work, we should accept a reasonable amount of doubt, resistance, and even negative response to change. Given the risks, is casting a wide net with PEARL worthwhile? Is there a case for using the PEARL approach in the classroom and beyond? We argue in the affirmative. Yes, as educators, we have a moral responsibility to educate broadly in every class we teach, while focusing on the content of the individual course (McNeel, 1994). As project managers, we have a moral responsibility to build collaborative processes and tools that outlast the project, even as we bear responsibility for completing the project. As organizational leaders, we have a moral responsibility for building the quality of talent and work processes, even as we ensure short term organizational goals are met. Authentic effort and exploration, when coupled with reflection, builds understanding (here, appreciation) and learning. Rather than pontificate on the promise of PEARL, a sampling of themes from our normative inquiry of participant writing is presented in the Appendix. When elaborating on creating flow in educational and work environments, Csikszentmihalyi (2008) suggests that high perceived competence and challenging work together increase the likelihood of flow, so ensuring that the work is viewed as purposeful is important in the process. Themes emerging from the narratives suggest that our approach is promising in this regard. For example, one scavenger hunt participant states that “it became extremely easy to correlate the concepts

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into my career goals. I am pursuing a degree in International Management with high hopes and dreams to one day obtain a managerial position in an international company like Hershey’s chocolate company…. How ethics ties in to the business world sparks great interest in me. Further, my current position involves a great amount of customer service; therefore, learning theories on customer satisfaction will contribute positively to my job.” As evidenced by the samples of student work in the Appendix, we find our purpose- driven approach to undergraduate education serves our participants well not only by engaging but also with outcomes: their self-perceptions of competence, confidence, and ethical values. Through the active incorporation of student collaborative opportunities, we find students respond to the call with vigor and increased engagement in the course material, which can lead to a transformation of the student’s relationship with the learning process. Through our development of an interdisciplinary assignment, the authors themselves expanded their own understandings of the praxis they have found successful with our student population. Stated differently, one of the outgrowths of our interdisciplinary collaboration is the development and refinement of how we as educators have deviated from pedagogical approaches that typified our own undergraduate experience. Rather than replicating the top-down hierarchical approach, we have attempted to address the challenges posed by a changing technological and educational landscape that has effectively liberated societal access to scholarship. Through our collective exploration we have refined our purpose as educators to move beyond mere dissemination of knowledge, to facilitating the application of course knowledge to solve real-world problems. By providing choice to our students, we allow them autonomy to self-identify their interests within the parameters of the course (Young, 2005). Similar to retail products, when we give our students choice, they develop ownership of the end product. We have found that when students

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are given the option to participate in the development of the course materials and focus, they take that opportunity to explore the possibilities. Not only does this encourage course exploration, but it also illuminates their perspectives, viewpoints and experiences with the material. We have found increased engagement and participation in class as students go beyond the existing course materials to integrate their own worldviews. When faculty actively encourage students to frame the relevance of the course within the degree pursuit and their personal goals, all participants gain appreciation for not only the course material, but their own potential for contribution to the discussion and possibility of integration of the concepts to their world. This is particularly true when working with students that lack a history of familial educational attainment. The motivation to learn can be accelerated when students can appreciate the relevance of the subject matter to their respective lives. Our collaborative approach in the classroom emphasizes active use of the course concepts to develop solutions to real world problems. This requires students to not only absorb the underlying theories, but to reflect and use the concepts to develop dynamic solutions. As such, our students are tasked to go beyond rote memorization, to explore higher-level learning opportunities. The themes of competence, confidence and understanding of the importance of ethical decision making that emerge consistently across students’ work and in their reflective writing.

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS We have learned through the design and consistent use of our three collaborative methods in the classroom that partnering with students and with faculty across disciplines serves us well by building confident, competent, ethical and engaged students who understand how ethical

behavior translates into success. Additionally, we have ourselves grown from lecturer-instructors to educational leaders and partners with the basis for our own discovery into the methods we have developed for success in our respective classrooms. Through our collaboration and reflection, we have identified common themes within our respective adaptations from the pedagogical approaches of our own educational experiences. Our resulting model for course design is built upon collaboration with the student that leads to greater engagement in a far less hierarchical environment. In doing so we gain the insight and value the varied experiences of our diverse student population within our classrooms, thereby providing greater relevance to all participants. While limited to the educational context, we believe our collaborative model can be generalized to all organizations. While mass production has operational efficiencies, there is a movement to customization through collaboration, where all stakeholders are considered in design. Organizations that provide stakeholders a modicum of choice often gain perspectives that inform their direction to be more responsive to the true needs of the organization; this improved understanding has the potential to enhance value creation for organizations.

REFERENCES Ackerman, D. S., & Gross, B. L. (2006). How many choices are good? Measurement of the effects of course choice on perceptions of a marketing option. Journal of Marketing Education, 28(1), 69–80. doi:10.1177/0273475305284642 Ackerman, D. S., Gross, B. L., & Celly, K. S. (2014). Having many choice options seems like a great idea, but . . .: Student perceptions about the level of choice for a project topic in a marketing course. Journal of Marketing Education, 36(3), 221–232. doi:10.1177/0273475314522038

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Ackerman, D. S., & Hu, J. (2011). Effect of type of curriculum on educational outcomes and motivation among marketing students with different learning styles. Journal of Marketing Education, 33(3), 273–284. doi:10.1177/0273475311420233

California State University, Office of the Chancellor. (2014). Fall 2013 Final regularly admitted first-time freshmen proficiency – Dominguez Hills [Data file]. Retrieved from http://www.asd.calstate.edu/performance/combo/2013/Combo_Prof_DH_fall2013.htm

Barnes, L. B., Christensen, C. R., & Hansen, A. (Eds.). (1994). Teaching and the case method. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.

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Bok, D. C. (1982). Beyond the ivory tower: Social responsibilities of the modern university. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Bonwell, C. C., & Eison, J. A. (1991). ASHEERIC Higher Education Report: Vol. 1. Active learning: Creating excitement in the classroom. Washington, D.C.: The George Washington School of Education and Human Development. Borrego, S. E., & Manning, K. (2007). Where I am from: Student affairs practice from the whole of students’ lives. Washington, D.C.: National Association of Student Personnel Administrators. Brown, T. (2008). Tales of creativity and play. TED 2008 serious play conference. Video retrieved from http://www.ted.com/talks/tim_brown_on_ creativity_and_play California State University, Office of the Chancellor. (2013). Report of California state university student participation in the educational opportunity program (EOP) [Data file]. Retrieved from http://www.calstate.edu/sas/eop/about/data.shtml California State University, Office of the Chancellor. (2014). CSU enrollment by ethnic group and student level, Fall 2013 Systemwide Totals [Data file]. Retrieved from http://www.calstate.edu/as/ stat_reports/2013-2014/feth03.htm

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Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2003). Good business: Leadership, flow and the making of meaning. New York, NY: Viking. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2008). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York, NY: Harper Perennial. Deci, E. L., Vallerand, R. J., Pelletier, L. G., & Ryan, R. M. (1991). Motivation and education: The self-determination perspective. Educational Psychologist, 26(3-4), 325–346. doi:10.1080/00 461520.1991.9653137 Herold, C. (2010). Let’s raise kids to be entrepreneurs. TEDxEdmonton conference. Video retrieved from http://www.ted.com/talks/cameron_herold_let_s_raise_kids_to_be_entrepreneurs Iyengar, S. (2010). The art of choosing. New York, NY: Twelve, Hachette Book Group. Koval, M. R. (2013). Stepping away from the syllabus: Engaging students on the first day of legal environment. Journal of Legal Studies Education, 30(1), 179–194. doi:10.1111/j.17441722.2013.01117.x Lombardi, M. M. (2007). Authentic learning for the 21st century: An overview. In D. G. Oblinger (Ed.), Advancing learning through IT innovation (pp. 1–12). Washington, D.C.: ELI Papers and Reports, Educause Learning Initiative.

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Lucas, S. G. (2005). The first day of class and the rest of the semester. In W. Buskist & S. F. Davis (Eds.), Handbook of the teaching of psychology (pp. 41–45). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. McNeel, S. P. (1994). College teaching and student moral development. In J. R. Rest & D. Narvaez (Eds.), Moral development in the professions: Psychology and applied ethics (pp. 27–49). Norton, M. I., Mochon, D., & Ariely, D. (2012). The IKEA effect: When labor leads to love. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 22(3), 453–460. doi:10.1016/j.jcps.2011.08.002 Prahalad, C. K., & Ramaswamy, V. (2000). Coopting customer competence. Harvard Business Review, 78(1), 79–87. Prahalad, C. K., & Ramaswamy, V. (2003). The new frontier of experience innovation. MIT. Sloan Management Review, 44(4), 12–18. Raelin, J. A. (1997). A model of work-based learning. Organization Science, 8(6), 563–578. doi:10.1287/orsc.8.6.563 Ramaswamy, V. (2009, September). Are you ready for the co-creation movement? IESE Insight Magazine, 29-35. Rogers, C. R., & Farson, R. E. (1991). Active Listening. In C. R. Christensen & A. Hansen (Eds.), Teaching and the case method (pp. 166–174). Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. The American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68 PMID:11392867 Scardamalia, M., & Bereiter, C. (2006). Knowledge building: Theory, pedagogy, and technology. In K. Sawyer (Ed.), Cambridge Handbook of the Learning Sciences (pp. 97–118). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

Schwartz, B. (2009). Incentives, choice, education and well-being. Oxford Review of Education, 35(3), 391–403. doi:10.1080/03054980902934993 Stone, D. N., Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2009). Beyond talk: Creating autonomous motivation through self-determination theory. Journal of General Management, 34(3), 75–91. Svinicki, M., & McKeachie, W. J. (Eds. 2011). McKeachie’s teaching tips: Strategies, research, and theory for college and university teachers (13th ed.), Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Vogt, C. P. (2005). Maximizing human potential: Capabilities theory and the professional work environment. false. Journal of Business Ethics, 58(1), 111–123. doi:10.1007/s10551-005-1423-6 Watkins, C. (2005). Classrooms as learning communities: A review of research. London Review of Education, 3(1), 47–64. doi:10.1080/14748460500036276 Young, M. R. (2005). The motivational effects of the classroom environment in facilitating self-regulated learning. Journal of Marketing Education, 27(1), 25–40. doi:10.1177/0273475304273346 Zander, R. A., & Zander, B. (2000). The art of possibility: Transforming professional and personal life. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.

ADDITIONAL READING Ariely, D. (2010). The upside of irrationality: The unexpected benefits of defying logic at work and at home. New York, NY: HarperCollins Publishers. Astin, A. W., Astin, H. S., & Lindholm, J. A. (2011). Cultivating the spirit: How college can enhance students’ inner lives. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

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Bendapudi, N., & Leone, R. P. (2003). Psychological implications of customer participation in coproduction. Journal of Marketing, 67(1), 14–28.

Ruggiero, V. R. (2003). Making your mind matter: Strategies for increasing practical intelligence. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.

Carmon, Z., & Ariely, D. (2000). Focusing on the forgone: How value can appear so different to buyers and sellers. The Journal of Consumer Research, 27(3), 360–370.

Schwartz, B. (2004). The paradox of choice: Why more is less. New York, NY: HarperCollins.

Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Franke, N., Schreier, M., & Marschak, J. (2009). The “I designed it myself” effect in mass communications. Management Science, 56(1), 125–140. Iyengar, S., & Lepper, M. R. (2000). When choice is demotivating: Can one desire too much Iyengar, S. S., Wells, R. E., & Schwartz, B. (2006). Doing better but feeling worse: Looking for Kruger, J., Wirtz, D., Van Boven, L., & Altermatt, T. W. (2004). The effort heuristic. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 40(1), 91–98. Langer, E. J. (1975). The illusion of control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32(2), 311–328. Lepper, M. R., & Hodell, M. (1989). Intrinsic motivation in the classroom. In C. Ames & R. E. Ames (Eds.), Research on Motivation in Education (Vol. 3, pp. 73–105). New York, NY: Academic Press. Of a good thing? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79(6), 995–1006. Prahalad, C. K., & Ramaswamy, V. (2004). The future of competition: Co-creating unique value with customers. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.

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the‘. ‘best’’ job undermines satisfaction. Psychological Science, 17(2), 143–150. Whyte, D. (2002). The heart aroused: Poetry and the preservation of the soul in corporate America. New York, NY: Doubleday. Whyte, D. (2002). Crossing the unknown sea: Work as a pilgrimage of identity. New York, NY: The Berkley Publishing Group.

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Co-Creation of Value: Active involvement and participation in selecting alternatives and designing experiences through customization and/ or personalization. Enrolling: Practice of generating a spark of possibility for others to share. Flow: State of heightened focus and immersion in activities such as art, play and work, often associated with enjoyment and reduced self-consciousness. IKEA Effect: Increase in the perceived value of products that are co-created; value is demonstrated to increase only when tasks are successfully completed. Intrinsic Motivation: Natural inclination toward assimilation, mastery, spontaneous interest, and exploration that is so essential to cognitive and social development and that represents a principal source of enjoyment and vitality throughout life.

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APPENDIX Table 1. Pearls of Wisdom: evidence from narrative inquiry of student writing Emergent Themes

Excerpts from Narratives

Competence

my talents and abilities; scholastic ability; artistic qualities; smart accountant; learned the tricks to becoming a successful marketer; have a deeper understanding of the different roles that marketing can play in society.

Confidence

Mount Everest…Eaglerina…I am a uniquely valued product that has a purpose and place in this world, now all I have to do is find the right fit for me; quick but accurate…, will save each penny for you; more aware, more educated; strong, smart and successful; I am the success…the one that now understands the principles of marketing.

Ethical Values

honesty is key, combined with integrity; ethical sensitivities will continue to be part of my inner captivity; need to play out ethical theories and guidelines to maintain a business that will thrive without damages to third parties or employees; my integrity is intact so I can command the type of valued relationships I desire; belief and trust are extremely important…because I tend to only do business with ethical companies that share my values.

Engagement

Bistro 24 Good hands on, get to know your neighbors activity. …It was more about how we came up with our answers;I think this was an excellent ice breaker for the class as a whole. It helped us talk to classmates we probably would’ve never talked to the entire semester. It also gave an idea of what legal matters we are aware of; perfect way to introduce the expectations from us and what kind of teaching style you have; It was a fun activity. It got me thinking about all the slip and fall accidents that happen at my job and how stressful it must be for the company having to deal with attorneys; I loved it because it kept the wheels turning in my head & kept me on my toes. I can’t wait for tomorrow’s session!!! Lifestyle day in this course and it’s already been so inspirational! Marketing & Me the Marketing & Me assignment was very interesting; the assigned reading was very inspirational; the syllabus, role play, art, poems and reflections…many added to a lifetime of memories; the joy of reading my poem was rewarding. I have decided to continue to add to my blue book of poetry; this exercise was quite unexpected….however once I started sinking into the assignment, I really began to enjoy it. I noticed a much clearer and concise picture of marketing.

Success: What it takes to be a leader

a successful marketer is: a strong communicator, has a great product, they know how to promote, they walk a tight rope, and they are so devoted; branding yourself can be a lifetime value…of course if a person is trying to impress CEOs or managers or even other co-workers, then one does have to promote ourselves as a brand we would like them to buy; I am the success, the overcomer and achiever, the retaker and believer;

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Section 3

Effective Service of Underserved Communities

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Chapter 7

Effective School Leadership for Māori Achievement:

Building Capacity through Indigenous, National, and International CrossCultural Collaboration Andrés P. Santamaría Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand Melinda Webber The University of Auckland, New Zealand Lorri J. Santamaría The University of Auckland, New Zealand

ABSTRACT This chapter leads a critical discourse amongst research and educational leadership communities around the nature of cross-cultural interactions and the role diversity plays in changing the status quo with regard to access, equity and academic achievement. Through this strengths-based qualitative inquiry, the authors bridge Kaupapa Māori (Māori ideology) and critical race theory methodologies with Māori and non-Māori culturally responsive leadership frameworks. Prerequisite conditions for effective crosscollaboration are presented based on the experiences of an international, interdisciplinary research team in collaboration with practicing Māori and non-Māori leaders of primary and secondary schools in Aotearoa New Zealand (NZ). The aim of the partnership is to promote the voices and practices of effective school leaders, through cross-cultural collaboration and research, to continue building critical mass for the important role of informing effective, culturally responsive leadership practices across Aotearoa NZ.

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-8376-1.ch007

Copyright © 2015, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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INTRODUCTION For school leaders, responding to the needs of an ever-increasing diverse student population and the academic achievement disparities that exist between culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) learners and mainstream student populations requires a multi-dimensional kind of leadership. This approach must tap into resources developed through cross-cultural, interdisciplinary, and collaborative relationships. These relationships can be found in a variety of contexts, many of which are placed outside of the immediate school setting, requiring principals to be innovative, think outside the box, and even courageously step outside their comfort zone or usual patterns of practice to seek influence from alternative, but perhaps more appropriate, voices. Critical for improving leadership practice and school outcomes is the need to bridge across the divides separating schools and school leaders from each other, as well as from groups and organizations within the community. More specifically, within the Aotearoa New Zealand (NZ) context where Māori (the Indigenous people of Aotearoa NZ) students are outperformed by their Pākehā (New Zealanders of European descent) counterparts, improving educational outcomes for underperforming Māori, as well as for Pasifika (e.g., Samoan, Tongan, Fijian, Niuean, Cook Island Māori) and other students impacted by disparities in achievement outcomes, requires a collaborative effort between Māori and non-Māori principals, and even between school principals and academic scholars. The success of Māori students is a matter of national interest and priority and, thus, serves as the central focus of this chapter. Related to the gaps separating Latino, African American, American Indian, and other historically marginalized learners in the United States (U.S.), the achievement gap between Māori and Pākehā students continues to be one of the main areas of focus in terms of strategic planning and is a priority identified by

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Aotearoa NZ’s Ministry of Education (Ministry of Education, 2013). In 2013, approximately 88.3% of Pākehā students in Year 11 achieved Level 1 of the National Certificate of Educational Achievement (NCEA – Aotearoa NZ’s standards’ based national testing system), while only 70.7% of Māori students achieved this same qualification [New Zealand Qualifications Authority (NZQA), 2014]. Additionally, in 2012, approximately one in ten Māori students left school without achieving any qualifications, which is three times higher than for Pākehā students. Despite an improvement in the achievement levels of both ethnic groups between 2009 and 2013, the achievement gap has persisted. Within Aotearoa NZ’s educational school system, there exists a high degree of autonomy resulting from a school-based management approach initiated by Tomorrow’s Schools in 1989 (New Zealand Council for Educational Research, 2013). One of the unintended outcomes of Tomorrow’s Schools has been an increased level of competition between schools with regard to achievement outcomes as measured by standardized tests. This poses an issue for fostering an educational climate that promotes inter-school collaborative leadership, wherein principals develop partnerships with other school leaders to address common barriers towards improving student achievement (e.g., impact of low socio-economic status on achievement, effectiveness of professional development, ability for teachers to differentiate classroom instruction for high priority learners) (Ministry of Education, 2013). Nationwide, the Ministry of Education serves as the institutional body advising all schools. Without centralized organizational networks to unify schools like school districts in the U.S., cross-school collaboration can be challenging for principals to engage in shared-decision making practices with other principals. This structural divide between schools, however, is only one layer of complexity influencing the potential for school leaders to work collaboratively.

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Aotearoa NZ has been governed since 1840 by a bicultural treaty written in English and te reo (Māori language) by representatives of the British Crown and 540 Māori rangatira (Māori Chiefs) (Orange, 2011). The Treaty of Waitangi, as it is called, is considered the country’s founding document. Although the Treaty provides assurances for a bicultural society, Māori and non-Māori, the non-Māori aspect now reflects European New Zealanders, Asian, Pasifika, those from the Middle East, the Americas, and Africa and as such is multicultural (New Zealand Government, 2013). Because of the bicultural history of the country and persisting monocultural educational system within the current multicultural landscape, Māori well-being, educational achievement and civic participation have been an ongoing priority for all disciplines. This has implications for Aotearoa NZ’s educational leadership, including the need for greater Māori representation in leadership (Durie, 2005) and/or more Treaty responsive leadership from non-Māori school principals. It raises questions about what effective educational leadership for improving Māori achievement needs to look like in order to impact positively on Māori in both English and Māori-medium or language schooling. It is the authors’ belief that Aotearoa NZ’s bicultural context, driven by the historical underpinnings of the Treaty, may potentially serve as a greater catalyst for collaboration. An understanding and applied practice of Treaty-responsivity, similar to cultural responsivity, as a means to foster cross-collaboration within an educational leadership or international leadership context is critical when Māori and non-Māori or crosscultural principals of mainstream schools strive to build whanaungatanga (relationship) to achieve one common purpose – “improving Māori success as Māori” (Ministry of Education, 2013). In similar international leadership contexts this idea would emphasise Indigenous learners succeeding in the education system, while maintaining and enhancing their identity, language, and culture as an indigenous person.

In the Aotearoa NZ educational context, “improving Māori success as Māori” translates as teaching, scaffolding, and providing opportunities for students to learn te reo (Māori language) and ways of being for their particular iwi (tribe) and hapū (subtribe) alongside or integrated within the New Zealand curriculum (Ministry of Education, 2013). In order for this type and level of education to occur, different ways of approaching educational leadership drawn from cultural groups impacted are needed. While a number of elements may act as barriers to cross-school collaboration in the Aotearoa NZ educational context, they do not have to prevent school leaders from crossing over to partner and network with principals and university scholars regionally and/or nationwide to work towards achieving this common purpose. In early 2014, the authors of this chapter, representing what is labelled in this chapter as the Cross-Cultural Research Collaborative (CCRC), were invited to partner with a national network of approximately sixty principals, known here as the Māori School Initiative (MSI). The aims of the CCRC-MSI partnership is to promote the voices and practices of effective Māori and non-Māori school leaders through cross-cultural collaboration and research; to continue building critical mass for the important role of informing effective, culturally responsive leadership practices across Aotearoa NZ (see L. J. Santamaría in this volume). Although it is intended that the final outcome of this partnership will be to shed light on the practical strategies Māori and non-Māori MSI principals implement in schools in order to promote and sustain Māori student success as Māori, this chapter is focused on the process of the on-going research and collaboration itself (See Figure 1). First, we describe the crosscultural nature of the MSI principal network and the cross-cultural, interdisciplinary aspect of the CCRC team, before we unpack the connections made between the research methodologies and theoretical frameworks, which ground the work of the partnership. Then, based on this work of

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 Effective School Leadership for Māori Achievement

Figure 1. Levels of cross-cultural collaboration resulting from intra and inter-group partnerships within and between the Cross-Cultural Research Collaborative (CCRC) and the Māori Success Initiative (MSI) principal network.

connecting across culture and areas of academic and professional expertise (e.g., educational leadership, Māori education, critical studies), the researchers identify key conditions for partnership success that may serve to promote similar partnerships in other global contexts. The Māori Success Initiative. In response to the issues facing Māori within the NZ educational context, a core group of Māori school principals, independent of the Ministry of Education, formed the Māori Success Initiative – a school leadership initiative for school principals committed to the notion of Māori success as Māori. The Māori Success Initiative is a grassroots leadership-based collaboration comprised of six regional clusters across Aotearoa NZ that began in November 2013. The clusters are led by one of the network’s core members who acts as the cluster facilitator. Each cluster is made up of 10-12 Māori and non-Māori principals serving in primary, intermediate and/or secondary mainstream schools. MSI’s purpose is to foster whanaungatanga (relationship) between principals to positively influence and impact their

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personal and professional learning for developing and establishing a critical mass of effective school leadership practices that promote and sustain positive Māori student achievement and success as Māori. MSI’s vision is “A Change in the Hearts and Minds of Principals”, reflective of its intent to foster personal and professional growth leading to changes in individual school leadership practices aimed at Māori success. The ultimate goal of MSI is to establish a critical mass of effective school leaders and leadership practices which challenge status quo strategies that have resulted in inequitable educational outcomes for Māori. It is a shared understanding among the MSI principals that they are operating according to the bicultural Treaty within monocultural schools for a multiethnic society and that when schools address barriers to student achievement for Māori students, all students migrant and immigrant alike benefit. For example, research in bilingual, dual language immersion, and multicultural education has revealed that the inclusion of another language, culture, and

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way of conceptualizing knowledge demonstrates to all students that there are spaces available in schooling for other languages and cultures that are as valued as the mainstream language and culture (May & Sleeter, 2010). The MSI cluster facilitators organize selffunded meetings once per school quarter and utilize a professional development plan called the Phase 2 Ka Hikitia – Accelerating Success leadership document from the Ministry of Education. This document has identified key school indicators that lead to Māori Success as Māori (Ministry of Education, 2013). During cluster hui (meetings) facilitators connect inter-cluster experiences to identify areas of growth and need. Regional cluster meetings focus on sharing data-driven innovative practices utilizing disaggregated achievement data for Māori students (e.g., achievement data organized and reported by student demographic variables) to inform school leadership, pedagogy, and curriculum. By sharing their leadership practices within a collaborative environment, MSI principals participating in this collaborative network are able to problem solve and refine their strategies by accessing the collective knowledge from their regional cluster. The Cross-Cultural Research Collaborative. In order to support their learning and evaluate outcomes, key MSI principals invited a core team of academic scholars, named in this chapter as the Cross-Cultural Research Collaborative (CCRC), to act as independent researchers to work alongside them in partnership to achieve their overarching goal of positively impacting Māori student achievement outcomes. Experiencing similar dynamics resulting from navigating the space between Māori and non-Māori worlds, this cross-cultural, interdisciplinary (e.g., educational leadership, educational psychology, multicultural multilingual education, special education, critical studies, Indigenous education) and international team consists of one Māori (Ngāti Whakaue, Ngāpuhi) researcher and two culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) researchers (African-

American, Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma and Mexican/Irish/Italian-American) from the U.S. As a result, the authors seek to draw out the crosscultural dimensions of their own collaborative interactions in parallel to those observed between MSI principals. Per MSI’s request, the research team’s role was to observe and participate in MSI hui (meetings) in order to collect, analyze, and interpret data generated by MSI principals in a way that guides their journey towards advancing their own leadership practice through whanaungatanga (relationship) within, and between, regional clusters. Informed by their own personal and professional experiences, principals convene MSI hui (meetings) to share ways in which they work to improve Māori success within mainstream contexts. Given their teaching, leadership, and research background, the CCRC group of researchers serves to support the collaborative learning of MSI principals through connecting their professional practices to researchbased critical methodologies (Kaupapa Māori and critical race theory), leadership frameworks (He Kākano, Tū Rangatira, Applied Critical Leadership), and a New Zealand Ministry of Education initiative (Ka Hikitia – Accelerating Success) underpinning their work towards improving Māori achievement (Ladson-Billings, 2001; Ministry of Education, 2010a, 2010b, 2013; Santamaría & Santamaría, 2012; Tuhiwai Smith, 2012). A background of these methodologies and theoretical frameworks, as well as the MSI network’s chosen leadership initiative, grounding the CCRC team’s efforts for supporting, enhancing, and promoting the work of MSI principals follows.

METHODOLOGICAL AND THEORETICAL BACKGROUND In addition to factors of academic discipline and identity, cross-cultural methodologies and theoretical frameworks are also at play within the collaborative interactions of the contributing

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authors for this chapter. At the core of the project are two underpinning methodologies: Kaupapa Māori (e.g., Pihama, Cram, & Walker, 2002; Tuhiwai Smith, 2012) and critical race theory (e.g., Ladson-Billings, 2001). These culturallygrounded methodologies enabled genuine crosscultural collaboration for the researchers involved in partnership with MSI Māori and non-Māori principals.

Kaupapa Māori and Critical Race Theory Methodologies When methodologies are as deeply reflective of researcher world-view and epistemology as Kaupapa Māori and critical race theories, it is important to understand their roles for enhancing international and global perspectives. Contributing authors find that making these theoretical connections explicit is significant in supporting the case for rendering this contribution relevant to scholars, students, and practitioners engaged in interdisciplinary, cross-cultural collaborations in the U.S. and other countries. Kaupapa Māori. Māori researchers and scholars in Aotearoa NZ have offered their communities of practice, country, and the world significant contributions on what it means to be engaged in Māori research and theory with regard to praxis (e.g., the notion of an interweaving of theory and practice) (Bishop 1996; Moewaka Barnes, 2000; Pihama et al., 2002; Tuhiwai Smith, 2012; Walker, Eketone & Gibbs, 2006). The most prominent and recognized research strategy that has emerged from this work is known as Kaupapa Māori. In general terms, Kaupapa Māori represents research that is “by Māori, for Māori and with Māori” (Tuhiwai Smith, 2012; Walker et al., 2006, p. 333). Kaupapa Māori research emerged when Māori academics and students engaged the process of questioning “Westernized notions of knowledge, culture, and research” (Walker et al., 2006, p. 331). Kaupapa Māori reflects and shares the emancipatory goal of other post-colonial movements such

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as those developed by Freire (1985) and Gibson (1986). The research approach challenges the privileged status of Western knowledge systems and research methodologies while contesting the exploitative nature of much research that has been undertaken on Māori as subjects being researched (Teariki & Spoonley, 1992). Kaupapa Māori additionally pushes back and interrupts unfavourable comparisons of Māori with non-Māori, resulting in deficit-based approaches to viewing Māori as a people (Bishop, 1996). In terms of the ways in which Kaupapa Māori methodology complements the current chapter, it has shown itself as a radical, emancipatory, empowerment-oriented strategy and collaborativebased process (Pihama et al., 2002). This process, or way of researching alongside and with Māori researchers and participants, when employed deliberately, appropriately, and systematically, can yield excellent research (Tuhiwai Smith, 2006, 2012). Kaupapa Māori research has been documented to contribute to improved policy, practice, and outcomes for Māori people; including academic achievement for Māori learners (Wearmouth, Berryman, Bishop, Peter, & Clapham, 2011) and increased Māori parent participation in educational contexts (Hoskins, 2010). Walker et al. (2006) assert the core underpinning principles of Kaupapa Māori research are: tino rangatiratanga (self-determination, autonomy), social justice, Māori worldview or Aotearoa NZ Indigenous ideology, te reo (Māori language), and whakawhanaungatanga (building kinship/relationships). These features speak to Māori aspirations, philosophies, processes (e.g., tikanga or customs) and pedagogies (e.g., wānanga or extended, sometimes overnight, educational seminars or gatherings), which are consistently found within successful Māori interventions (e.g., academic achievement, increased parent participation). They are also at the heart of the researchers’ collaborative work with the MSI principals featured in this chapter, which may also be applicable across other leadership roles (e.g.,

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community leaders, assets-based leaders). In addition, the principle of āta, developed by Pohatu (2004), also informs our research work because the term relates specifically to the building and nurturing of relationships. Āta acts as a guide to the understanding of relationships and well-being when engaging with Māori. Moreover, āta focuses on relationships, negotiating boundaries, working to create and hold safe space with corresponding behaviours that encourage reciprocity and parity when working with others (Pohatu, 2004). Kaupapa Māori provides an example of empirical, relevant, culturally- embedded, grounded and responsive research guidelines that the current researchers are able to draw from considering the purposes underlying the research undertaken (Pihama et al., 2002). Tuhiwai Smith (2012), an eminent NZ Māori scholar, maintains that due to the focus on empowerment and emancipation of Māori as oppressed and colonized peoples not unlike Paulo Freire’s (1970) Pedagogy of the Oppressed, Kaupapa Māori research manifests itself as localized critical theory. Building on this premise, critical race paradigms are considered to further frame this chapter. Critical race theory perspective. A critical race theory (CRT) perspective clearly complements the Kaupapa Māori approach in that progressive educational leadership scholars in NZ (Bishop, 2003; Pihama, 1993; Smith, 1997) and the U.S. (Gooden & Dantley, 2012; Jean-Marie & Normore, 2008; Ladson-Billings, 1999) employ these frameworks in their investigations. This theoretical perspective is also centered on notions of critique and change (e.g., socio-political improvement) as opposed to understanding or explaining social phenomena (Horkheimer, 1972). Finally, a CRT perspective functions optimally when it is explanatory, practical, and applicable to everyday routines (Calhoun, 1995). Critical race methodology is incorporated into this chapter as a way to address oppression resulting from systemic and institutionalized colonization in the U.S., Aotearoa NZ, and similarly

colonized countries (Ladson-Billings, 1999). In the U.S. there are legacies of genocide, slavery, discrimination and racism; whereas in NZ, systems of ignorance, exploitation, and power are often carried out to oppress Māori, Pasifika, and other marginalized groups on the basis of ethnicity, culture, mannerisms, and color (Marable, 1992). In this chapter, authors aim to interrupt traditional ways of thinking about educational leadership by utilizing critical race theory to link anti-racist, anti-subordinate, and social justice inquiry in the U.S. to the decolonized counter-narratives, which address the ongoing Māori struggle for decolonization that Tuhiwai Smith (2006) exemplifies in her research. The intention is that organizational leaders and employees around the world from countries similarly impacted by histories of genocide, slavery and other oppressions are encouraged and inspired by the Kaupapa Māori and critical race theory methods presented. In this instance, building on previous research on comparative Indigenous leadership (Santamaría, Santamaría, Webber, & Pearson, 2014), the authors consider Kaupapa Māori and CRT perspectives. In this example, the Māori Success Initiative (MSI) principals’ counter-stories are collected, developed, and shared in order to add new and positive stories about leadership for Māori success, disrupting racism and negative educational leadership and education race relations in NZ (Solórzano & Yosso, 2002). Practicing Kaupapa Māori and CRT research methodologies, interrogating traditionally accepted and practiced paradigms, and seeking practical culturally responsive solutions are not without their challenges. To this end, the authors acknowledge Western and mainstream modes of empirical research (e.g., methods, findings, discussion, etc.) employed in the present study. These ways of engaging research are in conflict to the arguments for rejecting Westernized research paradigms noted by Walker et al. (2006). In other words, the researchers involved in this study are actively demonstrating what it means to combine traditional Western understandings of

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scholarly and empirical research while privileging Indigenous ways of thinking, being, teaching, and learning. In this way, this chapter demonstrates ways in which Indigenous ‘knowing’ can be adapted by researchers from systemically and/or historically ‘marginalized’ and excluded groups to disrupt dominant paradigms (e.g., scholarly discourse, empirical knowledge, common narratives), adding authentic alternative voices to re-story educational leadership from multiple perspectives. Moreover, MSI principals’ counter-stories as related to effective school leadership for Māori achievement are being collected through interviews, observation, and document analysis as these leaders engage in their practice to foster Māori success as Māori (Solórzano & Yosso, 2002). These counter-narratives serve to create a record that challenges and interrupts deficitoriented tales about Māori learners and leadership for Māori (e.g., Māori parents do not care about education, Māori students are incapable of learning as compared to their non-Māori peers), similar to that of other Indigenous populations in the world, for the purpose of adding a new perspective and promoting improved leadership practices for Indigenous learners in mainstream settings. It is the authors’ estimation that an understanding of leadership to promote Māori success as Māori is warranted.

Effective Educational Leadership for Māori Achievement There are two documents in Aotearoa NZ that are key with respect to informing professional development programs that increase capacity towards culturally responsive educational leadership. One is called Tū Rangatira: Māori Medium Educational Leadership and the other is called He Kākano (Ministry of Education, 2010a, 2010b). Both documents contain guidelines that are responsive to increased numbers of school-aged Māori and the implications that these increased numbers will have on the nation’s educational leadership, particularly with regard for the need for greater Māori representation.

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Tū Rangatira: Māori Medium Educational Leadership. With a focus on growing best leadership practices, Tū Rangatira provides guidelines and insights on the ways in which professional development can increase educational leader capability, capacity, and sustainability toward best practices in Māori medium educational contexts (Ministry of Education, 2010a). Thus, it presents and provides a model for leadership reflective of the key leadership roles and core practices contributing to outstanding educational outcomes for Māori students. Although the language featured is te reo (Māori language) in Aotearoa NZ, emphasis on culture by MSI principals may be applicable to other leaders in educational settings and even in other disciplines who are involved in cross-cultural interactions within multicultural societies. The focus of the guidelines presented in Tū Rangatira is on duties and tasks related to the development and expansion of whole communities, wherein individual interests are aligned to those held by the greater community. The Tū Rangatira educational leadership model describes seven roles associated with what it means to be a Māori leader, which may be applied not only within the context of Māori language schooling, but also within mainstream contexts as well. These seven roles include the Guardian – protecting and nurturing a caring environment where people and ideas are valued, safety and well-being are enhanced, and relationships are strong; the Manager – ensuring effective and efficient management of people, environments, and education to transform teaching and learning communities; the Visionary – having innovative and visionary leadership to equip learners with the knowledge skills and values to succeed in the 21st century as Māori and as citizens of the world; the Teacher/Learner – using reciprocal learning and exemplary modelling of innovation leading to effective creation, development, and delivery of high quality authentic learning context the practices; the Worker – being seen as ‘leading by doing,’ upholding collegial practices that build capacity

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in others; the Networker – brokering networks and facilitating relationships that contribute to achieving school goals; and the Advocate – promoting development and implementation of strategies, plans and policies to realize learners’ potential and their educational success as Māori (Ministry of Education, 2010a). He Kākano: Culturally Responsive Leadership. He Kākano is a professional development initiative originally designed for secondary leaders. The focus of the program was to incorporate identity, language, and culture of Māori learners in order to build relationships resulting in academic achievement (Ministry of Education, 2010b). The program was twofold and designed to strengthen leadership practitioners’ and teachers’ pedagogical capabilities with regard to Māori students. These foci included improving one’s capability to analyze leadership in a broad, school context, to lead and implement culturally responsive leadership practices (e.g., Applied Critical Leadership) and school processes (e.g., curriculum development, design, and pedagogy), to lead and manage improvement by responding to the needs of Māori learners, and to build relationships, partnerships, and networks with Māori iwi (tribe) and hapū (subtribe), as well as non-Māori community stakeholders. Other foci included educators’ and leaders’ capacity to support improvement in school, principal, teacher, and student performance; the ability to gather interpret and use a range of data and other evidence in order to develop a comprehensive profile of Māori learner achievement, and the ability to establish targets and tailored plans for sustainable improvement in school performance for and with Māori learners. School leaders, and all other staff who work within school contexts, must develop the appropriate cultural competencies for working within, and across, diverse cultural contexts. Cultural competence can be conceptualized as one’s ability to respectfully engage with diverse individuals and groups in social, professional, educational or interdisciplinary contexts on a continuum that ranges from highly competent to

emerging competence (Santamaría, Santamaría, & Fletcher, 2009). This particular skill set is a requirement of both Tū Rangatira and He Kākano, requiring leaders and teachers to be actively and authentically capable of responding to and addressing their school and community content, culture, and context. These initiatives challenge educators and educational leaders to shift their thinking to be more inclusive of language and culture as a foundational starting point and basis of integration for the educational experiences of Māori learners (Ministry of Education, 2010a, 2010b). These approaches demonstrate ways in which knowledge, norms, values, resources, and epistemologies of local communities need to be accepted as legitimate and valuable to inform professional practice in school settings. These initiatives offer alternative ways of thinking about leadership to benefit systemically marginalized learners who are underperforming in schools. Linking to Tū Rangatira and He Kākano is a culturally responsive leadership theory developed in the U.S. – Applied Critical Leadership (ACL) (Santamaría & Santamaría, 2012). Applied Critical Leadership. ACL is an approach to educational leadership that promotes social justice (e.g., ensuring individual opportunity) and educational equity (e.g., fair distribution of resources), based on the premise that leadership is a professional practice that is developed through one’s experience and culture (Santamaría & Santamaría, 2012). The approach is grounded in the tenets of transformative leadership, critical pedagogy, and critical race theory (Ladson-Billings, 1999; May & Sleeter, 2010; McLaren, 2003; Shields, 2010). Building on the work of previous scholars (e.g., Bass, 1985; Bennis & Nanus, 1985; Burns, 1978; Kouzes & Posner, 2007), transformative leaders “serve as role models to others, modelling the characteristics, behaviors, and actions that they seek from all members of their organizations” in order to “guide constituents toward individual and institutional success, beyond what is expected” (Santamaría

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& Santamaría, 2012, p.3). Drawing from Freire (1970), critical pedagogy addresses the ability for education to empower individuals to form new knowledge through their own collective learning and teaching experiences, and redistribute traditional authoritative power to meet the needs of the community (Giroux, 1983; Jaramillo & McLaren, 2009; Santamaría & Santamaría, 2012). Specifically, ACL research explores the ways educational leaders from historically marginalized cultural, racial, ethnic, or linguistic backgrounds are able to use positive aspects of their identity to guide their leadership practice through their ability to identify with, represent the voices of, and act for disenfranchised student populations (Santamaría, 2013; Santamaría & Santamaría, 2012). Findings from studies of more than 40 culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) leaders in the U.S. and Aotearoa NZ who also drew their practice largely from their raced, gendered, and cultured experiences, indicate shared characteristics for ways of leading (See ACL characteristics in Table 1) (Santamaría, 2013). These leaders purposely engaged in emancipatory leadership practices to actively address educational issues and challenges using a critical race perspective to enact context specific changes (e.g., choosing to disrupt historical perspectives or practices – teacher expectations, classroom pedagogy, school-home communication – that reinforce academic achievement gap outcomes). These changes were considered critical when having to do with challenges associated with power, domination, access, or achievement (e.g., racial and cultural disparity between classroom teachers and students in need, between students placed in gifted and talented education and those in learning support programs, as well as between parents serving on school committees). Leaders reported that, while focused on more critical aspects of leadership, they concentrated on improving the academic achievement of learners at every level in the schooling process. When thinking about the ways in which Indigenous educational leaders

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in mainstream schools in Aotearoa NZ and CLD leaders in the U.S. lead for diversity, educational equity and cultural responsivity; it is useful to think about ways in which approaches like Tū Rangatira and the key roles of an effective Māori school leader, and pedagogical leadership capabilities associated with He Kākano compare with characteristics of ACL (See Table 1).

Effective School Practices for Māori Achievement: Ka Hikitia – Accelerating Success Within the context of the interdisciplinary, crosscultural theoretical frameworks of educational leadership which frames the Cross-Cultural Research Collaborative’s (CCRC) research intentions, the Māori Success Initiative (MSI) has identified Ka Hikitia – Accelerating Success to frame the school practices of MSI principals (Ministry of Education, 2013). Developed by the Ministry of Education for the purpose of promoting Māori success as Māori, a phrase used to differentiate from Māori succeeding according to Pākehā (New Zealanders of European descent) standards and expectations, Ka Hikitia identifies five key areas for primary and secondary education focused on the importance of: (1) integrating elements of students’ identity, language and culture into school curriculum, teaching, and learning; (2) utilising disaggregated student achievement data to align school resources to target areas of identified need; (3) developing strategic intervention programmes for priority learners; (4) creating effective community-based partnerships; and (5) fostering high expectations for Māori to succeed as Māori. The aims of Ka Hikitia are that schools make improvements in two critical areas: (1) quality provision, leadership, teaching and learning, supported by effective governance; and (2) strong engagement and contribution from parents, families and whānau (family), hapū (subtribe), iwi (tribe), Māori organisations, communities and businesses (Ministry of Education, 2013). In this

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Table 1. Comparative Analysis and Theoretical Alignment of Effective Māori Leadership (He Kākano, Tū Rangatira) and Applied Critical Leadership taken from Santamaría, Santamaría, Webber, and Pearson (2014). He Kākano - Culturally Responsive Pedagogical School Leadership Lead and manage change within their professional practices that responds to the needs of culturally located Māori learners.

Tū Rangatira - Key Roles of Māori Leadership The Advocate: to promote the development and implementation of strategies, plans and policies to realize learners’ potential and their educational success as Māori.

Applied Critical Leadership Characteristics Leaders’ willingness to initiate and engage in critical conversations--often regarding race, language, culture, difference, access, and/or educational equity. Leaders’ ability to choose or assume a CRT lens for decision-making, whereby they address problems of practice from the perspectives of those directly impacted.

Build relationships, partnerships and networks that include whānau (family), hāpu (subtribe) and iwi (tribe) to support on-going improvement in leadership, teacher, learner and school performance.

The Networker: to network, broker and facilitate relationships that contribute towards achieving school goals.

Leaders’ use consensus as the preferred strategy for decision-making.

The Guardian: to protect and nurture a caring environment where people and ideas are valued; health, safety and well-being are enhanced, and relationships are strong.

Leaders feeling the need to “win” the trust of mainstream constituents or others who do not share an affinity toward issues related to educational equity, by proving themselves as qualified, capable, and visible leaders.

The Manager: to ensure the effective and efficient management of people, environments and education to transform teaching and learning communities.

Leaders feeling the need to honor all members of their constituencies.

Gather, interpret and use a range of data and other evidence to develop a comprehensive profile of their Māori learners’ achievements.

The Teacher and Learner: to use reciprocal learning and exemplary modelling of innovation that leads to the effective creation, development and delivery of high-quality authentic learning contexts and practice.

Leaders making empirical or research-based contributions to educational contexts, adding authentic research based information to academic discourse regarding educational equity issues.

Analyze their leadership and wider school capability to lead and implement culturally responsive pedagogical leadership practices and school processes (including governance) that build Māori achievement success.

The Worker: to be seen to be ‘leading by doing’, upholding collegial practices that build capability in others in pursuit of the goals of the school.

Leading by example to meet unresolved educational needs or challenges.

Establish targets and tailored plans for sustainable improvement in the schools’ performance for and with Māori learners.

The Visionary: to have innovative and visionary leadership to equip learners with the knowledge, skills and values to succeed in the 21st century as Māori and as citizens of the world.

Leaders describing themselves as transformative, servant leaders who work ultimately to serve the greater good.

case, cross-cultural collaboration meant that the researchers were required to connect leadership frameworks represented from their team from Māori and non-Māori origins (He Kākano, Tū Rangatira, and Applied Critical Leadership), while bridging those frameworks to a chosen Aotearoa NZ-based leadership initiative (Ka Hikitia) being implemented by Māori and non-Māori MSI principals.

In summary, for the CCRC team, the CCRCMSI partnership involved the researcher’s collaborative efforts to bridge Māori and non-Māori contexts related to their own identity, research methodologies, and theoretical frameworks in order to successfully partner with MSI principals, engaging in their own cross-cultural experiences, around a shared model for school leadership practice to achieve a common outcome (See Figure 2).

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Figure 2. The researchers’ cross-cultural intersectionality of research methodologies and theoretical frameworks to support school leadership practices that lead to Māori success as Māori.

BUILDING CAPACITY THROUGH INDIGENOUS, NATIONAL, AND INTERNATIONAL CROSSCULTURAL COLLABORATION Having outlined the levels of cross-cultural collaboration with respect to methodology, theory, and leadership practice, this next section aims to unpack the CCRC team’s learnings from engaging in these cross-cultural, interdisciplinary, and collaborative efforts in order to share preliminary findings associated with the conditions needed for this type of partnership.

Conditions for CrossCultural Collaboration Based on the complexity of cross-collaborative experiences bridging Māori and non-Māori contexts, the researchers identified four critical attributes necessary for cross-cultural collaboration to be effective: Treaty responsiveness, cultural humility (Tervalon & Murray-García, 1998), relational trust (Bryk & Schneider, 2003), and reciprocity. These conditions bear some overlap to the emerg-

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ing conditions identified by L. J. Santamaría (this volume) with regard to cross-cultural collaboration in international contexts as this CCRC-MSI partnership serves as one of the projects featured in her chapter (referred to as School Leaders Supporting Māori success as Māori and includes our fourth, and newest, member of our research team). For the researchers, Treaty responsiveness manifested within three contexts – the interactions between two non-Māori, Aotearoa NZ migrant, culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) scholars with one Māori scholar; the interactions between Māori and non-Māori Aotearoa NZ school principals; and between the CCRC team and MSI principals. With wānanga (an educational conference), cluster and facilitator hui (meetings) maintaining tikanga (customs), non-Māori needed to demonstrate a level of cultural sensitivity and responsivity to Māori traditions and customs. This was done frequently by karakia (prayer), waiata (song), and giving mihi (greetings) and even one’s pepeha (traditional speech of ancestral belonging). For non-Māori being expected to engage in this strong Māori context, being Treaty responsive was both essential for recognizing and giving

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value to and respect for the practices of tangata whenua (the people of the land), for it is through these same practices that strategies for improving Māori student success as Māori can materialize. Stemming from the work of psychologists around the theory of multicultural orientation, Tervalon and Murray-García (1998) proposed a new construct termed cultural humility. Cultural humility is present during one’s interactions with others who are culturally diverse, when those interactions (i) maintain a level of openness to understanding another’s point of view, (ii) place greater value on the other person’s cultural background and knowledge than their own, and (iii) promote social justice through advocacy and outreach (Hook, Davis, Owen, Worthington Jr., & Utsey, 2013). For non-Māori researchers and principals engaged in cross-cultural collaboration with Māori who have experienced and been victimized by colonial and mainstream oppressions, practicing cultural humility enhances Treaty responsivity by relinquishing any pre-conceived notions of authority, expert knowledge, and correctness – placing mana (spiritual power) and sense of ownership back in the hands from where they came – tangata whenua (the people of the land). For the two non-Māori researchers, practicing cultural humility within a Māori context meant extending their previous ability practiced in the U.S. within CLD contexts to now being able to become critically conscious of Māori needs and actively seeing through a Māori worldview lens. In order to build relational trust, as defined by Bryk and Schneider (2003), four determinants were required: interpersonal respect (listening to others and valuing different perspectives), personal regard for others (showing genuine interest in people), role competency (demonstrating knowledge and skill mastery), and personal integrity (keeping your word – fulfilling the work you say you are going to do). For the researchers, establishing relational trust first with one Māori principal, and then later the founding Māori principals and regional cluster facilitators of MSI, was critical

in fostering whanaungatanga (relationships). The authors first began establishing this trust at the first 2 day MSI wānanga (educational conference) by positioning themselves within the role of listener in order to increase their understanding of the diverse perspectives, experiences, and backgrounds of the principals in the MSI group. Through their participation in the hongi (shared breath in greeting) and whakawhanaungatanga (building relationships), done at the beginning of wānanga, the authors were able to make personal connections with each individual principal. Then, later, during hui (meetings) with the core MSI principals and during regional cluster hui, the authors were given time on the agenda to present the research aspect of the partnership between CCRC and MSI. By following the appropriate tikanga (customs) for the hui and by providing MSI principals information and research relative to the data being collected and culturally responsive leadership (e.g., He Kākano, Tū Rangatira, and Applied Critical Leadership), the authors were able to exhibit role competency and personal integrity by fulfilling the expectations of the MSI principals. Every moment the authors were engaged with MSI principals was an opportunity to strengthen the relational trust of the CCRC-MSI partnership. Lastly, given this tremendous opportunity to enter into partnership with the Māori Success Initiative (MSI), it was now the researchers’ turn to reciprocate the generosity of spirit and trust by prioritising MSI’s expectations for research and support. During the writing of this chapter, the authors have begun the data analysis phase of the research based on the survey, reflection, and interview data the team has collected for the past 6 months. The purpose of the data analysis phase is to code the data to themes identified by the success indicators highlighted by the Ka Hikitia – Accelerating Success document previously discussed in this chapter, as well as to any additional themes that emerge during the process. The findings will then be shared with MSI principals through discussion and collaboration to help

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inform, validate, and enhance their leadership growth towards improving Māori achievement. The CCRC team foresees that the majority of the reciprocity will take place during this next research stage of the partnership, which will serve as an opportunity for the authors to be able to increase the mana (spiritual power) of MSI principals by strengthening their voice and leadership through research-based practices.

A Personal Narrative of CrossCultural Collaboration in Action Upon arriving to Aotearoa NZ in 2012 from the U.S. where they fulfilled roles of primary school principal and university professor serving culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) learners, the first and third authors of this chapter quickly identified with the educational needs of Māori as represented by similar achievement gap disparities. With similar research agendas centred on leadership for social justice and a developed and tested theory of Applied Critical Leadership, they began inquiring into similar leadership models supporting Māori achievement. While the third author focused on her new academic appointment in educational leadership within the Faculty of Education, the first applied for and was hired by a university-led research project working in partnership with secondary schools to improve Māori and Pasifika student achievement via established learning pathways, parent-studentteacher engagement, academic mentoring, and tracking and monitoring of student longitudinal data. Soon after his employment, the first author was introduced to and paired up with the second author of this chapter. With a research background on racial/ethnic identity and Māori student success grounded in Kaupapa Māori methodology, this second author’s role connected the other two authors to the Indigenous Aotearoa NZ context. As a result, a team of scholars was formed representing cross-cultural identities, methodologies, and theoretical frameworks, as discussed previously

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in this chapter. One of the key goals of this partnership (termed in this chapter as Cross-Cultural Research Collaborative or CCRC) has been to engage in critical discourse that challenges traditional paradigms of educational leadership practice, offering research-based counter-stories to empower the voices that need to be heard (Solórzano & Yosso, 2002). Throughout this beginning part of their journey together, CCRC has learned the importance of positionality (understanding your own role in relation to other’s roles), power sharing (equitable or shared decision-making), personal and professional reciprocity (supporting those who have supported you), and relationship (establishing respect and trust) for Māori and non-Māori collaboration. As their work digs deep into the motivations, aspirations, and culturally driven practices that shape one’s identity, so too does their relationship reveal and unravel the personal, cultural, and psychological core of who they are relative to each other. In other words, through this process of interdependent collaboration, the growth of the team, in terms of strength, ability, and knowledge, impacts the growth of the individual and vice versa in a cyclical, almost exponential, fashion. This journey is as significant to them, individually, in discovering their own ways for contributing to the CCRC team as it is for the team’s influence to spark change within a system that is failing to meet the needs of those whose home this truly is. As Aotearoa NZ migrants, the first and third authors have become increasingly aware and conscious of the privilege they have been granted, not by a governmental agency that placed stickers on their passports, but by tangata whenua (the people of the land) who hongi (shared breath in greeting), embrace and kōrero (talk) with them as they were their whānau (family). They are humbled by the overwhelming opportunities they continue to receive to advance their previous practice working with CLD learners in the U.S. and enter into partnership with Māori for Māori in the Aotearoa NZ context.

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Being at the right place at the right time often is a term attributed to luck. For some, this may be true, while for others the chances of this happening increase when certain conditions are met. For one, placing oneself in a positive mindset enables new behaviors, possibilities, relationships, and outcomes. Being open-minded and removing oneself from one’s comfort zone is risk-taking, but can lead to greater opportunities, like it did for the authors and their partnership with the MSI principal network. Also, representing yourself with integrity allows others to recognize shared aspirations and goals. The CCRC team did not haphazardly enter into a partnership with a nationwide network of Māori and non-Māori principals innovatively working to promote leadership practices that result in Māori success as Māori. Their invitation to serve as independent researchers for the Māori Success Initiative did not happen by chance. In hindsight, the invitation resulted from a two-year process of relationship and reciprocity with one of the founding Māori MSI principals before the seed of MSI was even planted. All three authors have children attending the founding MSI principal’s school. Two of the three serve on the school’s governing board. Throughout ongoing interactions as parents and board members, opportunities arose over time for the three authors to discuss with the principal critical insights and perspectives of their own worldview, to share their professional academic work promoting cultural responsivity and Māori success, and demonstrate their values through voice and action during parent committee and governing board meetings, as well as school events. The invitation for the researchers to be involved in this cross-cultural collaborative partnership in leadership would not have been possible had it not been for: (i) the conscious intentions of one Māori scholar and two non-Māori CLD scholars from the U.S. to engage in critical interdisciplinary discourse; (ii) the risks taken by these three scholars to share their language, culture, and identity with each other openly and honestly; (iii) the relational

trust these scholars developed and nurtured with one Māori principal over time without predetermined expectations; (iv) the level of reciprocity the scholars are committed to in serving the Māori Success Initiative and meeting the needs of Māori students and whānau (families); and (v) the sense that the data the researchers are collecting is not “our” data, but the MSI principals’ data – the contributing authors are privileged simply by being able to walk alongside them through this journey.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS As non-Māori continue to engage in various spaces and contexts with Māori, it will be important to see whether or not these conditions for cross-cultural collaboration identified within this chapter become redefined, replaced, or validated. Further research and practice for acknowledging and advancing multi-dimensional aspects inherent within crosscultural collaboration terminology is necessary for findings to become more generalizable to wider settings. The authors are keen to learn from the other contributions within this edited volume to continue this work of bridging divides for the sake of finding truth.

CONCLUSION Cross-cultural collaboration can only be defined in contexts where there is a deeply experienced understanding of the diverse elements at play within the complexities of human interaction. Striving for meaning requires conscious removal of one’s own expected patterns of behaviour in order to see the world with new eyes, providing oneself new mental models of recognition, possibility, and opportunity. Doing so enables one to identify and overcome traditionally entrenched barriers that separate groups and diminish potential for more effective outcomes. Building capacity for Indigenous, national, and international cross-cultural

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collaboration requires an intentional, deliberate and authentic effort for non-Māori to engage critically with Māori around issues related to Māori. This chapter identified four key conditions (Treaty responsiveness, cultural humility, relational trust, and reciprocity) enabling two non-Māori, Aotearoa NZ migrant, researchers to develop personal, professional, and interdisciplinary relationships with one Māori researcher; the three of whom then, under the same conditions, entered into a leadership-based researcher-practitioner partnership with Māori and non-Māori principals to support Māori student success as Māori.

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Tervalon, M., & Murray-García, J. (1998). Cultural humility versus cultural competence: A critical distinction in defining physician training outcomes in multicultural education. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved, 9(2), 117–125. doi:10.1353/hpu.2010.0233 PMID:10073197

Santamaría, L. J., & Santamaría, A. P. (2012). Applied critical leadership in education: Choosing change. New York, NY: Routledge Books.

Tuhiwai Smith, L. (2012). Decolonizing methodologies: Research and Indigenous peoples. London: Zed Books.

Santamaría, L. J., Santamaría, A. P., Webber, M., & Pearson, H. (in press). Indigenous school leadership in New Zealand: Cultural responsivity for diverse learners in urban schools. In M. Khalifa, C. Grant, & N. Witherspoon Arnold (Eds.), Urban School Leadership Handbook (pp. xx–xx). Lanham, Maryland: Rowman and Littlefield.

Tuhiwai Smith, L. T. (2006). Choosing the margins: The role of research in indigenous struggles for social justice. In N. K. Denzin & M. D. Giardina (Eds.), Qualitative inquiry and the conservative challenge (pp. 151–174). Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press.

Santamaría, L. J., Santamaría, C. C., & Fletcher, T. V. (2009). Journeys in cultural competency: Pre-service U.S. teachers in Mexico study-abroad programs. Diaspora, Indigenous, and Minority Education. International Journal (Toronto, Ont.), 3(1), 32–51.

Walker, S., Eketone, A., & Gibbs, A. (2006). An exploration of Kaupapa Māori research, its principles, processes and applications. International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 9(4), 331–344. doi:10.1080/13645570600916049

Shields, C. M. (2010). Transformative leadership: Working toward equity in diverse contexts. Educational Administration Quarterly, 46(4), 558–589. doi:10.1177/0013161X10375609 Smith, G. H. (1997). The development of Kaupapa Māori: Theory and praxis (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand. Solórzano, D. G., & Yosso, T. J. (2002). Critical race methodology: Counter–storytelling as an analytical framework for educational research. Qualitative Inquiry, 8(1), 23–44. doi:10.1177/107780040200800103 Teariki, C., & Spoonley, P. (1992). The politics and process of research for Māori. Palmerston North, New Zealand: Massey University Press.

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Wearmouth, J., Berryman, M., Bishop, A. R., Peter, M., & Clapham, S. (2011). Improving the educational achievement of Māori students in English medium schools. Report for Phase 3 and Phase 4: 2008-2010. Wellington, New Zealand: Ministry of Education.

ADDITIONAL READING Bishop, R., Berryman, M., Powell, A., & Teddy, L. (2007). Te Kotahitanga Phase 2 - Towards a whole school approach. Wellington, New Zealand: Ministry of Education. Bishop, R., & Glynn, T. (1999). Culture counts: Changing power relations in education. Palmerston North, New Zealand: Dunmore Press Limited.

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Bishop, R., O’Sullivan, D., & Berryman, M. (2010). Scaling up education reform: Addressing the politics of disparity. Wellington, New Zealand: NZCER Press. Brayboy, B. M. J. (2006). Toward a tribal critical race theory in education. The Urban Review, 37(5), 425–445. doi:10.1007/s11256-005-0018-y Cheng, K. M. (1995). The neglected dimension: Cultural comparison in educational administration. In K. C. Wong & K. M. Cheng (Eds.), Educational leadership and change: An international perspective (pp. 87–102). Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. Cottrell, M. (2010). Indigenous education in comparative perspective: Global opportunities for reimagining schools. International Journal to Cross-Disciplinary Subjects in Education, 1(4), 223–227. Delgado, R., & Stefancic, J. (2011). Critical race theory: An introduction. New York, NY: New York University Press. Diamond, P. (2003). A fire in your belly: Māori leaders speak. Wellington, New Zealand: Huia Publishers. Dimmock, C., & Walker, A. (2000). Developing comparative and international educational leadership and management: A cross-cultural model. School Leadership & Management, 20(2), 143–160. doi:10.1080/13632430050011399 Education Review Office. (2010). Promoting success for Māori students: Schools’ progress. Wellington, New Zealand. Retrieved September 27, 2014 from http://www.ero.govt.nz/NationalReports/Promoting-Success-for-Maori-StudentsSchools-Progress-June-2010

Hallinger, P., & Leithwood, K. (1996). Culture and educational administration: A case of finding out what you don’t know you don’t know. Journal of Educational Administration, 34(5), 98–116. doi:10.1108/09578239610148296 Hohepa, M. K., & Robinson, V. (2008). Māori and educational leadership: Tū Rangatira. ALTERNATIVE, 4(2), 20–38. Jean-Marie, G. (2008). Leadership for social justice: An agenda for 21st century schools. The Educational Forum, 72(4), 340–354. doi:10.1080/00131720802362058 Kahakalau, K. (2004). Indigenous heuristic action research: Bridging Western and Indigenous research methodologies. Hulili: Multidisciplinary Research on Hawaiian Well-Being, 1(1), 19–33. Khalifa, M. (2012). A re-new-ed paradigm in successful urban school leadership principal as community leader. Educational Administration Quarterly, 48(3), 424–467. doi:10.1177/0013161X11432922 Kincheloe, J. L., & McLaren, P. (2002). Rethinking critical theory and qualitative research. In Y. Zou & E. T. Trueba (Eds.), Ethnography and Schools: Qualitative Approaches to the Study of Education (pp. 87–138). Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield. Macfarlane, A. (1997). The Hikairo rationale teaching students with emotional and behavioural difficulties: A bicultural approach. Waikato Journal of Education, 3, 153–168. Macfarlane, A. (2004). Kia hiwa ra! Listen to culture: Māori students’ plea to educators. Wellington, New Zealand: NZCER Press. Macfarlane, A., Glynn, T., Cavanagh, T., & Bateman, S. (2007). Creating culturally-safe schools for Māori students. The Australian Journal of Indigenous Education, 36, 65–76.

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Milne, A. (2009). Colouring in the white spaces: Cultural identity and learning in school. Auckland, New Zealand: ASB/APPA Travelling Fellowship. Mutch, C., & Collins, S. (2008). Partners in learning: Schools’ engagement with parents, families, and communities in New Zealand. School Community Journal, 22(1), 167–188. Robinson, V., Hohepa, M., & Lloyd, C. (2009). School leadership and student outcomes: Identifying what works and why. Best Evidence Synthesis Iteration (BES). Wellington, New Zealand: Ministry of Education. Santamaría, L. J. (2013). Critical change for the greater good: Multicultural dimensions of educational leadership toward social justice and educational equity. Educational Administration Quarterly, 50(3), 347–391. doi:10.1177/0013161X13505287 Singleton, G. E., & Linton, C. (2006). Courageous conversations about race. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Steele, C. M., Spencer, S. J., & Aronson, J. (2002). In M. Zanna (Ed.), Contending with group image: The psychology of stereotype and social identity threat (Vol. 23, pp. 379–440). Advances in experimental social psychology New York, NY: Academic Press. Walker, A., & Dimmock, C. (1999). Exploring principals’ dilemmas in Hong Kong: Increasing cross-cultural understanding of school leadership. International Journal of Educational Reform, 8(1), 15–24. Walker, R. (2006). Māori conceptions of leadership and self-determination. In R. Miller & M. Mintrom (Eds.), Political Leadership in New Zealand (pp. 134–152). Auckland, New Zealand: Auckland University Press.

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Applied Critical Leadership: A strengths based leadership approach where educational leaders draw from positive aspects of their identity (e.g., ethnicity, class, gender, traditions, subjectivity, bias) to share and distribute leadership responsibilities according the social and political context of their educational communities resulting in greater empowerment of individual members of these communities based on positive aspects of individual and group identities (Santamaría & Santamaría, 2012). Cross-Cultural Collaboration: Engaging in practices that involve or bridge the differences between two or more cultures or cultural dimensions (e.g., language, ethnicity, religion, education). Culturally Responsive Leadership: Occurs when leaders are cognizant of the socio-cultural dynamics surrounding academic achievement for all learners, the role of educators’ ability to understand, communicate with, and effectively interact with people across cultures and socioeconomic standing, and understand what it means to be sociopolitically conscious in their settings with regard to language, culture, and ethnicity. Indigenous: Indigenous communities, peoples and nations are those which, having a historical continuity with pre-invasion and pre-colonial societies that developed on their territories, consider themselves distinct from other sectors of the societies now prevailing in those territories, or parts of them. They form at present non-dominant sectors of society and are determined to preserve, develop and transmit to future generations their ancestral territories, and their ethnic identity, as the basis of their continued existence as peoples, in accordance with their own cultural patterns, social institutions and legal systems” (Cobo, 1986).

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Māori: A person has Māori descent if they are of the Māori race of New Zealand; this includes any descendant of such a person. The definition requires people to know their biological ancestry. Traditionally, such knowledge is passed from generation to generation, with Māori relying on the recital of āakapapa by the appropriate tribal member, rather than on written documents (New Zealand Government, 2013).

Māori Achievement: According to Ministry of Education (2013, p.35), Māori success as Māori occurs when schools and kura: (i) integrate students’ identity, language and culture into the curriculum teaching and learning, (ii) align resources to student achievement data, (iii) provide early, intensive support for students who are at risk of falling behind, (iv) create productive partnerships with parents, whānau, hāpu, iwi, communities and businesses focused on educational success, and (v) maintain high expectations for students’ educational success as Māori.

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Chapter 8

Culturally Responsive Educational Leadership in Cross-Cultural International Contexts Lorri J. Santamaría The University of Auckland, New Zealand

ABSTRACT This chapter provides a model for thinking about educational leadership responsive to dynamic multicultural and global societies. Leadership conditions and behaviours associated with the author’s experiences in five cross-cultural international research projects across 6 countries (United States, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Spain, and Canada) are presented as a comparative case-study. A definition for culturally responsive educational leadership is proposed with examples of circumstances under which this type of leadership might occur. This contribution is framed by empirical findings and characteristics identified in previous research. Current findings suggest leadership in cross-cultural international contexts is culturally responsive when grounded in (1) the kaupapa or ethos of participating cultures; (2) shared and distributed power; (3) the collective being more highly regarded than the individual; (4) collective knowledge generation based on strengths individual members bring to ‘the table;’ (5) reciprocity; and (6) a prevailing spirit of pro-activism.

CULTURAL RESPONSIVITY: AN ASPIRATIONAL NORM Leadership is a discipline and practice that belongs to every field, area of study and facet of society. There are leaders in law, medicine, health professions, the clergy, and in commerce. Without organizational leadership, every institution would

arguably undoubtedly and very miserably fail. In educational contexts and similar service oriented fields, a great leader is one who is able to effectively manage her team while at the same time providing vision, inspiration, and opportunities for empowerment to assist the members of the organization to meet individual and organizational goals. Even the most progressive leadership con-

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-8376-1.ch008

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tributions by such well-known researchers and scholars as Fullan (2007), Hargreaves and Fink (2004), Spillane (2012) and Leithwood and Poplin (1992); privilege individual leadership ‘traits’ and values that individuals can acquire in order to improve their practice. This is underscored with the more recent promise of distributed and shared leadership (Robinson, 2011). These perspectives look past or ignore the social, political and unconscious embodied dispositions – or habitus – of leaders (Fitzpatrick & Santamaría, 2015). It is precisely these characteristics and dispositions, or ways of leading, that serve to inform this chapter, which provides a different way of thinking about leadership in transnational contexts for now and the future of education, other service fields (i.e., health, human services), and even more broadly in the 21st century. This contribution holds promise because it provides an empirical way of contemplating ways in which cultural responsivity can add value to the ways in which we lead in educational contexts and engage research in local and global settings. In other words, this chapter argues that there is great value in leaders being mindful of their personal perspectives and socio-cultural context as well as those contexts of their service communities, when engaged in leadership practices in education. This author’s experiences as a leadership scholar and practitioner lead her to believe that when a leader knows and understands their context (e.g., culturally situated circumstances or setting) and content (e.g., core information, modes of communication) they are able to provide leadership that is responsive to the needs of the educational organization or situation with more authenticity resulting in greater impact (Santamaría & Santamaría, 2012; Santamaría & Jean-Marie, 2014; Santamaría, Santamaría, Webber, & Pearson, 2014). To that end, in this chapter key aspects of her leadership journey are described in and through five research projects involving 24 researchers of 17 ethnicities at 15 universities, in 6 countries (see Table 1) over the course of twelve months. The

chapter reviews related research and concludes with implications for the academy, related disciplines, and society at large as well as reflections for future research.

LITERATURE FRAMES Culturally responsive educational leadership. Culturally responsive educational leadership has been discussed and debated as having potential to improve academic experiences and outcomes for systemically underserved learners in public schools (Bishop, 2003; Gooden & Dantley, 2012; Khalifa, 2012; Santamaría, 2014). According to Ladson-Billings (1994) education is culturally responsive when it “empowers students intellectually, socially, emotionally, and politically by the use of cultural references that impart knowledge, skills, and attitudes” (p. 222). Ladson-Billings (2001) adds that educational leaders who are culturally responsive also need to be cognizant of the socio-cultural dynamics surrounding academic achievement, the role of educators’ ability to understand, communicate with, and effectively interact with people across cultures and socio-economic standing, and be able to demonstrate what it means to be socio-politically conscious in their settings. Along these lines, one can think about culturally responsive leadership as practices that respond to sociocultural contexts while at the same time seeking to integrate the cultural content of the surrounding teaching and learning community in shaping effective educational environments and spaces where students thrive academically and socially with a sense of well-being for all regardless of ethnic, cultural, or socio-economic background (Ooka Pang, 2005). Applied critical leadership (ACL). ACL is a subset of culturally responsive leadership grounded in research on educational leadership promoting social justice and equity that considers leadership as both professional practice and lived experience (Santamaría, 2014; Santamaría

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Table 1. Cross-cultural international research initiatives Name of Initiative, General Stats, and Author Leadership Role

Participants and Countries/ States Represented

Populations Served

Initiative Goals (e.g., where Interests Converge)

Widening Participation, First in Family Funded by the World Universities Network (WUN) 9 researchers, all women, 6 universities, 6 ethnicities, 5 countries Author Role: CoPrincipal Investigator

• 1 Tongan, New Zealand (NZ) • 1 Black/Indigenous United States (US)-Author-, NZ • 1 Māori Indigenous, NZ • 1 Pasifika, British Columbia, Canada (CAN) • 1 African American, California, US • 1 White, Perth, Australia (AUS) • 1 Egyptian descent, Sydney, AUS • 2 White, South Africa

Systemically underserved students who are first in their families to attend universities.

To identify local and global best practices around ways in which to recruit, support, and sustained to completion students who are first in their families to attend the university.

School Leaders Supporting Māori success as Māori Funded by a New Zealand university 5 researchers, 4 ethnicities, 1 university, 1 country Author Role: CoPrincipal Investigator

• Author as above, NZ • 1 Mexican American US, male, NZ • 2 Māori Indigenous, NZ • 1 Cambodian/Thai male, NZ

Māori Indigenous and schools where Māori students are mainstreamed/ enrolled with non- Māori; as well as these students, schools and communities in the country of New Zealand.

To assist educational leaders working in culturally and linguistically diverse schools where large numbers of Māori students attend; to identify best leadership practices to support Māori success as Māori. This research was engaged on invitation.

Increasing Māori and Pasifika Completion Rates in Tertiary Education Funded by a New Zealand university 5 researchers; 3 ethnicities; 2 universities; 2 countries Author Role: Co-Principal Investigator

• Author as above, NZ • 1 Māori Indigenous, NZ • 1 Pākeha (European descent New Zealander), NZ • 1 White, Melbourne, AUS • 1 Pasifika (Samaon descent), NZ

Māori and Pasifika students who have low tertiary completion rates as compared to their peers.

To identify pedagogical practices and culturally responsive strategies that result in increased completion rates for Māori and Pasifika students enrolled in the university.

World Education Research Association (WERA)International Research Network (IRN), Currently unfunded 3 Researchers, 3 ethnicities, 3 countries Author Role: CoPrincipal Investigator

• Author as above, NZ • African American, California, US • Spanish, UK

Systemically underserved and marginalized learners who are as a result also socially excluded (e.g., Māori and Pasifika in NZ; African American, Latino and American Indian in the US; and Romana in Spain).

To comprise a cross-cultural culturally responsive research network to identify best culturally responsive pedagogical practices emanating from within the communities of practice to meet the needs of these systemically underserved and marginalized learners.

Network Improvement Community (NIC)Decolonizing the Educational Doctorate, Currently unfunded 9 researchers; 5 ethnicities; 6 universities; 2 countries Author Role: CoPrincipal Investigator

• Author, NZ • 1 Māori Indigenous, NZ • 1 Chammora (Guam); Hawaii, US • 1 Native Hawaiian male; Hawaii, US • 2 White males, Montana, US & Alaska US • 1 American Indian, Alaska, US • 2 White, California, US & Texas, US

Indigenous learners in tertiary education looking to enroll and complete educational doctoral programs, largely in the discipline of educational leadership.

To form a supportive and scholarly community of researchers who are also primary investigators and directors of EDD programs serving Indigenous learners in the US and the world.

