Critical Issues in Early Israelite History 9781575065984

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Critical Issues in Early Israelite History

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Bulletin for Biblical Research Supplements Editor

Richard S. Hess, Denver Seminary Associate Editor

Craig L. Blomberg, Denver Seminary

Advisory Board Leslie C. Allen Fuller Theological Seminary Donald A. Carson Trinity Evangelical Divinity School Donald A. Hagner Fuller Theological Seminary Gerald F. Hawthorne Wheaton College Karen H. Jobes Wheaton College

I. Howard Marshall University of Aberdeen Elmer A. Martens Mennonite Brethren Biblical Seminary Bruce K. Waltke Reformed Theological Seminary Edwin M. Yamauchi Miami University

1 Bridging the Gap: Ritual and Ritual Texts in the Bible, by Gerald A. Klingbeil 2 War in the Bible and Terrorism in the Twenty-First Century, edited by Richard S. Hess and Elmer A. Martens 3 Critical Issues in Early Israelite History, edited by Richard S. Hess, Gerald A. Klingbeil, and Paul J. Ray Jr.

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Critical Issues in Early Israelite History

Edited by

Richard S. Hess, Gerald A. Klingbeil, and Paul J. Ray Jr.

Winona Lake, Indiana Eisenbrauns 2008

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ç Copyright 2008 by Eisenbrauns. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. www.eisenbrauns.com

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Critical issues in early Israelite history / edited by Richard S. Hess, Gerald A. Klingbeil, and Paul J. Ray Jr. p. cm. — (Bulletin for biblical research supplements ; 3) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-57506-804-6 (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. Palestine—Antiquities—Congresses. 2. Bronze age— Palestine—Congresses. 3. Iron age—Palestine—Congresses. 4. Excavations (Archaeology)—Palestine—Congresses. 5. Bible. O.T.—Antiquities—Congresses. 6. Bible. O.T.—Criticism, interpretation, etc.—Congresses. I. Hess, Richard S. II. Klingbeil, Gerald A., 1964– III. Ray, Paul J. DS111.C75 2008 221.9u5—dc22 2008040324

The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of the American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.48-1984.†‰

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Contents Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv

Part 1 Textual Studies The Rhetorical Structuring of the Joshua Conquest Narratives . . K. Lawson Younger Jr.

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The Jericho and Ai of the Book of Joshua . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Richard S. Hess Merenptah’s Reference to Israel: Critical Issues for the Origin of Israel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Michael G. Hasel The Persian Period and the Origins of Israel: Beyond the “Myths” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Efraín Velázquez II

Part 2 Archaeological Studies, Broader Context Classical Models for the Appearance of Israel in Palestine . . . . . . . 79 Paul J. Ray Jr. The Appearance of Israel in Canaan in Recent Scholarship . . . . . . 95 Patrick Mazani “Between North and South”: The Archaeology of Religion in Late Bronze Age Palestine and the Period of the Settlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 Gerald A. Klingbeil

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The Context of Early Israel Viewed through the Archaeology of Northern Mesopotamia and Syria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 Mark W. Chavalas

Part 3 Archaeological Studies, Regional Contexts The Survey of Manasseh and the Origin of the Central Hill Country Settlers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Ralph K. Hawkins Israelite Settlement at the Margins of the Northern Hill Country: Connections to Joshua and Judges from Tell Dothan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 Daniel M. Master Rewriting Philistine History: Recent Trends in Philistine Archaeology and Biblical Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 Steven M. Ortiz The Search for Joshua’s Ai . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Bryant G. Wood References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 Index of Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 Index of Scripture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321

