Creation, Sin and Reconciliation : Reading Primordial and Patriarchal Narrative in the Book of Genesis [1 ed.] 9781443888509, 9781443880565

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Creation, Sin and Reconciliation

Creation, Sin and Reconciliation: Reading Primordial and Patriarchal Narrative in the Book of Genesis By

Robert Ignatius Letellier

Creation, Sin and Reconciliation: Reading Primordial and Patriarchal Narrative in the Book of Genesis By Robert Ignatius Letellier This book first published 2015 Cambridge Scholars Publishing Lady Stephenson Library, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2PA, UK British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Copyright © 2015 by Robert Ignatius Letellier All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. ISBN (10): 1-4438-8056-6 ISBN (13): 978-1-4438-8056-5

Fig.1. Frontispiece: Creation, Sin and the Flood (Meister Bertram von Minden: Grabow Altar, 1375-83)

18 I consider that the sufferings of this present time are not worth comparing with the glory that is to be revealed to us. 19 For the creation waits with eager longing for the revealing of the sons of God; 20 for the creation was subjected to futility, not of its own will but by the will of him who subjected it in hope; 21 because the creation itself will be set free from its bondage to decay and obtain the glorious liberty of the children of God. 22 We know that the whole creation has been groaning in travail together until now; 23 and not only the creation, but we ourselves, who have the first fruits of the Spirit, groan inwardly as we wait for adoption as sons, the redemption of our bodies. 24 For in this hope we were saved. Now hope that is seen is not hope. For who hopes for what he sees?25 But if we hope for what we do not see, we wait for it with patience. (Rom 8:1825) 17 Therefore, if any one is in Christ, he is a new creation; the old has passed away, behold, the new has come. 18 All this is from God, who through Christ reconciled us to himself and gave us the ministry of reconciliation; 19 that is, in Christ God was reconciling the world to himself, not counting their trespasses against them, and entrusting to us the message of reconciliation. (2 Cor 5: 17-19) 28 We know that in everything God works for good with those who love him, who are called according to his purpose. 29 For those whom he foreknew he also predestined to be conformed to the image of his Son, in order that he might be the first-born among many brothers. (Rom 8:28-29)

CONTENTS

List of Biblical Abbreviations ................................................................... xv List of Figures.......................................................................................... xvii Foreword ................................................................................................ xviii Introduction .............................................................................................. xix The Bible: Narrative and Symbolism The Book of Genesis.......................................................................... xxii Origins ......................................................................................... xxiii Theories of authorship ................................................................. xxiv Contexts: Genesis and the Pentateuch ......................................... xxvi Genesis today ............................................................................. xxvii A. Primordial Narrative: The Creation of the World and Humankind Creation and Sin: Genesis 1—11 .............................................................. 1 1. Genesis 1—2: The Book of Beginnings .................................................. 2 The nature of the Book .......................................................................... 2 Introduction to the Creation Narratives.................................................. 3 1) The Creation of the universe and of single creatures ................... 3 2) The distinction between Genesis and beginning .......................... 4 3) God can create in different ways.................................................. 4 Archaeological background ................................................................... 5 1.1 Genesis 1: the beginning of the earth..................................................... 9 The first problem ................................................................................. 10 The second problem ............................................................................. 12 Interpreting creation: the Six Days of Creation ................................... 13 Is the Creation Narrative really a narrative? ........................................ 13 The delimitation of the text .................................................................. 15 The division of the text ........................................................................ 15 The main structuring elements ............................................................. 16 The Primeval Chaos ............................................................................. 18

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First Day—Light ............................................................................ 18 Second Day—Firmament ............................................................... 21 Third Day—Land, Sea, Plants ........................................................ 22 Fourth Day—Sun, Moon, Stars ...................................................... 23 Fifth Day—Sea Life and Birds created .......................................... 25 Sixth Day—Land Life and Man created ........................................ 25 The Creation of Man ............................................................................ 26 1) The work of God ........................................................................ 27 2) The Image and Likeness of God ................................................ 27 3) Man’s Power .............................................................................. 28 1.2 Genesis 2—The Seventh Day and the Garden of Eden ....................... 29 Genesis 2: 1-5a..................................................................................... 29 Stylistic elements ................................................................................. 30 Interpretation: the Meaning of the Seventh Day .................................. 30 Different Modes of Narration .............................................................. 33 Reflection on Gen 1—2:5 .................................................................... 34 Separation, the Universal Unconscious and Psychology ..................... 38 Gen 2:5b—Gen 3 ................................................................................. 41 The Second Creation Account of Man ................................................. 41 Adam moulded from the clay of the earth ........................................... 42 The Garden of Eden ............................................................................. 42 Interpretation ........................................................................................ 44 Problems of translation ........................................................................ 45 Narrative analysis (Gen 2:4-25) ........................................................... 46 Themes ................................................................................................. 46 Style ..................................................................................................... 47 Meanings.............................................................................................. 48 The Garden and the Trees .................................................................... 49 Man’s Testing in Eden (Gen 2:15-17) ................................................. 49 The Stream divided into Four Rivers ................................................... 52 The Command and the Prohibition ...................................................... 53 The Creation of the Animals ................................................................ 53 The Creation of Woman (Gen 2:21-25) ............................................... 54 Conclusion ........................................................................................... 55 The Two Versions of Creation (Genesis 1 & 2) ........................................ 56 Style and Thematic Purposefulness ........................................................... 58 Reflections on Genesis 1 & 2 .................................................................... 59 Creation reflected in human actions..................................................... 60

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Creation and human superiority ........................................................... 62 Creation and the laws of nature............................................................ 62 Creation: heaven and earth................................................................... 63 Creation as covenant ............................................................................ 65 Creation and dominion ......................................................................... 65 Finding the original context ................................................................. 69 B. Primordial Narrative: The Origins of Sin and Human Society ...... 73 2. Genesis 3—11: The Responsibility of Man ........................................... 74 2.1 Genesis 3 ............................................................................................. 74 Delimitation of the Text ....................................................................... 75 Narrative analysis ................................................................................ 76 The Narrative as Theology................................................................... 76 The Narrative as Judgement................................................................. 80 1) offence ....................................................................................... 81 2) enquiry ....................................................................................... 82 3) sentence...................................................................................... 82 4) execution .................................................................................... 83 The Meaning of the Narrative .............................................................. 84 1) The symbolic meaning of the Serpent ........................................ 84 2) The meaning of the Tree of Knowledge and of eating the fruit (“to eat”) ................................................................................... 87 3) What does the deceit of the Serpent mean?................................ 88 4) What is the meaning of “not eating”? ........................................ 90 5) The meaning of curses and punishments.................................... 90 The Primal Parents and Personality ..................................................... 93 Other Ancient Near Eastern Creation Stories ...................................... 93 2.2 Genesis 4 ............................................................................................. 96 Delimitation of the Text ....................................................................... 96 The idea of justice in the Bible ............................................................ 96 Genesis 4 as a unit ............................................................................... 97 1) Narrative analysis....................................................................... 98 2) Stylistic analysis (juridical elements)......................................... 98 Egyptian Analogies ............................................................................ 100 The Mark of Cain ............................................................................... 102 The Narrative as Theology................................................................. 102 The Meaning of the Text.................................................................... 104 Archaeological Light ......................................................................... 105

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2.3 Genesis 5: The Messianic Line .......................................................... 107 Genesis 6—9: The Flood .................................................................. 108 2.4 Genesis 6 ........................................................................................... 110 Delimitation of the Text ..................................................................... 110 Translation ......................................................................................... 110 Narrative Analysis ............................................................................. 111 Narrative Features .............................................................................. 112 Point of View or Perspective ............................................................. 112 The Competence of the Reader .......................................................... 112 The Construction of the Ark .............................................................. 114 The Narrative as Theology................................................................. 114 Archaeological Light ......................................................................... 118 The Hebrew and Babylonian Flood Stories ....................................... 118 2.5 Genesis 7—8 ..................................................................................... 120 The Narrative Moments ..................................................................... 123 Archaeological Light ......................................................................... 123 The Description of the Flood ............................................................. 125 Key Symbols ...................................................................................... 126 1) The Waters of the Flood........................................................... 127 2) The Ark .................................................................................... 127 3) The Calendar ............................................................................ 127 4) The Birds.................................................................................. 129 5) The Mountains ......................................................................... 130 6) The Rainbow ............................................................................ 131 The Two Different Accounts of the Flood: Disparate Details and Liturgical Emphases .............................................................. 132 2.6 Genesis 9 ........................................................................................... 134 The Elements of the Covenant ........................................................... 135 Noah’s Drunkenness and Prophecy of the Nations ............................ 136 Delimitation of the Text ..................................................................... 136 Stylistic Analysis ............................................................................... 136 The Meaning of the Text.................................................................... 137 The Primitive Patriarch Noah and Growth in Human Personality ..... 138 Archaeological Light ......................................................................... 138 2.7 Genesis 10: The Ethnographical Table .............................................. 139

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2.8 Genesis 11—The Tower of Babel ..................................................... 146 Delimitation of the Text ..................................................................... 148 Narrative Analysis ............................................................................. 149 Narrative Reflection ........................................................................... 149 Style ................................................................................................... 149 Structure ............................................................................................. 151 The Meaning of the Text.................................................................... 151 Archaeological Light ......................................................................... 153 The Language of Babel and the Origins of the Story ......................... 153 Reflection on Creation and the Fall: Primordial Symbolism and the Doctrine of Original Sin .................................................. 155 C. Patriarchal Narrative: Human Discord and the Grace of Reconciliation: Jacob and Esau: Genesis 32—33 ........................... 163 3. Genesis 32—33: A New Name and a Matter of Reconciliation .......... 164 Jacob as Hero ..................................................................................... 168 Introduction and Origins .................................................................... 168 Narrative Summary ............................................................................ 170 Structural Analysis ............................................................................. 171 Prelude: Encounter with Angels ........................................................ 174 Jacob at the Jabbok: The Encounter with God ................................... 175 Jacob at the Jabbok: Origins and Etiologies ...................................... 178 The Motif of Homecoming ................................................................ 179 The Meeting of the Brothers .............................................................. 180 Narrative Modalities .......................................................................... 180 Stylistic and Semantic Analysis ......................................................... 183 Genesis 32 .................................................................................... 183 Genesis 33 .................................................................................... 186 Stylistic Features .......................................................................... 188 D. Patriarchal Narrative: Reconciliation as the Precursor of Salvation: Joseph and His Brothers: Genesis 37—50 .................... 193 4. Genesis 37—50: Joseph: Suffering Servant and Saviour .................... 194 Ways of Reading the Story ................................................................ 195 Where does the story end? ................................................................. 196 The Role of God ................................................................................ 196 4.1 Genesis 37: Joseph sold by his Brothers............................................ 199 Gen 37:1-11—The Beloved Son of Jacob ......................................... 200

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Gen 37:12-17—The Hatred of Joseph’s Brothers .............................. 200 Gen 37:18-28—Joseph sold into slavery ........................................... 202 Gen 37: 29-38—Reuben the Firstborn ............................................... 203 Reflection ........................................................................................... 203 4.2 Genesis 38: Judah and Tamar ............................................................ 206 Parenthetical Story: Judah's Shame as Progenitor of the Messiah ..... 206 1) The Narrative Shift ........................................................................ 206 2) The Real Start of the Story ............................................................ 207 3) Structural-Stylistic Analysis .......................................................... 208 4) The Irony of the Story ................................................................... 209 4.3 Genesis 39: Joseph and Potiphar’s Wife............................................ 211 1) Structure ........................................................................................ 212 2) The Role of the Narrator ............................................................... 213 3) Stylistic Analysis ........................................................................... 214 Egyptian Analogies ............................................................................ 215 4.4 Genesis 40: Joseph in Prison ............................................................. 218 The Moments in the Story.................................................................. 218 The Role of the Narrator .................................................................... 219 Stylistic Analysis ............................................................................... 219 4.5 Genesis 41: Joseph Becomes Vizier of Egypt ................................... 224 Structure of the Story ......................................................................... 224 Some Peculiarities.............................................................................. 224 Stylistic Analysis ............................................................................... 225 The Rise of Joseph: Stylistic and Semantic Analysis ........................ 226 Archaeological Background............................................................... 226 Egyptian Analogies ............................................................................ 227 Joseph Revealed to His Brothers: Genesis 42—45 ........................ 227 4.6 Genesis 42: The First Meeting ........................................................... 230 Narrative Analysis ............................................................................. 230 1) The Formal Structure of the Text ............................................. 230 2) The Narrative Structure of the Text ......................................... 231 3) Narration Time and Narrative Time ......................................... 232 4) The Narrator ............................................................................. 232 Style ................................................................................................... 233 Stylistic and Semantic Analysis ......................................................... 235

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4.7 Genesis 43–44: The Second Interview between Joseph and His Brothers ................................................................................................... 240 Narrative Analysis: Acceleration and Retardation ............................. 240 Stylistic Analysis ................................................................................ 241 What is Necessary for the Survival of the Family? ............................ 242 Gen 44:1-17 ....................................................................................... 243 Joseph’s Silver Cup ........................................................................... 244 Judah’s Discourse: Gen 44:18-34 ...................................................... 245 1) Construction ....................................................................... 245 2) Progression ......................................................................... 246 3) Reversal.............................................................................. 247 4.8 Genesis 45 ......................................................................................... 249 1) Construction .................................................................................. 249 2) Narrative Features.......................................................................... 249 3) Thread of the Passage .................................................................... 249 4) Centre of Passage .......................................................................... 250 5) Re-Reading Connections ............................................................... 250 4.9 Genesis 46—47: The Journey of Jacob to Egypt and the Settlement of the Family in Egypt ............................................................................. 255 1) The Vision of God at Beersheba .................................................... 255 2) The Journey of Jacob ..................................................................... 255 3) The Moments of the Narrative ....................................................... 255 4) The Different Scenes of the Story ................................................. 256 5) The Thread of the Narrative .......................................................... 256 6) Commentary .................................................................................. 256 7) The Meeting between Joseph and Jacob ........................................ 258 8) Jacob Blesses Pharaoh ................................................................... 258 Archaeological Light ......................................................................... 259 4.10 Genesis 47: 13-26: Joseph the Administrator .................................. 259 Formal Structure ................................................................................ 261 The Technique of Gradation .............................................................. 261 The Meaning ...................................................................................... 262 4.11 Genesis 47:27—48:22: Jacob Blesses Ephraim and Mannasseh ..... 264 Formal Structure ................................................................................ 264 Stylistic Analysis ............................................................................... 264 4.12 Genesis 49: Jacob’s Prophecy ......................................................... 268

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4.13 Genesis 50: Jacob’s Death and Burial, and the Final Reconciliation of the Brothers ......................................................................................... 270 Jacob’s Decease and Burial (Gen 50: 1-13) ....................................... 270 Delimitation of the Text ..................................................................... 270 The Return to Egypt (Gen 50:14-21) ................................................. 271 Narrative Analysis ............................................................................. 271 The Death of Joseph (Gen 50:22-26) ................................................. 271 4.14 The Conclusion of the Joseph Story ................................................ 272 4.15 Joseph the Messianic Patriarch ........................................................ 273 Comparisons between Joseph and Jesus ............................................ 274 1) Narrative Comparisons ............................................................ 274 2) Thematic Comparisons ............................................................ 278 4.16 Joseph as World Hero ...................................................................... 280 Conclusion ............................................................................................... 283 Bibliography ............................................................................................ 285 Index ........................................................................................................ 293 1. Biblical References ........................................................................ 293 2. Index of Biblical Names ................................................................ 302 3. Index of Places, Objects, Images and Themes ............................... 305 4. Index of Texts and Scholars ........................................................... 310

LIST OF BIBLICAL ABBREVIATIONS

The Old Testament Am 1 Chron 2 Chron Dan Deut Eccles Est Ex Ezk Ezr Gen Hab Hag Hos Is Jer Job Joel Jon

Amos 1 Chronicles 2 Chronicles Daniel Deuteronomy Ecclesiastes (Qoheleth) Esther Exodus Ezekiel Ezra Genesis Habakkuk Haggai Hosea Isaiah Jeremiah Job Joel Jonah

Josh Judg 1 Kgs 2 Kgs Lam Lev Mal Mic Nah Neh Num Obad Prov Ps (pl. Pss) Ruth 1 Sam 2 Sam Song Zech Zeph

The Deutero-Canonical Books Bar Ecclus Jud 1 Macc 2 Macc Sir Tob Wis

Baruch Ecclesiasticus (=Sirach) Judith 1 Maccabees 2 Maccabees Sirach (=Ecclesiasticus) Tobit Wisdom (=Wisdom of Solomon)

Joshua Judges 1 Kings 2 Kings Lamentations Leviticus Malachi Micah Nahum Nehemiah Numbers Obadiah Proverbs Psalms Ruth 1 Samuel 2 Samuel Song of Songs Zechariah Zephaniah

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Apocrypha 1 Esd 2 Esd

1 Esdras 2 Esdras

The New Testament Acts Apoc Col 1 Cor 2 Cor Eph Gal Heb Jas Jn 1 Jn 2 Jn 3 Jn Jude Lk Mk Mt 1 Pet 2 Pet Philm Phil Rev Rom 1 Thess 2 Thess 1 Tim 2 Tim Tit

Acts of the Apostles Apocalypse (=Revelation) Colossians 1 Corinthians 2 Corinthians Ephesians Galatians Hebrews James John (Gospel) 1 John (Epistle) 2 John (Epistle) 3 John (Epistle) Jude Luke Mark Matthew 1 Peter 2 Peter Philemon Philippians Revelation (=Apocalypse) Romans 1 Thessalonians 2 Thessalonians 1 Timothy 2 Timothy Titus

All citations from Scripture, unless otherwise stated, are from the Revised Standard Version (1881).

LIST OF FIGURES

Fig.1. Frontispiece: Creation, Sin and the Flood (Meister Bertram von Minden: Grabow Altar, 1375-83) .................................................. v Fig.2. From the Enuma Elish (cuneiform tablet) ......................................... 7 Fig.3. The First Day of Creation (Nuremberg Chronicle, 1493) ............... 20 Fig.4. Creation of the Animals (Tintoretto, 1518-94) ................................ 26 Fig.5. God creating Adam (Chartres Cathedral) ........................................ 43 Fig.6. The Garden of Eden (Babylonian seal, the Goddess and the Tree) . 50 Fig.7. The Garden of Eden (Babylonian seal, the Garden of Immortality) 50 Fig.8. God, Adam and Eve (Meister Bertram) .......................................... 61 Fig.9. Adam and Even driven forth out of Eden (Gustave Doré, 1855) .... 79 Fig.10. The Death of Abel (Gustave Doré, 1855).................................... 100 Fig.11. Noah's Ark (Petrus Comestor's Bible, 1372) ............................... 115 Fig.12. Noah and the Ark (The Fastolf Master, Book of Hours, c. 1450) .............................................................................................. 128 Fig.13. The Dove sent forth from the Ark (Gustave Doré, 1855)............ 133 Fig.14. Noah Curses Canaan (Gustave Doré, 1855) ................................ 144 Fig.15. The Tower of Babel (Babylonian ziggurat) ................................. 154 Fig.16. The Confusion of Tongues (Gustave Doré, 1855)....................... 162 Fig.17. Jacob's Dream at Bethel (Gustave Doré, 1855) ........................... 177 Fig.18. Jacob Wrestles with the Angel (Gustave Doré, 1855) ................. 185 Fig.19. The Reconciliation of Jacob and Esau (Peter Paul Rubens, 15771640) .................................................................................................. 191 Fig.20. The Tale of Two Brothers (papyrus fragment) ............................ 217 Fig.21. Joseph makes himself known to his Brethren (Gustave Doré, 1855) .................................................................................................. 246 Fig.22. Joseph and his Brethren welcomed by Pharaoh (Paul Tissot, 1910)260

FOREWORD

The world is increasingly taken up with the endless wonders of the universe. Photographs of Pluto and constant new discoveries have brought the mysteries of the cosmos and of creation to the fore in human consciousness. On the beautiful Earth, gloriously green and blue and fresh from outer space, the threats of global warming, overpopulation, ecological disaster and human conflict grow every day. War and hatred and the flight of migrants clamour for our attention. The need for peace, for human reconciliation, has never been greater. The enigma of creation, the mystery of the origins of life, the paradoxes of humanity and the human condition, are the subject of the Book of Genesis, and the wonderful stories that make up its content have intrigued us for centuries as in every generation we grapple with the fundamentals of our origins and behaviour as men and women living in a huge and complex global society. This study considers how to read Genesis and how to interpret its ageless stories. Every generation through the ages has interpreted these differently, and found new meanings in the endless riches of its ageless fables. This study is an act of exploration and comparison. It looks at reading the beginning middle and end of Genesis closely, and then placing these various elements in theological, mythic and historical contexts. It also brings modern ideas to bear, including, science, ecology, and psychology. But this study is also an act of remembrance, recalling the seminars and lectures held at the Pontifical Biblical Institute in Rome in the 1980s, and the inspiring classes of Jean-Louis Ska SJ. It is a tribute to him and his teaching, and to the memory of other mentors and colleagues, especially those who were known and loved then, and have died and gone before us, especially Fabrizio Foresti OCD and Sister Rosemary Ngoma. Robert Ignatius Letellier Cambridge 15 August 2015

INTRODUCTION THE BIBLE: NARRATIVE AND SYMBOLISM

The power of narrative as an instructive and entertaining factor in life is overwhelming. Folk tales and the closely aligned fairy tales provide the most fundamental examples of such universal story-telling. These tales touch on something very deep; they provide a link with elements of the great universal unconscious that shapes human experience and expectations. Only if a fairy tale met the conscious and unconscious requirements of many people was it repeatedly retold, and listened to with great interest. The same applies to the endlessly fascinating and perplexing topic of dreams. No dream of a person could arouse much persistent interest unless it was worked into a myth, as was the story of the Pharaoh’s dreams as interpreted by Joseph in the Bible (Gen 41). The Bible, and other examples of religious literature, are said to contain the answers to our questions about life. Why was I born? Where do I come from? Where am I going, especially after death? Is there life after death? What is the purpose of my life, with all its perplexities and disappointments, all its sorrows and transient joys? As long as parents fully believed that Biblical stories solved the riddle of our existence and its purpose, it was easy to make a child feel secure. The Bible is supposed to contain the answers to all pressing questions. But whatever the richness of the Bible stories, not even during the most religious of times were these stories understood to be sufficient for meeting the psychic needs of man. And this is partly because while the Old and New Testaments and the histories of the saints have provided answers to the crucial questions of how to live the good life, they did not offer solutions for the problems posed by the darker and unresolved/irresolvable sides of our personalities. Explicitly and implicitly the Bible speaks to us of God, our relationship with him, of God’s demands on man. All the Scriptures speak of God’s love for mankind, and his desire to save us. And while we are told that there is greater rejoicing about a sinner who reformed than about a man who never erred (Lk 15:7), the message is still that we ought to live the

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good life. We should never, for example, take cruel revenge on those who have done us wrong, or on those whom we hate. As the story of Cain and Abel shows, there is no sympathy in the Bible for the agonies of sibling rivalry—only a warning that acting on it has devastating consequences (Gen 4:1-17). Children, however, need support for their still very tenuous belief that through growing up, working hard, and maturing, they will succeed in the end, even if there are sad and difficult experiences of pain or injustice. If present sufferings are to find compensation in the future, there is no need to act on the jealousy of the moment, the way Cain did. Like Bible stories and myths, fairy tales became a part of the literature which helped and edified everybody—children and adults alike—for nearly all of man’s existence. And apart from the fact that God is central, many Bible stories can be recognized as sharing a number of the concerns and patterns of fairy tales. The Bible is a collection of ancient texts put together over hundreds of years. How these books—all so different, by many different authors writing many different types of literature, from such various historical and social backgrounds—come to be together in this unique collection is a mystery of selection made over great stretches of time and informed by enduring and cherished traditions. What makes this process—the formation of the canon—so very special is the resultant interrelation of the 73 books with one another. All Bibles have a series of footnotes that indicate the great pattern of allusion that weaves the disparate books into an extraordinary relationship with one another, from the beginning of the created world in Genesis, to the advent of the new heaven and new earth in Revelation. The array of characters and events are placed in dynamic interaction determined by a series of recurring concepts and symbols that reinforce the underlying sense of kinship even more powerfully. Here are some of them: creation, wholeness/unity, Spirit, Word, wind/breath, light, darkness, cloud, water, life, name, day, time, food, eat, death, obedience, disobedience, temptation, disruption, sin, evil, suffering, illness, healing, judgement, punishment, conflict, betrayal, murder, rescue, redemption, sacrifice, thanksgiving, Sabbath, election, promise, prayer, song, covenant, testament, ark, circumcision, good news, mountain, holiness, glory, star, love, hope, marriage, justice, law, commandment, righteousness, wandering, the path (right or wrong), exodus, exile, shrine, promised land, wilderness, holy place, tabernacle, temple, holy city, pilgrimage, mission, ministry, scroll, seal, political leadership, discipleship, prophet, priest, king, crown, sceptre, sword, throne, wisdom, banquet, baptism, wheat, bread, vine, wine, fruit, oil, fish, lamb, sheep, shepherd, afterlife, heart,

Introduction

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servant, family, virgin, harlot, dove, sparrow, eagle, deer, locust, scorpion, olive, fig, cedar, gold, frankincense, myrrh, lily, weeds (tares), thorn, hyssop, heart, horse, horseman, chariot, ox, ass, camel. Imaginative energy has flowed from the variety and disposition of these rich semantic fields to other creative minds over the centuries, with so many literary perceptions and thought patterns of Western literature moulded by Biblical language.1 Once all these mutually informing signs and symbols have been recognized, understood and placed in a dynamic relationship with one another across both the divides of divergent genre and historical origin, a peculiarly integrated literary work emerges. How does one best appreciate the inexhaustible linguistic treasures of the Bible? How are words used? How is their meaning determined? What happens when their meaning changes? What difference does it make when the Old and New Testaments are read in English when they were respectively written in Hebrew and Greek? Some words are not intended to be taken at face values, and particular problems can arise when non-literal language is used to give an interpretation and a value to historical events.2 How the text is read and interpreted is, of course, the key issue confronting the Bible and its continued place in society. The dangers of intransigent fanaticism, religious extremism, and a fundamentalist worship of sacred texts, have revealed themselves as enemies of tolerance, and even of civilized values. So how to read and understand the Bible is of immense importance. Given the incalculable role the Bible has played and continues to play in shaping the moral and value systems of so many in the world, the importance of an effective reading and interpretation cannot be overemphasized. This study considers various aspects of the text of the Book of Genesis. As the first book of the Torah, and hence of the whole Bible, its position is unique, especially in its provision of the foundational stories of Creation, the emergence of humanity and the beginning of human society. The most direct and immediate way of reading the Bible is to confront the text as it is given, as it stands before one, and to read and engage with it as story or poem (the forms it most often comes to us in). There is a continuing lack of sufficient attention to the literary dimension of Biblical studies. While source criticism should play an integral role in literary interpretation, the final form of the text is crucial in this respect. The stories in Genesis reflect on issues of chosenness, nature and culture through patterns of 1

See Northrop Frye, The Great Code: The Bible and Literature (London: Ark Paperbacks, 1981, 1982). 2 See G. B. Caird, The Language and Imagery of the Bible (London: Duckworth, 1980).

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discriminations between those who receive the call and promise of election and those who do not.3 Sharpening one’s reactions to the implications of story-telling can help to lead one into the text in the most complete and satisfying way: discerning the narrative patterns, structures and the use of words that determine story-telling can bring a whole new dimension to stories, even those that are very famous and perhaps even hackneyed.4

The Book of Genesis Origins Genesis, meaning "origin" (genealogical), covers the time from creation to the descent of Jacob and his sons into Egypt. The book is divided into a Primeval History focusing on all of humanity (Gen 1—11) and an Ancestral History focusing on the origins of Israel in Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12—50). The Primeval History is made up of two major sections that parallel each other: 1) the Creation of the cosmos and stories of the first humans (1.1— 6.4); 2) the Flood and dispersal of postdiluvian humanity (6.5—11.9). The traditions in this section are similar to myths in other cultures, particularly in the Ancient Near East and Greece. The Mesopotamian Atrahasis epic was possibly written hundreds of years before Gen 1—11, and it parallels numerous elements of the biblical narrative: the creation of the world, a flood, and the vow of the gods not to destroy life with a flood again. The Ancestral History grows out of the Primeval History, and narrates the story of God's choice of Abraham and the transmission of the divine promise (12:1-3) on to the Twelve Sons of Jacob/Israel, the progenitors of the people of Israel. These stories have strong affinity with oral folklore, and it is more difficult to find ancient textual parallels to Gen 12—50. 3

See Robert Kawashima, “Literary Analysis” in Craig Evans; Joel N. Lohr; and David L. Petersen (eds). The Book of Genesis: Composition, Reception, and Interpretation (Leiden: Brill, 2012). 4 The classic discussion of this area of Biblical studies is provided by Robert Alter, The Art of Biblical Narrative (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1981).

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Recent scholarship has nonetheless found similarities between Israelite tales about the Matriarchs and Patriarchs, and modern legends told in oral cultures. Certain individual narrative patterns or motifs can be discerned, especially in sections with a diversity of action (like the interwoven stories that make up Gen 18—19). There are recurrent motifs that are found in many folklores, like the depiction of the favouring of, and/or clever deceptions by, the younger brother over the elder brother: Ishmael and Isaac, Jacob and Esau, Joseph and his Brothers, Ephraim and Manasseh (e.g., Gen 25:27-34; 27:1-45).These motifs parallel the celebration of wily “tricksters” in Native American, African and other traditions.5

Structure Genesis is structured by a series of narrative pillars recounting the emergence of humanity and of the chosen family in the recurrence of genealogies, sets of toledot (“descendants”) headings that divide and unite the book, each guiding the reader to the major focus of the section that follows it (2:4; 5:1; 6:9; 10:1; 11:10; 11:27; 25:12; 25:19; 36:1, 9; 37:2). These genealogies lead from a focus on the Primal World as a whole to the final focus on the Twelve Sons of Jacob. Other patterns also characterize these genealogically-defined sections, like the parallels between the antediluvian and postdiluvian stories of Gen 1—11. These guides help to shape Genesis as follows. 1) The narrative opens with the Primeval History, creation and its aftermath (including Adam and Eve, Cain and Abel): 2.4—6.8. 2) It then moves to the Flood and post-diluvian primeval history, the re-creation of the world and replay of destructive patterns from before the Flood (Noah and his sons, the Tower of Babel): Gen 6.9—11.9. 3) Then follows a genealogical bridge to the ancestral history: 11.10-26. 4) The longest part of the narrative is the Ancestral History, the giving of the promise to the sons of Jacob/Israel: 11.28—50.26. This is in four parts: 5) First, the bestowal of the Promise to Abraham and divine election of Isaac (not Ishmael) as heir of the promise (11.28— 25.11); 5

See Joseph Campbell, The Hero with a Thousand Faces (Princeton University Press, 1948, 1967), p. 196 (Krishna as World Magician, the African Edshu, the Polynesian Maui).

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6) Second, the divergent destinies of the descendants of Ishmael (25.12-18) and Isaac (Esau and Jacob in Gen 25.19—35.29); 7) Third, the divergent destinies of the descendants of Esau (36.1-43); and 8) Fourth, the sons of Jacob/Israel (Joseph and his Brothers) (Gen 37.1—50.26).

Theories of authorship Genesis has been a major focus of study for almost every approach in biblical scholarship. Over 300 years of historical-critical scholarship, a consensus of opinion has proposed that Genesis was written over a long period of time, using oral and written traditions. The work of Karl H. Graf in the 1860s and Julius Wellhausen in the 1870s suggested that the earliest origins of Genesis are probably to be found in secular or non-priestly material. There is still debate, however, about the history of the formation of that material. Over the last hundred years the theory arose that the bulk of this Non-Priestly source of Genesis was formed out of the combination of materials from two hypothesized Pentateuchal sources: — a “Yahwistic” document (J) (using the ineffable name of God YHWH) written in the South during the reign of King David or King Solomon, and — an “Elohistic” document (E) (using the form of God’s name ‘Elohim’) written one or two centuries later in the Northern Kingdom of Israel. More recently, crucial elements of the hypothetical Yahwistic document are thought to date from four hundred years later, from the time of the Exile. Most scholars now recognize that Genesis is a Post-Exilic combination of two bodies of material: 1) The Priestly editorial layer or source beginning with the seven-day creation account Gen 1.1—2.3. The Priestly layer encompasses most of the genealogies in Genesis, a version of the Flood Narrative that culminated in the Noah or Rainbow Covenant of Gen 9:7-17, the Covenant of Circumcision with Abraham in Gen 17:1-27, and related promise texts in Gen 26:34-35; 27:46-28.9;

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35:9-15; and 48:3-6.6 2) The Non-Priestly source beginning with the Garden of Eden story in 2.4-3.24. This layer encompasses almost everything else. By an editorial process of interweaving, the Priestly layer has been related to the Non-Priestly material integrally, and forms a framework for much of it. Debate continues as to the exact relationship between the Priestly and Non-Priestly material, and whether a large portion of the present Priestly layer in Genesis once may originally have been part of a Priestly source independent of the Non-Priestly material, and may perhaps have even been designed to replace it. The historical study of Genesis, going back as far as Ibn Ezra7, had already observed problems with the Priestly chronological notices that characteristically span Genesis. Some specialists working with Genesis also no longer think there was an Elohistic source. Rather than Non-Priestly material being formed out of interwoven Yahwistic and Elohistic documents, perhaps the earliest written origins of the Non-Priestly material are to be found in a possibly Pre-Exilic independent document focusing on different parts of the story: a separate Primeval History (in the mode of the Babylonian Atrahasis) or the separate collections of the Abraham, Jacob and Joseph stories. Some think that the traditions of Genesis were added to the Moses story at a very late point.8 The early history of the written formation of Genesis and other books of the Torah remains an unresolved issue in Pentateuchal research. Jean-Louis Ska provides a clear overview of the history of the source-critical hypotheses and why they are currently under attack. There is no longer unanimity about source criticism of the Pentateuch, and he shows how over the past 35 years the situation has become fragmented. Nothing can be taken for granted by anyone—not J, not P, not a Solomonic source or even an Exilic one for that matter (like his view on 6

Cf. Jean-Louis Ska, “The Yahwist, a Hero With a Thousand Faces. A Chapter in the History of Modern Exegesis” in Jan Christian Gertz; Konrad Schmid; and Markus Witte (eds). Abschied von Jahwisten. Die Komposition des Hexateuchs in der jüngsten Diskussionen (Berlin and New York, 2002). 7 Rabbi Abraham Ben Meir Ibn Ezra (Hebrew: ʭʤʸʡʠ ʯʡʠ ʠʸʦʲ or ʡʠʸ"ʲ, Arabic ϦѧѧѧѧΑ΍ ΍έΰϋ; also known as Abenezra) (1089–1164) was born at Tudela, Navarre (now in Spain) in 1089,and died c. 1167, apparently in Calahorra. He was one of the most distinguished Jewish men of letters and writers of the Middle Ages. Ibn Ezra excelled in philosophy, astronomy/ astrology, mathematics, poetry, linguistics, and exegesis; he was called The Wise, The Great and The Admirable Doctor. 8 See Konrad Schmid, “Genesis in the Pentateuch” in Craig Evans; Joel N. Lohr; and David L. Petersen (eds.). The Book of Genesis: Composition, Reception, and Interpretation (Leiden: Brill, 2012).

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Persian Imperial Authorization—the idea is that the Torah was the approved constitution of Yehud under the Persian Empire).9

Contexts: Genesis and the Pentateuch As with all aspects of the Bible, some sense of context for this book and its themes is essential. The inner contexts emerge from analysis, but the relation of Genesis to the rest of the Pentateuch is particularly important. In The Theme of the Pentateuch (1978) David Clines took up the question of a unifying factor for these five books. For him the overall theme is “the partial fulfilment of the promise to or blessing of the Patriarchs” (‘partial’ because at the end of Deuteronomy the people are still outside the land of Canaan so integral to the special promise). The divine promise does indeed unite the Patriarchal cycles, but it is probably more productive to focus on the Abraham Cycle, the Jacob Cycle, and the Joseph Cycle, and the special contributions of the Yahwist and Priestly sources. The challenge lies in finding a way to unite the Patriarchal theme of divine promise to the stories of Genesis 1—11, the primeval history, or the primeval cycle, with the theme of God’s continuing mercy in the face of man's sinful nature. One solution is to see the Patriarchal stories as resulting from God's decision not to remain alienated from mankind: God creates the world and mankind, mankind rebels, and God “elects” (or chooses) Abraham, with beneficent implications, not only for the Chosen People of his family and race, but for the whole of humanity. To this basic plot (originating with the Yahwist) the Priestly Writer has added a series of covenants dividing history into stages, each with its own distinctive symbol or sign. The first covenant is between God and all living creatures (Gen 9), and is marked by the sign of the rainbow; the second is with the descendants of Abraham (Ishmaelites and others as well as Israelites), and its sign is circumcision (Gen 17); and the third, in the book of Exodus, is with Israel alone, and the sign here is the Law underpinned by the Sabbath (Ex 20). Each covenant is mediated by a great leader (Noah, Abraham, Moses), and at each stage God progressively reveals himself by variation in his name (Elohim with Noah, El Shaddai with Abraham, YHWH with Moses).

9

See Jean-Louis Ska, Introduction to Reading the Pentateuch (Eisenbrauns, 2006).

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Genesis Today In recent years other approaches to reading Genesis have emerged, particularly — literary studies of Genesis in its present form and — feminist re-readings of the many narratives in Genesis featuring women. Some scholars have questioned whether the Garden of Eden story in Gen 2:4—3:24 is as critical of women as it has traditionally been thought to be. Others have highlighted the crucial role of Matriarchs as actors in the Genesis drama, especially as determiners of which son will inherit the promise (e.g., Sarah and Rebekah), or as influencing the levels of privilege among brothers (e.g., Rachel). Because of the mythic and legendary character of much material in Genesis, it is no longer regarded as a fully reliable source of historical information. But because of its long process of formation, the Book of Genesis is able to address people of varying cultures and times. It is not just a collection of stories about a bygone age. It distils Israel's most fervent beliefs and hopes through the vectors of genealogy and vivid narrative that still resonate across the ages.10

10

For a full account of perspectives on the textual development and historical dating of the early chapters of Genesis, see Walter Buhrer, Am Anfang ...: Untersuchungen zur Textgenese und zur Relativ-Chronologischen Einordnung von Gen 1-3 (Vandehoeck & Rupprecht, 2014).

A. PRIMORDIAL NARRATIVE: THE CREATION OF THE WORLD AND OF HUMANKIND CREATION: GENESIS 1—2

1 Bless the LORD, O my soul! O LORD my God, thou art very great! Thou art clothed with honor and majesty, 2 who coverest thyself with light as with a garment, who hast stretched out the heavens like a tent, 3 who hast laid the beams of thy chambers on the waters, who makest the clouds thy chariot, who ridest on the wings of the wind, 4 who makest the winds thy messengers, fire and flame thy ministers. 5 Thou didst set the earth on its foundations, so that it should never be shaken. 6 Thou didst cover it with the deep as with a garment; the waters stood above the mountains. 7 At thy rebuke they fled; at the sound of thy thunder they took to flight. 8 The mountains rose, the valleys sank down to the place which thou didst appoint for them. 9 Thou didst set a bound which they should not pass, so that they might not again cover the earth. (Psalm 104:1-9)

1. GENESIS 1—2: THE BOOK OF BEGINNINGS

The nature of the book Genesis, “the Book of Beginnings”, is the essential introduction to the entire Bible, the foundation of revealed truth. The book takes its name from the title given to it in the Septuagint, derived from the headings of its ten parts, he biblos genesos (2:4, 5:1, 6:9; 10:1; 11:10; 11:27; 25:12; 25:19; 36:1l 37:2). Genesis provides the record of nine beginnings: 1. The beginning of the earth as man’s habitation (1:1—2:3) 2. The beginning of the human race (2:4-25) 3. The beginning of human sin (3:1-7) 4. The beginning of redemptive revelation (3:8-24) 5. The beginning of the human family (4:1-15) 6. The beginning of godless civilization (4:16—9:29) 7. The beginning of the nations (10:1-32) 8. The beginning of human languages (11:1-9) 9. The beginning of the Hebrew race (the Covenant People) (11:10— 50:26) Genesis records ten family histories: 1. The generations of the heavenly posterity and the earthly seed (1:14:26) 2. The generations of Adam (5:1—6:8) 3. The generations of Noah (6:9-9:29) 4. The generations of Noah’s sons (10:1—11:9) 5. The generations of Shem (11:10-26) 6. The generations of Terah (11:27—25: 11) 7. The generations of Ishmael (25:12-18) 8. The generations of Isaac (25:19—35:29) 9. The generations of Esau (36:1—37:1)

1. Genesis 1—2: The Book of Beginnings

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10. The generations of Jacob (37:2—50:26)1

Introduction to Creation Narratives Gen 1 is the first Creation, Gen 2 the second Creation, Gen 3 the Fall, Gen 4 the first murder, Gen 6—9 the Flood, Gen 10—11 the Tower of Babel. This section is concerned with the cosmos, the world, and the first events. The Bible is not unique in this: there are many other civilizations that tell us about their character and spirit. Claus Westermann sees three main kinds of Creation Story: 1) Creation of the universe and single creatures 2) The distinction between creation and beginnings 3) The divinities (or God) can create in different ways. Gen 1 should be compared with Gen 2 & 3. They do not repeat each other: they are quite different. They present 1) the Seven Days, 2) the Creation of Man, 3) the Fall in different ways. There are also allusions in the Prophets, Psalms, Proverbs and Job to creation. In this poetry mythological motifs are used—especially the Cosmic Battle. There are different themes and approaches to the subject throughout the Bible.

1) Creation of the Universe and of Single Creatures Gen 1 shows the creation of everything in the universe: light, water, earth, plants, and animals. God created everything, a complete creation. In the Enuma Elish there are different themes, but at the end Marduk created everything. In Gen 2 there is the creation of single creatures – no heaven, no stars, but only what is necessary for human life: human beings, plants and animals.

1

See David Clines, The Theme of the Pentateuch (Sheffield 1978) and the Catholic Biblical Quarterly 38(1976):485-507.

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2) Distinction between Creation and Beginnings ‘Creation’ means that a divinity starts something that did not exist before. ‘Beginnings’ means that God, or man, starts an activity. Gen 1—2 is the creation of the universe Gen 4 sees the sons of Cain starting activities: 4:23-24 the beginnings of shepherding, not a cosmic, but a human activity; 4:21 the beginnings of music; 4:22 the beginnings of forging. This is found in other parts of the world as well. In Sumeria God comes down from heaven to explain farming, building, worship. So ‘creation’ entails the whole universe, while ‘beginnings’ focuses on single human activities (cf. African stories about the origins of individual animals and their characteristics2).

3) God can create in different ways 1) Creation through birth, or a series of births. 2) Creation through cosmic battle 3) Creation as making, or manufacturing 4) Creation through word or command. 1) Greek mythology has many examples, like the Birth of the Gods from the Titans. Generation of the gods is creation of the world, as described in Hesiod’s Theogony. Sumeria similarly has a series of births culminating in battle. The Maya have a series of genealogies leading to the creation of maize. In the Bible there is only one God, but there are the multifarious generations and genealogies of the Patriarchs. The genealogies of the gods are taken over into the world of men. 2) The cosmic battle is common all over the world, for example, in Egypt and Sumeria, and is also present in the Bible in the poetry and the prophets. Isaiah 27:1 depicts the battle between God and the Dragon (Behemoth, Rehab, Leviathan); Psalm 93 presents the rebellion of the waters. 3) Creation as a making or manufacturing action is best expressed in the image of the potter (Gen 2:7). God takes clay and shapes mankind (Rom 9). 4) Creation through Word, like a king who gives orders and commands. 2

Harold Courlander. A Treasury of African Folklore (New York: Marlowe & Company, 1996). This is an extensive and unique collection or myths, tales, traditions and beliefs of the various peoples found in Africa.

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Egypt has an example in the Memphis theology in the god Ptah: Egypt is the realm conjured up by instruction of Ptah.

Archaeological background Creation Tablets Discovered. Between 1848 and 1876 the first tablets and fragments of tablets of the Babylonian creation epic called Enuma Elish were found. Written in cuneiform characters the seven cantos of the epic were inscribed on seven tablets and were recovered from the library of the Assyrian emperor Ashurbanipal (669-626 B.C.) at his capital Nineveh. This version, though late, goes back in its political mould to the days of Hammurabi the Great (1728-1686 B.C.), and even beyond that to the Sumerians, the earlier pre-Semitic inhabitants of Lower Babylonia. Tablet 1. Tablet 1 presents the primitive scene when only living uncreated world matter exists, personified by two mythical beings. These two, Apsu (male) representing the primeval fresh water ocean, and Tiamat (female) the primeval salt water ocean, gave birth to a brood of gods who were so ill-behaved that their father Apsu decided to kill them. But Ea, the father of Marduk, the city-god of Babylon, instead killed Apsu, thereby transforming Tiamat into a raging avenger of her slain husband. Tablets 2-7. Tablets 2 and 3 recount how Marduk is selected to fight with the raging Tiamat. Tablet 4 tells how Marduk is chosen on the basis of ability to remake a destroyed garment. Marduk defeats Tiamat (chaos) and brings about an ordered universe out of Tiamat’s carcass. Tablet 5 describes Marduk’s setting up the heavenly bodies for light. Tablet 6 sets forth the creation of man out of the blood of Kingu, Tiamat’s commanderin-chief, who is slain. Tablet 7 describes Marduk’s elevation as the chief of Babylon and head of the Babylonian pantheon because of his role in creation.3 Similarities and Differences with Genesis. The Babylonian account and that of the Bible are similar in that: 1) both accounts know of a chaos, although the Hebrew tehom (“waters”) is a common noun with no mythological connotations like Tiamat. 2) Both accounts have a similar order of events—light, firmament, dry land, luminaries, man, and God or the gods of Babylon at rest. 3) Both accounts have a predilection for the number seven, seven days, seven cantos. But this similarity is superficial, 3

L. W. King, The Seven Tablets of Creation (London, 1902).

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and the differences between the polytheistic Babylonian version with its extreme behaviour and the restrained Genesis account are very considerable. The Babylonian account is a corrupted version of an original tradition; the Bible presents the Mosaic inspiration freed from any polytheistic incrustations. Here is how the Enuma Elish opens: When on high the heaven had not been named, Firm ground below had not been called by name, When primordial Apsu, their begetter, And Mummu-Tiamat, she who bore them all, Their waters mingled as a single body, No reed hut had sprung forth, no marshland had appeared, None of the gods had been brought into being, And none bore a name, and no destinies determined-Then it was that the gods were formed in the midst of heaven. Lahmu and Lahamu were brought forth, by name they were called. ... Marduk made a raft on the surface of the waters. He created earth, he pured it on the raft. So as to settle the gods in the residence of the heart’s good He created mankind. Aruru created the seed of mankind along with him. On the plains he created the herds of Shakken, living creatures. He made the Tigris and Euphrates, he set them in place. He named them as well. He created the mature reed, the tender reed, the swamp, the reed, the thicket, He created the green plants of the plain. All the lands were marsh and thicket. There was a cow and its calf, a young bull; a ewe and its lamb, the sheep of the fold; Orchards and forests. Wild rams and mountain rams stood there, At the edge of the sea he heaped up a terrace. ..,he made the reed-beds into dry land. 4

4

E. A. Speiser, Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament, 3rd edition, ed. James Pritchard (Princeton, 1969). See other translations, like that of L. W. King in The Seven Tablets of Creation.

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Fig.2. From the Enuma Elish (cuneiform tablet)

Genesis 1 1 In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth. 2 The earth was without form and void, and darkness was upon the face of the deep; and the Spirit of God was moving over the face of the waters. 3 And God said, “Let there be light”; and there was light. 4 And God saw that the light was good; and God separated the light from the darkness. 5 God called the light Day, and the darkness he called Night. And there was evening and there was morning, one day. 6 And God said, “Let there be a firmament in the midst of the waters, and

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let it separate the waters from the waters.” 7 And God made the firmament and separated the waters which were under the firmament from the waters which were above the firmament. And it was so. 8 And God called the firmament Heaven. And there was evening and there was morning, a second day. 9 And God said, “Let the waters under the heavens be gathered together into one place, and let the dry land appear.” And it was so. 10 God called the dry land Earth, and the waters that were gathered together he called Seas. And God saw that it was good. 11 And God said, “Let the earth put forth vegetation, plants yielding seed, and fruit trees bearing fruit in which is their seed, each according to its kind, upon the earth.” And it was so. 12 The earth brought forth vegetation, plants yielding seed according to their own kinds, and trees bearing fruit in which is their seed, each according to its kind. And God saw that it was good. 13 And there was evening and there was morning, a third day. 14 And God said, “Let there be lights in the firmament of the heavens to separate the day from the night; and let them be for signs and for seasons and for days and years, 15 and let them be lights in the firmament of the heavens to give light upon the earth.” And it was so. 16 And God made the two great lights, the greater light to rule the day, and the lesser light to rule the night; he made the stars also. 17 And God set them in the firmament of the heavens to give light upon the earth, 18 to rule over the day and over the night, and to separate the light from the darkness. And God saw that it was good. 19 And there was evening and there was morning, a fourth day. 20 And God said, “Let the waters bring forth swarms of living creatures, and let birds fly above the earth across the firmament of the heavens.” 21 So God created the great sea monsters and every living creature that moves, with which the waters swarm, according to their kinds, and every winged bird according to its kind. And God saw that it was good. 22 And God blessed them, saying, “Be fruitful and multiply and fill the waters in the seas, and let birds multiply on the earth.” 23 And there was evening and there was morning, a fifth day. 24 And God said, “Let the earth bring forth living creatures according to their kinds: cattle and creeping things and beasts of the earth according to their kinds.” And it was so. 25 And God made the beasts of the earth according to their kinds and the

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cattle according to their kinds, and everything that creeps upon the ground according to its kind. And God saw that it was good. 26 Then God said, “Let us make man in our image, after our likeness; and let them have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the birds of the air, and over the cattle, and over all the earth, and over every creeping thing that creeps upon the earth.” 27 So God created man in his own image, in the image of God he created him; male and female he created them. 28 And God blessed them, and God said to them, “Be fruitful and multiply, and fill the earth and subdue it; and have dominion over the fish of the sea and over the birds of the air and over every living thing that moves upon the earth.” 29 And God said, “Behold, I have given you every plant yielding seed which is upon the face of all the earth, and every tree with seed in its fruit; you shall have them for food. 30 And to every beast of the earth, and to every bird of the air, and to everything that creeps on the earth, everything that has the breath of life, I have given every green plant for food.” And it was so. 31 And God saw everything that he had made, and behold, it was very good. And there was evening and there was morning, a sixth day.

Genesis 2 1 Thus the heavens and the earth were finished, and all the host of them. 2 And on the seventh day God finished his work which he had done, and he rested on the seventh day from all his work which he had done. 3 So God blessed the seventh day and hallowed it, because on it God rested from all his work which he had done in creation. 4 These are the generations of the heavens and the earth when they were created. In the day that the LORD God made the earth and the heavens...

1.1 Genesis 1: The beginning of the earth Gen 1:1 In the first phase of revelation there is a declaration of the existence of God, whose eternal being is assumed and asserted. He is presented as the First Cause, the Originator and Fashioner of all things. There are two main problems: 1) the translation of the first three verses; 2) the meaning of the ‘wind of God’.

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The first problem 1) The RSV (Revised Standard Version) gives the classic translation. More modern versions provide something different: in the NEB (New English Bible), the NAB (the New American Bible), and the TOB (Traduction oecuménique de la Bible), the first two verses are in fact linked.

Elements of argumentation The first problem is in the first words: “In the beginning he created...” i) bere’shit: there are other uses in the Bible (Jer 26:1; 27;1; 28:1, 49:34), always in the construct state, never in the absolute state. Otherwise it is usually bari’shonah. re’shit: is used 50 times in the Masoretic Text, only once in the absolute in Is 46:10 (mere’shit “from the beginning”). It is never found with the article.5 ii) This always signifies the beginning of something, not the beginning itself. It can also mean the first fruits of the harvest, also the commencement of something. iii) “In the beginning of creation” (NEB, NAB) would put noun and verb in a construct chain. Nouns are often seen in a construct chain, but with a verb the usage is very unusual. The beginning of Hosea (1:2) provides one such example. Its recurrence is not impossible. iv) In verse 2 we- does not imply a succession; we-apodosis begins in verse 3; we-yiktol is not present.6

Solutions D. Barthélemy gives three possible translations:7 i) “In the beginning God created heaven and earth”, the classic translation; ii) or with Verse 2 containing an implicit relative clause: “In the beginning, when God created heaven and earth, then God spoke...” iii) or as one sentence: “In the beginning when God created heaven and earth, when the earth was without ... then God spoke...” 5

See Benjamin Davidson, The Analytical Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon (1848) (Peabody, MS: Hendrickson Publishers, 1982), 113. 6 W. R. Lane in Vetus Testamentum 13(1963): 63-73. 7 D. Barthélemy, Critique textuelle de l’ancien Testament (Göttingen, 1982).