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& Santamaría, 2012). In applied critical leadership, positive aspects of the leaders’ culture and identity lie at the centre of the leadership practice. The approach has hybrid foundations including transformative leadership1 (Shields, 2010), critical pedagogy2 (May & Sleeter, 2010; McLaren, 2003), and critical race theory3 (Ladson-Billings, 1998). Specifically, this research explores the ways in which educational leaders from historically marginalized frames of reference are able to identify, harness, and implement the most positive self-identified aspects of their identity to guide their leadership practice (Santamaría, 2014; Santamaría & Santamaría, 2012). Findings from the original study undertaken in the Southwest United States (US) of eleven leaders from systemically underserved and excluded backgrounds (e.g., Mexican descent American, Black Jamaican, Arab) and a subsequent study of five similar leaders (e.g., African American, Mexican American) who also drew their practice largely from their raced, gendered, and cultured experiences, indicated shared characteristics, or ways of leading (Santamaría & Santamaría, 2012; Santamaría & Jean-Marie, 2014). More recently, similar findings featuring Māori principals and school leaders in New Zealand (NZ) corroborated the findings of US leaders (Santamaría, Santamaría, Webber, & Pearson, 2014a). Leaders from the studies in the US and NZ demonstrated evidence of practicing emancipatory leadership practices. Participants’ leadership actions reflected their choices to actively address educational issues and challenges using a critical race perspective to enact context specific educational change that led to improvement in a range of different circumstances. These educational changes (e.g., including parents in governance decisions, instituting more equitable admissions, adjusting curriculum for cultural responsivity) were considered critical when they pushed against existing forms of dominant power, limitation to educational access/ information, or worked to improve academic achievement disparities. Despite

a preoccupation with being culturally responsive to their communities, leaders in ACL research studies all reported that while focused on more critical aspects of leadership, they concentrated on improving the academic achievement of learners at every level (e.g., primary, intermediate, secondary, tertiary, district, Ministry of Education) in the schooling process, closely aligning their ways of leading with Ladson-Billings (2001) ideal of cultural responsivity discussed previously. Research that seeks to understand applied critical leadership has determined that educational leaders who are committed to meeting the needs of systemically underserved or excluded populations and who may also be members of systemically underserved or excluded populations, are often leaders of ‘color’ (e.g., do not identify as white) and women who lead differently as a result of their experiences, memories, or knowledge of inequity including instances of micro-aggressions (in the form of ethnic or racial and gender prejudice), and institutional discrimination. This has been the case whether the leader has been African American, Māori, Latina, Pasifika (e.g., Tongan, Samoan, Fijian) or American Indian (e.g., Choctaw, Creek). Some of the leaders in the research have been white yet identify with people of color, or work in communities of color and function as members of those communities. Two leaders in the studies are members of the lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer (LGBTQ) community, many are women, but there are also men of color and white men who have been a part of the work as well. White leaders in the US and most of the European New Zealand leaders, though of European descent, race themselves outside of ‘whiteness,’ meaning they don’t consider themselves as part of what they consider to be a hegemonic dominant culture (Haney Lopez, 1998). In other words, these leaders choose to self-identify as being nonwhite in a political sense. In this way, similar to the leaders in the studies who were not white in terms of ethnicity, consistently employed the most positive self-identified aspects of their identity to

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guide their leadership practice within the systemically underserved communities of practice. In the US based studies, these leaders were identified as ‘white allies.’ Whether leaders presented in the studies were white or otherwise, one of the key tenets of applied critical leadership is that educational leaders who were found to exhibit and share the core characteristics of the approach deliberately chose to enact particular leadership behaviors through a critical raced and gendered lens that was also transformative, regardless of ethnicity or cultural heritage. Critical race theory and interest convergence. It can be argued that in cross-cultural international research settings, critical race theory (e.g., primacy of race/ ethnicity, story as communication, critical of liberalism, reality of racism) is equally important to contemplate when considering ways in which scholars of different ethnicities and nationalities around the world come together around similar research questions. Milner (2008) suggests that interest convergence4, as a tenet of critical race theory, is an analytic explanatory and conceptual tool and an imperative operating principle when it comes to identifying the rationale for international collaborative research projects. Like Gloria Ladson-Billings’ (1998) research, this chapter brings the construct of race into this contribution because “despite the scientific refutation of race as a legitimate biological concept and attempts to marginalize race in much public (political) discourse, race continues to be a powerful social construct and signifier” (p. 8). This is the case in the US but also true in each country considered in the cross-cultural research collaborations featured in the chapter (e.g., Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Spain, and Canada). Arguably, each country thinks about race differently, but that is not the point. The point is that each country thinks about race. It is in each socio-political ‘mix’ and race therefore impacts education, leadership, and society. In Australia and New Zealand for example, ethnicity trumps race as a construct; however, Indigenous peoples

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in both countries claim to experience racism and experiences with comparable documented ‘black white-like’ binary discrimination (Harris et al., 2006; Stevens, 1974). Canada too, enjoyed a racefree social mentality until history was considered from multiple perspectives (Backhouse, 1999; Bolaria & Hier, 2007). From a predominantly European perspective in many countries race is non-existent and understood as a US reality, yet when considered from colonized experiences (e.g., Black and coloured in South Africa, Roma in Spain), race is an issue indeed (Etxeberria, 2002; Richards, 1999). Therefore, the shared research activities are arguably ‘raced’ interests fuelling disruptive research to contest educational inequities in the researchers’ local and global contexts. Understanding the ways in which these scholars employ applied critical leadership can shed light on the ways in which educators carry out subsequent research projects. Educational leadership in cross-cultural international settings. Some scholars who consider notions of cultural responsivity in their research believe that in educational leadership the concept translates as leaders understanding culture and the role of culture in education, ways in which they take responsibility for learning about students’ culture and community, their use of students’ and community culture as basis for learning, and leaders promoting flexible use of students’ local and global cultures (Ladson-Billings, 2001; Santamaría, Santamaría, & Fletcher, 2009). Others have developed professional development series, tools, and supports to measure and evaluate what they describe as leaders’ cultural proficiency (Lindsey, Roberts, & Campbell Jones, 2013). Dimmock and Walker (2000) in their scholarship on comparative studies in international educational leadership, propose a conceptual framework based on a comparative cross-cultural approach focused on the school level as the baseline unit for analysis and the interrelationship between dimensions of culture at societal and organizational levels and elements of schooling and school-based management. In

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their work, culture by way of values, beliefs, and practices is considered with the goal of being able to describe, measure, or compare leadership practice along lines of society and organization. To remedy limitations resulting from Eastern, Western or similarly conflicting world-views, the researcher suggests a multi-dimensional understanding and application of variations of organizational cultural practices. She also discusses other provisions including making time to discuss socio-political perspectives and positionalities of researchers involved, as well as the current affairs of the country and surrounding community where research is to take place (Santamaría et al., 2014a). The intention of this chapter follows this constructive and value added global perspective.

DIVERSITY AS INNOVATION Persistent academic achievement gaps separating culturally and linguistically diverse students from their mainstream and often-white peers in the US and similar countries in the world (e.g., Māori and Pasifika learners in New Zealand) corroborate the notion that diversity equals adversity (Merryfield, 2000; Smith, 1989). However, the perspective of the researchers engaged in the local and global research initiatives featured in this chapter, all agree upon one premise: diversity and all of the ways that it is conceptualized and perceived, equals opportunity. These scholars believe that when diversity is at the forefront of funded international initiatives, policy directives, strategic initiatives, curriculum restructuring, hiring practices, admissions policies, and the news in general, diversity transforms into an opportunity for educators, researchers, and scholars to weigh-in and contribute to strengths-based solutions, ideas, and innovations, to meet an underserved need. Diversity from this perspective is viewed as innovation in meeting the needs identified wherein each researcher informally agrees to adhere to a code of cultural responsivity that is aligned to and

appropriate for the particular local context within which they work as academics, teachers, scholars, and in some cases community activists. It is this type of cultural responsive disposition and leadership behavior that is implicit and absent from literature on leadership. This chapter intends to make these ways of leading explicit and thereby accessible for educators, scholars, students, and practitioners to understand and apply in their local and global environments. Scholars involved in the research projects outlined in Table 1 have been able to identify shared oppressions, issues, or challenges with the members of the research teams indicated. These shared oppressions (e.g., institutional racism, gender glass ceiling) drive and define their interest convergence and have resulted in the generation of common research questions and research activities. Participants are described in general descriptive terms and organized by country and ethnicity, rather than by university in order to protect their anonymity as much as possible while demonstrating the inherent layers of complexity intrinsic to each project (e.g., language, culture, nationality, and race). Ninety-five percent (95%) of the research team membership is comprised of women, with merely 5 of the 25 scholars being men, with ten, or less than half of the researchers being white. All participants in the table are women unless otherwise specified. There are other nuanced elements of diversity such as intergenerational variance (e.g., age, academic rank) that are not included in this chapter but also add richness to the research story. In the first project, Widening Participation, the main issue involved identifying culturally relevant information that would be helpful to recruit students who are first in their families to apply for admission into universities. In the diverse countries involved in this initiative, 9 culturally and linguistically diverse researchers from 6 universities representing 5 countries were able to identify systemically underserved populations for which increasing numbers of first in family

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students was the goal identified by their universities. This project was one for which international funding was both available and attainable. Student diversity in this initiative was wide ranging from inter-ethnic diversity in South Africa to Aboriginal learners in Australia to Māori and Pacific Islanders in New Zealand, including African-American, Latino, and American Indian students in the US. Researchers of this initiative thought they might have bitten off more than they could chew when meeting face-to-face for the first time. In that first meeting, the scholars, all women, discussed ways in which to address their shared research problem. In doing so, they quickly realized that definitions referring to ‘underserved,’ ‘at risk,’ and other deficit ways to describe students less likely to qualify for university, needed to be rethought and replaced with more affirming and strengthsbased language. Therefore, before engaging the research, these scholars spent a good deal of time identifying the most appropriate vernacular to describe their learners that would meet local as well as global considerations. Since that time this group of researchers has met three times online in Skype supported conversations. The teams are currently involved in the ethics approval, and for those who have been approved by their university research ethics approval committee, data collection processes to support their local and global research agenda. For example, although all participants in the initiative will be involved in focus groups interviews as a part of the data collection process, partners in South Africa are serving a locally inspired lunch to students prior to their focus groups. In New Zealand students will be welcomed onto the Marae the sacred Māori meetinghouse on campus where their interviews, organized in tandem with the Māori elders by the project’s Māori research assistant, will take place. Other research partners will incorporate elements of their students’ cultures or language into their approach or data collection and in some instances analysis as well.

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In terms of the New Zealand context, Māori students constitute the bulk of the academic achievement gap in schools, where Indigenous Māori peoples from many different tribes and subtribes with a variety of different cultures, represent about 13% of the total population. Te reo Māori is the second most common language spoken in the country. Statistically, Non-Māori students have a higher academic attainment rate with regard to secondary school qualifications (National Certificate of Educational Achievement –NCEA, 2009). Making the matter more complex is the disproportionate number of European descent New Zealanders who teach in schools where there are inevitably Māori students present. For Māori, even those who do not speak Te Reo, there is a rich tikanga or culture and worldview that is honoured by the country and the Māori/ British Crown bicultural treaty5, one of the only in the world that is acknowledged and followed in principle in nearly every aspect of society including education. The actual implementation and integration of the treaty assurances contribute to a lack of understanding between cultures and manifests as a monocultural country with monocultural systems (e.g., education, law, commerce, healthcare) inhabited by a multiethnic population. As a result, there has been a persistent history of low academic performance for Māori and other non-Māori often immigrant learners (e.g., Pasifika-from Tonga, Fiji, Samoa, Niue; Asian; Middle Eastern, African) who are not of European descent at every level of education. It is important to acknowledge the multicultural and multilingual complexities associated with minority immigrants and the needs inherent to these particular populations in NZ. In NZ, there is a saying that effective pedagogy and culturally responsive education for Māori will serve the needs of all learners in the country. It is with this spirit that the work featured is also undertaken. To address the persistent issue of low achievement for Māori students, and following the statement above, minority immigrant populations in New Zealand, a grassroots group of mainly Māori

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primary, intermediate and secondary school principals have come together as a critical mass to identify their own best practices and engage supportive professional development activity to lift Māori achievement in their schools with the premise being if schools are successful teaching Māori students, success for all others, including European descent New Zealanders and minority immigrants, will follow (Bishop, 2003). This largely indigenous led effort seeks to define and substantiate what constitutes Māori success as Māori as whole beings inclusive of body, mind, spirit, identity, and language. The intention behind this idea is professional development for leaders to better and more culturally responsively meet the needs of Māori students in public schools in New Zealand. As a complement to the initiative, researchers were able to work with the leaders involved to identify shared research goals. These goals came directly out of the needs (e.g., Māori students failing, dropping out, depressed wellbeing/ self-worth, limited community involvement) of educational leaders working directly with Māori students. New Zealand University based funding to support this research goal was acquired prior to the invitation from a group of school leaders, which was later extended to the researchers involved. The principal investigator of the initiative was interested in investigating culturally responsive leadership designed to close the academic achievement gap between Māori learners and their European descent counterparts in New Zealand. This phenomena was well understood by the 5 researchers on the team based on each individuals’ own experiences as educators and students in the United States and New Zealand. The researchers in this particular project, one of which is a doctoral student, were intrinsically committed to the population served us well as the initiative goals. Currently, these researchers are entrenched in an interactive data collection phase involving interviews and observations of the over 60 educational leaders across the country of New Zealand.

The third project continues to reflect the richness and complexity inherent to diversity in New Zealand. It involves increasing Māori and Pasifika (e.g., from Tonga, Fiji, Samoa, Niue) student completion rates in tertiary education is aimed to identify best practices that are also culturally responsive to increase tertiary completion rates for these students. This work in conjunction with researchers in South Africa, Australia, and the US also serves to support limitations to the learning experiences of minority immigrants in New Zealand and other countries (e.g., Asia, Africa, Middle East) who are first in their families to attend university. Pasifika students, the focus in NZ are similar to Māori students in terms of academic achievement. These students represent 6% of the New Zealand population, yet fare worse in comparison with regard to achievement and completion (NZ Ministry of Education, 2014). Most Pasifika students are considered immigrants to New Zealand and thus are not protected as a group by the treaty in the same way as Māori students. Cook Island Māori peoples are also Pasifika, and as thus Māori are treaty protected. It is also important to note, that the cultures and languages of each Pasifika group are distinct. This project like the school leaders of the Māori initiative described previously was focused on looking at culturally responsive ways of addressing student needs. Like the previous project as well, it was funded by the university in response to strategic goals identified by the University Vice Chancellor’s office. The 5-member cross-cultural research team involved included tertiary leaders at the University with a vested interest in increasing completion rates for these learners who have been identified as particularly vulnerable to persistent low academic achievement and thus access to tertiary education followed by socio-political exclusion. Participants in this research initiative are currently looking forward to a writing retreat simultaneous to their data collection phase, which has been on-going for the last three months.

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The World Education Research Association (WERA) project was unfunded and exploratory in nature. This group of researchers met serendipitously at an international conference in Mexico. Following their individual presentations on international research initiatives, the researchers noticed synergy and shared interests having to do with identifying best culturally responsive pedagogical practices that emerge from communities of practice, successful with their particular groups of learners (e.g., minority immigrants, Romana, homeless youth in Brazil-many of whom are immigrants from Asia, Middle East, Africa). The diversity in the 3 research-intensive institutions represented sparked further conversation and action at a major educational conference focused on seeking funding to support the initiative. As a result, the researchers were invited to participate in two international research-funding schemes. One was substantial coming out of the Europe, to fund research and visiting scholar support for upwards of 8 to 12 researchers who will travel from within universities in Spain, Hungary, the US, New Zealand, and Brazil to work in and among the universities, focused on the research initiative organically identified by the three core researchers to serve the cross-cultural research agenda identified. Finally the cross-cultural international research initiative on decolonizing the educational doctorate involved a diverse group of researchers with the most diversity of all of the initiatives featured, even though it started in the US. The group of 9 researchers includes 3 males. What rendered this research team unique was membership of Indigenous researchers from New Zealand and the United States including the states of Hawaii, Alaska, Montana, California, and Texas. The group of researchers met at an annual convening of university leaders looking to improve their named Educational Doctorate programs. The research collective was intent on working together in a peer mentoring research group with aims to increase and support numbers of Indigenous

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student in doctoral programs, while at the same time designing programs that are more culturally responsive to meeting these particular students’ needs alongside aims and initiatives to meet the more prominent needs of African American, Latino, International, and other priority learners identified by the universities involved. Each one of the international cross-cultural research initiatives featured in this chapter has a particular focus that can be linked to cultural responsive leadership and practice in their particular context. Cultural responsivity manifests itself as socio-political consciousness at both local (e.g., school, university, tribal community) and global (e.g., region, country, international) levels for each study. For example, even though the populations being served (e.g., Pasifika-from Tonga, Fiji, Samoa, Niue; Asian; Middle Eastern, African), in the Widening Participation Project each researcher is highly cognizant of the notion of Indigeneity, or Indigenous ways of knowing and thinking, as a common theme present in each of cultures of the students their study aims to serve. As a result, the researchers have agreed to use Indigenous research methodology used in New Zealand with Māori and Pasifika learners or the Indigenous ethos present in their own contexts as local approaches to data collection and analysis for all of the research undertaken. Along these lines, it is clear that in both of the New Zealandbased studies culturally responsive pedagogy and leadership are at the heart of the work. Kaupapa Māori or Māori philosophical underpinnings research prevails in each one of those projects. That Indigenous members of established tribal communities sought out and invited researchers to participate in the leadership study required the researchers to engage elements of culturally responsive leadership (e.g., attending wānangaMāori based workshops in the Marae, speaking Te Reo when appropriate, being present in meetings with key organizers, being present in the Māori community events). Likewise, the World Education Research Association initiative seeks

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to engage in research and leadership practices that are grounded in the communities being served and therefore culturally responsive. Finally, the work on the educational doctorate with the Indigenous researchers is heavily reliant on social justice and educational equity, access, and creating doctoral programs to challenge the status quo of terminal degree programs that are not inclusive of the cultures or needs of Indigenous learners in New Zealand, the US, and the world. Although the cases provided are drawn from the field of educational leadership, practitioners in other disciplines and contexts can apply some of the key cross-cultural tenants underlying the work presented in order to engage cross-cultural work. Some of these complex behaviors include immersion in cross-cultural spaces, willingness to unlearn hegemonic often anthropologic ways of approaching research or organizational goals, work with groups not on or for groups of people, trusting the implicit knowledge of the research team, drawing expertise from the experiences of diverse team members and the communities involved to identify shared goals, and finally not relying on the expertise of a single person.

A New Way Forward Evidence of Applied critical leadership (ACL) in cross-cultural contexts. The ACL characteristics employed to make decisions or to enact leadership within the research teams are listed in Table 2 (see Santamaría & Santamaría, 2012). The Table describes aspects of ACL with an example of ways in which the characteristics are evidenced for each research initiative, with a few doubling up to provide further examples of the ways in which ACL manifested in the cross-cultural contexts studied. Based on the comparative reflection of the research initiatives featured, when practiced in cross-cultural international contexts, leadership, has a greater propensity toward culturally responsivity, particularly when it is grounded in

the philosophical underpinnings or ethos of the participating cultures, gleaned from the members of the research teams who are also members of the groups ‘who have been systemically studied.’ This notion is similar to Linda Tuhiwai Smith’s (2012) idea that when Indigenous people become the researchers rather than being the one’s researched, scholarly enterprise changes entirely. Initiatives such as these may also be considered culturally responsive when there is evidence of shared and distributed power amongst participants where the collective entity is as highly regarded that of each individual member. Additionally, these research collectives function in a manner that is culturally responsive to the organizations under consideration when there is a collective knowledge generation based on the strengths of individual members, reciprocity to the people, groups, or organizations participating in the research, and the sense of activism where the research findings have the potential to make a real difference for systemically underserved populations. These conditions are transferable to other disciplines and contexts and will manifest differently according to the cross-cultural issues and goals. Cross-cultural international leadership strategies and conditions. Dimmock and Walker (2000) remind those interested in comparative international studies featuring leadership, that multi-dimensional understandings (e.g., leadership vs. management, positionality, collaboration) and applications of variations of organizational cultural practices (e.g., generative vs. replicative, process vs. outcome-oriented) are needed to validate empirical findings. For example, the English language was the only aspect participants had in common the Widening Participation project. The world-views of the intergenerational scholars from South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, and the United States varied greatly as did their ethnic, cultural, and socio-political experiences. The South African team had a senior member who had lived through apartheid whereas one Australian team member lived in a Western city

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Table 2. Applied Critical Leadership (ACL) characteristics in cross-cultural international contexts ACL Researcher Characteristics to Make Decisions or Enact Leadership

Cross-Cultural Research Group Strategy Exemplars

Initiate and engage in critical conversations

Widening Participation: The research team has regular discussions on what it means to “give back” to community and shared understandings with regard to the ways in which they plan to “give back.” This collective plans to share best practices gleaned from research findings with prospective students who were first in their families in familiar mediums (e.g., twitter, social media, youtube) to attend university as well as their home communities.

Demonstrated assumption of critical race or otherwise critical lens to inform decision making

School Leaders Supporting Māori: Research team participants immerse as completely as possible into Māori language and cultural norms including participation in meetings at Māori Marae (spiritual and civic meeting houses) following traditional Māori tikanga (customs) and assumption of sociopolitical and spiritual world views.

Use of consensus as preferred strategy for decision-making

Māori & Pasifika Tertiary Completion: Research partners make all decisions by way of consensus based on philosophical underpinnings of Māori and Pasifika cultures with all members striving toward shared and distributed power where all members of the team have an equal voice.

Conscious of “stereotype threat” or fulfillment of negative stereotypical behaviors associated with systemically underserved individuals in the context

World Education Research Association: Team members focus on understanding, celebrating, and respecting local community grounded strategies to benefit systemically underserved learners because theses strategies view learners in a more positive light from a strengths-based versus a deficit-based position. This perspective negates negative stereotypes associated with the groups’ team members biases or preconceived notions.

Compelled to or make empirical or research-based contributions to educational contexts, adding authentic research based information to academic discourse regarding educational equity issues

Decolonizing the Educational Doctorate (EdD): This group fulfills an advocacy function as well as a research function in that they exist as a subgroup of a larger national Consortium on the EdD. As such, the larger group looks to team members for information regarding cross-cultural and linguistic norms in Indigenous communities as well as best practices regarding the optimal culturally responsive ways of meeting the needs of Indigenous learners in doctoral programs. The research team understands their role in sharing information with a larger group as a function of reciprocity.

Actively acknowledge and include all members of their constituencies in leadership decision making

Widening Participation: The research team has regular discussions on what it means to “give back” to community and shared understandings with regard to the ways in which they plan to “give back.” This collective plans to share best practices gleaned from research findings with prospective students who were first in their Families in familiar mediums (e.g., twitter, social media, youtube) to attend university as well as their home communities.

Express the need to build and establish trust when working with mainstream constituents or partners or others who do not share an affinity

Māori & Pasifika Tertiary Completion: This research group spends a lot of time building relationships with each other and with funders before, during, and after funding so that all constituents are fully aware of the intentions of the initiative and that collaborations can work towards true reciprocal partnerships as examples of equitable treaty responsive research endeavors that function in parity.

Describe themselves as ‘servant’ leaders who work on behalf of their teaching and learning communities

World Education Research Association: The work of this group is grounded in respect for one another’s cultural base and collective knowledge generation based upon the particular strengths individual members can bring to the table, where in a prevailing spirit of proactivism carries the group toward attaining support and funds for shared research agendas.

in her country where many South Africans in support of apartheid had relocated. The New Zealand participants came from Tongan, American Indian and African American backgrounds. The Canadian participant was of Samoan and European New Zealander descent and the United States participant was African American. This team spent an entire day connecting by way of prayer, stories,

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songs, and meals prior to engaging core research activities. This holistic way of engaging research was the norm for some and very new to others. All participants regardless of comfort or familiarity with the research process, needed to yield, open, give of themselves, and receive of others in order to come to common understandings that would eventually carry the research. These core

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common understandings were around definitions, methods, and reciprocity within the research team as well as within the communities being served, and deferring to the home culture of the study as the authority on ways of being with the people or groups participating. This kind of groundwork will be necessary for others looking to establish cross-cultural leadership and approaches in other disciplines and different contexts. The initiatives each of the other projects addressed demonstrated that leaders and participants who are culturally responsive ‘read’ the world through the various cultural, political, historical, social, and sometimes racial and ethnic lenses based on their local and global surroundings. This largely implicit aspirational disposition may be held unconsciously by many researchers and organizational leaders but this chapter proposes to make this kind of thinking, research, and leadership practice explicit to encourage increased dialogue and interest in innovative ways to approach research and leadership in a variety of disciplines and sectors. Furthermore, the researchers in the studies featured determined what was the most relevant to their constituents as the best research in which to participate. At times, as was demonstrated particularly in the Māori School Leaders project, researchers put their own biased (e.g., from their socio-cultural perspective) needs on the back burner for the greater good and overall needs of the community being served. In this case, the researchers had developed a preconceived research project, agenda, and protocol based on what they thought the community might need. When the leaders sought out the researchers’ expertise, the researchers put their own preconceived research agenda aside and adopted the vision presented by the leaders. The community needs trumped the researcher agenda every time in the studies featured. Again, this will manifest uniquely in other disciplines and contexts, as surely it is possible for those in positions of organizational leadership who want to practice cross-cultural leadership to let go of their biases and agendas in order to harness the richness of the wisdom inherent in a diverse group of constituents.

Recognition of researcher or organizational leader bias is an imperative strategy and one to think about in tandem with interest convergence (e.g., research or leadership goals benefit systemically underserved as well as dominant group or societal interests) the unifying condition for these kinds of international research groups and comparable cross-cultural organizational leadership initiatives. When an initiative is cross-cultural in nature and the underlying impetus for the work is associated with equity or access, the initiatives are usually coupled with marginalization reduction, racism interruption, or reducing the impact of racism (Delgado & Stefancic, 2012). In cases like these, it is important that the researchers and organizational leaders have a cursory understanding of ‘raced’ interests in their local and global contexts responsible for fuelling disruptive initiatives against inequities. Socio-political savvy or a cursory understanding of the lay of the land in the community of service is a pre-condition for participating in this kind of communal and often community sourced work (Santamaría & Santamaría, 2012). Finally, leaders involved in the kind of leadership practice featured need to have a clear understanding of the multiple dimensions of culture operating at any given time in their environment (e.g., racial, ethnic, religious, gendered, political, professional, other social groups) and the complex roles culture plays in their particular contexts. Participants in cross-cultural research and leadership initiatives need to seriously commit to the business of taking responsibility for learning about their constituents’ culture and community and whether their motives and work with these communities is appropriate, reciprocal and necessary (LadsonBillings, 2001; Santamaría et al., 2009). In order to do this, scholars and leaders might first seek out existing expertise and knowledge from members of the community as privileged information or a starting point, listen actively in order to learn about what it is to ‘be’ in that space, choose to live in the community of practice (temporarily or permanently), learn the local language or dialect, attend 131

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spiritual or cultural ceremonies or events when invited, share time with ‘the people’ at community events, practice humility, form equal friendships with members, become ‘visible’ inside of the community, and take an interest in the goings-on of the community. The most authentic culturally responsive leadership and cross-cultural research that this researcher has seen and been a part of have taken place under similar circumstances; certainly the research featured has occurred under similar conditions which are on-going and evolving all of the time and transferable across disciplines and contexts for those who seek to increase their capacity for cross-cultural leadership.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS: GAINING MOMENTUM This contribution joins the ‘call’ for researchers and leaders from all disciplines to participate in practice, dialogue, and projects that acknowledge and draw upon the strengths of time, place, circumstance and most importantly people when the work involves cross-cultural goal attainment. It reminds leaders,

scholars, students and practitioners that when a leader participates in the journey of knowing and understanding their context and the cultures within their setting they are more ‘trustworthy’ in their work in cross-cultural international settings. To this end, five cross-cultural international research projects demonstrated ways in which culturally responsive leadership was manifested to reach the research goals identified by collaborative teams. The model in Figure 1 illustrates the embedded nature of cross-cultural international work as an outgrowth of culturally responsivity and in these cases applied critical leadership (ACL). Former research in ACL has considered individual leaders in school and university contexts (Santamaría, 2014; Santamaría & Santamaría, 2012). This is the second time the approach has been applied to groups of leaders in a cross-cultural conceptualization (Santamaría, Lee, & Harker, 2014b). It was clear, upon analysis, that the research teams demonstrated every aspect of the ACL characteristics found and corroborated in previous international research studies (Santamaría et al., 2014a; Santamaría et al., 2014b). It is interesting to imagine what ACL might look like in other disciplines.

Figure 1. Model demonstrating nested nature of ACL and cross-cultural international research initiatives

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The figure shows that applied critical leaders who are culturally responsive are able to serve as active members of cross-cultural international organizations and teams. There is ample evidence from each project that suggests leaders made deliberate decisions to see and experience the tasks undertaken through perspectives dictated by their ethnicity, culture, gender and social class. These attributes along with the scholars’ ability to draw strength from positive attributes of their identities lent themselves well to the collective spirit and disposition required for the types of cross-cultural and international work presented in this chapter. This author, for example, was well aware of her identity as a Spanish born, Spanish and English speaking, US citizen of African American and Choctaw Nation descent living and working as an academic in New Zealand. Positive attributes were drawn from language, ethnicity, and socio-political position that fostered a sense of shared scholarly and political interest with different members of each research team, as well as the communities of practice for each project. This kind of work is wholly attainable when the underpinnings are made explicit and shared in public and scholarly spaces to inform and inspire others interested in undertaking similar work. Clearly, and in agreement with Dimmock and Walker (2000), Santamaría et al. (2014a, 2014b), and others there is considerable work to be done and questions to be answered with regard to the best ways forward in cultural responsivity in leadership and cross-cultural research. This chapter is part of a movement that is setting the stage for more cross-cultural leadership research to further identify and explore the conditions, strategies, and processes needed to interrupt shared oppressions and to progress collective research projects, and work toward common research interests.

CONCLUSION: CULTURAL RESPONSIVENESS MANDATORY AND CROSS-CULTURAL CONTEXTS AS STANDARD This chapter celebrates the notion of diversity as innovation (Erbe, 2014). It explores individual culturally responsive leadership as an integral part of collective cross-cultural international collaboration. In this chapter, the author argued that there is value when leaders are mindful of their socio-cultural context and also engaged in leadership practices in education and similar fields. This view privileges culture and difference where leaders and educators embrace and seek out the social, political and unconscious embodied ways of knowing that leaders bring into their practice and scholarship (Fitzpatrick & Santamaría, 2015). An alternative way of thinking about leadership in complex international settings is offered in order to benefit the current and future of educational practices for the communities featured as well as our global community as a whole with the intention to inform those disciplines and contexts where leaders are forging cross-cultural work and initiatives. Findings indicated that leadership in crosscultural international contexts was highly complex with many factors operating simultaneously and culturally responsive when it was based on the ethos of the multiple participating or host cultures, when power was shared or distributed, when the collective energy and esteem of the group was highly valued while at the same time providing space and opportunity to enable and empower individual voices, and when there was a propensity for collective knowledge generation. Reciprocity was embedded in every aspect of practice (e.g., key to the research was a sense of responding to a community identified need or ‘giving back’). Finally, there was a shared sense or spirit of pro-

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activism wherein researchers and participants worked together on challenges or issues that had political implications and results contributed to a response to address identified needs. The researchers and research groups featured then remind us, there is not only innovation in diversity, but great hope and promise as leaders, scholars, researchers, students and interdisciplinary practitioners explore and embrace what it is to lead and educate in an integrated, connected, collaborative interdisciplinary educational community responsive to the local and global needs of our communities and the world.

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Stevens, F. S. (Ed.). (1974). Racism: The Australian experience: A study of race prejudice in Australia (Vol. 1). Sydney, Australia: Australian and New Zealand Book Company. Tuhiwai Smith, L. (2012). Decolonizing methodologies: Research and Indigenous peoples. Dunedin, New Zealand: University of Otago Press.

ADDITIONAL READING Bishop, R., Berryman, M., Cavanagh, T., & Teddy, L. (2009). Te Kotahitanga: Addressing educational disparities facing Māori students in New Zealand. Teaching and Teacher Education, 25(5), 734–742. doi:10.1016/j.tate.2009.01.009 Bishop, R., Berryman, M., Powell, A., & Teddy, L. (2007). Te Kotahitanga Phase 2 – Towards a whole school approach. Wellington, New Zealand: Ministry of Education. Bishop, R., & Glynn, T. (1999). Culture counts: Changing power relations in education. Palmerston North, New Zealand: Dunmore Press Limited. Bishop, R., O’Sullivan, D., & Berryman, M. (2010). Scaling up education reform: Addressing the politics of disparity. Wellington, New Zealand: NZCER Press. Bryk, A. S., & Schneider, B. (2002). Trust in schools: A core resource for improvement. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.

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Calhoun, C. (1995). Critical social theory: Culture, history, and the challenge of difference. Oxford, United Kingdom: Wiley- Blackwell. Diamond, P. (2003). A fire in your belly: Māori leaders speak. Wellington, New Zealand: Huia Publishers. Education Review Office. (2010). Promoting success for Māori students: Schools’ progress. Wellington, New Zealand. Epstein, J. L. (2001). School, family and community partnerships: Preparing educators and improving schools. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Hallinger, P., & Leithwood, K. (1996). Culture and educational administration: A case of finding out what you don’t know you don’t know. Journal of Educational Administration, 34(5), 98–116. doi:10.1108/09578239610148296

Jean-Marie, G., & Normore, A. H. (2008). A repository of hope for social justice: Black women leaders at Historically Black Colleges and Universities. In A. H. Normore (Ed.), Leadership for social justice: Promoting equity and excellence through inquiry and reflective practice (pp. 3–36). Charlotte, NC: Information Age. Kahakalau, K. (2004). Indigenous heuristic action research: Bridging Western and Indigenous research methodologies. Hulili: Multidisciplinary Research on Hawaiian Well-Being, 1(1), 19–33. Kincheloe, J. L., & McLaren, P. (2002). Rethinking critical theory and qualitative research. In Y. Zou & E. T. Trueba (Eds.), Ethnography and schools: Qualitative approaches to the study of education (pp. 87–138). Lanham, MD: Rownman & Littlefield Publishers.

Hohepa, M. K., & Robinson, V. (2008). Māori and educational leadership: Tū Rangatira. ALTERNATIVE, 4(2), 20–38.

Macfarlane, A. (1997). The Hikairo rationale teaching students with emotional and behavioural difficulties: A bicultural approach. Waikato Journal of Education, 3, 153–168.

Horkheimer, M. (1972). Critical theory: Selected essays (Vol. 1). New York, NY: Continuum International Publishing Group.

Macfarlane, A. (2004). Kia hiwa ra! Listen to culture: Māori students’ plea to educators. Wellington, New Zealand: NZCER Press.

Hornby, G., & Lafaele, R. (2011). Barriers to parental involvement in education: An explanatory model. Educational Review, 63(1), 37–52. doi:1 0.1080/00131911.2010.488049

Macfarlane, A., Glynn, T., Cavanagh, T., & Bateman, S. (2007). Creating culturally-safe Schools for Māori students. The Australian Journal of Indigenous Education, 36, 65–76.

Hoskins, T. K. (2010). Māori and Levinas: Kanohi ki te kanohi for an ethical politics (unpublished doctoral dissertation). The University of Auckland, New Zealand.

May, S., & Sleeter, C. E. (Eds.). (2010). Critical multiculturalism: Theory and praxis. New York, NY: Routledge.

Jean-Marie, G. (2008). Leadership for social justice: An agenda for 21st century schools. The Educational Forum, 72(4), 340–354. doi:10.1080/00131720802362058

McKinley, E., Madjar, I., van der Merwe, A., Smith, S., Sutherland, S., & Yuan, J. (2009). Targets and talk: Evaluation of an evidence-based academic counselling programme. Auckland, New Zealand: Starpath Project, The University of Auckland.

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Milne, A. (2009). Colouring in the white spaces: Cultural identity and learning in school. Auckland, New Zealand: ASB/APPA Travelling Fellowship. New Zealand Ministry of Education. (2010). Tū rangatira: Māori medium Educational leadership. Retrieved from http://www.educationalleaders. govt.nz/Leadership-development/Keyleadershipdocuments/Tu-rangatira-English Pearson, H. (2007). Partnership processes in mainstream schools: A challenge for principals. Paper presented at the 4th International Conference on Indigenous Education: Asia/Pacific, Vancouver, Canada. Pihama, L., & Gardiner, D. (2005). Building baseline data on Māori, whānau development and Māori realising their potential—literature review: Developing leadership. Final Report for Te Puni Kōkiri. Auckland, New Zealand: UniServices, University of Auckland. Smith, G. (1991). Reform & Māori educational crisis: A grand illusion. Paper presented at the Post Primary Teachers Association Curriculum Conference, Christchurch, New Zealand.

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Applied Critical Leadership: A strengths based leadership approach where educational leaders draw from positive aspects of their identity (e.g., ethnicity, class, gender, traditions, subjectivity, bias) to share and distribute leadership responsibilities according the social and political context of their educational communities resulting in greater empowerment of individual members of these communities based on positive aspects of individual and group identities (Santamaría & Santamaría, 2012). Cross-Cultural Educational Leadership: Leadership practice in educational settings that involves or bridges the differences between two

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or more cultures or cultural dimensions (e.g., language, ethnicity, religion). Culturally Responsive Leadership: Occurs when leaders are cognizant of the socio-cultural dynamics surrounding academic achievement for all learners, the role of educators’ ability to understand, communicate with, and effectively interact with people across cultures and socioeconomic standing, and understand what it means to be sociopolitically conscious in their settings with regard to language, culture, and ethnicity. Indigenous: Indigenous communities, peoples and nations are those which, having a historical continuity with pre-invasion and pre-colonial societies that developed on their territories, consider themselves distinct from other sectors of the societies now prevailing in those territories, or parts of them. They form at present non-dominant sectors of society and are determined to preserve, develop and transmit to future generations their ancestral territories, and their ethnic identity, as the basis of their continued existence as peoples, in accordance with their own cultural patterns, social institutions and legal systems” (Cobo, 1986). International Comparative Education: Transnational, international, and global educational efforts designed to increase the understanding of educational issues, trends and policies through comparative, cross-cultural and international perspectives using different conceptual frameworks to explore topics related to education (e.g., focus on schools, students, teachers and administrators) inclusive of a variety of issues at every level (e.g., early childhood, basic education, secondary and higher education) on interdisciplinary topics comparing learning and other educational disparities related to wealth, gender, ethnicity, language and socio-demographic status. People of Color: People of color is a term used primarily in the United States to describe any person who is not white (e.g., African-American, Latino/a, American Indian/Indigenous). The term is meant to be inclusive among non-white groups, emphasizing common experiences of racism.

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Systemically Underserved: People, groups of people, or sectors of society in the world who are or have been persistently educationally, socially, or historically disadvantaged or excluded with regard to access to education, employment, or civic participation.



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Transformative leadership is indicative of leaders able to consider the complexity of positioning their organizations within greater sociopolitical and sociohistorical realities (Quantz, Rogers, & Dantley, 1991), who often work from within dominant culture paradigms to exercise “effective oppositional power, to resist courageously, and to be activists and voices for change and transformation” (Shields, 2010, p. 570). Critical multiculturalism occurs when educational leaders move “from thinking about leadership for social justice toward thinking about leadership practice or qualities that result in social justice and educational equity,” essentially praxis (Santamaría, 2014, p. 11).



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Critical race theory in this chapter is the idea that the leaders involved consider race or ethnicity first, valuing story as communication, being critical of liberalism, and understanding the reality of racism (LadsonBillings, 1999). Interest convergence is the idea that white people will support racial justice including social justice and equity initiatives, only to the extent that there is a “convergence” between the interests of the white people and racial justice, meaning to the extent there is something in it for white people (Bell, 1980). Treaty of Waitangi is an agreement, in Māori and English, that was made between the British Crown and about 540 Māori Rangatira (chiefs) on 6 February 1840 resulting in a nation state which has given rise to biculturalism which can also accommodate multiculturalism. The treaty is considered New Zealand’s founding document. It takes its name from the place in the Bay of Islands where it was first signed.

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Chapter 9

Cross Cultural Collaboration and Leadership: A Success Story Kenneth Campa City Year Los Angeles, USA

ABSTRACT A specific multi-tiered community-based system within urban Los Angeles can be used to create a particular cross cultural collaboration and leadership model. This chapter focuses on a case study where cross cultural aspects of collaboration and leadership exist and work together within a particular community. By analyzing the historical to present-day context of this community-based system, this chapter reveals a strong correlation with relevant theoretical framework and practice strategies from the interdisciplinary field of Negotiation, Conflict Resolution and Peacebuilding (NCRP). The system for collaborating across difference presented within this chapter alludes to the capacity of effectively creating optimal solutions for educational and other organizational community development. It makes a proposal how a combination of certain collaborative dynamics and aspects of the field of NCRP have the capacity to create effective means of support for students in the public school system

INTRODUCTION Thinking about the various reform initiatives that are taking place within Los Angeles Unified School District (hereinafter L.A.U.S.D)’s educational system, one area we could look at as reform practitioners is cross-cultural collaboration and leadership. With the constant influx of programs trying to define what it takes to make an impact within the United States (hereinafter U.S.) public education school system, messaging can possibly

get lost in implementation. One particular initiative occurring in Boyle Heights, California has been working to lessen this particular effect for the betterment of its youth. One can cross the 1st and 4th street bridges from Downtown Los Angeles and find her or himself in the Boyle Heights neighborhood. A community surrounded by three major freeways (I-5, I-101, and the I-60), Boyle Heights would be considered to be on the east side of Los Angeles County. Not to be mistaken for unincorporated

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-8376-1.ch009

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East Los Angeles (which is not part of Los Angeles County), Boyle Heights developed into a present-day neighborhood focused on grassroots community development, enduring the pressure of outside gentrification. Even though the neighborhood is roughly 6.52 square miles in size (2014), its 14,229 people per square mile is one of the densest communities in Los Angeles County. Its school system dealt with overpopulation throughout the years until the early 2000’s where additional options such as new public and charter schools became available. Boyle Heights’ present-day school system includes a combination of twelve public schools through L.A.U.S.D, charter schools, and private schools. There are a total of five different public schools (one elementary, two middle, and two high schools) that are managed by an urban school turnaround organization (UTO). Even though these five schools are responsible for reporting to this UTO, they are still held accountable to certain L.A.U.S.D policies and procedures as well. Through all of these bureaucratic layers, an issue that resurfaces is funding. With a population over 650,000 students and operating budget of $6.8 billion (Romo, 2014), there are still strict budgetary constraints throughout L.A.U.S.D. Public schools within Boyle Heights have had to become strategic with bringing contracted services onto their campuses. At times, some of its community coalitions have taken it upon themselves to help secure funding. One way has been through a federal grant called Promise Neighborhoods. According to the U.S. Department of Education (2014), the Promise Neighborhoods initiative was built to serve as a discretionary/competitive grant in order to create a successful educational pipeline for children by giving them access to fundamentally sound schools and strong systems of family and community support. Since the 2011-2012 school year, a community building organization in Boyle Heights known as Proyecto Pastoral at Dolores Mission has been working to bring this grant to the neighborhood. Since that point, this

organization had been unsuccessful in obtaining the grant. Regardless of its inability to obtain the grant, the organization did not stop its efforts to create that essential pipeline. As a program manager for a leading tutoring-based educational non-profit, I had the opportunity to be directly involved within this process; both as an observer and a committee member. I had also been able to identify certain members and organizations that put forth a dedicated approach focused on cross cultural collaboration and leadership. To better understand the type of results that yield from a particular community collaborative alongside specific leadership techniques, this chapter adheres to the following structure. It begins with introducing historical context and the need for collaboration and leadership across conflict. It then transitions to discussing the theoretical framework of NCRP and its correlation to the community work. The closing sections focus on the evolution of the initiative over the course of a 4-year span. Ultimately, it takes a closer look at how this particular initiative has been able to create an effective infrastructure without the financial means of a federal grant, where other sites that were awarded the same grant have yet to make similar accomplishments.

HISTORICAL CONTEXT Boyle Heights, a highly compacted urban community in East Los Angeles, started off as a culturally diverse neighborhood with multiple immigrant families. According to the East LA Interchange (2013), numerous Eastern European, Russian, Japanese and Mexican families were forced to this area in light of the segregation efforts of the local government and real estate industry of Los Angeles during the 1920’s. Moving forward and through the 1960’s, many of these immigrant families had already moved out, but many more Mexican families moved in. This influx of population eventually created crowded neighborhoods throughout the city.

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Figure 1. Demographics of Boyle Heights

Due to the country’s national landscape of 1960’s (2013), the Boyle Heights community responded with a commitment involving four social notions: coalition building, political activism, community building and preserving its multicultural identity. Looking at the community in its present day, the cultural dynamics are predominantly influenced by its Latino population. According to the Los Angeles Times (2014), the ethnic breakdown of Boyle Heights is roughly as seen in figure 1. The physical presence of various ethnic identities may have diminished, but members of the Boyle Heights community still hold to the same four social notions previously committed to during the 1960’s. Without understanding this multicultural history, the community’s passionate commitment to multicultural community might not make sense to outsiders. Yet if one takes the time to vividly imagine and reflect on its contemporary identity along with its history, multicultural community is still potent. Obviously much of the community, particularly the elders, first identifies it as Mexican-born. The community members who have moved to the U.S. are themselves collaborating and even leading across at least two cultures. Those born in Boyle Heights, though, may first identify as American. Identity, in this instance, helps define a part of the Boyle Heights culture. Other than identity, there are different facets of culture that comprise a web of social dynamics.

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Culture Culture, when defined broadly, goes beyond ethnic identity, and encompasses the differences of gender, race, language, class, education, profession as well as community and politics. The significance of various differences, however, correlates with ethnic identity. Organizations engage, within and without, with all such differences. Even though some readers may argue that the cultures of public/non- profit organizations are only defined by their service and often bureaucratic mandates and for-profit organizations by their profit at all costs bottom line, all who have worked intimately within and with both types of organizations, especially their conflict, know the realities and challenges are much more complex, particularly when cross cultural collaboration and leadership are required. Later in this case study, a theoretical background that introduces some of the basic challenge of “simple” intragroup and intergroup dynamics involving all the above and any other significant difference will be presented. In this case study, many college educated professional Mexican Americans are supporting and teaching the children of working class, even poor, Mexican and Mexican American parents.

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Not only do cultural differences exist here, power differs from stakeholder to stakeholder. Power-balancing is a critical issue to be addressed and consistently practiced with this cross cultural collaboration and leadership, particularly when and if conflict and tension arises regarding different perspectives and approaches to raising children or serving the community in question. It is interesting to note which differences actually led to conflict in this case study and enlightening to see exactly how such difference was effectively navigated. The ability to have effectively navigated through such differences stems from a deliberate system of cultural and leadership checks and balances put in place by various parties.

NEED FOR COLLABORATION AND LEADERSHIP ACROSS CONFLICT Five years ago a new high school opened up in Boyle Heights---the first new high school in the neighborhood in over 70 years. Originally called the Felicitas and Gonzalo Mendez Learning Center, the school was named after the parents involved in the 1947 California educational civil rights case Mendez v. Westminster. At the time when members from the school district were deciding on the name of the school, many members from the Boyle Heights community advocated for naming it after the Mendez family. They felt the historical significance that this case had on the educational community, let alone the Latino community, spoke to community’s interest in creating educational equality for its future youth. As the school began taking ownership of creating educational equality for its students, there were community members who also felt a sense of ownership. The creation of the school was part of a bigger movement of community development. As the community began to change, Proyecto started developing a three-tiered plan meant to continue and bolster momentum. This three-tiered plan

focused on early child development, academic development, and wellness. The creation of the Mendez Learning Center was the driving point of the academic development portion. I had the opportunity to speak with Deycy Hernandez, Proyecto’s Director of Boyle Heights Promise Neighborhood Initiative, about their blueprint. According to Hernandez (2014), the community felt a sense of ownership and responsibility for students that were getting a new start. Here they saw an opportunity to create a structured college pipeline, and identified a few stakeholders that needed to be part of this process. Along with Proyecto, other community based organizations (CBOs), and the administrative staff from Mendez were brought to the table to discuss next steps with how Mendez would serve as an academic pipeline. This group eventually came to be known as the Boyle Heights Promise Neighborhood Steering Committee. The beginning conversations unearthed a sense of tension. This became apparent when Mendez’s assistant principal presented data that exposed some academic gaps on behalf of the school. According to the school, the graduation rate at the end of the 2009-2010 school year was 35%. According to Hernandez (2014), since the school was openly sharing data with non-district externals, this created tense conversations. The meetings reached a point towards the end of the 2010-2011 school year when the urban school turnaround organization (UTO) that held governance over the high school started establishing itself more in the meetings. This organization was, and still is, in charge of implementing and overseeing different academic innovations on the school’s behalf. A part of this process included aligning with specific reform initiatives on behalf of the school district. This organization would ask the school to adhere to certain benchmarks through particular means. On the other hand, the Steering Committee was looking at attaining some of these benchmarks through different means.

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This organizational divide between the UTO and Steering Committee called for a shift in focus regarding the college pipeline framework. According to Hernandez (2014), the UTO and the Steering Committee continued to meet and discuss a broader framework that focused on specific shared values: relationship-building, trust, and willingness to self-reflect and act. A turning point in these preliminary meetings occurred when the dialogue kept on revisiting the theme of shared interests. Ms. Hernandez recalls one of those meetings. I recall myself and one of the facilitators using this image of a sinking boat filled with people. Our message was that we felt there were some of us who were in the boat trying to shovel out as much water as we can, where there were others on the other end of the boat, standing around, and not taking action. In the end, both groups were not working effectively together. This allowed us to create a clearer understanding of how the students’ success was a shared responsibility. Hernandez felt this initial bridging of tension/ difference helped create a healthier environment for dialogue and discussion to take place. Instead of trying to save face and cover up data, Mendez’s administrators saw these discussions as their fundamental institutional responsibility---necessary to get students on track to graduate and create filters to college. With the school being willing to share data, and the meetings continuing monthly, all parties felt like they were on the right path. The dynamics of each party’s interests started to define different aspects of collaboration, conflict and leadership. In order to get to the point of initial collaboration, interests beyond positions were being communicated. If any of the parties would have remained entrenched within their position, not understanding their interests beyond the surface level, could have stalled any progress. Conflict, in this instance, was recognized due to the tension around each party focusing on their

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own needs. Reframing the discussions on behalf of Ms. Hernandez and her colleagues helped reveal shared goals. From here, the notion of a shared leadership began to take place. Where the school administration held domain on matters within the school, Proyecto maintained a similar control with matters regarding the community. Bringing the two realms of leadership together started to create a vision where the needs and resources of each party were one in the same.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK At its best, the emerging interdisciplinary field of Negotiation, Conflict Resolution and Peacebuilding (hereinafter “NCRP”) promotes and guides inclusive multicultural process (Erbe, 2004). To this end, it encourages inviting all concerned stakeholders to any collaborative process, particularly in the face of conflict and difference (Erbe, 2011). It even provides guidance with engaging all stakeholders in negotiating multicultural process parameters, or “ground rules” to ensure that the resultant dialogue is truly multicultural (Erbe, 2004 and 2011). Years ago, organizational theorists Blake and Mouton introduced a model that NCRP has since adopted and used to represent optimal conflict resolution: one that effectively balances relationship building with task performance (Blake & Mouton, 1972). Obviously, in the face of conflict and difference, building trust across culture is a requisite and critical first step (Hosokawa, 2010)—easier to articulate than practice. The more common response across cultural and other difference is defensive response (Erbe, 2004) which serves to heighten rather than bridge difference. Face saving, or preserving a preferred image, is one common example (Oetzel & Ting-Toomey, 2013). Depending on the need or interest in something tangible or intangible, an individual or group would attempt this response in order to retain some level of ownership of what is at stake.

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Fortunately, NCRP and the many fields informing it, such as international relations, communications, and law and government, provide effective pragmatic approaches and tools to face the challenges of human defensiveness across difference. They include the proven practices for face saving and otherwise building cross cultural relationships starting with dialogue and understanding. NCRP begins with stressing the absolute importance of learning to suspend judgment in the face of difference (Erbe, 2004). The worst of cross cultural leaders, in contrast, are described as judgmental and critical (Erbe, 2004). Mental and emotional openness, even curiosity, across cultural difference is mandatory to build trust and collaborative relationship (Erbe, 2004). Once a member or leader of cross cultural collaboration learns how to suspend judgment and be open to learning about another culture, and then skilled listening at multiple levels builds cross cultural trust and collaboration. NCRP teaches effective and careful listening at the level of what is said by a stakeholder, as well as the level of what is felt by the stakeholder: empathetic listening if done sincerely; otherwise at least interested engaged listening). At its most masterful, listening occurs at the most important level, often unarticulated, of need, or human interest (Erbe, 2003). This essential and insightful, or deep, listening is also called reframing (Erbe, 2011). It begins the NCRP process of interest identification. Interest identification is fundamental to what the Harvard Negotiation Project termed as integrative negotiation or collaboration across difference (Fisher & Ury, 1991). This stands in contrast to the more common positional bargaining that fights in the face of difference (Ury, 1993). Once stakeholders and leaders learn to identify the most important human interests present in any conflict, they have then taught to identify and emphasize common ground, or shared interests (Deutsch & Coleman, 2000).

Trustbuilding, though, requires more than masterful listening, astute interest identification and reframing. Leaders must lead by example. NCRP teaches this as moral congruence or “walking one’s talk” (Erbe, 2003). Even exemplary leadership alone, however, is still not enough. In an international survey evaluating cross cultural leadership, the best had to be both knowledgeable and open to other cultures (Erbe, 2004). Leaders lost and broke trust with any sign of prejudice. Simultaneously, these leaders needed to be masterful at NCRP facilitation and engagement. In contrast, the worst cross-cultural leaders were described as careless listeners lacking deep understanding (Erbe, 2004). They were also judgmental and disrespectful, emphasizing the negative present in cross cultural collaboration. Research shows that optimal cross cultural collaboration and leadership is inclusive of all stakeholders, or those concerned, acutely conscious of the power held and exercised by those collaborating, and facilitates impartial power balancing so all concerned perceive equal treatment in all important detail: introductions, speaking time, influence and participation in reaching agreements as some key examples (Erbe, 2004). Cross cultural collaboration led by the best of leaders is inherently transformational (Erbe, 2004). Some of the benefits cited by participants include increased understanding through perspective talking, improved self-awareness and understanding and open mindedness towards others (Erbe, 2004). Optimally, as will be detailed throughout this chapter’s case study, all involved also improve communication practices. Reflective practice is used in the fields of education (Parsons & Brown, 2002) and NCRP to assess effectiveness and create recommendations for process improvement. It is similar to the process observation and evaluation advocated in experiential learning (Johnson & Johnson, 1997) and includes its own process observation. Similarly

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case study research is used in these professional fields of practice because case studies encompass the complexities of the real world (Hancock & Algozzine, 2011). The case study of cross cultural collaboration and leadership presented here shows how case studies facilitate and demonstrate applied theory proving itself in practice with rich factual detail. Reflective practice and process evaluation are recommended at many different levels of interaction and awareness. Nancy Erbe, a professor in the NCRP program at CSU Dominguez Hills places emphasis on the levels of intrapersonal awareness, interpersonal relations; intragroup and intergroup dynamics (Erbe, 2004). Different tools are advocated with each. Different and important awareness can be gained by analyzing conflict from the perspective of each level (as will later be demonstrated in the case study). Visioning is one of the creative processes used in NCRP along with option generation (Erbe, 2003). NCRP practitioners and students are taught to frame collaborative questions based on the interests of all engaged in a particular process so that the ideas resulting from such creative processes are responsive to the concerns of all stakeholders. Intragroup and intergroup dynamics, however, can make practicing the above tools dramatically challenging. Intragroup refers to interactions within one particular group, whereas intergroup refers to interactions between two or more groups. It is important for readers to have at least an introduction to the research and theories explaining such dynamics because they will be present any time more than one cultural, gender, class or other group is present. In short, they represent the heart of cross cultural collaboration. Sadly, labor-management dynamics too often emulate their worst in current times. Other destructive examples include criminal gangs around the world. Any time an organizational member identifies as a member of an organizational group (employee, management) these dynamics are normally present. The “in group” will expect insider loyalty.

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Unfortunately, building group unity/cohesiveness can occur by criticizing and gossiping against outsiders including other organizational groups like management. (Erbe, 2004). At their worst, groups will label any members who dares criticize members and leaders of the group as disloyal traitors and threaten them with being thrown out and excluded from the group. Obviously, any attempt at cross cultural collaboration and leadership will fail unless these destructive dynamics are somehow addressed and transformed. This particular case study will show how “neutral” or impartial participants to a collaborative process also risk being perceived as against a group with a political agenda. Since including all participants to a collaborative process equally, or NCRP’s definition of impartiality, is where this section began, this is a real challenge faced by many global organizations today. For example, if the organizational leader treats women equally with men, how will this be perceived? Or if the organizational leader of an American organization treats all employees equally when he or she has a non-American background and upbringing, how will they respond? I hope the following case study success will help guide them in effective cross cultural leadership and collaboration. Organizations also have their own distinct cultures and norms: spoken but more often than not implicit. Expectations regarding information sharing (what, with who…how honest…), communication (open or closed), authority, decision-making…are present in most, if not all, organizations (Erbe, 2003). If these understandings, or organizational “rules” prohibit any of the NCRP approaches discussed and recommended in this chapter, these agreements will need to be discussed and renegotiated within the organizations concerned. In order to create effective cross cultural collaboration, it is necessary for all stakeholders to engage in a reflective practice that encompasses a level of mutual respect and understanding infused with open dialogue and discussion. At times, this

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process can be altered dramatically with intragroup and intergroup dynamics that are focused on destructive means. If these groups are able to establish a productive process instead, sustainable transformation can be a result.

CASE STUDY: CROSSING PATHS AND BUILDING BRIDGES As the dialogue and discussions continued, more stakeholders began to take part in the conversations. During the course of the 2011-2012 school year, the focus had shifted to building a community-based infrastructure within the high school. The school and the Steering Committee started collaborating with additional community based organizations (CBOs). Both parties reached a point where they had felt the conversations reached a pinnacle when it was just the two of them alongside the UTO participating. This led to a needs assessment which identified the need for additional educational and enrichment capacity. They felt bringing in different organizations that could offer specific resources to the students would increase the capacity of their framework. This framework is later described in further detail which includes a complex system of leadership alongside a community-based infrastructure. By the start of the 2012-2013 school year, this unique framework had been put in place. Each organization that was added to this infrastructure had an assigned liaison. The liaison for each organization advocated for the type of services the students would be able to receive on their behalf. This advocacy was based on how their services were deployed both within other school environments and within different parts of the Boyle Heights and Los Angeles communities. In the end, the Steering Committee was able to gather seventeen different CBOs. Throughout the discussion process, both the school and the Steering Committee felt in order to help these organizations deliver on these services,

a multi-tiered system needed to be developed. According to Hernandez (2014) the original plan called for Proyecto to hire three different personnel to help put this system in place: a Community School Achievement Coordinator, an Achievement Specialist, and a College Counselor. Considering that Proyecto did not receive the Promise Neighborhood grant, this approach was scaled down significantly. All of the duties and responsibilities of each position were rolled up into one position. The new position came to be known as the College and Career Achievement Counselor (CCAC). Once this position was established, it became the expectation that this person would serve as bridge between the Steering Committee and the school. The overall concern with this expectation was that there were multiple sub-level expectations asked to be carried out by the CCAC both by the school and Proyecto. Considering that the newly hired CCAC was new to Proyecto and new to the school, this individual had to not only become acquainted with two different systems immediately, they also had to help the liaisons from the different CBOs become acquainted as well. One way in which the CCAC helped each CBO become more acclimated to the school was through monthly meetings. The meetings were held on the school’s campus and provided a space for each CBO to discuss their work with students and collaborate together on upcoming events. Depending on the type of services that each CBO provided, their presence and support for students differed. There were some CBOs that were on campus working with students throughout the day for the entire week. Other CBOs would only be on campus one to two days for only a particular extended learning time period (i.e. nutrition, lunch, or after school). Naturally, those who were on campus more often than others were given additional access to school information and resources. Eventually as the 2012-2013 school came to an end, planning for the next year was underway. One notable difference was how the school started

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to rely on four particular CBOs to help them with mapping out certain school events. An example was the school’s 9th Grade Summer Bridge Program: a transition program for incoming 8th graders to become acclimated to the high school. After the Summer Bridge Program, and as the 20132014 school began, the majority of the same list of CBOs from the previous year returned. There were a couple of CBOs that stepped away, and a few new ones joined on. At this point the school had changed its name to the Felicitas and Gonzalo Mendez High School for College and Career Preparation. With a new direction and the new school year underway, the Steering Committee decided to be more strategic about how each CBO was aligning their services with the school’s needs. Instead of one general CBO monthly meeting, the decision was made to split up the CBOs into two different categories: Academic and Wellness. The Academic and Wellness Teams would meet monthly, but separately. Bi-monthly, though, both sets of teams would meet up for a general meeting to discuss progress and upcoming initiatives. While the Steering Committee was focused on building a community-based infrastructure as a means to help the school build an effective college pipeline, it still looked to not only maintain the bridges it had built, but also to continue to build new ones. As one school year closes, and another approaches, strengthening current platforms and looking at new beginnings is a mantra that continues to be echoed. In a statement by Hernandez (2014) she talks about the potential of creating a transformative process. Looking at the cycles of nonprofits and collaborative models, most collaborative initiatives do not last past two years. Those who do last take on different forms. This requires all to take on the collaborative function of realizing the vision of what it is that we can do together.

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CREATING THE VISION An argument can be made that the Steering Committee’s vision was connected to the four particular social notions of Boyle Heights’ upbringing introduced earlier (coalition building, political activism, community building and preserving multicultural identity). According to Hernandez (2014), the original vision of creating a community-school transformation plan included nine specific solutions: early development, personalized learning, grades Kindergarten-12th, safe public spaces, stable housing, emotional wellness, economic development, healthy environments, and college completion. The Steering Committee partly sought to administer these solutions based on its community-based infrastructure (coalition building) and its committee meetings and general assembly meetings (community building). Through the process of coalition and community building, specific cultural differences stood out. These differences did not cause any hindrance; instead they were seen and experienced as offering opportunities for embracing each other across varying lines. They are elaborated below. When we try to define a cross-cultural collaborative and leadership model within this instance, we can pay attention to the cultural aspect of differing organizations and entities, with their distinct organizational cultures, charged with the task of building support for the community as well as their geographic communities. Hernandez (2014) acknowledges that even though a good percentage of the Steering Committee’s members originated within the Boyle Heights community, close to over a third of them did not. These different committee members were either physically based in East Los Angeles or serviced various other parts greater Los Angeles. For example, my organization services students in the Watts, South Los Angeles, Pico Union, and Boyle Heights communities.

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Figure 2. Boyle Heights connection spectrum

Initially there was some resistance to bringing in externals to the community to participate in the discussions. A contact from one of the organizations approached a liaison from my organization and mentioned that our organization’s platform was questioned. He was asked which audience it was trying to serve: our own or the Boyle Heights community. A timeframe of four weeks of meetings and dedication to open and honest discussions allowed for these feelings to subside. The group, however, eventually framed the above difference as a positive. By considering and focusing on the similar interests as well as shared objectives of both internal and external organizations that comprised the Steering Committee, it used the platform of meetings to further develop efforts. After these conversations, members from Proyecto began to acknowledge the importance of bringing in outside entities that shared interests and visions with the city’s locals. Continuously exploring and discovering shared interests and visions between stakeholders from the community and outside stakeholders further facilitated and developed collective efforts.

CULTURAL DIFFERENCES During different stages of this planning process, three cultural differences surfaced and became identifiable amongst the involved organizations

and entities: class difference, organization’s origin and foundational values, and political ideology. The Steering Committee is comprised of members from the lower and middle economic classes, with a few from the upper middle class. Throughout the entire process to date, though, there has not been a need to discuss or clearly define the differences in economic class for the purpose of distinguishing its members. If anything, when the issue of lower economic class would come up, it would be only to discuss what it would take to help create affordable services its members. This helped create more of a welcoming and inclusive atmosphere knowing and experiencing that lower, middle and higher economic status were not being used a part of the group’s defining characteristics. The origin of each organization is another cultural difference to have been acknowledged as being a factor in the cross-cultural collaboration process. The what and the why a particular organization invested itself in the community’s development was questioned based on if it was originally founded within Boyle Heights. The community connection spectrum is displayed in Figure 2. On the far left, organizations originally founded in Boyle Heights received little to no questioning around their level of involvement. Over the years, they engaged with each other through various communication and decision-making processes which created trust-building and investment. In the

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middle of the spectrum, there were those founded outside of Boyle Heights whose foundational values focused on providing varied areas of support to the Latino community. On the far right of the spectrum, there were others that originated outside of Boyle Heights, and supported various types of cultural communities. Given not being founded in Boyle Heights, and not directly servicing the Latino community, these aspects created decisive roles. It took more time and effort for these organizations to gain ground with trust-building and collaboration. A third cultural difference that created slight tension in the beginning and then resurfaced was political ideology. In early workings, some of the Steering Committee members made it clear that their approach was stemming from left-wing influences. A few other members stated that they did not claim any direct political affiliation. Members claiming leftist influences would question their level of commitment on behalf of the groups being served due to what they perceived as neutrality. Over time, with discussion, these feelings and doubts about commitment would subside. The issue, however, of trust across political lines and expectations, would resurface and be raised for discussion during the latter of the 2013-2014 school year. At this point certain members of the Steering Committee were looking to invest time, effort and resources in a list of political campaigns that were directly affecting the community and its members. Some of the members felt that these campaigns were necessary next steps, but a few others were hesitant to provide support. There was not much concern about any of the committee’s differences until this point. However, the committee appeared to have reached a potentially polarizing impasse that could lead to splitting. One of the organizations was concerned that if there was not some sort of amendment or restructuring that would allow their neutrality, they would consider having more direct affiliation (and withdrawing from the Steering collaboration). Proyecto decided to ap-

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proach the other neutral groups to get their input as well. In doing so, they then decided to request the above restructuring. The proposed restructuring was brought up for discussion amongst the entire Steering Committee. Fortunately, there was approval from every member to move forward with an inclusive restructuring. This new structure would include more formal communication about how certain members of Promesa’s Steering Committee could continue to hold a politically neutral stance while still supporting aspects of Promesa’s goals and missions: a classic win-win or mutually agreeable solution for all concerned. Aside from the above differences, the Steering Committee persisted in supporting the community served in every way possible. Another component that helped move these efforts along was community members who did not necessarily hold direct ties to these organizations. The Steering Committee decided that along with its regular meetings, it would also host quarterly general assemblies in order to keep the general community informed of their efforts. Personally having been a participant of these general assemblies and seeing those who attended, I can attest to its cross-cultural collaboration. Elders, local business owners, students, school personnel, guests, and Steering Committee personnel all came together to discuss and create eight different solutions. The elders were all members who had been part of the community for at least 20+ years. Local business owners and students also grew up in the neighborhood. Even the current principal for Mendez has lived within the community for the past 20+ years. A smaller percentage of folk amongst the guest and Steering Committee crowds also came from the neighborhood. Different types of viewpoints would be shared due to this diverse crowd of individuals and groups. Collectively the three major viewpoints that were directly related to the community connection spectrum mentioned earlier. Community members and the community organizations would call for solutions they felt could be provided by

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entities within the community. The Latino-interest groups based outside of Boyle Heights called for solutions they felt required the support from a network of various Latino-based organizations. The non-Latino specific organizations called for solutions that involved a collaboration of various groups, regardless of ethnic specifics. Acting as a participant process observer, I noticed different instances of interpersonal, intragroup, and intergroup dialogue and discussion. For example, during one of the general assemblies on safety strategies and goals, the crowd was broken up into three sub groups. There were several instances of interpersonal dialogue occurring between CBO liaisons and community members. Simultaneously, there were intergroup discussions occurring between Proyecto and a couple of the CBOs about how to pull strategic next steps from the sub group dialogue. Consistently committing to both the steering committee and general assembly meetings helped establish strong cross-cultural connections in order to

transform the nature of the Boyle Heights’s community-school infrastructure. I believe that including a staff participant educated in the NCRP theory and techniques described and demonstrated throughout this chapter made a potent difference. After engaging in conversations with Ms. Hernandez about the capacity different aspects of NCRP could benefit the decision-making process, I noticed how related resources were sought after. During the end of the 2013-2014 school year, leadership within Proyecto reached out to the Negotiation Conflict Resolution Center based out of San Diego. NCRC sat with different entities within Proyecto and provided trainings in conflict resolution and communication. The other instance involved the UTO’s department of school culture and restorative communities. This department’s lead facilitated sessions for the Steering Committee’s academic team that focused on individual and collective conflict resolution skills.

Figure 3. Leadership system

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ANALYZING THE COLLABORATION: ROLE OF LEADERSHIP Since the process began almost 4 years ago, the Steering Committee, alongside the high school, continues to develop its cross cultural collaborative model. Within this model, a complex system of leadership developed and currently still exists. See Figure 3. Prior to the start of any new school year, Mendez would be given a list of priorities on behalf of the district and from the UTO. Most priorities would be similar, while one or two would be different. Regardless, the school would have to adhere to all priorities. Still, the school would be able to maintain a certain level of autonomy, a level within which the Steering Committee was able to fit itself. As the Steering Committee’s college pipeline agenda evolved since the preliminary planning sessions, it still remained committed to holding to its core values; relationship-building, trust, and willingness to self-reflect and act. One major component that allowed for this to happen was its building a community-based infrastructure. This process included various different factors as displayed in Figure 4. According to Promesa Boyle Heights (2014), continuum access points refer to the mechanisms that allow children and families to gain access to the eight different solutions. Those mechanisms include community members, school partnerships, general assemblies, and the Steering Committee. Figure 4. Continuum access points

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Each mechanism is meant to provide a purposeful multi-layered approach to strengthen the connection between school and community systems. The other major component was the commitment on behalf of the school’s administration to allowing access to its students and campus resources. By building and promoting this level of access, it created certain balance of power foundational to sustainability. The school’s administration could have restricted access to the Steering Committee and the multiple CBOs. Instead, they made calculated decisions to include them based on the needs of the students. Where the school lacks in filling certain gaps, each CBO continues to work on filling those gaps. In this instance, leadership did not stem from one or two singular sources of power. This initiative helped create a particular model of cross cultural collaboration and leadership where there was a sense of empowerment. Due to the transparency in interests and needs, dedication to consistent dialogue and discussion, and willingness to include various stakeholders within the decision-making process, multiple organizations felt they were an equal member at the table. Having this type of ownership makes the thought of being able to expand the pie in order to create win/win scenarios seem far less challenging. According to Promesa Boyle Heights (2014), some of these win/win scenarios included the following results: a comprehensive community plan, strengthened individual and collective capacity, early successes through spark projects, preliminary

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implementation of core foundational strategies, target schools showing particular gains in student achievement, building of college-going culture at school and home, and advancement in key Boyle Heights Promise Neighborhood (BHPN) areas. Specifically with the target schools, the different CBOs provided a targeted approach for their respective grade levels. Promesa Boyle Heights (2014) states that more students passed the California High School Exit Exam and the graduation rate increased from 31% in 2011-2012, to 58% in 2012-2013, and to 75% in 2013-2014. Hernandez (2014) also mentioned that Mendez had the highest one-year Academic Performance Index gain throughout all traditional high schools in California and L.A.U.S.D by 76 points (from 614 to 690) by the end of the 2012-2013 school year. During the past couple of years, there have been numerous conversations I have had with the school’s administration where they acknowledged that there was no coincidence these gains occurred after these cross cultural collaborative efforts. When the school’s current administrator took over back in 2011-2012, and knowing the performance rate of its school, he felt increasing student achievement was going to require external support. He felt it was a unique opportunity when the BHPN chose to partner with Mendez. It may be difficult not to imagine how optimal results could amount when you have multiple individuals willing to gather, commit to engaging in consistent dialogue and discussion, in order to create sustainable results for the betterment of others. The BHPN cannot simply be defined by its title. When faced by any challenge, members of this movement have been able to maintain a growth mindset. According to author Carol Dweck (2014), creating a growth mindset includes looking at challenges, setbacks, or criticisms as opportunities to create strategic efforts, and incorporate a level of flexibility to expand one’s abilities. Hernandez (2014) mentioned that BHPN would receive some criticism saying that their plan was highly ambitious and would have been difficult to

deploy without the Promise Neighborhood grant. BHPN decided to continue on, making some adjustments, and still was able to gain sustainable results from the 2012-2013 and 2013-2014 school years. Part of their mission is to continue to apply for grants in hopes of maintaining stability, but they have proven that growth and progress are still possibilities.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS In October 2013, I was present for a Promise Neighborhood conference that was held at Mendez. BHPN was chosen to host different Promise Neighborhood groups from across the nation: some start-up sites and others that had been in existence. A start-up site included a network of community based organizations and school sites (regular and charter school). All of these groups had been operating without the federal grant mentioned earlier. The purpose of the conference was to expose and share how BHPN operated while being without the federal grant. A panel of four different representatives from the Steering Committee was made available for questions and answers for the groups. Many were amazed to see how the combined collaboration and effort sustained itself under BHPN’s cross cultural collaborative and leadership model. Along with these groups, others have been able to acknowledge that BHPN’s commitment to creating a better community is a model worth replicating beyond its boundaries, and should be credited for the amount of work and effort it has established. The work is far from complete, but the commitment of those involved creates hopeful certainties for myriad modern organizations. Continuing to analyze the effectiveness of this cross-cultural collaborative and leadership model and the necessity to apply the different processes of NCRP will be important based on a few key factors. One of them depends on the size of the Steering Committee and if members decide to

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leave or if new members ask to join. Another revolves around the issue of funding and if certain organizations decide to hire more staff in size to increase support. A third factor is if and how academic-based CBOs adapt their structure as the school continues to adjust to the newly adopted Common Core State Standards. These standards recently replaced California Standardized Testing. Collectively, this model could maintain the capacity to be effective if communication, consistency, and commitment are all present while addressing these potential factors.

Erbe, N. (2011). Negotiation alchemy: global skills inspiring and transforming diverging worlds. Berkeley, CA: Public Policy Press.

REFERENCES

Johnson & Johnson. (1997). Joining together. Ithaca, NY: Pearson Allyn and Bacon.