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Foreword One of the most frequently discussed issues among archaeologists and biblical scholars is the origin of the Israelites. The current discussion surrounding their origin results from the increasing number of data produced by archaeologists and the assessment of these data. Earlier scholars did not clearly perceive the complexity of biblical stories. They not only are abbreviated and contain few historical markers but they also focus primarily on issues outside the test of scholarship. Whereas only a few decades ago some of the biblical stories, such as the conquest, were heralded as verified by archaeology, recent scholars have reassessed the veracity of these stories and the reality of the characters involved. The existence of eras such as the “patriarchal period” that had once been seen as largely historical was denied in the 1970s by Thomas L. Thompson and John Van Seters, and so began a steady march of successive waves of challenges to the historical reliability of the biblical text. It was inevitable that the negativity of scholars would arrive at the door of the Israelites. The Israelites, according to the biblical text, were descendants of Jacob, the last of the patriarchs. He moved his family to Egypt to survive a famine and, in time, his children became slaves, eventually leaving Egypt to return to Canaan, their ancestral home. It has become popular to conclude that, if the patriarchs are fictional, so must be their progeny. New tribes, such as the “Proto-Israelites” (that is, Canaanites who, at a later time, became Israelites) have been envisioned as replacing the Israelites featured in the biblical text. Anyone who has tried to keep up with the scholarly output on the emergence of Israel cannot help but notice the lack of agreement among the various scholars. That modern scholarship is in disarray on the subject of the Israelites is obvious, and the reason for this fact is even more obvious: the major source of information about earliest Israel is the Bible. Indeed, if it were not for the Bible, there would be no debate about the origins or identity of the Israelites. On the other hand, it can seem that the only thing about which critics of the Bible agree is that the Bible provides little or no evidence about the Israelites. Two points should be made about the theories presented by the critics. First, their theories are sometimes antonyms of the biblical accounts. Somehow, theories that are the opposite of the written record seem to those who propose them to be more scientific than the events suggested by the biblical writers, especially if presented in trendy sociological terms. Second, their theories claim to be built on archaeology. According to the critics, they fill in vii

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the missing details about the Israelites not with theoretical possibilities but with the discoveries of archaeology. That this statement can be challenged is demonstrated by consideration of archaeological finds. A prime example is the late-13th-century b.c. stele of Pharaoh Merenptah. Because this inscription is a problem to some Israelite settlement theories that do not recognize the existence of Israel at this time, the critics reinterpret this archaeological evidence. Consider also the Tel Dan inscription. The most logical and likely interpretation is that it is the earliest reference to the “House of David” discovered in a nonbiblical source. However, for those who hold to the view that neither the biblical David nor his kingdom existed, these words are interpreted as something other than a reference to David and his dynasty. Is this for no reason other than that their theory says his kingdom did not exist? Some who criticize the biblical text effectively disavow archaeology by its selective use. They emphasize the archaeological surveys, which are largely mute and open to multiple interpretations. In contrast, they view texts as obscure or beyond understanding. Ancient texts are then disavowed as unhelpful and arcane. It is ironic when postmodern writers think themselves able to properly evaluate an ancient piece of literature in terms of its truthfulness, while denying the existence of absolute truth. In this short foreword, it is impossible to consider all the ways scholars have addressed the relationship between archaeology and the Bible. At present, some archaeologists assume that their discipline is a reliable tool for verifying written records. This book takes a different track. It allows all the ancient literary evidence, including the Bible, a say in the process of inquiry about the emergence of the Israelites. Its authors also let the evidence of archaeology speak to this issue, even if it proves inconvenient. This began with a group of scholars who believe that the biblical text can be helpful in understanding the emergence of ancient Israel in Canaan. These scholars came together on March 26–28, 2004, for a weekend of reflection and interaction. The result is the present volume. It argues that the Bible can provide help in understanding the Israelites, their origins, and their history. These essays are evidence of this assertion. David Merling Former Curator, Horn Archaeological Museum Andrews University

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Abbreviations General AT b.c.e. c.e. CVC Dtr EA EB LB LXX MB MT niv nkjv nrsv OG P RIH RS rsv

Alalakh Texts Before the Common Era Common Era consonant-vowel-consonant Deuteronomistic History El-Amarna tablet Early Bronze Late Bronze Septuagint Middle Bronze Masoretic Text New International Version New King James Version New Revised Standard Version Old Greek Priestly writer/source Ras Ibn-Hani Tablets Ras Shamra Tablets Revised Standard Version

Reference Works AASOR ABD ABRL ADAJ AfO ÄgAbh AJA ÄL ANESS ANET AOAT ARM ASOR Books Atiqôt

Annual of the American Schools of Oriental Research Freedman, D. N., editor. The Anchor Bible Dictionary. 6 vols. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1992 Anchor Bible Reference Library Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan Archiv für Orientforschung Ägyptologische Abhandlungen American Journal of Archaeology Ägypten und Levante Ancient Near Eastern Studies Supplement Pritchard, J. B., editor. Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament. 3rd ed. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1969 Alter Orient und Altes Testament Parrot, A., and Dossin, G. Archives royales de Mari. Paris: Imprimerie Nationalé, 1950– American Schools of Oriental Research Books Journal of the Israel Department of Antiquities