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Perhaps the third solution is to be preferred. It respects the grammar, the form of the verbs, and other examples of creation narratives. They all start with long sentences: “When...when... then...” The opening words of creation are assumed to refer to the original creation of the earth and the universe. But they could also imply a relative beginning to God’s creative activity, in a later period in preparation for the coming of man. The phrase “in the beginning” as used in the Gospel of John 1:1 antedates the time implied by the phrase at the commencement of Genesis, even if the latter is interpreted as the original creation of the earth and the universe. If “in the beginning” is a relative beginning, then “created” does not refer to God’s activity in bringing the universe into being ex nihilo, but his refashioning of the earth and sidereal heavens at a later period in geological history. This is a theological problem: it can seem that there was something already there when God created. In the Bible we find the expression ex nihilo (2 Macc 7:26). But this is a late text, indicating a development in Biblical theology. The original world created ex nihilo could have been brought about by the hand of God before sin entered God’s moral universe. There seem to be reference in the prophetic oracles to such a situation: see Ezekiel 28:13-14: 13 You were in Eden, the garden of God; every precious stone was your covering, carnelian, topaz, and jasper, chrysolite, beryl, and onyx, sapphire, carbuncle, and emerald; and wrought in gold were your settings and your engravings. On the day that you were created they were prepared. 14 With an anointed guardian cherub I placed you; you were on the holy mountain of God; in the midst of the stones of fire you walked.

This idea is evidence of the residual memory of an ancient notion that occasionally surfaces in the Bible—of a pristine sinless earth, the place where sin began in God’s hitherto sinless universe. It is connected with the story of the revolt of Satan and his angels, and the fall of Lucifer from heaven. A passage from Isaiah 14 draws on this idea: 12 “How you are fallen from heaven, O Day Star, son of Dawn! How you are cut down to the ground, you who laid the nations low! 13 You said in your heart, `I will ascend to heaven; above the stars of God I will set my throne on high; I will sit on the mount of assembly in the far north; 14 I will ascend above the heights of the clouds, I will make myself like the Most High.’“

It is developed further in Ezekiel 28:

12

Creation, Sin and Reconciliation 15 You were blameless in your ways from the day you were created, till iniquity was found in you. 16 In the abundance of your trade you were filled with violence, and you sinned; so I cast you as a profane thing from the mountain of God, and the guardian cherub drove you out from the midst of the stones of fire. 17 Your heart was proud because of your beauty; you corrupted your wisdom for the sake of your splendour. I cast you to the ground; I exposed you before kings, to feast their eyes on you.

Study of the meanings of the words shows the terms “without form and void” are close to nothingness. This language is a Biblical way of describing nullity, emptiness. The sea is often an image of chaos, evil, and emptiness. Gen 1:2 has been understood to imply a previous chaotic visitation of divine judgement upon the original earth, placing a gap in the chronology into which scientific difficulties could be slotted. But placing this gap is rendered untenable by the Hebrew text. This indicates that all three clauses of 1:2 are circumstantial, either to the main clause in 1:1, or to that in 1:3. Presumably 1:2 is circumstantial to 1:1, a situation that would put the gap not in 1:2 but before 1:1

Genesis 1:1 and 1:2 a Unit These two pivotal verses must not be separated. They form an introduction to the activity of the Seven Days (1:3—2:3), because they tell us the condition of the earth when God began to remake or refashion it. It was (not became) waste and emptiness, with darkness upon the surface of chaotic mass. However, the Spirit of God was brooding over the waters. God had not utterly forsaken and forgotten the earth, perhaps ruined by the sin of the residually remembered former angelic inhabitants (cf. Gen 6:16; Is 14:13-14; Ezk 28:12-15)? When sin entered the universe God gave the first intimation that He would deal with it in mercy as well as in judgement.

The second problem Ruach means a wind, strong gale. Is it the ‘wind of God’, or a storm? One can find the use of ’elohîm or ’el to express a superlative state, as in Job 1:16. In the trial of Job the list of catastrophes are described in this way: the very big fire is ‘a fire of God’ (While he was yet speaking, there came another, and said, “The fire of God fell from heaven and burned up the sheep and the servants, and consumed them; and I alone have escaped to

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tell you”). Mountains and cedars said to be ‘of God’ also depict their magnitude. The wind can be seen as part of the primeval chaos. Darkness and the waters are also part of this primeval chaos. Creation is a conflict between order and chaos. In Phoenicia creation begins in wind. Others take up a radical position, and see this as a false problem. The big storm and the storm of God are the same thing. For the Hebrews, they were synonymous. But how can God be linked with an element of chaos? God creates order, and the cosmos is not chaos. The waters of God and wind of God are not in a superlative sense here. Soon all the elements will be transformed into order and clarity. The three elements of emptiness, darkness and water are transformed, but the wind is not mentioned. This is different. So this is better translated as ‘the wind of God’. Wind belongs to the Creator, the other elements to creation.

Interpreting the Creation: the Six Days of Genesis If Gen 1:1 does describe the original creation of the earth ex nihilo before the entrance of sin into the pristine sinless earth (Job 38:7 when the morning stars sang together, and all the sons of God shouted for joy), then the days represent either: 1) literal 24-hour days of re-creation, 2) literal 24-hour days of the divine revelation of re-creation to man 3) or extended geological ages or epochs preparatory to the eventual occupancy of man. Since the Genesis account itself is an indecisive view, 2) or 3) are possible. View 1) is generally recognized as untenable in an age of science. If Gen 1:1 describes the original creation of the earth out of nothing, and not the refashioning of earth after it had suffered chaos in connection with the entrance of some kind of archetypal angelic sin into the universe, then the six days represent the possibilities indicated in 3).

Is the Creation Narrative really a narrative? There is little expectation or tension in this story. G. W. Coats says this is not a narrative at all, but a report.8 Nevertheless, this is a special kind of 8

G. W. Coats, Genesis with an Introduction to Narrative Literature (Grand Rapids, 1983).

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narrative. There is a series of connected actions, even a certain progression. There is a character with qualities. There is a certain tension or expectation. It starts with a beginning and has an end (Gen 2:1). God begins to create, and then he stops—a project, a plan and its fulfilment. The frame of Seven Days provides an order. There is an organic unity and tension in the text.

1. Is there a formal structure or theme? We can find the different moments of Creation. 1) Exposition (Gen 1:1-2) the universe at the beginning; 2) Complication (Gen 1:3-30): the chain of action in which God created the world; 3) Turning point (Gen 1:31): there are changes in the formula: God saw all that he did and was pleased. 4) Conclusion (Gen 2:1-3): there is no tension: God rests. It really is a narration: there is an arc of tension and a plot, a confrontation between God and emptiness.

2. What are the problems if this is a narrative? The narrator tells a story that happened before Creation. How can he know? In the Bible God is the Almighty, who can resist him? It is difficult to have a conflict with God. This cannot be told by an historian. 1) The problem of opposition and conflict The narrator reduces this to the minimum: chaos, emptiness, nothingness. It is a negative opposition, but though this God’s power is enhanced. While there was nothing to resist God, there was nothing to help him. God must create with nothing at his disposal. God faces God alone, with the tension in himself. The conflict is internal: he must fulfil his own plan so as not to disappoint himself. 2) No one was there to see the events The narrative situation should be compared with the Temptation of Jesus in the Wilderness (Mt 4:1-11), and the Agony in the Garden (Mt 26:36-

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56). The technique is one of narrative omniscience. The narrator knows everything, can move through time and space, as a privileged witness, as at the Burning Bush (Ex 3:1—4:17). Here there is no choice: the storyteller cannot use a fiction of putting someone near to God. Proverbs and Sirach put Wisdom there as a witness (Prov 8:22-31; Sir 24:1-23). Here the narrator seeks to enhance God’s power. A storyteller wants to be believed. He must give the impression that he knows everything and is completely reliable. His focus is wide-angled, not restricted. He does not give a limited point of view. He gives as much as possible, and he must make himself as objective and unobtrusive as possible. Therefore there is no distance between the narrator and the facts. He is transparent and does not intervene. There is a claim to objectivity: the narrator tells us the reality of events, not his own opinions. Narration joins the utmost subjective claims with the utmost objective discretion.

What do we expect from the narration? There are practical moral and intellectual interests. 1) Intellectual: We want to know about God and his activity, the meaning of this activity. 2) Practical: There are values in creation. This involves the reader on a practical level: how should he live? 3) Aesthetic: How will the narrator tell this story? How can he respect God’s activity? Or give a mirror of what is told? There are no words, yet the firmament tells the glory of God (cf. Ps 8). The text must contain something that conveys the message of creation and the Creator in its own structure, texture, imagery, style. The Ancient Middle East contains other stories of the origin of the world and of mankind. The narrator has special kinds of conflicts of his own: he must be omniscient, use wide focussing objectivity, and symbolic and poetic language.

Delimitation of the Text Is Gen 2:4 a part of the narration or not? There is an inclusion from 1:1 to 2:3, bara` and toledot (which occurs ten times in Genesis) which helps to structure the text. There is a transition here: it can belong to preceding or following verses: 1:1—2:3 or 1:1—2:4a.

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The main structuring elements 1) The sequence is one of execution: the project of God and its fulfilment. 2) Repetitions of phrases and sentences, refrains like: —“morning and evening”. This occurs six times, beginning in verse 5. It does not recur after the Seventh Day; —“And that was so”. This occurs seven times, first at the end of verse 3, lastly at the end of verse 7. It is missing after the creation of the birds and fishes. —“And God saw that it was good”. This is missing after the creation of the firmament, implying an incomplete creation. Only after the Fourth Day is it good. 3) Repetitions of important verbs. —“to say” is found ten times. The Rabbis saw a parallel between the Ten Words of the Creation and the Ten Words of Commandment. —“to make” is found seven times; —“it was” is found three times in the first part of the chapter (light, darkness, firmament); —“to call” occurs twice; —“to bless” occurs thrice; —“to separate” occurs five times; —“to create” occurs seven times (plus 2:4); —symbolic numbers: 3, 5. 7, 10. These repetitions impinge on the mind of the reader, both consciously and unconsciously.

The division of the text There are two main parts with an introduction and conclusion: 1) 1:3—1:19: the first 4 days 2) 1:20—1:31: the 5th and 6th days. 1) 1:3—1:19: the first 4 days Some important words and semantic fields occur only in this part of the text.

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—Light is created twice: the fourth day completes the first. —The verb chayah (to be) occurs only here. —The vocabulary of light occurs only here: in 1:3-5 it is repeated six times, five plus one in verse 17. Verse 19 has “the lights” five times. The verb “to enlighten, to illuminate” (Hiphil, causative, to act upon) is found twice. —Opposition of light and darkness; the pairing of day and night. —The verb “to separate” occurs only here. —The verb “to call” occurs only here. —“Firmament” is mentioned only here. —The fourth day is important: the light of the first day is completed in the lights of the fourth. —The verb “to rule” occurs for the first time, Earth is dominated by the heavens, light can rule on earth. No power on earth is above the powers of heaven. God created time, the movement of the seasons. Man is under time, and cannot control it. All living creatures are subject to time. 2) 1:20—1:31: the 5th and 6th days. The creation of all living beings —The term “living things” occurs only here. —The verb “to create” is used in the creation of birds, fish, and thrice in relation to man (1:1, 1:21, 1:27) —four times in all. —The verb “to bless” (1:22; 28; 2:3) —The term “species” (min). —There is a sequence of verbs found twice, to do with multiplication: “be fruitful and multiply”, but said only to the birds and the fishes but not to the animals. —There is power in heaven (moon, stars, sun), and the power of man to step, trample, tend; also in 1:28 “to submit”. An opposition begins to emerge: 1) the cosmos: heaven, earth, light, darkness, time. Man is not able to change this. 2) the world that man can dominate. But all develops in time, and all is limited by birth and death. There is a frame (1:1—2:3a) determined by the verb “to create” and a

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recurrent pair of words “heaven and earth” (1:1; 2:1; 2:2). There is a beginning and an end underpinned by the overall incipient position: 1) power in heaven where God governs (cosmos, heaven, water, earth) 2) power on earth where man can govern (birds, fishes, animals).9 There is also an order and movement in the account: from chaos to cosmos. 1) bara’: this is found in Is 40, written at the end of the Exile. DeuteroIsaiah describes the salvation of Israel—a new creation. When God saves, he creates something new. God saves with his creative power. Creation and Salvation can be described in the same vocabulary. 2) chadash: there is a newness about God’s creation 3) YHWH: the Tetragrammaton (the LORD) is the only subject of chayah in the Bible (cf. Ex 3: 14). 4) “Heaven and Earth”: this a construction used to describe a new situation and a totality—two opposite terms. These two terms describe/encapsulate the universe—everything. God’s activity creates something new that affects the totality of the universe. The E tradition does not see God at work, but only his works. Through his works we can see something of him.

The Primeval Chaos First Day—Light, 1:3-5 This is not the original creation of light but the penetration by divine fiat of the sun’s rays through the absolute darkness of the chaotic earth and atmosphere. The Bible does not tell us when God created our solar system or the vast solar systems of the universe. Certainly it was in the illimitable and unfathomable past as the science of geology shows. Equally certainly it was before Gen 1:1, since the light of Gen 1:3 is obviously from the sun, which does not become visible and function normally in respect to the regenerated earth till the fourth day (Gen 1: 14-18). This interesting feature is further evidence that Gen 1 is re-creation not original creation.

9

P. Beauchamps, Création et séparation. Étude du chapitre premier de la Genèse (Paris: BSR, 1969).

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1) “void and empty”: tohu wabohu; the first is common, and often used in conjunction with deserts and lost places, particularly in Deutero-Isaiah. Israel was decimated: God had to create it anew. An empty and sterile world must be reconstituted. This is a situation close to non-existence, like the false gods; 2) “darkness”: choshek. This is the world of death as seen in Psalm 88 (O LORD, my God, I call for help by day), perhaps the most desperate psalm in the Bible. This is what happens when one is separated from God—darkness ensues. 3) “waters”: tehom. This is an underground ocean. The German scholar Hermann Gunkel found traces of Sumerian mythology (Tiamet) here. This word is never found in chaotic battles (as in Job 38:8 and Psalm 74:12-17).10 4) “hover”: rachefet. See Deut 32:11, Jer 23:9 (where God is like an eagle hovering above its young). This can be seen as a hatching process, as in a cosmic egg (cf. the Finnish epic Kalevala, 1:177244). Waters are places where God is absent (cf. Ps 93—The LORD reigns; he is robed in majesty). This reflects the influence of the Phoenician and Ugaritic worlds, where life at sea is impossible. It is also linked to the floods that used to threaten Babylon every year, the annual conflict between Baal and Yam. It is the sea that threatens Tyre and Sidon. The sea is always opposed to something, and has no consistency in itself. Life is impossible in chaos where there is no space, no paths, no ways, no distinctions, no time, only uniform and eternal night. The basic conditions of life are absent. What will God do? To create the fundamental conditions of life requires separation and call. In chaos all is indistinguishable, all is equal, there is no form. But God separates, and calls into existence. God changes the name (as Jesus did with Peter, Mt 16:17-18, Jn 1:42). To change the name is to change the identity, to make dependent. God distinguishes, separates, calls, identifies, gives names. On the First Day God creates LIGHT. This is a very important topic in the Bible. All that is of value, life, freedom, justice, joy, is described in terms of light. In Is 9:1-3 the beginning of the new Messianic reign is depicted in terms of light.

10 Hermann Gunkel, Schöpfung und Chaos in Urzeit und Endzeit. Eine religionsgeschichtliche Untersuchung über Gen 1 und Ap Joh 12 (Göttingen, 1895).

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Fig.3. The First Day of Creation (Nuremberg Chronicle, 1493) 1 But there will be no gloom for her that was in anguish. In the former time he brought into contempt the land of Zeb’ulun and the land of Naph’tali, but in the latter time he will make glorious the way of the sea, the land beyond the Jordan, Galilee of the nations. 2 The people who walked in darkness have seen a great light; those who dwelt in a land of deep darkness, on them has light shined. 3 Thou hast multiplied the nation, thou hast increased its joy; they rejoice before thee as with joy at the harvest, as men rejoice when they divide the spoil.

Light is God’s garment (Ps 27—The LORD is my light and salvation). Whatever he shares is light. This first gift to the universe of light, the first morning, is the moment of great import and victory over darkness. Light

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comes in the morning when God gives justice (Job 38:12-13). God removes all evildoers like crumbs swept from a skirt: “Are you the master of the dawn?”). The first rhythm of the universe is alternation of day and night, the creation of TIME. It is time, not place that is holy and important in Gen 1. After the destruction of the Temple in 584 BC, land and place were lost. God must now be found in time. This should be compared with Indian mythology, where the world begins in the sound of music, the drum of Shiva, the rhythm of time. The fundamental rhythm of time is here, the pulse of time. Jeremiah 4:23-28 presents the images of de-creation. The vocabulary is exactly the same as that of Genesis 1. Only the sea is missing. Prophet and Priestly Writer use the same ideas and words. The destructive horror of the Exile ironically gave Israel the insight into God’s creative saving power. 23 I looked on the earth, and lo, it was waste and void; and to the heavens, and they had no light. 24 I looked on the mountains, and lo, they were quaking, and all the hills moved to and fro. 25 I looked, and lo, there was no man, and all the birds of the air had fled. 26 I looked, and lo, the fruitful land was a desert, and all its cities were laid in ruins before the LORD, before his fierce anger. 27 For thus says the LORD, “The whole land shall be a desolation; yet I will not make a full end. 28 For this the earth shall mourn, and the heavens above be black; for I have spoken, I have purposed; I have not relented nor will I turn back.”

The Second Day—Firmament, 1:6-8 The second day involves the separation of the chaotic mixture of atmospheric waters from terrestrial waters. This can only mean that an immense foggy, watery blanket had shut out all sunlight and shrouded the judgement-ridden earth in impenetrable gloom, obliterating any idea of heaven or sky, the primeval chaos. This chaotic celestial water mass condensed to unite with the land’s watery chaos, producing the firmament or atmospheric heavens. The condensation was only partial, since this recreative process resulted in the separation of the waters “under the firmament” from the atmospheric vapour or waters “above the firmament” (1:6-8). That this particular climatic condition prevailed until the Flood is suggested by the 40-day torrential downpour and the postdiluvian rainbow (Gen 7:11-12; 9:11-15). The Second Day has space created in a vertical dimension. There is the

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ocean above the heaven (raqi’a). This is not used often in the Bible. Ezekiel 1:22-25 shows similarity with the Priestly Writer. The Vision of the Four Beasts depicts the firmament, plain and flat, and supported by the creatures, just as the Throne of God is supported by the firmament. 22 Over the heads of the living creatures there was the likeness of a firmament, shining like crystal, spread out above their heads. 23 And under the firmament their wings were stretched out straight, one toward another; and each creature had two wings covering its body. 24 And when they went, I heard the sound of their wings like the sound of many waters, like the thunder of the Almighty, a sound of tumult like the sound of a host; when they stood still, they let down their wings. 25 And there came a voice from above the firmament over their heads; when they stood still, they let down their wings.

The Third Day—Land, Sea, Plants, 1:9-13 After the separation from the atmospheric waters on the second day, the terrestrial waters were separated from the land to constitute the earth and to form the seas, making possible luxuriant plant and tree growth. Then comes the horizontal dimension in the Third Day. This is marked by two words: SPACE and LIFE. This is the first sign of life, in the plants, the food of all human beings. God gives orders to the earth, and it must produce. Transformation and production are presented here, rather than just creation. There is no sign of any battle with the Sea-Monster as is so often the case (cf. Ps 74:12-14), but there is a boundary, a frontier. It cannot be passed, or changed by man. The dry ground appears, with a cosmic vocabulary: yabbashah. It is opposed to the sea: when the waters cover the earth, all is dead. At the Flood the earth is covered in water, but dry land will appear. The Priestly Writer uses this concept in Gen 1:6-9 and Ex 14. Water cleanses the earth, a symbol or objective correlative of the violence that comes to characterize debased human behaviour. The same happens in the Exodus at the crossing of the Red Sea, as the enslaved Israelites flee the menacing violence of the Egyptians. God creates a new earth. Dry land has a special meaning, a place of life as opposed to death in the waters of the sea. The righteous can live on the dry land: it is a place reserved for them. God does not separate the waters from the earth: he just lets it appear. The waters under the heavens are now gathered in one place. “To separate” (badal) is used in relation to the firmament. It is common to many cosmologies: in Egypt and Mesopotamia the flood waters disappear slowly, earth appears little by little.

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Vegetation. For the first time something created must bring forth and produce. The plants themselves can reproduce because they contain seeds. Now there is diversification. This is another step forward in difference, variation and distinctions after the uniformity and colourlessness of the chaos: dasha’, a productive term (to sprout, bring forth); `eseb (plants, grass and seeds). What is created will last and reproduce, as opposed to the eternal cosmic ordering of heaven and earth.11

The Fourth Day—Sun, Moon and Stars, 1:14-19 These heavenly bodies (together with the vast solar system of space) had been brought into existence in the original creation ex nihilo prior to the re-creative work of Gen 1:1. On the first day of re-creation their light began to pierce the chaotic vapours enshrouding the (possibly judgementridden?) earth. Now due to the separation of the vast quantities of atmospheric waters (“waters above the heavens”) from their chaotic mixture with terrestrial waters (“waters below the heavens”) on the third day, their light became visible on the earth. With the earth becoming dependent on the sun as its only source of heat, while its surface gradually cooled, seasons ensued and geological developments slowed down. The Fourth Day again confronts time and its priority over and against space. Only here does the term of approval occur. It has a special function and role. It interrupts the process of creation. One would now expect an animal world to be created, but the expected sequence does not ensue. The verb of separation recurs. All the previous elements are found again. We go back to finish and complete what was begun on the Second Day. Why does this happen? It is the middle of the week, equidistant between the two Sabbath Days. It has a central position, a key position in the week: time, signs for appointed seasons and years, cycles of times as opposed to day and night. Festivals and the liturgical year are fixed by the new moon: lemo`adim (from mo`adoth, solemn feast). The power of the heavenly bodies determines days, months and years. All that is created is ruled from the heavens which are more important than the earth. Heaven is a symbol of God’s power in the universe. The verb qara’ is not used: the heavenly bodies are not named. Perhaps there is a polemical intention against the lunar and solar astral cults of Mesopotamia: the moon, the sun, the stars are simple, nameless creatures under God’s power, not divine beings (cf. Jer 8:2; Ezk 8:16). They give light during the night and day, and separate light from darkness 11 See Jean-Louis Ska, “Séparation des eaux et de la terre ferme dans le récit sacerdotal.” NRTh 113 (1989): 512-32.

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(cf. Joel 2:10; Ps 104:19). God creates the basic conditions of life in the first Four Days: time, space, and food. There are five names: day, night, firmament, earth and sea. The basic distinctions of heaven, earth and sea are established. This is recurrent, as in Is 40:12 (Who has measured the waters in the hollow of his hand and marked off the heavens with a span, enclosed the dust of the earth in a measure and weighed the mountains in scales and the hills in a balance?), and often in the Psalms (19:1-6, 74:15-17). There are five separations. The Fourth Day is the most important: all creation is subject to the power of heaven, this is the longest work, in six verses. The pace of narration is slower because something important is happening here. See Is 45:18: “He did not create it chaos, he formed it to be inhabited!”. Earth is created to be inhabited. He made living beings. ’Elohim, used 34 times in Gen 1, occurs 17 times on the Fourth Day (in a ratio 10:7): 10 words, 7 days. The name, moreover, is repeated often when not necessary, indicating an insistence in the usage. The second half of Genesis 1 shows a tendency to lengthen works. The Fourth, Fifth and Sixth Days are extended. The Seventh Day is short. Chaos moves to cosmos on the first four days; cosmos move to anthropos on the last three days. There are common elements between the Fifth and Sixth Days: —nephesh chaya: “living beings”, but used for mankind; —bara’: “to create”, used twice for birds and fishes, and for man (1:21, 27—thrice); —barak: a blessing follows 1:22, 27, 28, and a list of three verbs is attached: —para’: “be fruitful” —rabah: “to multiply” —male’: “to fill” —min: “species or kind” occurs seven times. Man is not created according to any kind but is unique. The repetitions create a certain atmosphere. Days Four and Six have power in common. Now mankind receives a power. —moshel: “rule or dominion”, the power of living beings —radah: “to rule” —kabash: “to subdue”

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Days Three and Six have the common theme of vegetation, the food of all living beings.

The Fifth Day—Sea Life and Birds Created, 1:20-23 As conditions in the reconstituted earth become suitable, God creates marine and bird life. Earth’s restoration proceeds progressively to prepare for God’s highest earthly creature. On the Fifth Day. God creates fishes and birds. In the number of lists of living beings in the Bible, fish are always at the end. But here they are at the beginning, the most primitive form of life. God starts with basic life and moves on to animals then man. Man can rule over all of them. Birds fly “on the surface of heaven”, there is no word for ‘air’. There is no concurrence between beings: the birds are in the air, the fish in the water. The first blessing in the chapter now comes. Other blessings, for man and for the Sabbath, will come later. The great dragons and sea-monsters (tanninem) are personifications of the terrible forces of the sea that can destroy, often in the context of a great sea battle (cf. Is 27:1 In that day the LORD with his hard and great and strong sword will punish Leviathan the fleeing serpent, Leviathan the twisting serpent, and he will slay the dragon that is in the sea). In this account, however, there is no trace of the cosmic battle, no trace of mythology. The creatures receive a blessing so that they can multiply.

The Sixth Day—Land, Life and Man Created, 1:24-31 Man was created (does this imply evolved?) and appeared as the crown and goal of all God’s re-creative activity, with the earth as man’s special home. The expression “let us” (1:26) intimates for some Christian interpreters the Triune God’s counsel and activity in man’s creation (cf. Jn 1:3; Col 1:16), as well as God’s foreordained redemptive plan and purpose for man upon the earth (Eph 1:4-6). Man was given dominion over the earth. Eph 1:4-6 4 even as he chose us in him before the foundation of the world, that we should be holy and blameless before him. 5 He destined us in love to be his sons through Jesus Christ, according to the purpose of his will, 6 to the praise of his glorious grace which he freely bestowed on us in the Beloved.

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The Sixth Day also contains two works: the creation of animals and of man. The creatures of the earth constitute the third region of earth. “Let the earth bring forth”: This is given a special form in 1:24 (totse’), a poetic and archaic form (from yatsa’: “to come from, to be begotten or born”) found in the Psalms and Zephaniah. God uses this form which lends a special poetic note and connotation. Special classifications are favoured by the Priestly Writer: he mentions three different kinds of animals, three different Hebrew words: —behemah: useful animals —remes: insects, reptiles, creeping things —chayot: useless wild animals. The Priestly Writer has the beginning of classification in mind: bara’ is not used and there is no blessing of the animals.

Fig.4. Creation of the Animals (Tintoretto, 1518-94)

The Creation of Man Of special note are:

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1) the Words of God (1:26) 2) man made in the image and likeness of God 3) man’s power

1) The Words of God na`aseh (from `asah): “let us make” in the plural. This is often found (see Gen 1:3, 22). Man is not like me, but like us (cf. the Tower of Babel, Gen 11:7). There are different explanations: see, for example, Is 6:8 (And I heard the voice of the Lord saying, “Whom shall I send, and who will go for us?” Then I said, “Here am I! Send me”). It seems to be a remnant of polytheism, where the gods always deliberated. But in the very late Pentateuch this would be very difficult to believe. The verb is in the plural: why this exceptional usage? Perhaps it is because God sits in a council of angels (1 Kgs 22; Job 1; Ps 103:19-21 cf. Ps 68:27)? The problem is that with the Priestly Writer God’s council is not present. Can it be a royal plural, the solemn atmosphere of the pluralis majestatis? This is used not only in Hebrew but also in the Greek Maccabees (1 Macc 2:13) and Esther (Est 13:6). But the best explanation is the pluralis deliberationis, cohortative, the inner workings of God’s mind.

2) The image and likeness of God There seems to be a similarity between God and man, physical and spiritual. Man can stand upright, has faculties and freedom. Man has the power of domination over all animals, power in the universe. Man has a privileged relationship with God. But this is very abstract. Another image for the Ancient Near East, from Egypt and Mesopotamia, is that only the king is created in the image of God. The king is the son of God. There are different classes of people: some people are more equal than others. Here everyone is equal, like the king. Perhaps there is a trace of the polemics against the idols, false gods, images of the pagans. In the universe there is only one image—the human being modelled after God. Mankind is one, there is no classification. Man is more than just a living being, although he is called nephesh chayah in Gen 2—3. The terms used in 1:26 are tselem and demuth (image and likeness).These are used in a cultic context, especially in Ezekiel, where ch. 1 presents an image of God. i) That humanity is created in the likeness of God is why man is different from the animals. ii) This is also the reason why man is not created according to kinds.

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This makes for a unity of mankind all over the world. There is only one image of God. Mankind is a mirror of the unity of God. The Priestly Writer knew of different races, but there is a central unity of being. iii) In Gen 9:6 we find the same vocabulary—why human life is sacred (Whoever sheds the blood of man, by man shall his blood be shed; for God made man in his own image). God himself will protect human life because man is made in his likeness. iv) There may well be an allusion to the polemics against idols. Human life is closest to God. This fact is underscored by dialogue, God speaking to man (1:28). Compare this with Gen 5:1-3. 1 This is the book of the generations of Adam. When God created man, he made him in the likeness of God. 2 Male and female he created them, and he blessed them and named them Man when they were created. 3 When Adam had lived a hundred and thirty years, he became the father of a son in his own likeness, after his image, and named him Seth.

Man generates a son in his own likeness: man is like God in the way he lives and gives life. The image is shared both by man and woman, male and female he created them. They live in dialogue and give life.

3) Man’s power Man has dominion over the creatures (Gen 1:26, 28). In v. 26 radah means “to take possession of, subjugate”. Power means responsibility. It is a blessing, hardly a curse either for man or creatures. Two other verbs are used: kabash (“subdue”) and rabah (“increase”). Ashar also implies to accompany, to lead, guide, graze. It stresses the responsibility of man, like a shepherd. See Ezekiel 34:4 where the Shepherds of Israel, the kings, are criticized and condemned because they tend the flock with violence and oppression. What is the meaning of this blessing? In the Bible it means an increase of life and power, often in multiplication, a gushing forth of life. The blessing of the Patriarchs involves the multiplication of descendants, an increase in life, as in Isaiah 65:8-9: 8 Thus says the LORD: “As the wine is found in the cluster, and they say, `Do not destroy it, for there is a blessing in it,’ so I will do for my servants’ sake, and not destroy them all. 9 I will bring forth descendants from Jacob, and from Judah inheritors of my mountains; my chosen shall inherit it, and my servants shall dwell there.

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A cluster of grapes is an image of fecundity, an image of the force of life or blessing on it. When God blesses he gives life. When man blesses God, he recognizes that life and the power of giving it comes from God. Now we can understand why there are blessings for the birds (=air) and the fishes (=water), and only one for the creatures on the earth, and this is reserved for man. There can be no conflict between animals and man: animals will have to yield. Gen 1:29 raises the question of FOOD. God gives the plants that bear fruit and seed. In 1:13 he gave the green plants, vegetation and grass to the animals. It is a very peaceful view of the world, with no conflict, no strife over food. Everything is vegetarian, with no killing, an ideal world, as in Isaiah’s vision of the eschatological kingdom (cf. Is. 11:6 The wolf shall dwell with the lamb, and the leopard shall lie down with the kid, and the calf and the lion and the fatling together, and a little child shall lead them). Only after the Flood will man eat meat. ____________________________________________________________

Genesis 2 1 Thus the heavens and the earth were finished, and all the host of them. 2 And on the seventh day God finished his work which he had done, and he rested on the seventh day from all his work which he had done. 3 So God blessed the seventh day and hallowed it, because on it God rested from all his work which he had done in creation. 4 These are the generations of the heavens and the earth when they were created. In the day that the LORD God made the earth and the heavens, 5a when no plant of the field was yet in the earth and no herb of the field had yet sprung up. ____________________________________________________________

1.2 Genesis 2 Genesis 2:1-5a God’s Rest, 2:1-3. God rested from His re-creative work of Gen 1 on the seventh day. This Sabbath rest of God became the basis of the Mosaic Sabbath (Ex 20:11), and a type of the believer’s rest in God’s redemption to be realized in Christ.

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v. 1: Heaven and earth and all their “armies” (sabaot) are completed. This can mean a big group, an ordered crowd: company, array, ranks, hosts. Here it means living beings, all the creatures of the universe. v. 2: wayyekal: kalah used in the Pual (passive meaning, with the verb acting on the subject): God “finished” work on the Sabbath, he brought his speech to an end. v. 3: The last words, “and all that God created, making it”.

Stylistic elements This links up with what comes before, as well as having new elements. The inclusion is in 1:1 and 2:3. —shabath: “to rest, to stop”: this is used often, twice in the first three verses, eight in the whole chapter. God stops working here. After shabath we find bara’, used again to say that God stopped creating. —barak: God “blesses” the Seventh Day, after having blessed birds, fishes, man. Both these terms are found in the second half. —kalah: “to bring to an end, complete” —melakah: “work” —qadash: “to sanctify, to hallow”. In the Seventh Day this is used thrice. The refrain “morning, evening” is missing. The Seventh Day seems endless. God rested, and left mankind to work. Distinctions and separations were important in the first section. Then God fills, creates, blesses. Finally he makes holy. The movement is from chaos to cosmos to anthropos to God present in himself. In John 5:17 we read “My Father is working still, and I am working”. God seems to be active all the time, yet in the Old Testament he seems to rest for the remainder of history.

Interpretation: The Meaning of the Seventh Day The designation ‘Sabbath’ is not used here. It is discovered in Exodus 16:22-30, in relation to the divine gift of the ‘manna’. Before it was not known: only here is it instituted (Ex 16:23 He said to them, “This is what the LORD has commanded: `Tomorrow is a day of solemn rest, a holy sabbath to the LORD; bake what you will bake and boil what you will boil, and all that is left over lay by to be kept till the morning’“).

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1) There is a relationship with other creation stories of the Ancient Near East. 2) There is also a relationship with the Tent of Meeting and the cult in Ex 25:40 (And see that you make them after the pattern for them, which is being shown you on the mountain). 3) God sanctifies and hallows (kadash) 4) Then God rests, a non-activity (shabath). 1) In most creation narratives the divinity builds a temple after his activity. He is enthroned in this temple. God conquers in the cosmic battle and builds a palace for self-enthronement. Many Psalms speak of the enthronement of God: Psalms 96—99. At the end of Ex 15, at the conclusion of the poem of praise (v.17), God will lead his people to Jerusalem, to reign (Thou wilt bring them in, and plant them on thy own mountain, the place, O LORD, which thou hast made for thy abode, the sanctuary, LORD, which thy hands have established). In Gen 2 there is a sacred time, not a sacred space. God is present in time, in history. This was written when Israel had lost the Temple. 2) There is a relationship between Gen 1 and Ex 25:40, with many common elements. Moses goes up Sinai for 40 days, then 6 days, then on the seventh reveals the model tent. There is a common vocabulary: —kalah: to finish, complete —melakah: work —barak: to bless —kadash: to hallow (in Piel, an intensive action, active voice). There is strong insistence on Moses doing exactly what God instructed. In the Genesis account of creation, God is present in time; in the Exodus account of the theophany, God is present in the world. God is present to his people, Israel. The Sabbath is like a temple. It corresponded to the Tabernacle, the Tent of meeting, God’s presence in the universe (Ex 26 & 27). He can be found in creation. In Scripture the word for “to dwell” or “to sit down” (yashab) denotes the presence of God in the Temple. The same word is used to express the particular way in which God is present in the souls of the just (Ps 23:6 I will dwell in the house of the LORD forever; cf. Ps 65:4 Blessed is he whom you choose and bring near to dwell in your courts!). In both cases it is implied that this presence or “dwelling” of God is different from the way in which he is present elsewhere. It is a fuller and richer presence (Ps

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27:4 One thing I have asked of the LORD, for this I long, to dwell in the house of the LORD all the days of my life!).12 3) God sanctifies and hallows (kdsh) kadash: “to hallow, bless, sanctify”. One day is blessed. To sanctify is to set aside, to separate. This may seem to be a consequence. God alone is holy because he is unique. There is something particularly special about him. If he sanctifies something, as he does Israel, it means that they have a special relationship with him and become unique themselves. God is present temporally in the Seventh Day, not spatially as in the universe, but temporally, in time. We can meet him in the rhythm of time. There is a progression. The first verses of the chapter present chaos, the world of God’s absence. In the second stage, God is present in the power of the heavenly bodies. Then in the third section, because man is created in his image, God is present in his holiness. The fullness of his creative power and presence is found in the Seventh Day. 4) Then God rests, a non-activity shabath: “to rest”, Deus otiosus, the resting God. In some creation stories, God is no longer active: God does not care, and things go wrong. Others must intervene, and younger gods come on the scene, like Baal, Marduk. Here it is different. God is active in history, present in time. God is also present in non-activity in the rest and leisure of the Sabbath: mu, or “nothing”. He is beyond any activity, the nadir described by John of the Cross, in the fullness of the rest of the Sabbath.13 This is full freedom, free of all activities. The Sabbath will be a sign of freedom: this is the first sign of Israel’s freedom after the Exodus. The Seventh Day comes as the crown of creation, God present in his fullness. This freedom and rest came to symbolize something beyond terrestrial time and space. St Augustine observes in his Confessions: “The seventh day has no evening and has no ending. You sanctified it to abide 12

See Bede Jarrett, The Abiding Presence of the Holy Ghost in the Soul (1918) (Kessinger Publishing, 2010), pp. 28-29. 13 In The Living Flame of Love John of the Cross tells us that life experiences are the language of God. This is underlined by the Sabbath: there is a genuine need for people to feel connected—both to their parish and to the community it serves. Likewise, there is a need for people to tell their story and for that story to be heard. Each person is a unique, holy child of God. The telling and retelling of life experiences is one way that history has been passed down through the ages. See John of the Cross, Collected Works. Translated by Otilio Rodriguez (ICS Publications, U.S.; new edition, 1994).

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everlastingly. After your very good works, which you made while remaining yourself in repose, you rested on the seventh day (Gen 2:2-3). This utterance in your book foretells for us that after our works which, because they are your gifts to us, are very good, we also may rest in you for the Sabbath of eternal life” (Confessions, 13:36, 37).14 The destiny of the human person is eternal life, and the life of heaven can be considered as grace and reward. God recompenses the man who obeyed his call during earthly life through the help of sacramental grace. Michael Schmaus in his Justification and the Last Things (1977) says: “When we say of anyone that he goes to heaven, we mean that he is taken into the community of the glorified. The space dimension proper to heaven is completely outside the categories of our experience, and can in no way be presented to us. It is the perfect realization in the natural sphere of the spirit, knowledge and love. Heaven, therefore, is nothing other than the future of glorified humanity on a glorified earth, or the glorified creation.”15

Different Modes of Narration The narrator can intervene or not; he can show, or report and tell. There is a difference between speaking and acting. In Gen 1 the narrator rarely uses the telling mode: the opening verses give a summary. The description of chaos is closer to showing than telling, the use of words as negatives in describing the absence of God. The opening of Gen 2 provides another instance of showing. We are usually given God’s plan, then its execution. This is emphasized in the formula: ‘and it happened so’. The narrator wants to impress upon the reader the ideal world created, the correspondence between God’s discourse and action. This is true of the cosmos and of the creation of man. There is harmony between the world and God’s plan. The second part is only reporting, God’s non-activity, his leisure. The only action mentioned is the blessing and hallowing. God shares his creative power: his presence is non-activity, the fullness of blessing and hallowing. There are two consequences to this: 1) There is an answer to all questions about the origins of the world. The account has little to do with the scientific origins of the world. It is the narrator experiencing the universe that has come out of God’s hands. It is 14

St Augustine, Confessions. Translated with an Introduction by R. S. Pine-Coffin (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1961, 1979), p. 346. 15 Michael Schmaus, Dogma 6. Justification and the Last Things (London: Sheed & Ward, 1977; 7th impression, 1994).

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good, something repeated seven times. Beyond all violence, there is a world that is good, very good. 2) The narration is the narrator’s way of disclosing God’s presence in the universe, beyond all creatures and activity. There is a strong correspondence between God’s non-activity and Israel’s worship. This also applies to Israel’s refusal to worship God in an image. God cannot be enclosed. Thus all this is a perception of the world, seen in terms of life. ‘Chaos’ is the first of the primordial memories, ‘rest’ a growth in perception of the world, horizontal and vertical. The baby sees light and darkness, space, time, life as animals do, then becomes fully human in marriage. But fullness is beyond death—a non-activity found on the other side. God reaches over in his blessing and hallowing.

Reflection on Genesis 1—2:1-5 In his book ‘In the Beginning...’ A Catholic Understanding of the Story of Creation and the Fall (German 1986; English, 1990),16 Pope Benedict XVI, while still Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger, meditates on protology in a collection of five separate homilies: the Creator, the Biblical account of creation, the creation of man, original sin, and faith in creation. This work concisely lays out the Catholic understanding of creation, and provides a clear and stimulating exploration of the Genesis creation narratives, in continuity with the great encyclical Humani Generis (1950) by Pope Pius XII. The Catholic approach to Creation is neither fundamentalist nor rationalist. For example, how long is one of these days of creation? The fundamentalist insists on 24 hours; the rationalist says billions of years. The Catholic Church says: Just as long as God wanted it to be, and not a minute more or less. How does the timeless God experience time? Not as we do. The Second Letter of Peter says “A thousand years are in your sight as a day, and a day as a thousand years” (2 Pet 3:8). Since only God witnessed the first five days of creation, they were divine days, not human days. Ratzinger begins by explaining how the passages in Genesis about creation should be interpreted, emphasizing that they cannot be read in isolation from the New Testament. They must be read with Christ. He goes on to look at the symbolism found in Genesis, especially the symbolism of the Sabbath day with its meaning as a day of worship. He then assesses 16

Joseph Ratzinger, ‘In the Beginning...’ A Catholic Understanding of the Story of Creation and the Fall (German 1986; English, Huntington, Indiana: Our Sunday Visitor, 1990).

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human responsibilities to look after the world. The scientific implications of the creation account are addressed in this book. Ratzinger confronts the problem in demonstrating that the creation account was never meant to be a strict fundamentalist or scientific view of how the world was created. Rather it is an unfolding, with different aspects appearing throughout the Bible that directly addresses certain misunderstandings in other religions at the time. It also gives humanity a deeper understanding of our place in the world. He also shows how each account cannot be separated from the others. Only in looking at the Bible as a whole can you get the real meaning of the creation account. There are certain scientific dimensions that are involved in the creation accounts that cannot be denied. Other recent trends in theology reflect the growing awareness of the wider issues and possibilities raised by the cosmology of Genesis 1. An example is that of Judy Cannato in Radical Amazement. Contemplative Lessons from Black Holes, Supernovas, and Other Wonders of the Universe (2006).17 In simple, succinct language, Cannato explains our most recent discoveries about the history of the cosmos from the theoretical “flaming cosmic explosion...13.7 billion years ago” through the death of a supernova that resulted in the creation of our solar system, the formation of Earth, and relatively recently, just about 150,000 years ago, the emerging of our species. Twentieth-century science completely revolutionized human understanding of the world, rewriting the story of the universe with exciting discoveries and theories—the big bang, the relativity of space and time, the accelerating expansion of the universe, along with increasingly refined ideas of evolution and the origin of life. Cannato unifies the worlds of science and religion, weaving spiritual lessons from our new knowledge. Through thoughtful and practical reflections, enhanced by prayers and meditations, she indicates the connectedness of all creation and invites us to explore the harmony of science and spirituality. God had been enjoying the act of creation for billions of years, evolving universes, then our sun from the stardust of that supernova, our planet, and finally homo sapiens. Cannato sees human evolution as the journey toward consciousness that leads to the loving understanding of God manifested in Jesus and through him, in us, by the creative energy of grace. Further, she sees elements of cosmic evolution repeated in the psychological and spiritual evolution of each of us. She sees each cosmic event with a prayerful sense of wonder, and demonstrates its significance in terms of Scripture, of human psychology, 17

Judy Cannato, Radical Amazement. Contemplative Lessons from Black Holes, Supernovas, and Other Wonders of the Universe (Notre Dame, Indiana: Sorin Books, 2006).

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and of spirituality. This expanded awareness of the breadth and implications of creation can even affect the way in which we approach elements of dogmatic theology and sacramentology. Hugh O’Donnell, in The Eucharist and the Living Earth, sees the mystery of Creation bound up with the ultimate incarnational revelation of the Eucharist.18 Its radiant mystery will shine forth not simply when the rubrics are fully observed but when the Eucharist is understood in its widest significance, namely as expressing Christ’s intention to offer his nourishing presence to the whole of creation, from the fireball event of beginnings to this present, threatened moment of existence. Many of these new perspectives are already incipiently present in the prophetic writings of the Jesuit priest, theologian, philosopher and palaeontologist Pierre Teilhard de Chardin (1881-1955). His primary book, The Phenomenon of Man (1955), presents a sweeping account of the unfolding of the cosmos. He abandoned traditional interpretations of creation in the Book of Genesis for a freer interpretation. Both the Roman Curia and the Jesuit Order felt that this undermined the doctrine of original sin developed by Saint Augustine, which resulted in some of Teilhard’s work being denied publication during his lifetime by the Roman Holy Office. The encyclical Humani Generis (1950) had already condemned several of his opinions, while leaving other questions open. However, some of Teilhard’s views became influential in the reforms of the Second Vatican Council (1962-65), something later reflected in Pope John Paul II’s more positive attitude towards aspects of his thought. In 2009, Pope Benedict XVI referred to Teilhard’s vision of the universe as a “living host”. He went on, “It is the great vision that later Teilhard de Chardin also had: at the end we will have a true cosmic liturgy, where the cosmos becomes a living host”. The Pope added, “Let us pray to the Lord that he help us be priests in this sense...to help in the transformation of the world in adoration of God, beginning with ourselves”.19 Teilhard argued that the human condition necessarily implies the psychic unity of humankind, though this unity can only be voluntary, something he termed ‘unanimization’. Teilhard suggests that “evolution is an ascent toward consciousness”, giving ‘encephalization’ in human development as an example of the early stages, and therefore suggesting a continuous upsurge toward a moment of complete fulfilment, the Omega

18

Hugh O’Donnell, The Eucharist and the Living Earth. New and revised edition (Blackrock: The Columba Press, 2012). 19 John L. Allen Jr. in the National Catholic Reporter, 28 July 2009.

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Point, which is synonymous with God himself.20 Teilhard’s ideas share a remarkable degree of common insight with the ancient mystical system of the Kabbalah, the Rabbinic method of interpreting the Scriptures by explaining the occult meaning of letters and words.21 According to the Kabbalah, the universe began from a single point: there was a flash (or Big Bang?) In which the point began to expand. That expansion contains the universe in the form we know it, and an element of that primordial event persists, pervading the universe. In this process there was a breaking up of the essential structures that compose the universe. This separation constituted the universe’s nature and made its components, including evil, possible. Without that fracturing, the universe would be more perfect. Human beings, as part of the universe with consciousness, can share in the course that the universe takes. In the Kabbalah in fact, this is exactly the task of humans in the world: to work for the restoration of the universe to the original harmony that was lost in the act of creation. In Hebrew this process is called tikkun, which covers a spectrum of related meanings: restoration, restitution, reintegration, repairing, mending. It involves thoughts and actions, deeds and words, spiritual engagement in contemplation and prayer, all of which contribute to the recovery of the lost perfection of the world, and the restoration of cosmic harmony.22

Science and Mysticism, the Imago Dei and Cosmic Restoration There is a similarity of conception in the origins of the universe in the scientific and mystical models, because humans embody and resonate with the natural laws of creation. All people were literally present at the explosion of origins, so that our bodies and our consciousness are part of the physical structure of the universe. This resonance with the cosmos may help to explain the sense of mystical intuition, a mystical connection, with previous ages, or a sense of openness to the starry heavens and the future 20

Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, The Phenomenon of Man (New York: Harper & Row, 1959), pp. 250–75. See also Pope Francis, Laudato Si’ (June 2015), § 83 Note 53. 21 Revealed more than 2000 years ago, the Zohar (Hebrew: "Splendor, radiance") is a key writing of Jewish mysticism widely considered the most important work of Kabbalah, a spiritual text that explains the secrets of the Bible, the Universe and every aspect of life. 22 Richard Elliot Friedman, The Hidden Face of God (San Francisco: Harper, 1995), p. 252.

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that we all experience. We have a common feeling of a power behind us which is perhaps linked to the sense of the divine, and the gradual disappearance or fading of the physical presence of God in the Bible. These common human perceptions might also explain the recurrent, if not universal, theme from many different periods, concerning a gradually diminishing perception of the manifest presence of God in human affairs. There is a sense of moving ever further away from the age of close contact with the divine because of human fear of an immediacy of power. This may well be to do with an intuition that we are always moving away in time and space from the explosive origins of the cosmos—which event reverberates in all of us and in all things, part of the universal unconscious. Scientifically this can be understood as a movement away from the primal unity of all things, a movement away from the explosive power and cosmic heat of the Big Bang. Mystically, as in the teaching of the Kabbalah, this is movement away from the original oneness with God.

Separation, the Universal Unconscious and Psychology Contemporary notions of cosmology also seem to resonate with the concept of creation in the Bible. In cosmology, creation involves the formation of distinctions from the original undifferentiated whole. Life became possible only with this break from the unformed original universal mass. The Biblical creation involves a series of divisions and distinctions, as the shapeless fluid, unformed and void, is organized into primal distinctions between light and dark, dry land and water, the separation of matter into heavenly bodies, plants, animals and humans. Scientific observation and Biblical description both reflect a common human intuition about order and arrangement over chaos and lack of form. This intuition is shared by other ancient human experience, as in the Mesopotamian creation story where the wind god Enlil (Marduk) defeats the water goddess Tiamat and forms the earth out of her. The universe is thus created out of formlessness or chaos, and is understood to be an orderly structure holding back the primal chaos. These notions also have correlation with models of psychological structuring, as in the Classical concepts of the Apollonian and Dionysian as adopted by Friedrich Nietzsche. The Dionysian is an inner chaotic urge in all human beings which is controlled and shaped by the restraining Apollonian force that imposes limitations, definition and shape on the inner confusion. Every human being is an expression of this tension, a functioning entity that is constantly holding back powerful chaotic forces that would otherwise render the human being and society dysfunctional.

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The analogy with Sigmund Freud’s notion of the id and the ego is striking: The ego (informed by the external authority of the superego) is a rational structure retraining the powerful intuitive force of the id, shaping its energies and instincts, giving them form, imposing limitations, and so making the person socially functional. These ancient stories and concepts—Mesopotamian, Biblical and Greek—all express an inherent human intuition that we are creatures of reason holding back and shaping potent chaotic forces of emotion and instinct. The human psyche thus could be seen to be a microcosm of the universe itself, since the universe is also a formation of order and structure, differentiation and limitation from formless matter, a tension between order and chaos. Perhaps the cosmic structures somehow echo within our psychic constitution. The Big Bang and the Kabbalah could lead us to the concept of the whole universe being in the image of God, with everything deriving from the primordial divine point, and becoming an expression of it. Human beings are singled out from among all created things in Genesis 1 in terms of consciousness: being in the image and likeness of God has to do with human consciousness being linked to the divine. Consciousness allows for an active participation in the course of the universe and its unfolding, and enables a rising or aspiration of matter towards a sense of oneness with the divine. So human consciousness is quintessentially the element in which human beings are made in the imago dei.23 The idea of recurrence occurs in both contemporary science and in the Kabbalah. One possibility is that the universe will continue to expand, not having sufficient density to be slowed down by the force of gravity. Another possibility is that its expansion does eventually slow down, and the universe starts to collapse back into a single point: the Big Crunch. The phenomenon of science is bringing back the feeling of wonder about the universe (the gloriously unimaginable photographs from the Hubble Space Telescope are an immediate case in point). The daily phenomena of nature are miracles, evidence of the existence of God (like viewing the starry heavens, the Milky Way): The heavens are telling the glory of God (Ps 19:2). According to Richard Elliot Friedman, the restoration and return to the divine may not be a personal God, but in light of discoveries made concerning the origins of the cosmos, we can perhaps anticipate that it will be everywhere, and function everywhere. It will be in us and we will be in it (as suggested by the Big Bang and the Kabbalah). It will be in the stars, in the stones, it will be the light in all flesh (as in the theories of the poet and novelist Novalis in German Romanticism). It will 23

Friedman, The Hidden Face of God, pp. 257-58.

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determine everything and explain everything, and relate to our consciousness, or it may be a deeper force, but in whatever way a reunion with God.24 He has made everything beautiful in its time; also he has put eternity into man’s mind, yet so that he cannot find out what God has done from the beginning to the end (Eccles 3:11). ____________________________________________________________

Genesis 2:4-25 4 These are the generations of the heavens and the earth when they were created. In the day that the LORD God made the earth and the heavens, 5 when no plant of the field was yet in the earth and no herb of the field had yet sprung up—for the LORD God had not caused it to rain upon the earth, and there was no man to till the ground; 6 but a mist went up from the earth and watered the whole face of the ground— 7 then the LORD God formed man of dust from the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life; and man became a living being. 8 And the LORD God planted a garden in Eden, in the east; and there he put the man whom he had formed. 9 And out of the ground the LORD God made to grow every tree that is pleasant to the sight and good for food, the tree of life also in the midst of the garden, and the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. 10 A river flowed out of Eden to water the garden, and there it divided and became four rivers. 11 The name of the first is Pishon; it is the one which flows around the whole land of Havilah, where there is gold; 12 and the gold of that land is good; bdellium and onyx stone are there. 13 The name of the second river is Gihon; it is the one which flows around the whole land of Cush. 14 And the name of the third river is Tigris, which flows east of Assyria. And the fourth river is the Euphrates. 15 The LORD God took the man and put him in the garden of Eden to till it and keep it. 16 And the LORD God commanded the man, saying, “You may freely eat of every tree of the garden; 17 but of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil you shall not eat, for in the day that you eat of it you shall die.” 24

Friedman, The Hidden Face of God, p. 265.