Blake, R., & Mouton, J. (1972). The managerial grid: key orientations for achieving production through people. Houston, TX: Gulf Publishing Co. Deutsch, M., & Coleman, P. (2000). The handbook of conflict resolution. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Dweck, C. (2014). Teaching a Growth Mindset Creates Motivation and Productivity in the Worlds of Business. Mindsetonline.com Retrieved March 18, 2014, from http://mindsetonline.com/changeyourmindset/firststeps/index.html East, L. A. Interchange. (2014) Retrieved 2014, April 8 from http://www.bluewatermedia.org/ boyleHeights.aspx Erbe, N. (2003). Holding these truths: empowerment and recognition in action (an interactive case study curriculum for multicultural dispute resolution). Berkeley, CA: Public Policy Press. Erbe, N. (2004). The global popularity and promise of facilitative adr. Temple International and Comparative Law Journal, 18, 343–389.

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Erbe, N. (2014). Approaches to managing organizational diversity and innovation. Hershey, PA: IGI Global. doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-6006-9 Fisher & Ury. (1991). Getting to yes: negotiating agreement without giving in. New York, NY: Penguin Group. Hosokawa, F. (2010). Building trust: doing research to understand ethnic communities. Washington, D.C.: Lexington Books.

Los Angeles Times Local. (2014). Retrieved 2014, April 3 from http://maps.latimes.com/neighborhoods/neighborhood/boyle-heights/ Oetzel, J., & Ting-Toomey, S. (2013). The Sage handbook of conflict communication. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Parson & Brown. (2002). Teacher as reflective practitioner and action researcher. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thompson Learning. Promesa Boyle Heights. (2014). Retrieved 2014, April 8 from http://promesaboyleheights.org/ the-planning-year/ http://promesaboyleheights. org/the-zone/ Promise Neighborhoods. (2014). Retrieved 2014, March 10 from https://www2.ed.gov/programs/ promiseneighborhoods/index.html?exp=0 Romo, V. (2014). Retrieved 2014, Sep 28 from http://laschoolreport.com/deasy-releases-draftlausd-next-budget-2014/ Ury, W. (1993). Getting passed no: negotiating in difficult situations. New York, NY: Bantam Books.

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ADDITIONAL READING

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

Cupach, W., Canary, D., & Spitzberg, B. (2010). Competence in interpersonal conflict. Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press, Inc.

Community Based Organization: Organization whose structure is built around supporting various aspects of a particular community. Cross Cultural Collaboration: System of collaboration that engages and allows stakeholders from different backgrounds to engage in healthy communication, shared decision-making and responsibility, and commitment. Dialogue: Communication pattern than creates a thought process meant to reflect upon. Discussion: Communication pattern that creates a thought process that can lead to decisionmaking. Promise Neighborhood: A collaborative of different or community based organizations aimed at supporting and creating common goals. Spark Project: Initial project meant to establish a basic infrastructure to engage interest of external entities. Urban School Turnaround Organization: Organization whose goals aim to support preexisting structures and help define new ones within an urban neighborhood setting.

Deutsch, M., & Coleman, P. (2000). The handbook of conflict resolution: theory and practice. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. LeBaron, M. (2003). Bridging cultural conflicts: a new approach for a changing world. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Pruitt, D., & Kim, S. (2004). Social conflict: escalation, stalemate, and settlement. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Vernis, A., Iglesias, M., Sanz, B., & Saz-Carranza, A. (2006). Nonprofit organizations: challenges and collaboration. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan. doi:10.1057/9780230505889 Weaver, G. (1998). Culture, communication and conflict: readings in intercultural relations. Boston, MA: Pearson Custom Publishing.

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Section 4

Mediating Institutions

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Chapter 10

Transnational and CrossCultural Approaches in Undercover Police Work John Irwin University of Guelph-Humber, Canada Anthony H. Normore California State University – Dominguiez Hills, USA

ABSTRACT Undercover operatives have for decades attempted to interact with and expose criminal activity in identified criminal sub-culture groups of their same ethnic backgrounds, potential criminal participants in diverse ethnic cultural groups other than their own ethnic background, and cross-cultural groups made up of people from different ethnic groups. Through our combined professional experiences (e.g., leadership professor, undercover law enforcement, criminal justice, research, inmate instructor, ethics professors) and having lived and worked in various parts of the world (e.g., Canada, US, UK, Europe, South East and Central Asia) our chapter examines undercover police work and provides a view to cross-cultural issues that exist on both the enforcement and suspect sides of police investigation. A variety of transnational and cross-border ethical issues are examined in undercover work (e.g. trickery, entrapment) along with landmark court cases in an effort to compare and contrast international approaches to undercover operatives. Future directions concerning international collaboration are presented.

INTRODUCTION Advancements in technology, the onset of the internet consumer markets and the European Union have all contributed to lines on national boundaries becoming more obscure. Research conducted internationally including North America, Asia, Europe and Asia-Pacific (see Hufnagel, Harf-

ield, & Bronitt, 2011; Jenner, 2011; Lemieux, 2010) clearly indicate that police must engage in a transnational and cross-cultural approach to be effective (Andreas, 2000; European Cooperation Group on Undercover Activities, 2004; The Hague Programme 2005). Historically, a transnational crime issue is dealt with in courts on a case-by-case assessment of whether or not the

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-8376-1.ch010

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law in a jurisdiction where someone is located permits the legality of extraditing a person to another jurisdiction for prosecution. Examples include United States of America v. Burns (2001) wherein Canadian undercover officers obtained confessions for a murder committed in the United States, and United States of America v. Commisso (2000) wherein an Amercian undercover officer successfully met with a Canadian drug supplier and arranged to import illicit drugs to Canada. In both cases a Court of Appeal authorized extradition of a Canadian Citizen to the United States to face prosecution based on what could be described as typical undercover operations for serious crimes. According to research on cross-border trafficking of people, drugs and contraband (e.g., Andreas, 2002; Campbell, 2008; European Cooperation Group on Undercover Activities, 2004; Findley, 1999) there is a logical extension that undercover operations will need to be employed with a transnational view. Significant issues arise with a transnational approach including: physically moving officers from one jurisdiction to another, increased officer stress related to a transnational deep cover operation, providing cover for the officers’ safety, and ensuring the undercover operative adjusts to work within the limits set by a particular jurisdiction outside of her/his own. (Anglin, 2002; Duraković, 2010; Gribakina, 2013; Irwin, 2002; Marx & Fijnaut, 1995; Štarienė, 2009; The Hague Programme, 2005; Tinto, 2013). The significant change in process would be engaging out-of-country undercover operatives. The value in understanding the social, psychological and legal issues related to police undercover work is the ability to identify key ethical issues that underlie effective and meaningful policing mentalities, aimed at meeting the Rule of Law, regardless of the local jurisdiction or country. The Rule of Law is a foundational approach to government that incorporates clear, publicized laws honouring human rights, and applied equally to all in a fair and efficient manner. For example, the need for transnational undercover operations and a need to understand national autonomy in 158

legal process may be most acute relative to child sex exploitation (Seto, 2013). The ability for pedophiles to broaden their audience and scope of access through the internet has grown exponentially over the last four decades (Ospina, Harstall, & Dennett, 2010). The onset of technological privacy advancement such as the “Deep Web” increases the ability to conduct ‘business’ with less chance of becoming exposed (Sharma, 2014). Likewise the police must use equally surreptitious methods to uncover the activity (Fulda, 2007; Mitchell, Wolak & Finkelhor, 2005). Whereas many may accept a more security-mended approach with online pedophile activity, society may not be equally willing to accept online undercover policing activity for fraud related offences (International Business Times, 2013), for identity issues (Zureik, Harling Stalker, Smith, Lyon, & Chan, 2010), or for direct corporate interests such as copyright infringement.

BACKGROUND: COLLABORATIVE POLICING ACROSS CULTURES Undercover operations in a cross-cultural context by their very nature require integrating the ‘other(s)’. In order to be effective at infiltrating a group, the undercover operative must shift from a position of thinking about the defined ‘other’ as an antithetical entity to affiliate, studying and mimicking his/her social practices. In order to be credible the officer must ‘understand’ the world (s)he is entering and understand the players within that environment. This brand of covert work can be viewed as a political strategy used by one [empowered] group against a competing other, deemed “necessary” only because of the presence of that antithetical criminal world, and the need to control that world (Boersma, 2014; Foucault, 1980). This politicization is exemplified in the current cross-cultural shift in Canada and the US regarding marihuana and cross-cultural shift of the 1930s regarding liquor (Marx, 1992, 2004; Marx & Fijnaut, 1995).

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To further our understanding of cross cultural collaboration in policing, data collection involved predominantly a review of extant literature, analyses of court cases, and brief semi-structured interviews with seven police officers who have had experience in undercover operatives. They range in age from mid-twenties to late forties. Officers included one White female, and six males including one Asian, one Hispanic, one East Indian, and three white male Canadian officers all of whom infiltrated subcultures of similar and different cultural backgrounds than their own, including Asian, South American, Northern European, Italian (mafia) and outlaw biker, in one of Canada’ largest international and multicultural settings. To set the context for cross cultural/transnational collaboration in police work it is critical to briefly examine some real-life examples.

Cross-Border Collaboration: US and Canada According to Deflem (2001) law-enforcement projects directed by the United Nations indicates the United States has an ambivalent relationship with multinational agencies. The American “war on drugs” is a major factor in the internationalization of American police power. It influenced the work of many other agencies to also become more international in scope. U.S. Customs Service in Southern California, for instance, stepped up law enforcement efforts against the flow of drugs from Mexico to the U.S. The U.S. Marshals Service and U.S. Coast Guard are also involved in the fight against drugs, specifically the flow of drugs over the high seas and waters that are under U.S. jurisdiction. The U.S. State Department is increasingly involved in international police matters because the U.S. government views the international crime problem as a component of foreign policy and national security, not just a law enforcement issue. Another important recent development in the internationalization of U.S.

policing relates to the increase in monetary crimes (money laundering) and the accompanying rise in organized crime (Deflem, 2010). Canada has bilateral involvement in International Police Cooperation. Next to the work done by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP), various other Canadian police agencies are involved with international police tasks. In terms of bilateral cooperation, Canada entertains Mutual Legal Assistance Treaties (MLAT) with a number of countries. Deflem (2010) asserts that these treaties enable police of different countries to help each other in collecting evidence against international criminals and to aid in the international rendition of fugitives from justice. Canada entertains the assistance with many countries, such as the USA, the UK, Australia, France, and the Ukraine. Cross border collaboration between Canadian law enforcement and their counterparts in the United States is most intense and involves a variety of areas. For instance, there is more and more collaborative work on organized crime and money-laundering activities that affect both the United States and Canada. In recent years, the cooperation between the U.S. and Canada in matters of the fight against drugs has also intensified. The drug flow mostly used to go from the U.S. into Canada, but now it has reversed. Possibly diverted from heightened control at the U.S.-Mexican border, drugs are now imported more and more into Canada, from South America and Asia, destined for the United States (Deflem, 2010). Both countries mutually share proceeds of seized assets in cases that involve cooperation (Deflem, 2001). Although cross-cultural collaboration has somewhat improved for American policing there are some unique challenges. Perhaps most critical is that American law enforcement at the borders and abroad is mostly, and despite participation in cooperation efforts, unilaterally involved in international activities. This has often created tensions with foreign police because of a perceived

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American autonomy which impedes cooperation. Similarly, there occur problems within the United States because of a lack of inter-agency cooperation. Often, various U.S. agencies work on the same issues, but hardly together (Deflem, 2001, 2010). Past problems include failure to participate in one another’s fugitive task forces, disagreements over responsibilities, and failure to cooperate with the apprehension of foreign fugitives. On the international level, lack of cooperation and distrust between American law enforcement officers and police of other nations are even more poignant problems. Particularly troublesome to American law enforcement is the lack of professionalism and the corruption of police abroad, for which reason U.S. police sometimes forgoes collaboration altogether and works abroad unilaterally (Deflem, 2010). Extradition agreements and effective process to support such agreements will likely continue for offenders attempting to evade prosecution for domestic crimes. Perhaps a more effective prosecutorial system for transnational crime needs to implemented much like the European Court of Human Rights, that includes the ability to prosecute offenders in any country where the crime imfringes on the human rights of it’s citizens.

Undercover Operatives and Cultural Differences Undercover operatives can take on a transnational context with activities such as terrorism, drug trafficking, and human smuggling (Giladi 2009; National Post, 2013). These activities like any other criminalized activity typically involve some degree of policing by localized law enforcement agencies (Deflem 2010). If undercover operations are deemed an appropriate investigative method, resources are available to use the method, and approved for allocation, then an undercover operative is assigned who is thought to be suitable to connect with/infiltrate the ‘targeted other’. With transnational activity the interplay of cultural

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differences exists in the physical moving across borders (see earlier examples of US, Canada and Mexico). Symbols and signage indicate a different setting and consideration of same. The spoken language is different. In many of the world’s largest urban centers the interplay of cultural differences is just as significant, but seems somehow less apparent to many. Girodo (1997) and Findley (1999) assert that local law enforcement officials are aware of changes – that it is the very nature of their livelihood. They must grasp the cultural issues of the suspect(s). One might think that this concern is easily resolved simply by using a police officer of the same cultural background to do the undercover work (Girodo 1997; Miller 2006). In diverse cultural environments language is just one consideration. Where the suspect belongs to a particular cultural group that has a small population in a particular city gaining access may be difficult. Using a female undercover operative has additional security concerns around sexual assault. A normal part of preventing exposure to law enforcement efforts is to deal closely only with people that are proven or that have some sort of vulnerability (Ross, 2002). The criminal element within any cultural group makes up only a small percentage of the whole group, so staying close to your own cultural community may just make sense. Thus using a police officer from that same cultural community may seem like sound strategic thinking on the part of law enforcement in order to gain entry into a ‘hidden space’. An undercover operative may be chosen because their language and/or cultural background are seen as skills much like selecting a carpenter rather than a plumber for repairs to a home (McMurray, Karim, & Fisher, 2010). But the reality of using someone from within that community brings with it the risk that cultural capital common among immigrant populations may well lead to a damaged investigation because the undercover police operative’s presence becomes exposed (inadvertently or intentionally) or worse, harm to the officer/officer’s family.

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When examining the impact of social or emotional deficit, an individual operative (operative’s family) may have to bear afterwards, in order to maintain some degree of ongoing safety is described by a research subject,: There are only 30,000 of us living in this city. Everyone who knows me or knows my name also knows that I am the police. I bought a lot of drugs undercover (sic) because I speak the language. When I go to a wedding there will be people there on the the other side of the law. Because I am fair they don’t bother me. They are trying to make a living too. We avoid each other. But they know my family. I can’t turn away from my whole community. And then someone will say ‘oh he’s dirty, or ‘I saw him come from a wedding with organized crime people’. Facing these concerns, law enforcement officials often must rely on the underlying motivation for the criminal activity (monetary gain, vengeance, politics, causing terror) in hopes that the suspect will engage an undercover operative cross-culturally. The risk assessment now shifts to dealing with the ability of a target group to speak a language that the undercover operative doesn’t understand and presentation issues around being an always identified outsider (Stariene, 2009). Due to the nature and invisibility from the outside world of this form of policing, the officers’ actions—the degree of discretion—is far greater than non-undercover work. Operatives must constantly question and assess their actions from a legal perspective of what might be construed as participating in, or provoking, criminal activity. Their work is out of public view, has much room for discretion and has significant consequences to the justice system (Benjaminson, 1997).

ETHICAL ISSUES WITHIN UNDERCOVER OPERATIVES: INTERNATIONAL LANDMARK CASES We rely on actual criminal cases heard in Canadian courts and the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR, 2012) to outline the situations that individual undercover operatives face in furtherance of their policing role. The (international) European Convention of Human Rights was established under the auspices of the Council of Europe. The Council was formed in 1953 (now with 47 member states) to adopt a unified approach to inalienable human rights, typically linked to the Rule of Law, as having primacy over the positive law of member nations. The ECHR reviews, on application, decisions made by courts in any of the signatory nations for clarification of congruence of member nation law and the actions of state agents with the European Convention on Human Rights. Typically applications made to the ECHR related to undercover police operations are filed under Article 6 of the Convention (Right to a Fair Trial) for procedural wrongs by the police or during a prosecution. The ethical issues we identify vary somewhat according to the individuals with whom the operative engages but the underlying principles remain the same: legally and socially appropriate activities of rule keepers. At the street level the ethical issues tend to be limited to the area of entrapment or inciting criminal behaviour (Miceli 2007; McAdams 2005). The ethical issues of instigating criminal activity through exploitation and/or manipulation of suspects’ motives, which amounts to cheating to make a case work (e.g., relying on after-the-fact knowledge to substantiate police activity that was originally based on speculation and supposition), remain present in almost any undercover operation (Irwin, 2002).

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In long-term assignments or deep cover assignments (i.e. 6 months or more infiltrating a group through regular close contact or perhaps living amongst them), the same ethical issues exist, but the undercover operative must also decide how far to go in building and maintaining ‘personal’ relationships in order to gather evidence. This decision-making process is complicated by the fact that deep cover assignments tend to be outcomeoriented, and therefore they rarely have a definite time-line. Ethical issues may manifest in activity that is not specifically aimed at gathering evidence but still have legal/moral and ethical ramifications. We understand the term ethical, as it relates to police activity, to mean law enforcement conducted with a conscious concern to act fairly as judged by non-police people, rather than carrying out policing duties simply as instructed or, as is the common practice, without self-reflective critique (Irwin, 2002; Normore, Javidi, Anderson, Normand, Scott & Hoina, 2014). Further, we believe that every police officer is in a leadership position in the social arena, with the potential to be a credible leader if he or she chooses “to do the right thing” and has the courage to act with conviction consistent with the above ethic. Faced with unprecedented demands to respond effectively and appropriately to escalating roles and responsibilities, law enforcement worldwide has an urgent need for leaders who can inspire people, help shape them ethically and morally, and spur them on to purposeful action (Green, 2014). European, Australian and Asia-Pacific research on ethics in law enforcement regularly remind police officers to affirm their self-esteem as law enforcement officers, disagree with immoral behaviors, and unethical practices, and work at recognizing this distinction (e.g., Alpert & Noble, 2009; Hufnagel, et al., 2011). Conceptually, the ethical dilemma in undercove police work is the basic premise that undercover police work by virtue of its covert nature seems to contradict what law enforcement personnel are encouraged to uphold – “protect and serve the

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public”. At the front-line of undercover police work, the ethical dilemmas rest in activity of the individual that is outside of the law in order to satisfy the evidence gathering objective of the law enforcement role. In international law and academic review the decisions that undercover operatives make tend to be couched in terminology of trickery, eliciting behaviour, inciting behaviour and entrapment, and cheating (Rosen, 2000; van Eltern, 2012). These terms do not identify distinct categories; rather they are used to demarcate variations along the continuum of evidence gathering through positive acts of undercover operatives. We will see that often when these issues arise in legal proceedings and the court decides in favour of the accused, the courts act to balance the social inequality that results from an empowered agent of the state directing that power against a person of lesser socio-economic status and correspondingly of a different culture (van Elteren 2012). This imbalance is exemplified in the undercover strategy known as the “Mr. Big” scenario (discussed in detail later) which has ‘captured’ many aboriginal and marginalied peoples (Keenan & Brockman, 2011). Trickery and entrapment for example can be seen with equal distaste when they become a part of manipulative social interaction of less empowered individuals by a more ‘empowered one’, in the interests of that ‘empowered one’ (Irwin, & Normore, 2014).

Trickery The police use trickery in a variety of ways. It may be part of gaining access to a building to execute a search warrant, or in response to a “91-1” emergency radio call. The British Columbia Court of Appeal (R. v. Singh, 1998) accepted the use of trickery when an officer answered the phone at a suspect’s residence while conducting a search. Although the search is judicially authorized, the officer’s actions are directed toward an unknown party who may or may not be involved in criminal activity. Trickery is acceptable when

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it does not occur in such a way that it might be seen as a cause of someone’s criminal actions. It serves only to expose activity that a person is already engaged in. It seems absurd to think that the police could expose hidden criminal activity without themselves engaging in some degree of deception. As such undercover operations are couched in the language of necessity. In the case of R. v. Singh it seems that the Canadian court accepted the police argument that they simply exposed criminal behaviour that was already occurring, rather than the converse position that the police methods had been unjustly applied to a person of disadvantaged social position. Infiltrating political groups alters the ethical dilemma considerably because the deception (trickery) of undercover operations is aimed at a large group that may well be populated by unwitting, non-criminal third parties. It becomes more difficult to deceive people with whom one feels strong social connection. The justification for gathering information and reporting on these people is more convoluted than it is with the criminal other. The non-criminal, perhaps even morally responsible activist, will now, because of the undercover operative’s reports, be listed in police files. A systemic need to balance and selfcritique security-minded approaches becomes very apparent with political infiltration (Rosen, 2000). From the individual perspective, a meaningful sense of fair play becomes the underlying issue. Good undercover work requires one to balance strictly pragmatic concerns against principled law enforcement practices (Ross, 2002). This is specifically the type of situation where the individual occupying a social position of power (undercover state agent) must weigh in issues of disempowerment and ethics. In R. v. Kirzner (1977) the Supreme Court of Canada pointed out the need to use “spies and informers” to detect and discourage consensual crimes. The case raised the issue of distinguishing between trickery (that is generally accepted) and dirty tricks. Dirty tricks are activity that is considered to be

“offensive to the integrity of the judicial process”. Rothman v. The Queen (1981) later established the standard measure of a dirty trick (which still remains) as one that “shocks the community”, and again later in R. v. Collins (1987) the Supreme Court further delineates the ‘Community Shock Test” as a test that exists at a threshold, higher even than the Canadian Charter of Rights remedy to correct for police (mis) conduct (e.g., corruption). This legislated remedy allows the court to take action such as dismiss a case if police conduct risks bringing the Criminal Justice System into disrepute. Acting primarily on concerns for state intrusion of privacy rights, countries including Italy (Ross, 2008), Germany (Ross, 2007; 2008), and Australia (Marx & Fijnaut, 1995) established procedural parameters to facilitate the lawful use of police undercover operations. In July 2007 the Code of Criminal Procedure of the Russian Federation was amended to prohibit agencies conducting operational-search activities from directly or indirectly inducing or inciting the commission of offences (Ramanauskas v. Lithuania, 2008; Veselov and Others v. Russia 2012). Portugal’s Code of Criminal Procedure prevents evidence gathered by deceitful means that interferes with a person’s freedom to exercise his will or make decisions (Teixeira de Castro v. Portugal, 2010). China’s Criminal Procedure Law goes further in the prohibition against the use of enticement or deceit to obtain evidence (Nwankwo, 2012). Specialized investigations of a significant nature require approval of a high level government official in the relevant department, not a court. As undercover operations are counter to the intent and language of the law, they are rarely used except in the broad sense of acting as a member of the purchasing public. The Netherlands have taken a similar preventive approach with legislation that has a specific prohibition against criminal activity by the police and/or enticing of a person to commit criminal activity (Marx & Fijnaut, 1995). France on the other hand has remained relatively silent on the issue.

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Regardless of the particular process, in parts of the world (e.g., Netherlands) the current method of determining what activity will be acceptable remains a decision made by the police in the first instance and reviewed by the judiciary who make a case-by-case assessment of whether or not the evidence gained through police undercover activity is congruent with the established law of the country where it takes place (Klerks, 1995). The standard is essentially set at whether or not the police undercover operative’s actions impacted a suspect to a point that it could be seen as undermining the agency of the individual. The reality of an individual working in a ‘live’ situation is that the individual undercover operative makes this decision alone. Generally the undercover operative is selected to fit into an investigative strategy that is designed by an investigative team or lead investigator (Benjaminson, 1997; Kruisbergen, 2011). But, like the law, the investigative team can only really set outside parameters, and give suggested methods for developing and maintaining a common bond with a targeted suspect. This is the social place where leadership manifests. For example, one of our respondants stated, I think that that one-on-one you determine your own acceptability. But if you’re working with a team of people you know what they anticipate. You know what their expectations are. If you don’t know them well then you shouldn’t be working for them. They shouldn’t be covering you. I think an undercover team is probably as close as family. They know what you’re going to do. The individual undercover operative is typically a person with a lower position in the organization yet as the focal point of an investigative team in an actual ‘live’ investigation becomes the informal lead on what activity is acceptable for the whole police team to enage in. (S)he may be faced with hard decisions about whether or not to engage in activity or how to partly engage in

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activity, as part of maintaining the undercover role and gathering evidence, balanced against what will later be reviewed and judged to be appropriate or not. The individual operative uses trickery and interpersonal deception when interacting with the target. The individual operative tries to outwit the interacting other by attempting to (i) understand the frame of reference of that other, (ii) anticipate the actions of that other, and (iii) act in a way that is consistent with what that other would expect, all the while being conscious of future scrutiny for appropriateness by peers, superiors, the Court, and possibly the public (through the media) (Kruisbergen, 2011).

Eliciting Behaviour The distinction between trickery and eliciting behaviour seems to hang on the issue of police (mis)conduct. Allowing undercover operations that coerce individuals to confess would be the functional equivalent of allowing the state to do covertly what they are not allowed to do overtly (Klerks, 1995). From a police investigative ‘truth finding’ perspective and the probative ‘fact finding’ perspective of the court, reliablity should, and often does rest, in the acquisition of other evidence that confirms the validity of the statement (e.g. location of a body or murder weapon). Simply put, the net effect of using the relationship established through an undercover role to press a suspect for a statement or criminal activity is trickery, turned into dirty tricks when the suspect is led to act in a way that the suspect would not have otherwise acted. In legal terms it is eliciting activity where the suspect’s activity is self-incriminating although not itself criminal (e.g. making a statement), or inciting behaviour, where the suspect is brought to activity that is criminal (Smith, Stinson & Patry, 2010). Comparison of the criminal cases from 2001 United States of America v. Burns and R. v. Mentuck provides a clear statement of legal doctrine in Canada is it relates to eliciting confessions (as op-

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posed to eliciting criminal acitivty) from suspects. These cases involved suspected murderers. In each, the police established elaborate undercover operations in which operatives presented themselves in organized crime roles including crime boss (referred to as the “Mr. Big” scenario). The suspects were introduced to the undercover operatives and believe the operative to be a potential underworld employer. The suspects were told that they must prove their ability to handle serious violence. Presumably the ploy was a strategy move aimed at getting the suspects to admit their prior acts (murder) in order to gain entrance, as underlings, to the purported crime network. The undercover operative must be cognizant of the need to hear as much information from the suspect about the prior murder as possible. It is extremely valuable, if not completely necessary, to have a suspect tell information that only the perpetrator of the crime would know. This satisfies the need of the police to “know” they are chasing the actual perpetrator. The ethical issue that is raised in these scenarios stems from the police clearly holding a position of increased power in the interaction (Smith, Stinson, & Patry, 2009; Gudjonsson, Sigurdsson, Asgeirsdottir & Sigfusdottir, 2006). The Supreme Court of Canada ruling in R. v. Mentuck (2001) followed on the heels of new Canadian law that provided positive authority for police to commit criminal acts if necessary but set a limit on such activity by prohibiting: (i) the intentional or criminally negligent causing of death or bodily harm to another person; (ii) the wilful attempt in any manner to obstruct, pervert or defeat the course of justice; or (iii) conduct that would violate the sexual integrity of an individual (Irwin 2002). The law was instituted due to a concern for the ability of the police to effectively combat organized crime, but also to set limits on state intrusion into the privacy of Canadians. R. v. Mentuck established two significant standards for undercover police operations. The first was that the actual identity of police undercover operatives will only be protected by privacy law

for a period of one year, raising safety concerns for domestic investigations into significant organized crime groups. Secondly, it set a foundation for review of the particular undercover strategy known as the “Mr. Big” scenario. R. v. Mentuck exemplifies the concern of the court for members of disenfranchised cultural communities to be mishandled and ultimately be treated with inequality (Mentuck was an impoverished aboriginal male). After numerous attempts the undercover operative was finally able to get Mentuck to confess to a murder that the operative believed Mentuck had commited. The judgements in R. v. Mentuck did not establish the “Mr. Big” scenario as improper conduct or as a dirty trick. Both cases speak to the risk that must be assessed when this type of undercover operation is utilized. The Supreme Court of Canada in R. v. Mentuck found that the incentive to confess to a crime was overwhelming given the suspect’s impoverished lifestyle, but the method is not necessarily flawed if appropriate care was applied relative to the heightened power of the state to manipulate a ‘subordinated’ individual. After more than a decade of scrutiny by the courts, legislature, media and academics in Canada the methodology continues to be used (Puddister & Riddell, 2012). Scholars do not like the use of the Mr. Big scenario (Keenan, et al., 2011; Puddister & Rddell, 2012; Smith et al., 2010). They focus on the fact that although a suspect certainly has the option to choose not to engage the undercover operative (who is purporting to be a crime boss), the suspect is in a considerably disempowered social position relative to the undercover operative, and often from an ethnic culture that has its own set of social disenfranchisement issues. The choice to gain approval of the purported crime boss can be seen as a choice made within a set of circumstances in which there is little or no good outcome. The operative treads on a fine line between trickery and coercion. The value of this undercover method rests in the careful balance of strategy and protecting the integrity of the case (and ultimately the

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reputation of the justice system). The role of the undercover operative is one of attempting to act as a passive receiver of information to meet legal standards of evidence gathering. For the undercover operative to remain ethical in the “Mr. Big” scenario, (s)he must remain cognizant of the possibility that a suspect will provide a false confession saying what many people would think a crime boss would expect. The undercover operation must remain open to ‘discover’ only what has already occurred by setting up a scenario that provides a suspect with an opportunity to expose past criminal behaviour. The method relies on information that is specifically held-back from public access (only the actual offender would know) to ensure the validity of a confession. Further, the undercover operative is not told all of the details of the investigation. Mirroring concerns identified in ECHR cases such as Teixeira de Castro v. Portugal (1998) the court is concerned with the (mis)conduct of the police ‘interrogator”, including possible prejudice that preys upon the age, sophistication, mental health and personality of the accused. The manner in which the activity occurs, and to the extent it does not undermine the autonomy of the suspect/ accused, thereby undermining the integrity of the judicial process, the “Mr. Big” scenario is acceptable practice. Clearly, at the end of the day the Supreme Court of Canada acknowledges that it comes down to the ethical decision-making and behaviour of the individual undercover operative.

Inciting Criminal Behaviour and Entrapment Entrapment refers to circumstances where the undercover agent’s action created a criminal intent that had previously been absent distinct from those in which the offender had already been predisposed to commit the offence (Teixeira de Castro v. Portugal, 1998). The latter can be viewed as passive policing actions such that they only provide an opportunity for someone already engaged in

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criminal activity to expose a latent pre-existing criminal intent. Inciting criminal behaviour can be seen as activity that falls between the two. With inciting behaviour the offender may be engaged in criminal activity at some level. (S)he is not absent criminal intent, but her/his actions in the particular stuation are inspired by influence or pressure from an undercover operative. The issue is one of the (mis)use of state power against an individual, exemplified in the recent European Court of Human Rights decision in Lagutin and Others v. Russia (2014). Here the court ruled in favour of five separate individual cases based on procedural unfairness. The original (domestic) court had failed to consider the plea of entrapment, allowing a prosecution where Russian police failed to disclose pertintent information. In Bannikova v. Russia (EHRC) the court ruled that undercover operations are valid where the undercover operative “joins in” criminal activity vs. instigating it. With the issue of incitement, clearly unacceptable behavior in law, the determination focuses on the reason for the operation, the extent of police involvement in the offence and the nature of influence or pressure brought to bear upon the ‘suspect’ by the state (undercover police operative). The question of whether the police incited, or caused, criminal behaviour can be determined by asking if the activity of the police was such that it reduces the autonomous decision making of a person and brought that person to act in a manner that can be defined as criminal (see Ramanauskas v. Lithuania, 2008). This problem becomes very apparent when the targeted subjects are people of lesser means – a lesser class culture (financial, emotional, intellectual or social). Casual ‘concert-goer’ drug use provides a clear example of managing this power imbalance. In the case of R. v. J.S. (2001) officers were attempting to deal with the ongoing problems of drug use, and by extension, drug trafficking at rock concerts. For the most part R. v. J.S. is a youth related issue. The officers approached two young males at a fast food

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restaurant near the stadium where the rock concert was to occur. The officers were dressed to mimic the particular performer, as many of his fans do. The officers asked the youths for some marihuana. The youths discussed amongst themselves whether or not to give/sell the officers some of the small quantity that they had. The officers convinced the youth to supply some marihuana and subsequently arrested the youth. It seems apparent that the youth decided to “share” his illicit product with another older, larger and less fortunate (apparently didn’t have any marihuana) concert-goer. Although the youth sold the marihuana to the undercover officer, the court recognized that the sale was not for profit (Fagan, Davies, & Carlis, 2012). This example shows some of the incongruity in the use of undercover strategies. On the one hand the sale and use of marihuana near the stadium presents as little more than a nuisance issue. On the other hand, ignoring drug use at public venues may be linked with larger problems such as overdose and aggressive activity (assaults and damage to property) stemming from the use of alcohol and other “harder” drugs (ecstacy, cocaine, crack, hallucinogens). Where the latter is concerned, the potential harm from not acting may be significant and thus justify a covert police strategy. The question becomes, how far does one go to prevent that potential harm? In this street-level concert scenario the officers clearly pushed the line on inciting criminal behaviour. The officers talked the youth into ‘sharing’ his marihuana. The fact that the drug in this situation was marihuana is a factor that could reduce the need to initiate court proceedings. In this particular situation the problem of drug use, and potential harmful outcomes, may well have been better addressed through confiscation rather than criminal charges. The ethical problem rests in the imbalance of power that allows the police to coerce. The police are aware of likely drug possession by concert attendees in the area of the stadium and they “know” how to use words and actions to fit into a group, and make it appear as if it is safe to sell

drugs to them. Where the ‘seller’ is not actually a drug dealer in the general sense (e.g., J.S.at the concert) the police activity is unfair and the players are not equal in the sense that it brings the weight of an immense state authority to bear against a significantly disempowered individual who is not actually engaged in the cat and mouse game of drug dealing. J.S. was simply a young casual drug user who was essentially turned into a drug dealer by (mis)conduct of the police. Veselov and Others v. Russia (2012) is a similar instance in that the court, referring to this police activity as a “test purchase”, absent of prior information about criminal activity is an arbitrary use of state power (unfair). Logically it seems reasonable to ask the question: If police undercover activity incites someone, disempowered or otherwise, to expose possession of illicit drugs, and the police do no more than confiscate the illicit substance, is the imbalance of power as grave a concern? This thought process in grey areas of what is often thought to be clearly defined lines of criminality is exactly what the undercover decision making world looks like. It is applying the positivie law that defines, technically, legal/illegal acts and considering the individual act through the lense of a more encompassing systemic morality. This, we suggest, is the model for good police leadership and leadership in general. It is particularly necessary with cross-cultural leadership in order to recognize possibilities of understanding and interpreting action in a context other than that to which the leader is traditionally accustomed.

Cheating In undercover work cheating may occur as evidence gathering in unlawful ways (e.g. surreptitiously searching a premise without having a warrant to do so), or as failing to disclose evidence that might actually assist a person to defend themselves rather than helping the prosecution (Irwin, 2002). Cheating might occur as the actions of someone

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caught up in the ego of trying to prove themselves to be something they are not, or as noble cause corruption. Noble cause corruption relies on an ends justifies the means rationale that, when spoken aloud, rings of “just deserts”. The rationale is the (mis)use of a position of power integrated through articulation that goes something like: “That’s a criminal, and, criminals belong in jail.” This line of thinking establishes law enforcement officials as usurping the judicial role defining the criminal who requires punishment. This would be another example of biased use of power by police officials. Individuals are categorized into certain broad ‘classes’ of people by police officers, and then those same officers, act against those people according to the category in which the individual has been classified. An ends justifies the means rationale can far too easily slip into inciting behaviour, or worse, ‘justifiable’ criminal behaviour by the police. This rationale was exposed in the 1970s McDonald commission into Canadian police corruption (Watts, 1986). Although not specifically an undercover operation, the commission was established to report on a police investigation in which a group of eleven police officers broke into the office of a political party, without obtaining judicial authorization to do so. The inquiry exposed unlawful searches and gathering of information (stealing) – similar to the 1972 US Watergate scandal stemming from an abuse of presidential power and a deliberate obstruction of justice. At the conclusion of the McDonald commission of inquiry, the involved police officers were charged with the criminal acts which had occurred almost ten years prior. Although there were several appeals, those involved were eventually prosecuted for the criminal acts. In both instances, decades apart, the police officers were convicted in criminal courts. Clearly, the court did not share their view that loyalty to a higher purpose overrode the intent to commit a criminal act.

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Police Leadership Throughout this chapter there is considerable use of terminology that highlights the very ambivalent nature of the work we present. This is representative of leadership. One of our participants stated the following: I think every time you do undercover work you’re put under pressure. You are tempted to break the rules. That temptation is always there. And if you broke the rules, you bent them, you let your guard down, and it would be a lot easier to become a part of these groups. And I think you would have a lot more informants, you’d have a lot more contacts, but you just don’t. The rule and procedures, the consequences to you. What makes you different from these guys? That’s part of it. It’s like coming up to a glass wall, you know and you’re playing this game of cross the glass wall, but you know that the minute you cross that barrier, you’re just one of them. So in effect that’s part of it, you want to constantly try and reach as far across as you can and grab somebody but you’ve got to keep your feet well planted on this side. And those of us that don’t want to reach across and take that risk, well you know what, you just won’t make it. Police leadership, like undercover work, is fraught with ambivalence (Irwin & Normore, 2014). There are no clearly defined, codified parameters to monitor the activity of individual leaders. The leader must act, like the undercover operative on the premise, so that everything (s)he does will be displayed to public view and open for critique by others. This becomes particularly significant in cross-cultural relationships because of the inherent possibility of misinterpretation of words, tone of voice, gaze, body language, gesture (facework) due to cultural background (as described in another chapter in this Volume).

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The primary skill that sets one undercover operative apart from another and that allows the work to be successful is management of facework (Goffman 1959, 1969). This is the management of interpersonal communication that leads to a suspect “buying-in” to the three dimensional roleplay that is the cover story given by the undercover operative, such that the suspect allows him/herself to be vulnerable to the undercover operative’s observations and/or engagement of criminal activity. This is the same skill set required by any leader, executive, manager, or supervisor trying to attain buy-in from subordinates (See Ellis & Normore, 2014). The significant difference between the undercover operative and the organizational leader rests only in the risk of personal harm that the undercover operative faces when engaged in the immediacy of “buy-in” activity and making ethical decisions that have a long term impact on their organizations. What came out of the interviews of the small set of ordinary people who take on the responsibility of performing the policing social role in covert operations is their acknowledgement of public scrutiny of their individual activity and their commitment to a standard based in care of community and rule of law.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS: CROSSCULTURAL COLLABORATION IN UNDERCOVER POLICE WORK Recognizing that the pervasive influence of organized transnational crime threatens the stability and rule of law in emerging democracies around the world, we believe there is a need to develop international cross-cultural law enforcement academies. These academies could house programs that foster collaborative law enforcement partnerships and involvement between participating nations to counter the threat of international crime within a specific region. The conceptual basis of such programs could involve the identification and development of international counterparts to work

in sensitive bilateral investigations. In order to understand municipal, state, national and international legislation regarding undercover police methods and the administration of justice a more robust body of research is needed in this area. An area in need of research is transnational policy and undercover operatives. Recent exposure of British police officers who have crossed national borders while working undercover and perhaps more importantly crossing ethical lines by becoming involved in intimate relationships with members of targeted activist groups certainly raises the need for transnational policy and scrutiny (Creedon, 2014; Ellison, 2014; The Guardian, 2014). We further believe exciting opportunities exist for agencies to develop foreign police leaders and managers’ abilities to handle a broad spectrum of contemporary law enforcement issues, improve the professionalism of undercover officers through education and training, and increase leadership capacity to investigate crime and criminal organizations.

CONCLUSION Our discussion has shown the precarious nature of undercover operations. Individual police officers engaged in undercover assignments may not always possess the objectivity required to properly assess the acceptability of their actions. This is not unique to North America but also applicable to European countries, Australia, and Asia. It seems that in Latin American and African covert police operations that have been exposed to public scrutiny tend to be rooted more in short term enforcement by officers who are dressed in street clothes rather than undercover infiltration methods specifically. This is not to say that the technique is not used in these countries but that it is not open to review, which may be the resut of lesser funding for policing resources, police more closely tied to federal politics and/or military. Given the risks to the officer, suspects and

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the potential impact that wrongdoing on the part of a single undercover operative, intentional or otherwise, on the reputation of the police agency as a whole we propose stronger organizational leadersip for undercover police operations. The potential remains present that those individuals within the organization who make decisions about undercover operations may also make judgmental errors, or get caught up in the work such that they may lack the ability for self-critique. Cross-cultural and transnational concerns so clearly exemplify the need for undercover operations to be managed with a much larger frame of reference than just legality. Countries that are diverse and multicultural, by their very nature involve criminal activity by people within those various cultures. Attempting to gain access to such criminal activity and expose it to prosecution will entail important consideration of cultural activities. The police as representatives of the dominant culture must be conscious of potential cultural interpretations of their actions by noncriminal members of the cultural group that is being infiltrated. It seems natural that a group of people infiltrated, on behalf of the dominant culture, by someone outside of their group who belongs to that dominant culture, may feel vulnerable and betrayed once they discover they allowed that person social access based on false portrayal. This does not imply that the cultural group supports the criminal activity of some of its members, only that a negative response to betrayal is natural. When an undercover operation ends, connection with the community that the undercover operative entered also ends. There is no follow up. The community knows only the falsehood and betrayal. Where the community is a small new immigrant population, this could perhaps lead to a further sense of disenfranchisement from their new place of residence. This may be the most obvious and direct place for official police activity to build bonds within such communities.

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Smith, S. M., Stinson, V., & Patry, M. W. (2009). Using the “Mr. Big” technique to elicit confessions: Successful innovation or dangerous development in the canadian legal system? Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 15(3), 168–193. doi:10.1037/ a0016962 Smith, S. M., Stinson, V., & Patry, M. W. (2010). High-risk interrogation: Using the “Mr. Big technique” to elicit confessions. Law and Human Behavior, 34(1), 39–40. doi:10.1007/s10979-0099203-y PMID:20099074 Štarienė, L. (2009). The limits of the use of undercover agents and the right to a fair trial under article 6(1) of the European convention of human rights. Jurisprudencija, 3(117), 263-284. Teixeira de Castro v. Portugal (1998), EHRC application no. 25829/94. Retrieved from http://hudoc.echr.coe.int/sites/eng/pages/search. aspx?i=001-58193 Tinto, E. (2013). Undercover policing, overstated culpability. Cardozo Law Review, 34(4), 1401–1454. United States of America v. Burns: Minister of Justice v. Burns and Rafay [2001] 151 C.C.C. (3d) 97 Affirming 116 C.C.C. (3d) 524 SCC United States of America v. Commisso [2000] 143 C.C.C. (3d) 158 Ontario, CA. van Elteren, M. (2012). Class unknown: Undercover investigations of American work and poverty from the progressive era to the present. New York: NY: Mark Pittenger, Van O., L., & Cappelle, J. (1995). Twenty years of undercover policing in Belgium: The regulation of a risky police practice. In G. T. Marx & C. Fijnaut (Eds.), Undercover: police surveillance in comparative perspective (pp. 141–155). Norwell, MA: Kluwer.

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Veselov and Others v. Russia (2012). EHRC No. 156, October 2012, (23200/10, 24009/07 and 556/10), [Section I]. Retrieved from, http://hudoc.echr.coe. int/sites/eng/pages/search.aspx?i=002-7240 Watts, R. (1986). The Mcdonald Commission report and Canadian federalism. The State of American Federalism, 16(3), 175199. Zureik, E., Harling, S. L., Smith, E., Lyon, D., & Chan, Y. E. (Eds.). (2010). Surveillance, privacy, and the globalization of personal information: International Comparisons. Montreal, Canada: McGill-Queen’s University Press.

ADDITIONAL READING Barthel, J. (1989). Love or honour: the true story of an undercover cop who fell in love with a Mafia boss’s daughter. New York: Morrow. Bonavolonta, J., & Duffy, B. (1996). The good guys: How we turned the FBI ‘round –and finally broke the mob. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster. Fronc, J. (2009). New York undercover: private surveillance in the progressive era. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. doi:10.7208/ chicago/9780226266114.001.0001 Kersten, J. (2000). Police powers and accountability in a democratic society: Introductory report. European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research, 8(3), 237–245. doi:10.1023/A:1008798412206 Kleemans, E. R., & de Jong, D. (2012). Controlling criminal investigations: The case of undercover operations. Policing. Journal of Policy Practice, 6(4), 398–40. Lambert, R. (2014). Researching counterterrorism: A personal perspective from a former undercover police officer. Critical Studies on Terrorism, 7(1), 165–181. doi:10.1080/175391 53.2013.847262

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Loadenthal, M. (2014). When cops “go native”: policing revolution through sexual infiltration and panopticonism, Critical Studies on Terrorism, Special Issue: Critical Terrorism Studies: Practice. Limits and Experience, 7(1), 24–42. Parker, J. (1999). Death of a hero: Captain Robert Nairac, GC and the undercover war in Northern Ireland. London, UK: Metro Books. Punch, M. (1982). Developing scandal: Police deviance in Amsterdam. Urban Life, 2(11), 1–5. Ross, J. E. (2004). Impediments to transnational cooperation in undercover policing: A comparative study of the United States and Italy. The American Journal of Comparative Law, 52(3), 569–623. doi:10.2307/4144479 Wilson, C. P. (2000). Cop knowledge: Police power and cultural narrative in twentieth-century America. Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press. Wing-sang, L. (2008). Hong Kong undercover: An approach to ‘collaborative colonialism’. Inter-Asia Cultural Studies, 9(4), 522–542. doi:10.1080/14649370802386412

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Cross-Cultural: Concerned with exchange beyond the boundaries of the nation or cultural group. Entrapment: A practice whereby a law enforcement agent induces a person to commit a criminal offense that the person would have otherwise been unlikely to commit. Leadership: Guiding others to act in a similar (positive) manner. Rule of Law: The legal principle that law should govern a nation, and not arbitrary decisions by individual government officials. Transnational: The process by which immigrants build social fields that link together their country of origin and their country of settlement; operating in or involving more than one country. Trickery: Verbal misrepresentation intended to take advantage of you in some way. Undercover Operative: A technique employed by law enforcement agencies to disguise’s an officer’s identity or use an assumed identity for the purposes of gaining the trust of an individual or organization to learn or confirm confidential information or to gain the trust of targeted individuals in order to gather information or evidence.

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Chapter 11

Stakeholder Positioning and Cultural Diversity in the Creative Sector: A Case Study of the London Modern Architecture Scene Hendrik Leendert Aalbers Radboud University, The Netherlands Annemarie Charlotte Kamp Deloitte Consulting, The Netherlands

ABSTRACT This chapter explores the antecedents of stakeholder positioning in the creative sector, a sector well known for its diversity in organizational cultures. Drawing from empirical data collected at the heart of London’s modern architecture scene we analyze the interactive process of commissioned artwork among architects and professional modern artists. We examine how positioning by artists and their commissioning architects relates to bringing creative outputs to the market, while taking the diversity of organizational cultures into account. First, we show that an accurate understanding of one’s positioning and the positioning of one’s counterparts in a commissioned arts work process is critical to steer creative collaboration. Second, we provide an overview of positioning criteria to take into account by artists or commissioning architects operating in a culturally diverse environment. The insights rendered illustrate a gap in the heart of our understanding of positioning and leadership.

INTRODUCTION The ‘creative sector’ is an important driver of ongoing innovation and economic growth (Cooke & Lazzeretti, 2008; Jaw, Chen & Chen, 2012).

Jaaniste (2009) defines the creative sector as “the cluster of creative arts, design, media and communications which all deal with cultural, aesthetic and/or symbolic content in some way (p.218)”.Based upon activities that have their

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-8376-1.ch011

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origin in individual creativity, skill and talent, the creative sector combines the creation, production, and marketing of goods and services (Jaw, et al. 2012). Frequently ignored, the creative sector is by definition involved in the process of new value creation, as business opportunities and value-added by those partaking in the scene are rendered from the novelty and innovation added to other sectors to which the creative sector provides its various services (Potts, 2009). Yet, in contrast to other fields that embrace leadership for innovation as a prime approach to secure competitive advantage and economic growth (Davila, Epstein, & Shelton, 2012; Christensen, 2013), our understanding of leadership in the creative sector, a sector that is innovative by nature, is lagging behind. This is not to say that creativity - the root of innovation - and leadership have not been linked before. An increasing number of studies for instance suggest that climates fostering creativity may be facilitated by leadership behavior (Mumford, Scott, Gaddis, & Strange, 2002; Christensen, 2013). Along these lines, a recent study by Bock, Opsahl, George, & Gann (2012) points out that that leaders of organizations with a creative climate are more likely to achieve strategic flexibility and innovation. While the link between leadership and creativity within the firm seems apparent when focusing on more traditional industries, scholarly understanding of leadership within the creative sector remains scarce (Wilson & Stokes, 2005; Hotho & Champion, 2011). Insight in collaborating across organizational boundaries for creative outcome under conditions of diverging organization cultures as encountered in the cultural sector is falling short as well. Empirical research is warranted to help us better understand the leadership principles in the creative industry (Wilson & Stokes, 2005). In this study we follow Uhl-Bien, Marion, & McKelvey (2007) as we view leadership to exists in, and be a function of, continuous patterns of interaction, taking a network view to the firm. Building on earlier work on strategic positioning within collaboration networks in more

traditional industries (e.g. Ahuja et al., 2012) we opt to examine motivation and ability to shape relations in the interactive process of commissioned artwork among architects and professional modern artists from a network stance. The empirical setting of this chapter focuses on ‘modern architecture’ as an exemplary creative segment within the creative sector, characterized by its plurality of strongly networked organizations with ties to both arts and engineering and its highly diverse organizational cultures (DCMS, 2007; Harries, 1975). We explore the collaborative cross-cultural stakeholder process that drives stakeholder positioning in the London modern architecture scene. Our research employs a multiple-case design in which we compared a series of independent arts commissioning cases to generate insight into the relations between the parties involved in the commissioned artwork process; artists, architects and others (Langley 1999; Yin, 1984). Our study is based on empirical data collected at the heart of London’s modern architecture scene to allow us to analyze the interactive process of commissioned artwork among a culturally diverse set of architects and professional modern artists operating at the forefront of the modern architecture scene. Our research primarily contributes to the literature on cross-cultural collaboration and leadership in modern organizations. We stipulate the thought to consider stakeholder positioning in a culturally diverse environment as a condition for effective leadership in the creative industry (Drazin, Glynn, & Kazanjian, 1999; Mumford et al., 2002). By exploring the creative artist’s positioning process in a descriptive manner we show that an accurate understanding of one’s own positioning and the positioning of one’s counterparts in a commissioned arts work process is critical to steer and sustain creative collaboration. While artists in the creative sector appear to struggle to position themselves effectively within the selection process regarding the commissioning of artwork by architects, architects seem better equipped to leverage

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their positions strategically. This contradiction is of relevance as the commissioning of art work functions is a prime gateway to bring an artist’s creative outputs to the market and to build up and maintain a professional reputation. We argue that taking diversity of cultural backgrounds into account in the positioning process, along with a number of additional structural antecedents, helps to successfully position oneself as a leading party in the modern arts scene. The insights rendered advance academic debate on stakeholder positioning and illustrate a gap in the heart of our current understanding of leadership among networked organizations that operate in a culturally diverse environment. The remainder of this chapter is structured as follows: First, we present theory development, and discuss the literature on stakeholder positioning and its relation to cultural diversity and leadership as encountered in the modern arts sector. Next, we discuss the research methods applied in this work. This is followed by a presentation of the results. Finally, conclusions are presented, limitations of our study are discussed, and future research directions are articulated.

THEORY DEVELOPMENT Positioning and Stakeholder Theory The concept of ‘positioning’ was first introduced in the social sciences by Hollway (1984) who studied ‘taking up positions’ and ‘positioning oneself’ in light of interpersonal relationships when researching the construction of subjectivity. Positioning implies concurrent attention to the legitimate interests of all appropriate stakeholders that together make up the field in which an actor aims to position oneself (Donaldson & Preston, 1995). As such, this chapter draws from stakeholder theory as a framework for managing relationships with a wide array of actors in an increasingly complex environment (Freeman, 1984). Acknowledging the

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ability to affect or be affected by the positioning of any group or individual who can in return affect or be affected by the achievement of the focal organization’s objectives and positioning (Freeman, 1984, p. 46), makes the concept of ‘positioning’ a dynamic one. Individual positioning can be viewed as a discursive practice whereby selves are located in conversations as observably and inter-subjectively coherent participants in jointly produced story lines (Davies & Harre 1990). Positioning within such a conversational context is perceived as a metaphorical concept through reference to which a person’s moral and personal attributes as a speaker are compendiously collected (Harre & Van Langenhove, 1999). The aforementioned logic also holds at the organizational level (Balkundi & Kilduff, 2006). Creating a valuable position contributes to the establishment of a competitive advantage and in turn to enhanced firm survival; firms excel when they understand and respond to customers more effectively than their rivals do (Allenby & Ginter, 1995; Porter, 2002). ‘Positioning’ has gained particular recognition in the fields of marketing, management and strategy where it has established itself as one of the principal theoretical concepts. However, within these disciplines the concept’s meaning has moved away from its narrative background and allows for the inclusion of the various vantage points held by the stakeholders that make up the field in which positioning takes place in the first place. Here, ‘positioning’ refers to communication strategies allowing one to place a certain product or service against one’s competitors (Brooksbank, 1994; Harre & Van Langenhove, 1999; Kotler & Andreasen, 1987). Thus, one takes a position against one’s competitors, which can refer to other people, businesses or products (Furrer, Tjemkes, & Henseler, 2012). ‘Positioning’ is considered to be at the heart of strategy (Porter, 2002; Hooley, Saunders, Piercy, & Nicoulaud, 2008) where ‘strategy is the creation of a unique and valuable position involving a different set of activities’ (Porter, 2002, 18).

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Cultural Diversity and Positioning in the Modern Arts Scene Culture may be defined as the “way of doing things” and becomes visible in the choices people make and in how they deliver against their objectives. It is made up of the behavioral norms, organizational symbols, and management systems that influence organizational activity (Bock et al. 2012; Fiol, 1991). The resulting set of shared mental assumptions informally guides professional interpretation and action among individuals and organizations. It defines appropriate behavior for various situations, influences innovativeness and may facilitate innovative solutions to competitive threats (Amabile & Khaire, 2008; Teece, 1996; Tellis, Prabhu, & Chandy, 2009; Ravasi & Schultz, 2006). Culture identity dynamics inform and support sense -making and sense -giving processes within organizations and provide the foundation for stakeholder positioning of individuals and organizations alike (Ravasi & Schulz, 2006). Cultural diversity and the modern arts scene are historically strongly intertwined (Berger & Huntington, 2002). Of all industries, the modern arts scene offers interesting insights in the interaction between a set of stakeholders that hold a divergent view on the way of doing things in their day-to-day business. In this study we zoom in on commissioned artwork in the modern architecture scene. Generally, architectural practices active in this market are internationally-oriented and work with a variety of professional artists on a commissioned basis. As art and modern architecture merge, architects get engaged with the arts through projects that have strong artistic features (Jaaniste, 2009). The diversity of cultures among stakeholders involved creates an interesting stakeholder positioning field. Building on a network-based view, Potts et al. (2008) and O’Connor (2009) define the formulation of the interrelationship among agents, networks and enterprises in the creative sector as dynamic and productive, with all engaged in the

mutual enterprise of creating values, both symbolic and economic (Potts et al. 2008, p. 169). Strategic network positioning in terms of brokering between parts of a system may generate access and leverage social capital available (Burt 2004). Along these lines, recent work on network evolution has started to call for a better understanding of the rationales behind taking up particular positions in relation to others (Ahuja, Soda & Zaheer, 2012; Balkundi & Harrison, 2006; Balkundi & Kilduff, 2005). At the individual as well as the organization level, being able to position oneself favorably has been linked to leadership effectiveness, as positioning is an activity that takes place in a social context of other stakeholders (Aalbers, Dolfsma, & Koppius, 2013; Balkundi & Kilduff, 2006). Individual artists and their commissioning architects, both prime actors in the modern art scene world that hardly can do without each other must be aware of these social dynamics in their social environment. Interestingly, how individual differences predispose actors to position themselves in a network of relations has empirically been underexplored (Aalbers et al. 2013). From a leadership perspective this is also remarkable, as orchestration of collaborative action starts with an understanding of what motivates those involved to transfer knowledge (Balkundi & Kilduff, 2005; Foss, 2007). Insight into the origins of network positions and the importance of individual characteristics, such as culture (see Emirbayer & Goodwin, 1994) prompt us to investigate why some occupy structurally advantageous positions over others. Bringing together the knowledge, expertise, and skills of others, preferably in a risk-tolerant climate, is the backbone of creative leadership after all (Perry-Smith & Shalley, 2003). Connection hence matter. Connections and access, or a lack thereof, to available resources presents some structural positions with more or less power and influence than other positions in the social network (Aalbers & Dolfsma, 2015). Surprisingly though, the recent emphasis on collaborative networks as the root to dynamics in the creative sector has not

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become the subject of much empirical evidence (Otho & Champion 2011). This chapter contributes to the debate of the modern creative sector model and as such also offers value to current management practice in this discipline by exploring the creative artist’s positioning process in a descriptive manner (Mumford et al., 2002; Wilson & Stokes, 2005). In doing so, we draw from insights that are based on both network theory and positioning theory. As shown, ‘positioning’ is a broad and dynamic concept. In this study we aim to gain detailed exploratory knowledge about the participants that are active within the sector, the relations and interactions between them, the environment, processes, and forces present in its environment. The exploratory and descriptive nature of this study extends the existing literature by means of analyzing a setting that has not been studied before. So far, research on positioning has not yet been applied to the creative sector and in particular to art companies involved in commissioned artwork including architects (O’Reilly, 2011; Pulh, Marteaux, & Mencarelli, 2008). By means of performing a business-to-business analysis in this specific field, the existing knowledge on positioning is broadened and a foundation for further research provided.

METHOD Research Setting Our research draws from empirical data collected at the heart of London’s modern architecture scene and analyses the processes that are engrossed in commissioned artwork involving architects. London is arguably one of the most prominent modern art hotspots in the word. It is perceived to be the international centre where the art world gravitates (Thompson, 2008). Besides international artists, emerging and established artists from different corners of England have settled in the largest city of England, assuring a mix of different

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styles, cultural influences and artistic expressions. Large international architectural firms are based in London such as Foster & Partner, Zaha Hadid Architects, Rogers Stirk Harbour & Partners; Nicholas Grimshaw. In addition to these major international agencies, many young, creative and smaller architectural firms are active in the British capital.

Data Collection Procedure Our research employed a multi-case design in which we compared a series of independent art commissioning cases to generate insight into the relationships between the parties involved in the commissioned artwork process: artists, architects and others (Langley 1999; Yin, 1984). These qualitative techniques provided rich descriptive data on individual positioning strategies and the underlying antecedents of artists within their professional stakeholder field. Figure 1 in the Findings section provides an overview of this stakeholder field. Personal face-to-face interviews were conducted to collect data on the various artist cases. This method was chosen because of its interactive nature and its potential of being a tool to gain understanding of people and processes in an explorative research setting (Fielding, 1993; Fontana & Frey, 2000). An understanding of the commissioned artwork process is gained by asking all respondents similar questions that are related to this particular and, typically, undocumented process (Mace & Ward, 2002). For example, all participants were asked about their recent experiences with commissioned artwork, to describe the commissioned artwork processes they have been involved in, to specify and validate the parties that are embroiled in these processes and to describe the roles played by these parties. The semi-structured nature of the interviews is reflected by the fact that besides the ‘standard’ questions, additional questions were raised. These questions referred to specific issues mentioned by the respondents or to the projects they have been working on. To obtain an understanding of the positioning

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Figure 1. Parties involved in the commissioned artwork process

process, fifteen respondents were interviewed (10 architects, 4 artists and a curator). All respondents worked for a practice in London and are familiar with commissioned artwork projects involving architects. They were approached to participate in an interview by telephone. Subsequently, they were sent a follow up e-mail providing them with additional information about the research project. The e-mail elaborated further on the aim of the research project, how the data would be used and anonymity procedures concerning the protection of respondents identity. Providing this information contributed to the establishment of trust between the researcher and respondent (Cicourel, 1974). Interviews took place at the workplace of the interviewee because it increased respondents’ willingness to participate. such approach placed them in their professional surroundings, which contributes to making respondents feel more comfortable (Fontana & Frey, 2000). All interviews were recorded, which facilitated natural conversations and enabled the interviewer to engage in active listening. After completion, interviews were immediately transcribed to incorporate all information provided (Wiersma & Jurs, 2005).

FINDINGS Arranging commissioned artwork within architectural practices is a complex process in which various parties are involved. To arrive at an understanding of the degree to which artist and their commissioning architects engage in strategic positioning within their culturally diverse context, and are successful in the process, this section elaborates on the parties involved, their organization cultures and their roles and relationships to each other. Additionally, the aspects underlying the choice of the artist who is ultimately granted the commission are outlined. Data collected through interviews provides the foundation of this analysis. We opt to present the findings rendered from the fifteen respondents in a manner that preserves confidentiality. Hence we codified individual responses according to a simple numbering format, resulting in a range that runs individual responses from respondent one to respondent fifteen. Outcomes are presented below.

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The Stakeholder Field of Commissioned Art Work As in all businesses contexts, the social nature of actions is of great importance (Mainela, 2007; Ring & Van de Ven, 1994). This is in line with Granovetter’s view that all economic behaviour is grounded in relationships between individuals (Granovetter, 1985). These relations act as a foundation for future actions, such as business dealings (Tellefsen, 2002; Halinen & Tornroos, 1998) and creative behavior (Perry-Smith & Shalley, 2003). Thus, organizational relationships can be referred to as a complex web of interactions between several parties (Hakanson & Snehota, 1989). When configured in an appropriate manner such relationships can render mutually agreeable outcome for those involved. This notion of collaborative action also applies to the commissioned artwork process. Here, the central parties are the architect, the client and the artist. Subcontractors, planning consultants, art consultants and curators may also participate in the process. The shape of collaborative process may differ across projects and architectural practices. However, this chapter focuses on the mechanisms within the broad process, making the specific structural differences of secondary importance and focusing on parties’ general objectives and roles. The different parties involved and their linkages with each other are depicted in figure one below. Generally, within the commissioned artwork process the architect is considered to take center stage. All our interviews pointed out that architects indeed direct the process. All respondents noted architects to be largely responsible for suggesting the inclusion of commissioned artwork, since clients are often unaware of its existence. Respondent four exemplary stated in this context that, “...clients in general appreciate the idea, especially when they realize that it might help them to market the building in the future, as art may set the project apart from others”. Interviewed architects indicated that clients in turn are often

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under the impression that art adds substantial costs and that it delays the project. This is in line with the existing notion within marketing, management and strategy, that ‘price’ influences buyers’ decisions (Levitt, 1983; Rao & Monroe, 1988). Furthermore, respondents three and five noted that in the rare instances clients ask for the inclusion of art themselves; they do so because they aim at making a statement with the project. The central position of the architect places him/ her at the gate to commissioned artwork and provides the architect with a strong position within the process. When asking for the rationale, the majority of the architect respondents noted that central positioning provides them with the power to steer and influence the commissioning decision and outcome. When confronted with this finding, all interviewed artists underscored this suggested distribution of power that favors the architect. Observations signify that the architect has a proactive, brokering role in obtaining the commission, while the artist has a reactive one. From a leadership point of view, such positioning of the architect is of interest, as brokering has been positively associated by prior empirical network studies with leadership effectiveness (Balkundi & Kilduff, 2006). Acting as a broker to one’s environment has been identified an effective mechanism to influence creative processes in the new media sector, for instance (Banks et al. 2002). All interviews, as well as our own observations within the sector indicate that the architect takes the leading role in the commissioned artwork process and is the link between the other stakeholders. Interviews further pointed out that it is especially the architect’s structured way of working, her large network and her professionalism, that ensures that timelines are met, all other interested parties know what is expected of them and what they should do. Generally, the artist is left with a subordinate role, predominantly controlled by the architect. In any respect, it is the client who ultimately agrees on the inclusion of the work of art and chooses the artist who is finally granted

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the commission. Our research indicate that an ongoing dialogue between the client and architect forms the foundation of the client’s decision. The narrative created between them, according to the architects interviewed, plays a fundamental role in directing architect behavior, not in the last place as the decision regarding the assignment of the commission is directly influenced by it. This insight demonstrates the significance of the ‘narrative’ concept as foundation for leadership behavior. When the inclusion of art is proposed and agreed upon by the client, the search for a suitable artist commences. Here, the architect plays a vital leading role again, since she seeks and approaches artists either in a direct or indirect way. An ‘indirect way’ would involve appointing a curator. However, based on our interviews with architects, artists and curators, it appears to be a less common approach taken in commissioning projects. It is important to note that leadership effectiveness has been found not just to depend on the direct network links to other stakeholders under the leader’s control, such as a direct link between architect and artist implies, but also on the links beyond the leader’s control (Balkundi & Kilduff, 2006). Analyzing the interview outcomes, some architects, among which are respondents one, two and six, use both modes, the ‘direct’ and the ‘indirect’ way, interchangeably; depending on the nature of the project. Architects, such as respondents three and eight, on this notion reported not to appreciate working with curators because they believe that it is the architect’s task to recommend specialists, such as artists, to their clients. The decision of the architect to involve a curator or to take on the task itself again stipulates the prominent role of the architect and its power to influence the commissioning process. By means of appointing a curator, possibilities to involve different artists in the selection process will open up, as the curator will likely approach a different set of artists than the architect. Hereby the chances of the artists have increased for consideration and eventually

to be granted the commission. By excluding the curator from the process, the set of considered artists depends on the architect’s input. In turn, the artists depend on the architects. When a suitable artist is found, either in a direct or indirect way, and is approved by the client, the architect and artist work together to develop the work of art. The architect functions as a bridge between the client and artist, as the client and artist commonly meet only once for an introduction. Architects and or curators mediate between the client’s concerns (mainly related to budget and time of delivery) and the artist’s ideas (on form, materiality, etc.). Generally, artists are primarily concerned with the development of the piece itself and aim to design and deliver it to the best of their expectations and ability. As budgets almost always restrict the artist’s work, he or she would aim to deliver a piece that falls within the financial requirements. This supports the notion of Levitt (1983) and Roa and Manroe (1988) that ‘price’ plays an important role within the production process. Architects are less embedded in the mediation process when a curator is involved, since he or she takes on a large part of the architect’s mediation role. If appointed, a curator would, like the architect, be in dialogue with all other major parties included in the commissioning process. Thus, the architect and/ or curator communicate information regarding the artist or work of art to the client. Additionally, they assure that the artist works within budget without compromising the design concept of the artwork. Furthermore, the architect’s or curator’s mediation role becomes even more apparent when less traditional forms of art are commissioned, such as multi-media art installations. Clients wager more of their budget in backing the artist when engaging in these types of projects. Trying to minimize risk is then a prominent part of the architect’s and/ or curator’s role. Continuous dialogue between the parties involved in the commissioned artwork process supports the previously developed notion of the narrative concept, as these dialogues create

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a narrative around the artist, architect, client, work of art and curator, developing a basis for interaction and decision-making. In addition to creating and engaging in these dialogues, all interviewed architects noted that they also function as a link between the artist and subcontractors when a work of art is integrated in the building. However, respondent thirteen stated that artists themselves may also take up this role. She was for example, when working on a bespoke gate, in direct contact with the subcontractors to assure that correct materials were used and the right environment was created in areas of the building surrounding the artwork. A further party with whom the architect may work closely is the planning consultant. Planning consultants are often appointed to help gain planning consent on more controversial schemes, or when the proposed development has a large impact on the local surroundings such as street views. Planning consultants advise architects on how the artwork should be delivered to obtain planning approval. The client commonly does not hold a direct relation with the planning consultant, with the architect being the prime broker between the two. The architect communicates any artwork design changes to the client and explains the reasons for them, confirming the large extent of power that the architect has in the commissioned artwork process. The client has to trust the architect on the decisions taken and its ability to act within planning requirements. The artist has to work with the directions given by the architect, which range from materials to aesthetics. Occasionally, another party who is also involved in the commissioned artwork process is the art consultant. More affluent clients may directly appoint an art consultant to the project. When this is the case, the consultant works closely with the architect and/ or curator to look for suitable artists. He or she is also involved in writing the brief for the work of art. The consultant is in contact with the architect, the client, artist and curator (when involved). If an art consultant is appointed, the client is even less likely (than

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when no art consultant is involved) to be in direct contact with the artist, which provides the artists with a subordinate role within positioning when related to the narrative. Moreover, although the artist is the one delivering the piece of art, it is considered to take on a reactive position to other parties involved in the process. Despite the fact that subcontractors, planning consultants and art consultants are not considered central parties within the commissioned artwork process, and therefore essential in the creation of the grand narrative, their contribution cannot be marginalized. When involved in the commissioned artwork process, these parties broaden the narrative by means of adding their specific expertise and knowledge through engaging in an active dialogue with the architect and curator (when involved). Thus, a complex web of interactions and dialogues exist between the various parties included in the commissioned artwork process involving architects. As demonstrated, within this process the narrative is of great importance, since a narrative is built around the work of art and the parties involved. The narrative links all parties together and acts as a basis for interaction, dialogue and decision making. Additionally, it contributes to creating understanding between all parties involved regarding the development of the work of art.

Assessing the Cultural Landscape Almost all organizations develop a dominant type of organizational culture over time (Cameron & Quinn, 1999). The original Competing Values Framework by Cameron & Quinn (1999) provides a useful lens in this regard, particularly through its dimension that addresses inward versus outward orientation of an organization. It outlines the degree to which organizations focus inwards, focusing on its own capabilities, or is outwards oriented instead, towards customers, suppliers and the wider external environment. In the original model this orientation is then mapped on decision making

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responsibility, differentiating amongst managerial control and employee empowerment. This latter aspects holds less relevance in the creative environment where organization size is absolutely small and managerial hierarchy not existent in the sense intended by Cameron and Quinn. Hence, drawing on the inward and outward dimension from the Competing Values Framework of Cameron and Quinn (1999), combined with our own research and consulting work, we here introduce an easy to understand logic to identify the underlying cultural dynamics that exist within an organization. Such a tool provide individuals who are active in the creative arts scene with a framework to quickly assess their cultural landscape. Based on a stepbased approach we deploy it to analyze the role cultural differences play in the way stakeholders in the creative sector position themselves to achieve their individual objectives (Figure 2). The combination of steps presented in Figure 2 establishes the basis of our assessment of the cultural landscape of the London’s creative art scene. The steps assess for parties involved the degree to which they (1) respond to their external environment, (2) drive actions and achieve creative and commercial results, (3) shape relationships,

and (4) adopt to change. The final and fifth step gauges the degree to which structure and consistency play a role in the activities within the processes followed by those involved. Prior research points out that the way in which parties fill in these elements of culture impacts their behavior towards others, their information processing capabilities; which core values are used for forming judgments and taking action (Lawrence & Nohria, 2002; Schein, 2010). As one aims to steer towards a strategic position within the creative arts scene, organizational cultural aspects become a relevant factor. To identify the cultural identity of artists (artistic world) and architects (commercial world) and to assess cross-cultural collaboration among them, both parties are mapped on Figure 2 with regard to their behavior concerning ‘commissioned artwork’. As such we are able to explore the cultural diversity of the main stakeholders in London’s Modern Architecture scene, the artists and the architects for each of the aspects summarized in Figure 2. It appeared that the cultures in which both parties (artists and architects) operate are indeed different, implying that both parties are active in different cultural spheres and operate

Figure 2: Assessing the cultural landscape

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under different cultural values. Therefore, when working together, cross-cultural collaboration is taking place. Yet architects take on a reading role in the process when assessing the relationship amongst artists and architects. Interestingly, as these relationships are not controlled by formal systems, this leadership is largely discretionary, unsanctioned, facilitated by the positioning taken on by the architect in the commissioned artwork process (see figure 1 for the positioning of both architect and artists towards all other parties involved in the commissioned artwork process). External focus. In terms of external focus, a clear distinction between artists and architects came to the fore based on our exploratory round of interviews. Artists interviewed noted a simple and prime aim in terms of their focus: to deliver a piece of work that fits the client’s preferences. However, due to the fact that there is limited direct contact between the client and artist when constructing a piece, interviews suggest that it is mainly the artist’s own vision that leads to the final result. The artists interviewed were passionate about their work and the art works they were creating. Being able to work on their passion was their key focus. By doing so, they were quite aware of the strategic context in which they were working. However, they did not act upon it or take advantage of it. Moreover, both artists were not aware of the factors that influenced their chance of winning a commission. As they focused on doing what they loved (creating art), most of them did not have a clear vision of the future state they wanted to work towards. As only four artists were directly interviewed, this observation needs to be taken with caution. In contrast, each of the ten architects interviewed were highly aware of the strategic context and competitive landscape they operated in, gauging their external environment with care. Architects described acting upon their environment by first assessing the landscape, getting to know their competitors and then creating an image and reputation that set them apart from their competitors. In line with an external

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orientation, all architects interviewed indicated to strongly focus on the end customer (client), a focus supported by the ongoing and direct interaction between client and architect as a commissioned project commences. The architect (and/ or curator) forms the link between client and artist, as became apparent from the interviews. Architect in all reported cases mediated between the client’s concerns and the artist’s ideas. When comparing the communities in which both stakeholders thrive, artists and architects, additional contrasts came to the fore. The community in which artists operated showed quite constraint. Both artists knew each other for years and even were befriended. Although they knew their fellow artists they didn’t consider them as ‘competitors’ as such. They focused on what they were doing themselves, their vision of what art is and should be, and on the work they were creating and the vision they wanted to share with others. Contrarily, architects interviewed displayed professional practices in which clear goals and objectives are formulated. Moreover, these goals were communicated to employees and shared across the practice. Achievement. In terms of result orientation, we found further evidence of cultural plurality when comparing artists and architects. Artists showed committed to deliver a piece of work and primarily aimed to design and deliver to the best of their expectations and ability. Ergo, they showed (like architects) highly committed to achieving results. Artists however are not very commercially active. Interviews with artist and architects pointed out that artists are hardly active in trying to become part of an architect’s personal network, not soliciting their reputation nor the kind of work they are creating. Artists are more responsive than ‘action-oriented’. When they receive a commissioning request they act upon it (the artist has a reactive role in obtaining the commission). Although most of them had websites, often these proved quite simple and not commercially designed in order to be most effec-

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tive. Most of them provide insights into what they are doing but are not ‘tested’ on effectiveness or optimized towards attracting prospective clients. Architects, like artists, are committed to deliver high quality work and aim to satisfy their customers. Nonetheless, they take achievement to another more procedural level. They initiate the inclusion of art, are in charge of the project and have a proactive role in obtaining a commission. Additionally, they are action-oriented in attracting new clients and broadening their network. They undertake several activities in doing so. Examples are: hosting a professional website, entering competitions and being active in their cultural scene through participating in interviews for magazines and spreading promotional material (e.g., books portraying their works). The architect, independent when it comes to finding an artist to grant a commission, can choose between approaching multiple artists. However, as shown by all interviews, after agreeing on working with an artist, the architect is dependent on the artist appointed. This is the case as the artists are ultimately the ones delivering the piece of creative work (on time and within budget). However, the extent of dependence is lower for the architect than the artist, since the architect can decide (in case of non-performance) to take drastic measures such as changing artists (exceptional). As the architect is directing the process he is accountable when it comes to satisfying the customer. He (or the curator) acts as the link between the artist and client and is responsible. Relationships. Collaboration between artist and architect is of key importance to achieve success in delivering a piece that meets client, artist and architect expectations, so our interview outcomes suggest. As artists are sometimes recommended for commissions by their friends (who are architects), they receive support from them. Artists are to a large extent dependent on architects to obtain a commission, both artist interviewed reported. However, they value the opportunity to obtain the job over the relationship they have with the architect. Relations from the stance of

the architect are perceived somewhat differently. Four of the ten architects interviewed noted that they prefer to work with friends, suggesting the relevance of close nit relations within the creative scene. For them personal ties are considered to be of key importance when selecting artists, an activity perceived as critical yet highly uncertain in terms of creative outcome, as pointed out explicitly by respondents four, six, and ten. This observation is in line with the seminal work by the Coleman, Katz & Menzer (1966) who found individuals trying to decide among important and risky alternatives more likely to consult with each other, relying on friends and colleagues for advice. Learning/ adaptive. The second to last aspect of the Figure 2 addresses how one learns and adapts to change. While our interviews with artists are confined to only four and observations therefore must be interpreted with caution, both artists indicated to be willing to try new techniques when contributing to bringing across a message or a certain vision. Both artists additionally indicated to work under close directions received from the architect. Similarly, changes are only implemented in the design when first requested by the architect. Both artists nonetheless showed sensitivity to taking on ‘risky projects’. In which ‘risky projects’ refer to those that are for instance ambitious in terms of techniques required or location of the piece. A tension exists between their personal preference to learn and adapt to their environment, and the way they are able to do so based on their peripheral positioning in relation to architects. Change and learning are embraced, but do not result in follow up due to their structural embeddedness in the commissioned artwork stakeholder field. Nine of the ten architects interviewed indicated to balance innovation versus other elements (e.g., risk, costs, and practicality) in all of their learning decisions, indicating a sense of risk-adversity. So while artists are keen to explore and learn, architects are less responsive to this, as they try to minimize risks in the process. This latter also appears a trait of the curator interviewed. 187

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Structure/ consistency. In terms of structure and consistency, meaning how one structures work to achieve consistency, both stakeholders again display important cultural variation. In contrast to architects, the artists interviewed were unstructured in organizing their way of working. They did not have a clear business plan or a clearly defined objective. As both artists interviewed, they are driven by passion and creativity. Protocols and formality do not receive priority. Besides their working approach, the differences between the two parties are also highly visible when comparing workplaces. Artist’ workplaces were mostly cluttered with creative elements laying around at the workplace. Moreover, their workplaces were often located in the outskirts of London. Architects, in contrast, showed a structured way in which internal organizational processes are followed as well as commissioning processes. They value adhering to policy. They are organized and structured in their way of working. In directing a commissioning process they ensure that activities are planned and deadlines are respected. The architects interviewed have nicely designed offices that are well organized. Most of them were located in prime areas of London.