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AUSS BA BAR BASOR BASORSup BBB BDB BEATAJ Ber BETL BH BHS BI BibB Bib BJS BMes BN BR BSac BS BS BTB BW BZ BZAW CAD CAH CahRB CBC CBQ ConBOT COS CurBS DD DDD DE

Abbreviations

Andrews University Seminary Studies Biblical Archaeologist Biblical Archaeology Review Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research Supplement Series Bonner biblische Beiträge Brown, F.; Driver, S. R.; and Briggs, C. A. Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament. Oxford: Clarendon, 1907 Beiträge zur Erforschung des Alten Testaments und des antiken Judentum Berytus Bibliotheca ephemeridum theologicarum lovaniensium Buried History Elliger, K., and Rudolph, W., editors. Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 1984 Biblical Interpretation Biblische Beiträge Biblica Brown Judaic Studies Bibliotheca mesopotamica Biblische Notizen Bible Review Bibliotheca Sacra Biblical Seminar Bible and Spade Biblical Theology Bulletin Pfeiffer, C. W., editor. The Biblical World: A Dictionary of Biblical Archaeology. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1966 Biblische Zeitschrift Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft Oppenheim, A. L., et al., editors. The Assyrian Dictionary of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. Chicago: Oriental Institute, 1956– Cambridge Ancient History. 3rd ed. London: Cambridge University Press, 1970– Cahiers de la Revue biblique Cambridge Bible Commentary Catholic Biblical Quarterly Coniectanea biblica, Old Testament Series Hallo, W. W., and Younger, K. L., Jr., editors. The Context of Scripture. 3 vols. Leiden: Brill, 1997–2003 Currents in Research: Biblical Studies Dor le Dor Van der Toorn, K.; Becking, B.; and van der Horst, P. W., editors. Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible. Leiden: Brill, 1995 Discussions in Egyptology

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Abbreviations

DG DL ErIsr EstBib ExpTim FAT GM GTJ HALOT

HAR HAT HO HTR HS HSM HSS HUCA IEJ IDBSup ISBE JANES JAOS JAR JARCE JBL JBT JCPS JCS JEA JESHO JETS JJS JMA JNES JNSL JPOS JSOT JSOTSup JSSEA KRI

xi

Denkschriften der Gesamtakademie DavarLogos Eretz-Israel Estudios bíblicos Expository Times Forschungen zum Alten Testament Göttinger Miszellen Grace Theological Journal Koehler, L.; Baumgartner, W.; and Stamm, J. J. The Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament. Trans. and ed. M. E. J. Richardson. 5 vols. Leiden: Brill, 1994–2000 Hebrew Annual Review Handbuch zum Alten Testament Handbuch der Orientalistik Harvard Theological Review Hebrew Studies Harvard Semitic Monographs Harvard Semitic Studies Hebrew Union College Annual Israel Exploration Journal Crim, K., editor. Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible: Supplementary Volume. Nashville: Abingdon, 1976 Bromiley, G. W., editor. International Standard Bible Encyclopedia. 4 vols. Rev. ed. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1979–88 Journal of Ancient Near Eastern Society Journal of the American Oriental Society Journal of Archaeological Research Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt Journal of Biblical Literature Jahrbuch für biblische Theologie Jewish and Christian Perspectives Series Journal of Cuneiform Studies Journal of Egyptian Archaeology Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society Journal of Jewish Studies Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology Journal of Near Eastern Studies Journal of Northwest Semitic Languages Journal of the Palestine Oriental Society Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplement Series Journal of the Society for the Study of Egyptian Antiquities Kitchen, K. A. Ramesside Inscriptions: Historical and Biographical. Oxford: Blackwell, 1969–