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18 Then the LORD God said, “It is not good that the man should be alone; I will make him a helper fit for him.” 19 So out of the ground the LORD God formed every beast of the field and every bird of the air, and brought them to the man to see what he would call them; and whatever the man called every living creature, that was its name. 20 The man gave names to all cattle, and to the birds of the air, and to every beast of the field; but for the man there was not found a helper fit for him. 21 So the LORD God caused a deep sleep to fall upon the man, and while he slept took one of his ribs and closed up its place with flesh; 22 and the rib which the LORD God had taken from the man he made into a woman and brought her to the man. 23 Then the man said, “This at last is bone of my bones and flesh of my flesh; she shall be called Woman, because she was taken out of Man.” 24 Therefore a man leaves his father and his mother and cleaves to his wife, and they become one flesh. 25 And the man and his wife were both naked, and were not ashamed. ____________________________________________________________

Genesis 2:5b—3 At the beginning of Gen 1, all is darkness and waters; at the end of the Bible in the Apocalypse, or Revelation of St John, all is light, and the sea is no more. All between is an alternation between light and darkness, water and dry land, good and evil. In Gen 1 God creates the universe and it was good. Gen 2 centres on man and the beginnings of evil. It is not a repetition. Between Gen 2:4a and Num 3:1, the formula of the generations (toledot) occurs eleven times. This is a frame for the Patriarchal Narratives, a frame linking them all. It disappears in Exodus, which is the transition between the parts.

The Second Creation Account of Man, 2:7 The creative act of 1:27 is here described in detail. YHWH, the redemptive name of the Deity, is introduced in 2:4 and 2:7, when man filled the scene and assumed control of the earth re-created for him. In His character as YHWH, God is introduced in special revelatory and redemptive relationship to man.

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Adam moulded from the clay of the earth The Yahwistic Writer seems to have imagined that God moulded the first man out of clay, just as a potter might do, or as a child shapes a doll. Having kneaded and patted the clay into the proper shape, the Deity animated it by breathing into the mouth and nostrils of the figure, exactly as the prophet Elisha is said to have restored the dead child of the Shunammite by lying on him (2 Kgs 2:34-36). To the Hebrew mind this derivation of the human species from the dust of the ground is a powerful suggestion underpinned by their language: the word for ground (’adamah) is the feminine form of the word for man (’adam). The Babylonians also conceived man to be shaped out of clay. According to Berossus, the Babylonian priest whose account of creation has been preserved in a Greek version, the god Bel cut off his own head, and the other gods caught the flowing blood, mixed it with earth, and fashioned man out of the bloody paste; that is why men are so wise because their mortal clay is tempered with divine blood. In Egyptian mythology, Khnoummou the father of the gods, is said to have moulded men out of clay on his potter’s wheel. While the Yahwistic Writer omits to mention the colour of the earth God used in the creation of Adam, one can conclude that it was red earth. The soil of Palestine is a dark reddish brown, suggesting a connection between Adam and the ground from which he is taken. This colour is particularly noticeable when the soil is newly turned by ploughing or digging.25

The Garden of Eden All is dry, an earthy Palestinian colour. No rain apparently fell till the Flood. The earth was watered by an ascending vapour from subterranean waters (cf. Gen 7:11-12). The chapter moves from Man to Eden to Woman to the Snake, to the Fall. Coats sees Gen 2 & 3 as a unity in two panels: the appearance of the first couple, the events of their lives, a unity of plot. Why are they in the garden? Why do they leave? There is a wholeness of plot and time. The events are linked by the same three characters: Man, Woman and God. An inclusion frames the events: 2:7 (dust from the ground) and 3:23 (driven from the Garden to till the ground), the soil from which man was taken. These two panels, or episodes, each has its own atmosphere: 1) the Garden, and 2) the Fall, each with its own subplot. Gen 2 shows the basic conditions of life in the Garden; Gen 3 the temptation and fall. The Serpent appears in Gen 3.There a drama of movement, 25 James G. Frazer, Folklore in the Old Testament. Studies in Comparative Religion, Legend, and Law (New York: Avenel House, 1923, 1988), p. 3.

1. Genesis 1—2: The Book of Beginnings

Fig.5. God creating Adam (Chartres Cathdral)

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a gradual progression to a climax in Gen 2, the creation of woman. This then trails downwards in Gen 3 until the couple are expelled. The panels are linked.

Interpretation The Garden of Eden, 2:8-14. It was provided for unfallen man (2:8-9). Its location (2:10-14) was purportedly somewhere in the Tigris-Euphrates region, in the easternmost end of the Fertile Crescent (the moon-shaped rim of ancient civilization, with one point at Palestine/Syria and the other point in the lower Tigris-Euphrates Valley). The Hiddekel is the ancient name of the Tigris River (Babylonian Digla, Diglat). The Pishon and the Gihon were probably smaller channels which connected the Tigris and the Euphrates as ancient river beds. The accumulation of vast deposits of silt has changed the coastline of the Persian Gulf, pushing it farther out to sea. These Mesopotamian marshes of Iraq are recorded by some Biblical scholars as the Garden of Eden—the birthplace of mankind. A. H. Sayce and others located Eden near Eridu, anciently on the Persian Gulf .26 Friedrich Delitzsch placed it just north of Babylon where the Tigris and the Euphrates come close together.27 Both archaeology and the Bible concur that the Eastern Mediterranean Basin and the region immediately to the east of it (which James Henry Breasted defined as the ‘Fertile Crescent’ in 1906) is indeed the cradle of civilization and the scene of the earliest activity of man. In 1912 Henry T. Fowler adopted the term: “… civilized Semites controlled the entire fertile crescent of territory extending from the Persian Gulf to the borders of Egypt….”28 The 1906 terminology is derived from Breasted’s five books entitled Ancient Records of Egypt.29

26

A. H. Sayce, Higher Criticism and the Verdict of the Monuments (London, 1894) 27 Friedrich Delitzsch, Wo Lag das Paradies? in Kommentar über die Genesis (Leipzig, 1872). 28 Henry Thatcher Fowler, A History of the Literature of Ancient Israel from the Earliest Times to 135 B.C. (New York, 1912), p. 2. 29 James Henry Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt: Historical Documents from the Earliest Times to the Persian Conquest, collected, edited, and translated, with Commentary (Chicago, 1906–07).

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Problems of translation 1) Gen 2:4-7 i) Umberto Cassuto and Benno Jacob put 2:4 alone, and 2:5 alone. They refuse the Documentary Hypothesis.30 ii) 2:4b (“In the day”) is linked with 2:5 (“then no plant...”), an adverbial clause of time (4b) and a principal clause (5) (as translated in the NEB). iii) 2:4b (“In the day”) is linked with the principal clause or apodosis in 2:7 (“then the Lord God formed”), by an extended protasis, a temporal clause (RSV), a description of the universe before God created and intervened. The first possibility is difficult to admit: beyom (“In the day”) (cf. Gen 5:1 and Num 3:1) introduces a subordinate temporal clause with the main clause coming later. Some grammatical points need to be considered. The first wayyiktol narrative form is 2:7 (“then the Lord God formed”). Only wayyiktol can initiate a temporal clause. We find the apodosis, the beginning of the principal clause, in 2:7a. The narrative avoids the use of wayyiktol until then. The first succession in time is in 2:7a. Otherwise it is a series of simple imperfects. We- is separated to show simultaneity not succession. It should be remembered that at the beginning of narrations there are long sentences, and particularly so in Creation Narratives. The RSV seems to have the best translation. 2) Gen 2:5b-6 There is a small problem in these two verses. The Italian translation connects the infinitive construction into one long chain, giving a sense of the waterlessness. What is the meaning of ‘mist’? It is found only twice, in Gen 2:6 and Job 36:27. In Job it seems to mean humidity, fogginess (for he draws up the drops of water, he distils his mist in rain). There are parallels in Sumerian and Akkadian to do with waters. Grammatically, la`abod (“there was no man to tend”) is an infinitive construct with the same subject. This is in line with man as the keeper of the garden. Afterwards he will till the ground. 3) Gen 2:19 The phraseology “namely, every living being” is a superfluous addition in parenthesis. 4) Gen 2:20, 3:17, 3:21 The rest of the chapter sees the use of articles, but in these instances we 30

Umberto Cassuto, The Documentary Hypothesis and the Composition of the Pentateuch [Hebrew, Torat HaTeudot, 1941] (Jerusalem, 1961); Benno Jacob, The First Book of the Bible: Genesis [German: Das erste Buch der Tora, 1934] (New York, 1974).

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have a common noun being used as a proper name. Cassuto says the generic ’adam is like ’elohîm: human beings and gods. The terms can become proper names. ’Elohîm can be found with or without the article, with the prepositions be, ke, le. But ’elohîm is always without article when it means GOD. Otherwise it means “the divinities”. For ’adam we can have the same rule: here it is with le, but without the article. Cassuto translates it as ‘man’ in common with the rest of the chapter. It occurs as a proper name only in 5:1. Narrative analysis (Gen 2:4-25) The sequence is shaped by need and fulfilment. Something is missing at the beginning: there is a wasteland needing water, life, attention. 1) Exposition (2:4b-6) 2) Development (2:7-17) the making of man (2:18-22a) looking for a partner 3) Turning point (2:22b) He brought her to the man: successfully? 4) Resolution (2:23-25) The wasteland needs the means of life. Man is created; partnership is necessary. When man leaves an area in the Middle East and Africa, all traces of cultivation disappear and the land returns to wilderness. Life is a fight headed by man. Water and mankind are necessary for life. This is the nub of the plot, informing the narrative moments.

Themes 1) There is a link between man and the soil. There is root play between ’adam and ’adamah, man and dust. This is a human being rather than man: Mensch not Mann, homo not vir, anthropos not aner Man is red (’adom), like the soil. 2) The Garden with streams and trees. Two trees are central: i) the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil ii) the Tree of Life. 3) The verb “to eat”. It is mentioned in Gen 2 and becomes the principle thread of Gen 3. 4) Man and Woman: ’ish and ’ishshah.

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Style 1) Steps in the story i) There is a description of the wilderness before God’s intervention (2:4b6). Here are many negations, an account of a negative world: where there is no life there is wilderness. “There was no human being to till the soil” (establishing the nexus man—work—soil) (2:6). ii) 2:7-15. God takes the man and puts him in the Garden to watch it. The first condition is fulfilled: man is in the garden and tills. “God created man from the soil” (min-ha’adamah). The image is of God as the potter, probably the first craftsman in the world. God plants trees in the garden. The trees come from the soil (min-ha’adamah). They are beautiful and good for food. First man came, now food. Then there is the stream divided into four to irrigate the garden. iii) 2:16-17. This is a small separate unit with a unique vocabulary. Structurally it is a dialogue. God created the conditions for life and now orders it. —wayetsav (from tsvah): an order directed to the human being. —moth: the first encounter with death in the Bible. —to’kal (from akal): the fourfold recurrence of “to eat”, the principal verb. —The Trees of Life and Death: two trees are opposites, like the poles of human freedom, highlighted by the commandment. Nature is succeeded by culture, and we pass from food and nourishment to the processes of thought: to choice, freedom, and responsibility. iv) 2:18-25: Another need emerges. It is not good for man to be alone. Communion is good. Solitude is bad. This is the first judgement on the condition of man. A further problem or complication emerges. There are two attempts: the first is unsuccessful, the second successful. Animals are first created (2:19): trees, man, animals are formed from the dust, but there is no helpmate (`ezer). Then he makes woman. This time God creates min-ha’adam: she is made from the man rather than from the ground. The second attempt is successful. Creation is complete, God’s plan is fulfilled. There are two parallel progressions in this: First Progression: wilderness—trees—water—man—animals—woman Second Progression: wilderness—food—freedom—partnership. These are the steps of human growth.

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Meanings The Garden and the Trees —Eden. This is present throughout the Bible, especially in the Prophets (particularly Isaiah). There is no mention of Paradise. It is an Old Persian word derived through Greek and Latin; pradesh in Hindi. It means the enclosed garden of the king (this occurs only in the Song of Songs 6:2, Qoheleth 2:5, Nehemiah 3:15). In Gen 2 we find only gan and `eden. The Temple is an image of the cosmos, the centre of the cosmos where the well of life is to be found. Water and trees are signs of life. This is the centre of the world where creation takes place and there is constant renewal, the mythological or sacred centre of the world. The tradition of a paradise, or ideal garden of delight, is found in the mythology of almost all the nations of antiquity. The form of this tradition varies, with paradise sometimes represented as: 1) the seat of the gods; 2) the first home of the parents of mankind; the abode of the spirits of the blessed. Sometimes these different conceptions were combined, but the earlier traditions all concur in connecting paradise with a miraculous tree or trees, or with a more or less legendary mountain. From this it may be inferred that such legends date back to the days of that primitive cosmology when the heavens were thought to be upheld by terrestrial support. The tradition of paradise must be regarded as an offshoot of the sacred tree. The third conception of paradise grew out of the earlier conceptions when there arose the belief in a future life of reward or punishment. Ironically the conception of heaven prevailed principally amongst settled nations living under kings whose circumstances included luxurious gardens as an essential part.31 In the Indian tradition the garden of Indra provides a good example of Paradise regarded as the abode of the gods. This was situated on Mount Meru in Kashmir, and contained five wonderful trees which sprang from the waters after the churning of the cosmic ocean by the gods and the demons. Under these trees the gods took their ease, enjoying the ambrosia that fell from them. The garden, watered by springs and rivulets, contained luminous flowers, fruits that conferred immortality and birds whose song the gods loved to hear. Paradise as the home of the first parents of humanity is given the most circumstantial account in the Pentateuch where it is also inferred that the Biblical paradise was a favourite resort of YHWH (cf. Gen 3:8: And they 31

Angelo De Gubernatis, La mythologie des plantes (Paris, 1879), 1:261 ; J. H. Philpot, The Sacred Tree in Religion and Myth (London, 1897).

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heard the sound of the Lord God walking in the garden in the cool of the day). The sacred books of the Persians contain a similar version. The original human pair, Maschia and Maschiana, sprang from a tree in Heden, a delightful spot where grew the hom or haoma, the marvellous tree of life, whose fruit imparted vigour and immortality. The woman, at the instance of Ahriman, the spirit of evil in the guise of a serpent, gave her husband fruit to eat, and so led to their ruin.32 The tradition is no doubt of very ancient origin, and is supposed to be represented on an early Babylonian seal now in the British Museum. The tree stands in the middle, from either side two seated human beings stretch forth their hands to take of its fruit. The serpent stands erect behind one of them.33 On another cylinder in the Museum at the Hague a garden with trees and birds is represented. In the middle is a palm from which two persons are plucking the fruit. A third with fruit in his hand seems to address them.34

The Two Trees of Eden —The Tree of Life seems to be found only in the Bible. As we have seen, there are many other plants of life and cosmic trees in other literatures. The tree is the summary of life, reaching out to the whole universe. The roots touch the underground waters, hell, the world of the dead. The trunk is our world, the surface of the earth. The branches reach to heaven. The tree connects the three regions, a summary of the mystery of life, touching the dead and God. Those who can climb the tree can commune with the dead, and approach God. The Tree of Life is mentioned only in the Book of Proverbs (3:18, 11:30, 13:12, 15:14) and the Apocalypse (22:2) (...through the middle of the street of the city; also, on either side of the river, the tree of life with its twelve kinds of fruit, yielding its fruit each month; and the leaves of the tree were for the healing of the nations). —The Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil is not mentioned outside the Bible, and it occurs only in Gen 2 & 3. i) It has a functional explanation: it helps people to find what is useful and harmful, and can give a capacity of discernment. ii) The second explanation is ethical: it provides the knowledge of what is good or bad. 32

Richard Folkard, Plant lore, legends, and lyric (London, 1884), p. 9. George Smith, The Chaldean Account of Genesis (New York, 1876), 88, 89. 34 M. J. Menant, M. J. Les pierres gravées de la Haute-Asie (Paris, 1883,1886), 1: fig. 121. 33

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Fig.6. The Garden of Eden (Babylonian seal, the Goddess and the Tree)

Fig.7. The Garden of Eden (Babylonian seal, the Garden of Immortality)

iii) There is a sexual meaning to the Tree. The whole chapter is about communion, life, pleasure, pain, generation of life, becoming sexually mature. Both man and woman discover nakedness and generate after eating the fruit. There is some link between the tree and the serpent, an image of fecundity in the Canaanite fertility cults. iv) It is a totally embracing knowledge of everything: to eat the fruit is to try to know everything. Why did God forbid the eating of the fruit?

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In the account of the Fall, everything hinges on the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil, but there is another tree standing near it in the midst of the garden. It is no less than the Tree of Life, whose fruit confers immortality on all who eat of it. Yet this wonderful tree plays no part in the story of the Fall. Unlike the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil, it is not hedged about by any divine prohibitions, and yet the actors seem not to see the Tree of Life. Throughout the tragic story of the fall, our attention is focused exclusively on the Tree of Knowledge. Were there originally two stories fused into a single narrative, with one preserved intact, the other pared away beyond recognition? The direction of the whole story is to explain man’s mortality and how death came into the world. Mankind is not said to have been created mortal, but it is understood that the possibility of both immortality and mortality were open to him—with the Tree of Life in the midst of the Garden, and free to use, with the incipient implication of related immortality. The Tree of Knowledge carries with it the danger of mortality, and is therefore really a tree of death.35 The two mystical trees in Eden find their common counterpart in the sacred cedar of the Chaldeans. This was not only a tree of life used in magic rites to restore life to the body, but was also the revealer of the oracles of earth and heaven. On its core was written the name of Ea, the god of wisdom.36 The tree of life also finds a parallel in the divine soma, the giver of eternal youth and immortality, a drink reserved for only the celestial gods or the souls of the blessed. The third conception of paradise as the dwelling place of the righteous dead is found in early Greek literature (cf. Homer, Odyssey, 4:563; Hesiod, Works and Days, 166), but there is no definite trace of it among the Semitic nations until much later. It did not find recognition among the Jews until after the Exile, and references to it are frequent in their later literature. In the Second Book of Esdras, the Lord tells his people that he will bring them out of the tombs and that he has sanctified and prepared for them: “twelve trees, laden with divers fruits, and as many fountains flowing with milk and honey, and seven mighty mountains, whereupon there grow roses and lilies” (2 Esdras 2:18).They will have the Tree of Life for an ointment of sweet savour; and they shall neither labour nor be weary” (2:12).37

35

See James G. Frazer, “The Fall of Man” in Folklore in the Old Testament, pp. 15-19, esp. p. 17. 36 A. H. Sayce, Religion of the Ancient Babylonians (London, 1887), 240. 37 See James H. Charlesworth, The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha: Vol. 1 & 2 (Hendrickson Publishers Inc, 2010).

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Conclusion Why is it forbidden to eat of the fruit and to reach maturity? The knowledge would seem necessary. It seems to have to do with the frontiers of good and evil, death and life. Only God fixes the frontier, the boundary of human existence. These two areas belong only to God. There are different uses of the pair, good and evil. There is an opposition between good and evil: choose good and reject evil. This is a disjunctive meaning. A second emphasis would stress the totality, the conjunctive meaning—the good as well as the evil. God knows both. In Deutero-Isaiah God can create good as well as evil (45:7 I form light and create darkness, I make peace [weal] and create evil [woe], I am the LORD, who do all these things). Here we are closer to the second group: rather than an opposition, it is not so much a choice as a totality.

Man’s Testing in Eden (Gen 2:15-17) Created innocent, placed in a perfect environment, man was put under a simple test of obedience, to abstain from eating the fruit of “the tree of the knowledge of good and evil”. The penalty for disobedience was death— immediate spiritual death (Mt 8:22; Eph 2:1-5), eventual physical death (Rom 5:12; 1 Cor 15:21-22). “And all the days that Adam lived were nine hundred and thirty years: and he died” (Gen 5:5), and ever afterward death has “reigned” in the fallen human family (Rom 5:14 Yet death reigned from Adam to Moses, even over those whose sins were not like the transgression of Adam, who was a type of the one who was to come). i) Only God has power over life and death. This is an affirmation of the whole of the Old and New Testaments. Where the two words occur, only God really knows what is good, what is evil. ii) The discernment of good and evil is essential in the Bible, a sign of adulthood. Only children do not know moral meaning and discernment. The knowledge of good and evil could not be a sin: it would go against the meaning of the Bible. The key to the understanding is “to eat” of the fruit, not “to know” it, a physical rather than a metaphysical apprehension. There is a strong opposition between knowing and eating or appetite, how people appropriate this knowledge. Some things man can obtain by eating, other times not. At a certain stage man can be attached to what he experiences sensuously, even sensually, through the mouth—the oral stage

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of development. Man is condemned because he ate of the fruit.38

The Stream divided into Four Rivers One stream gushing out of the earth is divided into four rivers—four being a cosmic number. Things to do with the earth are associated with this number (cf. the Four Animals of Ezekiel 1:4-14 and the Apocalypse 6; Zechariah 1:7-21 has four horses; the four winds that support heaven). Air separates heaven from earth (shu in Egyptian). In Eden there is an image of the centre of the world: tree, stream, living beings. This is similar to the Temple—the centre of the world, the summary of the universe. Around the Temple are trees and water, and there is a stream flowing from the side of the Temple. See Ezekiel 47 where the Temple is the source of water (and the water was comingout on the south side, v. 2c); Joel 3:18 (And in that day the mountains shall drip sweet wine, and the hills shall flow with milk, and all the stream beds of Judah shall flow with water; and a fountain shall come forth from the house of the LORD and water the valley of Shittim) and Zechariah 14:8 (On that day living waters shall flow out from Jerusalem, half of them to the eastern sea and half of them to the western sea; it shall continue in summer as in winter). Even today everyone feels that they live at the centre of the world. What is outside the home (centre of the world, chez nous, da noi) is chaotic, confusion. The rest is wasteland, darkness, with active forces of death. Every centre of the world is microcosmic, a summary, an image of the world. St Peter’s Basilica contains the crypt where the popes are buried; the church is a cross, the four directions of the world; the cupola is heaven, the airy heights; the finger on the top points to God and his infinity. In Northern Europe the cemetery (the underworld) is around the church and spire (pointing heavenward). It is always a passage of communication between different worlds. Here the garden is a place where man must choose, a passage between heaven and earth, good and evil, life and death. All the opposites meet and are connected.

38

See Jean-Louis Ska, “Genesis 2—3. Some Fundamental Questions” in Schmid, Konrad and Riedweg, Christoph (eds), Beyond Eden. The Biblical Story of Paradise (Genesis 2—3) and its Reception History (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2008), pp. 1-27.

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The Command and the Prohibition The form of the command is similar to the form of the Decalogue: l ` “you shall not”. The form “you shall die” (moth tamuth) is active. Usually it is passive: “you will surely be put to death”. Here you will die as a punishment, but there is no hint of execution or violence. The passive form also does not promise execution, but death will follow action as a punishment. Death will not follow immediately, but will be felt as a sanction. What does this mean? Life here is a passage: man may eat of the fruits, the human necessities. But he must also enter the world of freedom which cannot be eaten. This is symbolized in the two trees. Normally there is one cosmic tree, but here there are two, the number of freedom (two brothers, two robbers etc.). Both are linked as two aspects of the same thing: access to life is only attained through freedom and responsibility, choice, the knowledge of good and evil.

The Creation of the Animals Adam named the animals and birds; but these, although companions in a sense, were not helpmates on the same physical, mental, moral and spiritual plane as he. Helper (`ezer) comes from `azar (to help). God creates animals, and man gives names to them: qara’, an exercise of freedom and subordination. The Lord can change the name of the subject to show his power. Animals are subjected to man’s authority. But no helper can be found among them. The meaning of `ezer is clear: help, helpmate, succour, support. This word is not used often in the Bible. It is used of God, comes from God, is God himself. “God is my help and my salvation” (cf. Ps 54:4 Behold, God is my helper, the LORD is the upholder of my life). In some texts it has a military meaning, an ally. This help in poetic texts is never material (money or food), but personal. It comes from God not from an army. The context is one of extreme danger or urgency in supreme need. It is indispensable, necessary for survival. “That can stand in front of him”, that can correspond to a man, or be fit for him. It is not good for man to be alone. Solitude is often evil, or dangerous. Those alone have been abandoned, are negative and sorrowful. This is the danger that must be overcome in the creation of woman. The helper must be personal and indispensable in the context of extreme danger of death.

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The Creation of Woman (Gen 2:21-25) Woman Created, 2:21-23 (cf. 1:27). The Lord God made woman from the man, and presented her to him. Only in this manner can man have “a help suitable for him to be in his presence”. Man is man by that spirit by which he differs from the animals. Gen 2:21-23 with 2:7 presents the details of man’s creation in distinction to 1:26-27 which establishes the general truth that man was created (evolved?), and that woman was created in man (’ishshah, because was taken out of ’ish, man). The Lord God declared that a sexless or unisexual race would not be good and enunciated His purpose to create “a help suitable to man to be in his presence” (lit.), “a help meet for him” (Authorized Version). The anaesthetic comes before the surgery. This is different from the other acts of creation: here it is banah, “to build”, not to form. She is made from man, not the soil. She is wife to his husband. The first human words of Adam use the passive: “It will be called...” The expression “flesh of my flesh” is used of tribal relationships, the dynamic of covenant: people have the same blood, bones, flesh. There are weaker and stronger elements in relationships, and two elements needed to describe the totality. “One flesh” is also used to describe a relationship between brothers. The communion of two beings is in all aspects, not just sexual ones. Before the creation man was one flesh, but now in freedom and creativity they must build a new communion. Marriage is instituted, 2:24-25. The union of husband and wife prefigured the union of Christ and His Church, the woman becoming a picture of the Church as the Bride of Christ (Eph 5: 28-32; cf. 19:5; 1 Cor 6:16; Eph 5:31). Romans 7 provides one of the best commentaries on Gen 2—3. The text is provocative and challenges presuppositions. What is wrong with eating? There is an ambiguity in human life. There is also an Old Testament tradition of solitude being bad. In the Ancient Near East the worst thing that could happen was to be excluded from tribe or clan. Those alone—widows, orphans, foreigners—are in danger, solitary, helpless. There are only two cases of celibacy in the Old Testament. In Jeremiah 16 the meaning of celibacy is a prophetic sign of the end of Jerusalem. The prophet would have no descendants for a futureless Jerusalem. Ezekiel 24 depicts the widowhood of the prophet, another sign of the fate of Jerusalem. The city will lose the sight of its eyes, the Temple, the source of illumination and unity. In the New Testament there is a change, and celibacy is explained (Mt 19:12, Eph 5, 1 Cor 6, Apoc 14:4, the Gospels Mt 19:12), the mystery of communion, lived in full communion with

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Christ and people beyond the more limited marital union. We are all one in Christ, we cannot live without communion. Eve derived from the side of Adam. Adam’s giving forth Eve from his side gives rise to a mysticism of sexual love. Here the ultimate experience of love is a realization that beneath the illusion of the two-ness of the couple dwells a common identity that each one contains the other, that each one is in fact both. This realization can expand into a discovery that beneath the multitudinous individualities of the whole surrounding universe—be they human, animal, vegetable, even mineral—dwells identity. The love experience becomes cosmic, and the beloved (who opened the vision) is magnified as the mirror of creation. Those knowing this experience are possessed of “the science of beauty everywhere” (Arthur Schopenhauer, The World as Will and Idea, 1818). The idea appears in Plato’s Symposium and is germane to Kabbalistic teaching (see Zohar 1.91b).39 Nakedness (2:25). The man and the woman were naked but not ashamed. What are nakedness and shame? In the Western world, nakedness implies sexuality. In the Bible it means being alone, vulnerable, defenceless, basically a weakness. This can be a punishment (for an adulteress, as in Hosea 2:1-7 and the Prophets). Shame has a special connotation in the Bible. It means to feel guilty, to be condemned in front of one’s fellows. It can be the feeling of the defeated foe, to be in a situation of inferiority, even exclusion. Nakedness and shame go together. Here they were naked but not ashamed. They were without defence or protection, but they do not feel vulnerable or inferior. They were without protection but equal. There was no violence, no force, no profiteering from defencelessness.

Conclusion In the beginning there is wilderness; at the end there is fullness of communion. Little by little language emerges. There is silence at the beginning of the narration of the creation of man, the garden and the waters. The universe can satisfy one’s needs, but there is no dialogue. The first reported speech comes in 2:16-17 when God speaks to man. The possibility of dialogue is here. Then the creation of the animals follows. Man gives names, but no sentences or speech occurs. All is indirect 39 C.G. Ginsburg, The Kabbalah, its Doctrines, Development, and Literature (London, 1920), p. 116.

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discourse. Man utters words, establishing a relationship of superiority. The first discourse is when God makes woman, then the words uttered are poetry. Only when man is face to face with his helpmate is speech possible. All this reflects: i) the emergence of language ii) the situation of freedom and responsibility: the humans till, serve, work and watch. This destroys the conventional image of Paradise as workless. One enters a world of choice, to eat or not to eat. iii) the giving of names shows authority and power iv) the creation of woman provides a relation of communion (`azab, dabaq—abandon and cleave to create a new communion).

The Two Versions of Creation (Genesis 1 & 2) Man was the last to be created from all the living beings of the earth and the distinction of the sexes which is characteristic of humanity is also shared by the divinity. How this distinction can be reconciled with the unity of the godhead is perhaps too deep for human comprehension? Perhaps it is a metaphor for the generative dimension of sexuality, a reflection of and sharing in the divine nature? God created the lower animals first and the human beings consisted of a man and a woman, produced to all appearances simultaneously, and each reflecting the glory of their divine original, especially in the capacity for reflective consciousness. When we come to the second chapter we come to a different and indeed contradictory account of the same momentous transaction. Here we learn that God created man first, the lower animals next, and woman last of all, fashioning her as a mere after-thought out of a rib which he abstracted from man in his sleep. The order of merit in the two narratives is clearly reversed. In the first narrative, the Deity begins with fishes and works steadily up through the birds and beasts to man and woman. In the second, he begins with man and works downwards through the lower animals to woman, who apparently marks the nadir of the divine workmanship. In this second version, nothing is said at all about man and woman being created in the image of God. We are told simply that the Lord God formed man out of the dust of the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life and man became a living soul. Afterwards, to relieve the loneliness of man, who wandered without a living companion in the beautiful garden that had been created for him, God fashioned the birds and beasts to keep him company. Man looked at them and gave them all their names, but was still not content with these as playmates, so at last,

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God, as if in despair, created woman out of an insignificant portion of the masculine frame and introduced her to the man as his wife. The account of the creation in the first chapter is derived from the Priestly Document, which was composed by priestly writers during or after the Babylonian Captivity. The account of the man and the animals in the second chapter is derived from the Yahwistic Document, which was written several hundred years before the former, probably in the 9th or 8th cc. B.C. The differences between the religious standpoints of the two writers are manifest. The later Priestly Writer conceives God as an abstract withdrawn from human sight, and creating all things by a simple fiat. The earlier Yahwistic Writer conceives God in a very concrete form, as acting and speaking like a man, modelling a human being out of clay, planting a garden, walking in the cool of the day, calling to the man and the woman to come out from among the trees behind which they had hidden themselves, and making cloaks of skin to replace the scanty garments of fig leaves with which they sought to hide their nakedness. The charming naivety, almost the gaiety of the earlier narrative contrasts with the high seriousness of the later; but there is a vein of sadness and pessimism running through the brightly coloured picture of life in the age of innocence which the great Yahwistic Writer has painted. He hardly attempts to hide his deep contempt for woman. The lateness of her creation, and the irregular and undignified manner of it, made out of a piece of her lord and master, after all the lower animals had been created in a regular and decent manner, sufficiently mark the low opinion he held of her nature. And in the sequel of Gen 3 his misogyny takes an even darker tinge when he ascribes all the misfortunes and sorrows of the human race to the credulous folly and unbridled appetite of its first mother. Of the two narratives, the Yahwistic is not only the more picturesque, but also richer in folklore, retaining many features redolent of primitive simplicity which have been carefully effaced by the later Priestly Writer. It offers more points of comparison with the childlike stories through which men in many ages and countries have sought to explain the great mystery of the beginnings of life on earth.40

40 See James G. Frazer, “The Creation of Man” in Folklore in the Old Testament, pp. 1-15, esp. p. 2.

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Style and Thematic Purposefulness The language and presentation of the Priestly Writer has an almost choreographic design and formality. Every stage is ordered in numerical detail, and the whole action of creation proceeds by a rhythmic process of accumulation that instils a stately pace in its slow rhythm and incremental repetitions. Each day is heralded by the magisterial “And God said...”, and concluding with the formal refrain “It was evening and it was morning”, preceded in five instances with the commendatory observation “And God saw that it was good”. This orderliness also emerges in the concern for symmetry in which the concept is expressed in the style. That focuses on balanced pairings, usually oppositions (light and darkness, night and day, evening and morning, water and sky, water and dry land, sun and moon, grass and trees, birds and sea-creatures, beasts and creeping things, male and female). This feature is underpinned by a tendency to recapitulation. The conclusion in the first Sabbath further demonstrates and sums up the Priestly Writer’s concern with emphasis, stylistic balance, parallelisms and incremental techniques. It also works as a framing device, since the end takes us back to the very beginning, emphasizing God’s creative activity. The whole account is ordered, appointed, symmetrical and framed. These features are not merely a stylistic preference, but reflect a vision of God, of the world, of mankind. Creation reveals a great design of coherence: all has come into being in an orderly progression, all is measured in numerical sequence defined by the sacred count of seven. Law is the underlying principle of the created order, and is manifested in the symmetrical divisions of the process of creation, and in the divine Word that initiates each stage. The Yahwistic Writer has a strikingly different approach, again reflected in the style. Instead of the Priestly Writer’s dignified parade from the First Day to the Seventh, there is a different sense of construction and movement. In place of stylistic balance and stately progression, the author initiates his account with a subordinate clause (“At the time when the Lord God...”). This then winds its way through details of geomorphology and meteorology to the creation of man. The convoluted syntax, so different from the Priestly Writer’s measured structures, impels a forward movement, used to depict his subject in a network of connections that are governed by cause, time and mechanics, that later take on moral and psychological implications. It conjures up a restless human interaction with the newly created environment, where man works the soil which cannot realize its life-giving nourishing potential until human agricultural work has begun. In the Priestly account man has a general dominion over

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the natural world. The Yahwist sees him bound to the natural world, formed out of its very soil (in the very etymology of his name). He is of the earth, and set apart from it, not by the hierarchical ordering of the Priestly Writer, but by virtue of his consciousness that enables him, empowers him to give the animals names, and also because of the free will through which he will eventually be banished from the Garden to work the soil. This is no longer a natural function, but as an arduous labour and punishment. In the Priestly account God is the constant subject of verbs of generation and lengthy creative commands in direct speech. In the Yahwist, by contrast, there is a whole section (Gen 2:10-14) where God is absent, and man performs independent action and speech. The only direct discourse is assigned to God, but it is a command not to eat from the Tree of Knowledge.41 The juxtaposing of these two very different approaches introduces an extraordinary complexity of perspective and interaction into the Biblical narrative. This reflects the bewildering realities of both religious idealism and the often painful challenges confronting mankind and his interaction with the natural world and with God. Whether this is an accidental result of some final editor’s compulsion to yoke together disparate sources, or a purposeful thematic redaction of a more searching kind, will depend on the reader’s own preference and point of view.

Reflections on Genesis 1 & 2 Creation reflected in human action (activity and productivity) In both the creation accounts of Gen 1 & 2 importance is ascribed to human action, particularly to the human action of cultivating nature. The process of creation has a dynamic implication for humankind, involving human behaviour relating to the creation of culture, with both cognitive and normative implications. The earlier creation account places great emphasis on the naming of the animals, a key concept of culture. The later account depicts the work of creation moving towards the day of rest, a concept of conscious choice interrupting the autonomous processes of nature to provide reflection. This is the essence of culture that is both cognitive and normative.

41

See Robert Alter, The Art of Biblical Narrative, pp. 142-44.

1. Genesis 1—2: The Book of Beginnings

Fig.8. God, Adam and Eve (Meister Bertram)

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Creation and human superiority The ‘call to dominion’ and ‘creation and Sabbath’ are complex. But participation in creation, central to what is creaturely, does not pertain only to human beings. This aspect of each creature’s own activity and productivity can be made clear without regard to the themes of dominion and rest. It is certainly not defined only by the call to take dominion over the earth. This issue, since Lynn White focused attention on it, has become notorious and much discussed. He gave a lecture on 26 December 1966, titled, “The Historical Roots of Our Ecologic Crisis” at the Washington meeting of the AAAS [The American Association for the Advancement of Science], that was later published in the journal Science in 1967.42 White’s article was based on the premise that “all forms of life modify their context”, that is: we all create change in our environment. He believed man’s relationship with the natural environment was always a dynamic and interactive one, even in the Middle Ages, but identified the Industrial Revolution as a fundamental turning point in our ecological history. He suggested that at this point the hypotheses of science were married to the possibilities of technology, and that our ability to destroy and exploit the environment was vastly increased. Nevertheless, he also suggested that the mentality of the Industrial Revolution—that the earth was a resource for human consumption—was much older than the actuality of machinery, and in fact has its roots in medieval Christianity and attitudes towards nature. He proposed that “what people do about their ecology depends on what they think about themselves in relation to things in their environment”. He argued that Judeo-Christian theology was fundamentally exploitative of the natural world because the Bible asserts man’s dominion over nature and establishes a trend of anthropocentrism. Christianity makes a distinction between man (formed in God’s image) and the rest of creation, which has no “soul” or “reason” and is thus inferior. He posited that these beliefs have led to an indifference towards nature which continues to impact in an industrial, “post-Christian” world. He concluded that applying more science and technology to the problem will not help, that it is humanity’s fundamental ideas about nature that must change; we must abandon “superior, contemptuous” attitudes that make us “willing to use it [the earth] for our slightest whim”. White suggests adopting St. Francis of Assisi as a model in imagining a “democracy” of creation in which all creatures are respected and man’s 42 Lynn White, “The Historical Roots of Our Ecologic Crisis”, Science, 1967 (155:3767 [10 March 1967]).

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rule over creation is delimited. A more positive view of man’s responsible care of creation is provided by B.W. Anderson, “Human dominion over nature”, in M. Ward (ed.), Biblical studies in contemporary thought (1975).43

Creation and the laws of nature The texts of Genesis 1—2 describe in a measured and differentiated way God’s perception and evaluation in reaction to creation. God is shown vitally active in that which is already created, intervening for the purpose of further generic specification. The texts are underpinned by the surprising perception that the divine creativity only corresponds tangentially to the expected pattern of cause and productive effect. God reacts rather to the presence of what is already created. There is as yet no concern with the creature’s own creative power being too great. The texts are full of instances that emphasize and develop God’s reactions to the presence of what is already created. We encounter a rich description of that which is engaged in the creativity that manifests itself in separating, ruling, producing, developing, and reproducing itself. —God is not the only one who separates, but this ability is extended to that which is created (the firmament of the heavens, the gathering water and the stars) which assumes functions of separation (Gen 1:6, 9, 18). —God is not the only one who rules, but so does that which is created (like the stars) rule by the establishment of rhythm, differentiation, and the gift of measure and order (Gen 1:14ff.). —Not only God produces, but also creatures brings forth creatures—animals of all species and plants (Gen 1:12, but also 1:11, 20, 24). The creature develops and reproduces itself, something that is explicitly recorded in detail with regard to plants, animals, and human beings (Gen 1: 12, 22, 28). The two creation accounts also describe God’s creative activity in various ways:

43

M. Ward (ed.), Biblical studies in contemporary thought (Somerville: Greeno & Hadden, 1975), pp. 25-45). See also Ernst Conradie, Christianity and Ecological Theology: A Resource for Further Research (Sun Press, 2006).

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—by numbering: God’s positive assessment of the creation is marked seven times; the first creation account emphasizes God’s evaluative perception, “And God saw that that which had been created was good” (Gen 1:4a, 10b, 12b, 18b, 21b, 25b, 31a). —by naming: Genesis 1 stresses God’s activity of naming three times (Gen. 1:5a, 8a, 10a). —by separating: God intervenes twice in that which is already created in order to separate it (Gen 1:4b, 7b). —by reacting: God’s creative activity is characterized by reaction, by responding to the external events, actions, and presuppositions, and even of learning. —by cooperation: The second creation account explicitly emphasizes that cultivated vegetation, a goal vital to the act of creation, is made dependent upon the cooperation of rain from heaven and of human activity (Gen 2:6, 2:15). —by human participation: The second creation story emphasizes that divine and human initiatives coincide (Gen 2:5). This version reserves for the human being (not as yet differentiated into male and female) the naming of “all cattle, the birds of heaven, and all animals of the field” (Gen 2:19-20). —by establishing the fundamentals of culture. The creation account focuses on the process of naming as a basic human activity that provides the basis of all culture: “And as the human being named each being, so was it to be called” (Gen 2:19b). God’s creative activity is transmitted and vitally connected with the creature’s own ability to produce. That which is created now can also separate, rule, bring forth, and reproduce itself. The creature’s own activity is not merely only the result and consequence of God’s action; it is fundamentally linked with the divine craftsmanship, and at times becomes practically interchangeable with God’s action. The creature’s own activity is now bound up in the process of creation. The creation accounts of Genesis do not propose a picture of total dependency. God’s creative action does not present that which is created with a completed situation: rather the creature’s own activity becomes an active and even integral element in the process of creation itself, and is seen in intimate cooperative harmony with God’s work. God’s creative plan brings the different realms of life into fruitful interactive relations, all of which promote life. The created elements are drawn into and connected with the very process of creation by developing themselves. By fruitful interplay these become participant elements in this association of interdependent realms.

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Creation: heaven and earth In creation the distinct realms of heaven and earth are established as interdependent realms of life, which are then themselves further differentiated internally. Heaven is perceived not only as the place from which natural forces of light, warmth, water, wind, and storm determine life on this earth, but also seen as the origin of strong forces that shape and determine culture. In Genesis 1 this emerges in the statement that the lights are “for signs and seasons and for days and years” (Gen 1:14). The notion of creation becomes an association of interdependent relations between realms of life that are on the one hand relatively accessible to human beings, and on the other those that are relatively inaccessible to us. The concept of “heaven” pulls together those natural and cultural realms that are less accessible to humanity. The realms that are more accessible to us, collectively integrated by the term “earth”, are not only natural, but also cultural associations of interdependent relations. Both the creation account provide texts that establish an interdependence of nature and culture. —Both creation accounts contain the charge to human beings to cultivate the earth. Most important is the focussing of creation upon the day of rest. This is blessed and also fruitful in its intended effects. —The naming of the animals, and also the identification of geographical and geological elements in the description of the Garden of Eden (Gen 2:10ff.) extends the implications of the naming process. Simply understanding creation as a naturalistic phenomenon does not fully grasp the implications of the classical creation texts. Creation extends into the construction and sustaining of interdependent relations between natural and cultural realms of life that are largely accessible to human beings (the movement of the heavenly bodies has its effects on human society in the establishment of daily and annual routines and rituals). A fresh understanding of the conception of creation can sharpen contemporary insights: 1) There is a need to recognize analogies between religious and ecological forms of thought and experience (origins, commission, responsibility, power). 2) Creation should foster awareness of the interdependence of natural and cultural processes (rhythms of life like procreation

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and social structures like the Sabbath and other festivals). 3) It makes us attentive to a difference between knowledge of creation and forms of scientific knowledge of nature that aim at discovering an ultimate, simple, fundamental quality (a common origin, the sharing of life, the earth and its resources). 4) There is a connection in the classical creation texts between absolute and relative concepts, between monistic and pluralistic thought (the divine uniqueness viewed from different angles, divine characteristics shared with those created). A change in fundamental religious and theological patterns of thought can also stimulate and determine the renovation and reconstruction of normative concepts and cognitive structures that have become vital parts of the very essence of secular thought (the time and mode of origins, the meaning and value of life, the nature of institutions of human morality and behaviour).

Creation as covenant Creation as an absolute process being produced by a transcendent or divine omnipotent reality, and the complete dependence of creation on this reality in a pattern of power, is also maintained in theologies that try to develop the understanding of creation more precisely with the help of other theological concepts. An influential example of such an effort in the 20th century is the Swiss Reformed theologian Karl Barth’s attempt to locate creation theology within covenant theology. Barth does differentiate and break down in different ways the basic pattern of the powerful process of God’s creative work, and of the absolute dependence of the creature upon God. But Barth does not question that process as a basic theological pattern. Instead the notion of covenant remains an obscure foundational principle, whether its derivation in the theology of creation is always clearly proved or not. Barth recoils from any sense of divine hyper-immanence, and resists identifying God with any creaturely reality. Although Barth regarded the covenant as an important concept, it does not seem to have qualified his overwhelming concern to guard God’s freedom as wholly other.44

44 See Karl Barth, Church Dogmatics. The Doctrine of Creation Volume 3, Part 3 (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1956–75).

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Creation and dominion So God created humankind in his image, in the image of God he created them; male and female he created them. God blessed them, and God said to them, “Be fruitful and multiply, and fill the earth and subdue it; and have dominion over the fish of the sea and over the birds of the air and over every living thing that moves upon the earth.” (Gen. 1:27-28 NRSV)

Of all biblical texts discussing the human place in nature, and relating to environmental values in the Bible, especially as held in Western religious traditions, no passage has been quoted more frequently and with more emotion than Gen 1:28. No concept has been debated more fervently than the meaning of dominion. This is the concept that people are most familiar with and most curious about when the topic of the Bible and the environment is raised. Few biblical texts other than these verses from the creation account in Genesis 1 have had more wide-reaching and enduring influence on: —how we understand ourselves as human beings —how we think of ourselves in relation to God —how we think of ourselves in relation to other humans —and how we think of ourselves in relation to the world around us. These verses have been used: —to defend views of human dignity —to define the relationship between women and men —to adumbrate human sexuality —to describe the place and role of humankind in nature. This last issue, the biblical assignment of dominion to humans in the natural world (Gen 1:28), needs to be reconsidered. How are we to understand this definition of the human place in the world in an age of environmental crisis for which humans themselves have been largely responsible? Several issues present themselves. 1) The first is a concern for context. How does the context of the biblical writer (historical, political, social, economic) influence a text’s perspective? How does the context of the reader (in all its various dimensions) influence the meaning discovered in the text?

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2) A second emphasis is an attention to power. What ways might biblical texts have been used to legitimatize and maintain certain kinds of social power in antiquity? What ways might modern readers interpret biblical texts to enhance their own power and privileges? 3) A third emphasis is the process of interpretation, a “decentring”, or willingness to step out of a position of privilege, to question the relationship between one’s interpretation and one’s own interests, and to consider the ways a text might be read from a different perspective.45 Interpretations of dominion in Gen 1:28 tend to the partisan, arguing either that dominion is a dangerous idea legitimating exploitation of the environment (White 1967), or that it is an admirable notion fostering responsible care of creation (Anderson 1975, 1992). The text and its contexts, ancient and modern, require more attention. Views of dominion in Gen 1:28 are usually discussed in relative isolation from the ancient social context of Genesis 1 and from its larger canonical context in the Bible as a whole. Both contexts can add much to our understanding of dominion theology in biblical thought. The biblical term “dominion” (from the Hebrew verb radah), grants humans the right and responsibility to rule, to govern the rest of creation. It establishes a hierarchy of power and authority in which the human race is positioned above the rest of the natural world. The use of radah elsewhere in the Old Testament indicates this clearly. It is employed in: —the domestic sphere for the rule of the head of the house over household servants (Lev 25:43), —and more formally of Solomon’s officers over his conscripted labour force (1 Kings 5:16). On the wider stage, radah betokens: —the rule of the king over Israel’s enemies (1 Kings 4:24), —or negatively for the rule of Israel’s enemies over Israel itself (Lev 26:17). In all cases, radah denotes the power, control, and authority of one individual or group over another. 45

Enrico Castelli, The Bible and Culture Collective (Yale University Press, 1995).

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The phrase “subdue the earth” in Gen 1:28 conveys a similar implication. The verb “subdue” (from the Hebrew kabash), depicts a hierarchical relationship in which humans are positioned above the earth and are granted power and control over it. The verb kabash is even more forceful than radah, describing the act of subjugation, of forcing another into a subordinate position. The same phrase is used in Gen 1:28, “subdue the earth/land” to signify military conquest, to depict the destruction and occupation of conquered territory (Num 32:22, 29). —It is also used to convey the incipient violence of the king’s forcing his people into slavery against God’s wishes (Jer 34:11, 16), and of rape (Esther 7:8; Neh 5:5). In many of these instances, the abuse of power is patently obvious. Most life-forms originate within the sphere of the earth to which they are related—according to the divine command, “Let the waters bring forth swarms of living creatures” (Gen 1:20), or “Let the earth bring forth living creatures of every kind” (1:24; cf. 1:11-12). Only humans do not originate in this way, but are created by God alone (1:26). Even more significantly, humans alone among all forms of life are made in the image and likeness of God (1:27). The depiction of human beings in Gen 1:28, and in this creation account as a whole, is one of power and authority. The human race uniquely is placed at the top of a hierarchy of creation because of its divine image and its divine mandate to rule over the earth and its life. There can be no doubt that Gen 1:28 proposes an impressive theology of human dominion. How was dominion theology understood by society in biblical times? How it is to be understood by our contemporary society? There are elements in the text that implying that dominion can be understood as benevolent rule characterized by restraint. The image of God that emerges implies this, with emphasis on a human distinctiveness and authority. This image of God suggests a behavioural dynamic, that humans made in his image and likeness have a responsibility of imitation, as representatives of the divine, as agents on earth.46 Human rule would therefore not be absolute, but is to be implemented in accordance with the intention and design of the divine creator who has delegated it. Throughout the account of Genesis 1, this divine sovereign exercises power benevolently—bringing all of life into existence, considering all of 46

See Phyllis A. Bird, “‘Male and Female He Created Them’: Gen 1:27b in the Context of the Priestly Account of Creation”, Harvard Theological Review 74 (1981): 129-59, esp. 137-44.

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it good, placing it all within a harmonious interdependent system. Humans, as God’s representatives or agents, should therefore exercise the power granted them to achieve the same ends. The concept of benevolent rule is implied in divine commission to the heavenly bodies (Gen 1:16-18). The sun and moon are given authority to rule the day and night—but using the noble verb malak (related to melek, “king”) rather than the more imperious radah. This rule is an integral part of a harmonious natural system. Furthermore, human rule is limited by an important restraint: dominion over the animals does not include the right to kill and eat them (Gen 1:29-30). Before the Flood, humans were given only plants for food (Gen 9:1-7). The first humans were therefore vegetarians. These textual nuances provide a basis for transforming a creation theology of dominion onto one of stewardship. Human beings are not so much a sovereign authority over creation but rather an agent exercising a delegated responsibility that is in harmony with the life-giving activity of the creator. Humans do occupy a unique position in nature, but occupy this position as stewards, with a responsibility towards creation. Indeed, a theology of stewardship has come to define almost entirely the biblical position on environmental values.47

Finding the original context These textual implications are strengthened by considering the nature of the original context from which the text emerged. Ancient Israel exercised a subsistence agriculture characterized by pre-industrial rudimentariness, without machinery, high-yield cultivars, chemical fertilizers or pesticides. In the rocky terrain of ancient Palestine, the cycle was entirely dependent on a variable and unpredictable rainfall,48 and the whole process a constant struggle to survive, unrelentingly hard work to coax out a liveable harvest. In such an environment it is easy to understand how relations with the soil could be viewed as a struggle, a process of overpowering and subduing an intractable adversary “subduing [kabash] the earth,” in the words of Gen 1:28.This would also suggest the reasons for the use of the aggressive radah rather than the milder malak for the governance of creation. 47 See Douglas John Hall, The Steward, a Biblical symbol come of age (Wipf & Stock, 1986, 1990, rev. 2004); Albert Gore, Earth in the Balance: Ecology and the Human Spirit (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1992), pp. 167-81, 238-65. 48 David C. Hopkins, The Highlands of Canaan agricultural life in the early Iron Age (Sheffield: Almond, 1985).

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Agriculture in the agrarian context of the ancient Mediterranean was a challenge. Like the enemies of Israel, the soil needed to be subdued, and creation ruled over, for survival to be possible. The concept of dominion further arose in a wider national context of powerlessness, in which the balance of power favoured nature. Control over an agrarian economy typical of a post-industrial and technological age was not possible, and mankind was essentially impotent before the elements. This raises important questions for the modern reader with society’s relative control and power over nature. The concept of dominion is hardly appropriate to a society that is now empowered rather than powerless, and exists in a very different context to that of the ancient biblical society where this notion of dominance arose. These considerations of context lead to important canonical considerations. The origins of the final redaction of the Pentateuch suggest that the dominion theology in Gen 1:28 was rooted in the powerful social role its Priestly Writers held in their own society. The perception of human authority over the world of nature mirrors priestly authority in the cult and society of Ancient Israel. The concept of dominion in Gen. 1:28 emerges out of the authorship’s own position of power and authority. The wider historical and political context provides a further paradox. If the theology of dominion arose out of the agrarian experience of powerlessness, then in Ancient Israel, priests and people lived in an era of human history in which in the nation was essentially and increasingly powerless politically, while at the same time they had gained little control over the vast powers of nature. But there are different ways of responding to such a context. —One response, suggested in the Priestly theology of Gen 1:28, depicted human survival as an effort to be won by human dominion, by the subjugation and control of the nature of Palestine. —This became an analogy of the fate and destiny of the exiled nation which needed to assert itself to survive at all as an entity. —This dominion theology of Genesis 1 can be understood better when examined in its third context: the canon, the broader biblical setting within which it occurs.