The Selection Process: Factors Taken into Account When Selecting Artists Clearly, cultural plurality is at play within the creative industries. The assessment of the London arts scene, as presented based on the structure of Figure 2 in the previous section, highlighted several organization cultural differences between the main parties active in the sector. Besides understanding the cultural differences and similarities of these parties and how they are related to each other, it is important to be aware of additional criteria used in the commissioned artwork process when researching and appointing an artist. Cultural plurality may affect the way in which stakeholders choose to position themselves towards each

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other. In order to arrive at a positioning strategy recommendation, it is essential to know which selection criteria artists are able to influence to increase their chance of being granted a commission. The following section examines the artist selection process and the way in which artists are capable of positioning themselves strategically in relation to stakeholders with comparable organization cultures, peer artists, and stakeholders with contrasting organization cultures (architects). Managing social relations and the role of personal ties. Positioning oneself strategically requires the management of social relationships (Balkund & Kilduff, 2006). This holds for all involved in the selection process for commissioned art work. It also requires an understanding of what is preferred in terms of maintaining relationships by those with whom one intends to engage. As demonstrated, the commissioned artwork process is considered to be a complex web of interactive relationships between various parties (Hakanson & Snehota, 1989). This implies that social relationships form the foundation of business relationships (Hansen, 1999; Uzzi, 1997). Leadership, as a result, is a function of a continuous patterns of interaction with those one intends to influence (Uhl-Bien et al., 2007). Our observations and interviews in the London arts scene point out that such initiatives, on the artist side, commences at a very basic level. Based on the perceptions of 15 individuals interviewed (artists, architects and a curator), artists do not appear to give too much thought to their positioning strategies. For artist to extend their network, they fall back on basic approaches such as the exhibiting of their work, visiting of exhibits of other artists, engaging in their local community, or visiting cultural networking events. Contrarily, the counterparts of artists - architects and curators - use primarily their personal relationships when approaching artists for commissioned work. For instance, eight out of the ten architects interviewed stated that they prefer to approach artists who they know are easy to work with. Such preference to

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ties between individuals who know each other well and have developed a kind of common language for interaction, is commonly referred to as a preference towards personal relationships ties (Maniela, 2007). Our interviews point out that personal relationship ties are especially preferred when the artist operates at distance or when new technologies are involved, an observation made in other industries as well (Ford, 1980). As noted by respondents six, seven and ten, less travelling and face-to-face meetings are required when familiar with an international artist on a personal level, making it is easier and quicker to arrive at a mutual understanding. In these cases, parties involved have to work closely together and have confidence in each other’s expertise. Our findings confirm earlier work on personal ties in other industries, identifying personal ties as important not only because they generate trust (Granovetter, 1985; Uzzi, 1997: Salmi & Backman, 1999), but also because they facilitate rapid problem solving capability with regard to business matters (Uzzi, 1997; Granovetter, 1985; Aalbers et al. 2013). Knowledge about the kind of personal ties that are present within the selection process is of significance. When it is clear what kinds of ties are grounded in the process and preferred by those parties involved, the interpersonal relationships may become manageable assets that can be used by artists in solving their positioning dilemma. Personal ties are a product of a narrative created through interaction and dialogue between various parties. The narrative may function as a gateway through which the other concepts pass. Although an artist may seem initially ideal (they produce the type of work sought for, are able to work with the required type of materials and are located in the preferred region) when the architect does not have positive personal ties with this artist, he or she may not be considered as a candidate for the commission. Reputation. Besides considering participants with whom the architect has direct personal ties, all interviewed architects and curators noted that

indirect familiarity with an artist’s work is used as another medium to select artists. Respondents six, four and fifteen specified that reputation might be important for projects where the site for the artwork is in a prominent location or the piece has some public use or focus. To a certain extent artists can exert influence on the reputation they have. They can influence their reputation by means of delivering artworks within the agreed-on requirements. Moreover, they can positively influence their reputation. For example, they can take on an active role in their community and maintain a positive, flexible attitude when dealing with clients. Furthermore, architects become familiar with new trends, developments and upcoming artists through reading magazines like the Tate Magazine. Also, all architects and curators interviewed stated that they use the Internet to learn about artists. Respondent four noted using specific sites such as Wallchapter.com. Therefore, it is important for artists to strengthen their reputation through being present in magazines and hosting a professional website. An artist’s reputation communicates a message about the artist’s quality and style, which is in line with the notion of ‘promotion’ within the marketing mix (Taylor et al., 1997). Additionally, reputation is strongly linked to the ‘narrative’ concept since an artist’s reputation develops due to frequent interaction, dialogue and conversations with other parties within the creative sector and the commissioned artwork process. Thus, the narrative forms the foundation of the reputation creation process.

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS In many western economies cultural policy and the arts have become of increasing importance (Cooke & Lazzeretti, 2008). The arts form a main example of cultural identity, but also in terms of economic value, for instance through their contribution to domestic Gross Domestic Product

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(GDP) and continuous innovation (Biancini & Parkinson, 1994; Jaw, et al. 2012). How to lead as a stakeholder in this network of culturally diverse stakeholders, architects, artist and others, received little attention in the academic community until late. This research aimed to provides a review of the positioning dilemma that artists face in advancing their creative outputs while also rendering commercial gain in a culturally diverse stakeholder field. The opportunity for collaboration between architects and artists is facilitated through commissioned artwork. However, the structural patterns of collaboration have remained misunderstood. This study describes the cultural scene in which the commissioned artwork process takes place and the underlying processes of strategic positioning by artists. Based on a comparison of the strategic positioning by artists and their commissioning architects, an accurate understanding of one’s positioning and the positioning of one’s counterparts in a commissioned arts work process is found critical to steer creative collaboration. Drawing on stakeholder positioning literature and recent insights from network theory, we review the importance for artists as well as for their commissioning architects to accurately perceive the positioning of oneself and of one´s counterparts in a commissioned arts work process. Capability to position oneself strategically and to actively manage these positions into a leadership advantage varies among parties involved in the commissioned artwork process. Our findings stress the importance of understanding cultural differences in parties to be able to take on a central position among networked organizations operating in a culturally diverse environment. Further, our findings highlight the role of personal ties and reputation to positively influence the selecting process of an artist with regard to commission artwork, and confirm the notion established by prior empirical network studies that those whom position themselves as proactive brokers, gain access to effective mechanism to influence

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creative and operational processes, allowing for effective leadership (Banks et al. 2002; Balkundi & Kilduff, 2006). The practical contributions of this study encompass the notion that artists should actively position themselves towards architects and curators, since they generally compose the shortlist of artists that are considered for the commission. Our findings provide a point of reference to artists and other stakeholders in a sector that is known for a relative low degree of managerial formalization and relatively high cultural plurality. ‘Personal ties’ and ‘reputation’ are the key criteria within the selection process, which artists (to a certain degree) can influence to enhance their chances of being granted a commission. Relations matter to penetrate into architects and curators network of direct and indirect ties. This can be achieved by means of creating awareness of their work and strengthening their reputation. Artists can do this through maintaining relationships with architects and curators, exhibiting in local and international galleries and art fairs, placing advertisements of their work in leading UK and international industry magazines and sending architects their portfolio to put on record in a library. Furthermore, after being approached for the first selection and asked to propose design ideas, artists can increase the value of their proposal through ensuring that it falls within the stated budget and is deliverable both in terms of infrastructural feasibility and time. When interpreting the findings, one should be aware of the fact that this study analyzes a very specific context. If one were to study other processes within the creative sector or commissioned artwork in a more general sense where processes involve practitioners other than architects, different outcomes may arise. Within the context and processes central to this study consistencies have been found making it possible to generalize the findings. However, this does not imply that variations do not exist across commissioned artwork processes. Architectural practices may

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adopt different approaches when dealing with the commissioning process. This research specifies the consistencies amongst them. In this way an understanding of the nature of the processes is created. This is in turn used as a foundation for addressing the positioning dilemma faced by art companies. The adoption of an interpretivist approach might make this study sensitive to bias because various researchers might interpret the findings differently and respondent bias might occur. This study is exploratory in nature and based on interviews that are distributed unevenly over the different roles identified in the creative sector. Ideally, this study would have included several more interviews with artists and curators. However, the industry’s closed nature and the study’s limited time scale prevented the inclusion of additional interviewees. Since curators do not belong to the central parties within the commissioned artwork process (in general, the central parties are the architect, artist and client), it can be deduced that this limitation does not severely affect the conclusions or implications of this study. Nonetheless, when conducting future research within this field, it is recommended to include more artist and curators, and also to explore the role of the client. Furthermore, future research could add value through performing the same study in other clusters to compare results. This was impossible for this study due to time constraints and the limited scope of this chapter. One can, for example, conduct the same study but use other geographical centers where art gravitates, such as New York or Tokyo, as a sample base. As this research solely focused on a nice market / subculture, with the subsequent risk of sector selection bias, further research is needed to pinpoint the exact antecedents that can help organizations position themselves favorably within a culturally diverse stakeholder field in other settings too. An extended research context

is needed to generalize the findings to a broad context. This study also provides fruitful grounds for further generalization of the findings to artists/ art companies that are located in other cities and countries. All respondents are internationally active and incorporate their own cultural identifies in their daily professional decision making routines. It signifies that the implications of this study are internationally applicable. Lastly, as the scope of this study did not allow to take on a positivist approach and test the probabilities of the selection criteria specified or the strength of the relationships between the parties involved in the commissioned artwork process, future research can contribute to the existing literature by means of doing so. In this way, fuller insights of the commissioned art work process involving architects can be achieved.

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ADDITIONAL READING Amabile, T. M., & Khaire, M. (2008). Creativity and the role of the leader. Harvard Business Review, 86, 100–109. PMID:18822674

Hotho, S., & Champion, K. (2011). Small businesses in the new creative industries: Innovation as a people management challenge. Management Decision, 49(1), 29–54. doi:10.1108/00251741111094428 Jaaniste, L. (2009). Placing the creative sector within innovation: the full gamut. Innovation: Management. Policy & Practice, 11(2), 215–229. doi:10.5172/impp.11.2.215

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Commissioning Selection Process: Factors taken into account when selecting artists for a commissioned arts project by a commissioning party. Creative Sector: The cluster of creative arts, design, media and communications which all deal with cultural, aesthetic and/or symbolic content in some way. Network Based View: The perception of the interrelationship among agents, networks and enterprises in the creative sector as dynamic, interrelated and productive, with all engaged in the mutual enterprise of creating values, both symbolic and economic in nature. Organization Culture: The deeply rooted values and beliefs that are shared by employees in an organization that guide individual and collective actions. Stakeholder Positioning: The activity of individual as well as the organizations to position oneself favorably in a social context of other stakeholders while paying concurrent attention to the legitimate interests of all appropriate stakeholders that together make up the field in which an actor aims to position oneself.

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Chapter 12

Diversity and the Need for Cross-Cultural Leadership and Collaboration Kenneth R. Roth California State University – Dominguez Hills, USA Zachary S. Ritter University of the Redlands, USA

ABSTRACT This chapter identifies current issues and methods for enhancing organizational climate by and through practices that embrace, promote and accommodate diversity and cross-cultural collaboration. We identify ongoing areas of insensitivity and focus on practices that individuals and organizations need to develop in order to accommodate diversity, and to cultivate cross-cultural collaboration and leadership development. Future leaders must possess skills that are just and respectful of increasing difference in organizations. We believe higher education is the logical site for developing these skills and practices but before we can fully enjoy the benefits of diverse organizations and communities, we must develop and practice these skills at colleges and universities – organizations whose ongoing social relevance may very well depend on their efforts and abilities to prepare culturally-competent graduates for work in the globalizing workplace.

INTRODUCTION Open any college recruitment brochure and in vibrant color is a feast for the eyes of the diversity advocate: students from multiple identities, active and smiling, clearly friendly, and all wearing the university’s branded sweatshirts. This overt depiction of diversity exists for a number of reasons: 1). Higher education is under constant pressure

to adopt organizational practices that make it appear more effective, modern, and desirable to attend (Birnbaum, 2000), 2). Diversity has become synonymous with progress and inclusion in higher education and may be in part the result of isomorphism, an organizational process where institutions evolve toward similarity across a field (DiMaggio, 1983), 3). Diversity enhances the quality and competence of learning and work

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-8376-1.ch012

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environments (Chang, 2010; Cuyjet, 2006; Milem, 2001; Roth, 2014), and 4). Diversity is no longer a prospect but a reality (Smith, 2009). At the same time, diversity has become a commodity: a veil of social progress that thinly obscures a growing segregation (Carnevale, 2013), economic disparity (Oliver, 1995; Shapiro, 2013), and racial intolerance across the U.S., both on college campuses (Byng, 2014; Cabrera, 2009; Confirmed Facts About the Machine, 2011; Kingkade, 2014) and subsequently in cities and communities (Alvarez, 2013; Egelko, 2013; Song, 2010), and ultimately in the globalizing workplace. These outcomes are reproduced on a growing number of U.S. college and university campuses, and are often reified by media representations (Ritter, 2014; Roth, 2011, 2015, 2014) that place groups of difference in opposition to dominant culture, with less and less regard for social justice (Alexander, 2010; Harris, 2003; Rose, 2002; Wheelock, 2006; Yosso, 2004). Diversity also can be linked to many compelling issues confronting us, both domestically and internationally, including immigration, addressing ongoing inequities, and creating effective learning and work spaces (Gold, 2006; Ritter, 2014; Roth, 2014; Van Heertum, 2009). These are not incidental matters and it may be time to make concerted efforts to relieve the historic wrongs that have played out in U.S. higher education, employment, and political representation, since America has long been viewed as a global leader, and transmits its ideology, values, and desires across the globe through U.S. business, media, and politics (Gold, 2006; Ritter, 2014; Roth, 2014; Van Heertum, 2009). U.S. higher education, then, is at the nexus of needed redress, since college campuses remain both bastions for social change and stalwarts for the status quo, making them important sites for interrogating implications associated with the acceptance of difference in a multicultural community (Ritter, 2014). Experiences and behaviors learned at college are memorable moments that

likely linger and inform future points of view (Hu, 2003). Lack of or negative experience across difference in college ultimately has implications for the globalizing work place, and globalization translates at the organizational level to greater diversity among employees, managers, students, professors, customers, vendors, abilities, religions, ethnicities, immigration statuses, genders, identities, and worldviews (Lieber, 2002; Morey, 2004; Paoletti, 2006; Stiglitz, 2007; Torres, 2006). We believe that even this laundry list definition of diversity is insufficient for preparing students, colleges, organizations and employees for the inescapable onset of greater diversity in every facet of life, and we address the potentiality for an expanded definition of diversity later in this chapter. Organizations need to consider diversity as critical to operations as technology planning and resource allocation, and centralize it in virtually all organizational practices and decision-making processes (Charles, 2014; Smith, 2009). Such change has implications for power dynamics within organizations (Cornell, 2007; Hackman, 1985; Sidanius, 1991), which may be in part why organizations have more readily adopted radical changes in operation due to technology than radical changes in operation due to accommodating human difference. The latter requires a shift in power in organizations that remain managed in significant part by white executives (Patton, 2013; Smith, 2009). While corporate, education and non-profit organizations differ in significant ways, there also are significant organizational similarities (DiMaggio, 1983; Meyer, 1977; Pfeffer, 1978; Santos, 2007; Schmidtlein, 1987; Weick, 1976). For these reasons, we adopt the practice of referring to organizations interchangeably, given that all are sites where individuals congregate, interact and exchange knowledge. This chapter draws on recent research by the authors and from other empirical findings and models to provide a view of the current state of the

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field and what work individuals and organizations need to do to further develop skills and structures for diversity competency, as well as cross-cultural collaboration. While diversity projects are underway in many organizations today, outcomes based on empirical study remain limited, and we argue that more research to increase diversity and to minimize organizational discord based on difference is needed.

PROBLEM STATEMENT Research shows that diversity and a sense of acceptance are tantamount to positive organizational environments (Cuyjet, 2006; Herzog, 2010; Hurtado, 1992, 2000, 1998). Additionally, the U.S. university, particularly publicly-funded schools, is thought to be the place where the American promise of equality and democratic principles are enacted and instilled in future generations (Gutmann, 1999). For many students, particularly international students, prestige, world-class education, and the promise of a better future are some of the very reasons they seek out U.S. colleges (Hopkins, 2013). The rapidity of structural diversity associated with increased international admissions has been felt on campuses across the U.S., with increased need for international student services, and an increase in cross-cultural conflicts. For example, at The University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), a white student posted a YouTube video mocking Chinese international students, which resulted in her leaving UCLA due to student outrage and threats of harm (Gordon, 2011; Mashhood, 2011; Parkinson-Morgan, 2011). At Columbia University, a Chinese international student was struck dead by an automobile while running away from a black teenager, leading the Chinese student association to include raciallycharged language toward African Americans in a theatrical performance (Amzallag, 2008; The Blaaag: Official Tumblr of Columbia University’s Asian American Alliance, 2012; Mashhood &

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Parkinson-Morgan, 2011). At the University of Alabama, campus Greek organizations steadfastly defend the exclusion of black women in sororities (Kingkade, 2014). These examples of racial spectacle (Roth, 2014) are viewed by global onlookers through exported U.S. media representations, potentially setting a standard for racial practice (Ritter, 2014). At the same time, and in the wake of voter initiatives across the U.S. to roll back longestablished affirmative action efforts in public education, there also has been a resurgence of the more familiar racial tensions associated with America’s long struggle with racial equality between African Americans and whites. Affirmative Action, begun under the Johnson Administration in the 1960s (Pattillo-McCoy, 1999), sought to increase access to college by minorities, particularly African Americans, and later other groups and identities, as a form of social uplift for the historically disenfranchised. However, a renewed era of white supremacy ignited under the Reagan Administration in the 1980s has caused a retrenchment of these gains (Pattillo-McCoy, 1999; Torres, 2002; Torres, 2006; Van Heertum, 2009). While these examples on the surface appear to be U.S. centric, America’s long struggle with racial and other difference is exported globally through its vast corporate visibility and its leadership in the production and dissemination of media representations (Theatrical Market Statistics, 2011) that has implications for all individuals and organizations (Ritter, 2014; Roth, 2015, 2014). For these reasons, it is incumbent on U.S. higher education to address these negative perceptions of difference among incoming students, both international and domestic, and to promote greater acceptance across culture, race, gender, socio-economic status (SES), religion, sexual preference, and ability, in addition to focusing on increased cross-cultural collaboration and leadership development. Absent such efforts, U.S. colleges and universities become little more than sites of reproduction for racial contempt,

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cross-cultural misunderstandings, and divisive future work environments, especially in light of how rapidly globalization is changing education and workplace sites (Lieber, 2002; Locke, 1987; Morey, 2004; Torres, 2002; Torres, 2006; Van Heertum, 2009).

BACKGROUND Historical Context for Today’s Needed Organizational Change Since its inception, with the founding of Harvard College in 1636, U.S. higher education has been exclusionary to most citizens (Rudolph, 1990; Thelin, 2004). Harvard’s early curricular focus on training clergy, lawyers and doctors was by definition exclusionary. If your academic interests did not include one of these fields, you were not likely to be admitted to the colonial colleges. In fact, it required student riots in the 1820s to elaborate the college curriculum beyond these three disciplines, demonstrating the reticence of early American colleges to innovate (Church, 1997; Cohen, 1998; Karabel, 2005; Masland, 1985; Perkin, 2007; Rudolph, 1977; Solomon, 1985; Thelin, 2004). Still, the university continues to be considered a place that proposes to entertain ideas outside of and to critique orthodoxy (Cohen, 1998). While Harvard and Yale maintained the colonial curriculum, the emerging field of schools experimented with different specialized and professional programs, elective systems, and even access to classes for those not pursuing a degree (Cohen, 1998). While these innovations suggest an emerging openness to new ideas and practices, remember that only men, and white men at that, were admitted to America’s early colleges. The trend of a predominantly white male college student body persisted in large part until the 1970s when male-dominated colleges experienced a population shift to a female majority (DiPrete, 2013).

Women initially gained access to higher education almost exclusively through philanthropy, which facilitated the charter of some 40 women’s colleges beginning about 100 years after the founding of Harvard College (Geiger, 2005; Rudolph, 1990; Thelin, 2004). Free African Americans first gained access to college a decade later in the 1850s, and in relatively larger numbers at Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) through the Morrill Act of 1890, which stipulated that federal funds would be denied states that did not provide separate and equal access to education across race (Geiger, 2005). But even today, the black male percentage of the national student body has been static at 4.3% since 1976 (Harper, 2008; Roth, 2015). Black women, however, lead all racial/ethnic groups in college enrollment (National Center for Education Statistics. Fast Facts: Educational Institutions, 2014). At the same time, emerging social pressures weighed on education institutions and their practices: the separation of philosophy and religion, the rise of the scientific method, and the breakdown of notions of privilege and a course of study for only a few (Cohen, 1998). However, despite these emerging egalitarian notions, we argue that higher education maintained its exclusionary tendencies until after World War II and the enactment of the Servicemen’s Readjustment Act of 1944 (Servicemen’s Readjustment Act of 1944 [G.I. Bill of Rights] S. 1767, 1944). Before, the G.I. Bill, institutions looked for defensible ways to discriminate (Cohen, 1998). Enrollment caps, based on race and geography, were placed on incoming cohorts and college presidents, primarily at private schools in New England, sought ways to limit admission of Jews, in addition to Irish, Italian, and Eastern European immigrants, who exhibited intellect and a drive for achievement – qualities then and now considered laudable (Cohen, 1998; Karabel, 2005; Thelin, 2004). These groups were not readily accepted into U.S. society as late as the 1940s (Cohen, 1998; Harris, 1993; McDermott, 2013; McIntosh,

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2008). The G.I. Bill appeared to change that, and was the lynchpin for current mass education in the U.S., resulting in a 500% increase in students between 1945 and 1975 (Cohen, 1998). Basically, U.S. colleges and universities have mirrored the racial hierarchy and entrenched racism of the broader society in the past and with only modest derivation, if any, that correlation still obtains (Goldrick-Rab, 2005; Grodsky, 2008; Rubio, 2001; Teranishi, 2008; Yosso, 2004). While higher education as a field finally appears to have recognized the importance and inevitability of organizational diversity, and its role in preparing citizens for a more tolerant world, there seems to be a growing urgency outside of academe to more fully commit to and embrace practices that promote diverse organizations. The MTV network conducted a U.S. survey of its target market (ages 12 to 34) as part of a program roll-out to measure how Millennials (the generation reaching young adulthood around the year 2000) experience and respond to bias, racism, and sexism (Bouie, 2014). Ninety-one percent of respondents said they believed everyone should be treated equally; however, only 37% of respondents said they were raised in homes where race and racism was discussed (Bouie, 2014). This absence of discussion about race in nearly two-thirds of U.S. homes may be a factor in why Millennials believe they are post racial. We believe this very term lacks nuance. It certainly fails to convey that the goal is not merely to tolerate one another but to create a global community that encourages equality while embracing difference. Additionally, Bouie (2014) argues that Millennials believe with all the social progress in marriage equality, and protections for openly gay athletes of both genders, the election of the first multiracial president and the appointment of the first Latina Supreme Court jurist, that their generation has overcome its share of racial inequity (Apollon, 2011; Cohen, 2011). While progress certainly has been made, and much of it across groups other than African American males, the black-white U.S.

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racial dichotomy remains salient for all diversity and cross-cultural collaborative efforts. Without addressing this seemingly entrenched hierarchy, it matters little that other groups have made progress because the specter of inequality between blacks and whites looms across all attempts at identity equality (Apollon, 2011). Landis, Bennett, and Bennett (2004) argue diversity courses, residential living initiatives, and positive contact with culturally different groups, enable students, staff and faculty to move through the stages of the Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (DMIS). However, some U.S. college students complete their degrees without ever having a substantive interaction with individuals different than themselves, whether it is cultural or language difference, or ability, sexual preference, or gender identity (Ritter, 2013). While these shortcomings even a few years ago may not have had deleterious effects on future work opportunities, graduating from college today without the awareness of the very real need to be crossculturally competent, and to possess cross-cultural communication skills, likely will have less than favorable life and work outcomes (Denson, Do Curriculuar and Cocurricular Diversity Activities Influence Racial Bias? A Meta-Analysis, 2009; Denson, Racial Diversity Matters: The Impact of Diversity-Related Student Engagement and Institutional Context, 2009). Likewise, if colleges and other organizations truly value diversity, they must embark systematically on programs to provide diversity and cross-cultural competency training to administrators, faculty, staff, and collectively these groups must devise curricula, projects, programs and practices to share with students, to avert reproduction of adverse racial perceptions in the global work place (Chang, 2010; Smith, 2009). At UCLA, Professor Daniel Solorzano, a Latino scholar who has researched racial battle fatigue and racial micro aggressions (Solórzano, 2000), low-income youth access to education (Datnow, 2012), and campus climate experienced by black and brown students, in California and elsewhere

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(Datnow, 2010; Solórzano, 2000; Yosso, 2004), was recently named Chief Diversity Officer (CDO) within the Graduate School of Education and Information Sciences (GSE&IS). This occurred during the wake of protests by students of color regarding racial micro aggressions by some white faculty. Racial micro aggressions can be unconscious, subtle, yet pervasive forms of racism that have been understudied. They can be used to scaffold racist beliefs, which Marable (1992) described as a “system of ignorance, exploitation, and power used to oppress African Americans, Latinos, Asians, Pacific Islanders, Native Americans, and other people on the basis of ethnicity, culture, mannerism and color” (p. 5). Solorzano’s task is to implement recommendations from a new Committee on Race and Ethnic Relations, in an effort to create a respectful campus climate across difference (Suárez-Orozco, 2014). This directive is so new that plans have yet to be made public; but the appointment and intent are similar to other efforts around the U.S. At Purdue University, the College of Liberal Arts developed a Black Cultural Center, a Latino/a Cultural Center, a Native American Cultural Center, and an LGBTQ Center, as well as diversity courses and training for both students and faculty (Purdue University Website: Division of Diversity and Inclusion, 2014). While it is imperative that students have safe havens to investigate racial and other identities, simply having a list of safe spaces and sensitizing course offerings is no longer enough. Both of these examples are just the tip of the iceberg in terms of faddish efforts (Birnbaum, 2000) to demonstrate organizational diversity and acceptance of difference. Query any online search engine with, “diversity initiatives on college campuses,” and the results are substantial: Google returns more than 6.7 million related pages (Diversity Initiatives on College Campuses (Search Query), 2014). Still, despite this proliferation of efforts to be inclusive and to promote diversity, there is little research showing that these efforts have made much difference.

Two questions that diversity advocates must address is how to create multicultural spaces where white and other privileged students feel welcome and how to convert these students into allies (Special Issue: Intergroup Dialogue: Engaging Difference, Social Identities and Social Justice, 2012). Campus administrators and other organizational leaders need to find ways to engage whites and historically marginalized groups in the formation of a multicultural organization that values difference equally. One area in which white and heterosexual allies have been successfully cultivated is in Lesbian Gay Bisexual Transgender Questioning (LGBTQ) centers across the U.S. (Woodford, 2014). At the University of Redlands’ PRIDE Center, student interns lead workshops in Safe Space Ally Training, as well as strategies to combat homophobia on campus (Student Life: Safe Space Allies, 2014). This training may be instructive for the diversity professional seeking to bridge race, gender, communities of origin, SES, religion and other difference. We believe the only way society can move toward a more equitable community of difference and similarity is by having all groups represented and all groups accepted by creating a super ordinate sense of belonging. Rather than promoting the maintenance of singular identities within a plethora of groupspecific centers, colleges and universities must now find ways to make disparate centers part of a multicultural whole that welcomes and encourages support and participation from traditionally non-marginalized groups (Tanaka, 2007). For example, the Multicultural Center at California State Dominguez Hills (CSUDH) provides space for exploring cross-cultural and cross-identity issues. The Center has Diversity Chats, where students explore issues of power, privilege, oppression, and ally building (CSUDH Programs: What Does the Multicultural Center Offer?, 2013). CSUDH also has a Diversity In Action (DIA) internship program that provides students with skill building and hands-on experience in human relations and cross-cultural communication (CSUDH Pro201

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grams: What Does the Multicultural Center Offer?, 2013). This campus is a likely site for intensive efforts toward diversity and cross-cultural tolerance, given it is the second most diverse college campus in the U.S. behind Rutgers University, in terms of student identities (Morse, 2009). A multicultural approach also was addressed in a four-year participant action research study to change an entire university campus and lead students, staff and faculty to interact with each other across race and difference. Through case studies, ethnographies and analysis of a comprehensive survey returned by 25,000 white students attending 159 U.S. colleges and universities between 1985 and 1989, Tanaka (2007) found three competing patterns of cultural interaction on a small Southern California private religious college campus. These included the expectation that minority students eventually would assimilate into the dominant campus culture. A second pattern of beliefs reflected the view that different cultures would not merge at all, and that minority groups might remain “at war” with the dominate culture. A third pattern of cultural contact was one where individuals interacted with equal status and generated positive relations that bridged racial and other difference. This third pattern was determined to be the desired outcome of the action research, which consisted of five courses of action, each directed by a separate campus committee composed of people affected by the resulting changes (Tanaka, 2007). The five components of the plan focused on: i). Voluntary staff intercultural training, ii). The creation of a student certificate program in Intercultural Competency, iii). Minority faculty hiring, iv). Curriculum development workshops and workshops in how to teach a diverse classroom, and v). ongoing assessment. Data from a campuswide post-test survey showed the interventions led to positive measurable outcomes for participating students, faculty and staff. Some key results indicated: i). When students, staff and faculty participate in intercultural

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activities, they are more comfortable discussing issues with campus others, ii). Where there is high organizational commitment to interculturalism, faculty and staff indicate higher satisfaction with the teaching environment, and iii). While African American students reported higher racial discrimination in year one of the project, by year three there was no significant difference in reported rates of harassment between African American students and white students (Tanaka, 2007). However, only about half of campus staff, 20 percent of faculty and 45 percent of student body participated in the study (Tanaka, 2007), leading us to assert that more work is needed to evolve campuses toward a more multicultural approach in operations.

Ongoing Institutional Isomorphism There are more than 7,000 higher education institutions in the U.S. with more than 15 million attending students (National Center for Education Statistics. Fast Facts: Educational Institutions, 2014). One might think with this variety of institutional type (Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs), community colleges, women’s universities, religious universities, liberal arts colleges, research universities, Hispanic Service Institutions (HSIs), and Predominantly White Institutions (PWIs) that isomorphic forces – when institutions copy one another in search of viability and prestige – would not be the powerful influencer of campus climate that they are, but this doesn’t seem to be the case. DiMaggio and Powell (1983) identify three types of isomorphism: mimetic, coercive, and normative. Mimetic isomorphism explains an institution’s copying practices of another in the hope of increasing legitimacy and rising in institutional ranking systems (DiMaggio, 1983). For example, if Harvard admits more low-SES students and absorbs their tuition, other universities consider this option to remain competitive. Coercive isomorphism results from legal or political pressures that are exerted on

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organizations (DiMaggio, 1983). An example of coercive isomorphism is state and federal legislation, which can be positive, as evidenced by the 1954 Supreme Court decision in Brown v. Board of Education that found racially separate colleges and universities to be unequal and unconstitutional (Patterson, 2001). Finally, normative isomorphism arises from practices developed and disseminated by professionals throughout an organizational system (DiMaggio, 1983). Normative isomorphism is closely linked with professionalization of a field (Williams, 2013). Professionalization occurs when collective efforts are made to define best practices. A current example of normative isomorphism is the proliferation of LGBTQ centers on college campuses across the U.S. Between 1996 – 2006, more than 60 campuses established LGBTQ centers, totaling more than 100 LGBTQ centers on college campuses across the U.S. today (Henshaw, 2014). LGBTQ centers have created spaces where students participate in national political battles for equality, organize to promote campus initiatives, and create their own version of collegiate social events without fear of ridicule by others. Again, these efforts may be instructive for the formation of multicultural centers, in that an interest in intercultural sharing and understanding may be an enticement for all students. However, in order to develop such programs, organizations must continue to develop capacity for acceptance and diversity, requiring commitment and resources from senior leadership, and the development of cross-identity leadership at every level of an organization (Charles, 2014; Reason, 2005; Smith, 2009). This may require examining and likely reframing how excellence, talent development, and service are conceived and communicated across and within an organization (Patton, 2013). It also may require organizations to reconsider who is best qualified to lead such changes. Research has questioned whether tenured faculty and longtime staff who have successfully navigated established institutional climates

and cultures are best-suited for the type of work needed to lead diversity initiatives or realign power structures that impede diversity efforts, since they draw their legitimacy from established structures that are not inclusive to all groups (Charles, 2014; Smith, 2009; Williams, 2013).

Individuals How does one go about engaging students from privileged identities to seek social justice on campus? Reason, Millar, and Scales (2005) found that high-quality interactions across identity groups, especially in campus living situations, resulted in white students becoming more reflective and aware of their privilege, identity, and long-accepted and often-uninterrogated attitudes toward others. Broido (2000) found white students at Pennsylvania State University (a Research 1 University) needed encouragement to take their first steps toward social justice. Tanaka (2007) asserts that campuses must do some soul-searching around their continued support of Greek sororities and fraternities, given the exclusionary nature of these organizations and their obvious conflict with institutional goals to promote diversity and inclusivity. Additionally, the growing multiplicity of backgrounds and preferences and perceptions of college students presages the growing need among organizations to examine all current practices and to change those that place groups in hierarchical opposition to others. Staff and faculty can play a crucial role, as can managers and executives, whether it be through class assignments, campus or organization initiatives, identifying and promoting leaders from non-dominant groups, or mentoring dominant groups to become allies in the pursuit of justice, both on college campuses, within organizations, and in society at large. We believe by expanding the notion of diversity beyond traditionally protected or newly protected groups, and to conceive it as a state of mind of acceptance rather than a vehicle for allocating particular privilege or designation to groups

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based on other factors, may be one way to gain greater support among non-minority groups. For example, a redheaded female student in a diversity course finds herself frustrated that everyone has a distinctive culture except her. She looks to her African-American, Asian American, and Latino classmates with disdain because they have a solidarity she does not have, in part because her world view and culture has been so normalized and taken for granted that it’s virtually invisible (Gold, 2006; Gottdiener, 1985; Traube, 1996). When another student brings up the notion that LGBTQ communities are a form of culture and identity group, the redheaded student becomes upset that she is a “lost soul” (Duran, 2006) in this multicultural landscape. In this example, Tanaka (2009) calls for a leveling of the playing field, where mutual story telling of family movements to the U.S., experienced oppression, and a dream and vision the family holds to lessen oppression for others are key to developing unity, empathy and acceptance of superficial differences. The challenge is to find new meaning systems that are not based on race, privilege, gender, particular religion or sexual preference. If we could achieve this, we could subsequently find ways to move away from individual difference, to difference as a subject of potential interest, one where we may begin to find ways to include everyone without marginalizing anyone (Tanaka, 2007).

Institutions College and universities will lead society in broader acceptance of difference, or likely become irrelevant. Another recourse for creating tolerance and acceptance is government, which has been instrumental in the past in ameliorating historic inequality in the U.S., but also has been instrumental in enforcing inequality (Cohen, 1998; Dean, 1947; Jones-Correra, 2000; Karabel, 2005; Kozol, 2005; Weaver, 1944). The equation for equality is different now, since multiple groups

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(women, ethnic minorities, low SES individuals, LGBTQ communities, religious minorities, and individuals of various abilities) have all suffered from marginalization in U.S. society. Colleges and universities have touted themselves as sites where social ills are attended to and social gains identified and pursued (Gutmann, 1999). Their role previously has been vital because colleges and universities are the gateway for many young people to the work world (Belman, 1991; Jaeger, 1996) and oftentimes is ground zero for cross-identity awareness, collaboration, and the recognition and development of cross-cultural leaders.

Faculty Having diverse faculty has proven to aid in student success. For example, Faculties of Color serve as mentors and advisers to students of color (Smith, 2009). However, MacLachlan (2006) points out that two-thirds of the 150 African American physicists in the U.S. work in HBCUs, suggesting PWIs are not welcoming. When Faculty of Color do pursue academic opportunities at PWIs, they experience tokenism, inequity, and some feel as though they are kept at the institution only to give the appearance of diversity, yet they are oftentimes passed over for promotion or denied tenure (Smith, 2009). All too often, faculty outside the majority identity group find themselves pigeon-holed pedagogically, teaching courses associated with their race, or their gender (Epps, 2002), or other generalizable personal characteristic. These types of outcomes scaffold a culture of tokenism and insensitivity (Smith, 2009). In addition, diverse faculty obviously create diverse knowledge production, and at the very least all educational organizations should be seeking ways to collaborate cross-culturally (Charles, 2014). Rich perspectives are gained from hiring LGBTQ faculty, faculty with varying physical abilities, in addition to Muslim and other underrepresented religious scholars (Smith, 2009).

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Still another reason for hiring diverse faculty is cultivating the future leadership pipeline (Smith, 2009). Since gaining tenure is a significant way for faculty to move into administration, where they create policy and programs, it is vital that each and every college department strives to hire and develop a diverse faculty that in turn enables a rich and varied selection of future administrators (Patton, 2013). Another consideration is that faculty from varied backgrounds may bring in grant dollars earmarked specifically for underrepresented faculty groups. While this may seem a dubious attribute, unfortunately it is one of the laws of the terrain in academe that faculty be income generators for the institution. While the number of women earning doctorates reached a majority in 2008 (Jaschik, 2010), the fact remains that men hold a majority of the administrative positions in many colleges and universities, and in Ivy League colleges, the administrative tier is almost completely white (Patton, 2013). Of the more than 235,000 administrative jobs at colleges nationwide in 2011, nearly 80% were held by whites, 9% by blacks, 5% by Hispanics, 3% by Asians and 1% by Pacific Islanders or Native Americans (Patton, 2013). At the Ivy League schools, whites held more than 90% of administrative positions at Dartmouth and Cornell and more than 80% at Brown, Harvard, Princeton, University of Pennsylvania, and Yale (Patton, 2013). Since administrators likely rise from the faculty ranks, this data suggest one of two potential causes for the disparity of diversity in the administrative ranks of organizations: i). That there is a dearth of qualified candidates of color, or ii). That racial hierarchies remain salient in the nation’s colleges and universities and likely are reproduced in other organizations. Of the top 50 Chemistry departments in the U.S., 33 have no black male faculty, 30 have no Latino faculty, 47 have no Native American faculty, and 48 have no black female faculty (Beutel, 2006). These statistics are neither equitable nor indicative of a post-racial America. However, the

top chemistry departments in the U.S. that retain diverse faculty commit significant resources to maintaining diversity within their organization (Yoshinaga-Itano, 2006). One campus that has made a concerted effort to develop and retain Faculty of Color is University of Louisville (UL). The number of Faculty of Color has increased to 25 percent, due to a strategic plan implemented in 2003 that focused on the recruitment and retention of faculty in the Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) areas (Ponjuan, 2011). UL devised a “grow-our-own” program where recent PhDs are hired and given time to develop their research and publications prior to the start of the tenure clock (Ponjuan, 2011).

Promoting Cross-Cultural Collaboration and Leadership Diversity leaders must develop and regularly demonstrate antidotes to xenophobia, homophobia, sexism, and other examples of intolerance. One way to do this is through the shared interaction of individual storytelling and dreaming. Martin Buber, the Jewish philosopher, explains that a significant way that one can experience holiness is by engaging others within an I-Thou relationship, rather than an I-It relationship (Buber, 1986). Similarly, Tanaka (2007) argues that in order to have effective cultural storytelling between disparate groups, one must learn to develop subject-to-subject relationships, not subjectto-object relationships. Cultivating subject-tosubject relationships, or intersubjectivity, requires individuals to share across difference where no culture dominates and every individual is valued (Tanaka, 2007). Diversity leaders also need to cultivate infrastructure within their organization and with upper-level administrators who also support diversity efforts (Charles, 2014; Smith, 2009). Students, employees, faculty, managers, executives and administrators are needed to develop and serve on intercultural committees, as

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well as committees to assess the effectiveness of the organization’s diversity vision and its implementation (Clark, 2012; Smith, 2009; Tanaka, 2007; Williams, 2013).

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FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS From the myriad research presented here, researchers have proposed numerous ways to promote organizational diversity and cross-cultural collaboration. These include the following: •

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Senior leaders can assist in making organizational diversity a priority by allocating resources to diversity training, curriculum development and intergroup dialogue workshops. Cultivating relationships among these potential agents of change must be key. In 2012, the University of Minnesota’s (UM) Office for Equity and Diversity launched Critical Conversations About Diversity and Justice. Open to all students, staff, faculty, and community members, this series of salon-like dialogues addressed food security and sustainability as a social justice issue. Other dialogues examined Muslims in Minnesota: Keeping the Faith, Dispelling Stereotypes, and Achieving Success, and Bisexuality & Beyond: Reimagining Sexual Orientation (Critical Conversations About Diversity and Justice, 2014). Additionally, UM offers an Equity and Diversity Certificate for staff, faculty, and students in hope of creating a more inclusive campus climate. Similarly, the University of Redlands’ Campus Diversity and Inclusion Center (CDIC) has created a lecture series with reproductive, environmental, and economic justice as topics, in an effort to increase awareness on a campus in transition, where 30 percent of incoming student cohorts are students of color (Student Life: Upcoming Events, 2014).

•

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Diversity leaders need to consistently and regularly engage the organizational community around the implementation, review, and critique of diversity policies and programs. Effective communication with stakeholders throughout the organization is vital (Williams, 2013). The diversity leader must have access to the highest echelons of an organization to ensure they receive the support they need, and that the importance of their work is communicated throughout the organization (Williams, 2013). Diversity and cross-cultural collaboration will transform organizational culture and most likely organizational outcomes. Changing the face of an organization, through images in catalogs, on web sites, and in other public literature, is an easy first step, but the full force of diversity initiatives is not realized until they are embedded in institutional values, beliefs, and practices, and receive the resources needed to succeed (Gurin, 2004; Zuniga, 2005). Smith (2009), who has researched and engaged in diversity building work in organizations for nearly 40 years, stresses that even with the best intentions, ample resources, and broad support throughout an organization, implementing successful diversity and cross-cultural collaborative processes where power and privilege are equally distributed aren’t always readily recognized throughout the organization, and as such must be reinforced to keep the promise of attaining a just and tolerant organization at the forefront of organizational self evaluation. Developing a corps of like-minded diversity leaders throughout an organization also is key. Faculty, staff, managers, executives and administrators set the tone for organizational climate, so it is necessary to remove or transfer individuals who may obstruct diversity projects, either through

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•

•

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their curricular decisions, language, or attitudes. A one or two hour workshop is not going to miraculously change the outlook of those campus players who are not fully committed to moving the campus toward a more diverse and equitable environment. Constructing accountability structures such as performance reviews, bonuses, merit decisions, and resource allocations are ways to enhance the adoption of diversity initiatives (Rowley, 2001). For example, in order to promote a more diverse core curriculum, resources can be offered to faculty and managers who diversify curriculum or organizational operations. For staff, enrichment workshops can be held that teach about various social identity groups within the organization. For students, intergroup dialogue seminars can be developed, and a diversity requirement can be added to graduation requirements. Diversity leaders should devise incentives that reward faculty, staff, students, managers, employees, executives and administrators that participate as diversity change agents. Individual recognition, special perks, release time, and other incentives should be explored as ways to encourage continued interest and adoption of diversity work (Williams, 2013). Creating a comprehensive system of performance assessment is another key to the success of diversity initiatives. A diversity scorecard can be used to assess equity, campus climate, or curricular adjustments to facilitate adoption of new practices and new ways to view the interplay of individuals within an organization. The diversity scorecard acts like a report card to assist in identifying accomplishments as well as areas in need of improvement (Bensimon, 2012). This scoring work should be done in teams, to provide as rich a set of experiences, perceptions, and assessments as

•

possible, and data regarding student outcomes should be disaggregated by social identity, in order to illuminate inequalities, if any (Bensimon, 2012). Diversity leaders must possess the communicational toolkit to speak authoritatively about an organization’s diversity vision and strategy. Institutional change requires educating boards of trustees, administrators, longtime faculty and staff, managers and executives in order to make bona fide change to increase the survivability of organizations of all types, in addition to decentering long-established power dynamics (Bensimon, 2012; Rowley, 2001; Tanaka, 2007; Williams, 2013).

CONCLUSION The rapidity with which organizations are globalizing has set in motion the need to reassess long-established practices of communication, interaction, and collaboration that in the past have marginalized potential contributions from all participants by privileging dominant groups, in terms of sheer numbers, power dynamics, race, gender, sexual identity, ability, and other individual characteristics. These hierarchical structures must be challenged because they threaten the relevance of organizations that remain fixed in past practices that overtly benefit a shrinking population. Organizations and society as a whole have turned to higher education as the site where global citizens are trained to peacefully work together across identities of difference. This is a monumental and time-sensitive task, and is particularly salient given the long history in the U.S., particularly among its colleges and universities, of exhibiting an almost-glaring inability to retool and accommodate dramatic shifts in difference among campus constituents. Despite this history, we still believe that colleges and universities are the most likely sites to cultivate and instill behaviors, language,

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and practices that are equitable, just, and progressive. However, the changes necessary in university operations, mission, and knowledge production require concerted and well-planned strategies to succeed, and have not been fully realized. While there has been significant progress, the rapidity with which our organizations have globalized virtually demands that more resources, more research, and more reflection be placed on how to create peaceful, diverse spaces where individuals of all walks of life are welcomed and valued to develop the intercultural skills needed to make lasting contributions as organizational and global citizens. The time for these changes is now.

Belman, D., & Heywood, J. S. (1991). Sheepskin Effects in the Returns to Education: An Examination of Women and Minorities. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 73(4), 720–724. doi:10.2307/2109413

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Intersubjectivity: The proposition that everyone in society should treat one another as equal, as a subject rather than an object. Everyone contributes to society in an egalitarian way, and this society is achieved by greater identity difference-awareness and self -awareness. Isomorphism: Literally meaning “same shape.” The process of one body copying another body typically to keep up with market trends, or to comply with laws. One university might copy another university in order to maintain its prestige, which is an example of mimetic isomorphism. Super Ordinate: Something that is, appears to be, or is made to be superior in order, class, or status in a given system: A higher level of generalization.

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Chapter 13

Principal Leadership in Diverse Cultures: A Comparative Study Allan Walker Hong Kong Institute of Education, China Haiyan Qian Hong Kong Institute of Education, China

ABSTRACT This chapter draws empirical findings from a larger study that compared principals’ leadership across three different international cultural contexts (Hong Kong, Singapore and Perth, Australia) and explored the influence of culture on leadership. Data were collected using interviews and structured vignettes from a purposive sample of 21 principals across three different cultures and were analyzed to arrive at a set of site-specific and cross-cultural comparative propositions. One set of these propositions is reported in the chapter. Societal culture was found to act as a filter and mediator to create substantial differences in leadership behaviors relevant to collaboration. The paper suggests re-thinking in the preparation, training, hiring and selection, of principals, all of which – given multi-ethnic, diverse societies – require more culturally aware and sensitive policies and practices.

INTRODUCTION This chapter adopts a comparative perspective on how cultural or values differences shape school leadership in two East Asian and one Western setting. It argues the need for and benefits of a crosscultural perspective in understanding leadership in education. Reasons supporting the argument have ranged from dissatisfaction with academic imperialism, concerns about the effects (positive

or negative) of globalization, realization of the importance of values in educational leadership and a search for deeper understandings within Western societies themselves of the multiple ethnic and cultural groups which increasingly comprise their own populations (Bush & Middlewood, 2013). While a substantial amount of the accumulated literature thus far explores the theoretical and conceptual influence of culture on educational leadership, surprisingly more empirical research

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-8376-1.ch013

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is needed. The empirical foundations which have been laid, however, such as Hallinger and Kantamara’s (2000) investigation of culture on reform implementation and leadership in Thailand, have confirmed the importance of “opening new windows” through which to view leadership, “…by exposing the hidden assumptions of the cultural context” (p. 202). This study compares school leadership in three different societies – Hong Kong, Singapore and Perth (Australia). Specifically, the chapter seeks clarity on four issues. First, given that global policy trends affect all three school systems; it is important to know how similar policies can be seen in leadership practices across the three sites, given their diverse cultures. Second, the chapter seeks to identify the ways in which culture actually work to shape and influence leadership behavior. To what extent, for example, was it overt or covert? Third, a cross-cultural framework consisting of six dimensions as a heuristic device is applied in order to draw comparisons between the three sites. This analysis investigates the relative importance of the dimensions in accounting for culturally-based differences in leadership behavior. Finally, the cultures of all three sites are fast changing, increasingly diverse, and subject to modern contemporary influences. The chapter is divided into four sections: the first uses selected literature to argue for recognition of the analytic and conceptual power of ‘culture’ and the importance of cross-cultural understanding; and acknowledges the limitations of such an approach. It also describes briefly the six cultural ‘dimensions’ which guided data collection. The second section sketches the methodology employed. Data were collected through in-depth interviews and vignettes. The third section presents selected findings of the study across the three sites in one area –principal-teacher relationships. These findings are framed as a series of single site and then cross-cultural comparative propositions generated from the data. The final section discusses a number of conclusions which may be useful for framing further debate and research in the area.

BACKGROUND Informative Literature and Framework Impact of Culture on Leadership The basic if not thesis underpinning the study of cultural influence on the principalship is simple: How leaders are influenced by, and differ according to, inter alia, their societal culture (Shields, 2002; Walker, 2004). It is widely accepted that leader behavior and actions are influenced by values at a personal level (Begley, 2000; Fullan, 2003). The thesis is that leader behavior is also shaped by wider societal values, which aggregate to form culture. Since different cultures and societies draw values from diverse bases, it follows that leaders’ cultural values produce different understandings, actions and relationships (Walker & Dimmock, 2005a). Societal cultures in contemporary societies are complex, consisting of nested layers of multiple sub-cultures. For purposes of analysis, we adopt Hofstede’s (1991) definition of societal culture, namely, “patterns of thinking, feeling and acting” underpinning “the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from another” (pp. 4-5). Adopting this definition to study the principalship in different societies involves exploring the extent to which culture explains differences between leadership and schools. More fundamentally, it questions the extent to which schools and school leadership are culture bound or culture free (Trice & Beyer, 1993). This issue is particularly pertinent given the propensity of systems, especially those in less-developed societies, to clone policies and practices associated with more economically and militarily powerful societies (Philips & Ochs, 2003). A tendency for similar educational policies and practices to spread across societies is widely attributed to globalization (Bottery, 2004) and championed by international agencies such as the World Bank, academic ‘knowledge producers and 217

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exporters’ like universities, and the widely disseminated results of international studies. When educational policies and practices are imported into different societies, their ultimate destination is the school, which then becomes the focus of a debate between proponents of either convergence or divergence. Proponents of convergence ([as espoused by] institutionalists) believe that organizations such as schools are largely culture free and therefore similar across societal cultures because the processes of organizing and using technologies make certain universal requirements of organizations, thereby inducing the cultures themselves to become more similar over time. Conversely, reasons for why organizations can be thought of as culture bound and therefore divergent (as espoused by culturalists), are that their internal cultures and formal structures reflect their external environmental cultures (Dimmock & Walker, 2005, p. 47; see also Brislin, 1993; Pedersen & Dobbin, 2010; Trice & Beyer, 1993; Sagiv & Schwartz, 2007; Wilkinson, 1996). Using this perspective, differences often result because of unique histories, religions, traditions, resources, geography, levels of development and inertia (Dimmock, 2000; Trice & Beyer, 1993). ‘Culturalists’ have a tendency to attribute unexplained phenomena to culture and to ignore ‘institutionalist’ arguments that it is primarily historical and political conditions that shape organizations (Wilkinson, 1996). The reality may not be as dichotomous as this, and that “an exclusive concentration on either perspective risks constructing an incomplete picture.”(Dimmock & Walker, 2005, p. 48). In reality culture interacts with “economic, political and sociological factors to shape organizations such as schools” (Dimmock & Walker, 2005, pp. 47-48; see also Shewder, 2000). The separation and search, therefore, for any type of causality may, in itself, be too facile given the synchronous relationships between culture and other societal influences (Dimmock & Walker, 2005; Hofstede, 1996). This accords

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with the position that societal culture is an important influence, which combines with other contextual factors to influence leadership thought and behavior (Walker, 2003).

Impact of East Asian Culture on Leadership in East Asia Empirical studies comparing leadership and schooling from a cross-cultural perspective are becoming more prevalent in the literature. For example, work by Hallinger, Chantarapanya and Sriboonma (2000), Hallinger (2004), Hallinger, Walker and Bajunid (2005), Walker and Dimmock (2002) have identified some of the cultural complexities impacting leaders in Thai and Chinese contexts. Oplatka (2004) compared the principalship across a number of developed and developing countries using published research-based literature. He found, for example, that principals in Thailand (Hallinger & Kantamara, 2000) and Singapore (Zhang, 1994) live in what Hofstede (1991) labeled ‘cultures of uncertainty’ and that this produced a predisposition for school leaders to avoid change, especially when imported from elsewhere. Oplatka (2004) also found that cultural scripts in developing countries (which included Hong Kong, Singapore and Thailand) defined leadership rather more autocratically than in ‘developed’ countries such as the United States or Australia. Although varying somewhat in form, autocratic leadership tended towards “less powerful members’ expectation and acceptance of ‘large power distance values’ ” (Hofsted, 2001, p. 437). Such leadership was generally seen as running counter to movements toward more democratic or distributed forms of leadership in developed countries. A view of leadership in Chinese societies illustrates how values affect its exercise. Studies indicate that Chinese culture tends towards more collectivistic values, while Anglo-American cultures exhibit more individualistic values (Ling, Chia & Fang, 2000; Trompenaars & Hampden-

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Turner, 1997). When translated into organizational terms, Cheng (1998), for example, suggests that schools in European-grounded cultures tend to cater to students with different aptitudes and interests, while in Chinese contexts, they are a means through which students adapt to the expectations of the community. The role of the leader then becomes one of community-building through developing and protecting harmony among teachers and enforcing common approaches to governance, organization and curriculum. Blunt and Jones (1997) suggest that three significant values underpin Chinese leadership values and hence actions - the importance of, and respect for, harmony, the significance of ‘face’ and the influence of collectivism. Such values have their roots in Taoism, Confucianism and Buddhism (Huang, 2001).

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Conceptual Framework

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Exploring and comparing the influence of societal cultures on leadership and schooling presents a methodological challenge. A conceptual framework consisting of generic cultural dimensions may provide a heuristic device to explore and compare the influence of societal culture in schools. As a starting framework for this study we used the cultural dimensions suggested by Dimmock and Walker (1998; 2005) and Walker and Dimmock (1999). The authors define the dimensions as core axes around which significant sets of values, beliefs and practices cluster. They were designed to facilitate the investigation of the influence of societal culture on school-level leadership and to promote cross-cultural comparison through providing common benchmarks against which cultural characteristics at the societal or sub-cultural level could be described and gauged. The six dimensions are theoretical constructs upon which to base useful analysis (Dimmock & Walker, 2005, pp. 29-31; see also Walker & Dimmock, 1999; 2002;2005b).

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Power-distributed / Power-concentrated. This dimension assumes that power is either distributed more equally among the various levels of a society or is concentrated among relatively few. Group-oriented / Self-oriented. This dimension describes whether people within a given society focus on self or on their place within a group, hence the descriptor ‘group /self-oriented’. Consideration / Aggression: In aggression cultures, achievement is stressed, competition dominates and conflicts are resolved through the exercise of power and assertiveness. By contrast, in consideration societies, emphasis is on relationship, solidarity and resolution of conflicts by compromise and negotiation. Proactivism / Fatalism: This dimension reflects the proactive ‘we can change things around here’ attitude in some cultures, and the willingness to accept things as they are - a fatalistic perspective, in others. Generative / Replicative: Some cultures appear more predisposed toward innovation, or the generation of new ideas and methods (generative), whereas other cultures appear more inclined to replicate or to adopt ideas and approaches from elsewhere (replicative). Limited relationship / Holistic relationship: In limited relationship cultures, interactions and relationships tend to be determined by rules that are applied equally to everyone. In cultures of high group loyalty on the other hand, greater attention is given to relationship obligations (for example, kinship, patronage and friendship) than to impartially applied rules. (Dimmock & Walker, 2005, pp. 29-31)

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Table 1. Society-specific and comparative leadership propositions Principal-Teacher Relationships   Hong Kong   An important aspect of Hong Kong principals’ leadership-style is that they employ a range of strategies to cultivate and preserve harmonious relationships with staff. Preservation of harmony and the suppression of emotional displays are seen as imperatives for maintaining performance, self-concept and loyalty to the school.

  Singapore

  Australia

  Singapore principals place store in the expression of opinion while combining this with a strong desire to maintain harmonious relationships, all within a multicultural context.

  The perception of school leadership held by Australian principals was one of independence of mind, standing up for what they believe, and upholding egalitarian virtues. While valuing collaboration and harmony they are not prepared to compromise on their right to express their views.

  Comparative proposition 1: Principals in all three societies place value on collaboration and harmony in their relationships with teachers; however, the contextual and qualifying conditions for such relationships differ between them: in Hong Kong, harmonious relationships are part of preserving ‘face’ and loyalty to the school, in Singapore they are seen in combination with the need to express opinion within a multicultural society, and in Australian, they are seen within a context that respects the individual’s right to expression of views.

Method The purpose of the research reported here was to investigate and compare the influence of societal culture on school-level leadership in three different cultural contexts. The three sites (Hong Kong, Singapore and Perth, Australia) were selected to afford study of the comparative influence of societal culture on principal leadership. Purposive sampling was employed to select participants (primary and secondary school principals) within each of the three sites (Bogdan & Biklen, 2003; Merriam, 1998). Initial selection criteria included criteria were years of experience as principal, gender, level and type of school headed. In all, twenty-one principals were involved in the study. Simple labels such as HK1, S2 and P5 were used to identify the data collected from individual principals. For example, HK1 refers to a Hong Kong principal who is labelled as No. 1, and P5 refers to a Perth principal who is labelled as No. 5. Data were collected over a year and included face-to-face interviews, follow-up telephone interviews, vignettes and document analysis. Face-to-face interviews and vignettes were the

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primary data sources. Given that the purpose of the research was cross-cultural (understanding) and comparative, capturing the collective perspective from all three sites was our main aim. Data were analyzed according to Miles and Huberman’s (1994) framework, this involved three stages. First, data for each site were coded according to predetermined codes/categories. The second stage of data analysis involved a search for patterns of more generic issues that fell outside, or across the framework dimensions (Briks & Mills, 2011; Strauss & Corbin, 1990). For these we had no predefined codes or categories; rather, they emerged as the analysis progressed. The sequence of analysis enabled a set of propositions to emerge. Eight propositions were generated for each site. Due to the combined use of problem situations, predetermined categories (based on cultural dimensions) and the constant comparative approach, the propositions advanced for each site were generally comparable, with few exceptions. Once propositions were developed for each site, at the third stage of data analysis, we developed a set of what we labeled ‘comparative propositions’ (see Table 1). These were intended to capture the differences of cultural influence between sites.

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MAIN FOCUS OF THE CHAPTER Site Specific and CrossCultural Proposition The following section presents one of the eight interrelated sets of propositions that emerged from the data. The data set was selected as being illustrative of the ways in which culture influences leadership. It is labeled and principal-teacher relations. The set consists of a proposition for each of the three individual sites followed by a comparative proposition for all three.

turbed. This can be in personal or school life. You must be very careful not to criticize someone’s personality or even what they are saying in the classroom – or they will be very uncomfortable. This must be dealt with very carefully. So to be harmonious to a certain extent means that we need to be conscious about how we interact and this means we avoid arguing. (HK2)

Proposition 1 - Hong Kong. An important aspect of Hong Kong principals’ leadership-style is that they employ a range of strategies to cultivate and preserve harmonious relationships with staff. Preservation of harmony and the suppression of emotional displays are seen as imperatives for maintaining performance, self-concept and loyalty to the school. In Hong Kong, ethnic Chinese make up about 94 percent of the population and influence of traditional Chinese culture is apparent in societal structures and beliefs (Walker, 2004). The preservation of harmony, whether it is deep or surface, is seen as important by Hong Kong principals, as they and policy makers seek to involve more teachers and parents in open discussion of school operation and improvement. It appears that the opening of schools to broader participation is progressing, but remains bounded by traditional norms. Although the meaning of harmony differs somewhat among the principals, all principals believe it to be extremely important. One secondary principal’s definition of harmony best captured the feelings of her colleagues:

Principals relied on a range of strategies to preserve and cultivate harmony. It was maintained through suppressing or hiding personal issues, problems and disputes, and by avoiding open argument or confrontation. The principals all agreed that open argument and conflict are extremely rare, especially in open forums or with the principal. The main reason for this appears to be that such conflict is dangerous to harmony, whether it is at a deep or a surface level. One primary principal explained that ‘arguments’ may occur about specific professional questions but that in her ten years as principal “there has never been a personal argument” (HK6). This indicates that principals must be very careful about how they communicate with staff and, in general, must steer clear of a person’s dignity or worth. As another principal explained, “I have to be very, very careful not to use derogatory words that refer to the person himself. You can only talk about facts, the behaviors, the incidents, the tasks – very specifically – and try to detach this from a person’s worth” (HK5). The principals claimed they were extremely reluctant to criticize a teacher in front of others because the “teacher will lose face. So I try to avoid criticism in front of others, it’s an insult” (HK6). The concept of ‘face’ seemed important to all principals. This appeared a difficult concept to define and seemed to hold multiple meanings. One principal attempted to define ‘face’, and differentiate it from ‘pride’:

The sensitive areas of an individual that should not be stepped on - the sensitive areas or issues that a person most treasures should not be dis-

‘Face’ means a person’s dignity. Behind this, it refers to a person’s self-knowledge, whether you really know who you are, what you are supposed

Principal-Teacher Relationships

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to do, how much education you receive, how good your upbringing is …When you talk about ‘losing face’ you are not referring simply to being unhappy – it also means that the person loses standing for a number of reasons … If you are a teacher … you have a certain identity as a teacher. So if I tell you that you are not doing your job properly it means you do not have enough knowledge and so you are not a worthy person. (HK5) Another strategy to maintain harmony was the suppression of outward shows of emotion. Maintaining calmness in public was an implicit expectation for adults in the traditional Chinese culture. When talking about an ongoing problem with a teacher, one principal commented that: “I don’t show anger – even though I feel it; I would never shout at people, I have to talk with them in a way that shows that I am not satisfied, but not necessarily angry”. (HK7). Another principal explained why principals must control their emotions, but also explained that at times they were expected to show displeasure to illustrate where they stood. Normally a leader shouldn’t get too angry, too anxious, too worried, nor too pessimistic in public. You can go back to your office and cry over what’s happened behind the door, but not before you get there. In Chinese thinking a great leader is one who will remain serene and calm even when standing in front of a collapsing mountain….. If you lose your temper so much, it means that you can’t control yourself – if you can’t control yourself, how can you control others? At other times, you are expected to strongly show your displeasure, but not too much. If a teacher, for example, is irresponsible, causing lots of trouble for his colleagues, and you as the principal don’t show your displeasure, everyone will say, oh, you accept it’….Yes sure (it’s about harmony) if it’s strongly against other people’s welfare and interests, and then you don’t stand up for them, how can you be a leader? (HK5)

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Both the avoidance of emotional displays and the occasional outward but controlled display of such seem geared toward preserving group harmony. As one principal explains below, it also appears that the display of ‘considerate’ emotions is suppressed. The quote also introduces the notion of shifting culture, and perhaps culture clash: Inside my heart, I am considerate, but I guess some of the staff think I should be task oriented. Sometimes I hide my affection…on the whole, the image, the figure, needs to be demanding. I guess this is in the Hong Kong culture, the Chinese culture; I need to be a demanding leader as this is an accepted characteristic. But because of my counseling background I try to moderate myself and be a more humane leader. (HK2) Across all areas, Hong Kong principals claimed that interaction at, and between, all levels within the school is couched in politeness and carried out in a quiet manner. However, politeness and conflict avoidance in no way indicates lack of disagreement, only that this is largely addressed in a non-confrontational way, often through the help of intermediaries. Principals generally believed that conflict avoidance in schools was indicative of Hong Kong society in general and grounded in traditional culture. The desire for organizational and inter-group harmony is not without context. Principals saw the maintenance of harmony as key to performance, order, loyalty and the leadership function itself. Harmony was viewed both in terms of smooth interpersonal relations and in terms of organizational cohesiveness. In the words of one primary principal: “It is very, very important; if they are not working in harmony, one will do this and others will do that, and the school cannot be established and it cannot be a famous school” (HK6). A secondary principal explicitly linked harmony to teacher performance thus:

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Working together harmoniously is very important, because in a harmonious situation people will relax. Since we all have to work so hard to tackle problems, if there is any conflict between staff, it could be very stressful and affect one’s performance. (HK8) Others related harmony to staff loyalty, suggesting that teachers were more likely to be loyal to an organization where they do not feel threatened by a fear of ‘looking bad’ or openly having someone attack their ideas. This relates again to notions of face and teachers feeling comfortable in the school. Harmony, of course, may also be desirable for principals because it shelters them from criticism and open challenge. Principals generally agreed that the preservation of harmony would be discounted quickly if perceived as harming student learning and welfare. When commenting on this, one principal said “on the other hand if you have to sacrifice the interests of students, that can’t be accepted” (HK7). Another commented on the advantages of harmony to students, but again put this in perspective. A harmonized atmosphere is important because it inspires students to grow and develop character throughout their life; so in the long term a harmonized atmosphere is better for everyone and better for the development of students. However, if harmony is at the expense of student achievement it is not right. (HK1) Although there were indications that some principals were beginning to try and infuse more open discussion into their schools, largely because of exposure to Western literature and the democratizing thrust of current reforms, the openness thus promoted seemed underpinned by the concern for control, politeness and harmony. In the words of one principal, “I let teachers voice their ideas before I try to work things out with them and harmonize the situation … but I don’t try to shame them in public or harm them”

(HK5). The value of harmony seems to endure strongly in Hong Kong schools and is consciously cultivated and protected by principals for a range of reasons. Although principals are slowly moving toward opening up debate and discussion in schools, concerns for respect and face, at least in public, remain dominant cultural features. Proposition 1 - Singapore. Singapore principals place store in the expression of opinion while combining this with a strong desire to maintain harmonious relationships, all within a multicultural context. While recognized as a multicultural society, Singapore has a large proportion of the ethnic Chinese population. In our data we also found that Singaporean principals valued and promoted to pre-eminence harmonious relationships, while seeking to increase staff participation in decisionmaking. The importance of harmony and the related concept of loyalty seemed driven by traditional cultural and religious beliefs. Principals equated the school with family and used this metaphor to express the importance of loyalty and harmony: Loyalty is very important. When I was a young girl I was taught that the family is the core and that it is like your hands. When you look at your hand, your fingers bend inwards, not outwards. The family comes first, then the school, then community and then the nation. You must be loyal to your family and remember that your school is your second family and second home. (S5) (Harmony) is of vital importance to me because my belief is that the organization is a very big family. So the appointment of staff is important so that we are one big team and not different parts. (S6) The dynamics between traditional and modern beliefs emphasize the importance of harmony even as teacher participation is encouraged. The quote below illustrates and confirms a number of key cultural characteristics felt by the Singaporean principals. First, teachers’ willingness to

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contribute seems linked, at least partly, to their direct exposure to ‘western’ culture, even more than Hong Kong principals. Second, teachers are encouraged to voice opinions, if under certain informal rules, but many remain reluctant to do so. Third, confrontation is not acceptable – in fact, the long-serving principal cited below indicates that his school never has ‘aggressive confrontations’ and, as such, maintains harmony. Many of my staff have been overseas and influenced by western culture. We get a lot of people trained overseas and are pretty open. We’ve never encountered any big issues that have made us unhappy or made us feel that the administration must be involved. However, people may have a perception that they will be penalized if they speak up too much – because of appraisal – but you can never help that. We do encourage staff to speak up if they think something is not right. Say, for example, at one stage some of the teachers felt that changes were needed to the timetable because certain days were too long. If I feel they have a point we will gather more information and crosscheck the situation. We’ve never had aggressive confrontations. (S2) Despite encouraging broad participation, Singapore principals tended to use their senior staff as sounding boards before taking issues to the whole staff. As one principal stated, “before I go through with a plan or idea I always call a meeting with all the HODs (Head of Departments). We go through the implementation and the heads are encouraged to speak of their views before I go ahead and tell the teachers” (S1). This was not only seen as a way to maximize the effectiveness of any decision made, but also as a way to ensure that senior staff can present a combined front to the remainder of the school. Like their Hong Kong counterparts, principals also used their senior staff to communicate with teachers.