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KTU

KUB LÄ PP MDOG MMA NAC NEA NEAEHL

NEASB NIB NIDOTTE OBO OBOSA OTE OEANE OLZ OLA OTL OTM OLP OTS PEFQS PEQ PJ PTMS QD RA RB REE RevExp RHR RIMA RITA RQ RSO

Abbreviations

Dietrich, M.; Loretz, O.; and Sanmartín, J., editors. Die Keilalphabetischen Texte aus Ugarit. AOAT 24. Kevelaer: Butzon & Bercker / Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1976 Keilschrifturkunden aus Boghazköi. 14 vols. Berlin: Akademie-Verlag, 1921–24 Helck, W.; Otto, E.; and Westendorf, W., editors. Lexikon der Ägyptologie. 7 vols. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1972–92 La Parola del Passato Mitteilungen der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft Monographs in Mediterranean Archaeology New American Commentary Near Eastern Archaeology Stern, E., editor. New Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land. 4 vols. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society and Carta / New York: Simon & Schuster, 1993 Near East Archaeological Society Bulletin New Interpreter’s Bible VanGemeren, W. A., editor. New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology and Exegesis. 5 vols. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1997 Orbis biblicus et orientalis Orbis biblicus et orientalis Series Archaeologica Old Testament Essays Meyers, E. M., editor. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the Near East. 5 vols. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997 Orientalistische Literaturzeitung Orientalia lovaniensia analecta Old Testament Library Oxford Theological Monographs Orientalia lovaniensia periodica Old Testament Studies Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly Statement Palestine Exploration Quarterly Palästina Jahrbuch Pittsburgh Theological Monograph Series Quaestiones disputatae Revue d’assyriologie et d’archéologie orientale Revue biblique Revista de Estudios de Egiptología Review and Expositor Revue de l’histoire des religions The Royal Inscriptions of Mesopotamia, Assyrian Periods. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1987– Kitchen, K. A., editor. Ramesside Inscriptions, Translated and Annotated. Oxford: Blackwell, 1993– Restoration Quarterly Ras Shamra-Ougarit

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Ab b re viatio n s

SAOC SBLABS SBLDS SBLMS SBLSymS SBLWAW SBU SJOT SHANE SHCANE SSEAJ VTSup SWBA TA TynBul Transeu TRE TRu TT TUAT UBL UF VAB VT VTSup VWGT WTJ ZÄS ZA ZAW ZDPV

Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilizations Society of Biblical Literature Archaeology and Biblical Studies Society of Biblical Literature Dissertation Series Society of Biblical Literature Monograph Series Society of Biblical Literature Symposium Series Society of Biblical Literature Writings from the Ancient World Studia Biblica Upsaliensis Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament Studies in the History of the Ancient Near East Studies in the History and Culture of the Ancient Near East Journal of the Society for the Study of Egyptian Antiquities Supplements to Vetus Testamentum Social World of Biblical Antiquity Tel Aviv Tyndale Bulletin Transeuphratène Krause, G., and Müller, G., editors. Theologische Realenzyklopädie. Berlin: de Gruyter, 1977– Theologische Rundschau Theologisch Tijdschrift Kaiser, O., editor. Texte aus der Umwelt des Alten Testaments. 3 vols. Gütersloh: Mohn, 1983–97 Ugaritisch-Biblische Literatur Ugarit-Forschungen Vorderasiatische Bibliothek Vetus Testamentum Vetus Testamentum Supplement Series Veröffentlichungen der Wissenschaftlichen Gesellschaft für Theologie Westminster Theological Journal Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und vorderasiatische Archäologie Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft Zeitschrift des deutschen Palästina-Vereins