B. PRIMORDIAL NARRATIVE: THE ORIGINS OF SIN AND HUMAN SOCIETY CREATION AND SIN: GENESIS 3—11

17 Noah was found perfect and righteous; in the time of wrath he was taken in exchange; therefore a remnant was left to the earth when the flood came. 18 Everlasting covenants were made with him that all flesh should not be blotted out by a flood. (Sirach 44:17-18)

2. GENESIS 3—11: THE RESPONSIBILITY OF MAN

2.1 Genesis 3 1 Now the serpent was more subtle than any other wild creature that the LORD God had made. He said to the woman, “Did God say, `You shall not eat of any tree of the garden’?” 2 And the woman said to the serpent, “We may eat of the fruit of the trees of the garden; 3 but God said, `You shall not eat of the fruit of the tree which is in the midst of the garden, neither shall you touch it, lest you die.’“ 4 But the serpent said to the woman, “You will not die. 5 For God knows that when you eat of it your eyes will be opened, and you will be like God, knowing good and evil.” 6 So when the woman saw that the tree was good for food, and that it was a delight to the eyes, and that the tree was to be desired to make one wise, she took of its fruit and ate; and she also gave some to her husband, and he ate. 7 Then the eyes of both were opened, and they knew that they were naked; and they sewed fig leaves together and made themselves aprons. 8 And they heard the sound of the LORD God walking in the garden in the cool of the day, and the man and his wife hid themselves from the presence of the LORD God among the trees of the garden. 9 But the LORD God called to the man, and said to him, “Where are you?” 10 And he said, “I heard the sound of thee in the garden, and I was afraid, because I was naked; and I hid myself.” 11 He said, “Who told you that you were naked? Have you eaten of the tree of which I commanded you not to eat?” 12 The man said, “The woman whom thou gavest to be with me, she gave me fruit of the tree, and I ate.” 13 Then the LORD God said to the woman, “What is this that you have done?” The woman said, “The serpent beguiled me, and I ate.” 14 The LORD God said to the serpent, “Because you have done this, cursed are you above all cattle, and above all wild animals; upon your

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belly you shall go, and dust you shall eat all the days of your life. 15 I will put enmity between you and the woman, and between your seed and her seed; he shall bruise your head, and you shall bruise his heel.” 16 To the woman he said, “I will greatly multiply your pain in childbearing; in pain you shall bring forth children, yet your desire shall be for your husband, and he shall rule over you.” 17 And to Adam he said, “Because you have listened to the voice of your wife, and have eaten of the tree of which I commanded you, `You shall not eat of it,’ cursed is the ground because of you; in toil you shall eat of it all the days of your life; 18 thorns and thistles it shall bring forth to you; and you shall eat the plants of the field. 19 In the sweat of your face you shall eat bread till you return to the ground, for out of it you were taken; you are dust, and to dust you shall return.” 20 The man called his wife’s name Eve, because she was the mother of all living. 21 And the LORD God made for Adam and for his wife garments of skins, and clothed them. 22 Then the LORD God said, “Behold, the man has become like one of us, knowing good and evil; and now, lest he put forth his hand and take also of the tree of life, and eat, and live for ever” -23 therefore the LORD God sent him forth from the garden of Eden, to till the ground from which he was taken. 24 He drove out the man; and at the east of the garden of Eden he placed the cherubim, and a flaming sword which turned every way, to guard the way to the tree of life. ____________________________________________________________

What is the responsibility of Man? Some of the key factors are already established: to eat or not to eat. The Serpent is the new element in the narrative nexus.

Delimitation of the Text 3:1 establishes an emphatic position: the Serpent is sly, more cunning than all the creatures. The Snake is put first. There is a unity of plot: the Man and the Woman are driven away from Paradise. God, the Man and the Woman and the Snake interact until 3:15. Gen: 2 & 3 are a unity: Gen 2

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prepares the stage for Gen 3. Translation 3:15 In the discourse of God to the Serpent, the RSV translates: “He shall bruise your head, and you will bruise his heel”. This is the rare verb shuph which is used twice. Perhaps it is best translated this way. One could have “lie in wait” instead. The Hebrew text plays on the root, and may well be a pun.

Narrative analysis The formal structure is a movement from misdemeanour to judgement, or from conflict to solution, or the depiction of an act and its consequences.

The moments of the story Exposition (3:1a) Appearance of the Serpent, with description of its character Complication (3:1b): The inciting moment is the question of the Serpent (3:2-7, even to 8): description of what the woman did, what the man did, their hiding in the garden Turning Point (3:9-11): the question asked by God. 3:11: the man cannot escape, and must answer. After this the tension is loosened. Resolution (3:12-19): They recognize that they ate. Judgement is passed. Conclusion (3:20-24): Man and Woman are driven from the garden.

The Narrative as Theology The Tempter, 3:1. This verse introduces the figure of the tempter, the notion of Satan, identified by subsequent Scripture (2 Cor 11:3, 14; Rev 12:9; 20:2), with his tool the Edenic Serpent. Although formally presented here, this mysterious personage’s majestic and sinless creation, his fall, and his strange interest in and enmity toward newly created man, given dominion over the earth, are described elsewhere in the tantalizing glimpses into the residual pre-history of creation (Ezk 28: 12-19; Is 14: 1214). The Serpent (often interpreted as Satan’s agent) was not a writhing snake which was the result of God’s curse (Gen 3:14), but appears as the most cunning and beautiful of God’s animal creatures. The Woman is Tempted, 3:2-5. The temptation is initiated by questioning the inspiration of God’s word: “Did God say?” (3:1). Then he

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denies its teaching: “You will not die” (3:4). Finally he substitutes his own version, the immanence of God: “You will be like God [’Elohîm]”, or even “like gods [ke’elohîm]”. The woman makes the mistake of parleying with the tempter, adding to the words of God: “Neither shall you touch it” (3:3); misquoting “We may eat” (3:2), instead of “We may freely eat”; and “Lest you die” (3:3), instead of “You shall surely die”; and succumbing to the appeal of pride (3:5). This is what Satan himself seems to have had done in the primal entrance of sin into the universe (Is 14:12-14). The Fall 3: 6-7. The woman is deceived, but Adam sins knowingly (1 Tim 2:14 And Adam was not deceived, but the woman was deceived and became a transgressor). Both lose their innocence, became conscious of a new shame, and try to cover this guilt and nakedness in some form of human effort. The Lord God Seeks Fallen Man, 3:8-13. God’s Sabbath rest is broken by sin, 3:8, and He takes the first steps in a new work of redemption to rescue fearful, ashamed, alienated and confused fallen man. Adam hides from God, because of a change in himself, not in God. Adam’s selfprovided clothing seems adequate till God appears and then it seems worthless. Sinners will similarly attempt to clothe themselves with their own righteousness. The Curse and the Woman, 3:16. The status of woman in the fallen state is outlined and characterized by the etiologies of increased conception and childbearing attended with pain and sorrow, and the headship of the man, made necessary by the disorder brought in by sin (1 Cor 11:7-9; Eph 5:2225; 1 Tim 2:11-14 ). 1Timothy: 11 Let a woman learn in silence with all submissiveness. 12 I permit no woman to teach or to have authority over men; she is to keep silent. 13 For Adam was formed first, then Eve; 14 and Adam was not deceived, but the woman was deceived and became a transgressor. 15 Yet woman will be saved through bearing children, if she continues in faith and love and holiness, with modesty.

The Curse and the Man, 3:17-19. The ground was cursed for fallen man’s sake, since now he could not wisely use too much leisure in his changed condition. Life was conditioned by inescapable sorrow (3:17). A

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vegetable diet is prescribed (3:18), the light occupation of Eden (2:15) changed to heavy labour (3:18-19). Physical death (3:19) is pronounced (cf. Rom 5:12-21), although man had already demonstrated spiritual death in his shame and fear in God’s presence (3:8-13) (cf. Eph 2:1-5; 4:18-19). Ephesians 2: 1 And you he made alive, when you were dead through the trespasses and sins 2 in which you once walked, following the course of this world, following the prince of the power of the air, the spirit that is now at work in the sons of disobedience. 3 Among these we all once lived in the passions of our flesh, following the desires of body and mind, and so we were by nature children of wrath, like the rest of mankind. 4 But God, who is rich in mercy, out of the great love with which he loved us, 5 even when we were dead through our trespasses, made us alive together with Christ (by grace you have been saved).

Unity of the Race and Types of Redemption, 3:20-21. Adam named his wife Eve (“living”) “because she was the mother of every living person”, i.e., of every human being. The unity of the human race in Adam is declared here, and is linked to the future atonement of Christ, suggested symbolically in 3:21 in the coats of skin which God made for them, and symbolize, or typify, “Christ made unto us righteousness”. This metaphysical covering alone prepares the sinner for God’s presence. Then as one man’s trespass led to condemnation for all men, so one man’s act of righteousness leads to acquittal and life for all men (Rom 5:18). Expulsion from Eden, 3:22-24. As a result of disobedience man lost his innocence and experienced knowledge of evil. Through this knowledge conscience was awakened, and he entered a new time period in which God dealt with him not in innocence, as in the Garden, but under conscience. Man had the responsibility to do all known good and to avoid all known evil, and as a sinner to come before God through sacrifice. Man is accordingly expelled from Eden lest, by eating of the Tree of Life, he should compound his error and perpetuate his misery. The cherubim at the gate of Eden safeguard God’s holiness against this presumption of man who, in his sin, would “put forth his hand and take also of the Tree of Life” (Gen 3:22). Later, in the Israelite Tabernacle cherubim hovered over the sprinkled blood in the mercy seat, portraying the maintenance of the divine righteousness through the blood of sacrifice, prefiguring the selfoffering of Christ (Ex 25:17-20; Rom 3:24-26).

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Fig.9. Adam and Even driven forth out of Eden (Gustave Doré, 1855) Exodus 25: 17 Then you shall make a mercy seat of pure gold; two cubits and a half shall be its length, and a cubit and a half its breadth. 18 And you shall make two cherubim of gold; of hammered work shall you make them, on the two ends of the mercy seat. 19 Make one cherub on the one end, and one cherub on the other end; of one piece with the mercy seat shall you make the cherubim on its two ends.

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The fall of Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden reflects a shift from the repose of the central Cause (God) to the turbulence of the peripheral effects (the first man and woman). The primal couple ate of the forbidden fruit, and are now privy to the knowledge of good and evil, their eyes were opened (Gen 3:7). The bliss of Paradise is closed to them, so that they now behold creation from the other side of a transforming veil. Henceforth, inevitable human fulfillment is hard to gain.1

The Narrative as a Judgement This is a juridical text made up of: 1) offence (3:1-7) 2) enquiry (3:8-13) 3) sentence (3:14-19) 4) execution of sentence (3:20-24) One can also divide the scene by setting and character: 1) The Snake (3:1) 2) The Snake with the Woman (3:1-5) 3) The Snake disappears, Woman and Man (3:6-7) 4) God, the Man and the Woman (3:8-24) Dialogue happens between the Serpent and the Woman, then the Snake disappears while the Woman looks at the fruit. She then silently gives the fruit to her husband. Are speech and freedom linked? When God 1

See Joseph Campbell, The Hero with a Thousand Faces (Princeton University Press, 1948, 1967), p. 288.

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appears, he makes Man speak. There is parallelism between the behaviour of the Man, the Woman and the Serpent (naked `erom in 3:7; cunning `arum in 3:1a). They are naked and behave like the Snake. Then they all blame each other. Who is responsible?2 In Gen 2 there are a number of basic dualities: i) ’adam-’adamah: man has a close connection with the soil ii) there are two trees in the Garden: Life and Knowledge iii) the knowledge of good and evil iv) ’ish—’ishshah, man and woman Two is the basic number for Gen 2: pairs, opportunity for communion, dialogue, the couple who crown the duality. In Gen 3 duality becomes polarity, involved in conflict. Dialogue and language gradually disappear: i) they decrease with the absence of God ii) they re-emerge with the re-appearance of God iii) they become the monologue of God.

1) The Offence (3:1-7) This is framed by the pun `arum (cunning) (3:1), and the similar word `erummim (naked) (3:7).This may be the key to understanding this scene. The Serpent is shrewd, and man becomes cunning too. Man becomes like,/is identified with, the Snake. What is the similarity between man and serpent? The root ’akal is used seven times in the scene. Knowledge (yada) is related, as is wisdom. They try to get their knowledge by eating. 3:6 has vocabulary similar to Gen 2: to see (ra’ah), good (tob), pleasant (nechmad), to eat (’akal). The trees planted are pleasant, good to be eaten. When the Woman looks at the Tree of Knowledge, it gradually becomes like the other trees of the garden. It becomes ‘good’ without distinction. The Woman does not speak, but she gives the fruit to her husband without a word. In the Garden before language, dialogue is missing; only appetite and desire are manifested. There is only desire to eat, to know, there is a reduction: the Tree of Knowledge is reduced to satisfying human appetite. They ‘knew’ as a consequence of ‘eating’. This is the opposite of 2:25 2 See M. Eliade, Patterns in Comparative Religion (New York, 1974); O. Keel, The Symbolism of the Biblical World (New York, 1978).

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where they are naked and unashamed; now they are naked, ashamed and hiding. They discover fragility, the need for protection, the exposure to aggressiveness. A social shame is felt. They hide among the trees: they cannot face each other or God. They now know about vulnerability. Dialogue peters out, the fundamental element in human relationships has gone. The world of appetite dominates the scene. They have become like the Snake.

2) Enquiry (3:8-13) God appears again, so does freedom. The vocabulary is one of dialogue: voice, to hear (shama`) (3:8); to call (qara’) (3:9); to say (’amar); the Hiphil (higîd) of reveal (nagad) (3:11). God appears, man hides. God asks questions. Now they tell what they did in the world of freedom and dialogue. All end with “and I ate”. They confess and acknowledge that they ate. This is the world of dialogue. The vocabulary is juridical, a real enquiry. When God appears, human consciousness returns. The whole scene is ironical: they must hide from God. God discovers their crime because Man tries to hide, and so reveals a sense of nakedness in their aprons of fig leaves (chagorah). They behave like children, as if nothing had happened. But to enter into consciousness is to gain the freedom of language.

3) Sentence (3:14-19) There are three introductions, followed by three verdicts. But there are only two curses, for the Serpent and the ground, not the Man and the Woman. Again the vocabulary is juridical. The Snake is not cursed as snake, but conditionally because of what it did. The ground is cursed because of the action of the Man. The resultant etiology links the snake with the fear and death endemic to his tempting actions. Snakes will henceforth be a source of danger. The two curses are parallel. Something is applied to both subjects. The Snake must creep on its belly. The same construction is used for the same curse, the same eating, the same pain, the same soil, the same days of life. The curse of the Snake and the curse of the Soil are related. The snake must eat dust, man must return to dust. They represent the same world of of the ground. Man is dust, the snake eats dust; dust is cursed. What is a curse? It means separation, exclusion from community, from social life, from the world of the living. This equals death, the final death. The Serpent is cursed from the animals, separated from them. It

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means division, the distinction between life and death. We can see the consequences of separation, between man and the soil, the relationship broken. There will be hostility between the Snake and the Woman. The relationship between the Man and the Woman will be dominion, not communion. What is the meaning of these sentences? When they first ate the fruit, man and woman forgot God, distinctions became blurred. When God returns, he distinguishes between good and evil again. He shows what is evil, and calls it so. He excludes it from the world of life. God alone speaks, man is silent. God is the judge who divides and distinguishes.

4) Execution (3:20-24) (cf. Galatians 5) This is the enactment of the separation: in 3:20 the Woman receives a name (Havah); in 3:21 God prepares tunics for them. To give a name implies authority and significantly this happens after the Fall, a sign of a broken relationship between man and woman. The name is often linked with the Aramaic and Arabic word for serpent and the Hebrew word for life (chay) and “to be” (hayah). The garment of skins (kethoneth) (3:21). There is never a complete punishment in the Bible, always some sign of grace. Father or husband gives garments as a sign of protection. The garments express the dignity, authority, power, privilege of the wearer: priest, king, bride. To take off one’s garments is to put aside privilege, authority. When he puts the garment on afterwards, he has new authority. The tunic (kethoneth) was a special garment in the Bible, worn by Joseph (Gen 37:2), Aaron and the priests (Ex 28:4), as a sign of God’s solicitude for his creatures. The expulsion (3:22-24). Man knows good and evil now. The Serpent did not tell them the consequences. Now they are separated from the Tree of Life: shalach (send forth) and garash (drive out). These can be used in repudiation and divorce. They are cast out of the garden, with no access to the centre of life. They have lost their free access to God. Other symbols of separation are the fire and the sword held by the cherubim. Fire separates, purifies, transforms. The sword cuts, separates, sunders life and death apart. The cherubim is a sign of God’s presence in the garden now lost to man. Man and woman ate, lost access to the Tree of Life. They chose, their choice has separated them. The two trees cannot be separated: the man and the woman chose incorrectly and lost. Judgement has brought distinctions into play.

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The Meaning of the Narrative 1) The symbolic meaning of the Serpent 2) The meaning of “to eat” 3) The meaning of curses and punishments

1) The symbolic meaning of the Serpent The serpent symbol has been a part of western culture since antiquity. Throughout time, however, it has been misunderstood and misrepresented. The role of the serpent as the agent of life, death, and healing is attested to in various cultures, from the first in Dravidian South India through Mesopotamia and the Ancient Near East—including, Egypt, Classical Greece, and as far west as ancient Carthage.3 The serpent has indeed been both revered and vilified by human societies throughout history. When asked what the word snake or serpent, brings to mind, most Christians, Jews, and Muslims would describe it as evil, the incarnation of “the Devil”. The same is true of the scholarly world—the vast majority of scholarship on the symbolism of the serpent has stressed its negative connotations, seeing it as a representation of iniquity and deceit or of the dangerous, “sinful” aspects of sex. James Charlesworth has challenged this accepted wisdom and shows that the appearances of the serpent as a positive symbol far outnumber the negative. Sources ranging from the Bible and other religious texts, to works of history, philosophy, and art history, to actual artefacts like statues and jewellery, reveal the complex and subtle meanings the serpent held for ancient civilizations. Serpent imagery was widespread, and was used to symbolize wisdom, rejuvenation, and eternal life; various cultures and belief systems interpreted and depicted the serpent’s powers. In ancient Egypt the image of an upright hooded cobra was commonly employed as a protective icon, and in many cultures, serpents represent health and healing. The familiar caduceus of Western medicine originated with the entwined serpents carved on the staff of the legendary Greek healer Aesculapius. Moses fashioned a serpent of brass mounted on a pole to ward off snakes in the wilderness (Num 21:9).4 The serpent is in fact one of the most common symbols throughout the world. It is found with almost the same connotation everywhere. Similar 3

Leslie S. Wilson, The Serpent Symbol in the Ancient Near East: Nahash and Asherah, Death, Life, and Healing (University Press of America, 2001). 4 James H. Charlesworth, The Good and Evil Serpent: The Symbolism and Meaning of the Serpent in the Ancient World (Anchor Bible, 2008).

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animals are often used as substitutes, like frogs, which represent an ancient evolutionary symbol, a capacity to move ambiguously from the watery element to dry land. The snake knows three secrets: i) of time, ii) of fecundity, iii) of death. i) The secret of time. The famous image of the snake, the ouroboros, the snake eating its tail, is a symbol of nature: everything lives and dies and lives again, in killing, in eating, in dying. All returns to earth and then gives new life. Life and death are combined inextricably. The snake is linked with all seasons: it disappears in the dry season and winter, and comes out in the rainy periods and spring. It is linked with immortality since it sloughs off its skin every year, yet seems not to die. It knows the secrets of all cycles of nature, that life is a condition of death, and death of life. It is the crossing point of all opposites in nature. It can survive all cycles, a symbol of the flow of life through death back to life again. ii) The secret of fecundity. The serpent is the symbol of vegetation that crops up in the rainy season, a symbol of water itself, a symbol of male and female fecundity, rain brought to the earth. This is a Central American image. It is also linked with grain. On the Mexican flag is the Aztec image of the eagle clutching a snake that is dripping blood. During the sunny/drought periods in summer it brings clouds and rain. In China the dragon brings rain and fecundity, and is a symbol of the emperor. Snakes are worshipped in many countries. Women pray to the snake for fecundity. The medieval German legend of Melusina depicts a woman who is half a snake. The pattern can be reversed too, with a man half a snake. The cycle of the snake links it to the moon, hence to the cycle of menstruation, the fertility of women. The snake is also a phallic symbol. The male aspect of the snake or frog or monster is transformed into a prince when accepted or kissed. He is transformed by love, the only way the animal in man can become human.5 The moon is a symbol of resurrection: it dies and is reborn, again like the snake. iii) The secret of death. The snake is a symbol of the ancestors. One cannot separate experience from fact. The snake comes out at night, and is linked with death. It comes out of the earth where the dead live. Creeping creatures are linked with the earth: the snake disappears into earth and has a contact with death. It is hidden in the earth, and comes back renewed. It can pass through death and find new energies in the underworld and overcomes death. The hero must kill a snake or monster to achieve 5

Cf. Bruno Bettelheim, The Uses of Enchantment. The Meaning and Importance of Fairy Tales, pp. 286-91.

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immortality. Anu/Marduk must kill Tiamat; St Michael and St George kill the dragon. Snakes are in contact with the ancestors, with the dead, with the past. In the Book of Wisdom and the Apocalypse the serpent is linked with Satan. Wisdom 2:24 But through the devil’s envy death entered the world, and those who belong to his party experience it Apocalypse 12:9 And the great dragon was thrown down, that ancient serpent, who is called the Devil and Satan, the deceiver of the whole world—he was thrown down to the earth, and his angels were thrown down with him.

In the Christian imagination the Serpent is linked with the Devil; Mary steps on the snake and on the moon (Gen 3:15; Apoc 12:1), symbols of femininity and the fertility. She integrates these diverse aspects. The snake is ambivalent. It can be seen as evil, but the snake is neither good nor evil: only human freedom makes it so. The snake of Genesis 3 is hardly the Devil. The snake is cursed: he was good and becomes evil. “You are cursed because you did this”. Two scenes in the Bible are important for understanding the serpent; Gen 3 relates to Numbers 21:9 and John 3:14-15, the image of Christ crucified. See also the remarkable commentary of Wis 16:5-7. Thus one cannot identify the serpent as completely evil. Wisdom 16:5-7 5 For when the terrible rage of wild beasts came upon thy people and they were being destroyed by the bites of writhing serpents, thy wrath did not continue to the end; 6 they were troubled for a little while as a warning, and received a token of deliverance to remind them of thy law’s command. 7 For he who turned toward it was saved, not by what he saw, but by thee, the Saviour of all.

Snakes are linked with the life of nature in man, his appetite. The snake is a phallic animal, a symbol for sexual appetite or lust which seeks satisfaction without benefit of a human relation, and also because it uses its victim solely for its own purposes, as does the snake in paradise. By giving into its seduction, we lose our state of innocence, and are forced into the conscious dilemmas and obligations of choice. The voice of the snake convinces the woman to eat. The snake is the personification of this desire in man and woman. In Numbers 21 the Children of Israel in the

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Wilderness were angry and hungry. The people were tired of the manna, and yearned for the fresh foods of Egypt. They regretted the lost past, the ancestors. This was a rebellion of the appetite, they were victims of natural desires symbolized in the fiery serpents God unleashed among them. Moses instructed them to raise the Bronze Serpent on a pole as a focus for healing. This becomes the caduceus, the symbol of medicine. The pole is vertical, the snake is horizontal. The snake is lifted up, sublimated, and this gives direction and instruction. We have to confront the natural appetites in order to move on, to progress. In John 3 the situation is transformed (Jn 3:14-15, cf.12:32-33). The crucified Christ changes all: he comes to serve not to be served, to be eaten, not to eat (Jn 6:48-51). The natural order of the appetites is reversed. The snake is used by all magicians and healers.

What does the snake mean in Gen 3? Here it has a close connection with the soil, the dust which it will have to eat. God took this to shape the first man. The stuff of the first man is now the food of the snake. That part of man which is dust is understood by the snake, Man also has the Spirit of God. The snake is related to the mystery of his origins and death or end. He knows where he comes from and goes to. This is the world of the unconscious life, life without freedom. The snake never represents freedom: it stands for the unconscious life, nature, dust (ha’adamah) but never freedom.

2) The meaning of the Tree of Knowledge and eating of its fruit (“to eat”) i) What is the meaning of the Tree of Knowledge? ii) How is the snake connected to it? i) The Tree of Knowledge is connected with the freedom of choice. Wisdom in the Bible helps to give man the power to discern wisely in the world. The basic choice is between good and evil, life and death, blessing and curse. Only children cannot decide between good and evil. Adults are able to choose between the two. ii) The fruit of the Tree of Knowledge. In many myths as well as fairy tales, the apple stands for love and sex, in both its benevolent and its dangerous aspects. In Greek mythology an apple given by Paris to Aphrodite, the goddess of love, showing she was preferred to the chaste

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goddesses Athena and Minerva, was the indirect cause of the Trojan War. In Eden the Biblical fruit (traditionally an apple) is the means by which man is seduced to foreswear his innocence in order to gain knowledge and sexuality. Even though it is Eve who was tempted by male masculinity, as represented by the Serpent, not even the snake could do this alone—it needed the apple, which in religious iconography also symbolizes the mother’s breast. The infantile experience of the mother’s breast first attracts us to form a relation, and to find satisfaction in it. Later in the fairy tale of Snow White, mother and daughter share the apple. The symbolism of the apple here is something mother and daughter have in common, something which runs even deeper than their jealousy of each other but is the cause of it—their mature sexual desire.6 iii) How is the Snake connected to it? The world of dust and unconsciousness is one of ambivalence and ignorance. It is neither good nor evil. The Snake refuses distinction: everything is forbidden or allowed. When Woman listens, distinctions become blurred for her. The Serpent also represents the basic level of natural desire or appetite. Whatever meets the needs of appetite is good. This appetite knows no limitations. In animals this appetite is regulated by instinct. This is not so in man who must choose.

3) What does the deceit of the Serpent mean? Why does the Serpent practice deceit on mankind? What was the motive for depriving the human race of the great privilege planned for them by the Creator? The narrative of Genesis furnishes no answer. The Serpent gains nothing by his fraud, but is rather cursed and condemned. As he is described as the most subtle of the beasts, where was his sagacity in ruining man’s prospects? In some primitive stories the Serpent contrives to outwit man and gain for himself the immortality meant for man. By casting their skins, serpents were thought to renew their youth and live forever. For the Phoenicians, the serpent was the longest-lived of all animals. For the Hebrews, the eagle renewed its youth by moulting its feathers. So why should the serpent not do the same by shedding its skin? The Gilgamesh Epic also provides an image of the serpent cheating mankind of immortality by gaining possession of a life-giving plant which the gods had destined for mankind’s use. The deified Utnapishtim (or 6

Bruno Bettelheim, The Uses of Enchantment. The Meaning and Importance of Fairy Tales, pp. 194-215.

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Utanapishtim) reveals to the hero Gilgamesh the existence of a plant which had miraculous powers of renewing youth. Gilgamesh procures the plant to eat it, and a serpent steals the plant from him while he bathes in a well, and the hero, bereft of immortality, sits and weeps. In Eden the cunning creature seems to pervert the truth of the situation, the glad tidings of immortality, to the advantage of his own species and the ruin of mankind. Because the sly serpent ate of the Tree of Life, and humankind of the Tree of Knowledge, men have become mortal while serpents cast their skins every year and renew their youth. If the Serpent had not perverted God’s message and deceived our first mother, mankind would have been immortal instead of the serpents.7 Utanapishtim spoke to Gilgamesh, saying: “Gilgamesh, you came here exhausted and worn out. What can I give you so you can return to your land? I will disclose to you a thing that is hidden, Gilgamesh, a...[?] I will tell you. There is a plant... like a boxthorn, whose thorns will prick your hand like a rose. If your hands reach that plant you will become a young man again.” Hearing this, Gilgamesh opened a conduit (to the Apsu) and attached heavy stones to his feet. They dragged him down, to the Apsu they pulled him. He took the plant, though it pricked his hand, and cut the heavy stones from his feet, letting the waves throw him onto its shores. Gilgamesh spoke to Urshanabi, the ferryman, saying: “Urshanabi, this plant is a plant against decay by which a man can attain his survival. I will bring it to Uruk-Haven, and have an old man eat the plant to test it. The plant’s name is ‘The Old Man Becomes a Young Man.’“ Then I will eat it and return to the condition of my youth.” At twenty leagues they broke for some food, at thirty leagues they stopped for the night. Seeing a spring and how cool its waters were, Gilgamesh went down and was bathing in the water. A snake smelled the fragrance of the plant, silently came up and carried off the plant. While going back it sloughed off its casing.’ At that point Gilgamesh sat down, weeping, his tears streaming over the side of his nose. “Counsel me, O ferryman Urshanabi! For whom have my arms laboured, Urshanabi! For whom has my heart’s blood roiled! I have not secured any good deed for myself, but done a good deed for the ‘lion of the ground’!” 8 7

See James G. Frazer, “The Story of the Perverted Message” in Folklore in the Old Testament, pp. p. 20-32, esp. 24. 8 The Epic of Gilgamesh (Full Text, Eleven Tablets), translated by Maureen Gallery Kovacs. The Epic of Gilgamesh is, perhaps, the oldest written story on Earth. It comes to us from Ancient Sumeria, and was originally written on 12 clay tablets in cuneiform script. It is about the adventures of the historical King of Uruk (somewhere between 2750 and 2500 BC). This translation is based on the “standard” Akkadian edition, but is complemented by excerpts from the Old

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4) What is the meaning of “not eating”? This distinction is the mark of freedom: to say “no” to the appetite, to put a limit to something, a boundary to top power or riches, knowledge, food, sexuality. We discover God in our capacity to say “no”. In this way we find a world not regulated by appetite (cf. Jn 6: Jesus’ long discourse reveals a hunger for something beyond bread). The Man and the Woman refuse to choose. They enter freedom not wanting to choose. They blur the distinction between good and evil, they allow nature to decide for them. Their delegated responsibility shows this to be the case. The Fall is a refusal of responsibility, a refusal to say “no”, to refuse to allow the conscious to intrude on the unconscious. The words of the Snake to the Woman in the garden, to induce her to take from the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil, are: eat of the fruit and you will be like God (Gen 3:5). God himself confirms this after they have eaten. “Here, the human has become like one of us...” (Gen 3:22). In Eden the human acquisition of knowledge is seen as gaining powers from the divine realm, and explicitly renders the humans godlike. Later when God elects Moses and sends him to Pharaoh, he has chosen and directs the proceedings, but he gives enough authority and power to Moses himself to conduct the negotiations, telling him: “See, I make you as God to Pharaoh” (Ex 7:1 cf. 4:16).9

5) The meaning of curses and punishments God’s words are the consequences of man refusing to be free. The first is fear: where will appetite stop? When will the other stop in his desire to possess? Aggressiveness now emerges. The Serpent is not bad in itself but because of what it did in bringing about confusion where distinction should rule. He is the cause of death. There will be tension in the world between nature and man. Finally there are only two curses—on the snake and the soil to which he is related. There is no malediction for the Woman (cf. Job 1:21: Naked I came into the world, and naked I shall return). Woman represents the origin of the mystery of life, the origin and the end. i) Childbearing and birth are a blessing, not a curse. There is pain in birth, tension between woman and nature. If a woman is guided by Babylonian where necessary. 9 Richard Elliot Friedman, The Hidden Face of God (San Francisco: Harper, 1995), p. 40.

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appetite, the voice of the serpent, there will be children, a consequence of nature. This is meaningless, a suffering. When it is a choice, it is different, a suffering in joy. Childbearing is a responsible choice. The same is true in marriage: if guided by only appetite, the partnership can be dominated by desire. Life determined by instinct, impulse, appetite can become a meaningless pain. ii) Soil is not evil, but cursed only because of man’s choice. Men have to work the soil, and it will be painful. Man already worked in the Garden, tilling the ground. But now it becomes painful. The appetite of man is not limited: man can become a slave to appetite, to appropriate, to assimilate, to gather for himself. When work is a necessity, a dependence, it becomes meaningless, a burden. The ground becomes sterile, bringing forth thorns and thistles. The soil is man’s nature which must be tilled. Freedom must be used to till his own instincts, otherwise a wilderness will ensue—within and without. When man lets his nature speak, all becomes a wilderness (cf. Jeremiah 17:7-8 where a beautiful tree planted near water is compared to a shrub in the desert). iii) Death is the third aspect. This is not so much a punishment as an end to pain, toil, and suffering, Death is the Bible is not always described as meaningless. Abraham could live and die in peace. But to live by appetite can lead to emptiness, meaninglessness. When death is imposed by nature, it is senseless. Only freedom can give meaning. One can talk of the original sin, but this situation is more about individual responsibility, and concerns single culpability, because there is no development of a concept of universal grace or redemption. Only in the New Testament, in the Letter to the Romans (3—7), is such a universal concept elaborated. In Genesis rather there is a picture of the forces confronting every human being: i) God, ii) the Serpent, iii) Man, iv) Woman. This is the story of every human choice. Harmony is achieved when all these choices are integrated. The prelapsarian situation established a unity of being and relationships, between man and God, between man and woman, between man and the natural world. This unity is broken with the primal disobedience and the acquisition of the knowledge of good and evil (“the wound of knowledge”). The postlapsarian situation is characterized immediately by the breakdown of consensuality, the advent of disharmony, blame, guilt and anxiety. The primal sexual unity (related to oneness) was ruptured. Expulsion from the postlapsarian Garden sees the harmony of the sexes replaced by the angry and suspicious polarity of gender, difference and

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burdensomeness or destructive sexuality. Unity and harmony are related to divine concepts, and form a part of the multilayered consideration of wholeness, hospitality, and various aspects of sexual behaviour examined in the following chapters of Genesis, and most dramatically in Gen 18— 19. In this way the search for ‘oneness’ (life, wholeness, harmony and reconciliation), so much a theological dimension of the issues explored in Genesis, is in fact integral to any search for the Lord and the derek YHWH [adonai], or ‘Way of the Lord’ (see Psalm 1). The tale told through the first three chapters is remarkable for the hold the story of “Adam and Eve” has had on the Western imagination. Though the biblical account has been invoked throughout history to justify all manner of oppression, there is an equally rich tradition of egalitarian interpretation in a debate that continues to animate men and women.10 The account of the Garden of Eden is one of the most familiar in the Bible. Indeed, it is not an exaggeration to say that the story of Adam and Eve in the Garden is the central myth of Western civilization (or the first half of the central story, the second half being the crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus). It is the source of the doctrine of Original Sin (“In Adam’s fall, we sinned all”), and has been cited as justification for men’s domination over women. Ellen Robbins has explored why the man was created first, and the woman for and from him. She elucidates the reason for the particular punishments, and why the storyteller gave a woman the starring role. The story merits very close reading, and Robbins has analyzed the vocabulary, the discourse structure, the literary tropes, and also employed ordinary logic and common sense to dismantle the traditional interpretation (the snake = Satan, Eve’s sin = disobeying God). She constructs a radical reinterpretation of the story as a charming, ironic tale in which there are no bad characters (except perhaps God himself!). If it can be read without preconceptions, we discover a narrative as its original audience would have heard it, as its author intended. She does all this by highlighting the importance of wordplay in the story. The narrator is a wordsmith and a supreme storyteller.11 The same archetypal implications for humanity are found in the Greek myth of Prometheus, who stole fire from the gods and gave it to man. In punishment, Zeus chained him to a rock and sent an eagle by day to tear out his liver, which was restored every night. Prometheus by his bold 10 See Kristen E. Kvam, Linda S. Schearing, Valerie H. Ziegler (eds). Eve and Adam: Jewish, Christian and Muslim Readings on Genesis and Gender (Indiana University Press, 1999). 11 Ellen A. Robbins, The Storyteller and the Garden of Eden (Pickwick Publications, 2012).

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daring appears as the giver of the arts and sciences to mankind.

The Primal Parents and Personality In the early stories of Genesis, God is the principal protagonist and controller. In Gen 1 he is seen alone, creating the universe according to his will. Even though humans are given dominion over earth (Gen 1:26, 28), this bestowal is limited, since God determines their role. He communicates with them through commands: to multiply and fill the earth, what they may and may not eat. When the primal couple disobey him, he pronounces a sentence upon them. They take little responsibility themselves, and show no signs of any creative intuitiveness, neither designing nor building anything. Even after their defiance, when suddenly embarrassed by nakedness, they cover themselves with leaves, it is God who makes clothes for them (Gen 3:7, 21). Little by way of personality or initiative is revealed: rather the parents of humankind are nondescript, ‘everyman’ and ‘everywoman’, childlike creatures who like naughty children, do what their parent has forbidden them.12

Other Ancient Near Eastern Creation Stories The Myth of Adapa. This account of creation was discovered in four cuneiform fragments, three from Ashurbanipal’s library in Nineveh (7th c. B.C.) and the fourth from the archives of Egyptian kings Amenhotep III and IV at Amarna (14th c. B.C.). This legendary tale, although not really parallel to the fall of Gen 3, does contain striking similarities, such as “the food of life” corresponding to the fruit of the Tree of Life (Gen 3:3, 22). The two accounts agree that eternal life could be achieved by eating a certain kind of food or fruit. Adam, however, forfeited immortality for himself because of a wrong desire to be like God. Adapa was already endowed with wisdom by the gods, and failed to become immortal, not on account of disobedience or presumption, like Adam, but because of his obedience to the creator, Ea, who deceived him. Both accounts deal with the problem of why man must suffer and die, but differ greatly in the matter of an actual fall from a state of innocence, of which Adapa myth knows nothing. The Temptation Seal portrays two persons sitting beside a fruit-bearing tree, and behind one is the upright figure of a serpent. This is scarcely a depiction of the temptation scene, since both figures are fully clothed, 12

Richard Elliot Friedman, The Hidden Face of God, p. 32.

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contrary to the fact that both are explicitly said to be naked in Gen 2:25. The Cherubim placed eastward of Eden (Gen 3:24) are frequently shown by Ancient Near Eastern iconography to have been sphinxes, i.e., winged lions with human heads. The Adam and Eve Seal is from the fourth millennium B.C. level at Tepe Gawra near Nineveh, and is now in the University Museum, Philadelphia. This small stone engraving found in 1932 shows a dejected, naked man and woman followed by a serpent, and suggests to some the expulsion from Eden. Worldwide Traditions of the Fall are found among Chinese, Hindu, Greek, Persian and other peoples and, like similar creation and flood stories, hark back to an event in history, which has been weakened in transmission. ____________________________________________________________

Genesis 4 1 Now Adam knew Eve his wife, and she conceived and bore Cain, saying, “I have gotten a man with the help of the LORD.” 2 And again, she bore his brother Abel. Now Abel was a keeper of sheep, and Cain a tiller of the ground. 3 In the course of time Cain brought to the LORD an offering of the fruit of the ground, 4 and Abel brought of the firstlings of his flock and of their fat portions. And the LORD had regard for Abel and his offering, 5 but for Cain and his offering he had no regard. So Cain was very angry, and his countenance fell. 6 The LORD said to Cain, “Why are you angry, and why has your countenance fallen? 7 If you do well, will you not be accepted? And if you do not do well, sin is crouching at the door; its desire is for you, but you must master it.” 8 Cain said to Abel his brother, “Let us go out to the field.” And when they were in the field, Cain rose up against his brother Abel, and killed him. 9 Then the LORD said to Cain, “Where is Abel your brother?” He said, “I do not know; am I my brother’s keeper?” 10 And the LORD said, “What have you done? The voice of your brother’s blood is crying to me from the ground. 11 And now you are cursed from the ground, which has opened its mouth to receive your brother’s blood from your hand. 12 When you till the ground, it shall no longer yield to you its strength;

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you shall be a fugitive and a wanderer on the earth.” 13 Cain said to the LORD, “My punishment is greater than I can bear. 14 Behold, thou hast driven me this day away from the ground; and from thy face I shall be hidden; and I shall be a fugitive and a wanderer on the earth, and whoever finds me will slay me.” 15 Then the LORD said to him, “Not so! If any one slays Cain, vengeance shall be taken on him sevenfold.” And the LORD put a mark on Cain, lest any who came upon him should kill him. 16 Then Cain went away from the presence of the LORD, and dwelt in the land of Nod, east of Eden. 17 Cain knew his wife, and she conceived and bore Enoch; and he built a city, and called the name of the city after the name of his son, Enoch. 18 To Enoch was born Irad; and Irad was the father of Me-hu’ja-el, and Me-hu’ja-el the father of Me-thu’sha-el, and Me-thu’sha-el the father of Lamech. 19 And Lamech took two wives; the name of the one was Adah, and the name of the other Zillah. 20 Adah bore Jabal; he was the father of those who dwell in tents and have cattle. 21 His brother’s name was Jubal; he was the father of all those who play the lyre and pipe. 22 Zillah bore Tubal-cain; he was the forger of all instruments of bronze and iron. The sister of Tubal-cain was Na’amah. 23 Lamech said to his wives: “Adah and Zillah, hear my voice; you wives of Lamech, hearken to what I say: I have slain a man for wounding me, a young man for striking me. 24 If Cain is avenged sevenfold, truly Lamech seventy-sevenfold.” 25 And Adam knew his wife again, and she bore a son and called his name Seth, for she said, “God has appointed for me another child instead of Abel, for Cain slew him.” 26 To Seth also a son was born, and he called his name Enosh. At that time men began to call upon the name of the LORD. ____________________________________________________________

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2.2 Genesis 4 This chapter provokes many questions. What is the link between brotherhood and cult? What does it mean after Gen 3? The concept of sin is not used in Gen 3 but it is in this chapter. If we want to understand the meaning of sin in the Bible, we must read Gen 3—4. We move from the Fall to the first crime of violence. Here we can recognize the real face of sin. The voice of the earth, of passion, is here heard for the first time.

Delimitation of the Text Where does it end—at 4:16? Many commentaries end here. We can read the whole chapter up to 4:26. There are good arguments for the latter approach. But it is always a matter of exegesis and opinion. Stylistic arguments 1) There is parallelism between 4:1 and 4:26. These frame the whole chapter like an inclusion (4:1—4:25-26). There is also a birth formula: the mention of Seth who takes the place of Abel. There is also the mention of ’adonai: Eve says, “I acquired a man with God.” 2) There is a twofold repetition of the birth formula: 2:1 and 4:17, with a structuring formula in 4:25. 3) One verb threads throughout the chapter: harag “to kill”. See 4:23, 25, the Song of Lamech. 4) There is a gradation of violence and vindication: 4:17, 24: seven times to seventy-seven times, from Cain to Lamech.

The idea of justice in the Bible There are two different ideas of justice: an emphasis on the subject, or on the object of justice. When there is a crime, the subject who is responsible for the offence is called the “killer”. The object of the misdemeanour is the “victim”. Different cultures put an emphasis on one side or the other. The Roman world and Western civilization put emphasis on the subject: who is responsible for the crime, and how can he be punished? In the Semitic world it is rather different: how is justice to be restored to the victim? The object receives more attention. The end of the story is the restoration of justice: eye for eye and tooth for tooth (cf. Ex 21:24; Lev 24:20; Deut 19:21). If a family loses a member, it is weakened and must be restored or strengthened (Ex 21:18-27).

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18 “When men quarrel and one strikes the other with a stone or with his fist and the man does not die but keeps his bed, 19 then if the man rises again and walks abroad with his staff, he that struck him shall be clear; only he shall pay for the loss of his time, and shall have him thoroughly healed. 20 “When a man strikes his slave, male or female, with a rod and the slave dies under his hand, he shall be punished. 21 But if the slave survives a day or two, he is not to be punished; for the slave is his money. 22 “When men strive together, and hurt a woman with child, so that there is a miscarriage, and yet no harm follows, the one who hurt her shall be fined, according as the woman’s husband shall lay upon him; and he shall pay as the judges determine. 23 If any harm follows, then you shall give life for life, 24 eye for eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, foot for foot, 25 burn for burn, wound for wound, stripe for stripe. 26 “When a man strikes the eye of his slave, male or female, and destroys it, he shall let the slave go free for the eye’s sake. 27 If he knocks out the tooth of his slave, male or female, he shall let the slave go free for the tooth’s sake.

The story cannot go on until there is a son to replace Abel. Seth is the restoration of justice.

Genesis 4 as a unit The problems of translation 1) 4:1b: qaniti (qanah): “acquire”; “creates” is too strong. Why the use of ’et? It is often rendered as “with the help of” God. It never has this meaning elsewhere. Perhaps it should be rendered “in the same way as” God, or even better “together with” God? 2) 4:7: s’et, an infinitive construction of nasa’ (“to accept”): “will you not be accepted?” Perhaps it implies “lift up”. “Why is your face falling?”, “Why are you angry?”; “You can hold up your head”. Chata’at robets (from rabats): “sin is crouching”, a feminine word with a masculine participle. One could read robets as a noun—a demon or lurker of Mesopotamian mythology, or to be in ambush. Sin is a demon crouching at the door. 3) 4:8; wayo’mer is never used in an absolute way. What did he say to his brother? The MT (Masoretic Text) can be understood all the same. Perhaps it should be rendered: “And Cain talked to his brother, and they were in the field”.

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4) 4:15: laken. The Biblia Stuttgartensia proposes lo’ ken. Barthélemy says it has three meanings: i) “therefore, hence”; ii) “but”; iii) “no, and therefore”. The third option fits well. 5) 4:22: lotesh (forger). This is a rare participle of latash “to whet”, “to sharpen”, as a smith would do (charash). Barthélemy sees this as a cutting tool, “a forger of all cutting tools of bronze and iron”. 6) 4:26: the RSV puts, “At that time men began to call upon the name of the Lord”. It is an impersonal passive: “Then it was that men began to call upon the name of the Lord”. .

The tension of the text is released at the end of the chapter, as in John 8.

1) Narrative Analysis The structural movement is built on conflict and the solution of this conflict. There is a case of murder to be judged and solved. There is a threat of conflict until the end when serenity returns with the birth of Seth. The moments of the narration i) Exposition (4:1-2): the situation of the two brothers ii) Inciting moment (2:3-40): the beginning of the conflict iii) Complication (4:5-8): the conflict itself and the intervention of God iv) Turning Point (4:9a): the question of God v) Resolution (4:9b-16) vi) Conclusion (2: 17-26) The conflict reaches a climax and cannot go further when it comes before the judge—God (4:9a). The reader watches Cain killing Abel but knows that God is in the wings and will intervene. Only when God becomes involved can a resolution be possible. The conclusion is long because it is not exactly a narration. There is a genealogy and a poem. Very little is narrated. The story of the descendants of Cain becomes more violent when contrasted with the offspring of Adam and Eve.

2) Stylistic Analysis (juridical elements) There are four units that can be distinguished from a narrative point of view:

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i) 4:1-5: Cain—Abel—God ii) 4:6-7: the Lord—Cain iii) 4:8: Cain—Abel iv) 4:9-16: God—Cain There are correspondences between i) & iii) and ii) & iv). This gives an idea of what happens. Cain and Abel are together, then God intervenes. i) 4:1-5: Cain—Abel—God What is the thread? This is the sequence of the proper names Cain & Abel. There is a chiastic construction. Names are always repeated twice. In 4:6 the chain is broken, when Cain is mentioned thrice. They are brothers, so similar, and the situation lends itself to parallelism. Whatever one does, the other does too. The only sentence without parallel is the second half of 4:5. The verses 4:4b-5a, unique in the intervention of God, are a chiastic construction underlying the opposition between the two brothers. The activity of the brothers is similar but separated by the intervention of God. ii) 4:6-7: the Lord—Cain The speech of God is presented. There are parallel expressions in the first sentence. The second is built on opposition. This second construction enhances the idea of option or choice. One excludes the other. iii) 4:8: Cain—Abel The phrase “to his brother Cain” is repeated twice. For the first and last time they do something together: ’et is used seven times in this passage, six times from 4:9 onwards. This is the last time Abel is mentioned in opposition to Cain. After 4:9 Abel is not referred to again, but only as “your brother”. Brotherhood is emphasized very much in the style, but broken in the recounted action. iv) 4:9-16: God—Cain a] There is a juridical structure and language. There are two smaller units here: —a conversation between God and Cain —a reversal of this, with Cain speaking to God, who answers the questions. There are elements of a normal process, God is the judge who intervenes and asks questions. 4:10 presents the formula of accusation (cf. 3:3):

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“What have you done?” The judge must intervene because the blood cries out for justice. This is underpinned by a temporal sequence: complaint— enquiry—accusation—sentence.

Fig.10. The Death of Abel (Gustave Doré, 1855)

b] 4:11-16 Cain is condemned. He tries to mitigate the sentence, and appeals for a reprieve. He does not repent but finds the sentence unbearable. God does not change the sentence, but he adds something to protect him, a

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sign. Cain goes out from the presence of the Lord, outlawed. Other stylistic features underline the broken nature of relationships—between brothers, between Cain and the soil. There are verbs of violence: hit, slay, kill, avenge, catch, fight. There are expressions implying separation, distance: Cain is cut off from (min) the ground, from ‘your face’.

Egyptian Analogies The Ancient Egyptian “Tale of the Two Brothers” (c. 1185 B.C.) from the late Nineteenth Dynasty contains many scenes, characters and motifs that bear a strong analogy with elements of Genesis.13 The two brothers of the Tale, Anubis and Bata, have several features in common with Cain and Abel: both are farmers, one agricultural, the other a herdsman. After dawn and the next day had come about, [he prepared foods] which were cooked, and he would place them before his elder brother, [and he would] give him bread for the fields, and he would drive his cattle to let them graze in the fields while he followed behind his cattle. [And th]ey [would] tell him: The herbage of such and such a place is good. And he would listen to all that they said and take them to the place / with good herbage which they were desiring. The cattle that were in his charge became so exceedingly fine that they multiplied their offspring exceedingly.

Envy/ misunderstanding between them leads to murderous intentions of the elder towards the younger, who waits in ambush to kill his brother, like sin crouching at the door. ...then his elder brother became / like an Upper Egyptian panther, and he had his spear sharpened and placed in his hand. His elder stood behind the door of[?] his stable in order to kill his younger brother upon his return in the evening to let his cattle enter the stable. Now when the sun set, he loaded himself with[?] all (sorts of) vegetables of the fields, according to his daily habit, and returned. The lead cow entered the stable and said to its herdsman: Look, your elder brother is standing in wait for you bearing his spear to kill you. You shall depart from his presence. He understood what his lead cow had said, and / the next one entered and said it also. He looked under the door of his stable and observed his elder brother’s feet as he was standing behind the door with his spear in his hand. He set his load onto the ground and hastened to run off in[?] flight, and his elder brother went in pursuit of him, carrying his spear.

13 See “The Tale of the Two Brothers”, in William Kelly Simpson, The Literature of Ancient Egypt (New Haven and London, 1973), pp. 92-107.

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The Mark of Cain When Cain had murdered Abel he was driven out of society to be a fugitive and vagabond on earth. Fearing to be slain by anyone who might meet him, he remonstrated with God who set his mark upon Cain. Though we cannot be sure what the mark was, it seems to be an old custom observed by manslayers. The blood of the murdered brother is regarded as constituting a physical danger to the murderer. It taints the ground and prevents it from yielding its increase. Thus the murderer is thought to have poisoned the sources of life and therefore to have jeopardized the supply of food to himself and to others. A homicide should be banished from the country to which his presence is a continual menace. He is plague-stricken and surrounded by a poisonous atmosphere, infected by the contagion of death. His very touch may blight the earth. The mark of Cain may have been a way of disguising a homicide, or of rendering him so repulsive or formidable in appearance that his victim’s ghost would either not know him, or give him a wide berth. The usual interpretation is that God affixed the mark to Cain in order to save him from human assailants, but there was no one to assail him as the earth was as yet inhabited only by the murderer himself and his parents. Hence by assuming that the foe of the first murderer was a ghost instead of a living man, there is a method of resolving what would otherwise be an absurdity in the fictional constituency of the biblical narrative.14

The Narrative as Theology Cain and Abel and Their Worship, 4:1-5. Cain (“acquisition”) was a type of a natural man of the earth. His religion was of works, destitute of saving faith, a sense of sin and need of atonement (cf. “the way of Cain,” Jude 11). Eve expresses a sense of joy when she says, “I have begotten a man from the Lord!” (4:1), or “I have begotten a man together with the Lord”, by which she meant, “I have begotten the man promised by the Lord”. It is the posterity of the woman who should bruise the serpent’s head (Gen 3:15). Instead of a saviour figure, she produces a murderer. In contrast to Cain the farmer, typifying the natural man, Abel the shepherd is a type of the spiritual man. Within the Scriptural context, his sacrifice in which blood, a prerequisite of atonement, was shed, expressed his consciousness of sin and his faith in an expiatory substitute. “The firstlings 14

See James G. Frazer, “The Mark of Cain” in Folklore in the Old Testament, pp. 33-45. esp. p. 36.