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One remarkable aspect of Singapore is its cosmopolitan nature of its population. Although the dominate ethic group in Chinese, there are also large proportions of Malays and Indians. The multicultural composition of Singapore, and the press for societal harmony adds an additional premium to harmonious relationships in schools. Racial and organizational harmony are seen as inseparable with the former openly discussed and promoted by the government, and echoed at all levels, including the classroom. Some of the intricacies of the multicultural nature of Singapore society and schools, and how principals perceive this, are other themes which emerged from the research. In Singaporean schools harmony is important for cultural, religious, organizational and multicultural reasons and is maintained through the application of ingrained informal rules about how disagreements and opinions should be raised and discussed. As one principal neatly summarized: In Singapore we want to promote Singaporean uniqueness but at the same time encourage distinctiveness. There are no restrictions on religious freedom or worship or what you do in respect of your own culture, as long as you do not insult another culture or destroy the harmony between the cultures. (S4) Proposition 1 - Australia. The perception of school leadership held by Australian principals was one of independence of mind, standing up for what was believed, and upholding egalitarian virtues. While valuing collaboration and harmony, the right to express their views should not be compromised. Australian principals valued their right to independent thought and action and held that they would speak up strongly for what they believed and respected the same for others within their school. When discussing ‘Australian leadership’, and how they and others perceive good leadership in general, two principals explained thus:

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Good leaders are people who have the gift of the gab and are hard punchers – and they are decisive … Australians like leaders who will not be pushed around by others, regardless of their position. (P1) I think that people want you to roll up your sleeves and get involved, unlike in the past when principals were put on a pedestal. They look at the principal as someone who can communicate with young people … but at the same time they are able to move on things and speak well and make decisions when necessary …I think the Australianism comes through in that they like to see fairness and equity, providing there is a little leeway … I guess you have to be all things to all people, in many regards - flexible, empathetic, down to earth, a practitioner and theorist, a leader, all those things. (P2) The principals were unanimous that respect for the leader had to be earned from the school community, and did not automatically accompany a specific organizational or social position, or relate to inherited status. While working together collaboratively was important in schools, they were not afraid to express their beliefs or feelings at the expense of maintaining a “smooth, friendly atmosphere in the school”. In fact, one principal claimed “sometimes you need to challenge harmony to change things” (P2). Neither did they expect staff to remain neutral; in fact, most principals expected teachers to question their decisions. This belief is reflected in the following comment: “(Leadership is about) active questioning and being able to accept that your decision will be challenged… This is different from places like Japan and Thailand…” (P5). Although the Australian principals as a group strongly espoused egalitarian values and a dedication to equity, they did not believe that everybody should be treated the same. In other words, they supported fairness but not necessarily uniformity. Comparative proposition 1. Principals in all three societies place value on collaboration and

harmony in their relationships with teachers; however, the contextual and qualifying conditions for such relationships differ between them: in Hong Kong, harmonious relationships are part of preserving ‘face’ and loyalty to the school, in Singapore they are seen in combination with the need to express opinion sensitively within a multicultural society, and in Australia, they are seen within a context that respects the individual’s right to expression of views. This comparative proposition is concerned with principals’ leadership in relationship to teachers. Principals at all three sites acknowledged the importance of creating and maintaining harmonious and collaborative relationships with teachers, although Hong Kong and Singapore principals are more closely aligned than Australian principals in the value placed on harmony in particular, even if it met different cultural purposes. Principals in Hong Kong adopt a range of strategies to cultivate and preserve harmonious relationships among and with staff, showing a pre-disposition towards people- or relationshipcentered leadership (albeit hierarchically bound) rather than task-centered. This reflects a stronger group- than self-orientation among the principals. Such an orientation is believed more likely to gain the support of staff, which in turn, leads to their greater loyalty and commitment to the school. Thus preservation of harmony, at least on the surface, involves suppression of emotional displays, and a tendency toward, at least, outward compliance, all of which are seen as imperative for maintaining performance, saving ‘face’, protecting individual dignity and ensuring loyalty to the school. This finding fits neatly with widely claimed notions that a key role for East Asian leaders is the maintenance of harmony (Lo, 2002) and that this is more likely achieved when social and organizational relationships are unequal. The importance of harmony has deep roots in Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism and is the responsibility of all social and organization members (Blunt & Jones, 1997). Kirkbridge (as cited in Blunt & Jones, 1997) explains that

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Chinese disturbances in group and interpersonal harmony are embarrassing and that this and group loyalty are important features of societal control. Singapore principals valued the preservation of harmonious relationships, but were more inclined than their Hong Kong counterparts to emphasize the importance of combining this with the need to encourage expression of opinion and the need for multi-ethnic social harmony. In this regard, they reflect the unique trilogy of cultures – Chinese, Malay and Indian – that historically comprise Singapore. At the same time, the western influence in Singapore is stronger than it is in Hong Kong, perhaps because the wider acceptance and use of the English language and its greater distance from Mainland China. Singapore is, above all else, aware of the over-riding reality of their multicultural, multi-ethnic society and the subsequent need for sensitivity necessary to maintain ethnic harmony. In contrast to principals in Singapore and Hong Kong, those in Australia felt they had to earn respect, rather than rely on positional authority. Individual rights of both leaders and teachers to speak their mind were accorded priority, with still the same need for resolutions and commitment to shared policies and practices as in the other cultures. This presented a greater leadership challenge. While it is clear that principals in the three societies valued harmonious relationships, subtle differences are detectable. On one dimension, Hong Kong and Singapore principals reflect the Asian valuation of collectivism or group-orientation and the common good served by harmony and, above all, the avoidance of public or organizational controversy and argument. In contrast, Australian principals reflect the Anglo-American characteristic of individualism and the right to speak one’s beliefs. Yet, schools in all three societies subscribe to the importance of participation in decision making and organizational commitment to goals. The leadership challenge to achieve these goals thus differs between the three cultures.

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SOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS The study shows that societal cultures impact how principals relate to teachers. The comparison also indicates that while principals come from different societal backgrounds, they all place value on collaboration and harmonious relationship within their schools. Principals in the study strive to “make schools better place for teachers to teach and for students to learn” (Hoy, 2012, p. 77). The key to making schools better places is to cultivate an open school climate that can promote authentic interactions among members. We propose these recommendations for school principals as they work to build supportive workplaces for teachers. First, school principals can implement policies that align with societal cultures - but without being overridden by a particular culture. For example, Chinese culture demands loyalty to supervisors and their workplaces. Such loyalty is an important and necessary condition to build trusting relationships within schools. However, trust can be delicate and easily broken by some inappropriate leadership practices. For example, if a leader consistently observes an under-performing individual teacher but takes no action to deal with this, because of fear of open conflict, they risk losing the trust of other teachers. Teachers see ignoring poor performance as irresponsible leader behavior. In this sense, principals in Asian societies such as HK and Singapore need to be cautious not to equate maintaining authority with imposing control, or building harmonious relationships with allowing only ‘one voice’. Similarly, leaders in largely Western societies such as Australia need to respect and promote individuality, but they cannot equal this with adopting a laissez-faire school policy. Second, school principals need to lead by positive example. Principals leading schools with high teacher morale tend to be more considerate, engaging and friendly (Hoy, 2012). Leader-member exchange theory suggests that the amount of trust

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from a supervisor to a subordinate differentially affects the quality of relationships within the organization (Bryk et al., 2010; Price, 2012). If principals expect teachers to engage in school collaboration and openly share with their colleagues, principals need to be open and willing to share and collaborate. Modeling is a leadership strategy that is highly effective in almost any culture. Third, it is often impossible to build positive relationships without accompanying changes, if necessary, in school structures and core values. Leaders need to connect and align school structures, values and relationships instead of focusing singularly on building positive relationships. It is the combined effect that counts. For example, to avoid conflict around teacher evaluation, perhaps the best way is to show that everyone is entitled to be treated fairly, to establish evaluation policies around consultation and to make the evaluation process transparent. The next section discusses some future research directions.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS A number of areas for future research emerge from our study.

Successful Practices for Connecting Leadership Strategies with Context Our study shows that school principals are aware of the potential impact of culture on organizational behavior, but knowing how to manage this to build a successful school requires further investigation. There is a need to document successful practices of school leaders who can maintain the congruence between their strategies and the macro social context, as well as a specific organizational context. Studies in this area can usefully add to the ‘successful leadership’ literature and further expands our knowledge about how successful leadership is defined in each particular cultural context.

Leader Emotion Studies Our research shows that leaders in the Asian context sometimes need to suppress their emotions to maintain a public image in line with the teacher expectations. By contrast in some other cultures, open emotional expression is often expected of school leaders and is taken as an indicator of authenticity. Thus, there is a need to conduct more studies focusing specifically on the emotional struggles of school leaders from different cultural contexts as they work toward positive relationships with teachers.

School Micropolitics Studies As partially revealed in our data, principals tend to adopt a range of micropolitical strategies to win the support of teachers. Some commonly-adopted strategies include the use of mid-level leaders as sounding boards and collecting views from teachers before decision-making. More studies can be conducted to identify the micropolitical strategies school principals use, and how these strategies differ in different cultural contexts.

Studies that Can Capture the Evolving and Dynamic Nature of Culture As stated earlier, cultural ‘hybridity’ seems to capture the nature of many cultures in the Asia Pacific region. This hybridity may manifest, for example, through younger teachers in Hong Kong and Singapore displaying different cultural dispositions than their senior colleagues as they are more exposed to the influence of Western cultures. Thus, school principals may have to constantly adjust their strategies to deal with relationships with different groups of teachers within this evolving context. There is a need for more research to capture this dynamic. With more studies emerging from different cultural backgrounds, as well as more in-depth

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studies exploring what principals do and why, we can gain better understandings about how culture impacts school leadership and the ways school leaders in different societies can learn from each other.

CONCLUSION A robust case for more empirical cross-cultural comparative studies of leadership is justifiable on the following grounds: to avoid dangers of ethnocentrism and introspective perspectives, to discover and acknowledge culturally-based differences in leadership; to learn more about leadership in one’s own culture through recognizing similarity and difference with others. These are sound and convincing arguments. However, studies of this type are needed to push the frontiers of leadership knowledge forward in very specific and direct ways. At the outset of this chapter, we listed four issues on which we sought greater clarity: How does culture influence leadership practices in a globalizing policy context? How does culture actually shape leadership? What evaluative statements could be made about the explanatory power of the six-dimensional framework applied in making cross-cultural comparison? Finally, in a fast changing cultural world, what happens when the modern and traditional meet – combination or collision? Each of these is now addressed. First, although major policy trends, such as that towards school-based management, are global, their manifestations in terms of leadership practices differ from place to place. As this study shows, even an apparent ubiquitous trend toward more power sharing and distribution among teachers in schools (Crawford, 2005; Hargreaves & Fink, 2008; Harris, 2005; Harris & Spillane, 2008), assumes a significantly different shape in Hong Kong, where it is circumscribed by the powerconcentration of the leader, and Australia, where a less hierarchical leadership structure exists.

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Leader-staff relations consequently materialize and develop in distinctly different ways, despite the apparent universal policy fostering change. If ubiquity exists at a policy and academic level, it rarely seems to apply at points of implementation. Moreover, images of what is acceptable, no less ‘good’, leadership differ from one culture to another. While characteristics associated with autocratic leadership are eschewed in AngloAmerican schools, they are more accepted, if not espoused, in East Asian cultures. Consequently, in Asian cultures, arguments for sharing or distributing leadership are more likely to be based on pragmatic than ideological grounds, given their propensity for greater power concentration. But even then, the necessity to share work may work in opposition to traditional and long established expectations of the leadership role. In a globalizing policy context, it appears that societal culture acts as a lens or filter through which policy is interpreted and distilled by leaders (and others). Through their cultural lenses, and their individual understandings, leaders make sense of the policy aims and decide how they are operationalized within their organizations. Second, our analysis throws some light on how culture influences leadership practices. For the most part its influence appears more subtle, diffuse and indirect than overt or explicit. This makes culturally attributed behavior sometimes difficult to identify, while at the same time presenting challenges to researchers. Partly, this appears due to the fact that culturally attributed behavior derives from generally acceptable norms, values and customs that represent conformity to social group behavior (Dimmock & Walker, 2005; Smith & Bond, 1998). Insiders to a culture may simply fail to recognize distinctive behavior because they are too familiar with their own practices; outsiders may need to conduct penetrating analysis in order to unravel the hidden and covert ways in which leadership is influenced by culture. In this study, for example, Singapore principals steered a complex course that combined elements of strong

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centralized government control, keen awareness of ethnic sensitivity and a need for racial equality, and more sharing of leadership responsibilities in school. Moreover, the outsider may be easily prone to misinterpretation. It may seem to an English or American observer that the apparent passivity of teachers in decision making in Hong Kong schools signals an inactivity or disinterest in the leadership process. Such a conclusion would be misleading. The channels and conduits through which influence may be brought to bear are often different and culturally dependent. Teachers in Chinese schools, like their leaders, will work through intermediaries rather than personal confrontations. They also prefer private rather than public displays to air their views. This gives quite a different face to collaboration in schools. Collaboration tends to happen through different, more hierarchically defined pathways. Third, although this chapter focused on just one proposition as part of a larger study, two of the six dimensions in our analytical framework proved to have stronger explanatory power than the others. The two were Power-distributed/Powerconcentrated, and Group-oriented/Self-oriented. These two dimensions, above others, proved of greater relevance when undertaking comparative analyses of leadership and collaboration. Future studies could profitably confirm or otherwise the relative importance of these two, along with the other four cultural dimensions, in our framework. Fourth, the cultures of all three sites are undergoing significant change. They are all experiencing modernizing influences, often from global forces. All three are increasingly exposed to other diverse cultural influences – in Hong Kong’s case, increasing exposure to mainland China, in Singapore’s case, by minority ethnic groups from within and from around the South East Asian region, and in Australia’s case, by a continuing influx of migrants from around the world, especially Asia. Changing demographics present new influences on established cultures, and the cultures brought by students into schools

become even more varied. Our analysis revealed an impressive capacity of leaders to combine, integrate and dovetail the modern and the traditional in their practices. This is well illustrated by Hong Kong principals combining the traditional hierarchical with the modern participative approach to leadership. Far from there being a clash or dichotomy between the traditional and modern, the participant principals seemed to have readily grafted the new on to the old, We believe this study carries a number of implications for the selection, preparation and development of principals and other leaders. The findings suggest that both content and training methods of principal preparation programs should be more culturally aware and sensitive, a significant issue as leaders, academics and trainers increasingly operate in an international arena. Similar implications can be drawn for multicultural schools within the same society and culture. The ethnic and cultural mix of school communities often presents unique challenges demanding leaders with specific knowledge, interest and cultural awareness in order to match or fit the cultural environment of particular schools. This raises the specter of more streamed and channeled selection, preparation and training programs compared with the more traditional generic practices of the past. Finally, evidence from all three sites confirms the evolving dynamic nature of societal cultures, and that these in turn affect school communities and the organizational culture of schools. The three cultures in this study, though all different, present a common and growing phenomenon – namely ‘hybridity’ – with ‘new’ cultural elements juxtaposing alongside the traditional and established. The crucial question is how evolving multicultural societies, schools and school leaders blend these different elements to preserve a national identity while respecting, reflecting and valuing diversity. These are important issues for schools and their researchers – in terms of curriculum and organizational design, and socializing future generations.

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Harris, A. (2005). Reflections on distributed leadership. Management in Education, 19(2), 10–12. doi:10.1177/08920206050190020301 Harris, A., & Spillane, J. (2008). Distributed leadership through the looking glass. Management in Education, 22(1), 31–34. doi:10.1177/0892020607085623 Hofstede, G. H. (1991). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind. London: McGraw Hill. Hofstede, G. H. (1996). An American in Paris: The influence of nationality on organizational theories. Organization Studies, 17(3), 525–537. doi:10.1177/017084069601700308 Hofstede, G. H. (2001). Culture’s consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions and organizations across nations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Hoy, W. (2012). School characteristics that make a difference for the achievement of all students: A 40-year odyssey. Journal of Educational Administration, 50(1), 76–97. doi:10.1108/09578231211196078 Huang, Y. H. (2004). Disciplines of public relations in Taiwan. Communication imagination in Taiwan (pp. 442-478). [In Chinese] Lo, N. S. K. (2002, December). Globalization, educational reform and the dilemmas of Chinese teachers. Keynote address at the Hong Kong Educational Research Association Conference, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong. Merriam, S. B. (1998). Qualitative data analysis (2nd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Miles, M., & Huberman, A. (1994). Qualitative data analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Oplatka, I. (2004). The principalship in developing countries: Context, characteristics and reality. Comparative Education, 40(3), 427–448. doi:10.1080/0305006042000274872

Pedersen, J. S., & Dobbin, F. (2010). In search of identity and legitimation: Bridging organizational culture and neoinstitutionalism. In S. R. Clegg (Ed.), SAGE directions in organization studies (pp. 75–86). London: Sage Publications. Philips, D., & Ochs, K. (2003). Process of policy borrowing in education: Some explanatory and analytical devices. Comparative Education, 39(4), 451–461. doi:10.1080/0305006032000162020 Price, H. E. (2012). Principal-teacher interactions: How affective relationships shape principal and teacher attitudes. Educational Administration Quarterly, 48(1), 39–85. doi:10.1177/0013161X11417126 Sagiv, L., & Schwartz, S. H. (2007). Cultural values in organizations: Insights for Europe. European Journal of International Management, 1(3), 176–190. doi:10.1504/EJIM.2007.014692 Shewder, T. (2000). Moral maps, “First world” conceits and the new evangelists. In L. Harrison & S. Huntington (Eds.), Culture matters: How values shape human progress (pp. 158 177), New York: Basic Books. Shields, C. M. (2002). Cross-cultural leadership and communities of difference: Thinking about leading in diverse schools. In K. Leithwood & P. Hallinger (Eds.), Second international handbook of educational leadership and administration (pp. 209–244). Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publisher. doi:10.1007/978-94-0100375-9_9 Smith, P. B., & Bond, M. H. (1998). Social psychology across cultures. Hemel Hempstead: Prentice Hall. Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1990). Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory, procedures and techniques. London: Sage.

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ADDITIONAL READING

Trompenaars, F., & Hampden-Turner, C. (1997). Riding the waves of culture (2nd ed.). London, UK: Nicholas Brealey.

Bernardo, M. A. C., Butcher, J., & Howard, P. (2012). An international comparison of community engagement in higher education. International Journal of Educational Development, 32(1), 187–192. doi:10.1016/j.ijedudev.2011.04.008

Walker, A. (2003). Developing cross-cultural perspectives on education and community. In P. Begley & O. Johansson (Eds.), The ethical dimensions of school leadership (pp. 145–160). Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers. doi:10.1007/0-306-48203-7_9

Bryant, D. A., Walker, A., & Lee, M. (2013). The impact of international, national, and local forces on the enactment of quality leadership preparation programs. In M. Brundrett (Ed.), Principles of school leadership (2nd ed., pp. 221–243). London: Sage.

Walker, A. (2004). Constitution and culture: Exploring the deep leadership structures of Hong Kong schools. Discourse (Abingdon), 25(1), 75–94. doi:10.1080/0159630042000178491

Bryant, M. T. (1998). Cross-cultural standings of leadership: Themes from American interviews. Educational agement and Administration, 26(1), doi:10.1177/0263211X98261002

Walker, A., & Dimmock, C. (1999). A crosscultural approach to the study of educational leadership: An emerging framework. Journal of School Leadership, 9(4), 321–348. Walker, A., & Dimmock, C. (2002). Moving school leadership beyond its narrow boundaries: Developing a cross-cultural approach. In K. Leithwood & P. Hallinger (Eds.), Second international handbook of educational leadership and administration (pp. 167–204). Netherlands: Kluwer Press. doi:10.1007/978-94-010-0375-9_7 Walker, A., & Dimmock, C. (2005b). Developing leadership in context. In M. Coles & G. Southworth (Eds.), Developing leadership: Creating the schools of tomorrow (pp. 80-94). Milton Keyes: Open University Press. Wilkinson, B. (1996). Culture, institutions and business in East Asia. Organization Studies, 17(3), 421–447. doi:10.1177/017084069601700304 Zhang, Y. (1994). Leadership attributes in a cultural setting in Singapore. International Journal of Educational Management, 8(6), 16–18. doi:10.1108/09513549410069176

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Clarke, S., & Wildy, H. (2004). Context count: Viewing small school leadership from the inside out. Journal of Educational Administration, 42(5), 555–572. doi:10.1108/09578230410554061 Cohen, J., McCabe, L., Michelli, N. M., & Pickeral, T. (2009). School climate: Research, policy, practice, and teacher education. Teachers College Record, 111, 180–213. Crookes, D., & Thomas, I. (1998). Problem solving and culture – Exploring some stereotypes. Journal of Management Development, 17(8), 583–591. doi:10.1108/02621719810228443 Hwang, K. K. (2001). Introducing human rights education in the Confucian society of Taiwan: Its implications for ethical leadership in education. International Journal in Education, 4(4), 321–332. Jung, D., Yammarino, F. J., & Lee, J. K. (2009). Moderating role of subordinates’ attitudes on transformational leadership and effectiveness: A multi-cultural and multi-level perspective. The Leadership Quarterly, 20(4), 586–603. doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2009.04.011

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Law, W. W. (2003). Globalisation as both threat and opportunity for the Hong Kong teaching profession. Journal of Educational Change, 4(2), 149–179. doi:10.1023/A:1024789820283 Law, W.-W. (2012). Educational leadership and culture in China: Dichotomies between Chinese and Anglo-American leadership traditions? International Journal of Educational Development, 32(2), 273–282. doi:10.1016/j. ijedudev.2011.04.007 Ling, W. Q., Chia, R. C., & Fang, L. L. (2000). Chinese implicit leadership theory. The Journal of Social Psychology, 140(6), 729–739. doi:10.1080/00224540009600513 PMID:11195724 Miroshnik, V. (2002). Culture and international management: A review. Journal of Management Development, 21(7), 521–544. doi:10.1108/02621710210434647 O’Donoghue, T., & Dimmock, C. (1998). School restructuring: International perspectives. London: Kogan Page. Pollock, K. E., & Murakami, E. T. (2014). School leadership: Opportunities for comparative inquiry [Special issue]. Canadian and International Education. Education Canadienne et Internationale, 43(1). Prowse, J. K. (2014). Cross-cultural comparison: piloting an analytical framework. Learning and Teaching in Higher Education: Gulf Perspectives, 11(2). Retrieved from http://lthe.zu.ac.ae/index. php/lthehome/article/view/159 Schechter, C., & Qadach, M. (2012). Toward an organizational model of change in elementary schools: The contribution of organizational learning mechanisms. Educational Administration Quarterly, 48(1), 116–153. doi:10.1177/0013161X11419653

Sharpe, L., & Gopinathan, S. (2000). Leadership in high achieving schools in Singapore: The influence of societal culture. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 20(2), 87–99. doi:10.1080/02188791 .2000.10600185 Sharpes, D. K. (2010). Handbook on international studies in education. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. Walker, A. (2011). Building and leading learning cultures. Hong Kong Institute of Education APCLC Monograph Series. Retrieved from http:// www.ied.edu.hk/apclc/dowloadables/monographs/Monograph2011-1_Allan_Walker.pdf Walker, A., Bryant, D., & Lee, M. (2013). International patterns in principal preparation: Commonalities and variations in pre-service programmes. Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 41(4), 405–434. doi:10.1177/1741143213485466 Walker, A., & Dimmock, C. (2002). Moving school leadership beyond its narrow boundaries: Developing a cross-cultural approach. In K. Leithwood & P. Hallinger (Eds.), Second international handbook of educational leadership and administration (pp. 167–204). doi:10.1007/978-94-010-0375-9_7 Walker, A., & Dimmock, C. (Eds.). (2002). School leadership and administration: Adopting a cultural perspective. New York, NY: Routledge Falmer. Walker, A., & Dimmock, C. (2005s). Leading the multi-ethnic school: Research evidence on successful practice. The Educational Forum, 69(3), 291–304. doi:10.1080/00131720508984697 Wendt, H., Euwema, M. C., & van Emmerik, I. J. H. (2009). Leadership and team cohesiveness across cultures. The Leadership Quarterly, 20(3), 358–370. doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2009.03.005

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Collectivism-Individualism Dimension: This is another important cultural dimension in Hofstede’s (1991) framework. This collectivism– individualism dimension aims to capture the degree to which individuals are integrated into groups and to which there is closeness between persons in a relationship. In individualist societies, people are driven by an ‘I’ consciousness and obligations to the self. In collectivist societies, by contrast, people are brought up with a ‘we’ consciousness and opinions are predetermined by the group. Culture: Culture is a highly complex phenomenon and there is no single agreed upon definition Hofstede (1991) describes culture as the ‘software of the mind’. It ‘exists’ among the people of the same collectivity and is often reflected in shared values, norms, symbols and traditions. Cultural Diversity: Cultural diversity is the acknowledgement of the existence of different cultures in the world. That is, there are different values, norms and traditions as shared by different groups of people. Thus, there is a need to respect the diversity. Cautions also need to be made not to easily draw cultural stereotypes. This study shows that while both located in Asia, the cultural impacts can be different (although slightly) in Hong Kong and in Singapore. Cultural Hybridity: Cultures are always shifting, growing, developing and encountering new knowledge and changing circumstances. In this globalized society, there is no longer pure indigenous culture; each culture is impacted by other societal cultures in one way or another.

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Distributed Leadership: Distributed leadership can be used interchangeably with ‘shared leadership’. It is fundamentally about leadership practices that take form in the interactions between leaders and followers. Distributed leadership indicates the interdependent relationship between leaders and teachers. Educational/School Leadership: While there is no widely-agreed definition, school leadership in this study mainly refers to an influence relationship among leaders and teachers. School leaders are those who can intentionally orchestrate real changes at schools that can reflect the shared purposes of school members. Harmony: Harmony (he) in the Chinese language has rich meanings. The Chinese character of he consists of two parts: ‘mouth’ and ‘millet’. The ‘mouth’ and the ‘millet’ components of the ‘he’ character demonstrate that everyone has food to eat. This character portrays the traditional Chinese ideal of harmony between nature and humankind. This ideal also carries the associated meanings of balance and order, duty and diligence, respect and appreciation, and peaceful coexistence and cooperation. A core concept in the traditional Chinese culture is that harmony is most precious (he wei gui). Power Distance: In Hofstede’s (1991) framework, power distance is an important cultural dimension. It refers to the extent to which the less powerful members of organizations and institutions accept and expect the power is distributed unequally.

Section 5

Cross Cultural Crucible for Critical Transformation

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Chapter 14

Paths to Success:

Leveraging Culture, Leadership, and Learning Strategies Ana Martins Zirve University, Turkey

Isabel Martins Zirve University, Turkey

Albino Lopes University of Lisbon, Portugal

Orlando Petiz University of Minho, Portugal

ABSTRACT The purpose of this chapter is to highlight the importance of cross cultural collaboration and leadership contextualized in a knowledge management paradigm with innovation and intangibles as cornerstones of competitive advantage. It is our intent to shed light on the importance of new knowledge arising from the paradigm shift of organizational values wherein intangibles lie. An innovative culture based on learning steers organizations on human potential with a new mindset to develop core competencies. This chapter demonstrates how core values of commitment, tolerance, involvement and willingness to take risk foster organizational sustainability in the new age paradigm. Complex, dynamic and turbulent organizational environments lead to second order learning, as opposed to first order learning. Organizational memory is reinforced in an environment of collaborative effort and committed knowledge workers. The quality of learning depends on leadership fostering teamwork and harnessing a common vision and organizational principles that nurture and encourage trust.

INTRODUCTION Organizations necessarily need to redefine their behavior in order to nurture competitive advantage within the fluctuating external environments. This behavior requires organizations to be more decisive and proactive with regard to stakehold-

ers especially, clients and competitors, as well as to adopt a new management paradigm. In this way, client satisfaction, scanning the competitive environment (Senge, 1990) revisiting ethically driven values and implementing an innovative culture within the organization, are all sources of inspiration which help to sustain creativity and or-

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-8376-1.ch014

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 Paths to Success

ganizational innovation. Nowadays, organizational sustainability and longevity are threatened by the external environments which become ever more turbulent and unpredictable as the economic globalization evolves. However, this process can be slowed down or reduced by adopting entrepreneurial behaviors that are more decisive, such as, responding carefully to clients as well as to competitors (Morgan & Hunt, 1994). Nevertheless, on the whole, companies tend to ignore the importance of paying attention to specific stakeholders and fail to see economic and social value (Fry, 2003) in general. This chapter highlights a shift in paradigm, namely from the classical approach to the knowledge management (KM) paradigm. The aim of this chapter is to show the importance of intangible resources as a source of creating sustainable value through knowledge (Carter & Scarbourough, 2001). The constructs of leadership and leaders’ self-efficacy in organizations demonstrate their influence on organizational cross-cultural efforts. The ensuing effect arises from the linkage between organizational performance and efficiency with leadership self-efficacy. Studies on both leadership self-efficacy and leader efficacy measure leadership self-efficacy as specifically focusing on the capacity of leaders to lead change efforts (Paglis & Green, 2002). It is our intent to shed light on the importance of new knowledge arising from the paradigm shift of organizational values wherein intangibles lie. This chapter is divided into the following sections, introduction, the theoretical framework as a nexus of the shift in paradigms to emphasize the importance of leadership, culture, learning and knowledge. This framework further highlights the inimitable nature of intangible values that are distinguishing elements in organizational performance and sustainability. Conclusions, reflections and recommendations for future research are set forth.

LEADERSHIP SELF-EFFICACY, CULTURE AND ORGANIZATIONAL PERFORMANCE The constructs of leadership and leaders’ selfefficacy in organizations demonstrate their influence on organizational cross-cultural efforts. The ensuing effect demonstrates that organizational performance and efficiency are associated with leadership self-efficacy. The construct of leadership self-efficacy, as an instrument of selfawareness and its association with individuals’ competencies, skills and limitations, has slowly been introduced in management. By the same token, self-confidence enables the leader to be capable to spread positive organizational values among followers, thus converging towards common aims based on sharing knowledge and experiences. The self-efficacy construct has been studied since Bandura (1977) first introduced it, when it was understood as being the expectation that an individual is able to perform effectively so as to achieve desired results. As a pivotal construct in cognitive social theory, self-efficacy influences behavior at the levels of persistence, initiation and intensity. In this way, those individuals who have a high level of self-efficacy are more open to experimenting tasks which are challenging, they exert higher levels of effort in ensuring tasks are successful as well as demonstrate greater tenacity in their effort to overcome obstacles. Studies on both leadership self-efficacy and leader efficacy measure leadership self-efficacy as specifically focusing on leaders’ capacity to lead change efforts (Paglis & Green, 2002).It is pertinent to highlight that Semadar, Robins and Ferris (2006) put forward a discussion of four constructs of efficacy, namely, (1) leadership self-efficacy; (2) self-monitoring; (3) emotional intelligence and (4) political acumen. These authors demonstrate a strong correlation between the results of managers’ annual performance appraisals and leadership

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self-efficacy, emotional intelligence and political acumen. Furthermore, a high level of self-efficacy is the result of perceived organizational flexibility. Consequently, three organizational characteristics, namely, managers’ autonomy, abundant resources as well as organizational culture based on support, all tend to create conditions that nurture individual flexibility and organizational receptiveness which strengthen leadership self-efficacy. Paglis and Green (2002) also corroborate this theme in their study by highlighting those managers whose employees showed high performance levels in their appraisals, especially in characteristics such as quality of work, cooperation and initiative. This fact demonstrates a higher tendency towards leadership self–efficacy in relation to those leaders who were less satisfied with their employees in these same characteristics. The second factor worthy of emphasizing is related to the general attitude of employees in relation to a manager’s workplace. If we consider that leadership does not exist in a vacuum but instead depends on the leader’s capacity to motivate collective effort in view of organizational performance objectives, then it makes sense to assume that leadership self-efficacy is influenced by skills and attitudes of followers.Hannah, Avolio, Luthans and Harms (2008) postulate that effective leadership requires high levels of human agency and trust. Human agency is associated with exerting positive influence in a deliberate or intentional form. Trust is considered an asset that leverages self-efficacy development. These two aforementioned characteristics nurture self-efficacy as an essential element that ensures a leader can be successful in the future. Previous research demonstrates that self-efficacy is positively related to a rise in performance. According to Schyns and Sczesny (2010) self-efficacy is related to leadership concepts, despite the fact that these are complex in nature, the very awareness of leadership leads to a rise in self-efficacy. However, the opposite is also a reality. The study of De Pater, Van Vianen, Fischer and Van Ginkel (2009) demonstrates that when

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appraising management’s potential, self-efficacy is related to the choice of those challenging tasks as well as the way success is perceived, which can be defined as the tendency to choose tasks that reveal the individual’s capacity. In relation to the aforementioned pre-requisites for leadership success, according to Schyns and Sczesny (2010) these include inherent qualities associated with both human agency and the collective (Eagly & Sczesny 2008). Collective attributes are understood as being stereotypically female in nature, seeing they are composed of qualities such as helpfulness, kindness, supportiveness and sensitivity in interpersonal relationships. However, attributes of human agency include those elements that are stereotypically male in nature, such as aggressiveness, dominance and independence. Self-efficacy is also related with the resilience needed to sustain both motivation and concentration during any given situation. Moreover, according to Schyns and Sczesny (2010), self-efficacy is related to those behaviors especially relevant in order to become a successful leader in the future. Popper and Mayseless (2007) consider self-efficacy to be a pivotal element in leadership development. It is necessary to take into account the complexity and variety of tasks that leaders have to constantly handle as well as their relationship with self–efficacy, performance adaptability and guidance towards learning. In this way, and according to Bell and Kozlowski (2002), a strong positive relationship is revealed between self-efficacy and learning. Kozlowski, Gully, Brown, Salas, Smith and Nason (2001) demonstrate the relationship between self-efficacy and adaptability of performance in alignment with skills and knowledge according to the demands of the new situation. Knowledge and Sustainability Organizational learning (OL) has its roots in the seminal works of Levitt and March (1988) as well as Argyris and Schon (1978). We should not neglect milestone references in OL and knowledge like Schein (1997 b, c), Senge (1990), Davenport, Long and Beers

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(1998) as well as Rowley (1999). There is a need to adopt a new management paradigm in order to pursue a knowledge management (KM) paradigm. This KM paradigm, according to Carter and Scarbrough (2001), is related to the weaknesses and vulnerabilities inherent in organizational competitive advantages. At the beginning of the new millennium, those organizations that tended not to adopt the KM paradigm have fallen into a conundrum in that their competitive advantage can be jeopardized. The main objective of KM is to “increase the effectiveness of human capital through knowledge sharing and knowledge synergies and to improve organizational flexibility towards change and innovation” (Rahe, 2009, p. 103). In this way, KM is a practice (Halawi, Aronson & McCarthy, 2005) which also allows for catapulting different elements in the organization, namely at the structural, social and human levels (Halawi et al., 2005).KM strategies entail two approaches, i.e. codification and personalization. In codification, databases store codified knowledge allowing for easy company access and usage (Carter & Scarbrough, 2001). Personalization is related to knowledge inherently linked to the person who developed and shared it. Furthermore, Carter and Scarbrough (2001) corroborate that KM may take on various forms, namely, (1) intellectual capital (IC), (2) knowledge assets as well as (3) workplace and (4) OL. IC is related to that which is rational, extensive and created in the mind. IC includes two dimensions, intangible (tacit) and tangible (explicit) and these are mutually inclusive (Kok 2007). IC is considered the main force towards achieving innovation and sustainable competitive advantage (Marr, Gupta, Pike & Roos, 2003). According to Kok (2007) and Marr et al. (2003), there are three domains in IC, namely, human capital (know-how, skills and capabilities), structural or organizational capital (networks, culture and systems) and relational capital (customer, relationships with stakeholders). Tacit knowledge results from a blend of the individual’s experience of reality with the

influence from the social environment. Tacit and explicit knowledge are indivisible and this is the context in which OL exists. Polanyi (1967) further corroborates that tacit knowledge is the point of departure of all knowledge. OL, therefore, as a structural process, aims to transform and transfer knowledge and the organization’s capacity to learn depends on the existing skills and capabilities of individuals (Bontis, Crossan & Hulland, 2002). Knowledge is considered a resource of vital importance in contemporary organizations. The literature demonstrates the Centre for Corporate Innovation and Development in Catalonia (CIDEM) Spain has developed a holistic model taking into account culture and people. This model, however, is situated in the scientific management paradigm that highlights organizational objectives ignoring the human and individual element in organizations. Furthermore, this model also tends to ignore the individual knowledge creation element in organizations because the model seems to adopt a “reductionist view of knowledge which is an extension from data and information” (Styre, 2003, p. 32) wherein the Newtonian paradigm is perpetuated. We corroborate with Faucher, Everett and Lawson (2008) who highlight a need for a new paradigm that would consider KM with its complexities and holistic meanings. Knowledge is considered the only meaningful economic resource in the knowledge society rather than capital or labor (Drucker, 1994). Therefore, it is believed that companies must innovate or they may perish. Furthermore, Rowley (1999) posits that the core competency enabling organizations to survive, resides in their ability to adapt, learn and change. For Yang “(h)olistic theory defines knowledge as a social construct with three distinctive and interrelated facets—explicit, implicit, and emancipatory knowledge” (2003, p. 242). Therefore, knowledge and learning are attributed a new conceptual framework. Emancipatory knowledge is based on motivational levels, feelings and emotions towards the external circumstances surrounding the individual. Implicit knowledge is

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based on the individual’s experiences, actions and behavior. While, explicit knowledge is codified knowledge, which arises from the individual’s interpretation of the event. These three facets are holistic in that they are both contradictory and complementary to each other. The holistic construct moves away from the mechanistic and reductionist viewpoint of Descartes and Newton in that it considers the complex nature of organizations. Moreover, this holistic construct also entails the shift from classical to the quantum paradigm. Furthermore, the Newtonian paradigm emphasizes the separateness nature of entities, which was adopted by Fredrick Taylor (1916) in the Scientific Management Theories. Organizations that adopt this paradigm, tend not to accept change nor any form of transformation. These organizations are, therefore, impersonal, inflexible and heavily reliant on bureaucratic principles. This mechanistic culture is still prevalent in both contemporary thinking and organizations as the Newtonian categories and the machine metaphors still categorize, in some way, human beings and organizations (Hansen, 1999 & Orr, 1996). The characteristic that distinguishes computers from humans is the complexity of self through which creativity and uniqueness is achieved. In order to

be creative, innovative and achieve sustainability, there is an urgent call for a change of paradigm, moving from the mechanistic and deterministic/ reductionist paradigm which is based on assumptions of cause and effect, market forces, market forecasting, power and control as well as efficiency (prevalent in the Newtonian paradigm) to the quantum paradigm. This transformation – from the mechanistic paradigm to a quantum paradigm, entails holistic thinking that is prevalent in the systems approach applied in the paradigm of new science management, known as the quantum paradigm which is also associated with the KM paradigm. Table 1, summarizes fundamental concepts that entail the shift in paradigm.

Collaborative Culture and Innovation In the current globalized economy, the process of creating competitive advantage is unstable, unpredictable and rapidly changing, thus counteracting organizational obsolescence (Hamel & Prahalad, 1993). According to Yang (2007) in order to sustain organizational cross culture, it is also important to adopt KM practices as organizational sustainability is enhanced through a collaborative rather than a competitive climate.

Table 1. Shift in paradigm Scientific Management/ Newtonian Paradigm

Knowledge Management

Managers are perceived as authority personified.

Those individuals who have decision- making roles are seen as leaders and facilitators.

Bureaucrat, solely reliant on rules and regulations, with a view totally focused inwardly on the organization.

Entrepreneur, interested in innovation and creativity.

Believes to be solely responsible for everything in the organization. When things run well claims all merit, but when things turn out wrong blames others. Win-lose situation.

Has a vision/ awareness of working in teams and therefore the results are shared with others. Win-win situation.

Focuses only on his/her hierarchical authority.

Focuses on internal as well as external clients.

Power is based on position. Power is centralized;

Believes in decision sharing, facilitates group decision-making, never imposes own opinion. Power is delegated, ensures others are developed to handle and deal with challenges.

Thinks all subordinates must work for him/her.

Sees him/herself as supplier and is concerned with the team and ensures the needs of the team are met.

Information is centralized.

Sharing of all information occurs.

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The collaborative mindset entails a trusting and trustworthy work environment, mentoring programs, accountability for sharing in a team, which is also innovation-driven, focusing on problemseeking and problem-solving. The adoption and sharing of these values and trends are at the root of surpassing organizational obsolescence and can also be regarded as the seed for innovation. In view of this, organizations with entrepreneurial cultures nurture a feeling of identity, that creates distinct organizational characteristics. Culture creates homogenized behavior patterns which arise from different team members and thus produce strong interactions and interdependencies (Schein, 1997a, 1997b, 1997c; Daft, 1999). Furthermore, Schein (1997a) proposes an integrated model that depicts different variables among which are learning and organizational culture that are viewed as the base for organizational success. The literature reveals numerous definitions and models on the construct of intangibles that have previously been applied (Marr, Gupta, Pike, & Roos, 2003; Litschka, Markom & Schunder, 2006; Dumay, 2009). It is within this change perspective based on intangibles that Stata (1989) sets forth the idea that the only sustainable source of all competitive advantages is the inherent in the rate of OL. However, Haas and Hansen (2005) insist upon the use of coded and personal knowledge as they view the existence of a direct relationship between knowledge, gains and competitive advantage (Handzic & Chaimungkalanont, 2004). Seeing that the nature of tacit knowledge is intangible and is hard to capture and codify, this makes the task of developing and enhancing this knowledge more difficult because managing knowledge requires controlling, predicting and maintaining stasis thus preventing it from evolving into something new or greater (Schonstrom, 2005). Creating and sharing knowledge are considered intangible activities among individuals when they are cooperating voluntarily. This demonstrates the importance of tacit knowledge (Bhardwaj & Monin, 2007). Furthermore, the literature on KM demonstrates

distinctions among knowledge, information and data (Faucher et al., 2008). These authors further corroborate this approach as being associated with the classical, linear hierarchical model of KM which is viewed as the first generation of KM. This generation does not consider knowledge per se (McElroy, 2000). Instead, Faucher et al. (2008) advocate a non-linear, circular model that includes two further concepts, i.e. wisdom and enlightenment that we also corroborate with. Schein (1997a, 1997b) emphasizes the importance of cultural change and believes that the sharing of pre-established ‘suppositions’ in organizations may lead to common objectives and may thus create cascades of innovation. Mejía (2000) concurs with this set of ideas and further highlights that organizational culture is a way of cultivating human knowledge from which one can establish the capacity to mold individual behavior in favor of a common goal through the sharing of technology, language, rules, knowledge, sanctions and compensations. According to Sackmann (1991) culture entails three different perspectives, namely, holistic, variable and cognitive. It is necessary to highlight that the holistic perspective incorporates different cultural aspects (i.e. cognitive, emotional and behavioral) into one unified element. Even though there are a myriad definitions of culture, not one agreed definition has arisen; however, it seems that there is some commonality in the myriad definitions in that culture includes diverse forms of thinking, feeling and reacting; culture is essentially transmitted via symbols. The variable perspective emphasizes cultural expressions such as physical and psychological behaviors, practices, artifacts and their corresponding meanings. This perspective defines culture according to how things are made or as a result of behavioral norms. The cognitive perspective relates to those elements that are essential to culture such as ideas, concepts, plans, beliefs and values or norms. Culture is thus considered to be a social construction with rules that guide perceptions and thoughts. Hofstede

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(2001) states that socialization in the workplace enables organizational practices and that sharing these daily perceptions is the essential element of organizational culture.Cameron and Quinn (2005) maintain that each culture is made up of distinct language, symbols, rules and ethnocentric feelings. The concept of organizational culture is associated with the functional perspective of the sociological framework. These authors further corroborate that culture is an organizational attribute and mirrors that which the organization values, the predominant leadership styles, symbols, procedures, routines and successful definitions. Organizational culture plays a vital role in defining individual attitudes related to managing knowledge, as well as defining knowledge sharing between individuals. Managing knowledge is successful in those organizations that foster a learning as well as knowledge creating and sharing culture. McDermott and O’Dell (2001, p. 77) thus emphasize that “organizations should create their KM perspective to be in tune with their culture”. Innovation and Competitive AdvantageThe entrepreneur is an agent for economic development, a specific production factor (Bonnet, 2012) as well as a ‘knowledge filter’ (Audretsch, Keilbach & Lehmann, 2006). Therefore, Bonnet (2012) maintains that an entrepreneurial capacity gives rise to the development of innovation economics. Bonnet (2012) further highlights that organizational value is linked to knowledge, competencies, creative capacities and personal innovation - all are part of innovation economics. Therefore, organizational capacities manifested in knowledge application give rise to innovation (Grant, 1996). Furthermore, Brown and Duguid (1991), in their focus on OL and communities of practice, opine that conflict can prevail in various domains such as learning, work and innovation. Moreover, Brown and Duguid (1991) also highlight their interrelationship and complementarities in the aforementioned domains. Training is seen as a learning process because it allows for knowledge transfer that resides in each person’s

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mind (Brown & Duguid, 1991). The quantity and quality of this transfer is dependent on the existing organizational capacities, which can be viewed as “a set of observable performance dimensions, including individual knowledge, skills, attitudes, and behaviors, as well as collective team, process and organizational capabilities that are linked to high performance and provide the organization with sustainable competitive advantage” (Athey & Orth, 1999, p. 216). This conceptualization leads to a range of skills at the individual, group and organizational levels. Subsequently, competencies include: 1. Knowledge or skills associated with current job performance; 2. Emerging knowledge or skills required for future success; 3. Intellectual or behavioral best practices of high performing people or teams; 4. Process capabilities that enhance organizational or business performance, as well as 5. New ways of thinking or behaving that provide distinctive competitive advantage. Knowledge, when considered as an input, encompasses both individual and organizational creativity, is seen as a capacity to identify talent that structures and adds value to differentiation and competitive advantage (Ryan, Emmerling & Spencer, 2009). This viewpoint may impact individual and organizational performance, especially intra-organizational entrepreneurship. This implies a receptiveness and openness towards learning. Moreover, learning is regarded as a source for creating solutions to problems, both potential and real, in view of which innovation can be seen as the efficient use of knowledge. However, knowledge implementation can disrupt the balance of daily activities in organizations, albeit knowledge implementation can also be regarded as the source for reflexivity wherein lies the antidote for its application. Learning, therefore, arises in this context as a correlation of innovation

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challenges. Competitive advantage is in tune with innovation and learning and vice versa; however, trust is a fundamental element therein. Trust enables an efficient exchange relationship when the agents are vulnerable to optimistic behavior (Grassi, 2006). Furthermore, two forms of trust can be highlighted, namely (1) socially dependent trust as well as (2) self-dependent trust. The first form of trust is evident in the individual social behavior and results from the sociological and anthropological understandings used as means to analyze social mechanisms. The second form of trust is part of economic theory and relates to behavioral risk and results from the possible existence of conflicting and converging interests that can be seen in the figure below. Figure 1 demonstrates that learning is the core element for knowledge creation and sustains the economy insofar as it is the basis of information and knowledge usage for decision-making (Lam & Lundvall, 2000). Furthermore, knowledge results from various angles, namely, learning-by-doing, learning-by-using, learning-by-searching and learning-by-interacting. Therefore, the current

knowledge economy demonstrates the importance of tacit knowledge as the crucial element for performance and organizational sustainability, despite tacit knowledge being personal, subjective and intuitive in nature, which makes it difficult to share (Alhawary, 2008). Moreover, these characteristics demonstrate the unique and inimitable nature of this tacit knowledge, making it a distinguishing element for organizations.

LEADERSHIP, KNOWLEDGE CONVERSION, AND ORGANIZATIONAL LEARNING The complex nature of the OL construct increases in tandem with the developing environmental and organizational changes. This provokes a high impact on organizational structures and processes. However, the greatest impact is felt on the individuals’ attitudes, values and behaviors thus revealing the need for OL in order for organizations to acquire the competence to better respond to the market fluctuations and demands. Argyris

Figure 1. Competitive advantage: From learning to innovation Source: Adapted Grassi (2006).

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(1996) as well as Arthur and Aiman-Smith (2001) corroborate that two dimensions can be proposed namely, (1) one directed towards action, despite being routine and incremental in nature, as well as (2) a dimension that includes a change in mental models, norms, policies and related suppositions related to everyday actions and routines. Moreover, the more complex, dynamic and turbulent the organizational environment is, the greater the need to resort to second order learning as opposed to first order learning. These dimensions of learning have various designations, namely: 1. Argyris and Schon (1978, 1996) refer to this learning as single and double loop learning, 2. Fiol and Lyles (1985) choose to refer to inferior level and superior level of learning, 3. Adler and Clark (1991), Arthur and AimanSmith (2001), Lant and Mezias (1992), Virany et al. (1992) use the term first order and second order learning, 4. Levinthal and March (1993), March (1991) refer to exploitation and exploration in learning. 5. Miner and Mezias (1996) utilize incremental and radical learning, 6. Senge (1990) uses adaptive and generative learning. In the current knowledge economy, organizations regard knowledge to be of added value in their quest for improved performance. Therefore, access to knowledge is necessary but greater relevance is placed on how knowledge is used which emphasizes the fact that organizations should be more receptive to learning to learn in order to reach greater efficiency in the use of knowledge. Riesco (2006) maintains that knowledge development encompasses the following phases, namely (1) acquisition, (2) storage, (3) transformation, (4) distribution and (5) utilization. OL entails the consolidation of organizational memory which requires the presence of, as well as the collaborative effort of knowledge workers.

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This memory arises from education, training, learning and development both of the self and technology, as well as from modern theories and organizational practices (Mcfarlane, 2008). This enables the individual to nurture creativity and to share it with the organization. The knowledge worker performs a strategic role in the organization because s/he is considered as the essential element for OL, given their skills revitalize and increase the value of the organization’s assets. Moreover, knowledge workers are essential for organizational sustainability and longevity because they share new technologies, strengthen knowledge creation and support organizational competitiveness. Knowledge workers perform numerous tasks among which include the responsibility for performing their duties, planning and decision making with the objective to solve organizational problems (Mcfarlane, 2008). Valenti (2002) postulates the following conditions for OL to occur: 1. Capacity for users to assimilate new knowledge that is useful for development; 2. Capacity to search for new knowledge (arising from the previous condition); 3. Capacity to access that new knowledge; 4. Availability of that new knowledge. From the above, one can perceive that OL is dependent on three contexts, namely (1) a crossboundaries context, (2) a transactional context and (3) external environment context. The first context is related to the very essence of the organization and includes its mode of existence, organizational culture and values. The second context includes the relationship between clients, suppliers, competitors and community. The third context is made up of various related elements that include the social, cultural, technological, economic, political and legal environmental contexts. Furthermore, OL is greatly influenced by individual cognitive factors despite there being a diverse amount of elements, a perspective cor-

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roborated by Argyris and Schön (1978), Duncan and Weiss (1979) as well as Lyles and Schweuk (1992). These authors base their theories on the cognitive development structures of the organization. However, Argyris and Schön (1978) postulate that individual learning is vital but insufficient for effective OL despite individuals being regarded as the key element for the success of OL. This is because the thinking structure of individuals, their actions and behavior stipulate the type and quality of OL (Argyris, 1995). Daft and Weick, (1994, 1984), Huber (1991), Riesco (2006) and Valenti (2002) corroborate with the Learning Model that Crossan, Lane and White (1999) proposed. This model is known as the ‘4 Is’ in that it perceives OL as the interaction between four aspects, namely, intuition, interpretation, integration and institutionalization. This model requires that knowledge be shared, understood, absorbed, internalized and made available, albeit this condition is not considered to be sufficient (Senge, 1990; Wang & Ahmed, 2003; Easterby-Smith & Araujo, 1999; Crossan et al., 1995; Weisman, 2007; Underwood, 1982).

Furthermore, Davenport (2006) further substantiates this interaction in that it is necessary that the activity occur before the analysis. In view of the fact that individuals learn new behaviors by observing others and reflecting on their own behavior, consequently, it is thus essential to determine errors and flaws regarded as setbacks in the learning path in order to implement a learning culture as well as to structure the development process. This is in line with valuing tacit knowledge that prevails in organizations. However, organizations tend not to value tacit knowledge despite it being a fundamental element and part of the organization’s assets.

VALUE CREATION AND ORGANIZATIONAL EFFECTIVENESS The paradoxical and complex nature of organizational effectiveness can be clarified via two models, namely, the Competing Values Framework, commonly known as the CVF model, as Quinn (1984) postulated, as well as the Socialization,

Figure 2. Competing values framework

Source: Adapted from Quinn and Rohbaugh (1983) as well as Cameron and Quinn (2005)

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Externalization, Combination and Internalization Process, also known as the SECI process, as Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995) postulate. Integrating these two aforementioned models can facilitate a deeper understanding of that type of leadership that fosters KM as well as nurturing value creation which arises both from tangibles and intangibles in the organization. The CVF model enables an understanding of the relationship between learning, culture, motivation, leadership and creativity in organizations. The CVF model entails two dimensions, one that distinguishes a direction towards flexibility, dynamism and discretion resulting from a quest for stability, control and order. The second dimension of the framework distinguishes a direction towards focusing on internal capability as well as the integration and unity of processes from the orientation towards a focus on external opportunities on the one hand, while on the other hand, the dimension enables the differentiation between competition and outsiders. The SECI process endeavors to identify knowledge creation and its conversion in organizations. Integrating these two models may provide a better understanding about that culture which enhances knowledge development in the organization. It is therefore necessary to understand those processes which are associated with converting tacit into explicit knowledge to provide a solid framework for technical, interpersonal and conceptual skills that leaders require in order to foster KM. Nonaka and Toyama (2003) postulated the creation of knowledge as a process that synthesizes various contradictions through dynamic interactions between individuals, the organization and the environment. These authors maintain that knowledge is a spiral which encompasses contrasting concepts such as order and chaos, micro and macro, the part and the whole, body and mind, tacit and explicit, the self and the other, deduction and induction, creativity and efficiency. This perspective relates to the flow of knowledge

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that is created in the actual individual and then made available for others in the organization. This process is further related to the conversion of tacit into explicit knowledge and is consistent with that viewpoint that “knowledge is a phenomenon in motion” (Patriotta, 2004, p. 10). Furthermore, Polanyi (1967) posits that tacit knowledge is associated with the individual’s experience, intuition and perceptions and thus it is mostly difficult to communicate via words or symbols. Whereas, explicit knowledge can be codified, communicated and shared between individuals, albeit this knowledge is associated with the tacit adoption (Kakabadse, Kouzmin & Kakabadse, 2001). The knowledge conversion model, i.e. SECI, that Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995) postulated, and further improved by Byosiere and Luethge (2004), emphasizes that knowledge conversion is a “social process between individuals and is not situated in the actual individual” (Nonaka & Takeuchi 1995, p. 61). According to Nonaka (1989), knowledge creation initiates with Socialization that is the process of converting tacit knowledge arising from day to day shared direct experiences. The process of Externalization enables this tacit knowledge to be articulated, through dialogue, into external knowledge thus allowing this tacit knowledge to be shared by others to become new knowledge such as written documents, concepts and images. In the Combination process, the internal and external explicit knowledge are brought together, edited and adapted to form more complex knowledge that is then circulated amongst all individuals in the organization. Databases and computerized networks facilitate this knowledge conversion. Individuals in the organization share this explicit knowledge and subsequently through the Internalization process individuals then convert it into tacit knowledge. This process, known as praxis, enables individuals to reflect and update this new knowledge and to apply it in practical situations that become routine.

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Integrating the two models, CVF and SECI, affords the opportunity to observe the impact of organizational culture in knowledge creation. A fundamental supposition that sustains both models resides in the importance associated with the sharing of knowledge in both the Human Relations and Socialization processes. The CVF model emphasizes the importance associated with leadership behaviors that develop trust and a sense of belonging in a Clan culture in order to prompt information sharing (Cameron & Quinn, 2005). Moreover, the Socialization phase in the SECI model fosters the accumulation of tacit knowledge (Nonaka & Takeuchi, 1995). The Open Systems culture in the CVF model includes elements such as flexibility, innovation and creativity which are in alignment with the Externalization phase of the SECI model that entails the conversion of tacit into explicit knowledge. The Market culture in the CVF model is based on rational goals that emphasize competitiveness, productivity, clear goals, efficiency and achievement. Clear instructions provide knowledge for individuals regarding how their effort can influence results and how these may have a considerable impact on efficiency. In the Combination phase of the SECI model, according to Nonaka and Toyama (2003, p. 5), rationalism is “an efficient method to group, correct and break up explicit knowledge” in order to operationalize organizational knowledge. Therefore, both Market culture (in the CVF model) and the Combination process (SECI model) are theoretically consistent as they recognize the importance of acquiring, operationalizing, synthesizing and sharing knowledge through the conversion of explicit into tacit knowledge. The Internal Process quadrant of the CVF model, associated with Internal Processes inherent in the Hierarchical culture, also emphasizes information management, documentation, stability, routine and control - internal processes associated with a Hierarchical culture which emphasize the development of routines and work practices that enable individuals to align knowledge with

problem solving. Moreover, Internal Processes related to Professional bureaucracy (Cameron, Dutton & Quinn, 2003) are consistent with the Internalization phase in the SECI model wherein “knowledge is applied to practical situations and becomes the base for new routines” (Nonaka & Toyama, 2003, p. 5). This process also includes the conversion of explicit into implicit knowledge through the outlining of responsibilities, measuring, documenting and maintenance of data. The Internal Process culture in the CVF model and the Internalization process of the SECI model both present conceptual similarities that highlight the importance of unifying knowledge (Gray & Dentson, 2005). Furthermore, studies that Denison, Hooijberg and Quinn (1995) conducted identified leaders that can be less efficient. These roles are associated with the Rational Objective and Internal Process cultures in the CVF model but may neglect roles associated with the Human Relations quadrant of this model which may give rise to consequences for KM in those organizations which have a mediocre performance. Therefore, those leaders that are less efficient may be restricted due to the use of a limited range of knowledge associated with its creation as well as its transfer. The lack of focus on those roles associated with Human Relations and Open systems in the CVF model may be linked to a weak Socialization and Externalization of knowledge in SECI model (Nonaka & Takeuchi, 1995), and may impede the very conversion of both tacit and explicit knowledge. In this way, the leadership self – efficacy construct may well be linked to various beliefs of discrete nature and not considered as much as a latent construct. Therefore, leadership self – efficacy may be considered as a multidimensional construct prevailing at the level of its dimensions, according to Law, Wong and Mobley (1998). Moreover, leadership self – efficacy may be viewed as a general category composed of discrete belief structures which reflect trust in the ability

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to perform activities distinct from leadership seeing that these belief structures hold differentiating relations towards efficacy criteria. Leaders’ belief structures, related to their capacity of getting involved with an effective leadership, are substantially different from the actual structure of effective leadership. It is worth mentioning that the progress of understanding the nature, consequences and predictors of leadership self-efficacy is only achieved when this domain is researched as a distinct concept from effective leadership. In this way, Anderson, Krajewski, Goffin and Jackson (2008) as well as Bandura (1997) corroborate that the structure of selfefficacy is independent from true performance. For Mumford, Scott, Gaddis and Strange (2000), leadership self-efficacy is related to various skills, such as problem solving, creating solutions and judgments which are social in nature. According to Zaccaro (2001), Kalliath, Bluedorn and Gillespie (1999) as well as Quinn and Spreitzer (1991) the CVF model seems to be the only one in the literature on the theme of related to the roles of leaders which specifically defines contrasting roles which also confirm that efficacy implies gathering and replicating those contrasting roles. Gray and Densten (2005) postulate that this approach transcends the tendency to observe leadership behavior through the either/or perspective. Therefore, according to Lawrence, Lenk and Quinn (2009), leaders are considered to be ‘well balanced’ if they display behaviors with high level of skills and capacities throughout the CVF model. However, those leaders who seem to fit more in one quadrant at the expense of neglecting other quadrants can be considered as being ‘unbalanced’. The literature shows that those individuals who manage to bring into equilibrium or diversify their behavior within various dimensions of contrasting values in the CVF model, have a higher propensity to hold high levels of complex behaviors and are better able to respond to organizational demands, as Hooijberg and Quinn (1992) corroborate.

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CONCLUSION In contemporary organizations, intangible values are the pillars for competitive advantage and are positively related to employee performance. These intangibles, an essential component residing in the minds of individuals, foster competitive advantage. Furthermore, continuous learning is the main ingredient for sustainability. The constructs of leadership and leaders’ self-efficacy in organizations demonstrate their influence on organizational crosscultural efforts. Consequently, organizational performance and efficiency are associated with leadership self-efficacy. According to Bell and Kozlowski (2002), a strong positive relationship is revealed between self-efficacy and learning. Those organizations that adopt the new age paradigm with the shift in mindset are capable to demonstrate the relationship between selfefficacy and adaptability of performance (Kozlowski et al., 2001). Therefore, organizations need to take a quantum leap in order to achieve sustainability. This arises from the constant search for strategic knowledge at the individual level and which is essentially nurtured through cross-cultural leadership.

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Kozlowski, S.W. J., Gully, S. M., Brown, K. G., Salas, E., Smith, E. M., & Nason, E. R. (2001). Effects of training goals and goal orientation traits on multidimensional training outcomes and performance adaptability. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 85(1), 01-31. Lam, A., & Lundvall, B.-A. (2000). Innovation policy and knowledge management in the learning economy - the interplay between firm strategies and national systems of competence building and innovation. Retrieved from http//in3.dem.ist.utl. pt/downloads/cut2000/papers/ Law, K. S., Wong, C. S., & Mobley, W. H. (1998). Toward a taxonomy of multidimensional constructs. Academy of Management Review, 23(4), 741–755. Lawrence, K., Lenk, A., & Quinn, R. E. (2009). Behavioral complexity in leadership: The psychometric properties of a new instrument to measure behavioral repertoire. The Leadership Quarterly, 20(2), 87–102. doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2009.01.014 Levitt, B., & March, J. G. (1988). Organizational learning. Annual Review of Sociology, 14(1), 319– 340. doi:10.1146/annurev.so.14.080188.001535 Litschka, M., Markom, A., & Schunder, S. (2006). Measuring and analysing intellectualassets: An interactive approach. Journal of Intellectual Management, 7(2), 160–173. doi:10.1108/14691930610661836 Marr, B., Gupta, O., Pike, S., & Roos, G. (2003). Intellectual capital and knowledge management effectiveness. Management Decision, 1(8), 771–781. doi:10.1108/00251740310496288 McDermott, R., & O’Dell, C. (2001). Overcoming cultural barriers to knowledge sharing. Journal of Knowledge Management, 5(1), 76–85. doi:10.1108/13673270110384428

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McElroy, M. (2002). Social innovation capital. Journal of Intellectual Capital, 3(1), 30–39. doi:10.1108/14691930210412827 McElroy, M. W. (2000). Integrating complexity theory, knowledge management and organizational learning. Journal of Knowledge Management, 4(3), 195–203. doi:10.1108/13673270010377652 McElroy, M. W. (2001). Social innovation capital, draft. Macroinnovation Associates. Windsor, VT, July, 01-14. Mejía, R. F. (2000). El desarrollo de una cultura organizacional de compartición del conocimiento. Retrieved fromhttp://dois.mimas.ac.uk/DoIS/ data/Articles/juljuljiky.2000:v:4:p:4088.html Morgan, R. M., & Hunt, S. D. (1994). The commitment-trust theory of relationship marketing. Journal of Marketing, 58(3), 01-38. Mumford, M. D., Scott, G. M., Gaddis, B., & Strange, J. M. (2002). Leading creative people: Orchestrating expertise and relationship. The Leadership Quarterly, 13(6), 705–750. doi:10.1016/ S1048-9843(02)00158-3 Muñoz-Seca, B., & Riverola, J. (1997). Gestion del conocimiento. Barcelona: Ed. Folio. Nonaka, I., & Takeuchi, H. (1995). The knowledge creating company: how Japanese companies created the dynamics of innovation. New York: Oxford University Press. Nonaka, I., & Toyama, R. (2003). The knowledgecreating theory revisited: Knowledge creation as a synthesizing process. Knowledge Management Research and Practice, 1(1), 2–10. doi:10.1057/ palgrave.kmrp.8500001 Orr, J. (1996). Talking About Machines: An Ethnography of a Modern Job. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press.

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Patriotta, G. (2004). On studying organizational knowledge. Knowledge Management Research and Practice, 2(1), 3–12. doi:10.1057/palgrave. kmrp.8500017 Polanyi, M. (1967). The tacit dimension. London: Routledge and Kogan Paul Ltd. Quinn, B., James, A. P., & Finkelstein, S. (1996). Managing professional intellect. Harvard Business Review, (March/April): 71–80. PMID:10156468 Quinn, R. E. (1984). Applying the competing values approach to leadership: toward an integrative framework. In J. G. Hunt, D. M. Hosking, C. A. Schriesheim, & R. Stewart (Eds.), Leaders and managers: international perspectives on managerial behavior and leadership (pp. 10–27). New York: Pergamon Press. doi:10.1016/B978-0-08030943-9.50010-3 Quinn, R. E., & Spreitzer, G. M. (1991). The psychometrics of the competing values culture instrument and an analysis of the impact of organizational culture on quality of life. Research in Organizational Change and Development, 5, 115–142. Rahe, M. (2009). Subjectivity and cognition in knowledge management. Journal of Knowledge Management, 13(3), 102–117. doi:10.1108/13673270910962905 Rifkin, J. (2000). The end of work: the decline of the global workforce and the dawn of the postmarket era. London: Penguin. Rowley, J. (1999). What is knowledge management? Library Management, 20(8), 416–419. doi:10.1108/01435129910291175 Ryan, D., Emmerling, R. J., & Spencer, L. M. (2009). Distinguishing high- performing European executives the role of emotional, social and cognitive competencies. Journal of Management Development, 28(9), 859–875. doi:10.1108/02621710910987692

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Sackmann, S. A. (1991). Cultural knowledge in organizations: exploring the collective mind. Newbury Park: Sage Publications. Schein, E. (1997a). Organizational culture and leadership (2nd ed.). California: Jossey-Bass. Schein, E. (1997b). Organizational learning: what is new? MIT. Sloan School of Management. Schein, E. (1997c). Three cultures of management: the key to organizational learning in the 21 century. MIT. Sloan School of Management. Schonstrom, M. (2005). Creating knowledge networks: Lessons from practice. Journal of Knowledge Management, 9(6), 17–29. doi:10.1108/13673270510629936 Semadar, A., Robins, G., & Ferris, G. R. (2006). Comparing the validity of multiple social effectiveness constructs. In the prediction of managerial job performance. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 27(4), 443–461. doi:10.1002/job.385 Senge, P. (1990). The fifth discipline: the art and practice of the learning organization. London: Century Business.

Yang, B. (2003). Holistic learning theory and implications for human resource development. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 6(2), 241–262. doi:10.1177/1523422304263431 Yang, J.-T. (2007). Knowledge sharing: Investigating appropriate leadership roles and collaborative culture. Tourism Management, 28(2), 530–543. doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2006.08.006 Zaccaro, S. J. (2002). Organizational leadership and social intelligence. In R. E. Riggio, S. E. Murphy, & F. J. Pirozzolo (Eds.), Multiple Intelligences and leadership (pp. 29–54). Lawrence Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Zietsma, C., Winn, M., Branzei, O., & Verinsky, I. (2002). The war of the woods: Facilitators and impediments of organizational learning processes. British Journal of Management, 13(S2), 61–74. doi:10.1111/1467-8551.13.s2.6

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Styre, A. (2003). Knowledge management beyond codification: Knowing as practice/concept. Journal of Knowledge Management, 7(5), 32–40. doi:10.1108/13673270310505368

Bligh, M. C., Pearce, G. L., & Kohles, J. C. (2006). The importance of self - and shared leadership in team based knowledge work: A meso-level model of leadership dynamics. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 2(4), 296–318.

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Walsh, J., & Ungson, G. R. (1991). Organizational memory. Academy of Management Review, 16(1), 57–91.

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Jaussi, K. S., & Dionne, S. D. (2003). Leading for creativity: The role of unconventional leadership behavior. The Leadership Quarterly, 14(4-5), 475–498. doi:10.1016/S1048-9843(03)00048-1 Nonaka, I., Toyama, R., & Konno, N. (2002). SECI, ba and leadership: a unified model of dynamic knowledge creation. In S. Little, P. Quintas, & T. Ray (Eds.), Managing Knowledge: An Essential Reader. London: Sage Publications. Paglis, L. (2010). Leadership self-efficacy: Research findings and practical applications. Journal of Management Development, 29(9), 771–782. doi:10.1108/02621711011072487 Yang, B., Watkins, K. E., & Marsick, V. J. (2004). The construct of the learning organization: Dimensions, measurement, and validation. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 15(1), 31–55. doi:10.1002/hrdq.1086 Yeo, R. (2002). From individual to team learning: Practical perspectives on the learning Organizations. Team Performance Management, 8(7/8), 157–170. doi:10.1108/13527590210442221

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Competitive Advantage: Is achieved through OL, knowledge and innovation which further nurtures innovation. Culture Encompasses: Being familiar with the beliefs, behaviors and values, and that are thought to be decent, typical and suitable according to the pertinent group.

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Innovation: Is the process of creating something new such as knowledge, products and services. Innovation leads to sustainable competitive advantage. Intangibles: Are related to that which is tacit and are regarded as a key resource for value creation and is viewed as an organizational performance driver. Knowledge Management: Takes into account the creation of knowledge and learning. Second generation of KM, has broken away from the dichotomy between practical and factual knowledge, i.e. the know-what knowledge and the know-how knowledge. Leadership: Is related to energizing followers and the leader is also responsible for stating the organization’s vision; the term leader, however, goes far beyond that of manager, in that leadership while the term manager can be associated with a position that a person takes on in a company, wherein the management team is responsible for efficiency and results. Organizational Learning: Is the process of learning that occurs in organizations, with the main purpose to create new knowledge individually and in groups. Sustainability: Occurs when organizations continuously make changes to their systems, routines and processes in order to ensure progress; sharing tacit knowledge, developing and creating new knowledge is needed to respond to the constant changes in the external environment.

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Chapter 15

Cross-Cultural Collaboration for Community-Oriented Policing and Restorative Justice Anthony H. Normore California State University – Dominguez Hills, USA Brian Ellis Sacramento Police Department, USA

Kerry Clamp University of Western Sydney, Australia Craig Paterson Sheffield Hallam University, UK

ABSTRACT This chapter proposes ways to actively shape future cross-cultural police leadership and collaboration within and across police cultures. The ideas presented are intended to create dialogue across modern police organizations and those who lead them. All four authors are connected with police work either as police officers, police researchers, or criminology instructors. We highlight the impact of restorative justice in policing, community-oriented policing, and collaboration of the law enforcement community within US and UK. Examples of these efforts are embedded throughout the chapter to corroborate our argument for more collaboration within and across cultures if contemporary policing is to be successful. Future research directions are presented.

INTRODUCTION The introduction of community-based policing and restorative policing during the 1980s and 1990s offered police officers in western societies additional discretion to develop flexible, long-term alternative responses to incident-focused, reactive “fire brigade” policing styles’ (Paterson & Clamp 2012, 195). Such initiatives acknowledge the central role of the community in identify-

ing, reporting and responding to crime and are underpinned by a belief that the police are more likely to successfully tackle crime when policing strategies are based within and informed by community members themselves. However, two issues have arisen here. On the one hand, this ideological shift runs contrary to the historic policing mission where independent police professional knowledge directs local developments and it has thus generated a certain level of resistance by police officers

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-8376-1.ch015

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(Bayley, 1994). On the other, a body of critical literature has developed that questions the extent to which this shift in power and responsibility has, or even can, take place (Bauman, 2001; Hobsbawn, 1995). This literature questions whether placing ‘the community’ at the centre of policing policy makes sense, especially during a historical period in which many communities (in their traditional sense) are understood to have disappeared (see Clamp & Paterson 2011). While we acknowledge this tension, we posit that not only is a cultural shift away from traditional approaches to policing our communities desirable, it is essential given the myriad of demands and values that co-exist in post-modern, multicultural societies (Clark 2005).

BACKGROUND: THE CHANGING CRIMINAL JUSTICE LANDSCAPE We begin by taking stock of the context in which the criminology is grounded. Until the early post WWWII period, criminology had been dominated by a positivist approach which viewed the causes of crime as a consequence of one’s circumstances and neo-classicism which was based on the belief that swift and certain responses to crime would reduce the likelihood of repeat offending (Walsh & Ellis 2006). However, during the late 1960s and 1970s respectively, the discipline underwent two major crises (Young 1988). The first related to what Young (1988) referred to as an ‘aetiological crisis’. For the most part, positivism was based on the belief that as post-war social conditions improved crime would decrease. Instead, crime continued to rise. The second, a crisis of ‘penality’, followed the publication of a number of criminal justice studies in the United States which questioned both the effectiveness of the police and the reformative potential of prisons in managing the problem of crime. These crises found expression in ‘nothing works’ pessimism and led to a ‘questioning of the state’s ability to control crime’ (Garland 2001, p. 62).

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Advanced liberal democracies (e.g., UK, US, Canada, Australia) responded to this crisis by reforming criminal justice institutions and mobilizing non-state mechanisms in the ‘fight against crime’. From a criminological perspective advanced liberal democracies refer to political systems that group countries together. From the 1980s onwards criminal justice became characterized by an enhanced role for victims and communities in the administration of justice (rather than professionals alone) and the politicization of crime control. The rise of ‘populist punitiveness’ (Bottoms, 1995) involved politicians talking tough and introducing ever more stringent penal policies in order to secure public support (Young & Matthews 2003). This cultural and political shift resulted in increased resources for policing, prosecutions and prisons (McEvoy, 2007; Roach 2005) but also had the adverse effect of creating a perception of increased criminal incidents despite a relatively stable decline in crime rates from the mid-1990s (Young & Matthews, 2003). Exclusive adherence to a punitive strategy did not produce the desired result in terms of ‘greater satisfaction with criminal justice or an increased sense of security’ (Roach, 2005). An increase in caseloads, an absence of faith in the ability of the criminal justice system to deal with crime effectively, and an increase in victim advocacy (Garland 2001; McEvoy 2007; Zehr, 2002) subsequently resulted in concerted efforts to find new and innovative ways of engaging with offenders, victims and communities. As a result, an emphasis on community-oriented policing and restorative justice emerged. It is within this context that we examine efforts intended to help shape global police leadership and collaboration within and across cultures. We will frame our collaborative work within the context of harnessing restorative values/justice, communityoriented policing, and ethical leadership with the belief that culture and collaboration must play pivotal roles in contemporary policing if it is to be successful.

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One author is British who lives in UK; one is South African who lives in Australia; one is American who lives in USA; and one is Canadian who lives in the USA. Our bios provide more about our cultural backgrounds and lived experiences throughout the world. The mere essence of collaborating on this chapter is indicative of our cross-cultural collaborative efforts.