xiii

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Introduction This volume is the result of a conference held at Andrews University on March 26–28, 2004. It builds on an earlier conference held at Trinity International University in 2001, the papers of which have since been published (Hoffmeier and Millard 2004), and seeks to capitalize on the momentum generated by that project by dealing with one of the more debated areas in archaeological and biblical studies, namely, the emergence of Israel (see the foreword). The objective of the presentations is to provide an integrative approach to the issues concerning the emergence of Israel, reflecting the use of the available archaeological, biblical, and historical data on the subject. While the participating authors vary in their views on the ethnogenesis and chronology of early Israel, each takes a positive stance toward the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament), thus including data that other paradigms have sought either to disparage or leave out of the discussion. The 12 contributions are arranged in 3 sections. The lead essay in section one, by K. Lawson Younger, presents rhetorical structures for the conquest narratives in Joshua 9–12, indicating that they are more complex than is often understood. A careful reading of these narratives suggests that a partial rather than a complete history of the conquest is intended. This study is followed up by Richard S. Hess, who focuses on the narratives concerning Jericho and Ai in Joshua 2 and 6–8 and examines the language of these texts. Dealing with terms such as “city,” “king,” “walls,” “gates,” and “army,” to which he applies archaeological data, Hess is able to dispel some of the popular and scholarly notions of the meaning of these texts and to arrive at some more-realistic conclusions. Michael Hasel investigates Egyptian references to Israel. He explores the Merenptah stele 1 and the Karnak reliefs to discover the meaning of Israel’s name and its nature and location. He also considers the chronological implications of these inscriptions for dating Israel’s origin. In recent years, scholarly discussion on the origins of Israel has begun to zero in on the Persian period, instead of the Late Bronze or early Iron Ages. In the final essay of this section, Efraín Velázquez takes up the challenge of meeting these scholars on their own ground, using archaeological and historical data from the Persian period. Section two begins with an essay by Paul Ray that evaluates the strengths and weaknesses of the classical models that deal with the emergence of Israel, as well as their influence on some more-recent models. The essay is not merely 1. Throughout this book, authors use different spellings of the name of the pharaoh of this inscription: either Merenptah or Merneptah.

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retrospective; it suggests some possible solutions to various issues by combining some of the positive aspects of these various models with archaeological, biblical, and historical data. This essay is followed up by Patrick Mazani, who reviews how the emergence of Israel has been handled in recent literature. In Gerald Klingbeil’s study on religion in Late Bronze Age Palestine, methodological issues are considered, including what makes a site cultic, what traits are typical of cultic sites, how artifact and text interact in defining cultic artifacts, and how the data generated by these sources can be used to reconstruct religious realities in Late Bronze Age Palestine. The possibility of discerning the influence of some of the powers that surrounded Israel is the subject of the last paper in this section. Here, Mark Chavalas provides an overview of the archaeological work in northern Mesopotamia and Syria as a broad historical context for understanding the background of the early Israelites, whose ancestors originally came from this region. In section three, the lead essay by Ralph Hawkins compares the results of Adam Zertal’s survey of Manasseh with biblical texts from the books of Joshua and Judges in order to explore the origins of Israel. Dan Master then considers the results of Joseph Free’s excavations at Dothan. Free wanted to make Dothan a test case for demonstrating biblical history. However, the remains discovered during the excavation reflected cultural background issues for the biblical text such as the details of daily life. Master notes that because historicity tends to be elusive in archaeological investigation, it should not be the primary focus in research designs. Recent deconstructionist trends in archaeology and biblical studies have tended to redate and redact the biblical account of the Philistines. Steve Ortiz’s essay critically reviews these trends and concludes that they do not provide an improved reconstruction of Philistine history. The concluding chapter is a historical-geographical search for the site of Ai in the book of Joshua by Bryant Wood. He suggests an alternate location for the biblical city, other than et-Tell. On this, the seventh anniversary of America’s 9/11, we are more than ever convinced of the importance of our collective heritage and of keeping this history alive. We also remain persuaded of the importance of the diversity that scholarship should and here does reflect. Essays in this volume are authored by both beginning and more mature scholars. They include scholars working in Africa, Asia, South America, and North America. They maintain a diversity of opinions, including some strong disagreements, regarding the interpretation of the evidence. Nevertheless, these studies are presented with the conviction that, when biblical and archaeological data are brought together with a proper respect for each discipline, the endeavor forms an essential foundation for the study of early Israel. Richard S. Hess, Gerald A. Klingbeil, and Paul J. Ray Jr. September 11, 2008

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The Rhetorical Structuring of the Joshua Conquest Narratives K. Lawson Younger Jr. Trinity Evangelical Divinity School

Abstract This essay will investigate some of the rhetorical structures used in the narration of the conquest accounts in the book of Joshua in order to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the book’s message. In particular, it will examine some of the manifold structures used in the accounts of the conquest of the south (chap. 10) and the north (chap. 11). It will demonstrate the writer’s use of certain rhetorical devices that heighten the sophistication of the narrative, calling into question many of the simplistic readings that have been applied to the book. This, in turn, will enable better use of the text in historical reconstruction of Israel’s origin in the land.