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of his flock” were typical, prophetic of the coming divine Substitute (cf. Is 53:7; Lk 23:9; Jn 1:29) and contrast pointedly with Cain’s bloodless offering of the fruit of his own works. It is for this reason the Lord had respect for Abel and not for Cain. The divine attitude is here enunciated from the very beginning of the human race—that “without the shedding of blood there is no remission of sin” (Hebrews 9:22; 11:4). The Lord’s Plea with Cain, 4:6-7. Abel’s worship was derived from the provision of divine providence (Gen 3:21), and was interpreted to have been by faith (Heb 11:4). Cain’s offering was unacceptable because it incipiently rejected God’s word. But the Lord made a final appeal to Cain to bring the stipulated sacrifice. The Authorized Version captures the tortuous syntax. “If thou doest well, shall not thou be accepted [thy fallen countenance be lifted up], and if thou doest not well, sin lieth [crouches like a wild beast] at the door. And unto thee shall be his desire [and its desire shall be realized in you], and thou shalt rule over him [but you get the better of it by dealing with it in the divinely prescribed way].” Cain’s Refusal and Result, 4:8-15. Cain’s religion was too fastidious to kill a lamb, but not too cultured to murder his brother. The divine way of salvation fills man’s heart with love. The human perception of religion inflames it with hatred. Religion was at the bottom of the first murder and has always been a prolific cause of bloodshed. In Adam, who sinned against God, and Cain, who sinned against man, sin appeared in its full spectrum on these first pages of divine revelation. The First Civilization, 4:16-24. Cain left the place of God’s manifested presence (shekinah) above the cherubim, eastward of Eden (3:24), and “went out from the presence of the Lord” (4:16), taking up residence in the land of Nod (“wandering”). Departure from God’s presence always involves the absence of divine guidance. Cain “knew” (a euphemism for having sexual relations with) his wife, one of his innumerable sisters since by this time Adam’s progeny was numerous. Cain’s son Enoch built a city (the first civilization). With Lamech polygamy was introduced (4:19), in violation of God’s original monogamous standard (2:24). In succeeding generations the arts appear: (metal craftsmanship), music (4:21-22) and poetry (4:23). Pride, lust and lawlessness increased in this line. Seth and the Spiritual Progeny, 4:25-26. The Lord raised up Seth (“set”) and Enosh (“mortal”) to be depositories of the Messianic promise. Their birth closes the first section of Genesis (1:1—4:26) giving “the generations

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of the heavens [the family history of the heavenly posterity, the children of Seth] and [the generations] of the earth [the earthly seed—the descendants of Cain].”

The Meaning of the Text There are many parallels between Gen 3 & 4, like verbal repetitions (4:7): “you shall dominate it” (cf. 3:16). We find the clue to understanding Gen 4 in 4:10, with a second clue in 4:11. The strong image of the earth with a snout that sucks blood adds to what we know about the earth as a place of life and death: ha-’adamah has all the forces of death hidden in it. Man is taken from the earth, and in him is hidden the energy of violence, the propensity to kill. Cain discovers a thirst for blood, and cannot control it. When nature is not integrated it becomes a force of violence. Abel was a shepherd, and Cain a tiller of the soil. Cain offers produce of the earth, which has been cursed in Gen 3. God’s rejection of the offering could underline God’s complete freedom but God always gives us something to understand when he makes a choice. Abel selected the best part, the firstborn and fat of the flock. Cain offers only some plants, not the first fruits. Abel chose, but Cain did not. What comes out of the ground is ambivalent, like the Serpent. What comes out of the ground can be a force for life or for death. God intervenes to put a choice before Cain. But again he is not responsible, and does not choose. The blood, the symbol of life, is in the ground, the place of death. It cries out and God intervenes. Cain is a prisoner of the forces of violence hidden in the ground. He builds the first city, and his descendants invent music and weapons. All civilization is under the mark of violence. The city also shares in the ambivalence. The situation also touches on the fundamental human problem of rivalry between siblings in the nodal family context of all humanity. There are examples in the German language of how being forced to dwell among the ashes was a symbol not just of degradation, of also sibling rivalry, and of the sibling who finally surpasses the brother or brothers who have debased him. Martin Luther in his Table Talks speaks about Cain as the godforsaken evildoer who is powerful, while pious Abel is forced to be his ash-brother (Aschenbrüdel), a mere nothing, subject to Cain. In one of Luther’s sermons he looks further at the topic and says that Esau was forced into the role of Jacob’s ash-brother. Cain and Abel, Jacob and Esau, Joseph and his Brothers are biblical examples of one brother being suppressed or destroyed by the other(s).15 15

See Luther's Table Talk: A Critical Study (New York: Columbia University

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The story of Cain and Abel also shows that there is no sympathy in the Bible for the agonies of sibling rivalry—only a warning that acting on it has devastating consequences. Even if there are sad and difficult experiences of pain or injustice, the present sufferings are to be rewarded in the future, and there is no need to act on the jealousy of the moment, the way Cain did.16

Archaeological Light Beginnings of Urban Life. Excavations at Tell Hassuna, Nineveh and Tepe Gawra in northern Mesopotamia reach down to Neolithic times, 5000 B.C. or earlier, showing stone tools, beautiful pottery and architectural remains of some skill. Around 4500 B.C. copper was introduced alongside stone. belong Such sites as Tell Halaf, Chagar Bazar and Tell Arpachiya in northern Mesopotamia belong to the Copper-Stone Age, 4500-3000 B.C.. In southern Mesopotamia, the Tell Obeid culture about 3600 B.C. underlies Ur, Erech, Lagash and Eridu. Excavations here elucidate the succession of cultures in this prehistoric epoch, and bear out the biblical representations. Iron ore (cf. Gen 4:22) was occasionally smelted in Mesopotamia at an early date (or some suggest meteoric iron was used). At Tell Asmar (Eshnun-na) Henri Frankfort found evidence of an iron blade dating to about 2700 B.C.A small steel axe has been recovered from Ur. But iron smelting was not followed up on an industrial scale till after the Bronze Age, 3000-1200 B.C. The Iron Age extended from 1200 to 300 B.C.17 ____________________________________________________________

Genesis 5 1 This is the book of the generations of Adam. When God created man, he made him in the likeness of God. 2 Male and female he created them, and he blessed them and named them Man when they were created. 3 When Adam had lived a hundred and thirty years, he became the father of a son in his own likeness, after his image, and named him Seth. 4 The days of Adam after he became the father of Seth were eight hundred years; and he had other sons and daughters. Press, 1907). 16 See Bruno Bettelheim, The Uses of Enchantment. The Meaning and Importance of Fairy Tales, p. 237. 17 Henri Frankfort, The Art and Architecture of the Ancient Orient (1954; Pelican, 1970).

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5 Thus all the days that Adam lived were nine hundred and thirty years; and he died. 6 When Seth had lived a hundred and five years, he became the father of Enosh. 7 Seth lived after the birth of Enosh eight hundred and seven years, and had other sons and daughters. 8 Thus all the days of Seth were nine hundred and twelve years; and he died. 9 When Enosh had lived ninety years, he became the father of Kenan. 10 Enosh lived after the birth of Kenan eight hundred and fifteen years, and had other sons and daughters. 11 Thus all the days of Enosh were nine hundred and five years; and he died. 12 When Kenan had lived seventy years, he became the father of Ma-hal’alel. 13 Kenan lived after the birth of Ma-hal’alel eight hundred and forty years, and had other sons and daughters. 14 Thus all the days of Kenan were nine hundred and ten years; and he died. 15 When Ma-hal’alel had lived sixty-five years, he became the father of Jared. 16 Ma-hal’alel lived after the birth of Jared eight hundred and thirty years, and had other sons and daughters. 17 Thus all the days of Ma-hal’alel were eight hundred and ninety-five years; and he died. 18 When Jared had lived a hundred and sixty-two years he became the father of Enoch. 19 Jared lived after the birth of Enoch eight hundred years, and had other sons and daughters. 20 Thus all the days of Jared were nine hundred and sixty-two years; and he died. 21 When Enoch had lived sixty-five years, he became the father of Methu’selah. 22 Enoch walked with God after the birth of Methu’selah three hundred years, and had other sons and daughters. 23 Thus all the days of Enoch were three hundred and sixty-five years. 24 Enoch walked with God; and he was not, for God took him. 25 When Methu’selah had lived a hundred and eighty-seven years, he became the father of Lamech. 26 Methu’selah lived after the birth of Lamech seven hundred and eighty-two years, and had other sons and daughters.

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27 Thus all the days of Methu’selah were nine hundred and sixty-nine years; and he died. 28 When Lamech had lived a hundred and eighty-two years, he became the father of a son, 29 and called his name Noah, saying, “Out of the ground which the LORD has cursed this one shall bring us relief from our work and from the toil of our hands.” 30 Lamech lived after the birth of Noah five hundred and ninety-five years, and had other sons and daughters. 31 Thus all the days of Lamech were seven hundred and seventy-seven years; and he died. 32 After Noah was five hundred years old, Noah became the father of Shem, Ham, and Japheth. ____________________________________________________________

2.3 Genesis 5: The Messianic Line The Messianic Line from Adam to Enoch, 5:1-24 The second division of the Book of Genesis is introduced by the words: “This is the book of the generations of Adam”, not “these are the generations of Adam”, as in the other nine divisions (see the listing at the beginning of Genesis). The reason is that this gives the line of Christ the last Adam (cf. Mt 1:1). The godly race is marked by physical death, with the dirge “and he died” tolling like a funeral bell throughout this chapter. Enoch alone escaped death by heavenly translation (Gen 5:24 cf. Heb 11:5), before the cataclysm of the Flood. Enoch is given as 65 years old when regenerated, and said to have “walked with God” for 300 years. Before the Fall God walked with man; after it, man walked with God.

The Messianic Line from Methuselah to Noah, 5:25-32. Methuselah, the longest-lived patriarch (969 years), begat the shortestlived patriarch Lamech (777 years), who in faith begat Noah (“rest”). Enoch, having been translated without dying, is an exception to the longlived patriarchs. It is highly improbable that the genealogical framework of Genesis 5 was intended to be used, or can be used, for calculating the number of years (1656) between the creation of man and the Flood, dating the creation of man at 4004 B.C.

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1) The Hebrew terms “begat”, “son”, “daughter” are used with great latitude, and may involve a distant as well as an immediate descendant. 2) The ten generations from Adam to Noah and the ten from Noah to Abraham aim at brevity and symmetry rather than unbroken relationships from father to son. 3) Abbreviations due to symmetry are common features in the Scriptural genealogies (cf. Mt 1:1). 4) In the recurring formula ‘A lived...years and begat B, and A lived after he begat B...years and begat sons and daughters’, B may not be the literal son of A. An indefinite time interval may be intended between A and B. 5) Man is scientifically known to have existed long before 4000 B.C. as both palaeontology and archaeology show. 6) It is interesting to note some contemporary statistics: The oldest woman recorded in history: Jeanne Calment, France, died on 4 August 1997 aged 122; the oldest man recorded in history: Jiroemon Kimura, Japan, died on 12 June 2013 aged 116 (the Gerontology Research Group).18

The Flood: Genesis 6—9 Gen 1—4 shows the world in harmony moving into sin. Gen 1—all is good Gen 2—good and evil are presented Gen 3—evil enters the world Gen 4—the first sin, the first violence. With Lamech this violence is multiplied seventy times over. Gen 5—presents the genealogies Gen 6—evil increases, the world must be destroyed (6:5, 12 with echoes of Gen 1). The earth is filled with violence.

18 The Gerontology Research Group (GRG) is a global group of researchers in various fields that is known for verifying and tracking supercentenarians.

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Genesis 6 1 When men began to multiply on the face of the ground, and daughters were born to them, 2 the sons of God saw that the daughters of men were fair; and they took to wife such of them as they chose. 3 Then the LORD said, “My spirit shall not abide in man for ever, for he is flesh, but his days shall be a hundred and twenty years.” 4 The Nephilim were on the earth in those days, and also afterward, when the sons of God came in to the daughters of men, and they bore children to them. These were the mighty men that were of old, the men of renown. 5 The LORD saw that the wickedness of man was great in the earth, and that every imagination of the thoughts of his heart was only evil continually. 6 And the LORD was sorry that he had made man on the earth, and it grieved him to his heart. 7 So the LORD said, “I will blot out man whom I have created from the face of the ground, man and beast and creeping things and birds of the air, for I am sorry that I have made them.” 8 But Noah found favour in the eyes of the LORD. 9 These are the generations of Noah. Noah was a righteous man, blameless in his generation; Noah walked with God. 10 And Noah had three sons, Shem, Ham, and Japheth. 11 Now the earth was corrupt in God’s sight, and the earth was filled with violence. 12 And God saw the earth, and behold, it was corrupt; for all flesh had corrupted their way upon the earth. 13 And God said to Noah, “I have determined to make an end of all flesh; for the earth is filled with violence through them; behold, I will destroy them with the earth. 14 Make yourself an ark of gopher wood; make rooms in the ark, and cover it inside and out with pitch. 15 This is how you are to make it: the length of the ark three hundred cubits, its breadth fifty cubits, and its height thirty cubits. 16 Make a roof for the ark, and finish it to a cubit above; and set the door of the ark in its side; make it with lower, second, and third decks. 17 For behold, I will bring a flood of waters upon the earth, to destroy all flesh in which is the breath of life from under heaven; everything that

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is on the earth shall die. 18 But I will establish my covenant with you; and you shall come into the ark, you, your sons, your wife, and your sons’ wives with you. 19 And of every living thing of all flesh, you shall bring two of every sort into the ark, to keep them alive with you; they shall be male and female. 20 Of the birds according to their kinds, and of the animals according to their kinds, of every creeping thing of the ground according to its kind, two of every sort shall come in to you, to keep them alive. 21 Also take with you every sort of food that is eaten, and store it up; and it shall serve as food for you and for them.” 22 Noah did this; he did all that God commanded him. ____________________________________________________________

2.4 Genesis 6 Delimitation of the Text Where does the text start and where does it end? 9:17 is the end, with a covenant. Now two sources are combined. 6:1-4 is a strange story: the marriage of the sons of God with the daughters of men. What does it mean? The key perhaps lies in 5:23, in the genealogy of Noah. This is repeated in 9:18, also 6:10, 10:1. The genealogy is found in important places, with the Flood inserted. The genealogy frames the story. It seems reasonable to start the story in 6:1 and end it in 9:17.The function of 6:1-4 is another description of evil invading the universe. One of the causes of the Flood is a progression in the evil of mankind. It starts with a description of wickedness; God intervenes and establishes a new order. When there is injustice, order must be reestablished in justice. God must introduce balance and order and construct a new system.

Translation The main problem is in 6:3, where there are two issues almost impossible to solve. i)

God reduces the length of human life: lo-yadon. The form yadin would be more normal:

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—“my spirit will not abide/remain in man forever” —“my spirit will not be abased/ humiliated in man forever” —din means rule or guide: “my spirit will not rule man forever”. ii) beshagam One can see this as a combination of three words: be- preposition plus she- relative in late Hebrew, plus gam (also, too even): “for that, he indeed is flesh”. We can see this as a verbal form: shagag is an unusual verb meaning “to go astray”. “Because of their sin”. There is a plural suffix yet this is followed by hu’. This phrase is also awkward. The formal structure is built on a conflict between God and man. The solution of its conflict comes in two phases: 1) destruction by water, 2) renewal by Noah.

Narrative Analysis i) Exposition and Inciting Moment (6:1-13)—the end of all flesh, a decision to destroy the universe. ii) Development (6:14—7:10) —Construction of the Ark, the entrance of the family and animals, with food for all; —Story of the Flood: all is destroyed. iii) Climax and Turning Point (7:21-24). This provides a description of the final destruction of all living beings. Only Noah and the Ark can survive. There is nothing left to be destroyed. Can Noah be destroyed? How long will it last? iv) Resolution (8:1-4). God remembered Noah v) Delay (8:5-14) —the raven and the dove —the soil is dry in 6:14: “was dry” is a stative verb. vi) Conclusion (8:15—9:17): the new order of the cosmos —emergence from the Ark, must fill the earth (8:15-19) —Noah’s sacrifice, God’s promise (8:20-22) —Covenant and promise (9:1-17). A question is raised in the mind of the reader by the text. What about the universe after the Flood, the future of the universe? Slowly, small answers are provided. This is given more fully in the long conclusion.

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Narrative Features The narrator is omniscient. He knows God’s plans and thoughts, and is a privileged witness to God’s conversations with Noah. He know the inner thoughts of God (8:21): “The Lord said to his own heart”, a formula used to introduce an interior monologue.

Point of View or Perspective Sometimes the narrator remains above the events, on other occasions he follows a specific character with a restricted point of view. Who sees what is seen? Here the viewpoint is with God at the beginning, he sees the wickedness of mankind. In the rest of the story it is mostly with Noah. The tendency is to follow and be with Noah. From 6:15 all is in the presence of Noah. The reader is invited to live the story with Noah, the only survivor. We must discover the root or foundation of the universe in the covenant founded with Noah. Where is the centre of perception in the story? Where is the eye in the story? Gen 6 provides a shift in 6:6 & 12. In 6:11 one sees the earth filled with violence, from the narrator’s omniscient point of view. But 6:12 tells the same but from a different angle. Now the situation is seen by God: “behold” and the verb “to see” are two clues. Earth is corrupted, and then God perceives this. The process constitutes a shift in point of view. Another case is in 8:13. It is first described by the omniscient narrator, then we see the same events from Noah’s perspective. The story is shared from the experience of point of view. Noah is paradigmatic here. (Cf. Zephaniah 1, where the perspective shifts between that of the officiating Prophet and the sweeping oracle of destruction unfolded in the Lord’s words.)

The Competence of the Reader The narrator uses stock phrases, words, expressions, as found earlier in Gen 1—3. There is also a prophetic vocabulary, special words that are unexpected. A perceptive reader identifies these words as prophetic. What is the Flood about: only the punishment of the wicked inhabitants? What is the situation on earth before the Flood? The vocabulary used earlier can be divided between P (the Priestly Writer) in Gen 1 and J (the Yahwist Writer) in Gen 2—3. The verses 6:5, 12 should be compared with 1:31 (“And God saw”): the Lord sees the earth. The reader recognizes the echo, but in Gen 6 it is a situation opposed to that in

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Gen 1. “Evil” is a key word in Gen 2. There is also the pair ’adam— ’adamah (6:7). There is an unbroken relationship: man is made from the earth (Gen 1), cursed from it (Gen 4), swept away with it (Gen 6). Another echo is the instruction “fill and multiply” (6:5); the idea occurs in 6:11, 13: the earth is filled with violence. In Gen 1:22, 28 the earth is to be filled with life and blessing. There is a cosmic reversal of Gen 1—2. The world has become a place of death not life. The Priestly Writer introduces a prophetic vocabulary: 6:11-13 uses the word chamas (violence), used by the Prophets to condemn Israel, as one of the main causes of destruction and exile. Another word is shachath (corrupt): 6:12 uses it in two different ways, the Niphil (nishchathah) (“it was corrupt”) and Hiphil infinitive construct (ki-hishchîth) (“since all flesh had corrupted its way”). The consequence of violence is corruption of the earth (6:13). Amos and Ezekiel use similar ways to show that the end has come. Amos 3:10 “They do not know how to do right,” says the LORD, “those who store up violence and robbery in their strongholds.” Amos 6:3 “O you who put far away the evil day, and bring near the seat of violence?” Ezekiel 7:10-11: 10 “Behold, the day! Behold, it comes! Your doom has come, injustice has blossomed, pride has budded. 11 Violence has grown up into a rod of wickedness; none of them shall remain, nor their abundance, nor their wealth; neither shall there be preeminence among them. Ezekiel 8:17 Then he said to me, “Have you seen this, O son of man? Is it too slight a thing for the house of Judah to commit the abominations which they commit here, that they should fill the land with violence, and provoke me further to anger? Lo, they put the branch to their nose. Ezekiel 28:16 In the abundance of your trade you were filled with violence, and you sinned; so I cast you as a profane thing from the mountain of God, and the guardian cherub drove you out from the midst of the stones of fire.

See also Ezk 12:19; 45:9.

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All will be destroyed “from before the Lord”. The Priestly Writer imputes to all mankind a fact supposed to be valid only for Israel and Israel’s neighbours. Israel’s history is given a cosmic dimension. The main sin of the universe is violence. This anger in human relationships is the universal sin. The cosmic and prophetic vocabularies describe the changed situation in the earth and the symptom of evil.

The Construction of the Ark The Ark is described as a new creation, a microcosm. The vocabulary of creation is used: 6:22, Noah does as the Lord orders. The execution formula occurs in 6:22, 7:5, 9, 16: “And Noah did all as the Lord commanded him”. The words recall Gen 1, the harmony between God’s plan and its implementation: “and it happened so”. There is the same harmony in the construction of the Ark. The list of animals also recalls Gen 1—2: creation and the naming of the animals. The animals must be saved, not destroyed. Here we have a mini-creation, a summary of the cosmos. Then comes the mention of food (6:21). God provides food for the duration of the Flood (cf. 1:29-30). God’s directions about eating are again a summary of Gen 1. The Ark is a micro-cosmos. Even the plan of the Ark is copy of the cosmos. One creation is to be destroyed, another preserved. Noah’s role will echo that of God.19

The Narrative as Theology The Moral Cause of the Flood, 6:1-7. Two common views are held as to the cause of the Flood: (1) the intermarriage of godly Sethites with the ungodly Cainites; (2) the intermarriage of “the daughters of men”, i.e., “women in the flesh”, with the bene ’Elohîm “sons of God”, i.e., angels. The main argument against the first view is that it fails to meet the scope of the passage or account for the Nephilim (Septuagint gigantes; not “giants” but of mixed human and angelic birth, like the Titans of Greek and Roman mythology, who were partly human and partly divine— angelic). The argument from within Scripture that angels are sexless because marriage is unknown among them (Mt 22:30) ignores the account of evil fallen angels as well as the pure unfallen spirits (cf. Gen 19:1, 5). 19

Jean-Louis Ska, “The Story of the Flood: a Priestly Writer and Some Later Editorial Fragments” in The Exegesis of the Pentateuch. Exegetical Studies and Basic Questions. (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2009), pp. 1-22.

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Moreover, the expression bene ’Elohîm is used consistently of angels in the Old Testament (cf. Job 1:6; 2:1). The breaking down of the divinelyordained orders of beings (cf. 2 Pet 2:4-5; Jude 6) is the only canonical exegesis of this passage that will satisfy its scope. 2 Peter 2:2-9 4 For if God did not spare the angels when they sinned, but cast them into hell and committed them to pits of nether gloom to be kept until the judgement; 5 if he did not spare the ancient world, but preserved Noah, a herald of righteousness, with seven other persons, when he brought a flood upon the world of the ungodly; 6 if by turning the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah to ashes he condemned them to extinction and made them an example to those who were to be ungodly; 7 and if he rescued righteous Lot, greatly distressed by the licentiousness of the wicked 8 (for by what that righteous man saw and heard as he lived among them, he was vexed in his righteous soul day after day with their lawless deeds), 9 then the Lord knows how to rescue the godly from trial, and to keep the unrighteous under punishment until the day of judgement, Jude 6 And the angels that did not keep their own position but left their proper dwelling have been kept by him in eternal chains in the nether gloom until the judgement of the great day.

The story of the Nephilim of Gen 6 might also be a deliberate antipagan observation that actually works against the pagan stories of gods fathering demigods with human women, to expose and belittle them. Given that there is a strong anti-pagan polemic that permeates Genesis and the Pentateuch, the beginning of Gen 6 could be related to similarities between the Sodom story and other Ancient Near Eastern tales of celestial visitation, and can therefore be perhaps be explained as a deliberate antipagan slur. These pagan stories are often cited as influences on the Sodom story.20 These include, for instance, Ovid’s tale of the visit by Zeus upon Hyrieus, in return for whose hospitality a son (Orion) is granted, among other classical references.21 Such supposed parallels would serve to work 20

See Robert Ignatius Letellier, Day in Mamre, Night in Sodom. Abraham and Lot in Genesis 18 and 19 (Leiden: Brill, 1995), 4.b.1. The Visit of Divine Strangers, pp. 210-214. See also Herman Gunkel, The Folktale in the Old Testament (1917) translated by M. D. Rutter (Sheffield: Almond Press, 1987), p. 92. 21 Ovid, Fasti, 5. 493–536. Six books in elegiacs survive of this second ambitious

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against alleged pagan influence on the Sodom story rather than for it, a deliberate putting down of pagan gods and stories in favour of a higher Hebrew monotheism (as occurs so many times in Genesis). The Lord’s Grace Toward Noah, 6:8-12. Noah found grace in the sight of God because of his faith in the promised Redeemer and the need of vicarious atonement (Heb 11:7). Therefore he is said to have been “righteous” and “perfect” (possessed of spiritual integrity, not sinless). Like Enoch, he was an antediluvian of whom it was said, “He walked with God” (Gen 5:24; 6:9). The ark Noah was told to construct is a type of Christ as the preserver of His people from judgement (Heb 11:7), specifically of the remnant of Israel who will turn to the Lord during the Great Tribulation (Is 2:10-11; 26:20-21). Isaiah 2:10-11 10 Enter into the rock, and hide in the dust from before the terror of the LORD, and from the glory of his majesty. 11 The haughty looks of man shall be brought low, and the pride of men shall be humbled; and the LORD alone will be exalted in that day. Isaiah 26:20-21 20 Come, my people, enter your chambers, and shut your doors behind you; hide yourselves for a little while until the wrath is past. 21 For behold, the LORD is coming forth out of his place to punish the inhabitants of the earth for their iniquity, and the earth will disclose the blood shed upon her, and will no more cover her slain.

Instructions for Building the Ark, 6:13·22. “In pitch” (bakopher), 6:14. “Pitch” (kaphar) is the same word translated as “atonement” (e.g. Leviticus 17: 11 For the life of the flesh is in the blood; and I have given it for you upon the altar to make atonement for your souls; for it is the blood that makes atonement, by reason of the life) (cf. Yom Kippur, kippurim). The pitch becomes a type, illustrating the atoning work of Christ, which keeps out the waters of judgement. The ark was 300 cubits (450 feet) long, 50 cubits (75 feet) broad, and 30 cubits (45 feet) high with a displacement of 43,300 tons.

poem on which Ovid was working at the time he was exiled. The six books cover the first semester of the year, with each book dedicated to a different month of the Roman calendar (January to June). The project seems unprecedented in Roman literature. See also Otto Kerenyi, The Gods of the Greeks (Harmondsworth, 1958), p. 178.

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Archaeological Light The Babylonian flood story is preserved in the eleventh book of the famous Assyrian-Babylonian Epic of Gilgamesh, unearthed at Kuyunjik (Nineveh) in 1853. It describes a boat about five times larger than Noah’s ark with a displacement of some 228,500 tons and cubical in structure. In both the Babylonian and the biblical accounts, bitumen or pitch to close up the seams of the vessel appears prominently. Both accounts hold that the catastrophe was divinely planned. But in striking contrast to the monotheistic Hebrew account, the Babylonian is polytheistic and has no adequate moral concept of the cause of the Flood. Both accounts assert that the hero of the deluge (Noah, Utnapishtim) was divinely instructed to build a huge boat to preserve life. Of all extra-biblical parallels that have come down from the vast cuneiform literature of the Tigris-Euphrates Valley of antiquity, the most striking remains this Babylonian account of the Flood. Here is the divine intervention Their Father Anu uttered the oath (of secrecy), Valiant Enlil was their Adviser, Ninurta was their Chamberlain, Ennugi was their Minister of Canals. Ea, the Clever Prince, was under oath with them so he repeated their talk to the reed house: ‘Reed house, reed house! Wall, wall! O man of Shuruppak, son of Ubartutu: Tear down the house and build a boat! Abandon wealth and seek living beings! Spurn possessions and keep alive living beings! Make all living beings go up into the boat. The boat which you are to build, its dimensions must measure equal to each other: its length must correspond to its width. Roof it over like the Apsu. I understood and spoke to my lord, Ea: ‘My lord, thus is the command which you have uttered I will heed and will do it. But what shall I answer the city, the populace, and the Elders!’ Ea spoke, commanding me, his servant

The Hebrew and Babylonian Flood Stories Comparison between the Hebrew and Babylonian accounts of the Flood indicate that the narratives were not independent of each other. In both, divine powers resolve to destroy mankind by a great flood. In both, the secret is revealed beforehand to a chosen man by a god who directs him to build a great vessel in which to save himself and seed of every kind. In both versions the favoured man is a significant genealogical tenth (king of Babylon or descendant of Adam). In both he builds a huge vessel in several storeys made waterproof by bitumen, and takes on board his family and animals of all sorts. The flood is brought about by heavy rain and lasts for a set number of days. In both stories all mankind perishes, and in both

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the hero sends out a raven and a dove to see if the waters have subsided; the dove returns, the raven does not. In both the vessel grounds on top of a mountain; both heroes offer sacrifices in thanksgiving which are accepted by the appeased deities. In the Babylonian and Yahwistic versions great prominence is accorded to the number seven. There is a seven-day warning, seven of every sort of animal, a seven day lapse between sending the messenger birds. The Babylonian Flood lasts for seven days and the sacrificial vessels are set out in sevens. The Babylonian version cannot be derived from the Hebrew since it is older than the Hebrew by eleven or twelve centuries. The Hebrews might have brought the legend with them when they migrated from Chaldea to Palestine in 2000 B.C. Otherwise, after their settlement in Palestine after the Conquest, the Hebrews may have borrowed the story from the native Canaanites who in turn may have derived it from Babylonian literature. Or it is possible that the Hebrew writers of the story acquired knowledge of the Babylonian tradition either orally or from literature during the Exile, or after their return to Palestine.22 The construction of the Ark and its provisioning are very detailed. Just as dawn began to glow the land assembled around me- the carpenter carried his hatchet, the reed worker carried his (flattening) stone ,...the men... The child carried the pitch, the weak brought whatever else was needed. On the fifth day I laid out her exterior. It was a field in area, its walls were each 10 times 12 cubits in height, the sides of its top were of equal length, 10 times It [?]cubits each. I laid out its (interior) structure and drew a picture of it (?). I provided it with six decks, thus dividing it into seven (levels). The inside of it I divided into nine (compartments). I drove plugs (to keep out) water in its middle part. I saw to the punting poles and laid in what was necessary. Three times 3,600 (units) of raw bitumen I poured into the bitumen kiln, three times 3,600 (units of) pitch ...into it, there were three times 3,600 porters of casks who carried (vegetable) oil, apart from the 3,600 (units of) oil which they consumed and two times 3,600 (units of) oil which the boatman stored away. I butchered oxen for the meat, and day upon day I slaughtered sheep. I gave the workmen ale, beer, oil, and wine, as if it were river water, so they could make a party like the New Year’s Festival. ... and I set my hand to the oiling.

The deluge itself is apocalyptic. I watched the appearance of the weather—the weather was frightful to behold! I went into the boat and sealed the entry. For the caulking of the 22

See James G. Frazer, Folklore in the Old Testament, p. 63.

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Genesis 7 1 Then the LORD said to Noah, “Go into the ark, you and all your household, for I have seen that you are righteous before me in this generation. 2 Take with you seven pairs of all clean animals, the male and his mate; and a pair of the animals that are not clean, the male and his mate; 3 and seven pairs of the birds of the air also, male and female, to keep their kind alive upon the face of all the earth. 4 For in seven days I will send rain upon the earth forty days and forty nights; and every living thing that I have made I will blot out from the face of the ground.” 5 And Noah did all that the LORD had commanded him. 6 Noah was six hundred years old when the flood of waters came upon the earth. 7 And Noah and his sons and his wife and his sons’ wives with him went into the ark, to escape the waters of the flood. 8 Of clean animals, and of animals that are not clean, and of birds, and of everything that creeps on the ground, 9 two and two, male and female, went into the ark with Noah, as God had commanded Noah. 10 And after seven days the waters of the flood came upon the earth. 11 In the six hundredth year of Noah’s life, in the second month, on the seventeenth day of the month, on that day all the fountains of the great deep burst forth, and the windows of the heavens were opened. 12 And rain fell upon the earth forty days and forty nights.

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13 On the very same day Noah and his sons, Shem and Ham and Japheth, and Noah’s wife and the three wives of his sons with them entered the ark, 14 they and every beast according to its kind, and all the cattle according to their kinds, and every creeping thing that creeps on the earth according to its kind, and every bird according to its kind, every bird of every sort. 15 They went into the ark with Noah, two and two of all flesh in which there was the breath of life. 16 And they that entered, male and female of all flesh, went in as God had commanded him; and the LORD shut him in. 17 The flood continued forty days upon the earth; and the waters increased, and bore up the ark, and it rose high above the earth. 18 The waters prevailed and increased greatly upon the earth; and the ark floated on the face of the waters. 19 And the waters prevailed so mightily upon the earth that all the high mountains under the whole heaven were covered; 20 the waters prevailed above the mountains, covering them fifteen cubits deep. 21 And all flesh died that moved upon the earth, birds, cattle, beasts, all swarming creatures that swarm upon the earth, and every man; 22 everything on the dry land in whose nostrils was the breath of life died. 23 He blotted out every living thing that was upon the face of the ground, man and animals and creeping things and birds of the air; they were blotted out from the earth. Only Noah was left, and those that were with him in the ark. 24 And the waters prevailed upon the earth a hundred and fifty days.

Genesis 8 1 But God remembered Noah and all the beasts and all the cattle that were with him in the ark. And God made a wind blow over the earth, and the waters subsided; 2 the fountains of the deep and the windows of the heavens were closed, the rain from the heavens was restrained, 3 and the waters receded from the earth continually. At the end of a hundred and fifty days the waters had abated; 4 and in the seventh month, on the seventeenth day of the month, the ark came to rest upon the mountains of Ar’arat. 5 And the waters continued to abate until the tenth month; in the tenth month, on the first day of the month, the tops of the mountains were seen.

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6 At the end of forty days Noah opened the window of the ark which he had made, 7 and sent forth a raven; and it went to and fro until the waters were dried up from the earth. 8 Then he sent forth a dove from him, to see if the waters had subsided from the face of the ground; 9 but the dove found no place to set her foot, and she returned to him to the ark, for the waters were still on the face of the whole earth. So he put forth his hand and took her and brought her into the ark with him. 10 He waited another seven days, and again he sent forth the dove out of the ark; 11 and the dove came back to him in the evening, and lo, in her mouth a freshly plucked olive leaf; so Noah knew that the waters had subsided from the earth. 12 Then he waited another seven days, and sent forth the dove; and she did not return to him any more. 13 In the six hundred and first year, in the first month, the first day of the month, the waters were dried from off the earth; and Noah removed the covering of the ark, and looked, and behold, the face of the ground was dry. 14 In the second month, on the twenty-seventh day of the month, the earth was dry. 15 Then God said to Noah, 16 “Go forth from the ark, you and your wife, and your sons and your sons’ wives with you. 17 Bring forth with you every living thing that is with you of all flesh— birds and animals and every creeping thing that creeps on the earth— that they may breed abundantly on the earth, and be fruitful and multiply upon the earth.” 18 So Noah went forth, and his sons and his wife and his sons’ wives with him. 19 And every beast, every creeping thing, and every bird, everything that moves upon the earth, went forth by families out of the ark. 20 Then Noah built an altar to the LORD, and took of every clean animal and of every clean bird, and offered burnt offerings on the altar. 21 And when the LORD smelled the pleasing odour, the LORD said in his heart, “I will never again curse the ground because of man, for the imagination of man’s heart is evil from his youth; neither will I ever again destroy every living creature as I have done. 22 While the earth remains, seedtime and harvest, cold and heat, summer and winter, day and night, shall not cease.”

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The Narrative Moments Instructions Concerning the Flood, 7:1-9. “Clean animals” (i.e., acceptable for sacrifice, cf. Gen 4:3-5) are specified to be taken, in addition to male and female of each species for future increase (Gen 6:19). Such distinctions antedate the Mosaic Law, which stipulates ten such animals fit for sacrifice. The Physical Causes of the Flood, 7:10-24. The causes of the Noahic flood suggest a world-engirdling catastrophe, not a local flood (cf. 2 Pet 3:4-6). The displacement of vast quantities of subterranean water (Gen 7:11), certainly by earthquake, involved sinking of land levels and raising of sea beds. This is mentioned first. The violent 40-day precipitation was only a secondary source of water and occasioned radical climatic changes. Up to that time the earth had evidently been watered by these subterranean fountains and an ascending mist (Gen 2:5-6), so that atmospheric conditions did not yet exist to form a rainbow (Gen 9:13) as in the changed postdiluvian world.

Archaeological Light Both the Babylonian and the biblical accounts specify the duration of the Flood. The pre-Babylonian (Sumerian) version specifies seven days and nights, the Babylonian six days and nights. The Bible account indicates a little more than a year (371 days). The Bible also espouses supernatural catastrophism against the modern naturalistic theory of uniformity (2 Pet 3:5-6). 2 Peter 3: 4 and saying, “Where is the promise of his coming? For ever since the fathers fell asleep, all things have continued as they were from the beginning of creation.” 5 They deliberately ignore this fact, that by the word of God heavens existed long ago, and an earth formed out of water and by means of water, 6 through which the world that then existed was deluged with water and perished. 7 But by the same word the heavens and earth that now exist have been stored up for fire, being kept until the day of judgement and destruction of ungodly men.

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The Waters Recede, 8:1·6. A wind dried up the water, 8:1; land and sea levels shifted back to normal positions, 8:2. Condensation and watery vapour which had surrounded the pre-Flood earth stopped (cf. Gen 1: 6-8). The ark touched dry ground on one of the mountains of Ararat, 8:4, the name being identical with Assyrian Urar: signifying the general mountainous territory of Armenia (2 Kgs 19:37; Jer 51:27; Is 37:38), West of the Caspian Sea and South East of the Black Sea. Mt. Nisir (Pir Omar Gudron), East of the Tigris and South of the lower Zab River, is mentioned as the landing place of Utnapishtim’s vessel in the Gilgamesh Epic. The Sending Out of the Birds, 8:7-14. A raven was sent out first 6-7; then a dove was released on three occasions. The return of the second dove with a freshly-plucked olive twig showed that the valleys where the olive groves grew were almost dry. Noah Leaves the Ark and Worships, 8:15-22. Noah offered burnt offerings on the altar which he built, 8:20, gratefully worshipping the Beloved One who had saved him and his family. Accepting Noah’s act of worshipful gratitude, the Lord “smelled the soothing fragrance”, 8:21. In the Babylonian flood story, Utnapishtim offered sacrifice, poured out a libation, and burned “sweet cane, cedar, and myrtle” after he left the boat, partly to appease the wrath of the angry deities, who had decreed the complete extermination of mankind and part to express his gratitude to the god Ea for sparing him. In both accounts the expression “smell” occurs. Before he left the boat like Noah, Utnapishtim sent out birds—a dove seven days after the boat landed on Mt. Nisir, followed by a swallow and finally a raven. ‘The olden days have alas turned to clay, because I said evil things in the Assembly of the Gods! How could I say evil things in the Assembly of the Gods, ordering a catastrophe to destroy my people! No sooner have I given birth to my dear people than they fill the sea like so many fish!’ The gods—those of the Anunnaki—were weeping with her, the gods humbly sat weeping, sobbing with grief, their lips burning, parched with thirst. Six days and seven nights came the wind and flood, the storm flattening the land. When the seventh day arrived, the storm was pounding, the flood was a war—struggling with itself like a woman writhing (in labour). The sea calmed, fell still, the whirlwind (and) flood stopped up. I looked around all day long—quiet had set in and all the human beings had turned to clay! The terrain was as flat as a roof. I opened a vent and fresh air (daylight!) fell upon the side of my nose. I fell to my knees and sat weeping, tears streaming down the side of my nose. I looked around for

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coastlines in the expanse of the sea, and at twelve leagues there emerged a region (of land). On Mt. Nimush the boat lodged firm, Mt. Nimush held the boat, allowing no sway. One day and a second Mt. Nimush held the boat, allowing no sway. A third day, a fourth, Mt. Nimush held the boat, allowing no sway. A fifth day, a sixth, Mt. Nimush held the boat, allowing no sway. When a seventh day arrived I sent forth a dove and released it. The dove went off, but came back to me; no perch was visible so it circled back to me. I sent forth a swallow and released it. The swallow went off, but came back to me; no perch was visible so it circled back to me. I sent forth a raven and released it. The raven went off, and saw the waters slither back. It eats, it scratches, it bobs, but does not circle back to me.

The sacrifice takes place after the receding of the waters. Then I sent out everything in all directions and sacrificed (a sheep). I offered incense in front of the mountain-ziggurat. Seven and seven cult vessels I put in place, and (into the fire) underneath (or: into their bowls) I poured reeds, cedar, and myrtle. The gods smelled the savour, the gods smelled the sweet savour, and collected like flies over a (sheep) sacrifice. Just then Beletili arrived. She lifted up the large flies (beads) which Anu had made for his enjoyment: ‘You gods, as surely as I shall not forget this lapis lazuli around my neck, may I be mindful of these days, and never forget them! The gods may come to the incense offering, but Enlil may not come to the incense offering, because without considering he brought about the Flood and consigned my people to annihilation’ 23

The Description of the Flood The reader is reminded of Gen 1—2 cf. 7:11-12. All the sources of the abyss are unplugged and the windows of heaven opened. Gen 1 saw the separation of two oceans above and below. Now God allows the two waters to meet again. The space between earth and heaven is filled with water. This is de-creation with an initial return to chaos, as the waters cover the surface of the earth. From this will come a new creation, a reordering of the cosmos (cf. Psalm 29:3-4:3 The voice of the LORD is upon the waters; the God of glory thunders, the LORD, upon many waters. 4 The voice of the LORD is powerful, the voice of the LORD is full of majesty.

23

Cf. N. K. Sandars, The Epic of Gilgamesh. An English Version with an Introduction (Harmondsworth, 1960; rev. 1964; 1972), 5 The Story of the Flood, pp. 108-13.

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The end of the Flood reminds the reader of the earlier parts of Genesis: —8:1 God sends a strong wind (cf. 1:2). —8:5 the tops of the mountains appear (cf. 1:9-10) —8:14 yabesh “to be dry”. This parallels God’s work on the Third Day. Dry land (yabbashah) is created so that life is possible. There is a new separation of water and dry land. Life can develop again. —The end of Gen 8—9 sees a new beginning, a repetition of certain themes, new blessings, repeating those of Gen 1. —”be fruitful”, “multiply”, “fill” (9:1,7) are all words of blessing used by the Priestly Writer, as are the instructions about food (cf. Gen 1:19, 30), and the vocabulary of image and likeness (9:17). The world after the Flood is rather different from before. For the first time meat may be eaten. The vocabulary of holy war, fear and dread is used (9:2c): Into your hand they are delivered. This register of war is found in the Deuteronomistic texts: Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, 1 & 2 Samuel. Instead of the peace and harmony of Gen 1, the situation is now one of holy war. Violence is not allowed between man and man, but is present between man and animals. The story of the Flood is one of purification and re-creation, regeneration of the universe. A new beginning is possible, but on condition that the cosmos be partially destroyed. We go back to the starting point. The hinge of this is the Covenant. Noah is the only righteous man, and God decides to conclude a covenant with him (6:9-10). This is the first positive step in the new creation. Gen 9 sees it concluded in the promise that there will never again be a flood. Because of Noah, “a herald of righteousness” (2 Pet 2:5), there is new universe. It involves the whole of creation.

Key Symbols Several key images impinge on the mind of the reader: 1) the Water of the Flood 2) the Ark 3) the Calendar 4) the Birds 5) the Mountain 6) the Rainbow

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1) The Water of the Flood The universe begins when God separates the waters. The Flood is an immersion of the universe into primal chaos. All the forms of the universe disappear, go back to pre-existence. When the waters recede, new life appears. The Flood becomes a symbol of baptism (Rom 6, 1 Peter 3:2021). To enter the waters is to die, to enter a new life. Stories of the Flood are found all over the world, even among the Eskimos. After a while the universe becomes tired, needs new birth, purification from sin. Images of chaos accompany the outbursts of violence among men. The two are parallel movements, the waters are an image of violence. Violence destroys itself. The Flood is a destruction of forces of destruction, the death of death. Violent men belong to the realm of chaos. On a wider scale, the parallel is the Crossing of the Red Sea. Pharaoh and his forces are of the world of violence and disappear into the waters (Ex 14). What belongs to primeval chaos returns to whence it came.

2) The Ark The Ark is always represented in Christian art as a good ship, but it is not a ship, but a square in three storeys. The basic measurements are 3, 5 and 10: this corresponds almost exactly to the Biblical concept of the Temple: this had three floors, and the Tabernacle had similar measurements. Ezekiel uses 5, 10, 100. Why these numbers? The three floors correspond to the three parts of the universe: heaven, earth, the underworld (cf. the three steps of enlightenment in Buddhism); five is a full number, an image of perfection, and relates to 10 (like fingers and toes), a perfect work. The square is an image of the universe, with its four sides equalling the four winds. So the Ark mirrors the perfection of God’s creation. It is the image of the universe, a microcosm. There is one door on the side, like the Golden Gate of the Temple. In 7:16 God himself shuts the door. More than just a Yahwistic anthropomorphism, the door is the frontier between life and death, and only God can decide; only he has the power over death and life. The ark is the seed, the kernel of the universe.

3) The Calendar The Flood provides the most complete calendar in the Bible. All the dates are provided. After five months God sends wind; after five months the Ark settles on Mount Ararat. The duration of the Flood is the longest in the accounts of such stories in the Ancient Near East. Gilgamesh’s lasts seven

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days. Here it lasts a year: it starts on the 17th of the 2nd month and finishes on the 20th day of the 2nd month. This is a combination of the lunar and solar years. The Lunar year is 354 + 10 days. The basic numbers of the calendar are 7, 40, 5, 10 (cf. Ps 46).

Fig.12. Noah and the Ark (The Fastolf Master, Book of Hours, c. 1450)

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—The Flood begins on the 47th day: 40 + 7, 40 days of rain. It ends on 22nd of the 7th month. A week is 7 days, the time of Creation, the same time needed for re-creation. The symbolic number of Creation carries across to the 7 days needed to build the Ark, that microcosm of the universe. —It takes 7 days for the dove to return, and a period of 3 x 7 days for re-creation —40 is the temporal number needed for a transformation: 40 years in the Wilderness, 40 days in Sinai, 40 days for Elijah to be on Horeb, 40 days for Jesus’ Temptation. Behind this is the idea of a generation, dying and a new generation taking place. A new people enter the Promised Land. In the Flood Story there are 40 days before and after, for destruction, for sending out the raven, for the re-creation of the world. The 40 days of Lent are a preparation for the renewal of Easter. —5 and 10 are numbers of perfection: 5 months of 30 days = 150 days, the period the Ark rests on Mount Ararat. After 10 months the tops of mountains appear. These numbers represent God’s presence. The tops of mountains are sacred, in contact with the world of God. —The age of Noah is important: he is 600 years old (7:6) at the beginning of the Flood, 601 at the end of it. His birthday is that of the universe. He begins in the 700th period with this age, a new period in the universe. The Flood lasts one year, a full cycle. Every year after the Flood is a commemoration of this purification and renewal. The beginning of the Flood in the 2nd month (= September = autumn = the main festivals of Israel = Yom Kippur, Rosh Hashanah, Succoth). The liturgical year can be a way of commemoration.

4) The Birds i) The raven In the West this bird has negative connotations, a gallows bird, in the colour black. Elsewhere it has a positive connotation linked with the sun and the sky since it can fly very high. In North America the crow is the creator of the world, coming down from the sky to organize the cosmos, announcing the beginning of the universe, the messenger of the gods (cf. the Roman practice of divining). In the Bible the raven is a sign of God’s saving power. The crow flies over the Flood until earth appears. The crow observes the new creation, and is linked with the sun, drying the water,

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making the land appear. Later this bird will similarly appear as the agent of God’s love for his prophet Elijah (cf. 1 Kings 17:3-7): 3 Depart from here and turn eastward, and hide yourself by the brook Cherith, that is east of the Jordan.4 You shall drink from the brook, and I have commanded the ravens to feed you there.”5 So he went and did according to the word of the LORD; he went and dwelt by the brook Cherith that is east of the Jordan.6 And the ravens brought him bread and meat in the morning, and bread and meat in the evening; and he drank from the brook.

ii) The dove In the Near East doves come back after the winter (which is the rainy season) to the beginning of the hot season. The dove is also a symbol of love, as in the Song of Songs (2:11-14: the voice of the turtledove is heard in our land). Here it announces a new time, a new season, when the vegetation sprouts. The bird becomes a sign of God’s salvific presence and activity. Hence the dove becomes the symbol of the Holy Spirit, coming down on Jesus at the Baptism, heralding a new spring for the world (cf. Mt 3:16): And when Jesus was baptized, he went up immediately from the water, and behold, the heavens were opened and he saw the Spirit of God descending like a dove, and alighting on him. Birds in the Scriptures are powerful images of the divine activity, like the messenger of Ecclesiastes: A bird of the air shall carry the voice, and that which has wings shall tell the matter (11:20b).Both birds in Noah’s Ark symbolize new beginnings.24

5) The mountains Mount Ararat is supposed to be the highest in the world. The sacrifice of Noah takes place here, and the animals come forth from the Ark. The Ark = the Temple on top of the highest mountain in the world, a cosmic mountain, the centre of the world because life starts here again. It is the axis of the universe linking heaven and earth. The waters are horizontal and ascensional, rising up. Mystics use this image for contact with God (like St John of the Cross and ‘The Ascent of Mount Carmel’). Life comes down from the mountain to bless the earth. Life overflows from the centre

24 Tian Hattingh in Birds and Bibles in History (The London Press, 2012) comes to the conclusion that the Biblical authors, and not Aristotle, were in fact the first ornithologists. This is explored in Part 4, using the example of the Great Flood in Genesis 6—9, and the Ostrich in Job 39.

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of the universe.25

6) The rainbow This has been interpreted variously. For Wellhausen and Gunkel, qesheth is a battle bow. God fought the universe to destroy it, but after the Flood he is no longer angry, and hangs his bow in the sky as a symbol of peace, appeasement. For the Münster exegete Dieter Sänger, who has brought ecological perspectives to bear, the bow is also a battle bow, but a sign of God’s power over the forces of chaos, a sign of God’s power in the natural world (cf. Ezekiel 1:28, Revelation 4:3; 10:1: Then I saw another mighty angel coming down from heaven, wrapped in a cloud, with a rainbow over his head, and his face was like the sun...).26 Both these views go against the meaning of the rainbow in other religions. Only in the Bible is it found after the Flood. It is a sign of union, reconciliation, a sign of the covenant, a sign reminding God of the covenant. It is a symbol of unity between heaven and earth, between God and Man. It is a light that appears after rain, a refraction of light through water (Ezekiel 1:28 Like the appearance of the bow that is in the cloud on the day of rain, so was the appearance of the brightness round about. Such was the appearance of the likeness of the glory of the LORD. And when I saw it, I fell upon my face, and I heard the voice of one speaking). The glory of God is like a rainbow. Unity and reconciliation are established between God and mankind. Now there is a coming together, with God present in the world; there is communication and life is flowing. Most of these symbols are cosmic, indicating the new beginning of the universe. The Flood is a cosmic event involving the whole of the universe. 27 There are two universes: the first one was created and destroyed in the Flood. We no longer have access to it: it was either totally good or totally evil. When evil invaded the world, it was total: violence overran the world and the whole universe was corrupted. After the Flood, this totality was no longer possible. Now there will be curses and blessings, both together. In Gen 11 mankind tries to reach heaven, but fails. Nations are scattered, but in Gen 12 the promise to Abraham will once again unite the nations.

25

John of the Cross, Collected Works. Trans. Otilio Rodriguez (ICS Publications, U.S.; new edition, 1994). 26 Cf. Dieter Sänger, Das Ezechielbuch in der Johannesoffenbarung (Neukirchener Verlags, 2006). 27 See Robert Letellier, The Bible and Covenant: Using Sacred Text and Images to Understand Salvation History (New York: St Paul’s, 2013), pp. 6-14.

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The Two Different Accounts of the Flood: Disparate Details and Liturgical Emphases The material differences between the Yahwistic and Priestly Narratives amount almost to contradictions. The Yahwistic narrative distinguishes clean animals from the unclean ones, with seven pairs of the clean admitted to the ark, but only two of each unclean animals. The Priestly Writer makes no such distinctions, admitting them on an equal footing, with a single couple of each sort. For the Priestly the distinction between clan and unclean was made known to Moses and could not have been known to Noah, whereas the Yahwistic Writer, untroubled by any theory, assumes the distinction between clean and unclean to be so familiar as to have been known to mankind from the earliest times (cf. Lev 11). For the Yawhistic Writer the Flood lasted 61 days; for the Priestly Writer it was 150 days before the water subsided, so that the Flood lasted 12 months and 10 days. This is because the Priestly Writer assigns the duration of the Flood to the approximate length of a solar year, a fact which suggests that he wrote at a time when the Jews were able to correct the errors of the lunar calendar by observation of the sun. The Yahwist ascribes the origins of the Flood to rain only, whereas the Priestly Writer speaks also of subterranean waters emerging, as well as sheets of water descending. The Yahwist shows Noah building an altar and sacrificing to God in gratitude for deliverance from the Flood. The Priestly Writer makes no reference to either altar or sacrifice because from the standpoint of the Levitical Law there could be no legitimate altar anywhere except at the Temple in Jerusalem where the sacrifice would be offered by a properly appointed priesthood, and not by a mere layman like Noah. The Yahwistic Writer is the older, ignorant of the law of the sanctuary which forbade the offering of sacrifice anywhere but in Jerusalem (enforced by King Josiah: 2 Kgs 23; 2 Chron 34—35). The Priestly Writer must have written some time after this reign since he recognizes the law of the sanctuary and refuses to impute a breach of it to Noah. The Yahwistic Writer portrays an archaic simplicity in artlessly attributing to the earliest ages of the world the religious institutions and phraseology of his own times, the Priestly Writer reveals the reflection of a later age which has worked out a definite theory of religious evolution and applies it rigidly to history.28 The ancient story of Noah and the Flood—its origins in pre-Biblical culture, its development in Western thought over 2,000 years—has held 28

See James G. Frazer, “The Great Flood” in Folklore in the Old Testament. Studies in Comparative Religion, Legend, and Law, pp. 46-143, esp. pp. 62-63.

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enduring fascination for theologians, scientists, even psychoanalysts, and for many painters, sculptors, poets, dramatists, and composers who have continued to find inspiration in it.29

Fig.13. The Dove sent forth from the Ark (Gustave Doré, 1855) 29

See Norman Cohn, Noah’s Flood: the Genesis Story in Western Thought (Yale University Press, 1999). This generously illustrated book includes accounts of individuals who either endorsed or rejected the story.