THE RISE OF RESTORATIVE JUSTICE IN POLICING Two peoples have made very specific and profound contributions to practices in the field of restorative justice - the First Nations people of Canada and the U.S., and the Maori of New Zealand (Zehr, 2005). In many ways, restorative justice represents a “validation of values and practices that were characteristic of many indigenous groups whose traditions were often discounted and repressed by western colonial powers” (Johnstone & Van Ness, 2007, p. 77). By the second half of the 1990s, the expression “restorative justice” had become popular attracted many segments of society, including police officers, judges, schoolteachers, politicians, juvenile justice agencies, victim support groups, aboriginal elders, and parents” (p. 77). Other researchers assert that restorative justice is “a fastgrowing state, national and international social movement that seeks to bring together people to address the harm caused by crime” (Umbreit & Armour, 2011, p. 2) Although the origins of restorative justice are widely contested (Clamp 2014), many agree that the inherent failings of criminal justice created an impetus for alternative models to be devised. Within a policing context, it was an Australian police sergeant, Terry O’Connell, who saw the potential that restorative practices could offer the police in terms of curbing youth offending. The ‘Wagga Wagga’ model, as it became known, sought to provide a more just and meaningful outcome for victims, offenders and their families than the

standard policing approach offered (Moore & O’Connell, 2003). Drawing on the New Zealand model of family group conferencing, Sergeant Terry O’Connell brought together offenders, victims and their supporters in a scripted conference process. The ‘Wagga Model’, as it became popularly known, differed from family group conferencing in that it was facilitated by police officers and sought to drive home the consequences of offending behaviour through the involvement of the perpetrators’ family and the victim. The principal aim of restorative processes in policing is to repair the harm that has been caused by the incident through the active involvement of all stakeholders – victims, offenders and their supporters or community representatives (where they want this) – in discussing what happened and deciding on the appropriate outcomes to deal with the causes and consequences of the incident (Braithwaite, 1999; Morris 2002; Van Ness & Strong 2010). Given the range of due process concerns that arise from such interaction, most restorative justice schemes that are used within the criminal justice setting require the offender to first admit responsibility for the offence and for both the victim and the offender to consent to their involvement in the process. It is thought that through such a process stakeholders will subsequently have a deeper understanding of the circumstances and consequences of the offence; that all participants will have agreed and contributed to the drafting of a behavioural or task-oriented contract to which the offender has to adhere; and that all participants will experience a sense of procedural justice (i.e. that they will be satisfied that they have been dealt with in a fair and equitable manner). Perhaps the most significant theorist in this area is Jonathan Braithwaite who put forward the idea of reintegrative shaming whereby the actions of the offender are denounced, but not the offender. During the process of reintegrative restorative conference, the offender is encouraged to acknowledge wrongdoing and make amends

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for his or her actions by responding to the harm caused to the victim; ‘thus demonstrating that he or she remains part of the law-abiding community and recognises its norms of acceptable behaviour’ (Roche, 2003). Braithwaite (1989) outlines three essential features for this to occur: i) mutual respect, ii) mutual commitment, and iii) intolerance for the behaviour combined with understanding. Reintegration not only places a requirement on the offender, but also on his/her family and other agencies in supporting the offender to overcome the underlying causes of the offending, which may stem from a variety of practical, emotional and/ or psychological needs (Clamp, 2014). Beyond the significant shift required of the community to effectively curb crime and achieve justice within a restorative response, is the impact that this has for altering the police role. On the one hand, police officers in “restorative policing” engage in partnership working with the communities that they serve in understanding the problem and then seeking positive solutions to those problems. On the other, rather dramatically, officers are empowered to assist in the resolution of offences outside of the system. Thus rather than officers identifying perpetrators, assessing the severity of the incident and determining the most appropriate sanction, they are now involved as one participant in a process which seeks to find a solution that will prevent any harm in the future rather than punishing what has already been done. The enhanced emphasis placed upon proactive policing and harm reduction across western jurisdictions represents a return to the aims of policing as outlined by nineteenth century police innovators such as Sir Robert Peel in the UK and a recognition of the limitations of relying solely upon responsive modes of police response. From a cross-cultural perspective this is a radical transformation of the policing role in many western countries (e.g., Wales, England, Canada, US, Australia) and one that perhaps to date has not been clearly articulated in terms of the skills needed to successfully interpret and undertake their role

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in innovative ways. In the following sections, we highlight the particular traits that would offer the potential to realize a more community-oriented and restorative model for police work.

TRAIT DEVELOPMENT Police leaders have many opportunities to connect employees to the visions they make which lead towards organizational and personal growth (Benner, Tanner, & Chelsea, 1996). It becomes critical for leaders in police organizations to ensure their workforce is operational ready (Coates, 2008). Based on recent Canadian research on police leadership (Ellis & Normore, 2014) we briefly introduce several traits that align organizational and personal development. We believe when these traits are developed in police leaders there is an increased chance that community-oriented- policing and restorative justice becomes more effective. Responsible. Leaders set the tone and are responsible for shaping behavior in organizational life (Gini, 2004). We do not pretend however that all police leaders stand and deliver. Recent publicity about unethical practices and police corruption around the world clearly indicate otherwise (Harper, 2014). Leadership responsibility is often thought of as a balancing act between personal, organizational, and follower duties. Because of this, certain conflicts occur, causing tension and test leaders over time. The first step in trait development is to understand that a police leader who balances the responsibilities of the agency is better balanced to handle challenging situations that lie ahead (Ellis & Normore, 2014). Credible. Credibility in police organizations much like any other workplace happens over time. Organizations that do not pay attention to credibility have fewer opportunities to connect with the communities they serve all the while chipping away at employee engagement and morale (Springer, 2008). Because of this, police agencies must leverage the relationships within

 Cross-Cultural Collaboration for Community-Oriented Policing and Restorative Justice

their organizations to better the relationships between line level and management in attempt to find solutions that enhance credibility (Hassi, 2012). Credible leaders take care of their people and recognize the importance of protecting the integrity and preventing corruption (Ciulla, 2004; Ellis & Normore, 2014). According to the 2011 police corruption index from Transparency International police corruption is a significant widespread police problem in countries such as Peru, Brazil, Indonesia, Mexico, Russia and Ukraine (Rogers, 2011). Competent. A leader needs to be able to manage well and that means that they need to understand the business that they are in and be a resource to the followers. Police leaders at every layer within an organization are accepted or disapproved by the line level. And the requests by those people in rank will be carried out depending on the level of police leadership they have been given (Murray, 2014; Sklansky & Marks, 2008). In order to lead and have officers follow, police leaders need to have the competence necessary to build the credibility for followership. Competence comes from a number of sources such as interaction with communities; staying up to date on laws, policies, and procedures. Compassionate. Compassion is a centerpiece for police leadership to be profoundly impactful. Police work is often the result of split second decisions and “thin slicing.” Thin slicing refers to the ability of our unconscious to find patterns in situations and behavior based on very narrow slices of experience (Gladwell, 2005, p. 23). Police leaders need to understand the importance of compassion because it’s an organizational healing force and becomes indispensable to leaders (Frost, Dutton, Maitlis, Lilius, Kanov, & Worline, 2006). When these leaders only look at errors through the lens of police policies, procedures, and public perception, it breeds a toxicity that can be felt at every layer of an organization. For example, serious breach of law, public abuse, and the use-of-force continuum shows the range and

typology of abuse of authority including physical abuse/excessive force, verbal/psychological abuse, and legal abuse/violations of civil rights (Carter, 1994). Therefore, it is essential to have all relevant information to adequately deal with issues as they arise. Reflective. One of the greatest assets derived from wisdom is the reflection it brings. Leaders in law enforcement agencies are under great pressures to perform from their chain of command to the communities they serve. Police leaders who have ownership of credibility and compassion regularly use reflection as a tool for organizational, personal, and follower growth (Ellis & Normore, 2014). Every person has had instances where if they could go back in time would alter events for a better outcome. For example, take a SWAT (Special Weapons And Tactics) team debrief after a raid. SWAT is a commonly used name for law enforcement units, which use military-style light weapons and specialized tactics in high-risk operations that fall outside of the capabilities of regular, uniformed police. SWAT is commonly used internationally, as a colloquial, generic term for these units. During debriefing exercises discussions focus on lessons learned related to planned or spontaneous tactical operations, high risk patrol encounters, K9 deployments, and specialty unit operations. Caring. A key trait identified in the literature repetitively focused on leaders’ self-aggrandizement where leaders use their followers to make themselves look good and get ahead resulting in lack of care for the needs of the followers (Ellis & Normore, 2014). Therefore, the primary starting point for developing leadership traits is that the leader has to care, and influence the followers to care. This trait extends to caring about followers (i.e., influenced) and championing them in their own activities for growth and development and the compelling cause of the team towards excellence. For example, one author is a member of a large team of sworn and unsworn officers who represent various divisions of the Los Angeles

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Police Department. The team leads a culture of continuous improvement whereby members share experiences and reflect on ways to improve and care about their work, themselves, their communities, and each other, and how to more effectively serve and protect the public. Collaborative. If all traits are developed and recognized at a high level, it follows that the leader and his/her sphere of influence will be considered a worthy partner for collaboration. In our society very few institutions can thrive without the collaboration of others where people work synergistically together, and where ideas, goals, and actions are shared and agreed on by the team. Organizations, agencies, community groups and individuals all look to partner with others following ‘the exchange perspective’ to find others that can help them fulfill their roles (Yulk & Becker, 2006). Courageous. When law enforcement leaders care, are considered competent, have developed credibility, and have learned to communicate effectively then they can, with confidence, be morally courageous. They use courage to do the right thing, to give honest feedback, to ask for honest feedback, to uphold democracy and justice, to apologize, to say we can do better, to change the status quo and to challenge mediocrity. Of all the leadership traits that have been discussed, the last one being moral courage is the one that involves the greatest risk while providing the greatest rewards. Moral courage demands a lot from officers-maybe a lot more than physical courage--and holds sometimes greater risks (Kidder & Bracy, 2001). A great many officers who would step into the literal line of gunfire to protect a fellow officer balk when it comes time to call out that same officer for legally or constitutionally questionable behavior, or their best friend for morally impure actions, or their spouse for destructive decisions (Wasilewski & Olson, 2011). While most leaders know what they are supposed to do, the world is still full of examples of poor decisions which are most often reflective of some of the traditional ways of policing (Krishnamurti, 1999).

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TRADITIONAL POLICING Policing is a profession rich with tradition and cultural characteristics that extend across international jurisdictions. These cultures and traditions have the potential to build a bond amongst police officers but also contain characteristics such as suspicion, conservatism and authoritarianism that separate police officers from wider society (O’Neill, Marks & Singh, 2007). Traditional policing relies on agencies to have command and control as a means to move from tasks towards a vision and mission success. For example, the mission of the Sacramento Police Department in California is to work in partnership with the community to protect life and property, solve neighbourhood problems, and enhance the quality of life in our city (see www.sacpd.org). This emphasis upon centralization and hierarchy means that policing cultures and traditions can act as obstacles to collaboration. The question of “who is going to have ultimate control” stands in the way of innovation. One of the central roles and functions of policing agencies is to take control of problematic situations on behalf of sovereign authorities (Bittner, 1970). Hence, there is a cultural challenge to collaboration presented by traditional command and control ways of thinking about and doing policing. Despite this, law enforcement agencies that are willing to relinquish some degree of control gain more control over proactive approaches to problem solving which align with the agency’s mission focus. One potential example is found with the traditional police call for service model. In English-speaking jurisdictions, evidence has repeatedly demonstrated that the majority of police resources are devoted to responding to calls from citizens (Bayley, 1994). This limits the amount of time officers have available for creative initiatives to prevent or reduce community problems. The emphasis upon reactive modes of policing can mean that police end up cleaning up the mess left over from individual incidents without the over-arching strategic response that is evident in

 Cross-Cultural Collaboration for Community-Oriented Policing and Restorative Justice

Table 1. Approaches to crime Traditional

Contemporary

Command and control

Mission focused

Arrest way out problems

Problem-solving

Reactive

Proactive

proactive, problem-solving approaches to crime. These differentiated approaches are captured in Table 1. Traditional policing has a rigid hierarchy where orders are carried out through a bureaucratic chain of command. Employees in bureaucratic organizations can feel there are limited opportunities to express themselves (Prahlah, 2010), even where this is not the case, and this can make innovation and change a problematic process. Traditional command and control approaches to police management can prove to be disappointing for agencies involved in new endeavors. Leaders and managers rely on personal knowledge to inform decision-making but might be so far removed from current police thinking that their approach seems outdated to their junior colleagues. This can be attributed to a leader’s lack of continuous learning as it relates to laws, resources, and the tactics officers use to perform their duties. Police work operates in a constant state of evolution in western democracies with new local mandates and changes to existing laws. This cultural dislocation is evidenced in the distinct police officer and management cultures that exist across police organizations (Reuss-Ianni, 1982). For example, one author’s experience related to tensions with a manager pertaining to the time frame it was taking to deal with complaints of drug activity in a specific neighborhood. When advising the manager of the problems and solutions the team was using, the manager was not satisfied. He justified his response reflecting back to his time in the unit and how he dealt with similar complaints. What he didn’t realize is that the suggested tactics were no longer legal under

current law and also violated policy. Therefore, police organizations must commit themselves to driving a culture that takes the best pieces of the past and blends them with contemporary values and culture that are recognizable for communities and current employees. Aspects of traditional police leadership provide key functions such as the provision of stability and control; information management; direction; and goal clarity (Quinn, Faerman, Thompson, McGrath, & St. Clair, 2011). Sir Robert Peel’s nine principles of policing continue to hold a prominent position in western models of policing (Nazemi, 2014). US Law enforcement agencies use the motto “protect and serve” which is aligned with preventing crime and disorder whilst UK policing agencies retain crime prevention as a core function and continue to adhere to the philosophy of policing by consent. These values and mission statements reflect the ambitions of police organizations although it should be acknowledged that these aspirations are rarely met within socially disadvantaged and marginalized communities. The Peelian principles represent core values for anyone entering and enduring the profession and represent consistent characteristics of policing that can underpin leadership strategies. Peel’s nine principles of policing include: • • •

• •

The basic mission for which the police exist is to prevent crime and disorder. The ability of the police to perform their duties is dependent upon public approval of police actions. Police must secure the willing co-operation of the public in voluntary observance of the law to be able to secure and maintain the respect of the public. The degree of co-operation of the public that can be secured diminishes proportionately to the necessity of the use of physical force. Police seek and preserve public favor not by catering to public opinion but by constantly demonstrating absolute impartial service to the law.

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•

•

• •

Police use physical force to the extent necessary to secure observance of the law or to restore order only when the exercise of persuasion, advice and warning is found to be insufficient. Police, at all times, should maintain a relationship with the public that gives reality to the historic tradition that the police are the public and the public are the police; the police being only members of the public who are paid to give full-time attention to duties which are incumbent on every citizen in the interests of community welfare and existence. Police should always direct their action strictly towards their functions and never appear to usurp the powers of the judiciary. The test of police efficiency is the absence of crime and disorder, not the visible evidence of police action in dealing with it.

Established by the London Metropolitan Police in 1829, The Peelian Principles remain applicable to law enforcement agencies today. Though not officially referred to as a code of ethics, they are based on the required ethical behavior for law enforcement when engaging with, and being held accountable to, the public. With Peelian principles at the forefront of policing, we assert the need to take stock of leadership from the lens of traditional and contemporary police leadership. While searching for the best leadership model for police agencies, leaders can look at the traditional versus contemporary police leadership practices and see that there might not be one size that fits all, rather many moving parts in a much larger picture. We would argue that both these leadership models have a dualistic relationship such as the one between leadership and management. When comparing the two, it is clear that contemporary police leadership has an abundance of strengths yet leadership does not run from a script of assumptions. Modern police leaders should understand the flexibility of using both traditional and

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contemporary concepts to help them dial their “leadership rheostat” to find the best fit for any given situation.

Contemporary Police Leadership The dominant reform agenda within western policing agencies for the last three decades has revolved around the re-emergence of community policing. The modern community policing leader realizes that creativity and flexibility are the two greatest tools available for the success of their mission. Their accountability comes from recognizing the efforts of their employees, thus providing people with empowerment from meaningful work (Yukl & Becker, 2006). Failure is seen as an opportunity to deliver better services in the future. To return to the Sacramento Police Department in California, leaders were searching for innovative ways to combat crime. Leaders piloted a model of “hot spot” policing where officers would spend time at a pre-designated location with the hopes of reducing crime. While the goals of the project were positive, the program never gained the popularity expected which caused organizational tension. Leadership then moved towards a more analytical model where officers would be given more information about crime data as it pertains to geographical areas and developed resources accordingly. When comparing the two types of leadership models, it is apparent that contemporary police leadership uses collaboration and creation as their signature strengths, thus creating an abundance of opportunity (Quinn, et al., 2011). It allows organizations the ability to leverage talents within their workforce rather than relying on the management team to have all of the answers. Recent policy developments in the UK have sought to re-invigorate police discretion and leadership from below with the aim of encouraging the modern police leader to use more robust liquid networks to engage with colleagues and communities (Paterson & Clamp, 2012). Similarly, within the Sacramento

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Police Department, the informal expectation of managers is to be interconnected to community leaders, business owners, and available resources to problem-solve local issues. Openness and collaboration should allow ideas to flourish and flow through open channels and networks (Johnson, 2010) that engage with members of the community. These networks look outside of the organization just as often as relying on internal mechanisms. The modern police leader knows that the police need not only their own employees, but also the community serve. An example of community-driven police practices can be further found within the Sacramento Police Department. They have a number of community and police interactions such as one-on-one coffee meetings scheduled on a routine basis; town hall meetings to discuss relevant topics; neighbourhood association meetings; and community surveys. The police department uses this information to deliver practices which best mirror community needs. Furthermore, police agencies give citizens more stake in policing with community steering groups such as the City of Sacramento’s Office of Public Safety Accountability (OPSA). The role of OPSA is to improve the relationship between public safety and the communities they serve by promoting trust, transparency, and accountability (www.cityofsacramento.org). In addition, modern police leaders rely on collaboration with other entities of the criminal justice system such as probation and parole; District Attorney’s office; the judicial branch; and other city entities such as parks and recreation to create vibrant solutions for public safety. In countries such as the U.S, Canada, the UK and Australia, we see a competitive advantage for contemporary police leaders and their agencies as they engage in more frequent use of community-oriented policing. Collaboration and relationship-building play a central role within community-oriented policing and have become a cornerstone of contemporary police leadership thinking in western society (Ellis & Normore, 2014a).

Community-Oriented Policing Because collaboration and relationships play a central role, community-oriented policing in California becomes a cornerstone with the way contemporary police leaders carry out business in democratic societies (Ellis & Normore, 2014a). It promotes organizational strategies to address the causes and reduce the fear of crime and social disorder through problem solving tactics and community/police partnerships (www.cops. usdoj.gov). There are three central components to community-oriented policing. First, it relies on community participation to determine priorities. Trust becomes a key mobilizer within this process through the sharing of information about crime problems and local priorities for communities and the generation of a dialogue about how limited resources should be allocated Without an open dialogue, it can be difficult to get the community buy-in needed to open up lines of communication (see Ellis & Normore, 2014b). In addition, law enforcement looks for ways to connect to the public which include strategies such as community forums, survey distribution, neighborhood meetings, and social media (e.g., Facebook, Twitter, Nextdoor.com) - to name a few. Second, police organizations must define goals and objectives that match community desires. According to the European Social Survey (2012) criminal justice organizations that actively seek information and do not take the proper steps to act on it reduce employee and public trust. It is imperative for police leaders to remember that not all solutions are universal (Prahlad, 2010). Agencies must be able to tailor make strategies to individual community problems. Restorative justice programs are within those strategies. For example, the mobilization of stakeholders becomes essential for the successful implementation of not only community-oriented policing but also restorative justice programs. The key for leaders is to find the passion within the community and align it with their own workforce.

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The success of police-led restorative justice programs in the UK has been driven by community demands for justice and security that have been captured and coordinated by engaged local agencies. Conversely, attempts by police agencies to establish restorative justice programs and transplant them into communities have met with resistance and failure (Clamp & Paterson, 2011). Thus, police-led restorative justice programs have been most successful in relatively homogenous social contexts where there is an identifiable voice emanating out of a community rather than the cacophony of divergent voices that emerge out of more complex, multi-cultural contexts. Communities have enormous potential to generate and sustain social capital with leadership that draws the relevant components from local economic and cultural capital together (Bourdieu, 1980; Sampson & Graif, 2009). When strong neighborhoods emerge within cities, they create networks of information that hold influence over neighborhoods in surprising ways (Johnson, 2010). For example, community strategies such as neighborhood watch allow for the strengthening of social control in some contexts but also lead to increased fear of crime in others. Thus, traditional policing allows for good principles of planning and organizing (Winfree & Newbold, 1999) that responds to the demands of an identified community whilst contemporary leadership emphasizes collaboration and creation amongst front-line employees and communities to find efficiencies, develop resources and problem-solve with communities. Here is where restorative justice processes come into play as pivotal to communityoriented policing and used in various countries. According to Bacon (2010) as part of an alternative to court sanction a process of “victim-offender mediation” is used in Canada. It usually involves a meeting, in the presence of a trained mediator, between victim and offender. This system generally involves few participants, and often is the only option available to incarcerated offenders. In New South Wales under the 1997 Young Of-

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fenders Act, and New Zealand’s 1989 Children, Young Persons and their Families (Bacon, 2010) a process called “family group conferencing” has been developed. It’s the most appropriate system for juvenile cases, due to the important role of the family in a juvenile offender’s life. The New South Wales scheme has been favorably evaluated by the New South Wales Bureau of Crime Statistics and Research. Other restorative processes (see Bacon, 2010) that involve community policing include “restorative conferencing” (e.g., England); “community restorative boards” (e.g., Canada, Wales, England); “restorative circles” (e.g., Brazil, Germany, Canada, US, UK and Uganda); and “circles of support and accountability” (e.g., Canada, US, UK). The rise and predominance of communityoriented policing and restorative justice across the wealthy western democracies has been supported by evidence of dramatic urban transitions from the United States and United Kingdom yet the impact of attempted policy transfer beyond the west is at best uneven and often unsuitable for different social and economic contexts (Wisler & Onwudiwe, 2009). The general public however would likely be open to alternative forms of justice if it were explained to them. In order for restorative justice to become publicly accepted, there must be an effective public relations collaboration between the media, criminologists, and law enforcement officials who can act as mediums, promoting community involvement, while still protecting individuals’ rights, and acting ethically.

Ethics in Law Enforcement Ethics in law enforcement has garnered more attention than ever. Its implications have been repeatedly seen, though not always in a positive light, and generally associated with police corruption. Throughout the developed and developing countries gathering accurate information about the prevalence of police corruption is hard to come by, since the corrupt activities tend to happen in

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secret and police organizations have little incentive to publish information about corruption (Kutnjak Ivkovic, 2003). Police officials and researchers alike have argued that in some countries, largescale corruption involving the police not only exists but can even become institutionalized (Kratcoski, 2002). An earlier study of corruption in the Los Angeles Police Department proposed that certain forms of police corruption may be the norm, rather than the exception, in American policing (Grant, 2003). In the UK, an internal investigation in 2002 into the largest police force, the Metropolitan Police, Operation Tiberius found that the force was so corrupt that “organized criminals were able to infiltrate Scotland Yard “at will” by bribing corrupt officers, and that Britain’s biggest force suffered ‘endemic corruption’ at the time (Harper, 2014). Where corruption exists, the widespread existence of a Blue Code of Silence among the police can prevent the corruption from coming to light. Officers in these situations commonly fail to report corrupt behavior or provide false testimony to outside investigators to cover up criminal activity by their fellow officers (Skolnick, 2002). The well-known case of Frank Serpico a police officer who blew the whistle on the pervasive corruption in the New York Police Department despite the open hostility of other members, illustrates how powerful the code of silence can be. In Australia in 1994, independent politician John Hatton forced the New South Wales state government to override the Independent Commission Against Corruption and the advice of senior police to establish a ground-breaking Royal Commission into Police Corruption (ABC News, 2009). However, in a number of countries, such as China, Pakistan, Malaysia, Russia, Ukraine, Brazil and Mexico, police corruption remains to be one of the largest social problems facing these countries (Wang, 2013). We often use words like ethics, values, and standards but for all the talk of ethics and standards in law enforcement, it is important to establish what this means. Taking a restorative approach

recognizes the equal importance of a myriad of community perspectives in defining these standards and values. According to Roufa’s research (2014) on law enforcement ethics, “When officers fail to do what is right, and especially when they do what is clearly and blatantly wrong, they erode the public trust just a little more and further degrade law enforcement’s ability to work within the community and carry out its mission. Adherence to high ethical standards, then, is as vital to achieving the overall goal of modern policing as any other tactic, technique or practice” (para. 9). Roufa claims that “the oath of office lays the groundwork for instilling ethical behavior, but it doesn’t stop there” (para. 10). To help guide officers toward ethical decision making, most western agencies codify those practices that they hope to promote and those they expect officers to avoid. Roufa further asserts, ….that officers ….are called to be examples to the public and to demonstrate the right way to behave, rather than the entitlement mentality they are so often accused of exhibiting…to remember that what they do in uniform affects not only themselves as individuals, but their entire agency and, perhaps, the entire profession…that every officer remembers the reason she took the job in the first place: to protect and to serve, and within the spirit of morality while making a difference (para. 14-15). The spirit of morality, said Aristotle, is awakened in the individual only through the witness and conduct of a moral person (Gini, 2004). The real role of leadership is to manage the values of an organization (Peters & Waterman, 1982). From community support to getting officers to follow leaders, police leadership relies on leaders who have a strong moral compass. When looking at the importance of a police leaders’ moral compass it is evident that the way leaders treat others plays a critical part to organizational and community success. This is primarily due to a leader’s col-

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lective obligations to their people (Royakkers, Grossi, & Dignum, 2005). There is a great example that conceptualizes the importance of a leader’s necessity for a moral compass and loyalty in the Buddhist story of Mencius. Loyalty does not mean that you serve authority, but rather you are loyal to goodwill and the trials and tribulations that come with being a leader. The modern police leader understands this is accomplished through the people that work under you rather than focusing on the people above you. The story of Mencius, as shared by He, Thornton and Li (2012) goes as such: “When the prince regards his ministers as his hands and feet, his ministers regard their prince as their belly and heart; when he regards them as his dogs and horses, they regard him as another man; when he regards them as the ground or as grass, they regard him as a robber and an enemy” (p. 44). Unfortunately for those who do not see this as their avenue for success, they usually rely on giving their loyalty to others above them while stepping on anyone who gets in their way. This is how toxic leaders are born and manifest themselves within organizations. These individuals are usually loyal to those who help them climb the corporate ladder instead of being loyal to the organization itself. Being loyal to the organization means to speak the truth and deliver not so great news from time to time. One of the ways that police leaders can build loyalty to their organizations and align their moral compass is to ask themselves questions that reflect what their family and friends would think of them had they known the decisions they made could create opportunities for character strength (Bolman & Deal, 2008; Normore, Javidi, Anderson, Normand, Scott & Hoina, 2014). Modern police leadership is about having the spirit of authentic leadership that leads the way. Authentic leaders do not compromise their values, but rather take tough opportunities to strengthen their values (Northouse, 2010).

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FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTION A couple of research areas have emerged that should interest those vested in future direction of cross-cultural collaboration and restorative justice and policing. First, enthusiasm is growing about restorative justice in law enforcement agencies and across countries. Agencies have started to embrace the approach because they see in it a better way to deliver what has been required of them all along; others embrace it as a new justice paradigm, capable of displacing the retributive justice paradigm. The need will likely remain for strategic redirection for redeploying resources and broadening engagement with communities. As more research unfolds about its merit efforts to apply restorative in practice will move the field to another, better, but still transitional performance level. A second area for future research is in the area of inclusive cultural collaboration. Police need to understand the cultural experiences and dynamics of the communities they serve. Increasingly, police agencies are trying to hire officers who are more representative of their respective jurisdictions. It has become a dominant political and social mission of people of color, women, and gays and lesbians seeking social justice through a more responsive police force. As historically marginalized groups achieve greater access to jobs in policing, perceptions on both sides may need to be addressed. It is always difficult for two groups to work together when one (or both) views the other as the enemy. The benefits, though, may be substantial. In each case where new groups have been assimilated into the police rank and file (e.g., racial minorities and women) more research remains to be done internationally concerning whether or not relations between the police and those groups have had impact on crime reduction. One final area that has kept momentum is the area of ethical leadership within and across police cultures (Loftus, 2009; Loveday, 2005) – specifically concerning corruption. We believe

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there’s a need to study ways that agencies in various countries reduce corruption within and across police agencies. For example, should there be more external oversight over the police with a special focus on integrity, recruitment, and training? Furthermore, a study could focus on leadership from police supervisors about integrity, how they are held responsible for the misbehavior of subordinates, and how they can change the organization’s culture to tolerate misbehavior less. Contextual conditions not commonly found in countries in crisis, emerging from conflict, or facing serious threats to their security, will need to be considered as agencies encourage systemic social and political reform.

CONCLUSION The ideas presented in this chapter are intended to ignite a cross cultural dialogue within and across modern police agencies throughout the world. Although the experiences we shared are limited to western democracies we believe the underlying premise of restorative justice (and policing) coupled with well-developed community-oriented policing can promote collaboration within and across cultures if contemporary policing is to be successful. As international police agencies work to transform the long-standing culture of traditional police leadership and organizations they can embrace two transformative consequences for the role of police officers, namely: a rethinking or reconsideration of the relationship between the police and the broader community in responding to crime, and a need to see crime problems in their social context with a forward-looking (or preventative) problem-solving orientation (Marshall, 1999) rather than from a crime control perspective. Thus, rather than police officers identifying perpetrators, considering the severity of the incident and deciding on an appropriate action, an ethical and restorative framework requires them to seek to include all those involved in the decision-making

process. As such, further extension of the public voice in restorative policing will sometimes require officers to act as facilitators and silent stakeholders rather than as decision-makers, a process which will require police officers to interpret and undertake their role in innovative ways (Paterson & Clamp, 2012).

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Roach, K. (2005). Enhancing criminal justice reform: Including restorative justice. Paper presented at the 11th United Nations Congress on ‘Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice Synergies and Responses: Strategic Alliances in Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice’, Bangkok, Thailand. Retrieved September 18, 2014, from www. icclr.law.ubc.ca/Publications/Reports/11_un/ KENT%20ROACH%20Speaking%20Notes.pdf Roche, D. (2003). Accountability in restorative justice. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Rogers, S. (2011). Corruption index 2011 from Transparency International: find out how countries compare. Retrieved July 19, 2014, from www.guardian.co.uk Roufa, T. (2014). Ethics in law enforcement: What the public expects and how officers can deliver. Retrieved November 4, 2014, from http://criminologycareers.about.com/od/Career_Trends/a/ Ethics-In-Law-Enforcement.htm Royakkers, L., Grossi, D., & Dignum, F. (2005). Responsibility in organizations. In J. Lehman, M. A. Biasiotti, E. Francesconi, & M. T. Sagri (Eds.), Legal ontologies and artificial intelligence techniques (pp. 1–14). Nijmegen: Wolf Legal Publishers. Sampson, R., & Graif, C. (2009). Neighborhood social capital as differential social organization. The American Behavioral Scientist, 52(11), 1579–1605. Sklansky, D., & Marks, M. (2008). The role of the rank and file in police reform. Policing and Society, 18(1), 1–6. doi:10.1080/10439460701718484 Skolnick, J. (2002). Corruption and the Blue Code of Silence. Police Practice and Research, 3(1), 8. doi:10.1080/15614260290011309

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Springer, C. (2008). Organizational credibility counts. Retrieved April 3, 2014, from http:// digitalscholorship.unlv.edu/sea_fac_articles/332 Umbreit, M., & Armour, M. (2011). Restorative justice dialogue: An essential guide for research and practice. New York, NY: Springer Publishing. US Department of Justice. Office of Community Oriented Police Services, (2008). What is community-policing? Retrieved April 5, 2014, from http://www.cops.usdoj.gov Van Ness, D., & Strong, K. (2010). Restoring justice: An introduction to restorative justice. Cincinnati, OH: Anderson Publishing. Walsh, A., & Ellis, L. (2006). Criminology: An interdisciplinary approach. London, UK: Sage. Wang, P. (2013). The rise of the Red Mafia in China: A case study of organized crime and corruption in Chongqing. Trends in Organized Crime, 16(1), 49–73. doi:10.1007/s12117-012-9179-8 Wasilewski, M., & Olson, A. (2011). On courage: Get off the side lines and into the game. Retrieved April 10, 2014, from, http://www.lawofficer.com/ article/leadership/courage Winfree, L. Jr, & Newbold, G. (1999). Community policing and the New Zealand Police: Correlates of attitudes toward the work world in a community-oriented national police organization. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 22(4), 589–618. doi:10.1108/13639519910299553 Wisler, D., & Onwudiwe, I. (2009). Community policing: International patterns and comparative perspectives. Advances in Police Theory and Practice Series. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. doi:10.1201/9781420093599 Young, J. (1988). Radical criminology in Britain: The emergence of a competing paradigm. The British Journal of Criminology, 28(2), 159–183.

Young, J., & Matthews, R. (2003). The new politics of crime and punishment. Cullompton: Willan. Yulk, G., & Becker, W. (2006). Effective empowerment in organizations. Organizational Management Journal, 3(3), 210–231. doi:10.1057/ omj.2006.20 Zehr, H. (2005). Changing lenses – a new focus for crime and justice. Scottdale, PA: Herald Press. Zehr, H. (2002). The little book of restorative justice intercourse. Scottdale, PA: Goodbook.

ADDITIONAL READING Alarid, L., & Montemayor, C. (2011). Implementing restorative justice in police departments. Police Practice and Research, 13(5), 450–463. doi:10.1 080/15614263.2011.607654 Clamp, K., & Doak, J. (2012). More than words: Restorative justice concepts in transitional justice settings. International Criminal Law Review, 12(3), 339–360. doi:10.1163/157181212X648824 DeLattre, E. (2006). Character and cops: Ethics in Policing (5th ed.). Washington, DC: AEI Press. Flanagan, R. (2008). The Review of Policing: Final Report. London, UK: Home Office. Foster, J. (2010). Nice to do and essential: Improving neighbourhood policing in an English police force. Policing. Journal of Policy Practice, 4(4), 395–402. Johnstone, G., & Van Ness, D. (2007). Handbook of restorative justice. Devon, UK: Willan Publishing. Johnstone, G. (2002). Restorative justice: Ideas, values, debates. Cullompton, UK: Willan Publishing. Kappeler, V., Sluder, R., & Alpert, G. (1994). Forces of deviance: Understanding the dark side of policing. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press.

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McCold, P., & Wachtel, B. (1998). Restorative policing experiment: The Bethlehem Pennsylvania Police Family Group Conferencing Project. Pipersville, PA: Community Service Foundation. O’Mahony, D., & Doak, J. (2004). Restorative justice - is more better? The experience of police-led restorative cautioning pilots in Northern Ireland. Howard Journal, 43(5), 484–505. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2311.2004.00344.x Paterson, C. (2011). Adding Value? A review of the international literature on the role of higher education in police training and education. Police Practice and Research, 12(4), 286–297. doi:10.1 080/15614263.2011.563969 Reiner, R. (2010). The politics of the police. Oxford, UK: OUP. doi:10.1093/ he/9780199283392.001.0001 Strang, H., & Braithwaite, J. J. (2001). Restorative justice and civil society. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Trautman, N. (1997). The cutting edge of police integrity. Orlando, FL: Ethics Institute.

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Community-Oriented Policing: A philosophy that combines traditional aspects of law enforcement with prevention measures, problemsolving, community engagement, and community partnerships. Criminology: The scientific study of crime, criminal behaviour and law enforcement. Cross-Cultural Collaboration: A process where a group of individuals with different cultures work jointly with each other on a common goal. Restorative Justice: An approach to justice that focuses on the needs of the victims and the offenders, as well as the involved community, instead of satisfying abstract legal principles or punishing the offender. Victims take an active role in the process, while offenders are encouraged to take responsibility for their actions. Restorative Policing: A range of tactics and strategies, whose end result, when done right, is that offending behavior is prevented or curtailed, conflict between communities is reduced and victims are given back their own confidence and sense of well-being.

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Chapter 16

Developing Global Competences through Learning Mobility:

A Discussion of the Host Institution’s Role in Erasmus+ Student Mobility Peter Finell Centria University of Applied Sciences, Finland

ABSTRACT This chapter looks at the development of global competences during a study abroad experience from the perspective of a host institution to inbound students. It examines the concept of global competence how mobile students themselves regard their study abroad experience, and how the international experiences gained through learning mobility are valued by employers. Having found that exchange programmes such as Erasmus+ places obligations of a rather practical nature on the host institution, this chapter seeks to argue that the host institution should play a bigger role in enhancing the development of global competences of their inbound exchange students. The chapter relies heavily upon the recent Erasmus Impact Study entitled “ The Effects of mobility on the skills and employability of students and the internationalisation of higher education institutions”, published by the European Commission in September 2014 as well as other similar studies and the latest doctrine in the field.

INTRODUCTION International co-operation in general is commonly regarded as improving the quality of education and mobility. In particular, it has been regarded as an effective means for helping students develop personally while also improving their employability. Internationalisation in general, is

of growing importance for universities, and learning mobility continues to be a top priority both on policy level in Europe and at the institutional level. High levels of both outgoing and incoming student mobility is regarded as a sign of prestige and quality (Souto-Otero, Huisman, Beerkens, de Wit & Vujic, 2013, p. 70). In a survey conducted by EUA, European University Association in

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-8376-1.ch016

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2013, 99% of the responding institutions replied that they have an internationalization strategy in place (56%), or intended to develop one (13%), or have considered internationalization in other strategies (30%). (EUA: Internationalisation in European Higher Education: European Policies, institutional strategies and EUA support 2013, p. 7.) When asked about the top priorities for internationalization, 70% held “Generally, attracting students from abroad at all levels”, “internationalization of learning and teaching” and “providing our students with more opportunities to have a learning experience abroad” as their first priority. (p.10). These results indicate that both outbound and inbound student mobility has a very strong standing at most institutions as it is an important component in the first two categories as well. The mobility of students and youth is an objective laid down in several European strategy documents such as the Europe 2020 Strategy, the European Modernization and internationalization Agenda in Higher Education and the European Commission’s flagship program Youth on the Move. The Erasmus program has been Europe’s most important and best-known mobility program for decades. Since its launch in 1987 the Erasmus Program has provided more than 3 million students with opportunities to study or to do a work placement period abroad. (European Commission, 2013). The new Erasmus+ Program 2014-2020 Erasmus+ will provide opportunities for over 4 million Europeans to study, train, gain work experience and volunteer abroad. (European Commission, 2014). More than 4000 higher education institutions from more than 30 countries take part in the program, and currently about 200 000 students or just below 1% of all higher education students in Europe study abroad every year within the framework of the Erasmus Program. Erasmus is not the only exchange program. Most institutions carry out student exchanges through bilateral, institutional agreements on student exchange with partner institutions around the world. During 2013 10 189 Finnish students in higher

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education studied abroad for a semester or two. Out of these 53.2% were Erasmus students, whereas 20.1% studied abroad through bilateral exchange agreements. At the same time 9739 foreign students spend an exchange period at Finnish higher education institutions.(Centre for International Mobility, 2013). Of all incoming students 71.2% were Erasmus students.(CIMO, 2013)

GLOBAL COMPETENCE: THE MAIN OBJECTIVE OF LEARNING MOBILITY The learning outcomes of student mobility are usually described in terms of international skills and competences, or global competences. What are these global competences? And what characteristics define a globally competent graduate? According to the CIMO Report Hidden Competences Faktaa.Facts and figures 1/2014 global competences often include skills such as language skills, and intercultural competences, tolerance and broad-mindedness. (CIMO, 2014, p. 6). According to Boix- Mansilla & Jackson “Global competence is the capacity and disposition to understand and act on issues of global significance.”(Boix-Mansilla & Jackson, 2011, p.13). Moreover, these authors stat that: globally competent individuals: “aware, curious, and interested in learning about the world and how it works. They can use the big ideas, tools, methods, and languages that are central to any discipline (mathematics, literature, history, science, and the arts) to engage the pressing issues of our time. They deploy and develop this expertise as they investigate such issues, recognizing multiple perspectives, communicating their views effectively, and taking action to improve conditions.” (Boix Mansilla & Jackson, 2011, p.13). Ron Moffat, defines a Global-ready student as “a person with a grasp of global systems, global issues, the dynamics of how things are interrelated and interconnected in the world, and how society can best address global issues.” (Willard, 2006)

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Fernando Reimers defines global competency as “the knowledge and skills people need to understand today’s flat world and to integrate across disciplines so that they can comprehend global events and create possibilities to address them. Global competencies are also the attitudinal and ethical dispositions that make it possible to interact peacefully, respectfully, and productively with fellow human beings from diverse geographies.” (Reimers, 2009.) In order to measure developments in the skills of students after their stay abroad the Erasmus Impact Study “ The Effects of mobility on the skills and employability of students and the internationalisation of higher education institutions” used six memo© factors’ which are most closely related to employability: Tolerance of Ambiguity (acceptance of other people’s culture and attitudes and adaptability), curiosity (openness to new experiences), Confidence (trust in own competence), Serenity (awareness of owns strenghts and weaknesses), Decisiveness (ability to make decisions) and Vigour (ability to solve problems). (European Commission, 2014, p. 15). Centria University of Applied Sciences co-ordinated an EU-funded mobility project entitled “Leaders for Global Education” under the ICI Education Cooperation Programme between 2010 and 2013. The project consortium consisted of four European partners and three South-Korean partners, and its main objective was to promote competencies of global education for students in South-Korea and Europe. The project consortium defined the following global competencies for the 21st century: ways of thinking (creativity and innovation, critical thinking and problem solving); ways of working (communication, collaborative team work); tools for working (information literacy, technology literacy), and living in the world (citizenship, local and global issues, life and career, personal and social responsibility for the environment. (Centria University of Applied Sciences, 2014).

MEASURING THE IMPACT OF LEARNING MOBILITY It is commonly assumed and even taken for granted sometimes that students develop these skills through international experiences during study or training abroad. But do we know this for sure? Impact studies concerning international student mobility are according to Stronkhorst mostly concerned with investigating perceptions of students only and international and intercultural competencies are hardly measured in terms of actual learning outcomes. Moreover, he notes that few studies have been done into competency measurement before and after the period abroad, that control groups are absent in these studies and that long-term effects are hardly looked at, for example, in terms of career development. (Stronkhorst, 2005, p. 297). Are the objectives of student mobility, the development of international competences defined as learning outcomes, set by the sending institution expected to happen magically just by sending students abroad? How can the impact student exchanges be measured? The above-mentioned Erasmus Impact Study, “The Effects of mobility on the skills and employability of students and the internationalisation of higher education institutions”, which was published by the European Commission in September 2014 stands out as the most recent and important measurement on the individual skills enhancement as an effect of student exchange. The major findings of this survey was that the transversal skills, including tolerance of ambiguity, curiosity, confidence, serenity, decisiveness and vigour that are important for employers are also the skills that improved during an Erasmus period abroad. Moreover it also stated that students that have studied abroad tend to have a more international life than those who do not study abroad. Former Erasmus students are also more likely to live abroad. (Brandenburg et al., 2014).

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Many studies and research project have found study abroad experiences offer opportunities for significant personal change. A large-scale study on the impact of overseas experience on undergraduate students studying professional education programmes from the US, by Shaftel et al from 2007 shows significant improvement in characteristics such as open-mindedness, flexibility, cross-cultural adaptability and appreciation of diversity. (Shaftel et al. as cited in Erasmus Impact Study entitled “ The Effects of mobility on the skills and employability of students and the internationalisation of higher education institutions”, published by the European Commission 2014. (Brandenburg et al., 2014, p. 62.) The Mapping Mobility in European Higher Education by Teichler, Ferencz and Wächter 2011a and 2011b Studies as cited in the same study as above revealed that study abroad experiences could also promote students openness, adaptability and flexibility, or enhance language learning, intercultural skills, self-reliance and self-awareness.(p. 62). The Centre for Research on Learning and Teaching at the University of Michigan presents four survey instruments to measure specific knowledge, perceptions and skills that are changed through international experience on their webpage.(The Centre for Research on Learning and Teaching at the University of Michigan). Global Leadership Excellence, LLC has develop a measurement tool called “The Global Competence Aptitude Assessment”. This tool measures all the components of global competence, as published in refereed journals worldwide. The questions in this tool are based on regions around the world, with particular emphasis placed on those countries that make significant contributions to the world’s population and economy.” This tool has been tested in 40 countries and over 6 continents by corporations, educational institutions, non-profit organisations and government. (Global Leadership Excellence, LLC).

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STUDENT MOTIVES FOR STUDYING ABROAD Why do students choose to study abroad and how aware of the expectations to develop global competences are students themselves? The Erasmus Impact Study “The Effects of mobility on the skills and employability of students and the internationalisation of higher education institutions”, revealed that more than 90% of all mobile students study abroad in order to live abroad, to improve their language skills, to form new relationships and to develop soft skills such as adaptability, taking initiative and proactivity, and to improve and widen career prospects. These reasons scored the highest whereas, the motivation to go abroad because one expected relaxed academic year/term ranked the lowest in the survey. (Brandenburg et al., 2014, p-74-75). Studying abroad seem to have a great impact also on the social lives of exchange students. Interestingly enough, the Erasmus Impact Study showed that 40% of former Erasmus students move to another country after graduation, and that 93% could easily imagine moving to another country. Moreover, 33% of former Erasmus students have a life-partner with a different nationality, and 27% met their life partner while studying abroad. (p. 126-131) In an older study, Stronkhorst notes that a Dutch study shows that the expectations of mobile students tend to be more geared towards “having fun and adventure” and much less to academic growth or developing competencies. (Stronkhorst, 2005, p. 304). A similar result was also the outcome of smaller survey done at Centria University of Applied Sciences in August 2014. In this survey entitled “First-year foreign students’ intentions of intercultural adaptation and learning while in Finland” held among both exchange and international degree-seeking students during the orientation sessions in August 2014 more than 30% of all respondents held that their priorities during their stay in Finland were (#1) having a lot fun,

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(#2) making friends, for my life, (#3) completing a few courses (or taking the degree). (Johnson, 2014). These surveys are not comparable, due to their methodology and size, but it is rather safe to conclude that students seem to choose study abroad in order to gain both personal experiences, and in order to improve their employability, and develop skills that are perceived to be enhancing one’s career prospects.

GLOBAL COMPETENCES ATTAINED THROUGH STUDY ABROAD EXPERIENCES FROM THE EMPLOYERS’ PERSPECTIVE One of the main reasons to study abroad and acquire international experience is often to improve one’s chances of getting a job, and in order to improve one’s chances to find employment abroad. In fact a very a very recent study undertaken by the European Commission, the “The Effects of mobility on the skills and employability of students and the internationalisation of higher education institutions” shows that more than 85% of all Erasmus students choose to study or do a work placement period abroad in order to enhance their employability abroad. The same study also shows that those students that choose to study or do a work placement period abroad are half as likely to face unemployment as those who do not study or train abroad. But how do employers value international experience and what kind of skills and competences are they looking for in an employee? According to the same study, 64% of employers consider international experience as important for recruitment, while on average 92% are looking for transversal skills such as openness to and curiosity about new challenges, problem-solving and decision-making skills, confidence, tolerance towards other personal values and behaviours. It is noteworthy, that these skills score higher than “knowledge in their field” and “relevant work experience.” (Brandenburg et al., 2014, p. 14).

Another important key finding of the survey was that Erasmus students are in a better position to find their first job and to enhance their career development, than students not having a study abroad experience. (p.14). A recent Finnish study by CIMO, Centre for International Mobility in Finland and Demos Helsinki examined how employers saw the skills attained through international experience in their recruitment processes. They found that learning outcomes of international mobility should be better defined and made more visible. In addition to the traditional attributes associated with international mobility (language skills, intercultural competences, tolerance and broad-mindedness) the study suggests that new skill areas such as productivity, resilience and curiosity should be added in order to highlight what they refer to as the hidden aspects of international competences. These skills remained under the radar of employers, as did also the link between these skills and mobility. (CIMO, 2014, p. 6).

ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES IN IMPLEMENTING STUDENT EXCHANGES There are three parties, or stakeholders in a student exchange programme: The mobile student him- or herself, the home institution, and the host institution. This three-party constellation is also reflected in the Learning Agreement document used in Erasmus+ exchanges, which is approved and signed by three parties mentioned.(CIMO,2014). The mobile student’s motives and reasons for studying abroad was dealt with above, but the home and the host institutions also have a set of motives for sending and receiving exchange students, and a set of responsibilities with regard to the implementation of student exchange programmes. Providing ones’ own students with opportunities to study abroad is commonly recognized as a very important means to promote the development of these students’

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global competences. The Erasmus Impact Study revealed that more than 90% of the higher education institutions regards student mobility (both inbound and outbound) as “important” or “very important” when asked about aspects of relevance of their international activities. Student mobility (both inbound and outbound) was also regarded as the most important factor of internationalization in the present situation. Sending out students on international exchange programmes seem to be more important for the higher education institutions, than receiving incoming exchange students. 65%of the higher education institutions regarded it as “very important “, whereas only 57% regarded welcoming international exchange students as “very important. (European Commission, p. 170171). This is also in line with the IAU Global Survey, which stated that student mobility was one of the most important rationales of internationalization also outside Europe. In fact mobility opportunities for outbound student mobility was the highest ranked international activitity. (EgronPollak,Hudson,, 2014 p.12). The learning outcomes attributed to studies abroad are thus often defined and set by the home institution. Is the development of international competences only the concern of the sending or home institution? What is the role of the receiving or hosting institution with regard to the development of these skills? Do we as host institutions place enough emphasis on the development of international skills of our inbound mobile students? Could we achieve better results if the sending and the receiving institutions would work more closely together on the learning outcomes of student mobility? Another related question is whether host institutions acknowledge the impact inbound exchange students could and should have on the learning environment of the host institutions. Sending out students on international exchange programs seem to be more important for most higher education institutions, even if a majority of institutions regard having inbound student exchange as a very important part of their internation-

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alization activities. The role and responsibilities of the host institution in student exchange programs are often more practical in nature. The Erasmus Charter for Higher Education, is a pre-requisite for participating in the Erasmus+ Programs, and provides the general quality framework for the European and international cooperation activities a higher education institution may carry out within the Programs. It puts obligations on the host institution that relate to the period of time before the actual mobility period, during the mobility period and after the mobility. Thus the host institution must undertake to abstain from charging tuition fees from incoming mobile students, to publish and uphold the course catalogue so that incoming mobile students can make well-informed choices of studies prior to the mobility period, to carry out mobility only within the framework of prior agreements between institutions. These agreements establish the respective roles and responsibilities of the different parties, as well as their commitment to shared quality criteria in the selection, preparation, reception and integration of mobile participants.

OBLIGATIONS WITHIN THE ERASMUS+ FRAMEWORK All mobility is also expected to be based on a learning agreement validated in advance by the home institution, the host institution and the mobile participant. During the mobility period the host institution must ensure equal academic treatment and services, and provide assistance to incoming students regarding practical issues such as obtaining a visa, insurance policies and accommodation. Moreover, the host institution is also expected to have appropriate mentoring and support arrangements in place for mobile students, and to provide for linguistic support to incoming mobile participants. Based on the Erasmus Charter, post-mobility obligations is the responsibility of the host institutions. The

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host institutions are obliged to provide inbound exchange students and their home institutions with transcripts containing a full, accurate and timely record of their achievements at the end of their mobility period.(Erasmus Charter for Higher Education 2014-2020). Most of these principles relate to practical, technical and supportive measures that are intended to ensure a smooth implementation of mobility periods and a transparent and effective transfer of credits achieved during the exchange period, whereas the objectives and the learning outcomes of mobility are not mentioned directly in the Charter as such. The Erasmus Charter for Higher Education 2014-2020 Annotated Guidelines do however, state the following: “Learning mobility helps individuals increase their professional, social and intercultural skills and employability. This is the cornerstone of the internationalization and modernization of education and the main tool for further development of the European Higher Education Area. In order to achieve successful, cost-efficient and sustainable results of a sufficiently high quality, it is necessary to organize clearly defined activities – before, during and after mobility – within the framework of an institutional mobility culture which involves the whole academic community.” (European Commission. 2013). If we take a closer look at the principles enshrined in the Charter, the obligations regarding the bilateral agreements, include issues such as commitments to shared quality criteria in the selection, preparation, reception and integration of mobile participants. Again, there is no mention of the host institution responsibilities with regard to enhancing the development of international competences. The shared quality criteria refer to the compatibility of the academic profiles of the home and host institutions, the selection and nomination of students as well as practices regarding the implementation of mobility periods. (p. 7.) .The obligations on the host institution with regard to the learning agreements are mainly concerned with providing inbound students with

proper and transparent information about available courses and sufficient guidance so that students can make choices that are acceptable to all parties concerned.(p. 9.) According to the Annotated Guidelines, the requirement to integrate incoming mobile participants into the institution’s daily life means integration into its academic and social activities. This includes also an obligation to create conditions for mobile students to join social organisations, such as student associations, sports clubs, music or theatre groups etc., and to initiate and organize social events which would lead to wider interaction with local students.(p. 12.). The obligation to have in place appropriate mentoring and support arrangements for mobile students, contains a strong recommendation to organize welcome or orientation weeks for inbound students, allowing them to meet local as well as other inbound exchange students. Furthermore, it also recommends institutionalized buddy systems, which would also foster the integration of mobile students, and the assignation of academic mentors to all inbound exchange students. The academic mentors are expected to help inbound mobile students with problems related to academic issues. (p. 12.). Host institutions are also obliged to provide inbound students with adequate linguistic support during the mobility period. This support should according to the Annotated Guidelines be tailored to differences in the needs of the mobile participants. These “survival level” or semester or annual language courses could offered to groups or as individual tuition or as subject-specific courses, to which also credits are attached. (p. 13.). The Erasmus+ programme does not pose any direct obligations on the host institution with regard to inbound exchange students’ development of international competences, but the obligations concerning the integration of inbound students to the academic and social life of the institution and the obligation to have in place appropriate support and mentoring arrangements. Moreover, the obligation to provide for linguistic support can

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be argued to foresee the creation of circumstances for such formal and informal learning that enhance the development of international competences. Furthermore, considering the commonly shared view of the objectives of learning mobility, in European Strategies and Erasmus Programme documents and in most institutional strategies on internationalization, the commitment to shared quality criteria in the implementation of mobility, could be argued to also include an obligation for both the home and the host institution to enhance the development of international competences of mobile students. Host institutions seem to have an obligation to provide for linguistic support for inbound students, by offering language courses to which credits are attached. Therefore, it does not seem too far-fetched to propose that host institutions should, in order to uphold the commitment to shared quality criteria of mobility, to provide mobile students with course(s) that would support their development of international or global competences.

HOST INSTITUTION OBLIGATIONS IN BILATERAL EXCHANGE PROGRAMMES

meals, transportation to and from the host university, travel documentations and visa costs, book expenses, optional study tours and other costs commonly associated with university study are not covered by the receiving institution and will be borne by the student. The receiving institution is expected to assist incoming students in locating suitable housing.” (Centria Standard Student Exchange Agreement, art. 3 D) “Incoming students shall have access to the full range of undergraduate courses at the receiving university unless the academic nature or enrolment situation in such courses precludes their participation. Even though enrolment in specific courses is not guaranteed, every effort will be made by the hosting institutions to accommodate students in the courses of their choice.” (Centria Standard Student Exchange Agreement, art. 3 E) “The host institution is expected to provide, in a timely manner after the completion of the exchange, all grades and other documentation of the exchange student’s performance to the sending university.” (Centria Standard Student Exchange Agreement, art. 3 F)

Often bilateral exchange programmes tend to follow the same structure when it comes to roles and responsibilities. Centria’s standard student exchange programme agreements include the following clause on the role of the host institution:

The responsibilities are limited to mainly technical and supportive actions and do not include anything related to learning outcomes associated with global competences.

“The receiving institution will provide application forms and other relevant information related to exchange e.g. Welcoming Guides, general brochures and description of courses or alike” (Centria Standard Student Exchange Agreement, art. 3 B)

INBOUND MOBILITY AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF INTERNATIONAL COMPETENCES IN PRACTICE: THE CASE OF CENTRIA UNIVERSITY OF APPLIED SCIENCES

and:

Looking at learning mobility and especially hosting international exchange students on the national and local level, the Strategy for the Internationalisation of Higher Education Institutions in Finland 2009–2015, advocated for a substan-

“The receiving institution shall waive all tuition costs and other required fees for incoming students of the partner institution. Accommodation,

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tial increase in the number incoming exchange students and stressed the importance of having appropriate counseling and support activities in place for inbound exchange students. (Strategy for the Internationalisation of Higher Education Institutions in Finland 2009–2015. Publications of the Ministry of Education, Finland 2009:23,p. 31) At Centria University of Applied Sciences (CUAS)1in western Finland, internationalization has always been defined as a core value in institutional strategies. In the internationalization Strategy as well as in the Erasmus Policy Statement, inbound mobility is emphasized. Both inbound and outbound mobility is seen as an important means for students to develop international competences and to increase the understanding for global issues and global responsibility and to promote positive attitudes towards multiculturalism. (Centria University of Applied Sciences, 2013) During the spring of 2014 a workshop on global competences and a feedback session for all inbound exchange students was organized at Centria University of Applied Sciences. Students from five different disciplines, Business Management, Chemical Engineering, Industrial Management, Nursing and Information Technology took part in the survey. Out of the 28 respondents 10 were male and 18 female. Together they represented 11 different nationalities (Americans, Chinese, Czechs, French, Germans, Italians, Mexicans, Spanish, Turkish and Taiwanese). During the session students were asked to discuss in groups which skills they regarded as global competences, whether they thought they had gained any international or global competences during their exchange, how and through which processes had they gained these competences. The same 28 students also took part in a small scale survey regarding the same themes, and according to this survey, 83% thought they had developed either “much” or “very much” international competences during their exchange period. When asked about the processes through which they have think they developed their global competences, “Through

interaction with other international students” got the highest ranking followed by “Through spare-time activities” and “Through working in teams with students from other countries”. It is notable that “During lectures and class” ranked as low as 6th out of 8 in the survey. These results seem to indicate that students develop international or global competences mainly through informal learning and during their spare-time. 11 students out of 26 mentioned language skills the as the most important global competence they had developed during their stay, but out of these 5 mentioned improving their ability to speak English. Broad-mindedness was mentioned by 6 students as the most important competence gained and knowledge about other cultures received also received 6 mentions. The students were also asked to suggest improvements on the way the exchange programmes are implemented at Centria. Six students wished for more joint classes and activities together with the local students. These remarks are important, as one of the main objectives of welcoming and hosting inbound exchange students is to make the learning environment more international and to also provide local students with possibilities to interact with international students, gain international experiences and thus have a chance to develop international competences at the home campuses.

RECOMMENDATIONS Looking at mobility from the perspective of a host institution with a relatively large number of international students, one is bound to suggest that the role of the host institution is often too passive with regard to the enhancement of the international skills and competences of inbound mobile students. In order to facilitate a more formal means of learning global competences, I would recommend that host institutions would offer inbound students as well as local students a

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credit attached course that would examine global competences and international skills and help students gain a better understanding of the skills and competences that they are expected to develop through their international experience. It is also important that students gain a better understanding of employers’ views and expectations on international experiences. In order to uphold a common quality criteria for exchanges, it is of utmost importance that the home and the host institution, attach credits to international and global competences, and include them in the learning agreement together with other outcomes of learning mobility. Moreover, it is also recommended that higher education institutions acknowledge the positive impact inbound exchange students can have on internationalizing the curriculum and the study environment at home. According Leask, student’s development of intercultural competences or skills is a key outcome of an internationalized curriculum. Such a curriculum requires, according to the same author a campus environment and culture that motivates and rewards interaction between inbound exchange students and home students inside and outside the classroom. (Leask, 2009, pp.205-221). More joint classes between inbound and home students, the above-mentioned course on global competences and international skills, as well as a well-functioning buddy-systems and other services for incoming exchange students would, I believe, result in a genuinely international campus, that motivates and rewards interaction between students from different cultures.

DIRECTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH The concept of global competences, how they are defined, and whether students develop these competences during a stay abroad are a theme that have been examined in many surveys, books and articles in the field of international education. There is not that much research on how or

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through which processes students develop the above mentioned competences. Another related theme that I wish to explore is what kind of an impact inbound mobility has on the host institution, and whether and how the host institution can enhance the development of global competences of their inbound exchange students.

REFERENCES Boix-Mansilla & Jackson. (2011). Educating for Global Competence: Preparing Our Youth to Engage the World. Asia Society Partnership for Global Learning. Retrieved October 14, 2014 from http:// asiasociety.org/files/book-globalcompetence.pdf Brandenburg, U., Berghoff, S., Taboadela, O., Bischof, L., Gajowniczek, J., Gehlke, A., . . . Vancea, M. L. (2014). The ERASMUS Impact Study. Effects of mobility on the skills and employability of students and the internationalisation of higher education institutions. Retrieved October 11, 2014 from. http://ec.europa.eu/education/library/ study/2014/erasmus-impact_en.pdf Centre for International Mobility Statistics. (2013). Retrieved June 25, 2014 from http://www. cimo.fi/services/statistics/international_mobility_of_students Centria University of Applied Sciences Erasmus Policy Statement. (2013). Retrieved October 2, 2014 from http://web.centria.fi/Page. aspx?id=2601&p1=41&p2=2178 Centria University of Applied Sciences. (2014). Final Report Leaders for Global Education. Author. Centria University of Applied Sciences Standard Student Exchange Agreement Egron-Pollak. Hudson. (2014). Internationalization of Higher Education: Growing expectations, fundamental values. IAU 4th Global Survey. Retrieved October 15, 2014 from http:// www.iau-aiu.net/sites/all/files/IAU-4th-GLOBALSURVEY-EXECUTIVE-SUMMARY.pdf

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Hidden Competences, Faktaa.Facts and figures 1/2014 CIMO, 2014 Erasmus Charter for Higher Education 2014-2020. (2013). Retrieved June 20, 2014 from http://web. centria.fi/Page.aspx?id=2681&p1=41&p2=2178 EUA. (2013). Internationalisation in European Higher Education: European Policies, institutional strategies and EUA support. Retrieved June 23, 2014 from http://www.eua.be/publications/eua-reports-studies-and-occasionalpapers.aspx Europe 2020 Strategy. (n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2014 from http://ec.europa.eu/youthonthemove/ index_en.htm European Commission. (2013). Erasmus Charter for Higher Education 2014-2020. Annotated Guidelines. Retrieved May 2, 2013 from http:// eacea.ec.europa.eu/funding/2014/documents/ annotated_guidelines_en.pdf European Commission. (2014). Erasmus+ EU Programme for education, training, youth and sport. Retrieved March 24, 2014 from http:// ec.europa.eu/programmes/erasmus-plus/discover/ index_en.htm European Commission Press Release July 8th 2013. (n.d.). Retrieved June 25, 2014 from http:// europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-13-657_en.htm Global Leadership Excellence. LLC. (n.d.). Retrieved August 27, 2014 from http://www.globallycompetent.com/ Johnson, E. (2014). First-year foreign students’ intentions of intercultural adaptation and learning while in Finland, Paper presented at Orientation Days at Centria University of Applied Sciences.

Leask, B. (2009). Using Formal and Informal Curricula to Improve Interactions Between Home and International Students. Journal of Studies in International Education, 13(2), 205–221. doi:10.1177/1028315308329786 Reimers, F. M. (2009). Leading for Global Competency. Teaching for the 21st Century, 67(1). Souto-Otero, M., Huisman, J., Beerkens, M., de Wit, H., & VujiC, S. (2013). Barriers to international student mobility: Evidence from the ERASMUS program. Educational Researcher, 42(2), 70–77. doi:10.3102/0013189X12466696 Strategy for the Internationalisation of Higher Education Institutions in Finland 2009–2015. Publications of the Ministry of Education, Finland 2009:23 Stronkhorst, R. (2005). Learning Outcomes of International Mobility at two Dutch Institutions of Higher Education. Journal of Studies in International Education, 9(4), 292–315. doi:10.1177/1028315305280938 The Centre for Research on Learning and Teaching at the University of Michigan. (n.d.). Retrieved October 12, 2014 from http://www.crlt.umich.edu/ interculturalcompetence Willard, J. (2006). A View from LanguageCorps’ Founding Partner Jed Willard: What is Global Competency? Retrieved on April 14, 2015 from http://www.nafsa.org/Find_Resources/Supporting_Study_Abroad/Global_Workforce_Development_News___Publications/ Willard, J. (n.d.). GfNA-II-B-Annex_IV Erasmus_HE_Learning Agreement_studies.doc. Retrieved October 2, 2014 from http://www.cimo. fi/ohjelmat/erasmusplus/korkeakoulutukselle/ avaintoimi_1_liikkuvuus/osallistujalle/sopimusliitteet2014_15

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ADDITIONAL READING Deardorff, D. K. (2006). Identification and Assessment of Intercultural Competence as a Student Outcome of Internationalization. Journal of Studies in International Education, 10(3), 241–266. doi:10.1177/1028315306287002 Hunter, B., White, G. P., & Godbey, G. C. (2006). What does it mean to be Globally Competent? Journal of Studies in International Education, 10(3), 267–285. doi:10.1177/1028315306286930 Stier, J. (2006). Internationalisation, intercultural communication and intercultural competence. Journal of Intercultural Communication, 11(1).

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Global Competences: Global competences include, but are not limited to skills such as language skills, and intercultural competences, tolerance and broad-mindedness.

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Learning Mobility: Exchange of students, involving credits being obtained at the host institution and recognized at the home institution. Student Exchange Program: Bilateral or unilateral agreement between higher education institutions providing for the exchange of student between the parties.

ENDNOTE

1

CUAS has 2900 students out of which most are undergraduates. Out of these around 300 are international degree seeking students studying in the four international degree programmes taught entirely in English. In 2013 it hosted 73 incoming exchange students and sent out 98.

Section 6

Pressing Challenges with Visionary Futures

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Chapter 17

Combating Human Trafficking:

Recommendations for Police Leadership in Establishing Transnational Collaboration Michael Pittaro American Military University, USA

ABSTRACT Human trafficking is one of the fastest and continuously evolving transnational crimes of this century, preceded only slightly by gun and drug trafficking; yet it is projected that human trafficking will soon surpass both unless government and nongovernmental officials throughout the world take immediate, collaborative action to deter and punish traffickers and educate and protect prospective trafficking victims. For that reason, combating human trafficking requires ongoing national and international communication, cooperation, and collaboration, particularly amongst law enforcement leadership across the globe. Only then will law enforcement be able to limit the ability of traffickers to operate freely and help prevent future victims from being trafficked. The primary purpose of drawing international attention to this chapter is in illuminating the challenges of police leadership in combating incidents of transnational human trafficking as well as to propose plausible to assist and support future global leadership and collaboration within and across police agencies.

INTRODUCTION “For the Department of Justice, our commitment to preventing human trafficking, bringing traffickers to justice, and assisting victims has never been stronger and our approach has never been more effective. Our work has sent a clear and critical message: that, in this country and under this Administration human trafficking crimes will not be tolerated. . . . This work has saved lives, ensured freedom, and restored dignity to women,

men, and children in virtually every corner of the country. And while we can all be encouraged by our many recent achievements in the fight against human trafficking, we have more to do. And far too many people remain in desperate need of our help. That’s why our joint efforts and our outstanding progress must continue.” ~ Eric Holder, Former Attorney General of the United States (2012) Slavery has been forbidden for decades within nearly every country; yet, slavery has reemerged vigorously and on a global scale in the

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-8376-1.ch017

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form of human trafficking, a highly lucrative multibillion-dollar criminal enterprise that is often coordinated and carried out by transnational organized crime syndicates (United States Trafficking in Persons Report, 2014). Human trafficking is a horrific international crime that has always existed in various forms throughout history; nevertheless trafficking was not considered a significant global social problem until most recently (Bales, 2007; Fry, 2008; Neubauer, 2012; Polaris Project, 2012; Shinkle, 2007, Weitzer, 2014). . International interest and attention concerning human trafficking, also known as Trafficking in Persons, largely emerged in 1995 as the number of trafficked women and children from the former Soviet Union joined victims from Asia and other parts of the world, thereby attracting international attention and widespread reaction (Smith, 2011). Since traffickers target and exploit an estimated 30 million men, women, and children globally, this problem requires international attention and intervention; therefore, global leaders must come together and unite to combat trafficking. Furthermore, since police officers are often the first to encounter victims, transnational collaboration, communication, and cooperation are so vitally important for them (United States Office of the Attorney General, 2012).

HUMAN TRAFFICKING DEFINED Although definitions of human trafficking vary slightly from country to country, the definition used within this chapter will be that from the United States as initially defined within The Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000 (Trafficking in Persons Report, 2014). The Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000 (P.L. 106-386) and the Trafficking Victims Protection Reauthorization Acts of 2003, 2005, 2008, and most recently, 2013 provide the

tools to combat human trafficking both worldwide and domestically (Trafficking in Persons Report, 2014). Furthermore, the Acts collectively authorized the establishment of The US Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons (G/TIP) office, which engages in discussions with governments to help strengthen international cooperative efforts to eradicate trafficking. G/TIP releases an annual Trafficking in Persons Report as required by the United States Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000. The annual report is a diplomatic tool for the U.S. Government in combating trafficking in persons; thereby, serving as an instrument for continued dialogue and as a means to encourage increased prosecution, protection, and prevention programs worldwide. The G/TIP office also makes available millions of US dollars in grants to organizations all over the world to implement programs in order to combat trafficking. G/TIP and the President’s Interagency Task Force to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons assist in the coordination of anti-trafficking efforts domestically and internationally (US Department of State, 2014). With that being said, The United States Trafficking in Persons Annual Report (2014) defines trafficking in persons, hereafter referred to as human trafficking, as: Sex trafficking in which a commercial sex act is induced by force, fraud, or coercion, or in which the person induced to perform such an act has not attained 18 years of age; or The recruitment, harboring, transportation, provision, or obtaining of a person for labor or services, through the use of force, fraud, or coercion for the purpose of subjection to involuntary servitude, peonage, debt bondage, or slaver (p. 11). Note: A victim does not need to be physically transported from one location to another for the crime to fall within the above definitions.

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ORIGIN OF HUMAN TRAFFICKING LEGISLATION In 1996, former First Lady Hillary Clinton and then-Secretary of State Madeline Albright traveled to Thailand to visit a rescue center for girls who were trafficked into prostitution (Trafficking in Persons Report, 2014). The following year, Global Survivor Network’s Co-Director at the time, Gillian Caldwell, presented the documentary video of an undercover investigation depicting widespread sex trafficking in Russia titled, “Bought and Sold” (Trafficking in Persons Report, 2014). The documentary was sponsored by the US Department of State, which illuminated the international sexual enslavement and exploitation of women and children (Trafficking in Persons Report, 2014). Soon thereafter, the video was shown at the Vienna Conference where it continued to generate a growing amount of interest and awareness amongst international government and non-governmental officials alike, including two high-ranking Senators from the United States (Pochagina, n.d.). One distinctive, yet often under-identified and misunderstood characteristic of human trafficking is what is referred to as forced criminality. When one thinks of trafficking, we automatically assume it only entails sex trafficking; however, traffickers may force adults and children to commit crimes in the course of their victimization, including theft, illicit drug production and transport, prostitution, terrorism, and murder (US Trafficking in Persons Report, 2014). There are powerful examples to substantiate these occurrences. For example, in Mexico, organized criminal groups have coerced children and migrants to work as assassins and in the production, transportation, and sale of drugs (US Trafficking in Persons Report, 2014). In November 2013, police arrested six adult Romanians accused of forcing children to commit burglaries in Paris and its suburbs and the victims were reportedly physically beaten for failing to deliver the traffickers’ daily quota of stolen goods (US Traf-

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ficking in Persons Report, 2014). In Afghanistan, insurgent groups force older Afghan children to serve as suicide bombers, and non-state militant groups in Pakistan force children—some as young as 9 years old—to serve as suicide bombers in both Pakistan and Afghanistan (US Trafficking in Persons Report, 2014). Children and men, primarily from Vietnam and China, have been forced to work on cannabis (Marijuana) farms in the United Kingdom and Denmark (US Trafficking in Persons Report, 2014). This initial political push for action subsequently led to the introduction of several bills in both the United States House and Senate beginning in 1999. These US Legislative Acts include the Victims of Trafficking and Violence Prevent Act of 2000; The Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000 (P.L. 106-386), the Trafficking Victims Protection Reauthorization Act of 2003 (H.R. 2620), the Trafficking Victims Protection Reauthorization Act of 2005 (H.R. 972), and the Trafficking Victims Protection Reauthorization Act of 2008 (H.R. 7311). Collectively, the aforementioned provide the tools to combat trafficking in persons both worldwide and domestically. Even in Arab countries where human rights legislation has historically been lacking in human rights legislation, many Arab countries have passed comprehensive laws to combat human trafficking since the passage of the U.N. Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children (Mattar, 2011). These laws were drafted to comply with the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking in persons as articulated in the U.S. Trafficking Victims Protection, which requires the U.S. State Department to assess efforts made by foreign governments to combat trafficking in persons. Although states, by passing comprehensive laws, are implementing the U.N. Protocol’s legislative mandate, the U.S. assessment has also played a significant role in the anti-trafficking legislative movement within Arab countries (Mattar).

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One common theme amongst all of the bills that were introduced in the late 1990’s and thereafter, and one that will be reiterated throughout this chapter, was that transnational human trafficking involves what has been referred to as forced criminality whereby victims are treated as slaves and forced to lead a criminal lifestyle (Trafficking in Persons Report, 2014). For example, women and children forced into prostitution, pornography, and sex tourism must be seen and handled properly by criminal justice organizations worldwide, particularly law enforcement. These individuals must be seen and treated as victims - NOT criminals. Even though tremendous international progress has been made over the past 14 years, the majority of law enforcement officers both domestically and internationally have not received adequate training in the identification, processing, and care of trafficking victims or in regards to human trafficking in general, which means that many are still being processed as criminals (Trafficking in Persons Report, 2014). One significant proposal of the US government, and one that is shared by this writer, is that law enforcement organizations worldwide combine forces, share intelligence with and amongst law enforcement agencies globally, communicate openly, and collaborate on both small-scale and large-scale policing investigations (Trafficking in Persons Report, 2014). However, it is equally important law enforcement leadership collaborate closely with non-governmental organizations, agencies that specialize primarily in the identification, care, protection, and prevention of human trafficking victims (Trafficking in Persons Report, 2014). As with crime in general, law enforcement is only one profession impacted and responsible for intervening and preventing human trafficking. This is a global issue in which government and nongovernment stakeholders have a role in assisting and collaborating with law enforcement leadership to include private and non-profit organizations, especially those who focus on advocating for and preventing trafficking victims worldwide.