Introduction Before the historian can properly address issues concerning the historical referents in a narrative, he or she must wrestle with the literary formulations that the narrative imposes on the past. When this is not done, models are introduced that cannot, in the end, withstand close scrutiny of the evidence. For example, as I have pointed out elsewhere (1999: 178–79), the Albrightian conquest model utilized a simplistic, literalistic reading of the conquest narratives in the book of Joshua. Hence, the archaeological record would have inevitably contradicted the model as Albright expressed it. Unfortunately, many scholars during the latter part of the 20th century and the early part of the 21st century have assumed that, because the Albrightian conquest model was wrong, the book of Joshua’s conquest narratives have no value in any historical, reconstructive model of Israelite origins. Israel’s actual entry into the land of Canaan was not swift and tidy, as a careful reading of Joshua makes clear. A close reading of the book “shows that it is not offering a simple conquest model, but rather a mixed picture of success and failure, sudden victory and slow, compromising progress” (McConville 2001: 159). The fact remains that there is still much work to be done in order to understand the various impositional forms utilized in the Joshua accounts. In my 3

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K. Lawson Younger Jr.

monograph, Ancient Conquest Accounts (1990), I used a semiotic approach to the text of Joshua 9–12 because I was interested in discerning its “deep structures,” specifically, its ideology. Of course, surface structures are integrally tied to deep structures (and vice versa). In this essay, I am interested in addressing specifically the surface or rhetorical structures of the conquest accounts of Joshua 9–12. Because of time and space limitations, I can only engage Joshua 10–12, although I will briefly address the role of Joshua 9 (for further insight, see Younger 2003; Winther-Nielsen 1995). A common view among scholars is that Josh 11:1–15 has little in common with chap. 10. For example, note the following comment: This report of victory in the north has something of the appearance of an appendix: it must have circulated independently, probably as the traditions of one or more northern tribes, before it was made a part of the account of the conquest by all Israel under Joshua. The transition is abrupt, the only link with the preceding narrative being the note that “Jabin, king of Hazor, heard of all this,” i.e., Israel’s victories (Miller and Tucker 1974: 92).

But, in fact, the narration of the two campaigns manifests a clear structural parallelism. First, both campaigns are introduced by Josh 9:1–2: When all the kings heard, the ones who were across the Jordan, in the hill country and in the Shephelah and on the entire coast of the Great Sea opposite Lebanon—the Hittites, and the Amorites, the Canaanites, the Perizites, the Hivites, and the Jebusites, they formed a united alliance to fight Joshua and Israel.

Whereas this statement is similar to previous statements in Josh 2:10 and 5:1, insofar as it mentions the Canaanite kings “hearing,” it is also very different. In the previous instances of “hearing,” the reaction was fear. But in this passage (as well as in Josh 10:1 and 11:1), the reaction is aggressive hostility (only the Gibeonite reaction in 9:3 is different). Richard Hess has suggested that the impact of Achan’s sin in the defeat at the first battle of Ai is likely in view in Josh 9:1–2 (1996b: 175–76). 1 Thus, unlike the battles at Jericho and Ai, the southern and northern campaigns were responses to the formation of alliances or coalitions against the Israelites. Second, the descriptions of the conquests of the south and north share the same historiographic aims and ideology (Naªaman 1986: 122). Third, the same 1. If the Old Greek order is correct, Hess’s suggestion is even more plausible, because Josh 9:1–2 follows directly on the heels of Josh 8:29 (the destruction of Ai), before Josh 8:30–35 (the covenant renewal at Shechem). Boling states: “It is not impossible that the LXX is correct in reading Josh 8:30–35 next. As it stands, however, the unit poses the sharpest possible contrast with the resourceful response of the Gibeonite dwellers” (1982: 261–62). The MT probably preserves the correct order; but if the Greek Vorlage is maintained, then the stress is on the Canaanite kings’ immediate response to the destruction of Ai in Josh 8:28–29 and the “aliens who lived among them” ( Josh 8:35b), which is immediately followed by the story of how the “alien” Gibeonites came into the Israelite camp ( Joshua 9).