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Genesis 9 1 And God blessed Noah and his sons, and said to them, “Be fruitful and multiply, and fill the earth. 2 The fear of you and the dread of you shall be upon every beast of the earth, and upon every bird of the air, upon everything that creeps on the ground and all the fish of the sea; into your hand they are delivered. 3 Every moving thing that lives shall be food for you; and as I gave you the green plants, I give you everything. 4 Only you shall not eat flesh with its life, that is, its blood. 5 For your lifeblood I will surely require a reckoning; of every beast I will require it and of man; of every man’s brother I will require the life of man. 6 Whoever sheds the blood of man, by man shall his blood be shed; for God made man in his own image. 7 And you, be fruitful and multiply, bring forth abundantly on the earth and multiply in it.” 8 Then God said to Noah and to his sons with him, 9 “Behold, I establish my covenant with you and your descendants after you, 10 and with every living creature that is with you, the birds, the cattle, and every beast of the earth with you, as many as came out of the ark. 11 I establish my covenant with you, that never again shall all flesh be cut off by the waters of a flood, and never again shall there be a flood to destroy the earth.” 12 And God said, “This is the sign of the covenant which I make between me and you and every living creature that is with you, for all future generations: 13 I set my bow in the cloud, and it shall be a sign of the covenant between me and the earth. 14 When I bring clouds over the earth and the bow is seen in the clouds, 15 I will remember my covenant which is between me and you and every living creature of all flesh; and the waters shall never again become a flood to destroy all flesh. 16 When the bow is in the clouds, I will look upon it and remember the everlasting covenant between God and every living creature of all flesh that is upon the earth.” 17 God said to Noah, “This is the sign of the covenant which I have

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established between me and all flesh that is upon the earth.” 18 The sons of Noah who went forth from the ark were Shem, Ham, and Japheth. Ham was the father of Canaan. 19 These three were the sons of Noah; and from these the whole earth was peopled. 20 Noah was the first tiller of the soil. He planted a vineyard; 21 and he drank of the wine, and became drunk, and lay uncovered in his tent. 22 And Ham, the father of Canaan, saw the nakedness of his father, and told his two brothers outside. 23 Then Shem and Japheth took a garment, laid it upon both their shoulders, and walked backward and covered the nakedness of their father; their faces were turned away, and they did not see their father’s nakedness. 24 When Noah awoke from his wine and knew what his youngest son had done to him, 25 he said, “Cursed be Canaan; a slave of slaves shall he be to his brothers.” 26 He also said, “Blessed by the LORD my God be Shem; and let Canaan be his slave.” 27 God enlarge Japheth, and let him dwell in the tents of Shem; and let Canaan be his slave.” 28 After the flood Noah lived three hundred and fifty years. ____________________________________________________________

Elements of the Covenant, 9:1-19 1) There is a promise that every living thing should never again be destroyed, 8:21. 2) The order of nature confirmed, 8:22. 3) Noah and his sons are commanded to increase and subdue the earth, 9:1, 7. 4) A meat diet is permitted but not with the blood, 9:3-4. 5) Human government (capital punishment) is instituted, 9:5-6. 6) The Rainbow appeared as the sign of the covenant, indicating changed climate after the Flood, 9:8-19.

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Noah’s Drunkenness and His Prophecy of the Nations, 9:18-29 Noah in an unguarded moment became drunk and dishonoured himself, exposing his nakedness (9:20-21), while his son Ham shamefully dishonoured his father by looking on him in his vulnerability (9:22-23). Noah, in the spirit of prophecy, foretold the inevitable outworking of this lascivious tendency in the curse that lighted upon Ham’s “son” (descendant) Canaan, who represented the progenitor of that branch of the Hamitic peoples that later occupied Palestine before Israel’s conquest (Gen 10:15-20).30 The purpose of this prophecy was to indicate the origin of the Canaanites and to show the source of their moral pollution (cf. Gen 10:1519; 19:5; Lev 18, 20; Deut 12:31). The curse on Canaan was fundamentally religious, and is thrown into relief by Shem’s contrasting religious blessing (9:26): knowledge of God and God’s salvation comes through the Semitic line (cf. Jesus’ words to the Woman at the Well, Jn 4:22b: “...for salvation is from the Jews”). Likewise Japheth’s blessing was also religious (9:27): he would dwell in the tents of Shem. The Japhethites have been grafted into the good olive tree (cf. Rom 11:17) and Shem’s spiritual heritage through Abraham has become the common inheritance of all believers.

Delimitation of the Text For the first time after the Flood we have a blessing and a curse. The text is well delimited: and operates on the lines of misdemeanour and judgement. The turning point is 9:24: Noah wakes to know what has happened. The characters are well described. At the beginning all is shown. But nothing is commented on, nor is any psychological reason or motivation given. Noah reacts with blessings and curses. We have only facts, and must search for the subtleties behind them. Characters are described in an indirect way.

Stylistic Analysis We are at a crossroads, with blessings and curses. There are a certain number of parallels with Gen 2, 3 & 4.

30

See Robert Letellier, Day in Mamre, Night in Sodom, 4.b.12. New Life after a Cataclysm…and the Primordial Drinking of Wine, pp. 232-236.

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1) Noah is ’ish ha-’adamah, a tiller of the ground. We know of the ambivalence of the soil, and this manifests itself again. 2) The vine appears for the first time. The vine is an image that depicts the force of life, a tree with a symbolic meaning. It comes to represent the People of Israel (Ps 80 cf. Is 5:1-7), and then Christ (Jn 15:1-11). This is the first tree mentioned after Gen 2. 3) Nakedness appears again. Gen 2 has an important place for nakedness without shame. Here there is a fallen nakedness as in Gen 3. 4) Blessings and curses. This is the first time that a man utters these, not God.

The Meaning of the Text The text describes the first fault, mischief after the Flood. Evil is still present (8:21), it did not disappear after the Flood. The fruits of the soil are still ambivalent—now in wine. Evil grows out of the ground. But the forces of evil cannot defeat the forces of good. Things are present together; evil co-exists with good. Evil cannot blot out the good. Of man, the three brothers react in different ways. After the Flood there is always evil and good, and a choice to be made. There is a short reflection on human relationships, brotherhood in the family. There are Ham, and Shem, the ancestor of Abraham. Canaan will be cursed, the slave of slaves. Instead of brothers, one will be the master, the others slaves. The text does not develop this theme. What is the origin of slavery? It relates to broken relationships with the father. His sexuality and authority are called into question. The wrong relationships with the father can cause wrong relationships with brothers. There are always three lines: i) soil on one side, ii) God on the other side iii) human relationships below. When there is something wrong with one, then the others are affected. After the story of the curse, a second story appears focused on the Tower of Babel, connected with speech and society. The three sons of Noah are ancestors of all the people of the earth. After Babel the people are scattered (puts) over all the earth. The fundamental patterns are repeated in variation later in Genesis. While the Abrahamic Covenant (the Circumcision Covenant) of Genesis

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15—17 might apply to Abraham and Lot, it does not touch on the people of Sodom (who represent a wider humanity). They would be covered by the even more fundamental Noahic Covenant (the Rainbow Covenant) which encompasses the whole postdiluvian world, all nature (represented in the animals of the Ark) and all humanity (represented in the descendants of Noah). This covenant is a seal on the re-creation of the world.31 The mini-apocalypse of Gen 19 will see the destruction of the ‘world’ again, this time by fire. It is followed by the re-birth of the natural world once more, in the actions of Lot’s daughters (who echo the behaviour of Noah’s sons and look on their father’s nakedness).32

The Primitive Patriarch Noah and Growth in Human Personality Noah, the descendant of Adam and Eve in the tenth generation, is presented very differently from his progenitors. God is still overtly in control of the universe, decreeing the Flood, determining its timing and duration, deciding who will be spared, and detailing the construction of the instrument of salvation. Although Noah does not utter one word of dialogue throughout his portrayal, much greater responsibility is expected of him as an individual. God gives the instructions, but Noah must execute the vast building process of construction. If God made the clothes for Adam and Eve, Noah must build the Ark himself. Later in his story he acts even more boldly in making wine and becoming drunk (Gen 9:20-28), an independent act, and a further step in the process of developing human character, independence and institutions.

Archaeological Light The Canaanites practised forms of idolatry which encouraged immorality. Discovered in 1929-37, Canaanite religious literature from Ras Shamra (ancient Ugarit in North Syria) reveals the worship of the gods El and Baal and the sacred courtesans Anath, Asherah and Astarte. This literature fully corroborates the Old Testament notices of the religious eroticism and moral degradation of the Canaanites. Cult objects, figurines and literature combine to show how sex-centered was Canaanite religion, with human sacrifice, cult of serpents, sacred courtesans and eunuch priests common. 31

See Robert Letellier, The Bible and Covenant: Using Sacred Text and Images to Understand Salvation History, pp. 5-14. 32 See Robert Letellier, Day in Mamre, Night in Sodom, 4.b.9. The Destruction of the City and the Rescue of the Remnant, pp. 226-228.

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The fertility aspects of Canaanite cults encouraged a social and spiritual degradation that would be one of the besetting preoccupations of the Prophets until the time of the Exile. ____________________________________________________________

Genesis 10 1 These are the generations of the sons of Noah, Shem, Ham, and Japheth; sons were born to them after the flood. 2 The sons of Japheth: Gomer, Magog, Madai, Javan, Tubal, Meshech, and Tiras. 3 The sons of Gomer: Ash’kenaz, Riphath, and Togar’mah. 4 The sons of Javan: Eli’shah, Tarshish, Kittim, and Do’danim. 5 From these the coastland peoples spread. These are the sons of Japheth in their lands, each with his own language, by their families, in their nations. 6 The sons of Ham: Cush, Egypt, Put, and Canaan. 7 The sons of Cush: Seba, Hav’ilah, Sabtah, Ra’amah, and Sab’teca. The sons of Ra’amah: Sheba and Dedan. 8 Cush became the father of Nimrod; he was the first on earth to be a mighty man. 9 He was a mighty hunter before the LORD; therefore it is said, “Like Nimrod a mighty hunter before the LORD.” 10 The beginning of his kingdom was Ba’bel, Erech, and Accad, all of them in the land of Shinar. 11 From that land he went into Assyria, and built Nin’eveh, Reho’both-Ir, Calah, and 12 Resen between Nin’eveh and Calah; that is the great city. 13 Egypt became the father of Ludim, An’amim, Leha’bim, Naph-tu’him, 14 Pathru’sim, Caslu’him (whence came the Philistines), and Caph’torim. 15 Canaan became the father of Sidon his first-born, and Heth, 16 and the Jeb’usites, the Amorites, the Gir’gashites, 17 the Hivites, the Arkites, the Sinites, 18 the Ar’vadites, the Zem’arites, and the Ha’mathites. Afterward the families of the Canaanites spread abroad. 19 And the territory of the Canaanites extended from Sidon, in the direction of Gerar, as far as Gaza, and in the direction of Sodom, Gomor’rah, Admah, and Zeboi’im, as far as Lasha. 20 These are the sons of Ham, by their families, their languages, their lands, and their nations. 21 To Shem also, the father of all the children of Eber, the elder brother of

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Japheth, children were born. 22 The sons of Shem: Elam, Asshur, Arpach’shad, Lud, and Aram. 23 The sons of Aram: Uz, Hul, Gether, and Mash. 24 Arpach’shad became the father of Shelah; and Shelah became the father of Eber. 25 To Eber were born two sons: the name of the one was Peleg, for in his days the earth was divided, and his brother’s name was Joktan. 26 Joktan became the father of Almo’dad, Sheleph, Hazarma’veth, Jerah, 27 Hador’am, Uzal, Diklah, 28 Obal, Abim’a-el, Sheba, 29 Ophir, Hav’ilah, and Jobab; all these were the sons of Joktan. 30 The territory in which they lived extended from Mesha in the direction of Sephar to the hill country of the east. 31 These are the sons of Shem, by their families, their languages, their lands, and their nations. 32 These are the families of the sons of Noah, according to their genealogies, in their nations; and from these the nations spread abroad on the earth after the flood. ____________________________________________________________

2.7 Genesis 10—The Ethnographic Table Noah’s panoramic prophecy of moral and spiritual history (cf. 9:24-27) forms an indispensable introduction to the principle that underlies the ethnographical table of Gen 10, viz., that in God’s ways with men the moral character of a nation cannot be understood unless its source is known. The nation Israel, divinely elected to be the medium of redemptive blessing to the world (Is 42:6, 43:10, 49:6, cf. Jn 4:22, Rom 11:28-32), needed to know the source from which the various nations surrounding her sprang, so that she might know how to act toward them. The table stands unique in ancient literature, without parallel even among the Greeks, with their mythological framework and the tribal nature of the Aegean people. W. F. Albright calls the Table of Nations “an astonishingly accurate document”.33 Although numerous names have been known from ancient Greek and Roman sources, modern archaeology of the past two centuries has elucidated many of them by its discoveries.34 Ronald Hendel argues 33 See Robert Young's Analytical Concordance to the Bible (1879, 7th ed. rev. 1900, 8th ed. rev. 1939, 9th ed. rev. 2005). 34 Cf. relevant entries in Merrill F. Unger, Unger’s Bible Dictionary (Chicago: Moody Press, 1957, 1965) and John F. McKenzie, Dictionary of the Bible (London: Geoffrey Chapman, 1966, 1981).

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that more attention should be paid to ancient historical elements woven through Genesis, like language, and ancient assumptions about geography, ethnicity, and foreign relations implicit in the Genesis narratives. These reflect archaic social times (in ideas about ancestral religion and the homeland of the Patriarchs), even if these stories are not always reliable historical reflections of particular events.35 The Descendants of Japheth, 10:2-5. These formed the northern nations. Gomer (Assyrian Gimirraya), Cimmerians of antiquity (Ezk 38:6), are mentioned in the annals of Assyrian emperors Esarhaddon and Ashurbanipal (7th c. B.C.). Magog (Ezk 38:2; 39:6) were Scythians (according to Josephus, The Antiquities of the Jews, 6:123), but probably this is a comprehensive term for northern barbarians. 36 Ezekiel 38: 1 The word of the LORD came to me: 2 “Son of man, set your face toward Gog, of the land of Magog, the chief prince of Meshech and Tubal, and prophesy against him 3 and say, Thus says the Lord GOD: Behold, I am against you, O Gog, chief prince of Meshech and Tubal; 4 and I will turn you about, and put hooks into your jaws, and I will bring you forth, and all your army, horses and horsemen, all of them clothed in full armour, a great company, all of them with buckler and shield, wielding swords; 5 Persia, Cush, and Put are with them, all of them with shield and helmet; 6 Gomer and all his hordes; Beth-togar’mah from the uttermost parts of the north with all his hordes---many peoples are with you.

Madai are the well-known Medes (2 Kgs 17:6; 18:11; Is 21:2) mentioned in the Assyrian inscriptions. Javan, Ionian Greeks of Homer and particularly the Asiatic Ionians, were first mentioned by Sargon II (722-705 B.C.) and subsequently known in Jewish history (Ezk 27:13; Is 66:19; Joel 3:6; Zech 9:13; Dan 8:21 10:20). Tubal and Meshech (Ezk 27:13; 32:26; 38:2; 39:1; Is: 66:19) were the Tabali and Mushki of the Assyrian cuneiform records from the time of Tiglath-Pileser I (c. 1100 B.C.) onward. Tiras was probably the ancestor of the Tirsenoi, a pirate Aegean people. 35

See Ronald Hendel, “Historical Context” in Craig Evans; Joel N. Lohr; and David L. Petersen (eds.), The Book of Genesis: Composition, Reception, and Interpretation (Leiden: Brill, 2012). 36 Josephus, The Antiquities of the Jews (Jewish Antiquities). Translated by William Whiston [1737], with an Introduction by Brian McGing (Wordsworth Editions Ltd; new edition, 2006), p. 16.

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Ashkenaz are the Scythians (Assyrian Ashkuz). Riphath were probably preserved in the Riphaean Mountains far to the North (Josephus calls them Paphlagonians, Antiquities, 1:6). Elishah is Kittim or Cyprus (Ezk 27:7), the Alashiya of the Amarna Tablets. (The majority of the Amarna tablets are letters. These letters were sent to the Egyptian Pharaohs Amenophis III and his son Akhenaten around the middle of the 14th century B.C. The correspondents were kings of Babylonia, Assyria, Hatti and Mitanni, minor kings and rulers of the Near East at that time, and vassals of the Egyptian Empire. Tarshish was the Phoenician copper smelting centre: at Tartessus, Spain, or one in Sardinia (Ezk 27:12). Kittim in Cyprus is connected with the ancient south coast city Kition (present day Larnaka). Dodanim was perhaps the Dardana (Dardanians) of Asia Minor; also read Rodanim in 1 Chron 1:7 (RSV) and in the Greek and Samaritan texts of Gen 10:4, in which case the Aegean island of Rhodes is indicated. Isaiah 66: 18 “For I know their works and their thoughts, and I am coming to gather all nations and tongues; and they shall come and shall see my glory, 19 and I will set a sign among them. And from them I will send survivors to the nations, to Tarshish, Put, and Lud, who draw the bow, to Tubal and Javan, to the coastlands afar off, that have not heard my fame or seen my glory; and they shall declare my glory among the nations.

The Descendants of Ham, 10:6-20. These were southern nations. The earliest empire builders were in southern Babylonia and later in Egypt. Cush is connected with Kish, the ancient city-state in lower Babylonia. From Kish, where Babylonian emperors of the third millennium B.C. took their titles as kings of the world (cf. Nimrod, 10:8-12), the Cushites migrated to Africa (Kosh or Nubia). Mizraim is Egypt whose civilization dates from about 5000 B.C. and includes the Pre-dynastic period to 2900 B.C. and 30 dynasties of splendid kings from 2900 B.C. to 332 B.C. Phut (Put) is Cyrenaica in North Africa W of Egypt, as is now known from the inscriptions of Darius I of Persia (522-486 B.C.). Canaan represents the original Hamitic peoples settling in Palestine who amalgamated racially and became predominantly Semitic. Seba is connected with South Arabia and is mentioned in the Assyrian inscriptions of the 8th c. B.C. Havilah was ancestor to a people in central and southern Arabia partly Cushite and partly Semitic Joktanite (10:7-29). Sablalz is Shabwat, ancient capital of Hazarmaveth (10:26), modern Hadramaut. Raamah, Sabteca, Sheba and Dedan are representative of Cushite tribes of Arabia.

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Hamitic Imperial Power, 10:8-10. This appeared in human history in Nimrod, founder of the kingdom of Babylon, plausibly explained as Sumerian (early non-Semitic Babylonian) Nin-Maradda (“Lord of Marad”), a town South West of Kish. The Sumerian King List names the dynasty of Kish with 23 kings first in the enumeration of Mesopotamian dynasties which reigned after the Flood. However, the name Nimrod suggested “rebel” against God to the Hebrews, who took note of his character as a hunter, the opposite of the divine ideal of a king, that of a shepherd (2 Sam 5:2; 7:7). 2 Samuel 5: 2 In times past, when Saul was king over us, it was you that led out and brought in Israel; and the LORD said to you, `You shall be shepherd of my people Israel, and you shall be prince over Israel.’“

Nimrod’s Kingdom is mentioned in its inception in the land of Shinar (the entire alluvial plain of the Tigris-Euphrates Rivers, the last 200 miles of their course to the Persian Gulf) with Babel, Erech, Akkad and Calneh, 10, all of which have been uncovered by archaeology. Akkad (Agade) and Babel (Babylon) were in the northern part of Shinar, called Akkad, and in the southern portion, called Sumer, was Erech (ancient Uruk), modern Warka, where the first ziggurat (temple tower) and cylinder seals were discovered. The name Akkad was given to the district of northern Babylonia from its chief city Agade, which Sargon made the capital of a Semitic empire 2360-2180 B.C. Calneh is still obscure, but is probably a shorter form of Hursagkalama (Kalama), a twin city of Kish. Asshur (Assyria), the capital and centre of Assyrian power 60 miles South of Nineveh, now called Qalat Sharqat, was excavated in1903-14 and its occupation goes back to the early third millennium B.C. Nineveh (modern Kuyunjik), about 60 miles N of Asshur, was the later capital of the Assyrian Empire. Excavated by modern archaeology from the mound of its oblivion, it was in ancient times, the centre of a complex of cities including Calah, 18 miles South; Resen, between Calah and Nineveh proper; and Rehoboth-Ir (Rebit-Ninua), West of the capital. Other Hamitic Nations—Descendants of Egypt, 10:13-14, are Ludim (thought to be Lubim, Libyans, a tribe West of the Delta), the Anamim, Lehabim, Naphtuhim and Casluhim (all obscure). The Pathrusim are inhabitants of Ptores, Upper Egypt. Caphtorim are dwellers of Kaptara or Caphtor (Crete). The Philistines, an Aryan people, are abundantly illustrated in the surviving monuments. They invaded South East Palestine from the sea en masse in the 12th century B.C.

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Fig.14. Noah Curses Canaan (Gustave Doré, 1855)

Other Descendants of Canaan, 10:15-20. Sidon (the oldest Phoenician city, 22 miles North of Tyre) represents the Phoenicians (Sidonians): Heth was ancestor of the Hittites, an ancient imperial people of Asia Minor with capital at Hattushash (Boghazkeui) on the Halys River. The Jebusites settled in Jebus, the old name of Jerusalem (Josh 15:63; Judg 19:10-11; 1 Chr 11:4) before David’s conquest (2 Sam 5:6-7).

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2 Samuel 5: 6 And the king and his men went to Jerusalem against the Jeb’usites, the inhabitants of the land, who said to David, “You will not come in here, but the blind and the lame will ward you off”—thinking, “David cannot come in here.” 7 Nevertheless David took the stronghold of Zion, that is, the city of David.

The Amorite (“Westerner”) was applied by Babylonians in the sense of alien or foreigner to the inhabitants of Syria-Palestine. The Girgashite and Hivite were Canaanite tribes, which remain obscure archaeologically. The Arkite is represented by Tell Arka, 80 miles North of Sidon (Irkata in the Amarna Letters). The Sinite (Assyrian Siannu) is mentioned by TiglathPileser III as a seacoast town. The Arvadite denotes the inhabitants of Arvad, 25 miles North of Arka (Arwada in the Amarna Letters). The Semarite alludes to the people of Simura (Simuros) six miles North of Arvad. The Hamathite represents the inhabitants of Hamath on the Orontes, excavated 1932-39. The Descendants of Shem, 10:21-31. These made up the central nations. The special importance of the progeny of Shem in salvation history is attested by their double introduction to that section of the Table of the Nations that deals with their genealogy and the solemn language employed (10:21-22). Their languages included Eastern Semitic or Akkadian (Babylonian and Assyrian); North Semitic (Aramaic and Syriac; Northwest Semitic, Ugaritic, Phoenician, Hebrew, Moabite); South Semitic (Arabic, Sabaean, Minaean and Ethiopic). Shem is designated “the father of all the children of Eber”. Eber includes all the Arabian tribes (10:25-30), as well as Israelites (11:16-26), Ishmaelites, Midianites (25:2) and Edomites. The name Eber (“the other side, across”) denotes either (1) those came from “beyond the River” (Euphrates), i.e., Haran (Josh 24:2-3, ASV), or (2) those connected with the Habiru (‘Apiru) well known from archaeological records (especially from the Amarna Tablets). Elam is Susiana, capital Susa (Shushan, Neh 1:1; Est 2:8), excavated levels going back to 4000 B.C. Asshur is Assyria, founded by Hamites (Gen 10:11), but Semites overran the country. Arpachshad (ASV) is probably Arrapachitis North East of Nineveh. Lud (Lyd with Semitic affinities was established by a dynasty of Akkadian princes of Asshur after 2000 B.C. Aram (Aramaeans) became important people in Haran in the Habur River region of Mesopotamia and later established states in Zobah, Maacah, Geshur, Beth-Rehob and Damascus. They were conquered by David. Uz (cf. Aramaeans South of Damascus), Hul, Gether and Mash are

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Aramaean desert tribes. Descendants of Arpachshad were Shelah, Eber, Peleg and thirteen Arabian tribes through Joktan (Arabia). Descendants of Joktan were Arabian tribes. Almodad and Sheba, are uncertain. Hazarmaveth is present-day Hadramaut in south Arabia, East of Aden. Jerah, Hadoram, Uzal, Diklah, Obal and Ab: are all archaic and unidentified. Sheba is a people of south Arabia, capital Mariaba (Saba), 200 miles N of modern Aden, Ophir, famous for its gold (Job 22:24; Ps 45:9; Is 13:12) and Solomon’s exotic trade (1 Kgs 9:28), is variously placed in India or coastal Africa. Havilah is perhaps different from that of 10:7. If it is the same, the Hamites held it previous to the Semitic Joktanites. 1 Kings 9: 26 King Solomon built a fleet of ships at E’zion-ge’ber, which is near Eloth on the shore of the Red Sea, in the land of Edom. 27 And Hiram sent with the fleet his servants, seamen who were familiar with the sea, together with the servants of Solomon; 28 and they went to Ophir, and brought from there gold, to the amount of four hundred and twenty talents; and they brought it to King Solomon.

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Genesis 11 1 Now the whole earth had one language and few words. 2 And as men migrated from the east, they found a plain in the land of Shinar and settled there. 3 And they said to one another, “Come, let us make bricks, and burn them thoroughly.” And they had brick for stone, and bitumen for mortar. 4 Then they said, “Come, let us build ourselves a city, and a tower with its top in the heavens, and let us make a name for ourselves, lest we be scattered abroad upon the face of the whole earth.” 5 And the LORD came down to see the city and the tower, which the sons of men had built. 6 And the LORD said, “Behold, they are one people, and they have all one language; and this is only the beginning of what they will do; and nothing that they propose to do will now be impossible for them. 7 Come, let us go down, and there confuse their language, that they may not understand one another’s speech.” 8 So the LORD scattered them abroad from there over the face of all the earth, and they left off building the city. 9 Therefore its name was called Ba’bel, because there the LORD confused

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the language of all the earth; and from there the LORD scattered them abroad over the face of all the earth. 10 These are the descendants of Shem. When Shem was a hundred years old, he became the father of Arpach’shad two years after the flood; 11 and Shem lived after the birth of Arpach’shad five hundred years, and had other sons and daughters. 12 When Arpach’shad had lived thirty-five years, he became the father of Shelah; 13 and Arpach’shad lived after the birth of Shelah four hundred and three years, and had other sons and daughters. 14 When Shelah had lived thirty years, he became the father of Eber; 15 and Shelah lived after the birth of Eber four hundred and three years, and had other sons and daughters. 16 When Eber had lived thirty-four years, he became the father of Peleg; 17 and Eber lived after the birth of Peleg four hundred and thirty years, and had other sons and daughters. 18 When Peleg had lived thirty years, he became the father of Re’u; 19 and Peleg lived after the birth of Re’u two hundred and nine years, and had other sons and daughters. 20 When Re’u had lived thirty-two years, he became the father of Serug; 21 and Re’u lived after the birth of Serug two hundred and seven years, and had other sons and daughters. 22 When Serug had lived thirty years, he became the father of Nahor; 23 and Serug lived after the birth of Nahor two hundred years, and had other sons and daughters. 24 When Nahor had lived twenty-nine years, he became the father of Terah; 25 and Nahor lived after the birth of Terah a hundred and nineteen years, and had other sons and daughters. 26 When Terah had lived seventy years, he became the father of Abram, Nahor, and Haran. 27 Now these are the descendants of Terah. Terah was the father of Abram, Nahor, and Haran; and Haran was the father of Lot. 28 Haran died before his father Terah in the land of his birth, in Ur of the Chalde’ans. 29 And Abram and Nahor took wives; the name of Abram’s wife was Sar’ai, and the name of Nahor’s wife, Milcah, the daughter of Haran the father of Milcah and Iscah. 30 Now Sar’ai was barren; she had no child. 31 Terah took Abram his son and Lot the son of Haran, his grandson, and Sar’ai his daughter-in-law, his son Abram’s wife, and they went forth

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together from Ur of the Chalde’ans to go into the land of Canaan; but when they came to Haran, they settled there. 32 The days of Terah were two hundred and five years; and Terah died in Haran. ____________________________________________________________

2.8 Genesis 11—The Tower of Babel Delimitation of the Text The story is sandwiched between genealogies. There is also an inclusion: language, one (11:1) and many (11:9). The Building of the Tower, 11:1-4. Noah’s descendants spoke language, 11:1. They journeyed eastward (that is, south eastwards): to the mountains of Ararat (Urartu, Armenia; cf. Gen 8:4), and the garden spot of the very fertile alluvial plain of Babylonia (Shinar between the Tigris and the Euphrates, about the last 200 miles of their course before they enter the sea). The rich silt of these great rivers built up this ideal location for the cradle of diluvian civilization and the Babel builders (11:2). After a long period of sedentary occupation in southern Babylonia, and during the life span of Eber’s son Peleg (Gen 10:25), which apparently occurred well before 4000 B.C., the human race had multiplied sufficiently and developed arts and crafts to a degree that allowed them to build a city and “a tower with its top in heaven”. This is not mere hyperbole, but an expression of pride (“make us a name”) and rebellion against God and His explicit command to “replenish the earth” (Gen 9: 1). Self-glory, instead of God’s glory, and man-made unity to replace the unity forfeited by abandoning the fear of God were evidenced. Brick (sun-dried clay) and slime/mortar (bitumen) were ready materials in the alluvial soil of the plain, 11:3. The Confusion of Languages, 11:5-9. Babylon was undoubtedly one of the most polyglot cities in the ancient world, and the localization of the beginning of human languages there was effective. The confusion of languages was a divine judgement upon the pride and rebellion of the Babel-builders and effected their dissemination over the earth. But it was a divine act, and the precise way it was accomplished is not revealed. Gen 10 explaining the diversity of races is much later than the events of 11:1-9.

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Narrative Analysis The story operates as a conflict with solution, or misdemeanour and verdict. The moments of the story i) Exposition (1:1-3): men come from the East ii) Complication (11:4): and build a city iii) Turning point (11:5): God comes down iv) Resolution (11:7-8): God decides to confuse language and scatter the people v) Conclusion (11:9): Therefore the name of the city is Babel.

Narrative Reflection There is a difference between telling and showing. To tell is to intervene clearly and purposefully, to judge, to provide a system of values. Here it is very rare: showing is more important than telling. Only in Gen 11:9 can we feel the presence of a narrator when he describes the name of the city. It is not said that they did anything wrong: rab is not found in the text. We surmise the wrongdoing from the text. The men who attempt to build the tower to God are not so much guilty of the ‘sin of pride’: they seek only to get back home and recover their lost innocence that they rightly associate with God. But such a rational road leads only away from the old earthly home towards death. Their strategy is wrong in supposing they can get to heaven by putting one brick on top of another. Death is inevitable anyway, and all they can hope to do is to forestall eventual decline and mortality. The strategy also carries a downside. The tower may glorify its builders, but it also isolates them The narrative conflict of the Flood involves Noah. This is resolved when all the elements involved from the first are solved: when God remembers Noah. The restoration of the universe will begin. In the Tower, God comes down and will approve or disapprove. Will they be able to continue with the Tower or not?

Style Gen 11 is a case study of style in the Bible. It presents a number of typical stylistic features: inclusion, repetition, alliteration, and pun. These can be found in most Biblical narration.

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1) Inclusion A phrase or word at the beginning is repeated at the end. The unity of language (11:1) is picked up at the end when the opposite is described (11:9). The theme is repeated in 11:6. Inclusion is not just a word or expression at the beginning and end, but also a thematic linking to the concerns of the story. 2) Repetition There are other repetitions in this text: i) unity and dispersion ii) understanding iii) the name —They build a city and Tower to preserve unity, and then they are paradoxically scattered. The concept of ’understanding’ (habah) (from hebin, “to understand”) is repeated several times. The undertaking, building, bricks, confusion are all linked. —’Name’ is invariably followed by ‘there’: shem and sham. — They settled ‘there’ and wanted to make themselves a ‘name’. This will be ‘Babel’, confusion. Sham will not be a place of unity, but of confusion. The new name will not be what they wanted. 3) Alliteration This is called paranomasia, the use of words with similar sounds and different meanings. The main instances are in 11:3, 7, 9 where there are grammatical forms with nun. J. P. Fokkelmann sees a chiastic pun between ‘brick’ (lebenah) and ‘confusion’ (wenablah).37 l—b—n n—b—l The order of the letters is reversed, like the expectation. The pun is the gist of the story. 4) Puns 11:3 is full of puns: ‘bricks’ (lebenah) instead of ‘stones’ (eben), ‘pitch’ or ‘bitumen’ (chomer) instead of ‘slime’ (chemar). Another set of puns are sham, shem and shamayim (heavens). It is there that they want to make a name for themselves and reach heaven. 37

J. P. Fokkelmann, Narrative Art in Genesis (Assen, 1975).

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The function of the stylistic features The inclusion reflects the arc of the story: from unity to confusion. There is an explanation of why people united at the beginning are confused at the end. People wanted to be united, but end up with the opposite. The repetition highlights the discrepancy between their intentions and God’s plan or decision. In the last sentence the narrator describes the intention. The puns underline the progress of the story. The names must remain in memory as keys. The elements are put together in 11:9.

Why does the Bible use puns? All the sounds are similar, and engender a pleasing recurrence and similarity, the same music from beginning to the end. The meaning gives a strong opposition: unity is wanted, but they are scattered. The link between the two parts is cause and effect. The unity between the cause and effect is the use of puns. The misdemeanour and the punishment are likened in imminent justice: to sow the wind is to harvest the storm (Hosea 8:7 For they sow the wind, and they shall reap the whirlwind). The people want unity but confusion is at the root of their plans, the real fruit of endeavour.

Structure 1) Symmetrical parallelism There is parallelism between the people’s activity and God’s activity 2) Concentricism This reveals the reversal of the plans. Structure must enlighten meaning.

The Meaning of the Text There are two movements: 1) from one place to another—horizontal; from there we move upwards—vertical 2) God comes down and scatters them: vertical then horizontal.

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The movement can be summarized in two images: —the City (horizontal) —the Tower (vertical) Together they constitute the union of opposites. Cities are built in squares (a summary of the universe, like the Ark and the Temple) with crossing streets in the centre. Cosmos and mankind are in the same place. The Tower is to unite earth and heaven. All temples or churches have campaniles. The people do not succeed, the Tower does not reach heaven, God intervenes and scatters them.

Why did they not succeed? The place where heaven and earth meet is the place where God comes down. Man cannot reach heaven, but must have a temple where the two realms can meet. Compare this with Jacob’s Dream where the ladder extends to heaven, and God comes down (Gen 28:10-17). 10 Jacob left Beer-sheba, and went toward Haran. 11 And he came to a certain place, and stayed there that night, because the sun had set. Taking one of the stones of the place, he put it under his head and lay down in that place to sleep. 12 And he dreamed that there was a ladder set up on the earth, and the top of it reached to heaven; and behold, the angels of God were ascending and descending on it! 13 And behold, the LORD stood above it and said, “I am the LORD, the God of Abraham your father and the God of Isaac; the land on which you lie I will give to you and to your descendants; 14 and your descendants shall be like the dust of the earth, and you shall spread abroad to the west and to the east and to the north and to the south; and by you and your descendants shall all the families of the earth bless themselves. 15 Behold, I am with you and will keep you wherever you go, and will bring you back to this land; for I will not leave you until I have done that of which I have spoken to you.” 16 Then Jacob awoke from his sleep and said, “Surely the LORD is in this place; and I did not know it.” 17 And he was afraid, and said, “How awesome is this place! This is none other than the house of God, and this is the gate of heaven.”

See also Ex 3:7-10 (I have come down to deliver them out of the hand of the Egyptians), and again in Sinai (Ex 19). Jesus is the temple where God comes down to man (Jn 2:19-22 But he spoke of the temple of his body):

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the tent pitched among us (Jn 1:14). Here mankind can be united (cf. Is 2, Micah 4): man can go to the mountain where God comes down, and all nations can unite. Isaiah 2:2 It shall come to pass in the latter days that the mountain of the house of the LORD shall be established as the highest of the mountains, and shall be raised above the hills; and all the nations shall flow to it,

Where man tries to achieve, build or to invent unity, he is doomed to failure. Unity is given, a gift, in Abraham in whom all nations will be blessed (Gen 12:3).

Archaeological Light The Tower of Babel is illuminated by the gigantic artificial mountains of sun-dried bricks in southern Babylonia called ziggurats (AssyrianBabylonian word ziqquratu, meaning “pinnacle” or “mountain top”). The oldest recovered ziggurat (one of more than two dozen known today) is at ancient Uruk (Erech, Gen 10:10; modern Warka). It was a vast pile of clay buttressed on the exterior with brick and asphalt (bitumen), like similar ziggurats at Borsippa, Uruk and Babylon. Built in stages, three to seven stories high, they were varicoloured. On the topmost stage, the shrine and image of the city’s patron deity were housed. The tower of Genesis 11 is depicted as the first such tower attempted, and a symbol of man’s revolt and rebellion against God. The polytheistic use of later towers, copies of the original, exemplified the idolatry so characteristic of the Sumerians and the later Semitic Babylonians of the plain of Shinar.

The Languages of Babel and the Origins of the Story The ancient mind seems to have thought that the priceless facility of language was possessed by mankind from the beginning, and was even shared with the animals, like the talking serpent in Eden (Gen 3:1-5).The origins of the Babel Story can probably be traced to the deep impression produced by the great city of Babylon on the simple minds of Semitic nomads, who, fresh from solitude and silence in the desert, were bewildered by the hubbub of the streets and bazaars, the colours of the bustling crowds, the din of voices conversing in unknown tongues, and overawed by the height of the buildings, above all by the altitude of the temples, towering terrace upon terrace, as the glistening enamelled brick seem to touch the clouds. Scaling such a ponderous pile must have seemed

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like approaching the gods.38 Genealogy from Shem to Abram, 11:10-32. Ten names are recorded. These are apparently selective. The genealogy (like the ten names from Adam to Noah in Gen 5) is symmetrically and telescopically curtailed because: 1) The period of 427 years covered in the Hebrew Bible and 1307 in the Septuagint is too brief in relation to the known contemporary history in Egypt and Babylon. 2) There is no evidence of a world-encompassing flood in excavated sites before at least 4500 or 5000 B.C.

Fig.15. The Tower of Babel (Babylonian ziggurut) 38 See James G. Frazer, “The Tower of Babel” in Folklore in the Old Testament, pp. 143-152, esp. 146.

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3) Symmetry and abbreviation are characteristic of Biblical genealogies. 4) The bare thread of the Messianic line alone is apparently intended, with representative names: Shem, Arpachshad, Shelah, Eber, Peleg, Reu, Serug, Nahor, Terah, Abram.

Reflection on Creation and the Fall: Primordial Symbolism and the Doctrine of Original Sin “People are religious to the extent that they believe themselves to be not so much imperfect, as sick. Anyone who is half-way decent will think himself utterly imperfect, but the religious person thinks himself wretched.” (Ludwig Wittgenstein, Culture and Value, 1977)39

Looking back over the opening chapters of Genesis with the mysterious beauties of Creation, the concomitant presence of disruption, imperfection, incompleteness or sin, remain the enduring perplexity in attempts to understand the world. Suffering, pain and death are woven into the fabric of the human condition. Creation was found to be good by God, according to Genesis. So where does evil come from? In his Confessions, Augustine says: “I sought whence evil comes and there was no solution”. Thus started his painful quest.40 The mystery of evil is clarified only in the light of faith and religion (2 Thess 2:7; I Tim 3:16; CCC 385).41 This question engaged the young Augustine, and he embraced the dualism inherent in Manicheism for some nine years. His conversion to Christianity took him via Platonism, Cicero’s Hortensius42 and the Scriptures. He came to feel that the root cause of man’s fallen state was due to disobedience and pride, with “pride…the beginning of sin”. Mankind created in God’s image was called to share in God’s friendship, but choose to disobey God’s call.43 This explanation became the doctrine of Original Sin elaborated by 39

Culture and Value is a selection from the personal notes of Ludwig Wittgenstein made by Georg Henrik von Wright. It was first published in German as Vermischte Bemerkungen (1977) and the text was emended in following editions. An English translation by Peter Winch was printed in 1980, and reprinted in 1984. Ten years later Alois Pichler revised the original edition, and the resulting version was published in 1998 with a new translation by Peter Winch (1998). 40 Augustine, Confessions, 7.5; 7.7, pp. 138, 142. 41 Catechism of the Catholic Church (Geoffrey Chapman,1994). 42 Hortensius or “On Philosophy” is a lost dialogue written by Marcus Tullius Cicero in the year 45 BC. The work taught that genuine human happiness is to be found by using and embracing philosophy. 43 Gerald O'Collins SJ, Jesus Our Redeemer A Christian Approach to Salvation (Oxford University Press, 2007), p. 299.

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Augustine which has influenced Western Christianity down the ages. There has been a strong and rich Patristic tradition on this topic, expressed in solidarity with humankind in salvation history. In the Sub-Apostolic Age the concept of Original Sin was developed by Theophilus, Cyrian, Tatian, Ignatius of Antioch and Irenaeus (with his concept of the recapitulation of all things in Christ).44 The German theologian Walter Kasper says the doctrine is one of the greatest achievements in the history of theology, and one of the most important contributions of Christianity to the history of ideas.45 The Church teaches that Original Sin is a revealed truth inaccessible to unaided reason alone, a mystery forming part of the chiaroscuro of faith. So how much of the doctrine is Scripturally based? The classic formulation by Augustine is coloured by the anti-Pelagian polemic. There has been a loss of integrity and there is a disharmony which is present in the world we live in, manifested in our falling short of our ideals in practical living.46 Paul encapsulates the existential dilemma in Rom 7:14-23: 14 We know that the law is spiritual; but I am carnal, sold under sin. 15 I do not understand my own actions. For I do not do what I want, but I do the very thing I hate. 16 Now if I do what I do not want, I agree that the law is good. 17 So then it is no longer I that do it, but sin which dwells within me. 18 For I know that nothing good dwells within me, that is, in my flesh. I can will what is right, but I cannot do it. 19 For I do not do the good I want, but the evil I do not want is what I do. 20 Now if I do what I do not want, it is no longer I that do it, but sin which dwells within me. 21 So I find it to be a law that when I want to do right, evil lies close at hand. 22 For I delight in the law of God, in my inmost self, 23 but I see in my members another law at war with the law of my mind and making me captive to the law of sin which dwells in my members.

Paul links (and laments) the origin of the evil tendency with the notion of death: Wretched man that I am. Who will deliver me from this body of death? Death here is not only a separation of body and soul, but a consequence of the state of sinfulness. The source of this spiritual death is in Adam, just as the source of spiritual life is in Christ: For as in Adam all 44 Henry Bettenson (ed.), The Early Christian Fathers (Oxford University Press, 1956, 1974), pp. 81-82; J.N.D. Kelly, Early Christian Doctrine (1960; rev. ed. A. & C. Black, 1968), p. 171. 45 Walter Kasper, Jesus the Christ (Paulist Press, 1978), p. 204. 46 Edward Yarnold, The Theology of Original Sin (The Mercier Press, 1972), p. 23.

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die, so also in Christ shall all be made alive (l Cor 15:22). Paul expands on this contrast between the work of Adam and Christ in Roman 5:12-21: As sin came into the world through one man and death through sin, and so death spread to all men because all men sinned. The sin of Adam (an act, peccatum originale originans) is inherited as a consequence of this by all Adam’s human offspring (a state, peccatum originale originatum). Paul is teaching a doctrine of an inherited tendency to sin (the evil heart) or concupiscence. The Church endorses a concept of inherited guilt, and the redeeming act of Christ as a free gift totally undeserved: While we were enemies we were reconciled to God (Rom 5:10). Romans 11:32 reinforces the concept of inherited guilt: God has consigned all men to disobedience that he may have mercy upon all. According to the doctrine, the first humans were endowed with preternatural gifts (beyond nature) and also supernatural gifts (above nature), sanctifying grace. Through lack of belief, disobedience and pride they lost these. Emotion was sundered from reason as the body lost its oneness with the soul, forfeited grace by rebellion. The top link in the “chain of command” was broken and the whole state of harmony (or “Original Justice”) collapsed, as Thomas Aquinas saw it.47 Adam lost God’s favour, and passed on human nature deprived of these gifts. With the loss of Original Justice, the control of the soul’s spiritual faculties over the body is broken (CCC 400). Mankind also became subject to suffering, toil, and death. John Henry Newman came to conclude that the human race was implicated in some original calamity.48 Since the Fall of our first parents, all humanity is tainted by a tendency towards sin: because of this our intellect is flawed and subject to our carnal appetites (as symbolized in the “eating” of the fruit of the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil). We are as a result prone to the triple concupiscence of the pleasure of the senses, covetousness of earthly goods, and self assertion (CCC 377; 1 Jn 2:16). The most natural of human functions became burdensome and fraught: In pain you shall bring forth children...you are dust and to dust you shall return (Gen 3:16.19). The separation from God, i.e. sin, is described as the guilt or stain on the soul 47

St Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica, III.1.3.ad 3. “And so I argue about the world;—if there be a God, since there is a God, the human race is implicated in some terrible aboriginal calamity. It is out of joint with the purposes of its Creator. This is a fact, a fact as true as the fact of its existence; and thus the doctrine of what is theologically called original sin becomes to me almost as certain as that the world exists, and as the existence of God” (John Henry Newman, Apologia Pro Vita Sua [London: Longman, Green, and Co, 1890], pp. 242-43). 48

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which was inherited from Adam. How? This can be understood simply as a figure of speech. The Council of Trent uses the phrase “by propagation and not by imitation” to emphasize human solidarity, to stress conversely that Christ is therefore the Redeemer of every single human being.49 Sin has to be viewed in a wider context of grace to be properly understood. Where sin abounded grace abounded all the more (Rom 5:20 cf. CCC 386). Man’s tendency to sin is an inherited disposition: Behold, I was brought forth in iniquity, and in my sin my mother conceived me (as observed in the Miserere, Ps 51:1); Who can bring a clean thing out of unclean? There is not one! (Job 14:4); If thou o Lord should mark guilt, Lord, who would survive?” (Ps 130:3). Ben-Sirach, with mitochrondrial emphasis, blames Eve for all our woes: From a woman sin had its beginning, and because of her all die! (Sir/Ecclus 25:24).50 Ecclesiasticus and Wisdom depict a world which has fallen from its original immortality and is now liable to death. The Psalmist sees death as a tragic necessity to be accepted only with resignation (Ps 39:4-7). We see here a notion of the inherited consequence of sin, aggravated by the individual’s personal failings, which receives increasing prominence in the prophets Ezekiel and Jeremiah. Death is perceived as a fact of man’s existence, if not a curse, then a profound sadness. The promised new age does not represent man as immortal but as immune from premature death (Isaiah 65:17-20). 17 “For behold, I create new heavens and a new earth; and the former things shall not be remembered or come into mind. 18 But be glad and rejoice for ever in that which I create; for behold, I create Jerusalem a rejoicing, and her people a joy. 19 I will rejoice in Jerusalem, and be glad in my people; no more shall be heard in it the sound of weeping and the cry of distress. 20 No more shall there be in it an infant that lives but a few days, or an old man who does not fill out his days, for the child shall die a hundred years old, and the sinner a hundred years old shall be accursed.

These ideas are expounded in Genesis 1—11, especially in the 49 The Council of Trent, Session V (17 June 1546) On Original Sin (C. Tr. V. 238). See Henry Bettenson (ed.), Documents of the Christian Church (Oxford University Press, 1963, 1975), p. 262: “1. Adam, when he had transgressed the command of God in Paradise, straightway lost that holiness and righteousness that had been established; 2. …death and the pains of the body were transferred to the whole human race; 3.the sin of Adam which in origin is one…has been transmitted to all mankind by propagation….” 50 In the field of human genetics, the name Mitochondrial Eve refers to the matrilineal most recent common ancestor (MRCA), in a direct, unbroken, maternal line.

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Creation Narratives. They are reflected on in the Wisdom Books, and in the Pauline Writings. The Yahwistic source of Genesis, written in ninth century B.C., whilst the later Priestly account in Gen l, written after the Babylonian Exile in the sixth century, depict Man living in a state of happiness before the Fall. He had access to the Tree of Life (Gen 2:3) and was immune to death (Gen 2:17). He had mastery over the animals and enjoyed the fruits of the earth. Nakedness caused him no shame, i.e. he was at peace with himself and made uncomplicated relationships with others. Noah’s drunkenness (Gen 9:21) and King David’s dance before the Ark of the Covenant (2 Sam 6:20) illustrate that nakedness is subsequently seen as a source of shame in both the naked and those who see them. For the Hebrews, the Fall led to a loss of harmony, and we were weakened by the yetzer-hara’, analogous to the beast crouching at the guilty Cain’s door (Gen 4:7), a tendency towards evil (Gen 6:5 The LORD saw that the wickedness of man was great in the earth, and that every intention of the thoughts of his heart was only evil continually).51 Later the Lord informs Joshua, leading the People into the Promised Land: Israel has sinned; they have transgressed my covenant, which I commanded them, they have taken some of the devoted things, they have stolen and lied (Josh 7:1l). For the sin of one individual, Achan, Israel bore corporate responsibility and blame, and so suffered a defeat in war. From Gen 3 onwards the Yahwist worked out his theology of sin in detail with Cain and Abel, the Flood, Noah (Gen 8:21), Babel, from where the Lord scattered them abroad over the face of the earth (Gen 11:4-9). Genesis illustrates how sin advances gradually, steadily, inexorably. It has a history. The avalanche of disruption and sin before and after the Flood continues and accounts for the progressive separation between Creator and his human creatures, caused by sin. The cherubim with the flaming sword at the door of the Garden (Gen 3:24) symbolizes the need for repentance, conversion, and purification. Since Man is the acme of creation, in his fall the harmony that existed with nature fell with him. The whole cosmos was implicated. The boundaries between heaven and earth were broken, as with the narrative of the Nephilim (Gen 6:4). The revelation of primordial sin underpins the mystery of redemption in the Anointed One, the Messiah, germane to the prophetic New Heaven and the New Earth. The doctrine of Original Sin is the dark side of the 51 The yetzer hara’ signifies the inner impulse or tendency within the human heart to gravitate toward selfish gratification (the word yetzer first appears in Genesis 6:5 where the wickedness of man is described as “every imagination [impulse, intention] of the thoughts of his heart was only evil continually”). The yetzer hatov, on the other hand, represents the inner impulse to do good.

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Evangel, the Good News, announced as soon as the Fall occurred; also called the Proto-Evangelium (Gen 3:15 cf. CCC 410). This is the tacit assurance of God’s saving love amidst the curses following Adam and Eve’s disobedience, and always identified by the Church as prefiguring the Gospel: I will put enmity between you and the woman, and between your seed and her seed; he shall bruise your head, and you shall bruise his heel.

In the New Testament Jesus is the New Adam who undergoes the Fall. But here Jesus triumphed through obedience overcoming self-assertion or pride (Heb 5:8-10). Augustine’s conception of sin is centered on the egotistical love of self associated with a deep unwillingness to love God. Quoting Sirach10:13 For the beginning of pride is sin, and the man who clings to it pours out abominations. Therefore the Lord brought upon them extraordinary afflictions, and destroyed them utterly

Augustine observes: “And what is pride but the beginning of undue exaltation?”.52 In Jesus’ Temptation in the Wilderness, before his public ministry, the evangelist Mark suggests that His resistance to Satan undoes Adam’s succumbing to Satan (the Serpent), by hinting at the restoration of harmony between man, the angels, and the animals (Mk 1:12-13), a transformation of the Wilderness, the place of testing and endurance, into a new Garden of Eden: 12 The Spirit immediately drove him out into the wilderness. 13 And he was in the wilderness forty days, tempted by Satan; and he was with the wild beasts; and the angels ministered to him.

John tells us that Jesus’ Passion began in a garden (Jn 19:41). At his trial, Pontius Pilate presents Jesus to the people as the archetypal man Ecce Homo (“Behold the Man!”, Jn 19:5), who now embodies the Second Adam. On coming to the tomb on the third day, Mary Magdalene mistakes Jesus for the gardener. At a deeper level she recognizes him as the divine gardener who established human nature in Eden and has re-created it in a new Eden, the garden of the resurrection (Jn 15:1; 19:5; 20:15). Here we sense a hint of the eschaton, of the New Earth and the New Heaven foretold in Isaiah and in the Apocalypse where Christ is the “light” of the 52

Augustine, The City of God (Penguin Books, 1972), XIV:28, p. 593.

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heavenly Jerusalem (Rev 21:23). His mother Mary is presented as the New Eve, an idea first expounded by Tertullian.53 Just as the first Adam named Eve “Woman” (Gen 2:23), so Jesus names Mary “Woman” (Jn 2:4; 19:26) with archetypical implication. At that time He says “O woman, what have you to do with me! My hour has not yet come” (Jn 2:3). By persuading Jesus to work this first miracle at the Wedding Feast at Cana, Mary is sending Jesus on his journey that leads him to his Hour, when he undoes the world’s sin, just as Eve had silently persuaded Adam into the first sin. “They have no wine,” she says, Mary, the New Eve, actually speaking on behalf of all the living. Jesus also addresses Mary as “Woman” as she stands at the foot of the cross sharing in his obedience (Jn 19:26-27 cf. Lk 2:35), as He provides His bride, the Church, and indeed the whole of humanity, with all the wine they need (cf. Lk 22:17-18). 54 17 And he took a cup, and when he had given thanks he said, “Take this, and divide it among yourselves; 18 for I tell you that from now on I shall not drink of the fruit of the vine until the kingdom of God comes.”