As mentioned, human trafficking comprises the enslavement and involuntary servitude of men, women, and children from virtually every country in the world, yet one subcategory of human trafficking that has received the most attention and rightfully so, is that of sexual trafficking. Sexual trafficking is almost exclusively confined to women and children who are transported within and outside of their home countries (Trafficking in Persons Report, 2014). Although some men are also sexual exploited, men are more likely to be forced to work and/or serve in some type of armed conflict as a soldier or in some cases, suicide bombers for terrorist groups. For many unsuspecting victims, traffickers dupe or snare victims into trafficking through deceptive, manipulative tactics utilizing mostly trickery in which victims are led to believe that a “better” life awaits them (Ecclestone, 2013). Once the victims arrive at the predetermined destination point, the victims are often threatened, physically and/or sexually assaulted, and forced to pay off large, unrealistic financial debts to the captors, a debt which can only be satisfied through sexual servitude, forced labor, acts of terrorism, or guerilla warfare (Smith, 2011). Others may be abducted by traffickers, sold by parents or caretakers to traffickers as a result of desperate poverty or a perceived lack of options, or forcibly coerced into prostitution, domestic service, manufacturing, or agriculture by traffickers, and even more disturbing, traffickers who conspire with corrupt military, paramilitary, and/or law enforcement (Smith, 2011). It is not surprising that human trafficking is unquestionably perceived by criminal justice, legal, and non-government community based practitioners and scholars alike to be one of the fastest growing transnational crimes of the 21st century, preceded, albeit slightly, by gun and drug trafficking. One promising global strategy to assist global police leadership is cross-sectoral collaboration, as proposed by Lux and Mosley (2014). Cross-sectoral collaboration emphasizes the importance of organizations in two or more

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sectors (i.e. government agencies, nonprofit community-based agencies, business sector) combining their resources in order to attain a complex societal goal that could not be accomplished by one organization alone, namely police leadership (Lux & Mosley, 2014). I would even take this one-step further with Cross-sectoral and cross-cultural collaboration to strengthen efforts to eradicate worldwide incidents of human trafficking by combining global forces within and outside of police leadership. Global leaders must unite by taking action to deter and punish traffickers and educate and protect prospective trafficking victims (United States Trafficking in Persons Report, 2014). For that reason, combating transnational human trafficking requires steadfast national and international communication, cooperation, and collaboration, particularly amongst law enforcement leadership across the world. Gallagher and Holmes (2008) point to the fact that specialist trafficking units have been established in the national police forces of many countries, including Australia, Belarus, Belgium, Canada, Cambodia, France, Indonesia, Italy, Jamaica, Lao PDR, Moldova, Myanmar, Nigeria, Romania, Thailand, Ukraine, the United Kingdom and, in a slightly different form, in the United States. This suggests that transnational police leaders are in fact collaborating, communicating, and cooperating on a global scale, but how effective have those efforts been in addressing human trafficking and what else could we be doing to combat trafficking? Only then will law enforcement officers be able to limit the ability of traffickers to operate freely and prevent future victims from being trafficked. Furthermore, international cooperation, particularly with regard to transnational human trafficking investigations, does not need to be established through formal mutual law enforcement assistance arrangements. The Organized Crime Convention and Trafficking Protocol Act of 2000 outlined by the United Nations Organized Crime Convention, authorizes

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International law enforcement cooperation, including transnational joint police investigations (Gallagher & Holmes, 2008). To compound matters further in our global attempts to reduce human trafficking, an overwhelming insatiable financial greed and disregard for human life has contributed to human trafficking’s multibillion-dollar criminal empire in which transnational organized crime syndicates have predominantly reaped the profits (US Trafficking in Persons Report, 2014). The sheer clandestine nature of transnational human trafficking contributes to the so-called dark figure of crime because it is difficult to determine the exact amount of money generated from human trafficking; however, conservative estimates have ranged between $9 billion and $32 billion annually (Ngwe & Elechi, 2012). The dark figure of crime is a term used by criminal justice practitioners and criminologists alike to describe the number of committed crimes that remain largely unknown because those crimes have never been reported to or discovered by law enforcement. Until recently, most law enforcement officers, regardless of geographic location, were at a distinct disadvantage since most were untrained and unknowledgeable of human trafficking issues, particularly at the local level where patrol officers are likely the first to be exposed to traffickers and victims (Wilson, Walsh, & Klueber, 2006). It has been well-documented that human trafficking occurs in every country, yet in my experience, many Americans still naively assume that trafficking incidents within the United States are infrequent and if present within the United States, are confined to major urban, mostly port cities, and therefore, the assumption is that human trafficking is more likely to occur abroad. However, the United States is a documented source, transit, and destination country for men, women, and children, including both U.S. citizens and noncitizens, and it should be noted that trafficking occurs in every U.S. state (Logan, Walker, &

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Hunt, 2009; Siskin & Wler, 2011). In 2013, US Secretary of State John Kerry stated that more than 44,000 survivors have been identified during that year, which is astounding at first glance, yet Kerry, estimated that there might be upwards of 20 million victims who have yet to be identified (Trafficking in Persons Report, 2014). In short, human trafficking has reached epidemic global proportions; therefore, no country is immune or outside the grasp of traffickers, yet victims from the most socially, politically, and economically disadvantaged countries are considered to be the most vulnerable and at-risk. However, as mentioned, men, women, and children from all socioeconomic backgrounds are vulnerable and trafficking can occur within a small town or a large city; therefore, this is a globally facilitated crime in which borders have proven penetrable.

FORCED CRIMINALITY: PERCEPTION IS EVERYTHING Law enforcement officers are essentially the gatekeepers into a country’s criminal justice system; therefore, officers at all levels of government regardless of the country, must recognize and address one of the most under-identified characteristics of human trafficking, which is that of forced criminality (Trafficking in Persons Report, 2014). Human traffickers force men, women, and children to engage in a variety of crimes that could range from petty theft to prostitution to murder. Clearly, these are crimes recognized within most countries and forbidden at some statutory level within those respective countries; yet, many others lack any type of clearly established laws forbidding such crimes. It is therefore imperative that trafficking victims not be held criminally or civilly liable for engaging in such crimes if the crimes are a direct consequence of their victimization (Trafficking in Persons Report, June 2014). Why is this important for law enforcement? Trafficking victims are “commonly mistaken for criminals, rather than

being identified as victims, and therefore treated and processed as such by law enforcement officials and the country’s respective judicial system” (US Department of State, 2007). This important and clear message needs to be at the forefront of law enforcement training. Ongoing training in regards to trafficking schemes and victimization must be adopted and become an essential part of the police organization’s culture, but sadly, this has proven to be a daunting task for our international law enforcement community. After all, as a criminal justice professor and practitioner, I have witnessed firsthand how our global efforts in combatting drug and gun trafficking have, for the most part, have not produced the desired results and are therefore, largely unimpressive. Therefore, I see myself more as a realist and somewhat of a skeptic of past practices in addressing global criminality. “Having survived trafficking at the age of 12, I knew, from my own experience, that each time victims were stopped by police or treated like criminals; they were pushed closer to their trafficker.” – Carissa Phelps, founder and CEO of Runaway Girl, 2013 In the United States, Texas is one of 25 states that have since mandated ‘human trafficking’ training specifically for law enforcement officers consisting of eight hours of mandatory training for law enforcement officers (Broderick, 2014). Additionally, the states with such training have also implemented human trafficking task forces with the mission of developing policies, procedures, missions, and developing and evaluating training in this regard (Broderick, 2014). Task forces are important because they allow law enforcement officers at the local, state, national, and international levels to share and disseminate intelligence because there is definitely strength in numbers and knowledge is powerful. Simply walking away from a brothel (a building that houses prostitutes), manufacturing plant, or agricultural farm is not an option because the

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traffickers have emotional and physical control not only over the victim, but also over the victim’s family in many instances, if the victim fails to comply. The threat may be real or perceived by the victim to be true. In the case of children, most countries agree that children cannot give valid consent, and any recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring, or receipt of children for the purpose of sexual exploitation, forced labor, involuntary servitude, or warfare is a form of trafficking (Trafficking in Persons Report, 2014). In addition to being forced into sexual servitude, victims are also subjected to forced marriages, coerced into assisting in the abduction and transportation of other victims, forced labor, and in some situations, the forced removal of body organs to be sold on the “black market,” an area ripe for future research (US Trafficking in Persons Report, 2014; Pochagina, n.d.). However, advances in science and technology are assisting the global fight against human trafficking within and outside of policing. For example, the Norwegian government has collaborated with caseworkers in the field who are now using mobile technologies to capture information on trafficking victim in Uganda to analyze and assess trends in trafficking victims and patterns of movement (US Trafficking in Persons Report, 2014). The US Department of State has collaborated with the governments of Cambodia and Mexico to establish ‘tech camps,’ which are intended to assist victims and educate citizens (Trafficking in Persons Report, 2014). In 2013, the Polaris Project collaborated with Google, software companies, and other non-governmental organizations to establish a Global Human Trafficking Hotline Network project to help create a more coordinated global response for victims of trafficking (Trafficking in Persons Report, 2014). The growth of the international sex industry coupled with the discovery of HIV / AIDS (Human immunodeficiency virus infection and acquired immune deficiency syndrome) during the 1970s and 1980s, led to renewed global pub-

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lic safety and health concern about prostitution and its connections to human trafficking (Gould, 2014; Stolz, 2005). Trafficking plays an integral role in the incessant spreading of the HIV virus, especially within developing countries where AIDS is prevalent (Gould, 2014; Trafficking in Persons Report, 2014). For instance, 50% to 90% of children rescued from brothels and other so-called, “sex dens” throughout Southeast Asia are infected with the HIV virus (United States Department of State, 2007).

CHILD VICTIMS As emphasized, children are undeniably the world’s most vulnerable demographic group to be trafficked, particularly within the more disadvantaged countries that are often plagued with poverty, political instability, interpersonal violence, and widespread corruption. To compound this issue further, sophisticated and widespread advances in technology, namely the advent of the Internet, have facilitated the supply and demand for child pornography, child prostitutes, and child sex tourism, mainly among males who intentionally target children mostly from disadvantaged countries (Dalton, 2013; UNICEF, 2007). For instance, a 2007 UNICEF surveys asserted that 30 – 35% of all sex workers in the Mekong sub-region of Southeast Asia were between 12 and17 years of age whereas Mexico’s primary social service agency estimated that more than 16,000 children are engaged in prostitution with tourist destinations being among those areas with the highest number of prostituted children (UNICEF, 2007). Another example would be Lithuania, where an estimated 20% to 50% of all prostitutes are under age 18. Children as young as 11 are known to be prostitutes and children ages 10 to 12 years old have been forced to make pornographic movies to meet the increasing worldwide demand for child pornography.

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One particularly vulnerable group targeted by transnational human traffickers in multiple countries are Romani children. Romani are one of the largest minority groups in Europe and are therefore, highly vulnerable to human trafficking schemes. Ethnic Romani men, women, and particularly children are subjected to sex trafficking and forced labor—including forced begging, forced criminality, involuntary domestic servitude, and servile marriages—throughout Europe, including in Western Europe, Central Europe, and the Balkans. This exploitation occurs both internally, especially in countries with large native Romani populations, and transnationally (Trafficking in Persons Report, 2014). Therefore, it is imperative that police leadership share information and intelligence regarding the various groups that are more prone to victimization, and have an understanding of the cultures that each represent. However, police encounters may not be helpful if there are language barriers between the responding police officers and the victims, which once again, provides the traffickers a distinct advantage in concealing their crimes.

CHILD SEX TOURISM The United States State Department (2008), estimated that more than two million children are exploited by means of child sex tourism each year. Child sex tourism (CST) involves deviant and often sadistic individuals who intentionally travel from one country to another in search of children that have been recruited explicitly for sexual exploitation and victimization (Gallagher, 2008; United States Department of State, 2008). These so-called tourists characteristically reside in and travel from wealthier countries to developing countries where corruption amongst law enforcement and government officials is largely unbridled (United States Department of State, 2008). International travel plans are often coordinated and controlled by traffickers or individuals who assist traffick-

ers by arranging children be “rented” or sold to the buyers (Gallagher, 2008; The United States Department of State, 2008). The Internet and its ability to provide unlimited worldwide communication has definitely contributed to the increase in trafficking and all that it entails. The Internet has a darker, sinister side that has directly benefited transnational criminal operations, specifically traffickers, who take full advantage of the Internet’s vast potential to communicate with anyone, anywhere, and at any time. The anonymity, accessibility, and availability of the Internet have made it the primary means of communication to coordinate and execute most trafficking operations, and has therefore, fueled the undeniable increase and interest in child sex tourism (Dalton, 2013; Schmalleger & Pittaro, 2008). Sex tourists knowingly use the Internet’s massive communicative abilities to exchange sexually deviant stories, buy, sell, exchange child pornography, and arrange international travel plans to prey upon innocent women and children. Furthermore, predatory child sex tourists communicate with other pedophiles and other sexual deviants via chat rooms, message boards, peer-to-peer file sharing servers, news groups, and illicit web sites that cater specifically to Child Sex Trafficking (CST) activities (United States Department of State, 2008). Even more disturbing has been the emergence of “cyber-sex” dens, rooms that are equipped with webcams so that other pedophiles, who typically pay by credit card could watch as the perpetrator physically and sexually abuses the child using live feed that is sent out over the world wide web. In response, at least 38 countries have established extraterritorial laws allowing the citizen’s home country to prosecute citizens who engage in CST crimes abroad (The United States Department of State, 2008). The United States, in particular, has enacted stringent laws that mandate prison sentences of up to 30 years imprisonment for US citizens who engage in child sex tourism within the United States or abroad (The United States

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Department of State, 2005). This does not include any additional sanctions imposed by the country in which the perpetrator is initially apprehended and prosecuted. Unfortunately, as of this writing, there are still too many that do not prohibit such crimes including Saudi Arabia and North Korea (Gallagher & Holmes, 2008). There are also relatively few countries that are documented as fueling this clandestine market to include the United States, Germany, and Japan, and likewise there are just a few countries that are particularly vulnerable to having citizens trafficked including China and Nigeria.

CHILD SOLDIERS Child soldiering, a unique, yet severe manifestation of trafficking that entails the recruitment or kidnapping of children by force or deception to be used as combatants or sex slaves for paramilitary organizations or rebel groups (Human Watch Group, 2008). It is estimated that several hundred thousand children are being held captive and forced to participate in over 21-armed conflicts worldwide (Human Watch Group, 2008). In addition to serving as soldiers, many serve as porters, cooks, guards, servants, messengers, and spies (Trafficking in Persons Report, 2014). Both boys and girls have been abducted and forced into child soldiering; yet girls in particular are often forced to marry or perform sexual services for male combatants (United States Department of State, 2008). Child soldiering is a worldwide problem that continues to grow, yet it is most pronounced in Africa and Asia. However, several studies suggest that child soldiering has been increasing at an alarming rate within South America, Eurasia, and the Middle East over the past ten years (United States Department of State, 2008). Of particular concern is the prevalence of terrorist organizations that actively recruit or kidnap trafficked children for terrorist activities, mainly because children

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often do not raise the same level of suspicion as an adult would in planning and executing an act of terrorism, including suicide bombings. The research is still in its infancy; therefore, this is a suggested topic for further research.

TRAFFICKING VS. SMUGGLING I would be remiss if I did not discuss the differences between trafficking and smuggling since many individuals, even those within law enforcement, erroneously use these two terms interchangeably. Nevertheless, there are several distinct differences between trafficking and smuggling worth noting. With human trafficking, victims are generally tricked or forced into consenting because the traffickers have intentionally misled and deceived the victims into thinking each was en route to a better life through falsely staged opportunities to fulfill a perceived dream of wealth and happiness (Ecclestone, 2013; United States Department of Health and Human Services, 2007). The ongoing exploitation of victims is intended to generate lucrative profits for the traffickers who travel abroad with victims, yet trafficking need not entail the physical movement of a person outside of the country’s borders, but it must entail the exploitation of the person for labor or commercial. Conversely, smuggling includes those who voluntarily consent to being smuggled from one country to another, whereas human trafficking victims are swindled or forced into accompanying the traffickers. As mentioned, trafficking victims do not necessarily need to cross national borders, as many are exploited within the victim’s home country whereas smuggling always involves crossing national borders (Ellis & Akpala, 2011; United States Department of Health and Human Services). It should be noted that individuals who choose to be smuggled could also become victims. Once they reach their destination country, they are told that they owe an incredibly high financial debt to their smugglers even though they initially

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consented to being smuggled into another country for a predetermined cost. To pay off this debt, individuals who are smuggled may be forced into similar situations as those trafficked (i.e., prostitution, forced labor, domestic servitude, etc.). This compounds matters for police leadership who must distinguish between those who have smuggled and those who have been trafficked. Both groups are essentially victims, yet there are countless cases in which these groups have been infiltrated, arrested, and confined simply due to cultural and language barriers and of course, there is a strong level of distrust of law enforcement or reluctance in being truthful for fear of retaliation by the smugglers and traffickers. This is where police leaders must unite on a global scale. Multicultural diversity and sensitivity training are crucial, yet admittedly. Police leadership must collaborate not just with other law enforcement organizations worldwide, but also with community-based organizations dispersed throughout the globe, particularly those agencies that specialize in human trafficking, post-traumatic stress and other clinical disorders common to trafficking victims, multicultural awareness and sensitivity, and victim advocacy, all of which are vitally important. Ongoing training for law enforcement will help to establish and continuously develop a better understanding of the needs and situations of trafficking victims (Trafficking in Persons Report, 2014). The trauma of being a victim can have a profound influence on the victim’s perception of law enforcement. In some situations, if treated like criminals, victims have been known to align more with their trafficker. One suggestion would be the implementations of community-policing initiatives since the purpose of community policing is to establish and maintain relationships within the communities in addressing crime and other social problems. Community policing is known as a philosophy, a set of strategies, and a phenomenon within law enforcement that has proven effective in addressing

many common crimes; therefore, the introduction of community members and businesses assisting community police officers is a viable, sound option. (Burns & Thomas, 2005).

ORGANIZED CRIME AND TRANSNATIONAL HUMAN TRAFFICKING There has been a direct, substantiated link between organized crime and human trafficking according to intelligence information compiled by the United States Department of State (2008). Organized crime syndicates have gained a strong foothold in the transnational crime of human trafficking because of the ease of attracting an endless supply of victims. This, when combined with the high profits associated with buying and selling victims and the low risk of detection and apprehension by law enforcement, has made this practice an attractive business venture to transnational organized crime groups. Since it has been clearly established that human trafficking is transnational in scope and has a direct influence on the United States, the United States has come forward to assist the international community in the fight to rid the world of human trafficking. To ensure its success, the United States, since 2000, with the backing of the United Nations continues to cross collaborate with world leaders and encourages the sharing of policing intelligence information. The United States is also committed to helping foreign governments in providing education and awareness to potential victims, and making certain that foreign governments comply with the stringent directives that have been outlined in the federal legislation. To gain trust and cooperation among the various foreign governments, the United States has allocated millions in worldwide funding to combat human trafficking and provide relief and aid to trafficking victims (United States Department of State, 2008).

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The United States has been at the forefront of this ever-increasing crusade by creating, adopting, and implementing powerful legislation intended to deter and punish traffickers; therefore, trafficking to and from the United States remains relatively low when compared to trafficking to and from other countries, yet it still occurs within the United States. In addition to the enactment of rigid antitrafficking legislation, the United States is committed to providing aid to support, protect, and educate trafficking victims and potential victims (Trafficking in Persons Report, 2014). According to the 2014 Trafficking in Persons Report, the most comprehensive worldwide report on human trafficking, the Department of State is required to provide an annual report to Congress outlining the various foreign governments’ efforts to reduce human trafficking (United States Department of State, Trafficking in Persons Report, 2014). This report is intended to raise international awareness concerning human trafficking, highlight the efforts of the international community in eliminating trafficking, and encourage foreign governments to take immediate action to deter and punish offenders (United States Department of State, 2008).

TRAFFICKING VICTIMS PROTECTION ACT OF 2000 On October 28, 2000, former US President Clinton signed the Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000 (P.L. 106-386) into federal law (US Attorney General’s Report, 2012). Sexual trafficking, as a division of human trafficking, is specifically addressed in 22 U.S.C. § 7102 (8) of the act. The intended purpose of the law was to clearly combat human trafficking and punish traffickers, but also protect victims and prevent trafficking by freeing those trapped in slave-like conditions throughout the world (Trafficking in Persons Report, 2014). The law provides assistance for trafficked victims, creates new statutory categories for this crime,

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and affords unwavering assistance to foreign countries in drafting similar laws modeled after the Trafficking Victims Protection Act (United States Attorney General’s Report, 2012). The act also created an interagency task force to globally monitor and combat human trafficking.

TRAFFICKING VICTIMS PROTECTION REAUTHORIZATION ACTS OF 2003, 2005, AND 2008 The original law has been amended several times over the years, each new amendment calling for new anti-trafficking resources and measures specifically to support and assist trafficked victims and assist law enforcement efforts. Some of the new resources have included grant programs to assist law enforcement in investigating and prosecuting traffickers and addressing the needs of victims who have been or will be rescued by law enforcement agents, specifically by expanding existing assistance programs and services for victims (United States Attorney General, 2014). The amended legislation has also added additional responsibilities to the interagency task force, the State Department, and foreign governments, yet as the opening quote from US Attorney General Holder states, we have made great strides in the fight against human trafficking, but we have more work to do (United States Attorney General, 2012).

CHALLENGES FOR TRANSNATIONAL POLICE LEADERSHIP The risks associated with human trafficking are relatively low in comparison to trafficking in weapons and drugs. This alone will continue to tempt some criminals, particularly those who are currently trafficking weapons and drugs, to explore this growing transnational underground market (United Nations, 2007). For instance,

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Thailand and the Philippines have been the main suppliers of women and children; nevertheless, at the end of the 20th century, the situation changed considerably after the collapse of the former Soviet Union (Davydova, 2013; Pochagina, n.d.). According to Pochagina (n.d), the Ukraine, Belarus, Latvia, Russia, Vietnam, the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (DPRK), and China now occupy the leading positions in trafficking in women and children as “live goods.” In particular, there has been an unusually high increase in trafficking within and from China, which if not stopped, is on its way to becoming the central hub human trafficking operations within Asia (Pochagina, n.d.). Most people are at least vaguely familiar with China’s stringent policy and preference for male offspring, which is intended to limit China’s birth rate; nonetheless, many do not appreciate or understand the inevitable consequences associated with such stringent measures to control China’s population. For example, in some rural areas of China, it is estimated that up to 80% of the children between the ages of five and ten are boys (Shen, Antonopoulos, & Papanicolaou, 2013; Pochagina, n.d.). Due to strict demographic measures that have been in place for nearly three decades, the appearance of an estimated 50 million girls has been deliberately prevented. Ironically, Chinese demographic specialists anticipate that there will be between 30 – 40 million marriageable Chinese men by the year 2020 who will be unable to locate a wife within China. Under these current and future conditions, the prospect of trafficking in brides, particularly from Vietnam, the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (DPRK), and Myanma, into forced marriages is likely to occur. In other words, the social, political, and economic conditions within China are ripe for continued trafficking schemes.

SUPPLY AND DEMAND Human trafficking exists because there is a strong need and obvious international demand for it. International society must unbalance the economic advantage of human trafficking by increasing not only the risk, but also the severity of the sanctions imposed on traffickers and those who solicit such services, namely the buyers (Cree, 2008; Tiefenbrun, 2007). The international demand for human trafficking is the economic impetus for trafficking; therefore, deterrence and punishment are critical in the international fight against trafficking (Farrell, McDevitt, & Fahy, 2010; United Nations, 2007). Regrettably, both do not necessarily address the underlying deep-rooted conditions that drive both supply and demand, namely the ease and low-risk involved in trafficking, and the realistic capability for traffickers to make large sums of money. Some of the many challenges to combating incidents of global human trafficking entail what I refer to as the three C’s to include transnational collaboration, communication, and cooperation within police leadership to assist and support future global leadership and collaboration within and across the international spectrum of police agencies. One challenge that stands out amongst all others involves corruption amongst law enforcement and government officials, which some studies suggest is rampant in some countries as many are on the traffickers’ payrolls in creating fraudulent documentation, assisting in the trafficking plots, or simply “looking the other way” to facilitate trafficking schemes (Cirineo & Studnicka, 2010). Many of our world’s leaders increasingly perceive transnational human trafficking as a major threat to global peace and security and one that is capable of undermining the economic, social, political and cultural development of the international community and that we are all vulnerable to such crimes (Ngwe & Elechi, 2012; Danailova-Trainor, & Laczko, 2010).

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FUTURE DIRECTIONS FOR POLICE LEADERSHIP As mentioned, there has been tremendous progress in combating transnational human trafficking; however, cross-cultural collaboration is an on-going process that constantly needs to be evaluated to determine the strengths and weaknesses of these international relationships. (Gallagher & Holmes, 2008). Admittedly, there is no single, simple solution to this problem just as there has been no single, simple solution to drug trafficking and arms trafficking. Nevertheless, Gallagher and Holmes (2008) have provided a comprehensive outline of recommendations that would aid police leaders in their plight to combat trafficking. In December 2000, representatives from more than 80 countries met in Palermo, Italy to create and adopt a new international legal framework to fight transnational organized crime (Gallagher & Holmes, 2008). The outcome resulted in what has been dubbed, the United Nations Protocol to Prevent, Suppress, and Punish Trafficking in Persons (2000). Each of the countries that signed the treaty accepted to be bound by a comprehensive set of obligations, which was a way to hold countries accountable and responsible, but more importantly, to foster crosscultural collaboration across the globe. In 2002, the representatives signed the United Nations Trafficking Principles and Guidelines into effect and since that time, countries have continued to establish their own specific laws to address human trafficking (Gallagher & Holmes, 2002). As a criminal justice professor, I emphasize that we, as a society, must be realistic in our expectations. No single country has the power alone to disrupt human trafficking. International cooperation, communication, and collaboration can and will have a positive outcome on reducing transnational trafficking, but this must be a coordinated international effort to be truly effective in the fight to combat human trafficking. Gallagher and Holmes (2008) drafted a criminal justice system framework that would directly benefit

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police leadership in establishing transnational collaboration to collectively combat trafficking, which I wholeheartedly support and recommend. 1. A Comprehensive Legal Framework in Compliance with Legal Standards. This comprehensive legal framework would provide the foundation for an appropriate and effective criminal justice system response. 2. A Specialist Law Enforcement Capacity to Investigate Human Trafficking. Specialized divisions and units would assist law enforcement in organizing and structuring their investigative efforts as well as empower and help subsidize those with law enforcement agencies with limited funding. 3. A General Law Enforcement Capacity to Respond Effectively to Trafficking Cases. This recommendation is intended to assist with the complexity of investigating such cases and increase the level of support from community-based agencies that specialize in dealing with human trafficking victims. That partnership is essential since the police alone cannot effective combat human trafficking. 4. Establish Strong and Well-Informed Prosecutorial and Judicial Support. Those who work within the criminal justice know that a successful prosecution is ensured only when there is an abundance of factual evidence that overwhelming projects guilt upon the accused. However, according to Gallagher and Holmes (2008), “we are still confronted with widespread corruption within many prosecutorial and judicial agencies, underdeveloped judicial systems, and resistance to the integration of international criminal justice standards, all of which present seemingly insurmountable barriers.” One recommendation is to establish a specialized unit of international prosecutors to handle trafficking cases and provide technical assistance and legal resources to countries that lack the aforementioned.

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5. Quick and Accurate Identification of Victims Along with Immediate Protection and Support. Countries have a legal and moral obligation to identify, protect, and prevent citizens from being victimized. The European Trafficking Convention of 2005 emphasized the importance of identifying victims and not mistaking them as criminals. This will require a multi-disciplinary approach in which the criminal justice system must rely on other government and non-government organizations for their assistance. It reminds me of the African proverb, “It Takes An Entire Village to Raise a Child.” That same thought process applies here. Communities need the assistance of law enforcement and law enforcement needs the assistance of the communities to adequately and effectively identify human trafficking victims. 6. Special Support to Victims as Witnesses. Since human trafficking is a coveted, clandestine criminal operation, law enforcement must rely on victims to testify as witnesses in order to bolster the prosecution’s odds of successfully prosecuting the traffickers. Therefore, victims play a critical role in the prosecution of traffickers, accomplices, and conspirators (Gallagher & Holmes, 2008). Nevertheless, as mentioned, some victims are reluctant or unwilling to testify against the traffickers for a variety of logical reasons, but successful prosecutions can be quite difficult, if not impossible to prosecute without the victim’s cooperation and testimony. This is where victim advocacy groups can offer assistance to law enforcement and prosecutors. 7. The Establishment of Systems and Processes That Enable Effective International Investigative and Judicial Cooperation in Trafficking Cases. Since human trafficking is transnational, it is imperative that traffickers not be able to take refuge in other countries and evade prosecu-

tion due to legal loopholes in regards to extradition. Therefore, it is recommended that extradition be reciprocated and specifically outlined with the countries laws so that no country becomes a safe haven for traffickers in alluding capture and prosecution. 8. Lastly, Establishment of Effective Coordination among International Donors. The creation and sustainment of an effective criminal justice response, particularly within law enforcement, requires ongoing political support, resources, and a commitment to combating transnational human trafficking (Gallagher & Holmes, 2008). Regrettably, many countries, particularly those most vulnerable to trafficking, lack the political support, funding, training, and resources for an effective criminal justice response. Therefore, international assistance in training, funding, and resources is invaluable to their progress.

CONCLUSION This chapter has offered a glimpse into a continuously evolving transnational crime in which there are no easy or simple responses. Simply stated, human trafficking crimes are widespread and incredibly challenging to combat. The reality of the situation is that very few traffickers have been investigated, arrested, convicted, and punished to date for their crimes. Although we are making tremendous progress, our international efforts have been slow, fragmented, and inconsistent. We must strengthen our international efforts with stronger criminal justice responses in which law enforcement is equipped with the specialized knowledge, training, and resources that are vital to conducting their investigations, arresting traffickers and those who conspire with them, and identifying and treating trafficking victims with empathy. We, as law enforcement leaders, need to strengthen our capacity and willingness to de-

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liver justice and protect the rights of victims, but this can only be accomplished through ongoing international collaboration, cooperation, and communication. Barriers to any of the aforementioned can detrimentally impair our collective efforts to combat human trafficking.

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Ecclestone, D. (2013). Identifying victims of human trafficking. Community Practitioner, 86(5), 40–42. PMID:23724762 Ellis, T., & Akpala, J. (2011). Making sense of the relationship between trafficking in persons, human smuggling, and organized crime: The case of Nigeria. The Police Journal, 84(1), 13–34. doi:10.1350/pojo.2011.84.1.507

Bales, K. (2007). What predicts human trafficking? International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice, 31(2), 269–279. doi:1 0.1080/01924036.2007.9678771

Farrell, A., McDevitt, J., & Fahy, S. (2010). Where are all the victims? Understanding the determinants of official identification of human trafficking incidents. Criminology & Public Policy, 9(2), 201–233. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9133.2010.00621.x

Broderick, P. (2014). Evaluating human trafficking training for police agencies. Dissertation (1st ed., Vol. 1, pp. 1-154). Minneapolis, MN: Walden University.

Fry, L. (2008). The use of hotspots in the identification of the factors that predict human trafficking. International Journal of Criminal Justice Sciences, 3(2), 71–83.

Burns, P. F., & Thomas, M. O. (2005). Repairing the divide: An investigation of community policing and citizens’ attitudes toward the police by race and ethnicity. Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice, 3(2), 71–85.

Gallagher, A., & Holmes, P. (2008). Developing an effective criminal justice response to human trafficking: Lessons from the front line. International Criminal Justice Review, 18(3), 318–342. doi:10.1177/1057567708320746

Cree, V. E. (2008). Confronting sex trafficking: Lessons from history. International Social Work, 51(6), 763–776. doi:10.1177/0020872808095249

Gallagher, B. (2008). Dangerous worlds? The problems of international and internet child sexual abuse. Community Safety Journal, 7(2), 8–11.

Dalton, R. (2013). Abolishing child sex trafficking on the internet: Imposing criminal culpability on digital facilitators. The University of Memphis Law Review, 43(4), 1097–1144.

Gould, C. (2014). Sex trafficking and prostitution in South Africa. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 653(1), 183–201. doi:10.1177/0002716214521557

Danailova-Trainor, G., & Laczko, F. (2010). Trafficking in persons and development: Towards greater policy coherence. International Migration (Geneva, Switzerland), 48(4), 38–83. doi:10.1111/ j.1468-2435.2010.00625.x PMID:20645470

Logan, T. K., Walker, R., & Hunt, G. (2009). Understanding human trafficking in the United States. Trauma, Violence & Abuse, 10(1), 3–30. doi:10.1177/1524838008327262 PMID:19056686

Davydova, D. (2013). Criminal networks, unfortunate circumstances, or migratory projects? Researching sex trafficking from Eastern Europe. Cultural Dynamics, 25(2), 229–243. doi:10.1177/0921374013498136

Lux, L., & Mosley, J. E. (2014). Cross-sectoral collaboration in the pursuit of social change: Addressing sex trafficking in West Bengal. International Social Work, 57(19), 1–9.

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Mattar, M. Y. (2011). Human rights legislation in the Arab world: The case of human trafficking. Michigan Journal of International Law, 33(1), 101–131. Nady-Sigmon, J. (2008). Combating modernday slavery: Issues in identifying and assisting victims of human trafficking worldwide. Victims & Offenders, 3(1), 245–257. doi:10.1080/15564880801938508 Neubauer, C. (2012, June 12). Human-trafficking hotline calls show ‘groundswell of interest’. The Washington Times, p. 6A. Ngwe, J. E., & Elechi, O. O. (2012). Human trafficking: The modern day slavery of the 21st century. African Journal of Criminology and Justice Studies, 6(1), 103–119. Papanicolaou, G. (2013). Transnational policing and sex trafficking in southeast Europe: Policing the imperialist chain. Contemporary Sociology: A Journal of Reviews, 42(4), 639. Pochagina, O. (n.d.).Trafficking in women and children in present-day China. Far Eastern Affairs, 1(2), 82-101. Polaris Project. (2012). State ratings 2012. Retrieved from www.PolarisProject.org Schmalleger, F. (2013). Criminology: A Brief Introduction. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Schmalleger, F., & Pittaro, M. (2008). Crimes of the Internet. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Shen, A., Antonopoulos, G. A., & Papanicolaou, G. (2013). China’s stolen children: Internal child trafficking in the People’s Republic of China. Trends in Organized Crime, 16(1), 31–48. doi:10.1007/ s12117-012-9167-z

Shinkle, W. (2007, August). Preventing human trafficking: An evaluation of current efforts. Retrieved from http://graduateinstitute.ch/files/live/ sites/iheid/files/sites/political_science/shared/ political_science/8787/besnike%20PreventionofHumanTrafficking.pdf Smith, H. M. (2010). Sex trafficking: Trends, challenges, and the limitations of international law. Human Rights Review (Piscataway, N.J.), 12(1), 271–286. Stolz, B. (2005). Educating policymakers and setting the criminal justice policymaking agenda: Interest groups and the ‘victims of trafficking and violence act of 2000’. Criminal Justice, 5(4), 407–430. Tiefenbrun, S. W. (2007). Updating the domestic and international impact of the US victims of trafficking protection act of 2000: Does law deter crime? Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law, 38(1), 249–280. UNICF. (n.d.). Child protection from violence, exploitation, and abuse. from UNICEF: www. unicef.org/protection/index_exploitation.html United States Department of Health. Fact sheet: Human trafficking. (2014, January 1). Retrieved from www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/orr/resource/ fact-sheet-human-trafficking Weitzer, R. (2014). New directions in research on human trafficking. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 653(1), 6–23. doi:10.1177/0002716214521562 Wilson, D., Walsh, W., & Klueber, S. (2006, May). Trafficking in human beings: Training and services among U.S. law enforcement agencies. Police Practice and Research, 7(2), 149–160. doi:10.1080/15614260600676833

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ADDITIONAL READING Farrell, A., & Pfeffer, R. (2014). Policing human trafficking: Cultural blinders and organizational barriers. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 653(1), 46–64. doi:10.1177/0002716213515835 Haynes, D. F. (2014). The celebritization of human trafficking. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 653(1), 25–45. doi:10.1177/0002716213515837 Mace, S. L., Venneberg, D. L., & Amell, J. W. (2012). Human trafficking: Integrating human resource development toward a solution. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 14(3), 333–344. doi:10.1177/1523422312446053 Smith, C. A., & Smith, H. M. (2011). Human trafficking: The unintended effects of United Nations intervention. International Political Science Review, 32(2), 125–145. doi:10.1177/0192512110371240

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Cross-Cultural Collaboration: Combining, pertaining to, or contrasting two or more cultures or cultural groups. Human Trafficking: A modern form of slavery. It involves controlling a person through force, fraud, or coercion to exploit the victim for forced labor, sexual exploitation, or both. Human trafficking strips victims of their freedom and violates our nation’s promise that every person in the United States is guaranteed basic human rights. It is also a crime.

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Involuntary Servitude: Is a United States legal and constitutional term for a person laboring against that person’s will to benefit another, under some form of coercion other than the worker’s financial needs. Police Leadership: Law Enforcement Personnel who hold administrative and decision-making roles in overseeing police agencies and the officers and staff who occupy those agencies. Sexual Trafficking: Sex trafficking involves individuals profiting from the sexual exploitation of others and has severe physical and psychological consequences for its victims. Trafficking in Persons: The recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring or receipt of persons, by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation. Transnational Organized Crime: Refers to those self-perpetuating associations of individuals who operate transnationally for the purpose of obtaining power, influence, monetary and/or commercial gains, wholly or in part by illegal means, while protecting their activities through a pattern of corruption and/ or violence, or while protecting their illegal activities through a transnational organizational structure and the exploitation of transnational commerce or communication mechanisms.

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Chapter 18

The Philosophy of Using Communicative Intelligence for Cross-Cultural Collaboration Kendall Zoller Sierra Training Associates, USA

ABSTRACT This chapter describes Communicative Intelligence (CI) from a philosophical lens. The author explains its cognitive, emotional and actionable elements. CI is the deliberate and intentional deployment of verbal and nonverbal communication patterns in ways that aspire to develop relationships across and within cultures in the unpredictably dynamic arena of human interactions (see Zoller, 2008). Further, the author suggests that CI is a consciously mindful state where the deliberate application of verbal and nonverbal skills and moves are used to achieve an alignment between the intended message and the manner in which it is perceived to build rapport, model empathy, and impact trust. By using the strategies and ways of thinking found in CI, leaders can improve the quality of their relationships resulting in new possibilities and solutions to the issues facing organizations. Key areas of interest will be discussed including how CI can be used to impact cross-cultural collaboration and leadership.

INTRODUCTION “Though the peoples and nations of the earth speak a multitude of tongues, they share in common the universal language of the hands” (Quintilianus, 1977) This chapter focuses on several key philosophical ideas related to Communicative Intelligence (CI) and cross-cultural collaboration. First, the author presents a definition and framework of Communi-

cative Intelligence (CI). This is followed by ways that cross-cultural collaboration can be achieved using CI. Finally, the author presents strategies that leaders can use to lead more effectively. Although there is minimal literature to draw from concerning CI, there is some literature that supports the framework of CI (e.g., Poyatos, 2002; Costa & Garmston, 2002) including an international video analysis on nonverbal patterns of teachers from the Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) (Zoller, 1998). The videos of classroom lessons were analyzed to identify, de-

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-8376-1.ch018

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 The Philosophy of Using Communicative Intelligence for Cross-Cultural Collaboration

fine, and compare the nonverbal patterns found in teachers from five countries: the Czech Republic, Japan, the Netherlands, Australia, and the United States. Common and unique nonverbal patterns were found among the teachers. One significant finding that emerged from the study, however, was the identification of common nonverbal patterns such as voice tone, gesturing, eye contact, and standing still. These patterns were common in all five countries, yet their range of implementation, intensity of deployment, and frequency of use varied in each country. This chapter suggests that CI is a critical mechanism used to communicate across cultures while maintaining personal authenticity and integrity in the intent and delivery. How do we achieve cross-cultural collaboration in organizations? What does it look like? How does it sound? What does it feel like? Cross-cultural collaboration implies connection and relationship. Having a social identity and sense of belonging are two elements of collaboration that connect people (Ashforth & Mael, 1989). Another element of significance is culture - not simply one culture; rather, how we can collaborate across and amongst cultures. Hall (1976) suggested culture is defined by how the collective of individuals communicate. Hall further suggested that cultures could be categorized as high-context and lowcontext. According to Hall, high-context cultures use language that is more dependent on inference whereas low-context cultures use language that is more explicit and rely less on inference. Hall’s work is important to mention because CI will be explained as a way to navigate across cultures to increase collaboration. To provide greater focus on the scope of this chapter, a definition of cross-cultural collaboration is useful. If we accept Hall’s definition as well as that of Kroeber and Kluckhohn (1952), culture is comprised of attributes and products of a society that are transmissible beyond heredity (e.g., music and literature) . The cross-cultural context refers to how these cultures interact with each other once relationships are established. Collaboration

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in this context is the co-laboring of work. Thus, cross-cultural collaboration “involves people [from different cultures] with different resources working together for a common goal” (Costa & Garmston 2002, p. 12). Given this definition, it is also important to acknowledge there are multiple explanations in the literature related to ways diverse cultures interact, including in-group and out-group cultures. In-group cultures are collectivistic and out-group cultures are individualistic (Niedergassel & Kanzler, 2011). As posited by Niedergassel and Kanzler (2011) these two grouporientations impact how groups collaborate and share information. When participants practice CI, an environment is created where cross-cultural collaborations embrace ambiguity, unfamiliarity, and disequilibrium while suspending judgment in a process of deliberate intention and authentic feedback (Poyatos, 2002). Establishing such an environment is important because each culture has unique characteristics. For instance, when language enters the picture, not only is there a difference in the register (i.e. formal and informal language) there are also variations in iconic gestures and the influences of gesture on understanding (Kendon, 1997; McNeill, 1992, 1998, 2000; Poyatos, 2002).

COMMUNICATIVE INTELLIGENCE (CI) The author first defines CI to understand how best to create cross-cultural collaboration. This is followed by an explanation of the parts of CI to provide the detail needed to grasp the model and superimpose it on the readers’ experiences as they reflect on their level of CI. By reflecting on personal experiences with collaboration, the reader can feel how CI fits as a viable model of human intelligence and realize that CI is not limited to collaboration. Next is the description of Zoller and Landry’s (2010) framework of communication skills to use with intention in cross-cultural

 The Philosophy of Using Communicative Intelligence for Cross-Cultural Collaboration

applications. Lastly, the author offers an explanation of how CI supports Emotional and Social Intelligences and how these two intelligences complement the definition of CI and its uses in collaboration. CI is the integration of cognitive and emotional resources with behavioral abilities that creates experiences and develops relationships to solve problems, catalyze change, and create new meaning (Zoller, 2008). CI can provide a way to achieve cross-cultural collaboration and leadership. Zoller and Landry (2010) suggest: Social collaboration includes resolving conflicts, working together on tasks, celebrating achievements, participating fully, listening and acknowledging, and valuing diversity of ideas. Intellectual collaboration includes thinking constructively, making decisions, solving problems, reflecting on experience, withholding judgment, examining assumptions, and suspending biases (p. 66). CI focuses on the cognitive and emotional elements of communication. It is behaviorally demonstrated through verbal and nonverbal channels. At its foundation, CI can be used to initiate and maintain rapport. Rapport is a foundation with which to build relationships. Two distinct components comprise the model of CI [insert illustration 1 here]. The first represents five energy sources (Costa & Garmston, 2002): Efficacy is an internal drive emerging from the belief a person has about their ability to influence and positively impact a situation. It is an energy source for effort. Craftsmanship is the drive for “elaboration, clarity, refinement, and precision” (p. 133). Consciousness is the awareness of “one’s thoughts, feelings, viewpoints and behaviors and the effect they have on oneself and others (p. 135). Flexibility includes “the ability to shift among egocentric (self), allocentric (others), and metacentric (macro) views” (p. 129) and to modify, with conscious intention, communication

in the moment. Interdependence in CI is related to “reciprocity, belonging and connectedness” (p. 139) and serves as the source for community and group resourcefulness. The second area of CI includes four abilities (Costa & Garmston, 2002). The four abilities are receptivity, empathy, agility, and dynamic presence. These are the behaviors employed by human beings when communicating. They include the qualities of voice tone, pitch, and volume. They also include the use of gestures, pausing, eye contact, breathing, the use of space, and proxemics. Receptivity is created by skills that include, but are not limited to, mirroring, credible voice tone, stance, and abdominal breathing (Zoller & Landry, 2010). These skills are used to produce a thoughtful state where the listener is emotionally and cognitively receptive to hearing a message. These skills include specific voice tones, frozen gestures during a pause, standing still, and direct eye contact. Empathy is created by communication skills that include, but are not limited to, pausing and paraphrasing (Costa & Garmston, 2002; Zoller & Landry, 2010). When implemented effectively, these skills give a listener the sense they are understood cognitively and emotionally. In the model of CI, agility is the ability to consciously draw on a repertoire of communication skills and to deploy those skills in response to the interpretations from reading the nonverbal patterns in others. Siegel (2007) posited that: Perceiving another’s nonverbal signals is followed by a process that appeared to invoice both the insula and the related middle prefrontal region’s activity to intercept, interpret, and attribute one’s own internal states with those of another person... attending to facial expressions, and other nonverbal signals such as eye contact, tone of voice, posture, gestures, and timing and intensity of responses, are all right hemisphere sent and perceived (p. 103).

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Siegel (2007) found that mediators skilled in mindfulness, the awareness of the flow of energy and information at a conscious level where we can regulate its flow, had increased prefrontal thickness and enlarged right insula regions. This supports the assertion that CI is intimately linked to neurology and the neuroplasticity of the brain (Siegel, 2007). Lastly, dynamic presence incorporates the expression of verbal and nonverbal skills in the moment as one responds to real-time communication. CI emerges from several existing models including Multiple Intelligences, (Gardner, 1985) and Cognitive Coaching (Costa & Garmston, 2002). Cognitive Coaching’s (2002) states of mind are the origin of the five energy sources of CI. The states of mind comprise the framework used in Cognitive Coaching to identify energy sources to support thinking. Within the context of Cognitive Coaching, the states of mind can be thought of as dynamic. For example, Garmston (2014) suggested: Some of the states of mind may periodically be more dominant than others and these five distinctly human forces unite the expression of wholeness in an individual. The capacity to access and channel these forces provides the continuing sources of excellence in all of life’s endeavors, both professional and personal. The states of mind are recognizable in our language and actions, and they are at once dispositional and cognitive. They inform and make possible the application of strategies and the selection of thinking processes appropriate to a situation. They contribute to increased accomplishment and satisfaction (personal communication). CI takes form as it combines elements from Cognitive Coaching (Costa & Garmston, 2002), Social Intelligence (Goleman, 2006), Emotional Intelligence (Goleman, 1996), the work of Grinder (2008), and the research from Zoller (2008).

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Setting a context of CI’s relation to crosscultural collaboration begins with Gardner’s (1985) definition of intelligence. He asserts it is the “mental activity coordinating the emotional, cognitive, and reptilian neurology to constantly modify and adjust behavior to purposefully adapt, select and shape communication in relationships and to solve problems valued in a culture” (p. 10). By recognizing that intelligence is grounded in culture, the assumption is that intelligence is a phenomenon found in all cultures and influenced by the culture in which it is found. From Sternberg (1985), human intelligence is “(a) mental activity directed toward purposive adaptation to, selection and shaping of, real-world environments relevant to one’s life” (p. 45). Zoller (2008) defined nonverbal communicative intelligence (NCI) as: … the mental operations to process incoming verbal, visual, auditory, and kinesthetic (VAK) stimuli that interact with the emotional, cognitive, and autonomic systems. NCI coordinates the input of VAK stimuli resulting in perceptions. Awareness of one’s perceptions leads one to purposefully adapt, shape, and select communication to convey the intention of the message while simultaneously enhancing and sustaining the rapport and understanding among peoples (p. ii). These three definitions of intelligence combine to form the current definition of CI as the integration of cognitive and emotional energy sources with behavioral skills to create experiences and develop relationships to solve problems, catalyze change, and create new meaning (Zoller, 2008). The suggestion is that by understanding and practicing CI, people can communicate with greater authenticity, flexibility, and consciousness across cultures to achieve the intended outcomes of cross-cultural collaboration. Assisting people to collaborate across cultures requires leadership. A foundation of leadership is communication (Burns, 1978; Heifetz & Linsky, 2002; Kouzes

 The Philosophy of Using Communicative Intelligence for Cross-Cultural Collaboration

& Posner, 2007; Rost, 1991). CI aspires to be the foundation to effective communication. This would allow leaders to engage in a principlebased “influence relationship among participants intending real change and acting with reciprocal care and mutuality throughout that relationship” (Rost, 1991, p. 102).

A Link to Social and Emotional Intelligences How we initiate, catalyze, and strengthen relationships is critical and essential to create a collaborative community. As Goleman (2006) stated, “we are wired to connect” (p.2) and we are also wired to suspect, so we have to overcome the limitations of our biology to move beyond suspecting and towards trusting. Neuroscience provides us with ample evidence of the neurology of connectedness independent of culture. Evolutionarily, we are wired to connect emotionally through specific classes of neurons that include mirror neurons (Rizzolatti & Gallese, 2003; Ramachandran, 2000). Neurologically, the mirror neuron complex may be the pathway to experience empathy (Goleman 2006; Siegel, 2007), and neurological center where nonverbal patterns are interpreted (Zoller, 2008). All humans have mirror neurons, and mirroring is a behavior found throughout the world, as evidenced by Hall’s (1967) discussion of proxemics and gesturing. Mirror neurons are an example of the organic makeup in the human brain to sense the moves of others, and to imitate their actions while simultaneously matching their feelings. This is what Goleman (2006) refers to as “to feel with them” (p. 8). Examining the constructs of Social Intelligence reveals two broad headings: social awareness and social facility (Goleman, 2006). Social awareness includes the abilities of empathy, attunement, empathic accuracy, and social cognition. Social facility is about the behaviors among people. Included here are synchronicity, self-presentation, influence, and concern (p. 84). The communica-

tion patterns evidenced in the expression of social awareness and social facility are both universally present and culturally unique in their range, intensity, and frequency (Zoller, 2008). Siegel (2007) suggested mirror neurons “along with other areas such as the insula, superior temporal cortex, and middle prefrontal regions, form the interconnected resonance circuitry...which have been shown to not only encode intention, but also to be fundamentally involved in human empathy” (p. 165). The suggestion from Siegel is that empathy is ubiquitous across all cultures and yet its expression is uniquely recognized in the range, intensity, and frequency of communication patterns. Kendon (1990) addressed mirroring and its relationship to rapport. He noted that to move with another is to show that one is ‘with’ him in one’s attentions and expectancies. Kendon further asserted that coordination of movement in interaction may thus be of great importance since “it provides one of the ways in which two people signal they are ‘open’ to one another” (p. 114). Grahe and Bernieri (1999) assert that nonverbal patterns found in rapport contain information beyond the expicit verbal message: Findings suggest that nonverbal behavior may be relatively more important than verbal behavior in the following areas: the expression and communication of spontaneous affect, in the assessment of self-presentation and communication motives, in the expression and communication of rapport, and when perceptions are based on thin-slices of behavior (p. 256) Mirror neurons are associated with social intelligence. Goleman (2006) explained “the human brain harbors multiple mirror neuron systems, not just for mimicking actions but also for reading intentions, for extracting the social implications from what someone does, and for reading emotions” (p. 42). The presence of mirror neurons is significant to CI because they provide evidence of the neurological functions related to rapport and

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empathy. Knowing rapport and empathy are found in all cultures and impacted by mirror neurons is useful because the expressions of rapport and empathy emerge from a common neurological center in the brain. Single facial features are not conclusive evidence of an emotion. Emotions are expressed through a combination of several facial features. For instance, a smile is not the single evidence of the expression of happiness. Smiling is one indicator; when additional features including a contraction of the muscles around the eye accompany the smile, there is a greater likelihood of happiness being the emotion expressed (Ekman & Friesen, 1969). To better understand how CI is linked to and supports cross-cultural collaboration and leadership, the following section offers a more expanded description of the five energy sources and the four abilities.

The Five Energy Sources The five energy sources derived from Costa and Garmston (2002) are defined and explained in the following paragraphs. Although they are presented as five distinct energy sources, their boundaries exist not as distinct delineations; rather, they intertwine and overlap. Energy sources are the integration of cognitive and emotional resources (Costa & Garmston, 2002). These sources are grounded in thinking and problem solving. They comprise the thinking that leads to choice and actions when we communicate. 1. Efficacy in interpersonal relationships is actualized by persistence and effort in the face of setbacks. It is grounded in the confidence that a person can effectively and appropriately respond and react to people when communicating. Efficacy is the catalyst of creativity, problem solving, and innovation aiming at maximizing the interactions with people. Efficacy, according to Costa and

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Garmston, is the energy source for continuous learning. It is a belief you have in the ability to persevere. People with “robust efficacy are likely to expend more energy in their work, persevere longer, set more challenging goals, and continue in the face of barriers or failure (Costa & Garmston, 2002, p. 127). When collaborating there is a group efficacy that influences group energy and catalyses creativity. One example of efficacy in a cross-cultural collaboration occurred when I was working with a group of middle managers representing more than ten countries (including Pakistan, India, Germany, Australia, and Japan) represented in a global corporation. The task was to learn about and demonstrate an understanding of a new vision from leadership. While facilitating the event, my efficacy was a source of energy to strive towards the goal with confidence and competence. Efficacy, a belief one has the skills to accomplish what is needed does not stand alone; skills are also necessary. For instance, one skill of CI includes the systematic use of space in the room (Zoller & Landry, 2010). An example of use of space includes establishing one location to deliver information, another location to solicit questions, and perhaps another location to acknowledge multiple perspectives without judgment. The use of location can also be used to shift the focus of participants from one perspective to another in a way that reroutes the nerve transmissions away from downshifting to fight or flight responses to the higher cognitive functions that support critical thinking (Goleman, 1995). By using locations and the other skills from CI we were able to move the group to levels of common understanding about the issues as evidenced by participant’s ability to explain the issue from another’s perspective. 2. Craftsmanship involves attention to detail, dissatisfaction with less-than-ideal performance, and a constant striving for high

 The Philosophy of Using Communicative Intelligence for Cross-Cultural Collaboration

performance. To be a craftsman requires expertise while simultaneously addressing emotions related to the dissatisfaction of not achieving perfection. Craftsmanship is the driver of continuous learning, refinement, and excellence leading to mastery (Costa & Garmston, 2002). Cross-cultural collaboration can occur in multiple settings. This may include meetings, presentations, and personal interactions - all of which may be formal or informal. Craftsmanship is the driver of increasing improvement and it requires a significant foundation of knowledge from which to draw from. CI has found more than 50 verbal and nonverbal patterns in a variety of languages and cultures (Poyatos, 2002; Zoller, 2008; Zoller & Landry, 2010), Having a robust knowledge of the communication patterns of CI serves as a point of flexibility when communicating in a room with multiple cultures present. Examples of some of the skills of CI include: flat voice tone, rhythmic voice tone, a still gesture during the pause, pausing, abdominal breathing, mirroring, paraphrasing, going visual, using neutral language, establishing location, and interrupting yourself. At an International School in China, the faculty represented a broad range of countries. These countries included China, New Zealand, Australia, Vietnam, South Africa, Canada, and the United States. During workshops focusing on collaboration, the facilitator used the skills from CI that included mirroring and paraphrasing with a conscious intent to provide space for people to talk. Some of the skills included the deliberate selection of voice tone, pace of speech, going visual, paraphrasing, and pausing. Each participant spoke as the day progressed. Deliberately deigned protocols were used to ensure the voice of every participant was heard. Using well-designed protocols gave voice to those who might otherwise have been silenced by others as well as those whose cultural practices

may not value sharing. Giving voice to everyone is essential for cross-cultural collaboration (Friere, 1998). The facilitator was able to draw on CI’s craftsmanship to create an environment where information and insights were shared across the cultures represented in the room as evidenced by the individuals in the group maintaining receptive states where their breathing patterns remained abdominal. Abdominal breathing is a nonverbal indicator of receptivity (Grinder, 2008; Poyatos, 2002, 2002b; Zoller & Landry, 2010). The facilitator established and maintained receptivity in others. This was accomplished by using the skill of going visual (posting information on charts) and going 3rd point, (referring to the information on the chart by gesturing to the chart and breaking eye contact with the participants to direct their focus on the issues visually charted). 3. Consciousness is the “ability to monitor your own values, intentions, thoughts, and behaviors and their effects on others and the environment” (Garmston, 2014, p. 47.). Consciousness also relates to knowing the effects your values, intentions and thoughts have on those around you. Values are culturally unique and deeply held. A person with high levels of consciousness has clarity of intention and purpose while simultaneously perceiving, processing, and deploying CI’s skills (Zoller, 2008). Consciousness is dependent on the deliberate intention of focusing sensory acuity to see patterns and interactions amongst the people engaged in the conversation. When engaged in a meeting where multiple cultures and languages are present, consciousness is the gateway to increase levels of craftsmanship, flexibility, efficacy, and interdependence when leaders and participants have no access to the other four energy sources. 4. Flexibility - Choice is at the heart of flexibility. The soul of CI’s flexibility is empathy, the willingness to understand people and

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situations from others’ perspectives – it is therefore the nexus of cross-cultural collaboration. While it manifests physically, it is a mental state, allowing one to operate from egocentric, allocentric, and macrocentric perspectives. Flexibility provides the pathway for people to meet others in their reality and to use the skills of CI to align the message with their perception. Flexibility is the apex of CI because it is the catalyzing capability necessary to create new possibilities. Flexibility is expressed through the speaker’s verbal and nonverbal range, intensity, and frequency of communication patterns (Zoller, 2008). People with high levels of flexibility are able to change their minds based on incoming data, are comfortable with ambiguity, can consider a range of consequences, draw on a repertoire of problem-solving strategies and can simultaneously consider long- and short- term goals (Garmston, 2014). When engaged with groups representing multiple cultures, flexibility is the source of choice in how to respond verbally and nonverbally as well as react emotionally. Since we cannot predict with precision how people will react to comments in meetings and presentations, each person must draw on their ability to be flexible in how they react. The resourcefulness of an individual’s flexibility is what can increase collaboration by influencing receptivity and empathy. An example of this influence is from a trainer for an international corporation. The facilitator was delivering a program designed to support the implementation of a new global initiative that fundamentally challenged some of the current practices of single solution client services to multi-solution client services. There were participants in the session who were displaying resistant behavior and showed little receptivity

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to the new ideas. When the facilitator used the skills of going visual, 3rd point, and paraphrasing, the participants shifted their breathing to more abdominal levels and expressed they felt the facilitators were empathizing with them and recognized their perspectives. Once empathy was established, the facilitators continued using 3rd point and paraphrasing to influence the participant’s receptivity to the new ideas. Receptivity was evidenced as participants explained their understanding of the new initiative while at the same time also explaining how they would use it with clients. 5. Interdependence is a willingness to influence and be influenced by others and it includes a desire to contribute, a sense of being part of something larger than oneself. People with high levels of interdependence as defined by Garmston (2014) seek collegiality, draw on the resources of others, regard conflict as valuable, trust in their ability to manage differences in a group in productive ways, and continue to learn from feedback from others and from their consciousness of their own actions and effect on others. By developing an ability of interdependence, any person can increase their resourcefulness, efficacy, and flexibility, each essential to cross-cultural collaboration. Niedergassel and Kanzler (2011) cited Takahashi (2008) who posited that individuals of a culture may act independently from their culture’s beliefs and values, while at other times act according to their cultural norms. People in situations where multiple cultures are present may represent themselves as individuals, as cultural participants, and also as part of the culture that emerges as a result of the collaboration. These five energy sources encompass the cognitive and emotional attributes of CI.

 The Philosophy of Using Communicative Intelligence for Cross-Cultural Collaboration

CROSS-CULTURAL CONNECTIONS THROUGH CI Connecting intellectually and emotionally across cultures is essential for collaboration. To accomplish these connections, the verbal and nonverbal messages must be congruent and understood. Knowing that every culture and language is unique in the expressions of nonverbal moves, the challenge is in understanding how best to complement the verbal messages nonverbally. Poyatos (2002) identified several nonverbal moves present across multiple languages. In fact, the skills of CI (e.g., voice tone, speed, gesturing, breathing, eye contact, pausing, using location, mirroring, going 3rd point and 4th point) were observed in Zoller’s research (2008). Linguists Poyatos (2002, 200b), Kendon (1994, 2004), and McNeill (1992, 1998, 2000) have also identified these patterns in other cultures. Zoller and Landry (2010) offered a model to utilize when traversing multiple cultures in a variety of professional interactions. The model suggests that each nonverbal skill (e.g., voice tone, voice volume, pace of speech, eye contact) has a culturally and linguistically unique range of implementation (how far off baseline it extends), intensity of energy (the speed of implementation), and frequency of use (how often it is deployed) (Poyatos, 2002; Kendon, 2004; McNeill, 2000). The characteristics of range (R), intensity (I), and frequency (FF) are collectively referred to as RIFF (Zoller & Landry, 2010). The idea of RIFF in CI came from the concept of a riff in music. A riff in music is the lyrical phrase or repeating pattern. In jazz the riff is what is used to build the improvisation. In CI the boundaries of the nonverbal patterns in a person’s range, intensity, and frequency refers to the “RIFF”. An example of riff is found in gesturing. When gesturing, there is a distance from the torso ranging from close to the hip to far from the hip. There is a variation in how quickly a person will gesture. In one situation, a gesture may move slowly; in another, the same gesture may be deployed more

quickly. This is an example of intensity. Lastly, a person has a frequency of repetition associated with the gesture. Developing an awareness of your RIFF through practice and reflection leads to the ability to expand the boundaries of your RIFF. This is an important facet of CI. For instance, an individual’s range of a “palm up” gesture may be observed at one end of the range when the elbow is adjacent to the torso and the observed abductive maximum is the elbow extending twelve inches from the torso. The abductive maximum of twelve inches may be insufficient to be of influence on the listener, so the speaker must extend the gesture to match the riff of the person (and culture) with whom they are talking. This is an example of modifying the riff to enhance the influence when communicating. The RIFF is already present in all people. It is tacitly acquired and practiced, and can be recognized when talking with people. The RIFF, in a sense, makes individuals culturally recognizable. One example of a RIFF is to watch Steve Jobs, the late president of Apple Inc. When he presented, he had a particular range of voice volume, pace, and gesture. His intensities shifted as recognized by shifts in the speed and frequency of deploying the skills of pausing, pacing, and standing still. All of these patterns contributed to a recognizable style. To be effective, individuals might have to go beyond their normal RIFF. The speaker might make a larger gesture or a longer pause to be more effective. These patterns are already part of a person’s authentic communication. The idea of a RIFF to explain how to deploy nonverbal skills emerged from McNeill’s creation of Kendon’s Continuum (2000). Kendon’s Continuum places gestures along a continuous chain from gesticulation on one end to sign language at the other end. In Kendon’s book, Gestures (2004) the author posited a continuum among gestures when speaking. On one end of the continuum are gestures that function independently of spoken language as evidenced in sign language. The other end refers to gestures that are “idiosyncratic and

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spontaneous” (p. 99) while other gestures embedded within language that include emblems (“ok,” the “V” sign) and pantomime (gestures that symbolize actions) are placed along the midsection. The continuum analogy implies a range of types and uses of gestures in communication deployed to add meaning to the message. It is from this point McNeill and Duncan (2000) suggested that gestures “display mental content, and does so in spontaneously, in real time” (p. 143). Zoller asserted that having consciousness of the RIFF of nonverbal patterns increased flexibility when communicating within and across cultures. For instance, Zoller (2008) found teachers in the classrooms of Japan, the Netherlands, the Czech Republic, Australia, and the United States consistently deployed a palm up gesture. This palm up gesture was accompanied by space between the fingers and the hand slightly curved. In this particular case the students saw the apparent influence as open and friendly. In addition, students from all five countries often interpreted the meaning of a vertical, straight hand gesture as adamant or authoritative. The gesture continuum from curved and open to closed and vertical represents the range of that specific gesture. Gesticulating gestures have no inherent meaning (Kendon, 2005; McNeill, 2000; Zoller, 2008). They do have influence and knowing how to use gestures along the continuum to create congruence is important when communicating within and across cultures. Hall (1959) posited that cultures have unique qualities of proxemics, direct eye contact, and gesturing. Recognizing the qualities of an individual’s range, intensity, and frequency opens the door to recognizing that person’s culture. We can increase our effectiveness by mirroring and matching our RIFF to align with another’s individual and cultural RIFF. An important step to multi-cultural collaboration is being aware of the RIFF in verbal and nonverbal patterns. Fox (1997) posited that authenticity in communication is based on mutual trust and respectful sharing of intended meanings. As with any

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communicative interaction, there is a mutual dependence on trust, honesty, and respect. Grinder (2008) asserted that if the breathing pattern of the listener does not shift higher than its baseline, then authenticity is preserved.

THE FOUR ABILITIES The Four Abilities comprise the second component of the CI model. These abilities have origins in behavioral psychology, linguistics, and biology (Kendon, 1997; McNeill, 1985; Poyatos, 2002). They are represented in a framework that identifies and organizes the skills we use when communicating. It is important to note in real-time communications that the abilities are dynamically intertwined and may not be viewed as distinct. Communication is not a linear process. Instead, it is dynamic and complex and looks and sounds differently in each culture. Poyatos (2002) and Kendon (1997) noted the presence of common nonverbal skills across cultures that include gestures, voice tones, and pausing. Many of the nonverbal skills of CI are inherent in language (Poyatos, 2002, 2002b; Kendon, 1997, 2004). Research indicates that nonverbal skills provide meaning beyond the words (Beattie & Shovelton, 1999; Bevalas, Chovil & Row, 1995; Burgoon, Byuller, Hale & deTurck, 1984; Goldin-Meadow, 1997, 1999, 2002). The nonverbal patterns identified in CI and their cross-cultural applications are drawn from the works earlier research (Goleman, 1995, 2006; Grinder, 2008; Kendon, 1997, 2004; Poyatos, 2002, 2002b; Zoller, 2008). CI is a model that people can use to increase their deliberate and conscious use of verbal and nonverbal skills. The four abilities of CI are comprised of verbal and nonverbal patterns of communication. These abilities are: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Receptivity Empathy Agility Dynamic presence.

 The Philosophy of Using Communicative Intelligence for Cross-Cultural Collaboration

Receptivity The skills of receptivity include credible voice tone, stance, mirroring, paraphrasing. These skills are used to influence the emotional and cognitive receptivity of the listener. Furthermore, the skills of receptivity can be influential even when the message challenges a person’s knowledge, abilities, values and beliefs. Receptivity is recognized by abdominal levels of breathing (Grinder, 2008). A speaker can use nonverbal and verbal patterns to try to increase the listener’s state of receptivity. A video analysis of teachers from TIMSS (Zoller, 2008) revealed that nonverbal patterns can increase rapport. In addition, Milgram, Dunn, and Price (1993) found that forming relationships is dependent on the ability to develop rapport. Mirroring gestures when listening contributes to rapport (Valdesolo & DeSteno, 2011). For instance, if a person is initially using direct eye contact, low breathing, and head nods (Grinder, 2008; Poyatos, 2002) then matching those patterns when listening contributes to rapport. In addition to rapport, credibility also contributes to receptivity. Patterns of verbal and nonverbal communication that contribute to credibility include the credible voice. A credible voice in some cultures is achieved by a narrowing modulation with the tone lowering at the end of a phrase or sentence (Poyatos, 2002). The TIMSS video analysis consistently revealed a lowering of tone in the teacher’s voice when delivering content or making factual assertions (Zoller, 2008). Pausing also contributes to credibility and rapport with certain cultures (Poyatos, 2002; Zoller, 2008). When speaking, pausing occurs in a variety of situations with a variety of purposes. The key to effectively pausing with the intention of contributing to perceived credibility is to be still during that pause (Zoller, 2008). Low breathing, when inhaling, expands the abdomen and signifies calmness. Zoller noted that teachers who breathed slowly and deeply through the nose had higher levels of student attention than when

breathing quickly and shallowly (Zoller, 2008). Grinder suggested (2008) that breathing is the first indicator of permission. Evidence of receptivity is found in the patterns of rapport. When the person or people listening can be seen mirroring the speaker, there are higher levels of receptivity than when these behaviors are not evidenced in the people listening (Valdesolo & DeSteno, 2011). In addition to rapport, empathy is also important for cross-cultural collaboration.

Empathy Empathy is a state of awareness in others where people feel they are understood contextually and emotionally. Empathy is dependent on effectively establishing rapport. According to Goleman (2006), what makes empathy unique from rapport is that the person being spoken to feels understood beyond their words. Goleman (1995, 2006) further asserted that empathy and rapport form the foundations of social intelligence and emotional intelligence. When a person feels understood, they display a shift in their metabolism (Grinder, 2008). A speaker can create that moment by effectively paraphrasing a person. The paraphrase is a statement delivered in a way that matches the energy and meaning of what the other person initially said. Garmston and Wellman (1999, 2013) assert that paraphrasing is a listening skill as opposed to being a language skill. The purpose of the paraphrase is to have the other person feel they are understood beyond the words. Evidence of being understood is the expression of agreement by the person being paraphrased. The expression of agreement contributes to empathy and rapport. Consequently, potential defensiveness is reduced and reflective practice amongst people is encouraged. This creates a culture of constructive capacity to work with ambiguity, differences, disequilibrium and complexity (Garmston & Wellman, 2013).

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Agility Agility is the power to move quickly and easily with nimbleness. A prerequisite for dynamic presence (Grinder, 2008). When engaged in conversations, whether one-on-one, small group, or at large gatherings, each participant brings with them their own realities, cultures, norms, intentions, beliefs and value systems. How we interact within and among groups depends on our quality of perceptual acuity to read groups nonverbally and emotionally. Agility draws energy from consciousness and flexibility. To be agile is to simultaneously recognize culturally specific patterns among groups, the individual’s unique patterns and the influences each has on each other. Agility requires an allocentric perspective: to see from another person’s perspective. Being allocentric is akin to expressing empathy. Recognizing a culture is part of cultural proficiency. Posited by Linsey and Mikanza (2009) culture is “a mind-set, a worldview, a way a person or an organization make assumptions for effectively describing, responding to, and planning for issues that arise in diverse environments” (p. 4). Agility is the ability to see or respond to the unique patterns and behaviors of a culture. Dynamic presence is the ability to respond in ways that maintain receptivity and empathy across cultures.

Dynamic Presence Dynamic presence is the high-octane state of reality when we are engaged in the “impromptu, syncopated dance with unpredictable humans” (Doyle & Straus, 1976 p. 89). Being in a state of dynamic presence relies on sensory acuity and the CI patterns that support receptivity and empathy. Dynamic presence is dependent on high levels of consciousness because consciousness is necessary to acknowledge and process incoming data. Processing the incoming data is more than just drawing meaning from the words, it also includes recognizing and responding to emotions.

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Emotions can run high in the moment. CI offers tangible actions to navigate social and emotional intelligences. Rapport is a core attribute of social intelligence and rapport is where trust develops (Goleman, 2006). It is the relationship that changes individuals, reveals them, and evokes more from them. Zoller and Landry (2010) stated that “Sometimes it is only when we join with others that our gifts become visible, even to ourselves. As you think about the achievements you each bring from the groups you represent, how might you move your groups from wherever they are on the continuum to even higher levels of expertise?” (p. 47). Heifetz and Linsky (1994) offer adaptive leadership as a model to influence change and work in complex multicultural environments. The following aspects of adaptive leadership are described and linked to cross-cultural collaboration. Identification and diagnosis of an adaptive issue is the initial step in adaptive leadership. An adaptive issue is defined as an issue where existing knowledge, skills, abilities, believes and values are insufficient to solve the issue. To effectively identify and diagnose an issue, the history of the issue must be surfaced as well as the results of previously attempted solutions. A current project involving the author of this chapter focuses on developing principals and school leaders representing a wide demographic from diverse, underperforming schools in a large urban school district. The project incorporates adaptive leadership and CI. Skills from CI are used to safely talk about the successes and failures of past leadership attempts. Using protocols from Garmston and Wellman (2010) and CI patterns of third point and paraphrasing, principals are able to dialogue issues in an emotionally safe yet cognitively challenging environment. Visually displaying information on a chart supports thinking because participants are able break eye contact with each other and visually focus on the data as opposed to each other (Bryner, 2009; Goldin-Meadow, 2004; Kinsbourne, 2006).

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The system level of adaptive leadership involves identification of the stakeholder’s values and beliefs. It also includes managing losses and orchestrating conflict. In adaptive leadership, a systems thinking perspective requires a leader to understand and demonstrate cultural proficiency (Starratt, 2004). A leader using the skills and mindfulness of CI creates an environment of collaboration where ideas are shared without judgment. Zoller, Normore and Harrison (2013) describe how adaptive leadership and CI were used with deliberate intention to change the culture of an organization, specifically a police organization. The supervisor of an Internal Affairs (IA) department used Adaptive Leadership and CI to change the processes related to IA processing and reduced the time to process cases from more than 240 days to about 40 days. During the process of changing investigative processes, the culture of the department also changed to increasing levels of craftsmanship and efficacy. The shift in efficacy was evidenced by increased levels of competence and trust within the department and across the community. The leader (supervisor) of the project displayed knowledge and skills of adaptive leadership and CI to influence stakeholders to change behaviors as well as values related to the work to which they were assigned (Zoller, et. al., 2014). Cross-cultural collaboration and leadership can be enhanced through CI. The skills and mindfulness of CI offer a variety of communication pathways that transcend culture when viewed through the lenses of range, intensity, and frequency. Although cultures have unique implementation of communication patterns, there can be commonality in the presence of patterns in CI. For instance all cultures pause when speaking. The timing of the pauses, the duration of the pauses, and the accompanying nonverbals (i.e. eye contact, breathing, and stance) are also present, yet uniquely implemented based on the culture. These commonalities in communication across

cultures include breathing, gesturing, proximity, eye contact, tonal shifts, and pace. Understanding the range, intensity and frequency of these patterns within each culture can contribute to cultural competence.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTION Continuing research in the areas of CI and leadership are essential to continue our understanding of the brain, the ways we think, our relationships, and cross cultural applications. Research on the brain when people are in rapport, empathy, or in ethical decision-making is a great potential source of discovery. Additional questions emerging from this chapter include: 1. How might functional magnetic resonance imagery (fMRI) technology be used to determine the relationships between nonverbal patterns and neurological functions? 2. How are nonverbal patterns similar and different across genders? 3. How are nonverbal patterns recognized from a group dynamic perspective, and can leaders deliberately and effectively influence group dynamics with nonverbal patterns? 4. What influence might the nonverbal patterns between superior-subordinate relationships have when collaborating among diverse cultures? 5. Using fMRI technology identify the location of changes in the brain when communicating messages with and without nonverbal stimuli. 6. In what ways do cross cultural collaborations establish their collective, unique culture independent of the source cultures? 7. When resistance to an idea is present, what are the nonverbal patterns used that shift the resistance when communicating messages and in what ways was brain activity shifted?