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The Rhetorical Structuring of the Joshua Conquest Narratives

5

Table 1. The Narrative Pattern of Joshua 10:1–11:15 (Based on Younger 2003: 181) Conquest of Southern Canaan ( Joshua 9:3–10:43)

Conquest of Northern Canaan ( Joshua 11:1–15)

Expositional setting: the Gibeonite deception and treaty Introductory setting: organization of an opposing Amorite alliance (AdoniZedek, king of Jerusalem)

Introductory setting: organization of an opposing Canaanite coalition ( Jabin, king of Hazor)

Oracle of assurance to Joshua from Oracle of assurance to Joshua from Yahweh: “Do not fear them; I will hand Yahweh: “Do not fear them; I will hand them over to you . . .” them over to you . . .” Victory in one decisive, open-field battle: Gibeon

Victory in one decisive, open-field battle: Waters of Merom

Pursuit of the retreating enemy to the Pursuit of the retreating enemy to the northernmost boundary of the tribal southernmost boundary of the tribal inheritances inheritances Capture of the leading cities

Capture of the leading city of Hazor

Summary of the campaign

Summary of the campaign

geographic pattern is used in both: center § periphery. Fourth, a similar narrative pattern is seen in both sections (see table 1). The narrative of the southern campaign is much more developed than the narrative of the northern campaign. This augmentation of the story is observable in the basic components of Josh 10:1–43 and 11:1–15. Thus, the region that became the tribal allotment of Judah receives the greater emphasis. This is a pattern also noticed in the second half of the book (specifically in Joshua 13– 19), where the amount of description of Judah is significantly more than the amount of description of the rest of the tribes (Ottosson 1991). Judges 1 utilizes this structural pattern as well (Younger 1995a). This more-substantial development of the southern campaign can be seen in a number of instances. First, Joshua 10 contains an expositional setting in which the Gibeonite deception and treaty are narrated. Joshua 11 does not have a corresponding expositional setting. Second, the introductory setting in chap. 10 contains both the content of what the organizing leader heard and the content of his message to the other kings. Chapter 11 lacks both of these items. Third, in the oracle of assurance of chap. 10, there is the further assurance that none of the enemy would “stand” (ºamad, which has special significance in Joshua 10; see 1:5a) before Joshua. In chap. 11, however, Yahweh gives special

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instructions concerning the Canaanite horses and chariots. Fourth, the openfield battle in Joshua 10 includes significant narration of Yahweh’s divine interventions (specifically, the miracles of the hailstones and long day); in the openfield battle in Joshua 11, the particulars of the divine intervention are not narrated. Archaeological evidence of open-field battles from antiquity is very minimal. Evidence of divine intervention in a battle of this sort is exponentially more minimal. Fifth, in Joshua 10, the pursuit of the enemy is more developed, in the story of the capture and execution of the fleeing kings ( Josh 10:16–27); the pursuit of the enemy in Joshua 11 consists of only a very general statement of the capture and execution of the Canaanite kings (only the king of Hazor is specifically mentioned). Finally, the account of the capture of the leading cities is fully developed in Joshua 10 (through the stereotyped, redundant statements and palistrophe of Josh 10:28–42); in Joshua 11, only the capture and destruction of Hazor is mentioned. 2 Despite the differences between Joshua 10 and Joshua 11, the conquests of both the south and the north are narrated through the use of stereotyped components, producing a high-redundance message that, in turn, supports the imperialistic ideology of the text. 3 Because of space limitations, I must dispense with a detailed discussion of the expositional setting ( Josh 9:3–27) in order to devote space to the actual campaigns in Josh 10:1–43 and 11:1–15. It will suffice to note that the success of the Gibeonite ruse is the key to Israel’s involvement in the southern and northern campaigns (for discussion, see Hess 1996b: 176–86).