53 Tertullian, De Carne Christi: The Eve-Mary Antithesis. See Henry Bettenson (ed.), The Early Christian Fathers (1956; Oxford University Press, 1974), pp. 12627. 54 The nexus of primordial Edenic symbolism, and its theological extrapolation, are captured in the ancient prayer, the Salve Regina: “Hail, holy Queen, Mother of mercy, hail, our life, our sweetness and our hope. To thee do we cry, poor banished children of Eve: to thee do we send up our sighs, mourning and weeping in this vale of tears. Turn then, most gracious Advocate, thine eyes of mercy toward us, and after this our exile, show unto us the blessed fruit of thy womb, Jesus, O merciful, O loving, O sweet Virgin Mary! Amen.”

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Fig.16. The Confusion of Tongues (Gustave Doré, 1855)

C. PATRIARCHAL NARRATIVE: HUMAN DISCORD AND THE GRACE OF RECONCILIATION JACOB AND ESAU: GENESIS 32—33

The blessing of all men and the covenant he made to rest upon the head of Jacob; he acknowledged him with his blessings, and gave him his inheritance; he determined his portions, and distributed them among twelve tribes. (Sirach 44:23)

3. GENESIS 32—33: A NEW NAME AND A MATTER OF RECONCILIATION

Abraham, the great Patriarch and Our Father in Faith (cf. The Roman Canon, 95), dominates Genesis from chapters 12 to 25. Abraham takes a huge leap forward in the depiction of the human relationship to God. The independent decisions of Abraham and his nephew Lot are aspects of a new stage in the development of human potential. Even though Abraham has direct communication from the Creator of the Universe (Gen 15, 17, 18), he questions whether it is correct, as when he bargains with God about the possible righteous remnant in Sodom (Gen 18:23-33).1 But all these steps are outdone in another two generations by Abraham’s grandson Jacob, the man whose very name is changed by God to Israel. Of his twin sons, Isaac had favoured the elder Esau (Gen 25:28). But Rebekah their mother directs her favourite, the younger Jacob, to pose as Esau, and thus deceive his father into giving the blessing meant for Esau. The deception works, Jacob is not only blessed with preeminence, but the Lord declares his fidelity to him (Gen 27:29). The succession has been determined, but by a series of compromised human decisions—dynamics in the family relationships, with conflicting parental preferences, sibling rivalry, and human manipulation that is morally questionable. But this situation is tacitly accepted by the Lord of the Universe. Now, twenty years later, the man Jacob struggles with God (Gen 32:25-33). The situation depicts a physical contact between a man and a being who in some ways is a concrete expression of the divine. In the story the presence of God seems gradually to diminish. But it is not just the story of the contact with divinity, but of a man having to fight God. Every aspect of the story is extraordinary: that God should fight with a human at all, that the human should prevail, that the human demands to be blessed, and that the Deity acquiesces with blessing and a change of name reflecting these amazing developments.2 1

See Robert Letellier, Day in Mamre, Night in Sodom, 3.3 The Dialogue Between YHWH and Abraham, pp. 121-137. 2 Cf. Richard Elliot Friedman, The Hidden Face of God, pp. 33-38.

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Genesis 32 1 Jacob went on his way and the angels of God met him; 2 and when Jacob saw them he said, “This is God’s army!” So he called the name of that place Mahana’im. 3 And Jacob sent messengers before him to Esau his brother in the land of Se’ir, the country of Edom, 4 instructing them, “Thus you shall say to my lord Esau: Thus says your servant Jacob, ‘I have sojourned with Laban, and stayed until now; 5 and I have oxen, asses, flocks, menservants, and maidservants; and I have sent to tell my lord, in order that I may find favour in your sight.’” 6 And the messengers returned to Jacob, saying, “We came to your brother Esau, and he is coming to meet you, and four hundred men with him.” 7 Then Jacob was greatly afraid and distressed; and he divided the people that were with him, and the flocks and herds and camels, into two companies, 8 thinking, “If Esau comes to the one company and destroys it, then the company which is left will escape.” 9 And Jacob said, “O God of my father Abraham and God of my father Isaac, O LORD who didst say to me, ‘Return to your country and to your kindred, and I will do you good,’ 10 I am not worthy of the least of all the steadfast love and all the faithfulness which thou hast shown to thy servant, for with only my staff I crossed this Jordan; and now I have become two companies. 11 Deliver me, I pray thee, from the hand of my brother, from the hand of Esau, for I fear him, lest he come and slay us all, the mothers with the children. 12 But thou didst say, ‘I will do you good, and make your descendants as the sand of the sea, which cannot be numbered for multitude.’ “ 13 So he lodged there that night, and took from what he had with him a present for his brother Esau, 14 two hundred she-goats and twenty he-goats, two hundred ewes and twenty rams, 15 thirty milch camels and their colts, forty cows and ten bulls, twenty she-asses and ten he-asses. 16 These he delivered into the hand of his servants, every drove by itself, and said to his servants, “Pass on before me, and put a space between

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drove and drove.” 17 He instructed the foremost, “When Esau my brother meets you, and asks you, ‘To whom do you belong? Where are you going? And whose are these before you?’ 18 then you shall say, ‘They belong to your servant Jacob; they are a present sent to my lord Esau; and moreover he is behind us.’ “ 19 He likewise instructed the second and the third and all who followed the droves, “You shall say the same thing to Esau when you meet him, 20 and you shall say, ‘Moreover your servant Jacob is behind us.’ “ For he thought, “I may appease him with the present that goes before me, and afterwards I shall see his face; perhaps he will accept me.” 21 So the present passed on before him; and he himself lodged that night in the camp. 22 The same night he arose and took his two wives, his two maids, and his eleven children, and crossed the ford of the Jabbok. 23 He took them and sent them across the stream, and likewise everything that he had. 24 And Jacob was left alone; and a man wrestled with him until the breaking of the day. 25 When the man saw that he did not prevail against Jacob, he touched the hollow of his thigh; and Jacob’s thigh was put out of joint as he wrestled with him. 26 Then he said, “Let me go, for the day is breaking.” But Jacob said, “I will not let you go, unless you bless me.” 27 And he said to him, “What is your name?” And he said, “Jacob.” 28 Then he said, “Your name shall no more be called Jacob, but Israel, for you have striven with God and with men, and have prevailed.” 29 Then Jacob asked him, “Tell me, I pray, your name.” But he said, “Why is it that you ask my name?” And there he blessed him. 30 So Jacob called the name of the place Peni’el, saying, “For I have seen God face to face, and yet my life is preserved.” 31 The sun rose upon him as he passed Penu’el, limping because of his thigh.

Genesis 33 1 And Jacob lifted up his eyes and looked, and behold, Esau was coming, and four hundred men with him. So he divided the children among Leah and Rachel and the two maids. 2 And he put the maids with their children in front, then Leah with her children, and Rachel and Joseph last of all.

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3 He himself went on before them, bowing himself to the ground seven times, until he came near to his brother. 4 But Esau ran to meet him, and embraced him, and fell on his neck and kissed him, and they wept. 5 And when Esau raised his eyes and saw the women and children, he said, “Who are these with you?” Jacob said, “The children whom God has graciously given your servant.” 6 Then the maids drew near, they and their children, and bowed down; 7 Leah likewise and her children drew near and bowed down; and last Joseph and Rachel drew near, and they bowed down. 8 Esau said, “What do you mean by all this company which I met?” Jacob answered, “To find favor in the sight of my lord.” 9 But Esau said, “I have enough, my brother; keep what you have for yourself.” 10 Jacob said, “No, I pray you, if I have found favor in your sight, then accept my present from my hand; for truly to see your face is like seeing the face of God, with such favor have you received me. 11 Accept, I pray you, my gift that is brought to you, because God has dealt graciously with me, and because I have enough.” Thus he urged him, and he took it. 12 Then Esau said, “Let us journey on our way, and I will go before you.” 13 But Jacob said to him, “My lord knows that the children are frail, and that the flocks and herds giving suck are a care to me; and if they are overdriven for one day, all the flocks will die. 14 Let my lord pass on before his servant, and I will lead on slowly, according to the pace of the cattle which are before me and according to the pace of the children, until I come to my lord in Se’ir.” 15 So Esau said, “Let me leave with you some of the men who are with me.” But he said, “What need is there? Let me find favor in the sight of my lord.” 16 So Esau returned that day on his way to Se’ir. 17 But Jacob journeyed to Succoth, and built himself a house, and made booths for his cattle; therefore the name of the place is called Succoth. 18 And Jacob came safely to the city of Shechem, which is in the land of Canaan, on his way from Paddan-aram; and he camped before the city. 19 And from the sons of Hamor, Shechem’s father, he bought for a hundred pieces of money the piece of land on which he had pitched his tent. 20 There he erected an altar and called it El-El’ohe-Israel.

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Jacob as Hero Jacob’s story carries many of the traditional features of the life of the hero. He is the son of a wealthy patriarch, who has many herdsmen and slaves, he sets forth on a journey to find a bride. He goes alone and on foot, with no provisions for the journey. A solitary journey through desolate country, connected with, and usually leading to, a single combat with a mighty adversary, is a normal feature of the career of a hero. On the first day Jacob covers sixty miles before sunset, travelling via Hebron and Jerusalem, but avoiding all towns and villages, and lying without supper on a stone where he has a vision of heaven (in which angels ascend and descend a flight of steps connecting earth to heaven), an episode that carries the promise of a great destiny (Gen 28:12). His single combat with the Deity takes place on his return journey.3

Introduction and Origins Chapters 32 and 33 of the Book of Genesis constitute a single narrative whole, the resumption and the conclusion of the Esau and Jacob story. The text, while almost consistently Yahwist, contains elements of the Elohist tradition. Chapter 32 has J and E placed side by side with vv. 3-13a ascribed to J and vv. l3b-21 ascribed to E. The use of YHWH in v. 9 identifies J while the presence of E is inferred. The presence of doublets in vv. 22-23 (a double crossing of the river) and again in vv. 30 & 31 (the two names “Peniel” and “Penu’el” and the double etiology) could argue for two separate traditions, but on the whole scholars agree on the unity of the account which they attribute to J in spite of the unevenness which might well suggest a long prehistory. Chapter 33 is almost entirely from J with possible traces of E in vv. 5 & 11 where “God” (’Elohîm) is mentioned;4 although other scholars would go so far as to count vv. 4b, 5, 8-11 & 18 among those ascribable to E.5 There remains the problem of 32:1-2. Whereas the rest of the chapter bears the stamp of J, these two verses are manifestly from E.6 The 3

See Lord Raglan , The Hero: A Study in Tradition, Myth and Drama (London: Methuen, 1936), pp. 270-71. 4 Eugene Maly, “Genesis” in The Jerome Biblical Commentary (London, 1968), pp. 33-34. 5 Bruce Vawter, On Genesis. A New Reading (London, 1977), pp. 351-52. 6 E. A. Speiser, "Genesis" in The Anchor Bible (New York, 1964), p. 255.

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Septuagint (LXX) and the Vulgate (Vg.) have v. 1 as v. 55 of the preceding chapter. Indeed the two following verses may be as much read as the conclusion of Gen 31 as the introduction to a new story. But this short passage, perhaps originally part of a longer narrative used by E to describe the origin of the place named Mahanaim, indicates that Jacob has once again returned to the land specially blessed by God’s presence. The place is called Mahanaim (mahahayim, “the two camps”) because God’s “army” (i.e. “angels”) was encamped (mahaneh, “camp”) there. Jacob’s strange encounter is communicated in extreme brevity, four words of Hebrew. It could be seen as a deliberate interlude between the stories of Jacob in Haran and Jacob in Canaan. But the etiology refers to a town in the territory of Gilead, a Levitical city (Josh 21:38), a sanctuary or cult centre well inside what was later regarded as the territory of Israel.7 This fact, and the actual encounter with God’s messengers, point to the more likely significance of these mysterious verses as a prelude to the events of Gen 32—33, as well as for the whole Book of Genesis. Jacob is to know himself within that land in which God has chosen to be with his people.(Gen 15:17-21) When Jacob approaches the Promised Land, he also approaches God’s realm again. Outside, in foreign territory with Laban, his life lacks such appearances almost completely. The event here, while of the E tradition, an apparently mystifying interpolation, nevertheless has a strong inner relationship with the meeting at Penu’el (32:32) which is part of the J tradition. The subject matter of the entire narrative section was probably familiar to both sources. Thus a tiny incident in the whole Jacob tradition has been placed by the redactor as the symbolic prelude to a chapter, a section that as a whole is given over to encounters of one kind or another: actual and anticipated, sublime and trifling.8 This has something very important to say about the way in which Biblical authors worked. They used traditional material without always working through it completely, or refashioning it anew. Their kind of storytelling did not perhaps penetrate the mass of traditional materials with the same intellectual and thematic thoroughness as, say, Homer did. They are bound much more conservatively to what was handed down, even to its form, but sometimes they have inserted sections of such compactness and symbolic force that they determine the significance of the whole.9 In this they illustrate that biblical history in general, and Patriarchal history in particular, unfolds on two planes. At the one level, man is entangled in the 7

A. S. Herbert, Genesis 12-50 (London, 1962), p. 103. Speiser, “Genesis”, p. 256. 9 Gerhard von Rad, Genesis. A Commentary (London, 1963), p. 311. 8

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web of his transient personal affairs. At the higher level, the master plan of God can be glimpsed, who uses man as the unwitting tool of destiny.10 This pertains directly to the narrative unity of Gen 32 and 33, which, in spite of apparent lack of interaction in its parts, is in fact a closely structured whole, unfolding the divine purpose in the life of Jacob who is to be the father of his people. Every section has its place in the symbolic whole.

Narrative Summary The story unfolds as follows: Jacob leaves Laban, and on his way encounters the angels of God. He calls the name of the place Mahanaim. Jacob then sends messengers ahead of him to Esau in the land of Seir instructing them to inform his brother of his arrival with all his possessions and of his hope of finding favour with him. The messengers return and tell Jacob that Esau is coming to meet him, with four hundred men. Jacob, unable to discern Esau’s motives, but fearing the worst, is greatly afraid and distressed, and as a precaution divides his people and livestock into two groups to facilitate the escape of at least one group. Jacob then turns to the God of his fathers Abraham and Isaac in prayer, professing his unworthiness, requesting deliverance from the hand of Esau, and reminding Him of the promise to make his descendants as the sand of the sea (Gen 15:5). He lodges there for the night and selects a very generous gift of goats, she-camels, cattle and asses for Esau, which he gives into the hands of his servants, each type in a drove by itself. He instructs each drove to move off by itself and in a consecutive order, so that each will meet Esau one after the other, and each will tell Esau that it is a present for him from Jacob who is following after. In this way Jacob hopes to appease his brother so that “when I shall see his face” he will accept him. The same night Jacob takes his family and possessions and crosses the ford of the Jabbok. He is left alone and wrestles with a stranger until daybreak. When the Man is not able to overcome him, he puts Jacob’s thigh out of joint. But Jacob will not let him go until he blesses him. Once the stranger has asked his name, he tells Jacob that his name from henceforth will be ‘Israel’ since “he has striven with God and with men and has prevailed”. Jacob now asks the Man’s name, but the Man does not give it, blessing him instead. Jacob then calls the name of the place Peniel, since he says that he has seen God face to face and yet his life has been preserved. 10

Speiser, “Genesis”, p. 256.

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When the sun rises he limps away past Penu’el. It is then explained that this is the reason why the Israelites do not eat the sciatic nerve. Jacob now sees Esau coming with his four hundred men. He divides up his household into three successive lines, placing second wife Rachel and youngest son Joseph last of all. He then goes on before them, bowing to the ground seven times before his brother. Esau, however, runs to meet him, and they weep. Esau asks about the meaning of this great company, and Jacob expresses his wish of finding favour with his brother. Esau declines the gift, but Jacob presses him to accept it, since seeing his face has been like seeing the face of God, such is Esau’s graciousness. He is able to persuade Esau to accept the gift. Esau offers to accompany Jacob, but Jacob, mentioning the young age of his children and the fact that the flocks are suckling, urges Esau to go on before him. Esau offers to leave an escort but again Jacob declines and is able to convince Esau to go on his way. So Esau goes on to Seir, while Jacob journeys to Succoth and builds himself a house and booths for his cattle. Jacob comes safely to the city of Shechem in Canaan, and buys a piece of land from the sons of Hamor where he pitches his tent. Here he also erects an altar and calls it ’El-’Elo’he-yisra’el.

Structural Analysis This narrative unit is constructed out of a series of smaller cells each of which contributes dramatically and symbolically to the whole of the story and its meaning. First there is the overall structure. 1. Prologue (32:1-2). Jacob is met by the angels of God. He calls the place Mahanaim. 2. Exposition (32:3-8). Jacob sends messengers to Esau, who return with the news of Esau’s advent. Jacob divides his company into two parts. 3. Complication 1) (32:9-12). In his distress Jacob prays to God 2) (32:13-21). He is led to devise his plan of appeasement and sends off his gift to Esau in successive droves. 4. Turning Point (32:22-32). The symbolic issues at stake in Jacob’s return to Canaan, his relationship with God, his destiny as father of his people, his fears of crossing the threshold of the land into his new life, and his fear of meeting his brother, are all mystically subsumed and given new purpose and direction in his encounter with God. The sentence that captures the central theme of the whole story is 32:28-29: Then he said, “Your name shall no more be called Jacob, but Israel, for you have striven

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with God and with men and have prevailed.” Then Jacob asked him, “Tell me your name.” But he said, “Why is it that you ask me my name?” and then he blessed him. In this encounter Jacob finds God, is blessed, and is given a new identity, a new name, a new strength both for his life now, in his encounter with the Man and his brother Esau, and for the future. His fears of crossing the river are now resolved and he is able to do so. 5. Retardation (33:1-3). Jacob prepares himself and his family for the dreaded meeting with Esau who now comes, to be deferentially greeted by Jacob. 6. Denouement (33:4-11). This passage describes the actual encounter between the two brothers which has been the structural arc of tension since 32:3. Esau’s impulsive generosity and implicit forgiveness are contrasted with Jacob’s caution and elaborate persuasion of his brother to accept the gift he is offering. If one accepts a gift from another a relationship is created. Thus Esau’s acceptance of the gift in 32:11 sees the final resolution of the tension between the brothers. 7. Resolution (33:12-17). The release of tension in the reconciliation between the brothers is emphasised in Jacob’s new confidence and courteous but cautious declining of Esau’s company and offer of an escort. The final image of resolution is in the parting of the brothers, each to his own place of settlement. Jacob’s establishment of himself in Canaan is emphasised in the details given about Succoth. 8. Epilogue (33:18-20). Jacob’s newly attained safety and stability are given final symbolic fulfilment in his arrival at Shechem and his acquiring of his own land from the son of Hamor. The encampment of 32:2 is echoed in Jacob’s own camp before Shechem (33:18). God’s presence in the land of promise suggested in the Prologue is now given definitive recognition in the erection of an altar. The story thus unfolds with a strongly controlled sense of narrative tension and a symbolic structural concentrism. The prologue and epilogue frame the story and give a sense of presage (Jacob is to know himself within the land in which God has chosen to be with His people) and completion (Jacob has found himself in the land and has established himself there, his faith strengthened in ’El-’Elo’he-yisra’el). The story unfolds between these small frame stories, or Rahmengeschichten, in a series of encounters, be it of Jacob and Esau through messengers, Jacob and God in prayer, Jacob and God in the actual meeting at the Jabbok, and again Jacob and Esau finally in the reconciliation. The anticipated advent of the brothers, and their actual meeting surround the central mystical encounter with God.

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1. Jacob and the Angels of God at Mahanaim 2. Jacob anticipates Esau 3. God and Jacob 4. Jacob meets Esau 5. Jacob at Shechem The narration thus unfolds in five discernible phases, while the semiautonomous prologue and the epilogue enclose three distinct narrative units, each of which can be regarded as an independent story.

1) Jacob anticipates Esau: 32:4-23 1. Exposition (32:3-5). Jacob sends messengers to Esau announcing his arrival in Canaan with rich livestock. 2. Complication (32:6-8). The messengers bring news of Esau’s coming with four hundred men. Jacob is prompted in his fear to divide his household into two parts. 3. Turning point (32:9-12). In his fear, Jacob turns to God in prayer. 4. Resolution (32:13-21). A contingency plan emerges. Jacob dispatches gifts to Esau in successive droves, hoping that this will appease his brother. From ignorant fear, Jacob has moved through prayer to a plan of appeasement.

2) Jacob at the Jabbok: 32:22-32 1. Exposition (32:22-23). Jacob ferries his household and livestock across the Jabbok. 2. Complication (32:24-27). A strange man wrestles with him until daybreak, puts his thigh out of joint since he is not able to overcome him, but is held by Jacob until he gives him a blessing. The stranger asks his name. 3. Turning point (32:28-29). The stranger gives Jacob a new name, ‘Israel’, because he has striven with God and man and has prevailed. He refuses to tell his name, but blesses Jacob. 4. Resolution (32:30-32). Jacob realises that he has seen God face to face. He calls the place Penu’el and limps back. Jacob has moved from deep fear of crossing the river into Canaan, to a new confidence born of a new identity which gives him the resolve to cross.

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3) Jacob meets Esau: 33:1-17 1. Exposition (33:1-3). Jacob sees Esau coming and deposes his family in an order reflecting his love and concern. He approaches Esau deferentially. 2. Complication (33:4-9). The emotional moment of meeting and the subsequent dialogue depict Jacob’s relief at finding such graciousness on his brother’s part. 3. Turning point (33:9-10). The conflicting issues, Jacob’s fears about how Esau will ultimately react and his amazement at finding his brother so full of good will, are held in tension until the flow of good will is given practical embodiment in Esau’s acceptance of his gift. 4. Resolution (33:12-17). Jacob is able to dissuade Esau from an escort, and is able to get him to depart for Seir, while he goes on to settle at Succoth. Jacob’s alienation from Esau is resolved in the reconciliation between the brothers. They must nevertheless part as the true price of peace. The world of the twins is two different places: Esau the outgoing hunter/Jacob the homely pastor, must separate and accept each other as they are. The three stories are stages in the unfolding of one central narrative which hold the constituent parts in dramatic tension. This is achieved by the use of a fundamental and recurrent dramatic situation of encounter which accumulatively reveals or exposes the working of divine providence in the mundane preoccupations of men, expressed with the image of finding the face of God. The sub-units are further unified by the use of recurrent symbolism, and the careful disposition of generic motifs. The prologue and epilogue surround the whole unit with a succinct emphasis of theme.

Prelude: Encounter with Angels The presence of God in the land is revealed. First Story: Encounter with Esau through messengers and by anticipation. The presence of God is sought in prayer. Reconciliation with Esau is sought “and afterwards I shall see his face” (32:20). Second Story: Encounter with the Man. The presence of God is found in a corporeal theophany. “I have seen God face to face” (32:30). Jacob now has the courage to cross and meet Esau. Postlude: The arrival at Shechem. Jacob settles in Canaan properly. The presence of God in the land is acknowledged in the erection of the altar. Each of the five units has an encounter of some sort, be it tacit or explicit, anticipated or actual, mundane or sublime. Each of the five units has an

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experience of the presence of God in some way, a sense of the growing reality of His nearness and involvement in all aspects of life. Increasingly God is seen to be in contact, in spite of past events, human weakness and machination, fear and failure. God is in control of events, guiding history as He wills. The power of His transforming grace, which bestows favour, and is envisaged as seeing His face, is hoped for, actually confronted, and seen operating even in hopeless human situations. His presence is eventually acknowledged and celebrated as a feature of the land. The recurrent situation of encounter, and the Leitmotif of the face of God can thus be regarded as the stylistic keys of the story. This is underscored by the recurrent genre of the etiology. There are five such instances, one to nearly each of the five sub-units. 1. The prologue: “So he called the name of the place Mahanaim” (32:32). 2. The first story: “Your name shall no more be called Jacob but Israel” (32:28). 3. The second story: “So Jacob called the name of the place Peni’el” (32:30). 4. The third story: “Therefore the name of the place is called Succoth” (33:17). 5. The epilogue: “There he erected an altar and called it ’El-’Elo’heyisra’el” (33:20). Every one of these etiologies underlies an important development in the narration, as a means of emphasizing a concept of stability and growth. The first acknowledges the presence of God in the land. The second enshrines Jacob’s new identity as one who strives with God; the change in his name heralds a change in status and looks forward to his destiny as father of his people. The third celebrates the encounter with the Holy One, the seeing of the face of God; He is to be found and striven with in the lives of men. The fourth suggests Jacob’s new sense of peace and stability: he builds himself a house and booths for his cattle. The fifth is a public acknowledgement and celebration of the omniscient and omnipotent God—the God of Israel.

Jacob at the Jabbok: The Encounter with God The dominating section of the narration though is the central story— Jacob’s encounter with God at the Jabbok. This is placed firmly in the middle of the account and forms the symbolic heart of the tale.

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Structurally all leads up to it and away from it, and the whole story receives a deeper theological significance from it. The segment itself provides an interesting example of a sub-genre being incorporated into a larger narrative whole. The folklore of many nations provides such examples of struggles by mysterious (divine) beings with man. Frequently these beings are presented as guarding the passage of a river, as being effective only during the night, and as being forced to reveal something to the human antagonist. The presence of all these elements suggests that the author took over a very ancient piece of folklore that had probably been used as the vehicle for several interpretations, as etiological explanations of the place name and the origin of the dietary law pertaining to the sciatic nerve. But at some point the story was applied to Jacob since it revolves around the change of his name. The etiological-dietary explanations are very much secondary motifs to the central meaning intended by the author. Jacob’s struggle with God and the subsequent change of name and blessing are the principal concerns of the story, of the whole narrative unit (Gen 32—33) and indeed of the whole Jacob story. The incident takes on extreme importance in indicating a new era in the life of Israel’s ancestor. The theophany at Bethel (Gen 28:10-22, Jacob’s Ladder from heaven to earth) had given meaning to his sojourn with Laban. This new theophany in its awesome violence, physical reality and significant result, gives meaning to all Jacob’s future life. The cunning Jacob becomes Israel, the divinely commissioned father of the Chosen People, the special object of God’s protection. Significantly enough, Jacob is a changed man. The man who could be a party to the cruel hoax played on his father and brother (Gen 27), and who fought Laban’s treachery with crafty schemes of his own (Gen 29), is now open to the perception of grace in Esau, and will soon condemn the vengeful deed of his sons Levi and Simeon (Gen 34) by invoking a higher concept of morality. Interestingly this transformation is intimated by J who, unlike E, “does not normally go out of his way to portray his protagonists as blameless heroes”.11 The biblical message lies in 32:30. Jacob, adept at dealing with men, has now contended with God and has prevailed in a way that cannot be explained, only symbolized. Jacob has had an experience of the divine which has changed him, and become a man more sensitive to higher values, both human and divine. He has learned that a genuine relationship with God does not reside in mere passivity, election and providence, but entails a personal effort, a striving, a wrestling with the divine will and purpose. It is not so much a victory as understanding and involvement that are the objectives of such an encounter. Thus primitive myth and legend are 11

Speiser, “Genesis”, p. 257.

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Fig.17. Jacob's Dream at Bethel (Gustave Doré, 1855)

used to expound sublime ideas.12 For the ancients the name was closely linked with its bearer, containing something of the character of the one who bore it. In giving his name, Jacob reveals his whole nature. The cheat (cf. Gen 25:26; 27:26) is now given a name of honour in which God will 12

Vawter, On Genesis, p. 351.

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recognize and accept him (Gen 32:28). Thus one of the fundamental human concerns about the name is something of man’s need and blindness, his longing for God. The narrative shows that there is nothing that can obliterate this fundamental human thirst to find God and bind him to oneself. When Jacob has received the blessing, his assailant disappears, leaving him to give the place of the encounter a name which conveys for him the greatest marvel of all: that he had confronted God face to face and had not died. Thus in an ancient narrative about the nocturnal attack of a god on a man, Israel found a suitable framework and imaginative material appropriate to presenting YHWH’s work in the life of their ancestor. In this story it is hardly possible to restore Jacob’s moral honour in some sort of purification. The entire emphasis is on God’s activity, His attack and His justification. God is at work even in sinful men. The narrator tells in what immediately follows a remarkable consequence which is very closely related to the events of this night-time encounter and which must be considered as consequent upon it.13

Jacob at the Jabbok: Origins and Etiologies The story of Jacob wrestling with the nocturnal phantom and extorting a blessing from his reluctant adversary at the break of dawn is obscure, but has parallels in many other folk superstitions. Parts of the story may have been slurred over by the compilers of Genesis because they smacked of heathendom. But in the context of the natural features of the scene and with other legends of a similar nature, Jacob’s adversary may well have been the spirit of the river, and the struggle was purposely sought by Jacob for the sake of obtaining his blessing. That would explain why he sent on his long train of women, servants, and animals, and waited alone in darkness by the ford. He might have calculated that the shy river-god, scared by the trampling and splashing of so great a caravan through the water, would lurk in a deep pool or a brake of oleanders at a safe distance, and when all had passed and silence again reigned, would venture out of his lair and inspect the ford. Then the subtle Jacob, lying in wait, would pounce and grapple with him until he had obtained the coveted blessing. The reasons for observing many of these customs appear to have been the awe and dread of rivers conceived either as powerful personal beings or as haunted by mighty spirits.

13

Von Rad, Genesis. A Commentary, p. 320.

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The related tradition of the strain suffered by Jacob’s thigh in this struggle with the nocturnal adversary is an etiology that attempts to explain why the Hebrews would not eat the corresponding sinew in animals. There is a principle of sympathetic magic at work. If the hamstring is severed, the flesh is shrunken and drawn up. If the hunter eats a sinew from his quarry which shrinks in this way, the corresponding tendon in your own body will likewise shrink. If one destroys the sinew without which the deer cannot walk, you yourself will be incapacitated from walking in precisely the same way. In the Genesis narrative, a religious sanction is applied for a rule which derived from superstition alone.14

The Motif of Homecoming The motif of homecoming is another recurrent theme in ancient literature. The last books of Homer’s Odyssey are devoted to such a returning home, and it is found in the New Testament in the Parable of the Prodigal Son (Lk 15:11-32). It is the fundamental motif of Gen 32—33: concerned particularly with the emotional highpoint of such a return in the meeting of the brothers. In the Odyssey this would be the equivalent of Odysseus’ arrival in Ithaca and meeting with Penelope.15 The incident depicted in Gen 33:1-6 is typical of this genre. There is a feeling of inevitability about the incident which derives from the preceding story. The reconciliation depends on the generosity of Esau whose murderous resentment (Gen 27:41) has disappeared. The appearance of God’s angels (Gen 32:1), Jacob’s prayer (Gen 32:9–12), and finally the encounter with the Man (Gen 32:24-30) have persistently invoked the presence of God. His work in the lives of men is now strongly felt, and the reader is made to feel that the events are firmly under divine control at a deeper level by the subtle suggestion of Gen 33:10b that in Esau’s action of magnanimity Jacob has seen the face of God. No magical change has been affected: only the power of God is more readily discerned. A growing humility and confidence in God can be detected.16

14 James G. Frazer, “Jacob at the Ford of the Jabbok” in Folklore in the Old Testament, pp. 251-258, esp. 253. 15 Homer, The Odyssey of Homer. A Modern Translation by Richard Lattimore (London: Harper & Row, 1965, 1967), Book 19, pp. 282-97. 16 Herbert, Genesis 12-50, p. 109.

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The Meeting of the Brothers The narrator draws a noble picture of Esau, who is overcome with joy at the reunion. In contrast to the cautious, deliberate Jacob, Esau’s reaction at the meeting is impulsive, an embrace expressing forgiveness clearly enough. The power conveyed in this meeting lies deeper than psychological explanation. There is a mysterious correspondence in the brothers’ meeting to Jacob’s nocturnal encounter with God—both in the moral threat to him, in his fear of the consequences, and in his amazement at the kindness he receives. This “marvellous parallel”17 becomes clearest in Jacob’s statement that seeing Esau’s face is “like seeing the face of God” (33:10) which refers back to the high hopes of 32:20 and the experience of Peniel (Gen 32:30). The narrator does not state the correspondence between these events, but certainly elicits in the reader an acknowledgement of the mystery of an inner connection between them. After his struggle with God, Jacob is able to settle his damaged relationship with his brother. The straight line between the brothers has been blocked by deceit and hatred. Jacob can find his brother only by making a detour in the triangle along the line of God’s angle,18 after which he is amazed to see and recognize in Esau the face of God.

Narrative Modalities The narrative thus has a very long inner coherence whereby each of the segments relates symbolically with the others. This is controlled at the most fundamental structural level by the author whose redactional role links the different sections into a coherent account. The authorial voice speaks in the storyteller who provides a classic example of the omniscient narrator of epic fiction. His privileged position is obvious from the opening of Gen 32 when he establishes his all-seeing, all-knowing presence in the terse account of the meeting with God’s angels. He witnesses all, and knows more than all the characters in the story, more than the reader. He does not tell them anything before its time: only in the etiologies does he speak in his own detached and impersonal voice. Otherwise all is in the unfolding of the story in the brief matter-of-fact narration. He elicits a strong sense of implied readership by focusing attention on Jacob and his experiences. All is seen and felt from this point of view, never Esau’s or any other characters’. Jacob sends the messengers, we are told his response, overhear his prayer, observe his 17 18

Von Rad, Genesis. A Commentary, p. 322. J. P. Fokkelman, Narrative Art in Genesis, p. 231.

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dispatching of the gift of livestock, share his hope of winning Esau’s favour, observe the movement of his family, experience the mystery and sublimity of the wrestling match, the awe of the knowledge of God’s presence, return limping but transformed with Jacob, await Esau with anxiety, and live with Jacob through all the wonder, relief and careful argumentation of the actual meeting with Esau. All is seen and experienced from Jacob’s vantage point, and gently tilted in his favour. All is handled with the discreet terseness of a ballad, so adding tension and suspense. The epic control of the material is only occasionally varied for narrative effect by the use of dramatic and lyric interpolations. 1) The most important of these is the dramatic use of dialogue. In Gen 32 Jacob’s instruction to his messengers (32:4-5) and their report (32:6) are conveyed in direct speech, as are his later orders (32:19). 2) In Gen 33 the actual emotional meeting between the brothers gains in immediacy as the narrator steps aside and lets the two characters act out their own scene, as if onstage: Gen 33:8-15 is entirely dialogue between the brothers. Only with superb effect does the narrator briefly intrude to announce concisely the all-important acceptance by Esau of the gift: “Thus he urged him, and he took it” (33:11b). 3) Later in Gen 32, the highpoint of the encounter between Jacob and the Man is realized in speech between the protagonist and the antagonist (32:26-29). This lends a vividness of dramatic effect to the scene, and has the all-important change of a name from the lips of God himself. Jacob’s courage in striving with God is given a peculiar audacity in his actual request for the name of his opponent. Of different import from the dramatic dialogue is what might be called the lyrical insights, the moments when the narrator actually seeks to go beyond his delicate psychologizing into the inner activity of Jacob’s mind. 1) In Gen 32:7 he tells the reader “Then Jacob was greatly afraid and distressed”, and goes on to depict the very process of Jacob’s thoughts: “If Esau comes to the one company and destroys it, then the company which is left will escape”. 2) The same happens in 32:20. The reader is made privy to Jacob’s mind: the actual formulation of the thoughts is given. “I may appease him with the present that goes before me and afterwards I shall see his face; perhaps he will accept me?” 3) But the most interesting lyrical interlude comes in the utilization of

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another genre—the prayer (33:9-12). The announcement of Esau’s coming leaves his purposes open to many possible interpretations. Jacob’s conscience tells him that it is dangerous. This state of anxiety is strongly emphasized when judged by the usual reserve the narrator shows in depicting psychological processes. Jacob in his shrewdness would prefer to lose half his possessions than all of them. Nevertheless, he is driven to seek God in prayer, indubitably the climax of this story. “This prayer is the free prayer of a layman”.19 It is neither cultic nor poetic, but arises from the need of the moment. It begins with a slightly stylized invocation to the God of his fathers, with a thanksgiving for the guidance already received, however unworthily. It then turns to the future and all Jacob’s fears break forth in his appeal to the promise God has already given him. The prayer is very important for the whole the Jacob story, for by it the narrator indicates that Jacob, for all his complex motivation and devious experiences, does not lose sight of his relationship with God. It seeks out the presence of God soon to be realized at Peniel. This will be an answer to Jacob’s prayer in even more ways than could have been envisaged. The narrator’s handling of the epic, dramatic and lyrical elements of his story has its consequence in \the conception of real time that comes over to the reader. The real time of the story is not made clear. Certainly for Jacob to approach the borders of Canaan, and then to send messengers to his brother Esau several hundred miles away,20 their return and the time needed to devise his plan of appeasement would have taken several days, if not weeks. Yet all this is compressed in a few verses of Gen 32. The meeting with God’s angels seems to augur well for the future, but the forthcoming meeting with Esau seems to bode disastrously. The undetermined expanse of narrated time is suddenly made real time in Jacob’s prayer and in the painstaking immediacy of detail particular to his instructions to his servants about how to deliver the gift to Esau. Indeed the author has emphasized the union in conflating J and E traditions to prepare for the climactic scene of the struggle with the Man at the Jabbok. This is typical of Patriarchal Narratives where a seemingly paradoxical mixture of contingent events and the supernatural gives significance to human history. Suddenly the vague and undetermined area of narrated time gives way to the events of one night (Gen 32:13-30) and of one morning (Gen 32:31—33:16). The actual and symbolic implications of the 19 20

Von Rad, Genesis. A Commentary, p. 313. Maly, “Genesis”, p. 33.

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narrated events are focused upon, and limited to the strict movement of specific nocturnal to diurnal time. The lyrical and dramatic interludes of prayer and dialogue give this highlighting of actual time a vigorous immediacy. Only in Gen 33:16-20 is the more relaxed and undifferentiated epic sway of narrated time able to resume its unpressured and unspecified course. Not even a hint is provided as to how long Jacob took to settle at Succoth and then at Shechem.

Stylistic and Semantic Analysis The structural details of the narrative organization, disposition of symbolism and genre, the control of the generic modalities, as well as treatment of narrated and narrative (real) time, are reinforced by the linguistic (semantic and morphemic) use of language. Particular use of the original Hebrew medium conveys various significant nuances verse by verse.

Genesis 32 32:1. ‘encountered him’: the Hebrew pg` construed with be- conveys the idea of physical contact. On this basis the present incident has inner connections with the encounter at Peniel. 32:3. Since Esau was already settled in Edom (32:23ff.), there would appear to be no obvious necessity for this meeting. The need however is presented in terms of personal relationships. Reconciliation must be effected: everything is in jeopardy until Esau’s hospitality is brought to an end. It is psychologically understandable that the guilty Jacob cannot believe in Esau’s goodwill. The first act is to send messengers to Esau in Edom. 32:4-5.The message Jacob sends is couched in the language appropriate to an inferior to a superior. The terms “lord” and “your servant” characterize Jacob’s deferential policy of appeasement throughout vv. 19-21. 32:5.The nuance of the idiomatic expression “to find favour in one’s eyes” reinforces Jacob’s deep but fearful hope of reconciliation. 32:6.The messengers return with the news that Esau is coming to meet him with four hundred men. This could be a mark of honour, or it could be regarded as a potentially hostile act since the Hebrew qr’ often has the hostile implication of preparing for battle. 32:7. “Then Jacob was greatly afraid”. These emotive words mark one of the rare instances of the narrator’s direct psychological interpretation

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of Jacob’s reactions. He tells of Jacob’s fear and distress. “Companies”: He divides his possessions in the hope that at least one part might escape. The word should be rendered as “camp”, as should 32:10, this expressing a deliberate hope for protection originating with the “camp” of 32:2. 32:8. “Thinking”: This is a continuation of the psychologizing process. It is an entry into Jacob’s private, lyrical utterance and should be understood as “he reasoned”, or “he said to himself” rather than simply “he said”. 32:9. Jacob’s prayer (vv. 9-12) is a recollection of the relationship God has made with him that finds its highpoint in this reminder that God “will make it advantageous for you”. The word “thou” is further very emphatic in the Hebrew sentence, as if Jacob is reminding himself. He is beginning to learn of a Power beyond his scheming. 32:13.The Hebrew minha “present”, shows Jacob putting his plan of appeasement into action. The root mnh again relates directly with the assonance Mahanaim in 32:2 and with the promise implied in the vision of angels, and relates directly to the recurrence of gift and this consonantal cluster in 32:18, 20, 21. This next stage in his attempt to appease Esau is a form of bribery, for if one accepts a gift from another, a relationship is created. A gift was understood by the Ancients as an extension of the giver’s soul: to receive it was to receive the giver’s soul into one’s own. 21 32:20. One again the narrator uses a rhetorical device to introduce the actual mind of Jacob. It is perhaps best rendered: “for he thought” (RSV). 32:20-21. These two verses are very important in introducing one of the key symbols of the story, the “face”. There is a fivefold repetition of the stem pny, each with a different connotation, yet all clearly intended to relate to 32:30, 31 where it leads up to Peniel. The words rendered in English are: “appease” (cover the face), “before me” (to my face), “his face”, “me” (my face), “before him” (upon his face). 32:22. This verse initiates the central story of the encounter with God, and is couched in terms of a breathless narrative sequence partly by the succession of a series of wayyiktol verbs of action at regular intervals, all with a similarity of consonantal sound value. The time of day is emphasized suddenly, compressing narrated time and real time. In the same narrative flurry, he crosses the ford, always an awesome place of negative forces. The verse begins with his name and ends with the name of the stream. Both have the same consonants and vowel values, 21

Herbert, Genesis, p. 105.

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so that the verse is encapsulated by assonance and alliteration. This is to prepare the reader for the pun that is later to emphasize the change of Jacob’s name. 32:23 This verse continues the sequence of movements, and parallels the preceding verse in its repetition of the action and sound play. The verb ’br is found three times and the cognate noun m’br once. The idea of transition is highlighted. 34:24.The verb “to wrestle” has the root ’bq. The pun initiated in v. 23 takes on further implication setting up a striking and pointed interplay of names, action and sound. yabboq ya’aqob ye’abeq This underlines the central theme of this story: in striving with God at the Jabbok, Jacob is transformed. The mysterious stranger is identified simply as “a man” without identity. It increases tension and adds to the mystery: the reader is curious to know his identity. Again there is careful reference to time of day, picking up the reference to night in 32:23. It was a common belief supernatural visitors have power only at night. 32:25.The supernatural being cannot prevail by normal strength, and so he dislocates Jacob’s thigh by superhuman strength. 32:26. Jacob is made aware of the divine nature of his antagonist and demands a blessing. Indeed, Jacob’s request indicates his identification of his assailant. A blessing imparts an increase in life and power, a share in God’s creative strength. 32:27.This question about Jacob’s name is rhetorical. The object is to contrast the old name with the new name and thereby mark the change in Jacob’s status. 32:28. The blessing is given by changing Jacob’s name to Israel. This is an assertion of authority over Jacob: giving a new name meant giving a new title or status. The name was a real part of a person, the expression of personality. The name ‘Israel’ is best rendered, “He who strives with God” or “God strives”. The verb used here is popularly derived from sarah (“contended with”). The enlarged interpretation suggests that the struggles of Jacob, and implicitly the people of Israel, will result in victory.

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Fig.18. Jacob Wrestles with the Angel (Gustave Doré, 1855)

32:29. The divine name cannot be given on demand (cf. Judges 13:7f). Man cannot exercise power over God, this would constitute magic. He can only receive power from God which is religion. Jacob receives this power when God blesses him. 32:30. Jacob has realized that it is God and names the place “face of God”, harking back to the play on the root pny in 32:20-21. Behind it is the

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amazement that one can actually strive with God and live.

Genesis 33 33:1. “Behold”: The use of the wehinneh particle here initiates a change of tense, a shift of gear, a vividness and dramatic immediacy suitable to the encounter about to take place. Jacob sees Esau “coming” towards him. 33:2. Jacob in his fear divides his family and puts his wife and beloved son in the position of least danger. 33:3. The sevenfold prostration illustrates Jacob’s subservient, penitential demeanour. It is an action for a vassal to a great king. 33:4.This verse is full of verbs of movement and action, an accumulation of feeling, an emotional crescendo after the slow and cautious tempo created by the stiff arrangement of the household and the sevenfold prostration. Esau responds with superb generosity. His kiss is an emotional response, an act of reconciliation, in which the souls of the brothers are united as symbolized in their cathartic weeping. 33:5. “The children whom God has graciously given your servant”. In response to Esau’s question, Jacob describes his family as “God’s gracious gift” The theme of grace is overtly introduced after the tacit enactment of it earlier. He hopes to impress his brother by referring to God’s goodness to him and also to prolong the desire for further grace from Esau. His deferential behaviour is emphasized in his reference to himself as Esau’s “servant”. 33:6-7. Jacob’s family come forward, one group after the other, and each in turn bows down to Esau. The effect is one of retardation by repetition, the same somewhat static and formal manoeuvring that echoes the arrangements made in 33:2. The solemnity of the occasion is heightened. 33:8. Esau’s somewhat bemused response is to question the purpose of this great gathering of a company or “camp”. Again the allusion to 32:3 is probably deliberate: Jacob’s family is indeed God’s camp. Jacob’s answer develops further his policy of deferential appeasement. He hopes to find “grace” from his brother whom he somewhat artificially calls “my Lord”. 33:9. Esau answers with a clear and unpretentious frankness. He speaks directly to his “brother”. 33:10. “Favour”: The particle na’ is very polite and rarely used. It emphasizes Jacob’s careful sustaining of his placation. He again speaks of his desire for “grace” from his brother. Jacob likens the meeting to a

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meeting with God because of the surprise and pleasure it has afforded him in its happy outcome. An allusion to 32:22-32 is obviously intended. 33:11. Esau’s initial reluctance to accept Jacob’s gift is the normal Oriental courtesy whereby one at first refuses and then accepts the gift at the insistence of the donor. The climax of these words lies in the emotional understanding that to accept the gift is to accept the giver. 33:12-14. Esau’s offer of protection is probably sincere. Jacob, however, has lost none of his astuteness, and refuses to place himself under his brother’s protection and finds reasons why Esau should not accompany him. 33:15. Jacob finds an excuse for not accompanying Esau, emphasizing all the while his desire for “grace” from his brother. Esau goes on to Seir (33:16) but Jacob settles in West Canaan. 33:17.The name, the place and the etiology are all contained in this verse that briefly describes Jacob’s place of temporary settlement. The Feast of Booths was to become the supreme feast in Israel. “House” would not be appropriate in view of the short stay, while “hut” or “booth” is a little more stable than the nomadic tent would be. 33:18. “Safely”: The arrival of Jacob in Canaan proper and the successful accomplishment of his difficult crossing of so many borders and barriers is conveyed in the adverbial phrase “in safety”. The permanent nature of his settlement at Shechem is emphasized in the shalem shekem alliteration linking the safe arrival to the place of settlement. 33:19. “Bought”: Jacob’s new stability is given tangible expression in his purchase of a piece of land from the sons of Hamor. 33:20.The new settlement is consolidated by the erection of an altar to the Lord. God is present in this land, glorified now in His altar even as His presence was promised in 32:3 in his “camp”. 33:20. “God, the God of Israel”: Jacob calls this altar after the supreme Deity. It is not erected to some local god but to the God of Israel. The whole narration ends with suitable symbolic emphasis on the new name of the resolute father of a new nation.

Stylistic Features The stylistic features are unified by the use of specific semantic fields which provide the symbolic tissue of imagery that sustains the themes. The fundamental field is that of Jacob’s household, his family, and livestock. Jacob uses his possessions as the bartering agent in the quest for peace with Esau (32:5). He divides the people with him and the flocks and herds

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and camels into two companies (32:7) and arranges an elaborate gift of livestock for his brother (goats, ewes lambs, rams, milch camels and their colts, cows, bulls, she-asses, and he-asses) (32:13-15). In his fear he fords the Jabbok “with his two wives, his two maids, and his eleven children, and likewise everything he had” (32:22-23). His family is disposed in groups for their protection at the actual meeting with Esau (33:1-3) and solemnly presented to Esau once he asks who the women and children are (33:5-7).The frailty of his children and the tender condition of his flocks are used as the excuse for his slow progress: he needs to move with caution “according to the pace of the cattle... and of the children” (33:1314). An image of his settlement is that he builds “booths” for his cattle at Succoth (33:16). Against this background of family and the wealth of livestock are enacted the encounters with God and with Esau. The term “brother” is used very rarely in this family drama. The narrator uses it in 32:3 & 13, but Jacob uses it himself only in his prayer (32:11) and when referring to Esau in instructing his servants (33:17). Otherwise, he constantly depicts himself as Esau’s “servant” (32:4, 18, 20; 33:14), and Esau as “lord” (32:4, 5, 18; 33:8, 13, 14, 15). Only Esau cuts through the artificiality by using “brother” as a genuine vocative (33:9). Closely connected with these registers of flock and family are those of “grace” and “face”. Jacob hopes to find the grace of forgiveness from Esau (32:5). In the actual meeting Jacob reminds his brother of this repeatedly (33:8, 10, 11, 15). He finds it in Esau’s generous behaviour, just as he received it from God when he asked to be blessed and was (32:26, 29). Grace is attendant on blessing, and is discerned in the metaphor of “the face of God”. It has already been observed how this image forms the symbolic nucleus of all the constituent narrative sub-units of this story of grace sought and found (32:20, 30; 33:10). Grace is given, metaphorically embodied in “the face of God”, and consolidated in the bestowal of a new name which betokens a new significance, a new identity. Each stage of Jacob’s entry into the land of his fathers, each new crossing and moment of stability, results in an etiology (32:2, 27-30; 33:17, 20). God’s blessing of Jacob is in the form of a new name, Israel. Each place where Jacob becomes aware of God’s presence is similarly given a new name: Mahanaim, Peniel, Succoth, ’El-’Elo’he-yisra’el. The story establishes its symbolic meaning in terms of the following semantic fields:

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1. Family, collectively, but especially in “brother” 2. Flock, metonymically, for wealth of livestock is used as the physical evidence of God’s favour 3. Grace, especially realised in God’s power and forgiveness working among men 4. Face, the metaphor of God’s goodness 5. Blessing, the outpouring of God’s grace 6. Place, the venue of sacramental encounters 7. Name, the new linguistic designation of the transformed person or place.

In its narrative and stylistic structures, the story shows the grace of God operating in the lives of men, changing old situations, bringing about reconciliation, bestowing identity, leading his faithful into new experiences that surpass their hopes and expectations, and fulfil the intentions of divine providence.

3. Jacob and Esau: Genesis 32—33

Fig.19. The Reconciliation of Jacob and Esau (Peter Paul Rubens, 1577-1640)

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D. PATRIARCHAL NARRATIVE: RECONCILIATION AS THE PRECURSOR OF SALVATION JOSEPH AND BROTHERS: GENESIS 37—50

16 When he summoned a famine on the land, and broke every staff of bread, 17 he had sent a man ahead of them, Joseph, who was sold as a slave. 18 His feet were hurt with fetters, his neck was put in a collar of iron; 19 until what he had said came to pass the word of the LORD tested him. 20 The king sent and released him, the ruler of the peoples set him free; 21 he made him lord of his house, and ruler of all his possessions, 22 to instruct his princes at his pleasure, and to teach his elders wisdom. (Psalm 105:16-22)

4. GENESIS 37—50: JOSEPH: SUFFERING SERVANT AND SAVIOUR

There is a consistent development and progression in the biblical narrative. Adam disobeys God (Gen 3:6-7); Noah obeys God but also goes his own way (Gen 9:20); Abraham questions God (Gen 18:22-33); Jacob fights God (Gen 32:24-32). Humans confront their creator and increase their participation in the area of divine prerogatives. The remainder of the Book of Genesis concerns Jacob’s Twelve Sons, and especially his favourite son, Joseph. The narrative is diverse in its emphases and interests, sometimes not seeming to be overtly theological, also dealing with politics, monarchy, and continuing issues of sibling rivalry and succession of the father. It also deals with sexual relations, jealousy, and betrayal. It develops the notion of justice and recompense in human affairs. Jacob deceived his father Isaac to displace his brother Esau, now Jacob’s sons deceive him in order to displace their brother Joseph. Joseph’s Brothers sell him as a slave but he later rises to power at court and his brothers must kneel to him, and offer themselves to him as slaves. The focus of the story is now on the human realm itself, and contributes decisively to the balance between the human and divine. God is hardly mentioned. The narrative of Genesis has moved from the account of Creation, with focus on God and the cosmos, to the Joseph Story which is centred on the relations between men and women. So Genesis becomes a microcosm, even an overture, to the entire overarching biblical narrative, which develops this scenario very completely. While Joseph does not have the audacity to question God like Abraham, and even less to wrestle with Him like Jacob, yet he exceeds both Abraham and Jacob in his sharing in the divine activity. Joseph is endowed with an almost supernatural power to interpret the future in dreams. Before the events in his life, no one has wielded such ability. God has always controlled human events, but now Joseph comes, listens, and informs people of their destinies. He is so much in control of powers that have hitherto been confined to the divine realm, that he has continuously to insist that it is not he but God who makes these things possible. He does this both to the royal cupbearer (Gen 40:8) and to Pharaoh himself (Gen 41:16; 41:25).