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CONCLUSION This chapter focused on three areas of crosscultural collaboration. First was the definition and framework of Communicative Intelligence (CI). Second was how cross-cultural collaboration could be achieved using CI, and third, how leaders could use Communicative Intelligence to lead. Communicative Intelligence is the integration of cognitive and emotional energy sources with behavioral abilities that create experiences and develop relationships to solve problems, catalyze change, and create new meaning. Evidence from neuroscience, linguistics, psychology, and sociology were provided to support the assertion of CI as an intelligence. Applications of CI and leadership were described representing diverse national cultures that included the Czech Republic, the Netherlands, Australia, Japan, India, Pakistan, and China. Examples of rapport and empathy were provided in cross cultural applications

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Goldin-Meadow, S. (1997). When gestures and words speak differently. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 6(5), 138–143. doi:10.1111/1467-8721.ep10772905 Goldin-Meadow, S. (2002). Hearing gestures: How our hands help us think. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press. Goldin-Meadow, S., Kim, S., & Singer, M. (1999). What the teacher’s hands tell the student’s mind about math. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91(4), 720–730. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.91.4.720 Goleman, D. (1996). Emotional intelligence. New York, NY: Bantam Books. Goleman, D. (2006). Social intelligence. New York, NY: Bantam Books. Grahe, J. E., & Bernieri, F. J. (1999). The importance of nonverbal cues in judging rapport. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 23(4), 253–267. doi:10.1023/A:1021698725361 Grinder, M. (2008). The elusive obvious. Battle Ground, WA: Michael Grinder and Associates. Hall, E. T. (1959). The silent language (1973rd ed.). New York, NY: Doubleday. Heifetz, R., & Linsky, M. (1994). Leadership without easy answers. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Kendon, A. (2004). Gesture: Visible action as utterance. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511807572 Kinsbourne, M. (2006). Gestures as embodied cognition: A neurodevelopmental interpretation. Gesture, 6(2), 203–212. doi:10.1075/gest.6.2.05kin Kouzes, J., & Posner, B. (2012). The leadership challenge: How to make extraordinary things happen in organizations. San Francisco, CA: Jossey Boss. Kroeber, A., & Kluckhohn, C. (1952). Culture: A critical review of concepts and definitions. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Linsey, R., & Kikanza, N. R. (2009). Cultural proficiency: A manual for school leaders (D. Alpert Ed, Ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. McNeill, D. (1992). Hand and mind: What gestures reveal about thought (1st ed.). Chicago, Il: Chicago University Press. McNeill, D. (1998). Speech and gesture integration. In J. M. Iverson & S. Goldin-Meadow (Eds.), The nature and functions of gesture in children’s communication. New directions for child development (pp. 11–27). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. McNeill, D. (Ed.). (2000). Language and gesture. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511620850

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McNeill, D., & Duncan, S. (2000). Growth points in thinking-for-speaking. In Language and Gesture. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511620850.010 Milgram, R. M., Dunn, R., & Price, G. E. (Eds.). (1993). Teaching and counseling gifted and talented adolescents: An international learning style perspective. Westport, CT: Praeger. Niedergassel, B., Kanzler, S., Alvidrez, S., & Leker, J. (2011). Cross-cultural perceptions on knowledge sharing in heterogeneous collaborations. International Journal of Innovation Management, 15(3), 563–592. doi:10.1142/S1363919611003441 Pink, D. H. (2006). A Whole new mind: Why right-brainers will rule the future. New York, NY: Riverhead Books. Poyatos, F. (2002). Nonverbal communication across disciplines (1st ed., Vol. 1). Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins. Poyatos, F. (2002b). Nonverbal communication across disciplines. Paralanguage, kinesics, silence, personal and environmental interaction (Vol. 2). Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins. doi:10.1075/z.ncad2 Quintilianus, M. F. (1977). Quintilian II Books IV - VI. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Ramachandran, V. (2000). Mirror neurons and imitation learning as the driving force behind “the great leap forward” in human evolution. Retrieved from, http://www.edge.org/3rd_culture/ ramachandran/ramachandran_p1.html Rost, J. (1991). Leadership for the twenty-first century. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers. Siegel, D. (2007). The mindful brain: Reflection and attunement in the cultivation of well-being (1st ed.). New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Company.

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Stamenov, M. I., & Gallese, V. (Eds.). (2002). Mirror neurons and the evolution of brain and language. Amsterdam/Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins Publishing Company. doi:10.1075/ aicr.42 Starratt, R. (2004). Ethical leadership. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Sternberg, R. J. (1985). Beyond IQ: A triarchic theory of human intelligence. New York: Cambridge University Press. Takahashi, C., Yamagishi, T., Liu, J., Wang, F., Lin, Y., & Yu, S. (2008). The intercultural trust paradigm: Studying joint cultural interaction and social exchange in real time over the Internet. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 32(3), 215–228. doi:10.1016/j.ijintrel.2007.11.003 Valdesolo, P., & DeSteno, D. (2011). Synchrony and the social tuning of compassion. Emotion (Washington, D.C.), 11(2), 262–266. doi:10.1037/ a0021302 PMID:21500895 Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind and society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Zoller, K. (2008). Nonverbal patterns of teachers from 5 countries: Results from the TIMSS-R video study. Dissertation Abstracts International. A, The Humanities and Social Sciences, 68(9-A), 154. Zoller, K., & Landry, C. (2010). The choreography of presenting: the 7 essential abilities of effective presenters. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Zoller, K., Normore, A. H., & McDonald, S. (2014). A new way of leading for the law enforcement supervisor: An adaptive leadership case study. The Police Chief, 81, 44–47.

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ADDITIONAL READING Aquinas, T. (1947). Summa theologica. Retrieved from, http://www.ccel.org/ccel/aquinas/summa. FP_Q12_A4.html Begley, P. T. (2001). In pursuit of authentic school leadership practices. International Journal of Leadership in Education, 4(4), 353–366. doi:10.1080/13603120110078043 Begley, P. T. (2003). In pursuit of authentic school leadership practices. In P. T. Begley & O. Johansson (Eds.), The ethical dimensions of school leadership (pp. 1–12). Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Press. doi:10.1007/0-306-48203-7_1 Begley, P. T. (2006). Self-knowledge, capacity, and sensitivity: Prerequisites to authentic leadership by school principals. Journal of Educational Administration, 44(6), 570–589. doi:10.1108/09578230610704792 Bennis, W. G., & Nanus, B. (1985). Leaders: The strategies for taking charge. New York, NY: Harper and Row. Bolman, L. G., & Deal, T. E. (2003). Reframing organizations. Artistry, choice and leadership (3rd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Boyatzis, R., Goleman, D., & Rhee, K. (2000). Clustering competence in emotional intelligence: insights from the emotional competence inventory (ECI). In R. Bar-On & J. D. A. Parker (Eds.), Handbook of emotional intelligence (pp. 343–362). San Francisco, CA: Jossey- Bass. Duignan, P., & Bhindi, N. (1997). Authentic leadership: An emerging perspective. Journal of Educational Administration, 35(3), 195–209. doi:10.1108/09578239710170119

Heifetz, R., Linsky, M., & Grashow, A. (2009). The practice of adaptive leadership: Tools and tactics for changing your organization and the world. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press. Houshmand, Z., Harrington, A., Saron, C., & Davidson, R. (2002). Training the mind: First steps in a cross-cultural collaboration in neuroscientific research. In R. J. Davidson & A. Harrington (Eds.), Visions of compassion: Western scientists and Tibetan Buddhists examine human nature (pp. 8–37). New York, NY, US: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:o so/9780195130430.003.0001 Issa Lahera, A., Normore, A. H., & Zoller, K. (2013). Leading the charter school: Futuring technology today description. Paper submitted for presentation at the annual California Charter School Conference. March 11-14, San Diego, CA, 2013. Normore, A. H., & Issa Lahera, A. (2012). Striving for authenticity in program leadership development: Transforming a community of professional practice. Journal of Authentic Leadership in Education, 2(2). Available online at http://csle. nipissingu.ca/JALE/JALE_V ol2Num2Online.pdf Northouse, P. G. (2012). Leadership: Theory and practice. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Shriberg, A., & Shriberg, D. (2010). Practicing leadership principles and applications (4th ed.). New York, NY: Wiley Publishing. Starratt, R. J. (2007). Leading a community of learners: Learning to be moral by engaging the morality of learning. Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 35(2), 165–183. doi:10.1177/1741143207075387

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Yukl, G. A. (1999). An evaluation of conceptual weaknesses in transformational and charismatic leadership theories. The Leadership Quarterly, 10(2), 285–305. doi:10.1016/S10489843(99)00013-2

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Adaptive Leadership: A leadership framework by Heifetz and Linsky combining systems thinking with collaboration to achieve real change. Collaboration: The co-labor of working with individuals with diverse characteristics. Communicative Intelligence: The integration of cognitive and emotional energy sources with behavioral abilities that create our experiences and develop relationships to solve problems, catalyze change, and create new meaning. Craftsmanship: Extends beyond specific knowledge and skills associated with expertise in a subject. To be a craftsman requires expertise while

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simultaneously addressing the emotion related to the dissatisfaction of not achieving perfection. Craftsmanship is the driver of continuous learning, refinement, and excellence leading to mastery. Cross Cultural: Relating to different cultures or comparison between them. Empathy: The ability to understand and share the feelings of another. Flexibility: Refers to the choices a person makes when communicating. Flexibility provides the pathway for people to meet others in their reality and to use the skills of CI to align the message with their perception. Leadership: An influence relationship among participants intending real change and acting with reciprocal care and mutuality throughout that relationship. Rapport: A short-term relationship where the lines of communication are fully open, a close and harmonious relationship in which the people or groups concerned understand each other’s feelings or ideas and communicate well.

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Chapter 19

Beyond Environment, Economy, and Equity:

Implementing Power Balancing and Inclusive Process for Integrating our Agreed Framework of Sustainability Jill Sourial The Relational Center, USA

ABSTRACT Future global leadership requires skills and capacities that go beyond the leadership of one individual or a select few who hold the majority of power and responsibility for making decisions on behalf of their organizations or constituencies. The challenges of the 21st century demand not only a more collaborative and distributed approach, but also one that encourages empathy, resonance, and vulnerability. This chapter focuses on climate change and the capacities needed to address it. A holistic approach to sustainability is often referred to as the “3E’s” of Environment, Economy, and Equity. Given the complex nature of the challenges facing our planet and its governance systems, I argue that we have reached a critical point where it is necessary to add a fourth “E” to the sustainability framework. I would call this fourth “E” Empathy, which in very real terms encompasses a broad range of practices such a transformative conflict resolution, valuing diversity, cross-cultural dialogue, reconciliation, consensus building, collaboration, interdependency, negotiation, mediation, civic engagement, democratic governance, and social justice.

INTRODUCTION Climate change is perhaps an ideal laboratory to study and test an integrative, collaborative and cross-cultural approach to leadership and decisionmaking. The impacts of global warming will be felt

indiscriminately. According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency, changing the average global temperature by even a degree or two can lead to serious consequences around the globe. In the US alone, for about every 2°F of warming, we can expect to see:

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-8376-1.ch019

Copyright © 2015, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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• • • •

5-15% reductions in the yields of crops as currently grown 3-10% increases in the amount of rain falling during the heaviest precipitation events, which can increase flooding risks 5-10% decreases in stream flow in some river basins, including the Arkansas and the Rio Grande 200%-400% increases in the area burned by wildfire in parts of the western United States (As cited at: http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/basics/facts.html#ref6, 2014).

Some groups such as the small island nations or those with less access to resources will be impacted sooner than others, however it is foolish to operate in an “us versus them” paradigm or one that prioritizes short-term gains over long-term sustainability. The United Nations Conference of Parties serves as the decision-making and implementation body for the Kyoto Protocol, which sets internationally binding emission reduction targets on climate change. This chapter focuses on my experience observing multi-stakeholder contention at the United Nations talks on climate change, particularly the parties’ inability to balance power in the face of imbalance, and empathically understand, in equivalent ways, the most important interests being advocated by all the parties. To this end, I examine the ways that distributed leadership and mediation can facilitate dialogue and problem solving, through mastering and modeling critical empathic skills and power balancing, to ensure the most inclusive and productive process possible with contemporary knowledge. The term ‘sustainable development’ is officially defined in Our Common Future, the 1987 Brundtland Report commissioned by the United Nations, as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”(p. 16). More than twenty years later, this definition continues to be the guiding post for much of our institutional understanding about sustainable de-

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velopment. In practice however, sustainability has been much more difficult to implement and is often debated, especially as it relates to the increasingly complex challenge of addressing climate change. What does this definition of sustainable development mean for people, communities, and political systems trying to interpret it on a day-to-day basis while making complicated decisions about fossil fuels, food production, clean drinking water, or biodiversity? Even if we are able to agree upon a definition, what is needed in order to make challenging decisions, particularly when groups involved are polarized? And can mediation, along with resonant, collective leadership play a role in this process given an increasingly interconnected world where environmental conflicts are expected to intensify?

BACKGROUND At the time that Our Common Future was written, it was considered groundbreaking work that would guide policymaking toward a more environmentally sustainable future. While it marked progress and an increasing understanding of our changing and interrelated global conditions, the implementation of the ideas outlined in it have fallen short of the challenge before us. The UN document concluded that: In its broadest sense, the strategy for sustainable development aims to promote harmony among human beings and between humanity and nature. In the specific context of the development and environment crises of the 1980s, which current national and international political and economic institutions have not and perhaps cannot overcome, the pursuit of sustainable development requires: •

A political system that secures effective citizen participation in decision-making.

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• • • • • •

An economic system that is able to generate surpluses and technical knowledge on a self-reliant and sustained basis. A social system that provides for solutions for the tensions arising from disharmonious development. A production system that respects the obligation to preserve the ecological base for development. A technological system that can search continuously for new solutions. An international system that fosters sustainable patterns of trade and finance. An administrative system that is flexible and has the capacity for self-correction.(p. 57-58).

While I would agree that these goals outlined by the UN were on target, the challenge still remains, how do we create the necessary physical and social infrastructure to implement these objectives and integrate them into domestic and international systems? Current research and work in the field is demonstrating how these requirements for sustainable development can be enhanced by a broad range of implementation strategies that can help to support good governance, build democratic capacity, and resolve complex and particularly polarized multi-stakeholder conflicts. According to Erbe (2011), “mediation’s potential for remedying our most pressing global concerns, while increasingly recognized by practitioners and local communities, is still largely unnoticed by scholars. Good governance – the optimal exertion of societal influence for effective democratic culture – is arguably our most pressing global need.” (p. 129). The Earth System Governance Project (2009), led by the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change, has stated that “the institutions, organizations, and mechanisms by which humans currently govern their relationship with the

natural environment and global biogeochemical systems are not only insufficient – they are also poorly understood. (p. 4). The programme further iterates, Earth system governance is defined as the interrelated and increasingly integrated system of formal and informal rules, rule-making systems, and actor-networks at all levels of human society (from local to global) that are set up to steer societies towards preventing, mitigating, and adapting to global and local environmental change and, in particular, earth system transformation, within the normative context of sustainable development. The notion of governance refers here to forms of steering that are less hierarchical than traditional governmental policy-making (even though most modern governance arrangements will also include some degree of hierarchy), rather decentralized, open to self-organization, and inclusive of non-state actors that range from industry and non- governmental organizations to scientists, indigenous communities, city governments and international organizations (p. 4). The Earth Governance System Project is organized around five analytical problems: architecture of a governance system, agency, adaptiveness, accountability, and access or allocation, which speaks to questions of equity. It is “as much about environmental parameters as it is about social practices and processes”(p. 22). The Earth Governance System Project seeks to examine the roles of power, knowledge, norms, and scale from a variety of practical and theoretical social science perspectives. My goal is to contribute to the discussion around process through my experience observing the UN talks on climate change and including important work on leadership, cross-cultural collaboration, and mediation.

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 Beyond Environment, Economy, and Equity

MAIN FOCUS OF THE CHAPTER Issues, Controversies, Problems The United Nations delegates assemble once a year in November/December for the Conference of Parties (COP) on Climate Change. Staff level meetings, preparations, and an annual mid-year conference occur on an ongoing basis leading up to each COP. Country delegations vary vastly in size and composition. Some countries like the United States send mid or high level government officials, while others, like some of the small island nations such as Tuvalu, are often represented by respected community leaders. I met delegates who were businesspeople, others who were university students, and still others who had dual roles in their community and in government in their respective countries. Each had different approaches to the negotiation process and different imperatives back home. Outside observer organizations, such as the nonprofit group of mediators with whom I attended, are only invited to attend certain open sessions. Many members of civil society argue that all of the sessions should be open and transparent. Those countries who are most threatened by the impacts of climate change tend to advocate for a more open process, while the countries who perceive themselves as having the most to ‘lose’ economically or otherwise by legally mandated reductions in greenhouse gas emissions, tend to argue that this would prevent the delegates from speaking freely about their positions and interests. This assumption alone indicates that despite their affluence and sophistication, those representing the most powerful (and impactful) nations lack up-to-date schooling in the best of research-based negotiation tactics and conflict skills or that their training has been ineffective in producing more collaborative results. If representatives were adequately trained/educated in all that is promoted throughout this chapter, they would know that there are studied ways of advancing powerful nation state and private interests and creating alternatives

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that are better than the status quo. Programs at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology with Lawrence Susskind and the Harvard Negotiation Project can provide a solid introductory education. Reflective practice, coaching, and mentoring, however, are required with years of practice “in the fire” of cross-cultural misunderstanding. Limited consciousness and the myriad other ways human beings act as their own worst enemies can unknowingly escalate and worsen conflict. Only through such devoted and courageous practice and continuous improvement can conflict practitioners become masterful in creating power balanced inclusive multicultural process. Much of the open sessions at the United Nations climate change talks have focused on the idea that developed nations should help those in the developing world fund the programs necessary to combat climate change since they have created wealth in their own countries in the very ways that have contributed to the global warming crisis in which we now find ourselves. It can be interpreted as a form of restorative justice, or victim-offender mediation, to compensate those hurt by climate change by the developed world. Norway, Japan, Britain, Germany and the United States have led the world in contributing billions to this end. While there is some agreement to begin to quantify this as a remedy, it has left many frustrated that this discussion distracts from creating stricter regulatory controls and overall global limits on emissions. National representatives for countries with developing industry like India and China are demanding that the countries leading the world in per capita climate changing emissions, particularly the United States, but including all members of the European Union, also lead the world in implementing world sustainability goals. Parties responding to these polarized positions were offering proposals to address the problem but lacked the deep conflict resolution skills needed to create understanding between each party present, ensure that all were heard to their

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satisfaction in an equivalent and inclusive way and lead all in creative exploration for common ground and ideas/options for mutual gain – the best of integrative and international bargaining. Instead, they led the purported discussion; perhaps more accurately described as contentious and polarized debate, in an exploration of compromise and concession, assuming that all would need to give up some of their most cherished interests to meet others “in the middle.” Such a distributive approach works well in corporate sales where inflated prices are assumed and bargaining is a given, but not with more complex conflict where cherished interests are essential to future sustainability and simply cannot be sacrificed. From one perspective, all appear to be deluded in assuming that money and economics will pave the way to our collective survival rather than preserving the natural world that truly does give and sustain life. With the global economy of the last several years, this guarantees a “lose-lose” downward spiral, commonly referred to as a race to the bottom or tragedy of the commons. This type of debate is not unusual. Despite mediation and conflict resolution’s emerging potential, global practitioners describe how many, if not most, stakeholders are entrenched in the distributive paradigm. “Polarizing disputes by framing them as simple ‘either/or’ or win-lose assumes traditional distributive bargaining with an elementary linear logic where parties simply distribute or divide. Integrative bargaining, on the other hand, is designed for complexity and interdependence” (Erbe, 2011, p. 148). So, how do we develop societal and institutional capacity to move toward a more integrative approach and also to support greater capacity to hold complexity especially in the context of resource scarcity and climate-induced conflict?

SOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS In an attempt to answer this question, it is critical to note that in many circles today, sustainable development is widely referred to as the “3E’s” of Environment, Economy, and Equity. Further, the “3P’s” of People, Planet, and Profit, commonly known as the “triple bottom line” are sometimes used interchangeably. Coined by John Elkington (1987), the triple bottom line approach measures impacts or success in relation to these three dimensions or “the three pillars” of sustainability and attempts to capture an expanded spectrum of values and criteria for measuring organizational and societal success: economic, ecological, and social. With the ratification of the United Nations and International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives (ICLEI) triple bottom line standard for urban and community accounting in early 2007, this has become the dominant approach to public sector full cost accounting. Similar UN standards apply to natural capital and human capital measurement to assist in measurements required by the triple bottom line, for example the EcoBudget standard for reporting ecological footprint. In the private sector, a commitment to corporate social responsibility implies a commitment to some form of triple bottom line reporting. This is distinct from the more limited framework required to deal only with ecological issues. Prior to this concept of the triple bottom line (often represented as the three legs needed to support a stool), each of the three E’s were primarily considered in isolation and by different types of practitioners (i.e. biologists, economists, sociologists, etc.). Whereas now, if any one of these E’s that address ecology/environment, economic considerations, and social equity is missing, the resulting solutions are often dismissed as inad-

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equate and lacking a crucial component for lasting sustainability. This framework has provided a more comprehensive method for understanding, quantifying, and measuring sustainability. By building upon the original UN definition and expanding how we come to interpret sustainable development, it has brought researchers and practitioners a long way in our thinking about sustainability. Such institutional measuring works well within government and bureaucratic systems, including emerging international systems like the United Nations and other international agencies, where rules, policies and procedures are used daily to assess compliance. It also certainly helps socially responsible businesses in their decision-making and evaluation of impact. But, I do not believe it captures the full picture. There are deficits in the current methods of looking at, and more importantly, practicing and implementing sustainability that need to be filled in order to truly address the systems approach that the UN was attempting to outline, and that climate change is now demanding. Given the complex nature of the challenges facing our planet, I believe global leaders and citizens alike have reached a critical point where it is necessary to add a fourth “E” to the sustainability framework. This “E” should encompass the many ways in which people collaborate to resolve conflict and achieve collective agreements that support not only human well-being, but also increasingly, life on the planet. I would call this fourth “E” Empathy, which in very practical terms can include a broad range of peacebuilding tools such as mediation, conflict resolution, humanitarian efforts, cross-cultural dialogue, reconciliation, restorative justice, consensus building, collaboration, negotiation, civic engagement, developing creative win-win responses, and social justice. Much like the first three “E’s” in the past, empathy has often been considered the domain of psychology or cognitive and behavioral sciences, whereas now, practitioners such as Fairfield (2013) are demonstrating how it is being integrated into how we think about social change and sustainability.

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The advances in these fields of study offer a more comprehensive framework for sustainability in the 21st century. In his book The Empathic Civilization, Jeremy Rifkin (2009) describes how increasingly resource/ energy intensive cultures also simultaneously develop increasingly complex social structures. In a well-researched thesis that draws from history, anthropology, psychology, sociology and political science, Rifkin starts with the premise that as a species we are wired for resonance, connection, and cooperation. He discusses the latest research in cognitive development and mirror neurons to demonstrate that we are not a purely utilitarian, survival of the fittest species. Quite the contrary, we are an empathic species. Rifkin asserts, “By extending the central nervous system of each individual and the society as a whole, communications revolutions provide an ever more inclusive playing field for empathy to mature and consciousness to expand”(p. 37). He describes the great paradox we now find ourselves in as a global society where our capacity for empathy has never been greater while our reliance on fossil fuels and energy usage that got us here imperils our future survival. According to Rifkin (2009), “It wasn’t until two centuries ago that human settlement metamorphasized into highly complex, densely populated urban centers of a million or more inhabitants. The urbanization of the human race was made possible by the discovery of stored sun, in the form of coal and later oil and natural gas”(p. 428). However, the majority of the world is now bearing the brunt of this lopsided development and accumulation of wealth after a history of slavery, colonization and oppression that accompanied this urbanization. Most researchers on climate change agree that the planet cannot universally support the same level of development and wealth accumulation that we see in the global North. A reduction in consumption by some will have to accompany a rise in standards of living by others. How do we foster integrative solutions within this context? One question is whether the minority of the hu-

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man race that is impoverishing the planet and a large portion of the human race, “can translate their materialistic values into a workable cultural, economic, and political game plan that can steer themselves and their communities to a more sustainable and equitable future in time to avoid the abyss”(Rifkin, 2009, p. 452). As a Western author, I share this concern and propose shifting our culture through spreading empathic skills. Envisioning and creating a future scenario where the four “E’s” become commonplace and where empathy (and the range of skills it embodies) is considered a necessary component to sustainable development is crucial. Another question, however, is more realistic in the near term: How can the most powerful stakeholders in the climate change discussion be persuaded and encouraged to take the lead with power sharing and creating an inclusive process through extending empathy? Can they be reassured through conflict resolution education and masterful alliances that such trust can only advance and will not hurt their interests? The answer is the same advocated earlier: that cutting-edge investment in learning the most effective negotiation, mediation and conflict skills proving themselves today is a vital start. Committing to mastery in the heat of the toughest micro challenges faced and arising in climate talks, under the mentorship of seasoned practitioners with years of proven mastery, is a requisite next step. While often and easily espoused in mediation and conflict resolution circles, authentic impartiality with equal and inclusive power balancing is still too rarely practiced, experienced or seen. This is particularly true across the difference of profession, politics, gender, culture and nation-state. The diverse complexity present with global climate change talks compounds and multiplies micro process challenge exponentially but can also hold the key to innovative solutions. Perhaps an easy first step, while climate change talks participants and representatives are obtaining necessary education, would be to hire expert process observers and mediators. They would be

prepared to coach, mediate, model and otherwise lead power balancing and inclusive discussion as well as empathic, insightful and skillful listening, conflict analysis, and multicultural/national perspective taking. The challenge of addressing rising global temperatures will require transformative change as opposed to incremental change both at the institutional, community, and individual levels. Society as a whole cannot afford to continue simple distributive bargaining, or demand and concession. We are already seeing dramatic effects such as super storms and droughts. While it seems obvious that destructive weather events will require the skills of masterful peacebuilders to address the aftermath of resource scarcity, what may be less obvious is the proactive need for such peacebuilding and empathic skills to shift us away from the problems creating climate change in the first place and create new ways of organizing ourselves and our use of natural resources. Authors such as Rifken (2009) describe the more flat and decentralized democratic systems that will begin to emerge. An effective UN framework to address climate change can begin to model this in very real ways that can then be replicated in other institutional capacities. First, as mentioned earlier, skilled negotiators and mediators must model careful and astute listening. All those listening to the climate change representatives should have enough multicultural and linguistic understanding to be open to everyone present in equivalent ways without allowing domination and bullying. The best of skilled and trained listeners have uncanny insight into those they are hearing and often please and surprise those speaking with their astute recognition of what is most important to the speaker. With this ability, they also recognize and articulate the common ground that bridges difference while honoring diversity. This by itself has a potent ability to transform, or at least diffuse, contentious polarization as speakers start to realize that they will benefit from finding ways to work with others on

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shared interest. With this insight, skilled listeners can reframe polarized positions in ways that emphasize what is most important to the speakers while eliminating offensive and unproductive verbiage; thus helping the process move towards constructive conversation and problem-solving. Empathic skills are at the heart of astute reframing and understanding. In brief, they describe literally “walking in another’s shoes,” or skilled perspective taking. Second, skilled contemporary mediation requires power balancing for a just and fair process. This may be a difficult task for a government agency employee to perform—staff for the UN and government bureaucracies around the world, international and domestic, are accustomed to preferencing government first, with a focus on attention to the detail of law, policy and procedure. Managing employees who fit into this mold is the norm rather than leading inclusive transformative process. Fortunately the UN recognizes this challenge and has been employing renowned, independent impartial mediators from several countries since 2008. They are engaged with critical tasks that require power balancing and the building of trust. The UN must also somehow ensure that they are corruption and power abuse free and capable of modeling the essential multicultural skills introduced above. The world knows that the UN has faced scandal so it should be no surprise to learn that members of the International Ombudsman Association (IOA) name confronting internal power abuse as their most troubling challenge (Erbe & Sebok, 2008). For readers unfamiliar with IOA, its members are organizational ombuds who work with internal conflict in a variety of organizations, including international agencies like the World Health Organization, the United Nations, the World Food Organization and the World Bank. If these organizations are struggling with power imbalance and abuse within, it is challenging to imagine that their staff are prepared to practice and model on a consistent basis. An emphasis on building this capacity should be prioritized.

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Parties to the climate change talks must likewise assess whether they are trained and prepared to balance power between all representatives with their own experience and observation or ask for expert independent help; in short, masterful impartial mediation. Since mediations are closed and confidential like much of the climate change talks, parties themselves must evaluate and ensure transparency and a just good faith process. Did they observe that every representative had an equal and fair opportunity to speak? More importantly, did one or more party negotiator summarize what they had heard from each representative to the satisfaction of the speaker? If the answers to one or more of these questions is no, parties to future talks are advised to request masterful impartial mediators. According to Erbe (2011), “To preserve mediation integrity and to heighten effectiveness, process conflict must be reconciled before attempting substantive discussion. Openly addressing procedural challenges helps facilitate stakeholder understanding of expectation and risk. Ideally all concerned will carefully define the desired role of mediation, agree to multicultural groundrules for decision-making, and design mediation to meet particular needs and interests.” (p.159). It may be challenging for the most powerful to imagine themselves taking the lead with sharing and balancing power. So much Western political and business literature advocates domination and aggression for security and protection. In Negotiation Alchemy, Erbe examined several case studies of international negotiations from more than a decade ago and found that the highest quality evaluated and sustainable agreements resulted from the opposite: skillful integrative negotiation blended with enough distributive assertion and occasional aggression – simply enough to ensure that generosity and collaboration were not abused or exploited. Negotiators must be alert and prepared to respond strategically to momentby-moment countermoves like one would play a game of chess. If an opponent/another negotiator

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responds or acts aggressively, it is recommended to respond so that the other negotiator sees that one is not vulnerable to attack. Quickly following this assertion (gentle quick disarming) with an invitation and opportunity to collaborate for mutual gain can transform negotiations so they move forward. This is not a magic formula however, but a strategic skilled tactic that must be assessed move by move. If aggression continues, strength and protection must also continue. The most powerful involved in climate change talks can share and balance power in several ways that will benefit their interests. The skillful empathetic, accurate, insightful listening and identification of common ground identified earlier are two ways. Merely welcoming and inviting less powerful participants/representatives “to the table” is another. As just described, astutely noticing who is talking and otherwise contributing and who is not, or who is dominating a process and who is struggling to be heard (deeply and accurately understood) is another. Such basic gestures may seem deceptively simple and taken for granted when discussed as mere rhetoric but in practice, particularly with the complex cultural, political and emotional challenges of a global process like climate change talks, can make dramatic difference. Without integration of such democratic process and skills, “talks” lose credibility and legitimacy and contribute to polarized escalating conflict. In short, lack of integrative negotiation, mediation and conflict skills drives climate change talk representatives and participants further apart. At the worst, tough entrenched ruts are dug even deeper like a car caught in mud or snow. Can one imagine the destructive arrogant foolishness of the most powerful king screaming his frustration and insisting on dominance as his car sinks even further into a muddy or icy rut? Many see the US and other global powers as like this king in assuming their futures will somehow flourish in the face of climate change even if they fail find a productive way to move forward and to value our interdependence.

Normally, scholars of mediation and other impartial conflict process focus, like Paulo Freire (1970), on the empowerment of the less powerful rather than asking and coaching the most powerful to “play fair.” There is a wealth of practice-based knowledge in sound conflict process also available to the representatives and participants in climate change talks seeking to empower themselves. They are well advised to seek education and alliances with the best of cross-cultural and multicultural mediations and mediators. There are in fact examples of this such as the Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS), that has developed at the COP. Parties have many sources and types of power: individual and shared. Individual power and influence is reflected in “being at the table,” or being included in conflict process, trust, resources (status quo and potential), and persuasive ability. Examples of shared power include the political power of changing alliances and showing unexpected unity, the public relations value of not doing business as usual (Erbe, 2003, p. 85). In simple terms, power balancing requires treating all concerned equally with respect. Prejudice, bias and discrimination of any kind is not tolerated or allowed. Research shows that the best of cross-cultural and multicultural facilitators have the charisma and influence needed to assert and guide consensual agreements ensuring all feel safe and encouraged to speak. They emulate an exquisite balance between the receptivity needed for exceptional listening and understanding and the assertion required for trusted leadership in collaborative problem solving. (Erbe, 2003). Those hiring mediators and facilitators to help them with power balancing should watch them carefully to ensure power balancing or impartiality across culture and other difference. They should not observe mediators judging anyone involved in discussion. Educated mediators are schooled in suspending judgment and other emotional reactions in the interests of reducing cognitive misunderstanding. Anyone hiring a mediator who observes discrimination

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or any other evidence of mediator or participant bad faith can withdraw from the process as the fundamental premise of mediation is participant self-determination. In fact, participants can craft the mediation process so that it works best for all of them. By continually going back to a working framework that includes empathy, these skills will become embedded in environmental conversations and placed on equal ground with environment, economy and equity as the criteria we all use repeatedly to measure progress with regard to sustainability. It gives language and recognition to holistic thinking about ecology and consciousness, as Joanna Macy (2012) points out, when she describes the three dimensions of “the Great Turning” needed to sustain the planet. They are 1. actions to slow the damage to Earth and its beings 2. analysis of structural causes and the creation of structural alternatives and 3. shift in consciousness. More importantly, skilled empathy empowers practical intercultural effectiveness. Viewed another way, this is not dissimilar from what many nonviolent social movements have advocated for in the past. Gandhi for example understood the interconnection between economics boycotts, reduced consumption of natural resources, self-reliance, equity, and speaking truth to power. He provides an example of radical social change that includes all: the political, legislative, and legal work required to reduce harm, as well as direct actions – blockades, boycotts, civil disobedience, and other forms of refusal. We saw this demonstrated with the hunger strike that took place at the recent climate change talks in Warsaw following the aftermath of the devastating storm in the Philippines. The contemporary Anna Hazare (2008) is currently reminding and showing us that Gandhi’s example and teachings still work today. Global interpersonal effectiveness and wisdom are at the heart of all.

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FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS While it is beyond the scope of this chapter, there is a large role for empathy and collective leadership to play in order to advance the social movements that have been bringing outside pressure to bear from grassroots groups and community activists. A skillful social movement and active citizenry places greater pressure to change the dynamic of the negotiations going on within the institutional framework. Ultimately we need both. If we are to address the challenge of climate change, the democratizing of processes such as the UN Framework will have to take place to such an extent that we begin to understand and incorporate peacebuilding skills as a crucial component to sustainability at every level. By adding empathy to the framework of environment, economy, and equity, we can begin to highlight the ways in which we make and implement decisions collectively in order to bring about necessary change. Most importantly, by consciously emulating educated and skilled empathy, the existing global movement of environmentalists can transform and guide climate change talks forward. Climate change deserves and needs the best of what is capable today. Mentors and coaches should be sought based on demonstrated practice effectiveness or “walking the talk” of power balancing and creating inclusive just process in the face of tough and heated contention. Anyone acquainted with systems theory as described by authors such as Bennis (2007) and Senge (1990), knows the shifts that can occur by merely changing one part or process within the system. If those fixated on attacking and changing their greatest opponents in the climate change debate could pull some of their energy into creative alliance building and problem solving, at least more progress would likely occur. The world is ready and ripe for this change. Institutional leaders and activists are using these skills and processes to build com-

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munity, global alliances and move forward in the face of the toughest challenges present today. From indigenous communities who are taking a stand against oil extraction in the Amazon to the most recent People’s Climate March in New York City that coincided with the UN General Assembly meeting in September of this year, climate justice advocates are modeling a more decentralized form of leadership and power. These capacities must be demonstrated both at the grassroots level and from within institutions such as the United Nations.

CONCLUSION Boyatzis and McKee (2005) explain that our contemporary world requires a new kind of leadership, one that is resonant and compassionate, and that acknowledges we are all in this together. While they describe some of the latest research on organizational change they also make a clear case for the idea that “People who think they can be truly great leaders without personal transformation are fooling themselves. You cannot inspire others and create the resonant relationships that ignite greatness in your families, organizations, or communities without feeling inspired yourself, and working to be the best person you can be. You must ‘be the change you wish to see’.” (p. 201). This will require a broad range of skills as outlined in this chapter that values diversity, enhances collaboration, and embodies empathy to solve our world’s most pressing challenges. Satisfaction of human needs and aspirations is the major objective of development. The essential needs of vast numbers of people in developing countries for food, clean water, shelter, jobs - are not being met, and beyond their basic needs these people have legitimate aspirations for an improved quality of life. Sustainable development requires meeting the basic needs of all and extending to all the opportunity to satisfy their aspirations for a better life. Empathy, as a fourth pillar of

sustainability, helps create an understanding of the change that needs to come from within our institutional frameworks and beyond while guiding transformative “walking the talk” of global collaboration and community building.

REFERENCES Bennis, W. (1997). Organizing genius: The secrets of creative collaboration. New York, NY: Perseus. Bevir, M. (2007). Encyclopedia of governance. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. doi:10.4135/9781412952613 Biermann, F., Betsill, M.M., Gupta, J., Kanie, N., Lebel, K., Liverman, D., Schroeder, H., & Siebenhuner, B. (2009). Earth system governance: People, places, and the planet. Bonn, IHDP: Earth System Governance Project. Boyatzis, R., & McKee, A. (2005). Resonant leadership. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press. Brundtland, G. H. (1987). United Nations report of the world commission on environment and development: Our common future. Chapter 2. Retrieved from http://www.un-documents.net/ our-common-future.pdf Cloke, K. (2011). Conflict, climate change, and environmental catastrophe: How mediators can help save the planet. Retrieved from http://www. kennethcloke.com/Environment%20ArticleCardozo-Final.pdf Erbe, N. (2003). Holding these truths: Empowerment and recognition in action (Interactive case study curriculum for multicultural dispute resolution). Berkeley, CA: Public Policy Press. Erbe, N. (2011). Negotiation alchemy: Global skills inspiring & transforming diverging worlds. Berkeley, CA: Public Policy Press.

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Erbe, N., & Sebok, T. (2008). Shared Global Interest in Skillfully Applying IOA Standards of Practice. Journal of the International Ombudsman Association, 1(1), 28–41. Fairfield, M. (2013). The relational movement. British Gestalt Journal, 22(1), 22–35. Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York, NY: Bloomsbury. Hazare, A. (2008). Anna Hazare: A man behind Right To Information (RTI) revolution. Retrieved from http://www.annahazare.org/index.html Kaushik, A. (2010). Mahatma Gandhi and environment protection. Retrieved from http://gandhifoundation.org/2010/06/03/mahatma-gandhi-andenvironment- protection-by-anupma-kaushik/ Macy, J. (2012). Three dimensions of the Great Turning. Retrieved from http://www.joannamacy. net/thegreatturning/three-dimensions-of-thegreat- turning.html Rifkin, J. (2009). The empathic civilization: The race to global consciousness in a world in crisis. New York, NY: Penguin Group. Senge, P. (1990). The fifth discipline: The art and practice of the learning organization. New York, NY: Doubleday. Slaper, T., & Hall, T. (2011). The triple bottom line: What is it and how does it work? Indiana Business Review. Retrieved from http://www.ibrc. indiana.edu/ibr/2011/spring/article2.html United States Environmental Protection Agency. USEPA. (2014). Climate change facts: Answers to common questions. Retrieved from http://www. epa.gov/climatechange/basics/facts.html

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ADDITIONAL READING Bennett, M. D., & Hughes, S. (2005). The art of mediation (2nd ed.). Notre Dame, IN: National Institute for Trial Advocacy. Bosley, D. S. (1993). Cross cultural collaboration: Whose culture is it anyway? Technical Communication Quarterly, 2(1), 51–62. doi:10.1080/10572259309364523 Campbell, S. (1996, Summer). Green cities, growing cities, just cities? Urban planning and the contradictions of sustainable development. Journal of the American Planning Association, 62(3), 296–312. doi:10.1080/01944369608975696 Cloke, K. (2006). The crossroads of conflict: A journey into the heart of dispute resolution. Canada: Janis Publications. Cobb, S. (1993, July). Empowerment and mediation: A narrative perspective. Negotiation Journal, 9(3), 245–259. doi:10.1111/j.1571-9979.1993. tb00706.x Daly, H., & Cobb, J. (1994). For the common good: Redirecting the economy toward community, the environment, and a sustainable future. Boston, MA: Beacon Press Books. Deutsch, M., & Coleman, P. T. (Eds.). (2000). The handbook of conflict resolution: Theory and practice. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bas Publishers. Douglas, A. J. (1983-1984). The politics of environmental mediation. Ecology Law Quarterly, 11(1), 1–10. Fisher, R., & Ury, W. (1991). Getting to yes: Negotiating agreement without giving in (2nd ed.). London, England: Penguin Books.

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Flowers, L. (2012). Five points for your empathy arsenal: The arguments you need to explain why empathy is a key to life-long learning. Retrieved from http://startempathy.org/blog/2012/05/5points-your-empathy-arsenal Fox, J. A., & Brown, D. L. (Eds.). (1998). The struggle for accountability: The World Bank, NGOs, and grassroots movements. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Galton, E. R., & Love, L. P. (Eds.). (2012). Stories mediators tell. Chicago, IL: American Bar Association Publishing. Gewurz, I. G. (2001, Winter). (Re)designing mediation to address the nuances of power imbalance. Conflict Resolution Quarterly, 19(2), 135–162. doi:10.1002/crq.3890190203 Gundykunst, W. B., & Moody, B. (Eds.). (2002). Handbook of international and intercultural communication (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Gunter, V., & Kroll-Smith, S. (2007). Volatile places: A sociology of communities and environmental controversies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press. Herr & Herr. (1998). Transforming violence: Linking local and global peacemaking. Scottdale, PA: Herald Press. Holbrook, K., Kim, A. S., Palmer, B., & Portnoy, A. (Eds.). (2006). Global values 101. Boston, MA: Beacon Press. Jeong, H. (2000). Peace and conflict studies: An introduction. Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing Company. Lewicki, R. J., Gray, B., & Elliot, M. (Eds.). (2003). Making sense of intractable environmental conflicts. Washington, DC: Island Press.

Logan, D., King, J., & Fischer-Wright, H. (2008). Tribal leadership: Leveraging natural groups to build a thriving organization. New York, NY: HarperCollins. Mayer, B. (1987, Summer). The dynamics of power in mediation and negotiation. Mediation Quarterly, 1987(16), 75–86. doi:10.1002/ crq.39019871610 McGinnis, A. L. (1985). Bringing out the best in people: How to enjoy helping others excel. Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg Books. Mindell, A. (2013). Dance of the ancient one: How the universe solves personal and world problems. Portland, OR: Deep Democracy Exchange. Newman, P., Beatley, T., & Boyer, H. (2009). Resilient cities: Responding to peak oil and climate change. Washington, DC: Island Press. O’Dea, J. (2012). Cultivating peace: Becoming a 21st-century peace ambassador. San Rafael, CA: Shift Books. O’Leary, R., & Bingham, L. B. (Eds.). (2003). The promise and performance of environmental conflict resolution. Washington, DC: Resources for the Future. Peet, R., & Watts, M. (Eds.). (1996). Liberation ecologies: Environment, development, social movements. New York, NY: Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203286784 Pruitt, D. G., & Kim, S. H. (2004). Social conflict: Escalation, stalemate, and settlement (3rd ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Rosenberg, M. B. (2005). Nonviolent communication: A language of life (2nd ed.). Encinitas, CA: Puddle Dancer Press. Rosenberg, M. B. (2005). Speak peace in a world of conflict: What you say next will change your world. Encinitas, CA: Puddle Dancer Press.

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Schellenberg, J. A. (1996). Conflict resolution: Theory, research, and practice. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. Snow, D. (1992). Inside the environmental movement: Meeting the leadership challenge. Washington, DC: Island Press. Stone, D., Patton, B., & Heen, S. (2000). Difficult conversations: How to discuss what matters most. Middlesex, England: Penguin Books. Ury, W. (2000). The third side. Middlesex, England: Penguin Books. Weiss, T. G. (2000). Governance, good governance and global governance: Conceptual and actual challenges. Third World Quarterly, 21(5), 795–814. doi:10.1080/713701075

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Civic Engagement: Individual and collective actions designed to identify and address issues of public concern. Collaboration: Working with others to do a task and to achieve shared goals. It is a recursive process where two or more or organizations work together, (this is more than the intersection of common goals seen in co-operative ventures, but a deep, collective determination to reach an identical objective. Empathy: The ability to understand and share the feelings of another. The experience of understanding another person’s condition from their perspective. Governance: All processes of governing, whether undertaken by a government, market or network, whether over a family, tribe, formal or informal organization or territory and whether through laws, norms, power or language. It relates

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to processes and decisions that seek to define actions, grant power and verify performance. Whether the organization is a geopolitical entity (nation-state), a corporate entity (business entity), a socio-political entity (chiefdom, tribe, family, etc.), or an informal one, its governance is the way the rules and actions are produced, sustained, and regulated. Mediation: Intervention in a process or relationship; intercession. Power Balancing: Power can be conceptualized as a mutual interaction between the characteristics of a person and the characteristics of a situation, where the person has access to valued resources and uses them to achieve personal, relational, or environmental goals, often through using various strategies of influence. Reframing: A way of viewing and experiencing events, ideas, concepts and emotions to find more positive alternatives. Relational: Concerning the way in which two or more people or things are connected. Social Justice: Justice in terms of the distribution of wealth, opportunities, and privileges within a society. It is based on the concepts of human rights and equality, and can be defined as the way in which human rights are manifested in the everyday lives of people at every level of society. Sustainability: The endurance of systems and processes. Systems Thinking: The process of understanding how things, regarded as systems, influence one another within a whole. In nature, systems thinking examples include ecosystems in which various elements such as air, water, movement, plants, and animals work together to survive or perish. In organizations, systems consist of people, structures, and processes that work together to make an organization “healthy” or “unhealthy”.

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About the Contributors

Nancy D. Erbe, J.D., L.L.M., is a Professor in Negotiation, Conflict Resolution and Peacebuilding at California State University, Dominguez Hills and Fulbright Distinguished Chair in American Studies PUC-Rio 2014-15. She has taught at the University of Denver, Pepperdine’s Straus Institute for Dispute Resolution, Cornell School of Law, the University of California, Berkeley, the University of Oslo’s International Summer School and several universities in Cyprus and India. Professor Erbe recently edited Approaches to Managing Organizational Diversity and Innovation and is the author of (2011) Negotiation Alchemy: Global Skills Inspiring and Transforming Diverging Worlds, (2003) Holding These Truths: Empowerment and Recognition in Action (an interactive case study curriculum for multicultural conflict resolution), Berkeley: Public Policy Press, Initiating No Violence Education for Students and Teachers (funded by U.S. Dept of Justice) and several articles related to global and domestic conflict resolution and peacebuilding in journals including Harvard Negotiation Law Review and Southern Poverty Law’s publications. Professor Erbe is a practicing mediator, Paul Harris Fellow and Fulbright Senior Specialist in Peace Studies and Conflict Resolution (Cyprus and West Bank/Israel). Since 2010 she has served on the Fulbright Review Committee for Senior Specialists in Peace Studies and Conflict Resolution. Recently she was awarded “Fulbright Distinguished Chair” in American Studies (PUC-Rio, Brazil) 2014-15. Anthony (Tony) H. Normore holds a Ph.D. from University of Toronto. He is a Professor of Educational Leadership, and Department Chair of Special Needs Services at California State University Dominguez Hills (CSUDH) in Los Angeles. Dr. Normore has been a visiting professor of ethics and leadership at Seoul National University, a visiting professor in the Department of Criminal Justice Studies at University of Guelph/Humber. He is also a graduate professor of law, ethics, and leadership for the Summer Leadership Academy at Teachers College-Columbia University. His 30+ years of professional education experiences has taken him throughout North America, South Central Asia, Eastern Asia, UK, Continental Europe, and South Pacific. Tony’s research focusses on urban leadership preparation, growth, and development in the context of ethics and social justice. He is the author 15+ books including What the Social Sciences Tell us about Leadership for Social Justice and Ethics (2014, Information Age Publishing), Moral Compass for Law Enforcement Professional (2014, International Academy of Public Safety), and Collective Efficacy: An Interdisciplinary Approach to International Leadership Development (2013, Emerald Group Publishing). He was recently appointed as Chief Leadership and Ethics Officer, and the Chairman of the Criminal Justice Commission on Credible Leadership Development at the International Academy for Public Safety. ***  

About the Contributors

Hendrik Leendert Aalbers, PhD, is an assistant professor of Strategy and Innovation at Radboud University, Nijmegen School of Management and affiliated with the Institute of Management Research, the Netherlands. He received his PhD from the University of Groningen in Business and Economics for an Award winning dissertation on managing intra organizational networks. Rick received his Bachelor and Masters in Business Administration from Erasmus University’s RSM and his second Masters in Economics from the Rotterdam School of Economics (awarded cum laude). He has published in international journals such as Research Policy, MIT Sloan Management Review, Journal of Product Innovation Management, British Journal of Management, Innovation: Management, Policy and Practice, Journal of Business Strategy and the Journal of Economic Issues, and others. Melanie C. Brooks is an Assistant Professor in the Departments of Curriculum & Instruction and Leadership & Counseling at the University of Idaho. She has conducted research in Egypt, Thailand, the Philippines, and the United States using sociological theories as a way to understand issues related to religion, conflict, and multicultural education. Her work is published in Religion & Education, Teachers College Record, Educational Policy, Journal of Curriculum and Pedagogy, Educational Management Administration & Leadership, and has forthcoming articles in Planning and Changing and Religion & Education. Jeffrey S. Brooks is Professor of Educational Leadership in the Faculty of Education at Monash University. He is a J. William Fulbright Senior Scholar alumnus who has conducted studies in the United States and the Philippines. His research focuses broadly on educational leadership, and he examines the way leaders influence (and are influenced by) dynamics such as racism, globalization, distributed leadership, social justice and school reform. Dr. Brooks is author of the books, The Dark Side of School Reform: Teaching in the Space between Reality and Utopia, Black School, White School: Racism and Educational (Mis)leadership. His research has appeared in the journals Teachers College Record, Educational Administration Quarterly, Educational Policy, Journal of Educational Administration, Science Education, Journal of Research on Leadership in Education, and the Journal of Values and Ethics in Educational Administration among others. Amanda Smith Byron, EdD, is a social justice educator with over 25 years of experience addressing conflict within and among multicultural communities. Dr. Byron has been a core faculty member of the Graduate Program in Conflict Resolution at Portland State University since 1998/1999, where her research interests center around postsecondary peace pedagogy. She served in Vietnam as a Fulbright Scholar, worked with diverse communities, and has received awards for her teaching. Her doctoral research examined storytelling as loving praxis in post-secondary social justice education, and current research considers the cultural implications of conflict, the importance of identity and gender in social justice processes, and the necessity of engaging discomfort in transforming our collective legacies of injustice. Kenneth Campa currently works as a program manager with City Year Los Angeles; a leading tutoring-based educational non-profit organization in the city of Los Angeles. He received his B.A. in Chicana/o Studies from the University of California, Santa Barbara in 2007. In 2010, he received his M.A. in Negotiation, Conflict Resolution and Peacebuilding from California State University, Dominguez Hills. With experience working in the non-profit setting since 2006 with other student enrichment and educational based organizations, his work experience has exposed him to a variety of institutional, social emotional and educational reform practices. Kenneth continues to support NCRP research alongside his managerial work at City Year Los Angeles. 379

About the Contributors

Kirti Sawhney Celly earned a Ph.D. in Business Administration at the University of Southern California, and Master’s in Finance and Bachelor’s in Economics, both from Bombay University. Before her career in higher education, Kirti got her early experience with A. F. Ferguson, a member of the PriceWaterhouseCoopers network and the leading audit and consulting company in India, the EximBank of India, Citibank, and Gala of London. Currently Professor at California State University, Dominguez Hills, she teaches and serves as course coordinator for the principles of marketing course and the capstone strategic marketing management seminar. She has also taught the capstone seminar in strategic management, international marketing, distribution strategies, consumer behavior and marketing research. Her research has been published in the Journal of Marketing Research, Journal of International Business Studies, Marketing Education Review, Journal of Business Research, and the International Journal of Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Marketing. Kerry Clamp, Ph.D, is a Lecturer in Criminology in the Department of Social Sciences and Psychology at the University of Western Sydney. She received her PhD from the University of Leeds in 2010 and also holds degrees from the University of Sheffield and the University of South Africa. Dr. Clamp’s research agenda focuses on restorative justice and transitional justice. Her research appears in a number of journals including the British Journal of Community Justice (2011, 2014), Nottingham Law Journal (2012), International Criminal Law Review (2012), Northern Ireland Legal Quarterly (2012), Criminology and Criminal Justice (2012) and Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice (2014). She also has a monograph published by Routledge entitled Restorative Justice in Transition and a forthcoming edited collection entitled Restorative Justice in Transitional Settings (forthcoming 2015) both of which look at the use of restorative justice in the context of mass violence and oppression. Yvette Durazo is the founder of Unitive Consulting. She specializes in conflict resolution management and performance coaching. Yvette is an Adjunct Professor for National University for the Alternative Dispute Resolution program and she has also taught courses in conflict resolution and mediation to the School General Council of the Judiciary in the state of Guanajuato, Mexico. She received a Master’s Degree in Conflict Resolution, Negotiation and Peacebuilding from California State University Dominguez Hills, a Bachelor of International Business with emphasis in Latin American Studies from San Diego State University and is an Associate Certified Credential Coach through the International Coach Federation. She received her mediation certification from the San Diego Restorative Justice Center and National Conflict Resolution Center. She is fully bilingual in Spanish language. Brian Ellis, MS, is a 17-year veteran with the Sacramento Police Department. Lieutenant Ellis has worked in a number of specialized assignments including with the Problem Oriented Policing Unit, Parole Intervention and Career Criminal Apprehension Teams, Narcotics and Robbery/Burglary divisions. He is currently a watch commander for the East Command. Brian earned his undergraduate degree in Criminal Justice from California State, Sacramento and has a MS in Organizational Leadership from National University. He is a life-long student of the leadership and has written several articles for law enforcement journals. Brian is passionate about helping others reach their true potential by inspiring authentic action. He has published with Law Enforcement Today (LET), Peace Officers Research Association of California, and Journal of California Law Enforcement (California Peace Officers Association).

380

About the Contributors

Peter Finell has held the position of International Relations Manager at Centria University of Applied Sciences in Kokkola since 2002. He holds a Master’s Degree in Political Sciences from Åbo Akademi University (Finland) and a European Master’s Degree in Human Rights and Democratisation from the University of Padua (Italy). Before being appointed as International Relations Manager at Centria UAS Finell was working as a researcher at the Åbo Akademi University Institute for Human Rights. His current research interests include: The role of universities in post-conflict societies and education and armed conflict, as well themes connected to international education. Peter has had several lecturing assignments in Finland and abroad and also serves as a member in many working groups connected to international education. John Irwin, B.A., M.A., is a professor at the University of Guelph Humber in the Department of Justice Studies. He holds a Master of Arts (MA) in Interdisciplinary Studies from York University where he concluded an extensive analysis of police undercover work. His research interests focus on the social and political dynamics of power and human interaction, particularly within policing organizations. Prior to entering the education field John spent 31 years in policing with the Toronto Police Service working in a variety of front-line uniform, investigative, covert and managerial functions. He has published in Law Enforcement Today (LET). Annemarie Charlotte Kamp, MSc, is a Senior Consultant in the Strategy & Operations practice of Deloitte Consulting, The Netherlands. Annemarie holds two Master degrees, the first in ‘International Business’ from Tilburg University and the second in ‘International Management’ from King’s College London; both with distinction (cum laude). Annemarie’s professional experience centers on logistics, banking, and the creative sector. Her work experience has exposed her to a variety of strategic and operational questions in the field of international business, management and strategy. Annemarie continues to participate in research next to her advisory work at Deloitte. Albino Lopes is Professor and director of the Management Department at the School of Social and Political Sciences, University of Lisbon, Portugal. Previously he was Associate Professor at ISCTE-IUL Business School – Lisbon. He is fellow of the Management Research Center (MRC) at ISCTE-IUL Business School – Lisbon, Portugal. He was awarded a Ph.D. in Psychology at Catholic University of Louvain, Belgium. He lectures in leadership, organizational behaviour and human resources. He is expert in advanced training courses for executives. He is author of a number of books and has published many articles in refereed Journals and in refereed international conferences in the field of human resources and organisational behaviour. He is also a member of the Editorial Board of several academic journal and has supervised and examined several PhD dissertations and master theses. Currently, his research focusses on studying the importance of managing intellectual capital as a driver of organisational innovation. Margaret Manning, M.A., Dip.Ed., is Adjunct Assistant Professor for Negotiation, Conflict Resolution and Peacebuilding (NCRP) at California State University, Dominguez Hills (CSUDH). She teaches Research Methods, Community Conflict, International Negotiation and Peacebuilding courses. She mentors students to compete in CSUDH Student Research Day. Manning graduated with a Master of Arts in NCRP from CSUDH. She has a graduate Diploma in Adult Education and her Bachelor of Arts was in Experimental Psychology. Manning is the Editor-in-Chief for the online international journal www.ejournalncrp.org of research, dissertations and multimedia contributions to the field of NCRP. 381

About the Contributors

Ana Martins is currently Assistant Professor in Organizational Behavior, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Zirve University, Gaizantep, Turkey; she has taught in various places such as UK, Germany, Portugal as well as Hong Kong and China. Her research areas are: Leadership, Emotional Intelligence, Strategic HRM and Knowledge Management. She is an associate reviewer of various International Academic Journals. Isabel Martins is currently Associate Professor in Business Management, at the Harold Pupkewitz Graduate School of Business, Polytechnic of Namibia (transforming to University of Science and Technology), Namibia. Previously she has taught in various places such as South Africa, UK, Germany, Portugal, Hong Kong as well as in the Gulf Countries. Her research areas are: Organizational Learning and Human Capital Development. She is an associate reviewer of various International Academic Journals. Craig Paterson, Ph.D, is a Principal Lecturer in the Department of Law and Criminology at Sheffield Hallam University, UK. He received his PhD from Brunel University in 2006 and also holds degrees from Keele University and Portsmouth University. Dr. Paterson’s current research agenda focuses on restorative policing, police education, and the role of surveillance technologies within criminal justice. His research appears in numerous journals including the British Journal of Community Justice (2011) and Criminology and Criminal Justice (2012). Dr Paterson is also the author of Understanding the Electronic Monitoring of Offenders (2009, VDM Verlag) and Policing and Criminology (2011, with Ed Pollock, Sage). Samuel Peleg, Ph.D, is a professor of conflict resolution and peace-building and the Director of Development of the MA program in Political Science at Rutgers University, New Jersey. He was a visiting faculty member at the negotiation and conflict resolution program (NECR) at Columbia University from 2009-2013. Dr. Peleg is a research fellow at the Stanford Center for International Conflict resolution and negotiation (SCICN). He is the author of several books and articles about his areas of expertise. Among his publications are Spreading the Wrath of God: From Gush Emunim to Rabin Square (1997, Hebrew), Zealotry and Vengeance- quest of Religious Identity Group (2002, Lexington Books); If Words Could Kill: the Failure of Public Discourse in Israel (2003, Hebrew University Press), and Fighting Terrorism in the Liberal State (2006, IOS Press). Orlando Petiz Pereira holds a PhD in Economic and Business Sciences. He is an Assistant Professor at the University of Minho, School of Economics and Management, Department of Economics, Portugal. His research areas: Innovation and Knowledge Economics, Economics of the Firm and Human Resources, Labor and Education Economics, Management and economics of competitiveness and creativity, Social economics and Entrepreneurship. Michael Pittaro, PhD (candidate), is a full time faculty member with American Military University where he teaches within the undergraduate criminal justice program. In addition, Michael is an adjunct professor with East Stroudsburg University, Pennsylvania, where he resides with his two sons (Dakota and Darrian). Michael spent most of his career working in prison administration. He has also served as Executive Director of an outpatient substance abuse program and Executive Director of a county drug prevention agency before accepting a full-time faculty position with American Military University. Michael holds a BS in criminal justice and an MPA in public administration from Kutztown University. He is currently a doctoral candidate pursuing a PhD in criminal justice with Capella University. 382

About the Contributors

Haiyan Qian is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Education Policy and Leadership, Hong Kong Institute of Education. Her research focuses on understanding school leadership and educational change in the Chinese societies. Zachary S. Ritter received his B.A. in History in 2008 from UCLA, his M.Ed. in Student Affairs in 2009 from UCLA, and his Ph.D. in Higher Education in 2013 from UCLA. He has conducted research on Singapore’s Education System and completed his dissertation on East Asian International Students’ Experiences with Cross-Racial Interaction. He is now Associate Director for Diversity and Inclusion at University of the Redlands, and previously was Director of Academic Support and Career Services at American Jewish University. He has participated in New Ground, a Muslim-Jewish cross-cultural fellowship, has taught Intergroup Dialogue courses on race and socio-economic class, and helped create the American Culture and Communication diversity curriculum at UCLA’s Dashew International Center. Kenneth R. Roth began his professional career as an investigative print journalist at The Oregonian at the age of 20. He migrated to screen writing and award-winning documentary film production, and received a B.A. in Communication in 1987 from Marylhurst College. He has spent 20 years teaching media production and critique at the secondary, junior college and university levels. He has taught at a completion high school for parenting teens in San Francisco, a South Tucson Communication Arts Magnet School just off the Tohono O’odham Reservation, and in a resettlement program for Jewish teen émigrés from the former Soviet Union. For the past nine years, he has been an adjunct instructor in the Digital Media Arts Department at California State University, Dominguez Hills. He earned an M.A. in Higher Education in 2010 from UCLA and was conferred the Ph.D. in Higher Education & Organizational Change in 2015 from UCLA. Andrés P. Santamaría is a Lecturer for the School of Education in Educational Leadership at Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand. His area of expertise is leadership for diversity and his research interests range from leadership for social justice and educational equity to principal efficacy in underperforming schools. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Santamaría was a primary school principal serving schools with high populations of culturally and linguistic diverse learners as well as learners from low socioeconomic backgrounds in Southern California. Lorri J. Santamaría is an Associate Professor in Educational Leadership and Head of School in the Faculty of Education at the University of Auckland, New Zealand. Her research interests are cross-cultural, international, and increasingly comparative. Recent research has been on the multicultural dimensions of educational leadership as related to social justice and educational equity, Indigenous urban school leadership in New Zealand and the United States, and cross-cultural dimensions of applied, critical, and transformative leadership with women principals and scholars in academe in the United States.

383

About the Contributors

Swaranjit Singh was born and raised in India. He graduated from King George’s residential school in Shimla Hills in the Himalayas and subsequently from National Defense Academy in 1980. He then joined the Indian Military Academy where he was commissioned as Second Lieutenant into the Indian Army in 1981. During his army career he also performed the duties of editor and publisher for the Army while posted at the Army Training Command. He had the rare distinction of serving in all the insurgency infested states of India. After 21 years of commissioned service in the Indian Army he took early retirement in 2002 as Lieutenant Colonel and immigrated to the US in 2005. He presents at international conferences on Gandhi and peace studies. In January 2013 he spoke about Gandhi’s vision on Indian Home Rule and the flaws of modern civilization and industrial capitalism. Currently, he lives in Long Beach, California and manages his education business as a California State Education Vendor. Jill Sourial holds a Master degree in Urban Planning as well as a Post-Masters Certificate in Negotiation, Conflict Resolution, and Peacebuilding. She has been working in the field of environmental policy, advocacy and education for over 15 years and participated in an initiative to introduce mediation language into the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change treaty documents. Ms. Sourial obtained a Worldwork Leadership Certificate from the Deep Democracy Institute, a global leadership institute and thinktank, and is on the Board of The Relational Center, a Los Angeles based nonprofit whose mission is to catalyze a shift in culture that values empathy, diversity and interdependence. Charles Emmanuel Thomas earned his Masters of Business Administration at the University of Southern California, and Juris Doctorate and a Bachelor’s in Ethnic Studies, both from the University of California at Berkeley. Prior to his career in higher education, Charles clerked for the Honorable Proctor R. Hug, Jr. on the 9th Circuit Court of Appeals, and practiced law in the area of real estate transactions within a national law firm and served as the closing counsel for JPMorgan Chase’s commercial mortgage backed securities platform. Currently Assistant Professor of Business Law at the College of Business Administration and Public Policy at California State University, Dominguez Hills, he teaches and serves as the course coordinator for the legal curriculum. His research is published in Business Law Review. Allan Walker is Joseph Lau Chair Professor of International Educational Leadership, Dean of Faculty of Education and Human Development and Director of The Joseph Lau Luen Hung Charitable Trust Asia Pacific Centre for Leadership and Change at The Hong Kong Institute of Education. Allan is also a Fellow of the Australian Council for Educational Leadership and co-editor of the Journal of Educational Administration. Allan has published extensively on educational administration and leadership; and school leadership development and learning. His work also explores the relationship between culture and school leadership. Allan serves on the editorial boards of the top ranked journals in his field and has published over 300 books and articles with international publishers and in the world’s most prestigious academic journals. His recent research focuses on expanding knowledge of school leadership in Chinese and other Asian societies and disseminating this internationally. Melinda Webber is a tenured Senior Lecturer in the Faculty of Education at the University of Auckland, New Zealand and a qualitative researcher on the Starpath Project. Her research interests focus on racial-ethnic identity development and Māori student success. She is also the author of Walking the Space Between: Identity and Māori/Pakeha (Wellington, New Zealand: NZCER Press, 2008).

384

About the Contributors

Giuseppina Wright, M.A., earned her M.A in Negotiation, Conflict Resolution and Peacebuilding at California State University, Dominguez Hills. Ms. Wright has an international background; born and raised in Stockholm, Sweden with equal parts Italian and German heritage. Her cosmopolitan background allows her to provide international insight and perspective. Giuseppina performed an internship with the Watts Youth Peace Builders Initiative which influenced her to develop the future program: Using Peace Building to Prevent Gang Violence, utilizing education to reduce gang violence. Giuseppina is very interested in social justice and international peacebuilding efforts, and she hopes to be a contributing factor toward restorative justice and global conflict resolution in the near future. Kendall Zoller, EdD, is co-author of The Choreography of Presenting: The 7 Essential Abilities of Effective Presenters (Corwin Press, 2010) and president of Sierra Training Associates. He provides professional learning seminars and keynotes on Communicative Intelligence, facilitation and presentation skills, and adaptive leadership to schools, districts, universities, state agencies, and corporations throughout North America. Dr. Zoller is a curriculum designer for Peace Officers and Standards Training (POST) Supervisory Leadership Institute for the state of California. He also designed Adaptive Leadership Program for university department heads at CSU Sacramento. His work has taken him to China, Southeast Asia and across North America. His international research focuses on identifying nonverbal patterns in the learning environment and their influences on thinking, memory, and learning. In 2007 he introduced Nonverbal Communicative Intelligence to explain the cognitive, neurological, physiological, behavioral, and social foundations of nonverbal communication.

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Index

A Acculturation 14, 17, 21, 24, 33 Adaptive Leadership 314-315, 320 African American 100, 123, 128, 130, 133, 200, 202, 204 Alternative Dispute Resolution 63-65, 75, 82 Applied Critical Leadership 103, 107, 109, 111-112, 118, 121, 123-124, 129, 132, 138 Appreciative Inquiry 6-7, 12 Authenticity 8, 12, 121, 227, 304, 306, 312

B Boyle Heights 140-143, 147-153

C Centria University 275-276, 280-281 Civic Engagement 321, 326, 334 Climate Change 321-324, 326-330 Coaching (Conflict) 82 Co-Authorship 35-36, 43-44, 48 Co-Creation of Value 96 collective experiences 53, 84, 86 Collectivism-Individualism Dimension 234 commissioned artwork 176-177, 179-191 Commissioning Selection Process 195 Common Ground 7, 12, 19, 64, 67, 145, 325, 327, 329 Communication Perspective 20, 33 Communicative Intelligence 303-304, 306, 316, 320 Community Based Organization 155 Community-Oriented Policing 255-256, 263-264, 267, 272 Competitive Advantage 177-178, 236, 239-243, 248, 254, 263 Conflict Resolution 1-2, 50-58, 62, 64-65, 71, 75-76, 140, 144, 151, 321, 324-327

Coordinated Management of Meaning (CMM) 8, 13-14, 17, 21, 24-25, 27-28, 33 Craftsmanship 305, 309, 315, 320 Creative Sector 176-177, 179-180, 185, 189-191, 195 criminal justice 157, 163, 256-257, 263, 289-291, 298-299 Criminology 255-256, 272 Cross-Cultural Communication 13-14, 35-36, 48, 200-201 Cross-Cultural Dialogue 321, 326 Cross-Cultural Educational Leadership 138 Cultural Diversity 41, 176, 178-179, 185, 234 Cultural Hybridity 234 Culturally Responsive Leadership 99, 101, 107, 111, 118, 121, 127-128, 132-133, 138 cultural responsivity 101, 108, 113, 120-121, 123125, 128, 133 Culture Encompasses 254 Czech Republic 304, 312, 316

D deep cover 158, 162 Democracy 260 Distributed Leadership 234, 322

E empathic skills 322, 327-328 Empathy 14-15, 21, 29, 57, 76, 204, 299, 303, 305, 308, 310, 313-316, 320-321, 326-327, 330-331, 334 Enrolling 85-87, 96 Entrapment 157, 161-162, 166, 175 Erasmus Impact 273, 275-276, 278 Experiential Learning 63, 72, 75, 82, 145 Experiential Techniques 82

Index

F

M

federal grant 141, 153 Flexibility 20, 41, 43, 153, 177, 238-239, 246-247, 262, 276, 305-306, 312, 314, 320 Flow 85, 92, 96, 159, 246, 263, 306

Māori 99-114, 119, 123, 125-128, 131 Māori Achievement 99, 101, 103, 106, 108, 112, 119, 127 media representations 197-198 Mediation 9, 53, 65, 71, 75-76, 82, 183, 264, 321330, 334 mixed towns 16-18 modern architecture 176-177, 179-180, 185

G Global Competences 273-274, 276-278, 280-282, 284 globalized marketplace 50, 57 global warming 321, 324 Governance 108, 123, 143, 219, 321, 323, 334

N Network Based View 195

H

O

Harmony 219, 221-226, 234, 322 Hong Kong 216-218, 220-229, 234 Human Trafficking 286-300, 302

Organizational Learning 65, 238, 243, 254 Organization Culture 195 organized crime 159, 161, 165, 287, 290, 295, 298, 302 Othering 33

I IKEA Effect 89, 96 Indigenous 26, 99-101, 103-106, 108, 110, 112-113, 118, 124, 126-129, 138, 234, 257, 323, 331 Intangibles 236-237, 241, 246, 248, 254 Integrative Conflict Resolution 50-58, 62 Interdependence 305, 325, 329 International Collaboration 35-38, 41-42, 45, 48, 64, 133, 157, 300 International Comparative Education 138 Intersectionality 51, 62, 110 Intersubjectivity 205, 215 Intrinsic Motivation 88, 96 Involuntary Servitude 287, 289, 292, 302 Isomorphism 196, 202-203, 215

K Ka Hikitia 103, 108-109, 111 Knowledge Management 236-237, 239, 254

L leaders’ self-efficacy 237, 248 Learning Mobility 273-275, 279-280, 282, 284 library collections 84 Los Angeles 71, 141-142, 147-148, 198, 259, 265 Loving Praxis 50-51, 54-58, 62

P Party 4, 15, 26, 53, 57, 69, 72-73, 82, 144, 162, 168, 178, 184, 195, 324, 328 pedagogical approach 84-85, 87, 92 People of Color 51, 123, 138, 266 Personality Styles 76, 82 Police Leadership 167-168, 255-256, 258-259, 261263, 265-267, 286, 289-290, 293, 295-298, 302 police officers 159, 162, 168-169, 255, 257-258, 260, 267, 287, 293, 295 Power Balancing 145, 321-322, 327-330, 334 Power Distance 218, 234 Principled Negotiation 58, 62 Promise Neighborhood 143, 147, 153, 155

R Rapport 16, 303, 305-308, 313-316, 320 Reflective Practice 1-6, 10, 12, 66, 71, 77, 145-146, 313, 324 Reflexive Leadership 58, 62 reform initiatives 140, 143 Reframing 6-7, 12, 22, 72, 144-145, 203, 328, 334 Restorative Justice 255-258, 263-264, 266-267, 272, 324, 326 Restorative Policing 255, 258, 267, 272 Rule of Law 158, 161, 169, 175

387

Index

S sexual preference 10, 198, 200, 204 Sexual Trafficking 289, 296, 302 skilled listening 6-7, 145 Social Justice 55, 104-105, 107, 111-112, 121, 129, 197, 201, 203, 266, 321, 326, 334 Soviet Union 287, 297 Spark Project 155 Stakeholder Positioning 176-179, 190, 195 Steering Committee 143-144, 147-153 Student Exchange Program 284 study abroad 36, 43, 45, 273-277 Super Ordinate 201, 215 Suspending Judgment 4, 6, 12, 304, 329 Sustainable Development 322-323, 325-327, 331 Systems Thinking 315, 320, 334

T Trafficking in Persons 287-296, 298, 302 Transnational 9, 65, 121, 138, 157-160, 169-170, 175, 286-287, 289-290, 293, 295-299, 302

388

Transnational Organized Crime 287, 290, 295, 298, 302 Trickery 157, 162-165, 175, 289

U undercover operations 158, 160, 163-166, 169-170 Undercover Operative 158, 160-166, 168-170, 175 undergraduate education 83-85, 92 United Nations 9, 159, 290, 295-298, 322, 324-326, 328, 331 Urban School Turnaround Organization 141, 143, 155

V Verbal and Non-Verbal Communication 48

W western democracies 261, 264, 267