The Defeat of the Amorite Alliance (Joshua 10:1–43) Joshua 10:1–43 contains two scenes (10:1–15, 10:16–43), both of which end with identical statements that Joshua returned, and all Israel 4 with him, to the camp at Gilgal (vv. 15, 43). 5 Both scenes utilize temporal episodes that employ the compositional technique of “backtrack and overlap” (Nelson 1997: 138–39; 2. It is also important to note that the narration in Joshua 10 utilizes backtracks and overlaps in five of its episodes (see more below). 3. This geographic arrangement and presentation in Joshua 10–11 severely undermines Robert David’s arguments for a conquest of Judah from the south (David 1990: 209–29). Moreover, Boling follows Campbell’s suggestion that the capture of Debir may in fact have been something of a southern parallel to the capture of Shechem in the north (Campbell 1975: 141–54). The more likely parallel is Hazor. The hill-country location of Debir (Khirbet Rabûd) makes even better geographical sense at the culmination of the unit than would another Shephelah site (Tell BeitMirsim). The lack of evidence for a destruction at smaller Khirbet Rabûd in this period tends to confirm our recognition of stylized generalization in the account” (Boling 1982: 295). Again, this argues against David’s thesis of a southern invasion. Parker 1997: 66–68 has generally followed David’s analysis. Thus the same criticisms apply. 4. The phrase “Joshua and all Israel with him” occurs seven times in the chapter. Based on the evidence in v. 7, “all Israel” is a metonymy for “the army.” 5. For a discussion of the textual variants, see below.

spread is 6 points long

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The Rhetorical Structuring of the Joshua Conquest Narratives

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Hess 1996b: 186–87). Each of these episodes takes a part of the previous episode and further develops it. The movement throughout the chapter is from the general to the particular. After the initial episode, the second and third episodes of scene one are devoted to recounting God’s role in the battle. All four episodes of scene two are devoted to recounting Israel’s role. Scene 1: the formation of the five-king Amorite alliance and its initial defeat by the Israelites through the miraculous interventions of Yahweh (10:1–15) God’s Role Episode 1: the circumstances and initial issues of the battle of Gibeon (10:1–10) Episode 2: Yahweh’s intervention—miracle: hailstones (10:11) Episode 3: Yahweh’s intervention—miracle: sun and moon (10:12–15) Return to Camp at Gilgal (10:15) Scene 2: capture of the Amorite kings and their cities (10:16–43) Israel’s Role Episode 1: narrative bridge—three tensions: kings captured; survivors escape to fortified cities; return to Makkedah, not Gilgal (10:16–21) Episode 2: resolution of first tension: capture and ˙erem of the five kings (10:22–27) Episode 3: resolution of second tension: capture and ˙erem of cities and defeat of the king of Gezer (10:28–39) Episode 4: resolution of third tension: return to Gilgal—the narration of the conquest of the south is complete (10:40–43) Return to Camp at Gilgal (10:43)

The temporal aspects of the chapter can be seen in the diagram of scene one, below. Scene one ( Josh 10:1–15) describes the formation of the five-king Amorite alliance and its defeat by the Israelites through the miraculous interventions of Yahweh. It contains three episodes.

Scene 1, Episode 1 The first episode ( Josh 10:1–10) relates the circumstances and initial issues of the battle of Gibeon. 6 This episode is comprised of two parts: the formation 6. Obviously, if the treaty between the Gibeonites and Israelites of chap. 9 did not exist, the alliance would not wage war against Gibeon, nor would Gibeon draw Israel into war. This argues for the unity of chaps. 9 and 10.

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Scene 1 (10:1–15) Episode 1 (10:1–10) Azekah Makkedah

Episode 2 (10:11) Azekah

Episode 3 (10:12–15)

Gilgal

Scene 2 (10:16–43) Episode 1 (10:16–21) — Narrative Bridge Makkedah

(Tension 1)

(Tension 2)

(Tension 3)

Episode 2 (10:22–27) Makkedah

(Tension 1 resolved)

Episode 3 (10:28–39) Makkedah

(Tension 2 resolved)

Episode 4 (10:40–43)

Gilgal (Tension 3 resolved)

of the Amorite alliance, headed by Adoni-Zedek 7 of Jerusalem ( Josh 10:1–5), and the initial open-field battle between the Israelites and the Amorite alliance with the slaughter and pursuit to Azekah ( Josh 10:6–10). Jerusalem, an important city-state during the Amarna period, is the driving force in the alliance. The response of the five-king alliance to hearing about God’s work on behalf of the Israelites is contrasted with the response of the Gibeonites in the previous chapter. Their reaction injects a new level of suspense into the narrative (Hawk 2000: 151). It is one thing to battle a single king as they did at Jericho and Ai. But how will Joshua and the Israelites fare against five? 7. The Old Greek reads Adwnibezek, the same as in Judg 1:5–7. The confusion is multiplied by the similar sound in the names. However, in Judges 1, the Greek translators transliterated qz,b