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In the story of Joseph, we are reminded that God is sovereign and governs the affairs of men, even during those times when we are tempted to question whether God really is in control. When engulfed by confusion and chaos, one could lose faith, wondering about the meaning of such experiences. The many trials faced by Joseph could have confused and disheartened him. Betrayed by his brothers, and sold into slavery in Egypt, as the favoured son of Jacob he was plunged from the heights of privilege to the depths of humiliation in flash. But through the story we are quietly assured that God is guiding his footsteps. Few have read the story as a whole: they stop before Gen 50. —For Redford (1970) the story ends at 47:12, when Jacob and all his sons are in Egypt, nourished by Joseph. Gen 37 raises expectations reconciled in Gen 47. Dreams are fulfilled at this point.1 —For Coats (1976) the ending is Gen 47:27a: Israel settled in Egypt, in Goshen. He finds a nice inclusion here from Gen 31:18 Jacob in Canaan, Israel in Egypt.2 —Westermann (1982) sees two stories: the Joseph Story and the Jacob Story. The Joseph Story is the conflict between the brothers (Gen 37—44) and the reconciliation (Gen 45).3

Ways of reading the story Jacob (Gen 37, 46—50) appears on the scene, blesses the twelve sons, and dies. Where should the story stop? Gen 45 is the reconciliation: the rest is an appendix. What is at stake in the story? What is the plot? Is this the story of a broken family, or the account of an ideal administrator? Is it domestic or political? Von Rad finds the influence of Wisdom in the story (Ps 105:16-23, to teach his elders wisdom). Therefore he focuses on the Yahwistic part of the story—written between David and Solomon when the influence of Egypt was powerful in Jerusalem. The story is one of ideal government. Joseph is a wise administrator. But what about other aspects of the story, like the slowness of reconciliation? Familial (Gen 37—41) and political elements (Gen 39— 41, the rise of Joseph in Egypt at the end) are also both present, according to Coats. Other opinions see the story as a struggle between the Twelve Tribes, part of the history of Israel. Judah emerges as significant. Joseph is 1

D. B. Redford, A Study of the Biblical Story of Joseph (Leiden, 1970). G. W. Coats, From Canaan to Egypt (Washington, 1976). 3 Claus Westermann, The Promises to the Fathers. Studies on the Patriarchal Narratives (Göttingen, 1976; Philadelphia, 1980). 2

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most important: the story reflects a period when Ephraim and Manasseh were preeminent, and Reuben and Simeon disappear. But this is not the complete picture: F. Crüsemann (1978)4 proposes another theory. In J there are two strands: Exodus, depicting the power of Pharaoh and slavery—like the situation of forced labour under Solomon who is tacitly criticized (cf. 2 Kgs 9:15-23). Opposed to this is Genesis, depicting Joseph who cares for his Brothers. The highpoint is Gen 50 when the brothers are again reconciled.

Where does the story end? The main aspect is the reconciliation of the Brothers. From the beginning this was never really a family, with the situation dominated by favouritism and hatred. Little by little it becomes a family. The problem is what kind of reconciliation do we expect? When is a broken family one again? When they eat together in Gen 45? We cannot forget the father: he caused everything, provoked the conflict. He is necessary for reconciliation. Jacob and Esau needed to be reconciled, especially after the death of Isaac (Gen 32—33). After Jacob dies, the brothers come together. Is it a real reconciliation? It needs to be deepened and tested. The father must be present, but they must also love as brothers without him. The real reason for it does not emerge until Gen 50.

The Role of God The Joseph Story is very different from early Genesis: God really seems to play no direct role. He rarely appears (cf. the beginning of Gen 46), but saves Joseph (Gen 39). There are key phrases about God’s role, especially in Gen 50.

How can we discover God in the story? We must compare the stories of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. Who will get the blessing? Only one son can have the blessing: see the struggles between Isaac and Ishmael (Gen 21), Jacob and Esau (Gen 27). Jacob loves Joseph more than his other children, he will surely be the special heir. Yet in the end all the sons are blessed, not only one. All twelve sons 4

F. Crüsemann, Der Widerstand gegen das Königtum. Die antiköniglichen Texte des Alten Testamentes und der Kampf um den frühen israelitischenStaat (Neukirchener Verlag, 1978).

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will be ancestors of the Twelve Tribes. This will happen only if the Brothers can live together in harmony. There is a hatred that must be reconciled. Because of famine, they are due to die, but are saved by Joseph. Descendants and promise of blessing are both at stake here. Descendants are threatened with death and are saved. All of them are blessed. Here it is that we find God’s presence. The narrator is discreet about God’s presence, but it is there in the reconciliation. It is only in Gen 50 that there is resolution of many problems. Questions must govern one’s approach. It is important to reach an active knowledge of the text, to express in an active way what has been assimilated.5 ____________________________________________________________

Genesis 37 1 Jacob dwelt in the land of his father’s sojournings, in the land of Canaan. 2 This is the history of the family of Jacob. Joseph, being seventeen years old, was shepherding the flock with his brothers; he was a lad with the sons of Bilhah and Zilpah, his father’s wives; and Joseph brought an ill report of them to their father. 3 Now Israel loved Joseph more than any other of his children, because he was the son of his old age; and he made him a long robe with sleeves. 4 But when his brothers saw that their father loved him more than all his brothers, they hated him, and could not speak peaceably to him. 5 Now Joseph had a dream, and when he told it to his brothers they only hated him the more. 6 He said to them, “Hear this dream which I have dreamed: 7 behold, we were binding sheaves in the field, and lo, my sheaf arose and stood upright; and behold, your sheaves gathered round it, and bowed down to my sheaf.” 8 His brothers said to him, “Are you indeed to reign over us? Or are you indeed to have dominion over us?” So they hated him yet more for his dreams and for his words. 5

Major commentaries include: —Hermann Gunkel (1910), Genesis: Translated and Explained —Hermann Gunkel (1917), The Folktale in the Old Testament —Gerhard von Rad (1966), “The Joseph Narrative and Ancient Wisdom” in Problems of the Hexateuch and Other Essays —D. B. Redford (1970), A Study of the Biblical Story of Joseph —G. W. Coats (1976), From Canaan to Egypt —G. W. Coats (1983), Genesis.

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9 Then he dreamed another dream, and told it to his brothers, and said, “Behold, I have dreamed another dream; and behold, the sun, the moon, and eleven stars were bowing down to me.” 10 But when he told it to his father and to his brothers, his father rebuked him, and said to him, “What is this dream that you have dreamed? Shall I and your mother and your brothers indeed come to bow ourselves to the ground before you?” 11 And his brothers were jealous of him, but his father kept the saying in mind. 12 Now his brothers went to pasture their father’s flock near Shechem. 13 And Israel said to Joseph, “Are not your brothers pasturing the flock at Shechem? Come, I will send you to them.” And he said to him, “Here I am.” 14 So he said to him, “Go now, see if it is well with your brothers, and with the flock; and bring me word again.” So he sent him from the valley of Hebron, and he came to Shechem. 15 And a man found him wandering in the fields; and the man asked him, “What are you seeking?” 16 “I am seeking my brothers,” he said, “tell me, I pray you, where they are pasturing the flock.” 17 And the man said, “They have gone away, for I heard them say, `Let us go to Dothan.’“ So Joseph went after his brothers, and found them at Dothan. 18 They saw him afar off, and before he came near to them they conspired against him to kill him. 19 They said to one another, “Here comes this dreamer. 20 Come now, let us kill him and throw him into one of the pits; then we shall say that a wild beast has devoured him, and we shall see what will become of his dreams.” 21 But when Reuben heard it, he delivered him out of their hands, saying, “Let us not take his life.” 22 And Reuben said to them, “Shed no blood; cast him into this pit here in the wilderness, but lay no hand upon him” —that he might rescue him out of their hand, to restore him to his father. 23 So when Joseph came to his brothers, they stripped him of his robe, the long robe with sleeves that he wore; 24 and they took him and cast him into a pit. The pit was empty, there was no water in it. 25 Then they sat down to eat; and looking up they saw a caravan of Ish’maelites coming from Gilead, with their camels bearing gum, balm, and myrrh, on their way to carry it down to Egypt.

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26 Then Judah said to his brothers, “What profit is it if we slay our brother and conceal his blood? 27 Come, let us sell him to the Ish’maelites, and let not our hand be upon him, for he is our brother, our own flesh.” And his brothers heeded him. 28 Then Mid’ianite traders passed by; and they drew Joseph up and lifted him out of the pit, and sold him to the Ish’maelites for twenty shekels of silver; and they took Joseph to Egypt. 29 When Reuben returned to the pit and saw that Joseph was not in the pit, he rent his clothes 30 and returned to his brothers, and said, “The lad is gone; and I, where shall I go?” 31 Then they took Joseph’s robe, and killed a goat, and dipped the robe in the blood; 32 and they sent the long robe with sleeves and brought it to their father, and said, “This we have found; see now whether it is your son’s robe or not.” 33 And he recognized it, and said, “It is my son’s robe; a wild beast has devoured him; Joseph is without doubt torn to pieces.” 34 Then Jacob rent his garments, and put sackcloth upon his loins, and mourned for his son many days. 35 All his sons and all his daughters rose up to comfort him; but he refused to be comforted, and said, “No, I shall go down to Sheol to my son, mourning.” Thus his father wept for him. 36 Meanwhile the Mid’ianites had sold him in Egypt to Pot’i-phar, an officer of Pharaoh, the captain of the guard. ____________________________________________________________

4.1 Genesis 37: Joseph sold by his Brothers The plot centres on the conflict between brothers. There are three blocks of material with two transitions. 1) Joseph and his Brothers together (37:1-11) 2) Transition: Joseph to his Brothers (37:12-17) 3) Joseph between life and death (37:18-28) 4) Transition: reactions of Reuben and Jacob (37: 29-32) 5) Joseph in Egypt, Jacob with the tunic (37:33-36) Jacob and his sons are descendants of Abraham. The history of his family is not at stake from the beginning. God does not intervene often (Gen 47).

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He appears, mentioned by the narrator briefly in Gen 39. How do we discover God’s plan?

1) Gen 37:1-11—The Beloved Son of Jacob 37:1-11. The varicoloured or long-sleeved coat his father gave Joseph was an indication of paternal favour and apparently of Jacob’s intention to make him heir of the birthright. Reuben, the oldest, had forfeited the right by incest (35:22; 49:3-4; 1 Chron 5:1-2). Simeon and Levi, next in order, were ruled out because of their violence at Shechem (34:25-30; 49:5-7). Judah, the fourth son, was the next heir. Joseph, though eleventh in order, was Jacob’s firstborn by his beloved wife Rachel and his father’s favourite (37:3), and so apparently was Judah’s rival. The frame gives many verbs of feeling: “to love” and “to hate” (cf. the end of 37:5). The plot hinges on opposition: the love of the father which triggers the hatred of the brothers. They despise him more, are deeply jealous. The verbal sequence is ’ahab—sane’—qana’ (to love, to hate, to be jealous). Joseph’s dreams are reported in direct speech. His father gives him a tunic with long sleeves (sometimes rendered as of many colours) as in the story of Tamar where signet, cord and staff are pledged (Gen 38:18); the favouritism recalls David and Absalom (2 Sam 15—16). People with long sleeves do not work. Joseph is hated because of this tunic (kethnoneth). Joseph had a special destiny to rule and reign, as foretold in his dreams. His father must have had some insight into this, since in the Patriarchal Age, Semitic chiefs wore coats of many colours as an insignia of rulership. Jacob, in giving Joseph a coat of many colours, marked him for the chieftainship of the tribe at his father’s death. The story of Joseph tells that it was jealousy of parental affection lavished upon him which accounts for the destructive behaviour of his Brothers. Unlike Cinderella in the fairy tale, Joseph’s parent does not participate in degrading him, and, on the contrary, prefers him to his other children. But Joseph, like Cinderella, is turned into a slave, and like her, he miraculously escapes, and ends up by surpassing his siblings.6 The two dreams show that Joseph the youngest will be the most important in the family, worshipped by all. In Patriarchal society the father is the social key to order. Joseph reverses the social order. Society could collapse. In reality he is hated and envied. There is a split between two worlds, framed by the tunic and the dreams. The effective realm of action 6 See Bruno Bettelheim, The Uses of Enchantment. The Meaning and Importance of Fairy Tales, p. 238.

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by the father and of the dreams (reported by Joseph) contrasts with the affective world of the frame (described by the narrator). The two worlds are contrasted structurally and stylistically. We know nothing of Joseph’s actual feelings and reactions. A root is repeated at the end of each of the three units: dabar (to speak, to tell, a word). —37:4 Communication is broken, the Brothers cannot speak to each other. —35:5 Before Joseph tells his dreams, the narrator tells us their reactions. It is not only that Joseph has the dreams, but because he tells them. The world of communication is ruptured: the Brothers could not speak because of the tunic; they hate him because he tells them of the dreams. —37:8 The father keeps all his son’s words in mind. —37:5 There is a pun on the name Joseph (yoseph) and root for “increase”: yosopu (from yasaph), ‘to increase’ in hatred. The section is dominated by verbs of communications, seeing and hearing. The text announces the rise of Joseph’s power in dreams, contrasts the brothers’ reactions, charting a fall of power. The dreams have their consequences; because the Brothers hated him, he went down to Egypt. The dream will be fulfilled through hatred. Reconciliation is possible only when the Brothers realize this. The task is to find the moment when these two worlds can be recognized. Joseph did not use wisdom in boasting of his dreams to his Brothers. In his youthful pride and zeal, Joseph needed some preparation in order to convey that position of leadership. He needed some rough edges to be smoothed away.

2) Gen 37:12-17—The Hatred of Joseph’s Brothers 37:12-17. The Brothers sold Joseph into slavery (cf. Judah’s part, 37:2627). The old rivalry was to be perpetuated between Judah and Ephraim (Joseph’s son). The division of the kingdom under Rehoboam (c. 914) saw Judah split from the ten tribes under Ephraim’s leadership, cf. 1 Kgs 12). This serves as a transition in many ways. Joseph is between his father and his Brothers. The keys words are: halak “to go”, shalach “to send”, matz’a “to find”. A key word is shalom; another is dabar. Both these words have earlier ironical reference: the Brothers could not ‘speak’ in ‘peace’ to him. Jacob gets back his tunic without a word. Earlier Joseph had carried word to his father.

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Joseph cannot find his Brothers because there is no communication between them. The Rabbis said the man who meets and directs Joseph (37:15-17) was an angel: it was necessary for Joseph to find them. Another picture emerges of the young Joseph of dreams. Now he is hated, isolated, left alone, lost. There is a heightening of tension: what will happen when he finds the Brothers? Is there a kind of fatality behind this? He must find them, and there is someone to guide him.

3) Gen 37:18-28—Joseph sold into slavery There are difficulties of interpretation: there seem to be two stories. i) Reuben saves Joseph: he is sold to Midianites; ii) Judah saves Joseph: he is sold to Ishmaelites. Perhaps this reflects the ancient authorship: i) is from the Elhoist (E) and ii) is from the Yahwist (J). Coats says the Midianites are an addition: if this reference is cancelled, then all reads well (37:28). Others say the two types of trader are synonymous: see Judges 8:24 where Gideon fighting the Midianites seems to refer to them as Ishmaelites (with their golden earrings). Where was Reuben? So two main questions emerge: i) Who is the subject of ‘sold’ in 37:28? ii) Who are the Midianites of 37:36? A possible interpretation of the text is that once Joseph is put into the pit, the Brothers eat, Judah plans to sell him to the Ishmaelites, but he is stolen by the Midianites who sell him. Reuben comes and finds him gone. Who are the Midianites, the subject of the following verses? The two groups seem to be the same—sons of Abraham’s third wife (Gen 25:2). The text keeps both possibilities open: J says he was stolen and sold. The details do not matter too much: only that Joseph now arrives in Egypt.

Structure There are two parallel parts: i) 37: 18-24; ii) 37: 25-28 Each part has three steps.

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i) The Brothers see Joseph coming; they see the approaching caravan. ii) The Brothers speak, Reuben; the brothers speak, Judah. iii) The Brothers strip off the tunic; the brothers sell Joseph. We know Reuben’s plan before he tells his brothers. Motivation is also given for Judah. Joseph is put in the pit; Joseph goes down to Egypt. His Brothers hate him because of his dreams; but this results in his going to Egypt where the dreams are fulfilled. Joseph does not react at all. He is a mere object in their hands. He appears the opposite from his dreams, almost a shadow or a corpse. He is passive, a victim; it is almost like his ‘Passion’.

3) Gen 37:29-38—Reuben the firstborn. Reuben reacts first as firstborn, then Jacob reacts as father. The motif of garments is central. Reuben tears his garments, as does Jacob later. Joseph’s bloodstained garment is brought to him. All is concerned with death: 37:29 hinneh (“behold”) focuses attention, and the move from the past to the present adds an elements of vividness. The section is introduced by wayyashab (“And he returned”) (from shub). Reuben’s reactions are described. Words with aleph and nun lend a stuttering effect, some words are of grief. This is a story of recognition: the Brothers must recognize each other, their father, the whole family. The same verb is used later when Joseph recognizes his Brothers. The Brothers present a world of reality and appearances: their approach to Jacob is confused. The narrator accompanies the Brothers and their father. Their reactions are described, but Joseph is nevertheless the focal point of attention. All react to him. At the same time he becomes more and more passive, a silent reality. The world of the Brothers and Jacob is fully described, rather unusually for the Bible. The extreme contradictory emotions, worlds of passion and naked reality, are underscored by the silent objectivity of Joseph.

Reflection This period of betrayal and hardship for Joseph, the period in the pit, depicts him as prophet in training. He needed to undergo the fires of purification in order to be refined into a vessel God could use (cf. Malachi 3:3). This process is seen in many of the great characters in the Bible— Moses, David, Jesus—being prepared for the great task God has in store for them to fulfil their destiny. It is a common experience of humanity:

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how could the people so close to us, those we trusted, hurt and betray us? From the biblical perspective we are being purified, refined, made ready to rule with the LORD as prophets (nebi’im), priests (cohanim) and kings (melakim) for his kingdom. Joseph’s silence was a submission to the fires of purification, and a tacit trust that God was with him, by his side, so that he was not burned. God will exalt him in his perfect way and in perfect time to fulfil his destiny. We read in the Prophet Isaiah (43:1-2): 1 But now thus says the LORD, he who created you, O Jacob, he who formed you, O Israel: “Fear not, for I have redeemed you; I have called you by name, you are mine. 2 When you pass through the waters I will be with you; and through the rivers, they shall not overwhelm you; when you walk through fire you shall not be burned, and the flame shall not consume you.

The fire of the purification is the very medium of the liberation. ____________________________________________________________

Genesis 38 1 It happened at that time that Judah went down from his brothers, and turned in to a certain Adullamite, whose name was Hirah. 2 There Judah saw the daughter of a certain Canaanite whose name was Shua; he married her and went in to her, 3 and she conceived and bore a son, and he called his name Er. 4 Again she conceived and bore a son, and she called his name Onan. 5 Yet again she bore a son, and she called his name Shelah. She was in Chezib when she bore him. 6 And Judah took a wife for Er his first-born, and her name was Tamar. 7 But Er, Judah’s first-born, was wicked in the sight of the LORD; and the LORD slew him. 8 Then Judah said to Onan, “Go in to your brother’s wife, and perform the duty of a brother-in-law to her, and raise up offspring for your brother.” 9 But Onan knew that the offspring would not be his; so when he went in to his brother’s wife he spilled the semen on the ground, lest he should give offspring to his brother. 10And what he did was displeasing in the sight of the LORD, and he slew him also. 11 Then Judah said to Tamar his daughter-in-law, “Remain a widow in your father’s house, till Shelah my son grows up” -- for he feared that he would die, like his brothers. So Tamar went and dwelt in her

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father’s house. 12 In course of time the wife of Judah, Shua’s daughter, died; and when Judah was comforted, he went up to Timnah to his sheepshearers, he and his friend Hirah the Adullamite. 13 And when Tamar was told, “Your father-in-law is going up to Timnah to shear his sheep,” 14 she put off her widow’s garments, and put on a veil, wrapping herself up, and sat at the entrance to Enaim, which is on the road to Timnah; for she saw that Shelah was grown up, and she had not been given to him in marriage. 15 When Judah saw her, he thought her to be a harlot, for she had covered her face. 16 He went over to her at the road side, and said, “Come, let me come in to you,” for he did not know that she was his daughter-in-law. She said, “What will you give me, that you may come in to me?” 17 He answered, “I will send you a kid from the flock.” And she said, “Will you give me a pledge, till you send it?” 18 He said, “What pledge shall I give you?” She replied, “Your signet and your cord, and your staff that is in your hand.” So he gave them to her, and went in to her, and she conceived by him. 19 Then she arose and went away, and taking off her veil she put on the garments of her widowhood. 20 When Judah sent the kid by his friend the Adullamite, to receive the pledge from the woman’s hand, he could not find her. 21 And he asked the men of the place, “Where is the harlot who was at Enaim by the wayside?” And they said, “No harlot has been here.” 22 So he returned to Judah, and said, “I have not found her; and also the men of the place said, `No harlot has been here.’“ 23 And Judah replied, “Let her keep the things as her own, lest we be laughed at; you see, I sent this kid, and you could not find her.” 24 About three months later Judah was told, “Tamar your daughter-in-law has played the harlot; and moreover she is with child by harlotry.” And Judah said, “Bring her out, and let her be burned.” 25 As she was being brought out, she sent word to her father-in-law, “By the man to whom these belong, I am with child.” And she said, “Mark, I pray you, whose these are, the signet and the cord and the staff.” 26 Then Judah acknowledged them and said, “She is more righteous than I, inasmuch as I did not give her to my son Shelah.” And he did not lie with her again. 27 When the time of her delivery came, there were twins in her womb.

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28 And when she was in labour, one put out a hand; and the midwife took and bound on his hand a scarlet thread, saying, “This came out first.” 29 But as he drew back his hand, behold, his brother came out; and she said, “What a breach you have made for yourself!” Therefore his name was called Perez. 30 Afterward his brother came out with the scarlet thread upon his hand; and his name was called Zerah. ____________________________________________________________

4.2 Genesis 38: Judah and Tamar Parenthetical Story: Judah’s Shame as Progenitor of the Messiah It is amazing that the Spirit of God would recount this sordid story, and that it should be retained in revelation. But God’s Word deals realistically with sin, even in the preserved family registers in the line of Messianic succession. 1) What connection does this have with the Joseph Story? 2) What does this story mean?

1) The Narrative Shift The narrative is suddenly shifted from Joseph to Judah. Why does this happen here? This story existed in Tradition. Judah became an important tribe, so the story must be integrated. There is a natural pause in the Joseph Story so this seems to be the right place for its insertion. This heightens tension, and provides a moment of retardation, a ‘hooking back’ of the story. There are several tales concerning the sons of Rachel and Leah: 1) Gen 34: Simeon and Levi and the rape of Dinah 2) Gen 35: Reuben sleeps with Bilah 3) Gen 37: Joseph betrayed by his Brothers 4) Gen 38: Judah and Tamar. Judah becomes one of the bearers of the Promise. 5) Gen 39: Joseph and Benjamin

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There are similarities with the Joseph story. The family is divided, and Judah goes alone to the South. Joseph is in Egypt. It adds to the broader picture of the split family. There are thematic and stylistic links with Gen 37 & 39. Jacob plays a similar role to Judah: in Gen 37 Jacob must recognize Joseph’s tunic (nkr), and in Gen 38 Judah must also recognize, this time the identifying staff. The deceiver is deceived in the same way, the revenge of the story. The deceiver has to recognize himself: the key word is nakar: “to make known”, “to recognize”, “to perceive” in the Hiphil. Gen 39 recounts the adventure with Potiphar’s Wife. Both she and Tamar try to seduce with different intentions: though Judah yields, Joseph remains adamant. Tamar, however, does this in order to raise up posterity for Judah, to ensure the continuation of the dynastic line. Judah acknowledges this, observing “She is more righteous than I” (Gen 38:26). Jewish tradition has glorified her holiness with almost excessive insistence.

2) The Real Start of the Story (Gen 38:12) Von Rad and M. O’Callaghan feel that the story really starts in the twelfth verse.7 So much information is crammed into these first few verses. Then follows the ‘real’ story of Tamar and her father-in-law and the twins that ensue from this encounter. There is no suspense or tension after 38:26. Perhaps there is some bias here? Character is action: without character there is no story. ‘Showing’ as opposed to ‘telling’ is also regarded as essential to a good story. When the narrator tells too much it becomes boring. Dramatic relations between characters must unfold against a background. There is a central question that has something to do with Judah and Tamar: the future of the Patriarchs—which is the future of the nation. The whole story is about descendants: who will be worthy to carry the promise? Some sons disqualify themselves. Who will be the one chosen from the twins? Perez emerges as the candidate in 38:29. The story ends with this information. Perez will be an ancestor of Ruth: both foreign women are determined to have offspring. Tamar and Ruth are among the four women included in the Genealogy of Jesus (with Rahab and Bathsheba) (Mt 1:3, 5, 6). This is as story exploring progeny and descent. There is a hidden message in the list of Jesus’ ancestors. Matthew includes the names of four women, Tamar, Rahab, Ruth and Bathsheba (the wife of Ourias), all women who were either aliens, harlots, or 7

M. O’Callaghan, “The Structure and Meaning of Genesis 38: Judah and Tamar”, PIBA, 5 (1981): 72-88.

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adulteresses, women normally stigmatized, but who desired grace, who were examples of faith justified by their imaginative actions or works. The presence of their names suggests that the kingdom inaugurated by Jesus is a place for all sinners (Mt 9:13) and all nations (Mt 28:19), with the promises given to Israel inherited by the Church, founded by Christ for “whoever does the will of the Father” (Mt 12:50). Christianity is rooted in historical settings and human realities.8

3) Structural-Stylistic Analysis The narrative structure operates on the movement desire to fulfilment, the desire for progeny. Obstacles occur in the death of sons, and Judah’s neglect of duty. There are four indications of time, for particular moments in the story: i) 38:1 exposition ii) 38:12 complication iii) 38:24 climax turning-point, iv) 38:27 resolution-conclusion i) Gen 38: 1-11 There are some key words: —shem: there are many names in the story: Judah, his wife, the three sons (38:1-6); —mut: two sons die, Judah fears for the third (38:7-11). The first part is about birth and children, the second is about death. The sons died, and were bad in the eyes of the Lord. Gen 38:11 is about the third son, the inciting moment or dilemma. What is Judah to do? He needs descendants yet Tamar is a femme fatale. The story is a contradiction between birth and death, probity and necessity. A similar familial situation, and its moral/practical implications, is repeated later in the story of Lot and his daughters in the cave of Zoar, after the destruction of Sodom, in Genesis 19:30-38.9 8

See “The Genealogies” in René Laurentin, The Truth of Christmas. Beyond the Myths. The Gospels of the Infancy of Christ (St Bede’s Publications, 1986), pp. 333-64. “Each of the four women cited played an extraordinary, personal role in the history of Israel and, specifically, in the history of the [Messianic] dynasty” (p. 341). 9 See Robert Letellier, Day in Mamre, Night in Sodom, 4.b.9. The Destruction of

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ii) Gen 38:12-29 There are three sections: i) 38:12-13.These verses establish a parallelism between what happened and the report of it. ii) 38:14-19. There is an inclusion around this section. Phrases recur, and they are linked together. Tamar takes off her widow’s garments, and puts on a veil. At the end this is reversed. The key word is natan. She knows that the third son was not ‘given’ to her. There is a scene of bargaining between Judah and Tamar. He did not give a son, and now must give her more than he thinks. iii) 38:20-23. This section is fraught with irony, There is another inclusion: Judah sends a kid and wishes to take back his pledge (shalach) but she gets to keep it. The central verses and parallel (38:21-22) are linked with wayyugad. Tamar has discovered something, now Judah must discover in his turn. 38:24 is the beginning of the complication. “She is righteous and I am not” (38:26). Another important word is harah: she conceived. Lo’ (not) is an important preposition in the text iii) 38:27-30. This section picks up words found at the beginning: a chain of succession was interrupted by death, and now births are resumed. There is a reversal of order between the sons.

4) The Irony of the Story Irony is a powerful weapon often used in the Bible: to make a joke is to be detached, free of the circumstances. When the truth is told with irony, we discover it with pleasure. O’Callaghan finds over ten examples of irony. These are many of the key clauses of the text, all interruptions by the narrator as to why things have happened the way they have. —38:9. The thoughts of Onan are given by the omniscient narrator. —38:11. “Because he thought [‘amar] lest he die like his brothers”. Judah does not know that Tamar is his daughter-in-law. Here he shares his knowledge about Shelah, a character who has nothing to say. We share with Judah and the narrator what Tamar does, and so are drawn more into the story. Tamar slowly understands what is happening, and in 38:15, 16 reversal occurs: “because she saw that Shelah was grown up and she was not given to him as wife”. She the City and the Rescue of the Remnant, pp. 226-228.

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now knows what Judah knows, even though he does not know that she knows. It is pleasant for the reader to share this, to know what Judah does not. We are now on her side, and we smile with our superior knowledge. The clauses here are often introduced with ki (so that) (38:20, 23): in words said by Judah in ignorance. He is mistaken. He is cheated but does not know it: an irony of situation. There is a distance between what he knows and what we know. —38:25. There is irony in the words of Tamar. This is the climax of the story, and she is the mistress of the plot. She does not tell Judah he is the father: he must recognize this himself. She can catch Judah, and this is very agreeable. He must discover the truth himself. There was a lie somewhere in Judah’s not telling her. She restores truth in Judah (cf. the Parable of the Ewe with Nathan and David in 2 Sam 12:1-7: David made a mistake and must find out the truth himself). Tamar gives narrative pleasure in what she does. Sympathy is created for her by the narrator, and we approve of her. She convinces Judah and the reader knows she is right. ____________________________________________________________

Genesis 39 1 Now Joseph was taken down to Egypt, and Pot’i-phar, an officer of Pharaoh, the captain of the guard, an Egyptian, bought him from the Ish’maelites who had brought him down there. 2 The LORD was with Joseph, and he became a successful man; and he was in the house of his master the Egyptian, 3 and his master saw that the LORD was with him, and that the LORD caused all that he did to prosper in his hands. 4 So Joseph found favour in his sight and attended him, and he made him overseer of his house and put him in charge of all that he had. 5 From the time that he made him overseer in his house and over all that he had the LORD blessed the Egyptian’s house for Joseph’s sake; the blessing of the LORD was upon all that he had, in house and field. 6 So he left all that he had in Joseph’s charge; and having him he had no concern for anything but the food which he ate. Now Joseph was handsome and good-looking. 7 And after a time his master’s wife cast her eyes upon Joseph, and said, “Lie with me.” 8 But he refused and said to his master’s wife, “Lo, having me my master has no concern about anything in the house, and he has put everything that he has in my hand;

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9 he is not greater in this house than I am; nor has he kept back anything from me except yourself, because you are his wife; how then can I do this great wickedness, and sin against God?” 10 And although she spoke to Joseph day after day, he would not listen to her, to lie with her or to be with her. 11 But one day, when he went into the house to do his work and none of the men of the house was there in the house, 12 she caught him by his garment, saying, “Lie with me.” But he left his garment in her hand, and fled and got out of the house. 13 And when she saw that he had left his garment in her hand, and had fled out of the house, 14 she called to the men of her household and said to them, “See, he has brought among us a Hebrew to insult us; he came in to me to lie with me, and I cried out with a loud voice; 15 and when he heard that I lifted up my voice and cried, he left his garment with me, and fled and got out of the house.” 16 Then she laid up his garment by her until his master came home, 17 and she told him the same story, saying, “The Hebrew servant, whom you have brought among us, came in to me to insult me; 18 but as soon as I lifted up my voice and cried, he left his garment with me, and fled out of the house.” 19 When his master heard the words which his wife spoke to him, “This is the way your servant treated me,” his anger was kindled. 20 And Joseph’s master took him and put him into the prison, the place where the king’s prisoners were confined, and he was there in prison. 21 But the LORD was with Joseph and showed him steadfast love, and gave him favour in the sight of the keeper of the prison. 22 And the keeper of the prison committed to Joseph’s care all the prisoners who were in the prison; and whatever was done there, he was the doer of it; 23 the keeper of the prison paid no heed to anything that was in Joseph’s care, because the LORD was with him; and whatever he did, the LORD made it prosper. ____________________________________________________________

4.3 Genesis 39: Joseph and Potiphar’s Wife Joseph in Prison, Gen 39: 1-4, 20-23. God’s way up is often down, humiliation before exaltation. The Egyptian “Tale of the Two Brothers” from the reign of Seti II (1203-1197 B.C.) bears resemblance to the story of Joseph and Potiphar’s Wife. This chapter is similar to Gen 38, only with

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the gender roles reversed. Joseph is righteous and Potiphar’s Wife is evil. Then the youth entered his stable and fetched a large vessel, since it was his desire to take out a lot of seed. He loaded himself with barley and emmer and came out carrying it. Then she said to him: how much is it that is on your shoulder? And he told her: It is / three sacks of emmer and two sacks of barley, totalling five, that are on my shoulder. So he said to her. Then she [spoke with] him, saying: There is [great] virility in you, for I have been observing your exertions daily. For it was her desire to know him through sexual intimacy. She got up, seized hold of him, and told him: Come, let’s spend for ourselves an hour sleeping (together). Such will be to your advantage, for I will make you fine clothes. (3,1-3,5; p.95) Then the youth became like an Upper Egyptian panther in harsh rage over the wicked proposition that she had made to him, and she become exceedingly fearful. He argued with her, saying: Now look, you are (associated) with me after the manner of a mother, and your husband is (associated) with me after the manner of a father, for the one who is older than I it is who has brought me up. What means / this great offense which you[?] have said to me? Don’t say it to me again, but I shall tell it to no one, for I will not let it escape my mouth to anybody. He picked up his load and went off to the field. Then he reached his elder brother, and they began to work their project. (3,5-4,1; pp. 95-96)

Gen 39: 21-23. Because Joseph is in prison, some do not see this as part of the story. But there are strong parallels with the earlier sections. 39:1-6: the Lord was with Joseph; he found grace in the eyes of Potiphar and the prison warden; he is entrusted with affairs of the house and then of the prison. The introduction and conclusion are not as lively as the central part. Yet one of the main questions is: how is God active for Joseph? He seems suddenly to be abandoned, and then God is present again in prison. But God is with Joseph and this answer is given at the end. To stop at 39:20 would be to read another story with a different plot. The frame is there and must be accounted for. The success of Joseph in the household plays no role in the plot, only his handsomeness, his physical beauty.

1) Structure The problem is one of Joseph in Egypt, far away from home and country. Can the Lord be active outside Israel? Can he act for Joseph? Exposition (39:1-6). The Lord is with Joseph, extended into the agency of Potiphar. The same happens in relation to Isaac and Abimelech (Gen 26), to Jacob and Laban (Gen 29). So here Potiphar benefits from Joseph’s

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blessing. Complication (39:7-10). Novel elements are introduced. Joseph is very handsome, and there is a new time element. A complication sets in with the real world. Potiphar’s Wife is full of desire, and is angered by Joseph’s rebuttal. The repetition of the complication enters into a cycle: something must happen. “And it happened that day as usual...” Turning-point (39:11-20). This marked by repetitions: Joseph is silent, unable to do anything, as in Gen 37. Resolution (39:21-23). Is the Lord with Joseph? This is the real question.

2) The Role of the Narrator The narrator intervenes in a very special way, involving the reader. There are two techniques of telling: 39:1-6. The narrator is present; he tells us what we cannot see for ourselves. He says, he does not show. 39:7-20. The narrator shows us. The characters act in the way we do. 39: 21-23. The narrator again shows us. Why does God not intervene? In the discourse of Joseph is a reminder of what happened before. He thinks of his master and of God, a world of values from the first few verses. Afterwards he keeps silent. Two words, two principles, are reflected in the modes of narration. The first is the world of God: blessing, success. The second is the one of human passions: uncertainty, violence, destruction. Potiphar’s Wife can act only in the absence of a world of values in God and in her husband. But these are present still in Joseph’s conscience. Two principles are at work in the telling and the showing. The narrator is very much present at the beginning and at the end, less so in the middle. Joseph is almost helpless. When he speaks he echoes the values of the narrator. Joseph has a naked and silent objectivity. This time we are told that God is on his side. God seems to be absent from the world of hatred in the Brothers, and in Potiphar’s Wife in her passion. The plot of the Brothers will be used by God to make Joseph master. Because of Potiphar’s Wife, Joseph is thrown into prison. But this is how he will come to Pharaoh’s palace. There is a great exercise of irony. In both Gen 37 and 39 we see that there is a stronger force that can make use of the failures of others. God makes Joseph successful out of apparent failure (cf. Rom 8:28: We know that in everything God works for good with those who love him, and are called according to his purpose).

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3) Stylistic Analysis i) The narrator uses wayehi (“And it came to pass”) throughout the text, and at the end (39:.2, 5, 6b, 7, 10, 11, 13, 15, 18, 19, 21). God is shown to be with Joseph even when he seems to be absent. His assurance comes back at the end, like a circle, but more deeply. This verb emphasizes a chain of temporal succession, the role of God, the reactions of Potiphar, then of his wife, and finally of God. ii) 39:12-19. This section was analyzed by Hermann Gunkel.10 There is a privileged witness by the narrator in 39:12, then we live the same event with Potiphar’s Wife: her bitter disappointment. Her love now changes to hatred (39:13). Her version of the story to the servants twists the truth (the legal importance of the cry). There is also a racist observation: we Egyptians versus that Hebrew. All the servants will be on her side, she having played on their resentment and their possible jealousy. She emphasizes the garment left at her side (cf. 39:10 when Joseph refuses to sleep “at her side”). The cry, the intention, the servants, the garment, all make up her version. Again a garment is central to the story, crucial evidence, as in Gen 37. Her words to her husband are once more different, and place her in the centre. Potiphar brought Joseph to laugh at her. A vivid description of character emerges through direct discourse. All is shown not told. We see how she hates Joseph even as she once loved him in this depiction of very strong emotion. iii) Exposition —39:1-7a. How Joseph arrived in Egypt. The thread is picked up. —39:2-6. Important features of Joseph’s person are revealed. The Lord was with him, he is favoured by God. His master sees it. Joseph was also handsome. —39:7b. Potiphar’s Wife lifts up her eyes, and this initiates the complication. iv) Complication —39:7b-10. There is an inclusion. She asks him to sleep with her; day 10

Hermann Gunkel, Genesis: Translated and Explained (1st ed., Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1901); Introduction translated by William Herbert Carruth and published as The Legends of Genesis (1901). Also as: Genesis: Translated and Explained. Translated by Mark E. Biddle (3rd ed., 1910) (Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 1997). The Introduction is available as The Stories of Genesis.

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after day he refuses. The process is marked by a temporal indication. v) Turning-point 39:11-20.There are some pointers: wayehi occurs. There is a house at the beginning and at the end—from one house (Potiphar’s) to another (the prison). Each is marked by a succession of days: bayith. vi) Resolution 39:21-23. Joseph finds favour in the eyes of the prison warder. The Lord is with Joseph, and he is appointed over others.

Egyptian Analogies The reaction to the lies of Potiphar’s Wife have further strong parallels with “The Tale of the Two Brothers”. Afterward, at evening time, his elder brother left work for his house, while his younger brother was (still) tending his cattle and [would] load himself with all produce of the field and bring back his cattle / before him to let them spend the night their stable, which was in town. The wife of his elder brother was fearful of the proposition which she had made. She then fetched grease and fat and feigningly became like one who has been assaulted with the intention of telling her husband: it’s your younger brother who has assaulted me. Her husband left work in the evening according to his daily habit. He reached his house and found his wife lying (down), feigning (to be) sick, so that she did not pour water upon his hand(s) according to his custom, nor had she prepared lighting for his arrival, so that his house was in darkness as she lay vomiting. Her husband said to her: Who has quarrelled with you? She said to him: No one has quarrelled with me except your / younger brother. When he returned to take out seed for you, he found me sitting alone and said to me, “Come, let’s spend an hour sleeping (together). You shall put on your wig.” So he said to me, but I refused to obey him. “Isn’t it so that I am your mother, and that your brother is (associated) with you after the manner of a father?” So I said to him. And he became afraid and assaulted me to prevent me from making a disclosure to you. Now if you let him live, I’ll take my life. See, as soon as he returns, don’t... [?]him, because I denounce this wicked proposition which he would have carried out yesterday. (4,1-5,1; pp. 96-97)

There are some similarities with Gen 37: there Joseph was a slave thrown into a pit. Here he is a slave thrown into prison. He lands socially lower, but from this low point will reach the final stage of power. There is a parallel between the actions of the Brothers and Potiphar’s Wife. The tunic

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and the garment are also symbols of Joseph’s standing: once removed, he becomes a helpless object, silent and powerless. Later he will be given robes of office. In the Bible the clothes become the symbols of one’s standing. God seems to intervene now, when Joseph is very low. God intervened when Joseph came to Egypt, and now when he is in prison. The reader feels sympathy, and then God steps in. The narrator secures the reader’s compassion. When Joseph is silent, naked, an object, then God intervenes. This has resemblance with Eastern religion: an opening up to the absolute, pure existence without masks and supports. As already illustrated, there are parallels to this story, especially the Egyptian “Tale of the Two Brothers”. Gunkel says that there is no proof this story lies behind the Joseph Cycle. However, there are also similar stories from Greece, Persia, and India.11 This is a lowpoint. Joseph is in prison in Egypt. He is an object again. At this point he is close to God. In Potiphar’s house Joseph was a slave, not a free man. And just when his circumstances could not apparently worsen, he resisted the advances of Potiphar’s Wife. Far from being rewarded for doing the right thing, he is thrown into prison for a crime he did not commit, and left to languish for several dismal years. Again one is led to ask if God is really in control in Joseph’s life? At the end of story we see, as will Joseph, that God is most definitely in control. ____________________________________________________________

Genesis 40 1 Some time after this, the butler of the king of Egypt and his baker offended their lord the king of Egypt. 2 And Pharaoh was angry with his two officers, the chief butler and the chief baker, 3 and he put them in custody in the house of the captain of the guard, in the prison where Joseph was confined. 4 The captain of the guard charged Joseph with them, and he waited on them; and they continued for some time in custody. 5 And one night they both dreamed—the butler and the baker of the king of Egypt, who were confined in the prison—each his own dream, and each dream with its own meaning.

11 See Hermann Gunkel, The Folktale in the Old Testament (1917). Translated by M. D. Rutter (Sheffield: Almond Press, 1987).

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Fig.20. The Tale of Two Brothers (papyrus fragment)

6 When Joseph came to them in the morning and saw them, they were troubled. 7 So he asked Pharaoh’s officers who were with him in custody in his master’s house, “Why are your faces downcast today?” 8 They said to him, “We have had dreams, and there is no one to interpret them.”And Joseph said to them, “Do not interpretations belong to God? Tell them to me, I pray you.” 9 So the chief butler told his dream to Joseph, and said to him, “In my dream there was a vine before me, 10 and on the vine there were three branches; as soon as it budded, its blossoms shot forth, and the clusters ripened into grapes. 11 Pharaoh’s cup was in my hand; and I took the grapes and pressed them into Pharaoh’s cup, and placed the cup in Pharaoh’s hand.” 12 Then Joseph said to him, “This is its interpretation: the three branches are three days; 13 within three days Pharaoh will lift up your head and restore you to your office; and you shall place Pharaoh’s cup in his hand as formerly, when you were his butler. 14 But remember me, when it is well with you, and do me the kindness, I pray you, to make mention of me to Pharaoh, and so get me out of this house. 15 For I was indeed stolen out of the land of the Hebrews; and here also I have done nothing that they should put me into the dungeon.” 16 When the chief baker saw that the interpretation was favourable, he said to Joseph, “I also had a dream: there were three cake baskets on my head,

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17 and in the uppermost basket there were all sorts of baked food for Pharaoh, but the birds were eating it out of the basket on my head.” 18 And Joseph answered, “This is its interpretation: the three baskets are three days; 19 within three days Pharaoh will lift up your head -- from you! -- and hang you on a tree; and the birds will eat the flesh from you.” 20 On the third day, which was Pharaoh’s birthday, he made a feast for all his servants, and lifted up the head of the chief butler and the head of the chief baker among his servants. 21 He restored the chief butler to his butlership, and he placed the cup in Pharaoh’s hand; 22 but he hanged the chief baker, as Joseph had interpreted to them. 23 Yet the chief butler did not remember Joseph, but forgot him. ____________________________________________________________

4.4 Genesis 40: Joseph in prison Joseph interprets the dreams of Pharaoh’s Cupbearer and Baker. There is an indication of time at the beginning of the section: wayehi. There is a virtuoso disposition of the temporal spheres. Two years pass, then one night, three days, then another two years. The formal structure is a movement from desire to fulfilment. All three men wish to be free. At the end this is fulfilled in one way or another: freedom, death, disappointment. Joseph is caught between the desires of two men. Because the first dream is positive, it opens doors and hopes.

The Moments in the Story i) Exposition (40:1-4). Three people are in prison at the same time. ii) Complication (40:5-13). The dreams are the inciting moment. iii) Turning-point (40:14-15). The first dream is full of hope and expectation for three people. Joseph makes a request in hope. iv) Resolution (40:15-23). The second dream has a negative, baleful interpretation. There is fulfilment of the dreams on Pharaoh’s birthday: this results in restoration (for the Cupbearer), hanging (for the Baker), and forgetfulness (for Joseph). The story ends in sadness.

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The Role of the Narrator In the exposition the narrator seems to forget Joseph. Why are these other people mentioned? They are in the same prison, but the reader is puzzled. What links them to Joseph? The effect of this apparent detachment is to increase attachment to Joseph, and our concern for him grows. There is a special narrative effect in this complication discovered by Hermann Gunkel who called it Nachholung.12 This has the equivalent effect of a ‘flashback’. Two courtiers have dreams: Joseph comes to see the troubled men. The narrative order is: dreams, Joseph comes to see the disturbed men, asks, and is told the dreams. The dreams remain mysterious. The person of Joseph is important here: we must learn about the dreams with Joseph the Lord of Dreams. Dreams in the Ancient Near East are mysterious signs coming from God (cf. also Solomon’s dream in 1 Kings 3:3-9, asking for wisdom; Nebuchadnezzar’s apocalyptic dreams of the Great Statue and the Great Tree in Daniel 2 & 4; Joseph the Carpenter’s dreams in the Gospel of Matthew 2:13-15,19-20, directing him to flee with the baby Jesus to Egypt; the dream of Pontius Pilate’s wife about the righteous Jesus in Matthew 27:19; and Paul’s dream in Acts 16:9, prompting him to travel to Macedonia). Joseph the interpreter is therefore very important. There is a parallelism between the content of the story and the emotionalism of reading it. The first dream, the Butler’s, is full of hope: this is a very positive moment for the reader. Then follows the second dream, with its negative interpretation. The feeling goes down, and there is a sense of hopelessness. The Baker will be hanged. Both dreams are fulfilled: this is to be expected. But the second ongoing disappointment is that the Butler in his restoration does not remember Joseph. We are prepared for it by the sad events.

Stylistic Analysis There are three stylistic features: 1) play on words 2) the two dreams 3) the construction of the passage.

12

Gunkel, Genesis: Translated and Explained.

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1) The use of pun This usage was identified by Gunkel: yose’ (nasa’) and ro’sh.13 The Butler ‘bowed’ before the King until the monarch lifted up his ‘head’: it means to restore. But it can also be used as a pun, “to behead”, as happens to the Baker (40:19).

2) The two dreams The dream of the Butler (40:9-13) is rapid, concise. The use of recurrent shin produces an effect of smoothness. Pharaoh is mentioned three times. The Butler is active in the second half of his dream: all is service upon Pharaoh. The second dream is different (40:16-17). There is no action on the part of the Baker: he prepares nothing for Pharaoh. The bread is on his head. There are long clauses. The only activity in the dream is the destructive behaviour of the ominous birds. The first and last words are the same: ro’shi (my head) (40:16, 17).

3) Construction Joseph appears after the other two courtiers. In the central section he is mentioned between them. He will remain there forgotten—neither restored nor destroyed. For the other two the situation changes: for Joseph it does not. In Gen 39 Joseph was in the pit and forgotten. Again here he seems to fade away, silent for the third time. He represents the objective world of God. As such he becomes a despised object. He has a special link with dreams, as God’s messenger. He belongs to an objective world, rejected, mishandled, disregarded by his Brothers, by Potiphar’s Wife, by the Butler. Joseph, on the other hand, never misuses his power. ____________________________________________________________

Genesis 41 1 After two whole years, Pharaoh dreamed that he was standing by the Nile, 2 and behold, there came up out of the Nile seven cows sleek and fat, and they fed in the reed grass. 3 And behold, seven other cows, gaunt and thin, came up out of the Nile 13

Gunkel, Genesis: Translated and Explained.

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after them, and stood by the other cows on the bank of the Nile. 4 And the gaunt and thin cows ate up the seven sleek and fat cows. And Pharaoh awoke. 5 And he fell asleep and dreamed a second time; and behold, seven ears of grain, plump and good, were growing on one stalk. 6 And behold, after them sprouted seven ears, thin and blighted by the east wind. 7 And the thin ears swallowed up the seven plump and full ears. And Pharaoh awoke, and behold, it was a dream. 8 So in the morning his spirit was troubled; and he sent and called for all the magicians of Egypt and all its wise men; and Pharaoh told them his dream, but there was none who could interpret it to Pharaoh. 9 Then the chief butler said to Pharaoh, “I remember my faults today. 10 When Pharaoh was angry with his servants, and put me and the chief baker in custody in the house of the captain of the guard, 11 we dreamed on the same night, he and I, each having a dream with its own meaning. 12 A young Hebrew was there with us, a servant of the captain of the guard; and when we told him, he interpreted our dreams to us, giving an interpretation to each man according to his dream. 13 And as he interpreted to us, so it came to pass; I was restored to my office, and the baker was hanged.” 14 Then Pharaoh sent and called Joseph, and they brought him hastily out of the dungeon; and when he had shaved himself and changed his clothes, he came in before Pharaoh. 15 And Pharaoh said to Joseph, “I have had a dream, and there is no one who can interpret it; and I have heard it said of you that when you hear a dream you can interpret it.” 16 Joseph answered Pharaoh, “It is not in me; God will give Pharaoh a favourable answer.” 17 Then Pharaoh said to Joseph, “Behold, in my dream I was standing on the banks of the Nile; 18 and seven cows, fat and sleek, came up out of the Nile and fed in the reed grass; 19 and seven other cows came up after them, poor and very gaunt and thin, such as I had never seen in all the land of Egypt. 20 And the thin and gaunt cows ate up the first seven fat cows, 21 but when they had eaten them no one would have known that they had eaten them, for they were still as gaunt as at the beginning. Then I awoke. 22 I also saw in my dream seven ears growing on one stalk, full and good;

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23 and seven ears, withered, thin, and blighted by the east wind, sprouted after them, 24 and the thin ears swallowed up the seven good ears. And I told it to the magicians, but there was no one who could explain it to me.” 25 Then Joseph said to Pharaoh, “The dream of Pharaoh is one; God has revealed to Pharaoh what he is about to do. 26 The seven good cows are seven years, and the seven good ears are seven years; the dream is one. 27 The seven lean and gaunt cows that came up after them are seven years, and the seven empty ears blighted by the east wind are also seven years of famine. 28 It is as I told Pharaoh, God has shown to Pharaoh what he is about to do. 29 There will come seven years of great plenty throughout all the land of Egypt, 30 but after them there will arise seven years of famine, and all the plenty will be forgotten in the land of Egypt; the famine will consume the land, 31 and the plenty will be unknown in the land by reason of that famine which will follow, for it will be very grievous. 32 And the doubling of Pharaoh’s dream means that the thing is fixed by God, and God will shortly bring it to pass. 33 Now therefore let Pharaoh select a man discreet and wise, and set him over the land of Egypt. 34 Let Pharaoh proceed to appoint overseers over the land, and take the fifth part of the produce of the land of Egypt during the seven plenteous years. 35 And let them gather all the food of these good years that are coming, and lay up grain under the authority of Pharaoh for food in the cities, and let them keep it. 36 That food shall be a reserve for the land against the seven years of famine which are to befall the land of Egypt, so that the land may not perish through the famine.” 37 This proposal seemed good to Pharaoh and to all his servants. 38 And Pharaoh said to his servants, “Can we find such a man as this, in whom is the Spirit of God?” 39 So Pharaoh said to Joseph, “Since God has shown you all this, there is none so discreet and wise as you are; 40 you shall be over my house, and all my people shall order themselves as you command; only as regards the throne will I be greater than you.”

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41 And Pharaoh said to Joseph, “Behold, I have set you over all the land of Egypt.” 42 Then Pharaoh took his signet ring from his hand and put it on Joseph’s hand, and arrayed him in garments of fine linen, and put a gold chain about his neck; 43 and he made him to ride in his second chariot; and they cried before him, “Bow the knee!” Thus he set him over all the land of Egypt. 44 Moreover Pharaoh said to Joseph, “I am Pharaoh, and without your consent no man shall lift up hand or foot in all the land of Egypt.” 45 And Pharaoh called Joseph’s name Zaph’enath-pane’ah; and he gave him in marriage As’enath, the daughter of Poti’phera priest of On. So Joseph went out over the land of Egypt. 46 Joseph was thirty years old when he entered the service of Pharaoh king of Egypt. And Joseph went out from the presence of Pharaoh, and went through all the land of Egypt. 47 During the seven plenteous years the earth brought forth abundantly, 48 and he gathered up all the food of the seven years when there was plenty in the land of Egypt, and stored up food in the cities; he stored up in every city the food from the fields around it. 49 And Joseph stored up grain in great abundance, like the sand of the sea, until he ceased to measure it, for it could not be measured. 50 Before the year of famine came, Joseph had two sons, whom As’enath, the daughter of Poti’phera priest of On, bore to him. 51 Joseph called the name of the first-born Manas’seh, “For,” he said, “God has made me forget all my hardship and all my father’s house.” 52 The name of the second he called E’phraim, “For God has made me fruitful in the land of my affliction.” 53 The seven years of plenty that prevailed in the land of Egypt came to an end; 54 and the seven years of famine began to come, as Joseph had said. There was famine in all lands; but in all the land of Egypt there was bread. 55 When all the land of Egypt was famished, the people cried to Pharaoh for bread; and Pharaoh said to all the Egyptians, “Go to Joseph; what he says to you, do.” 56 So when the famine had spread over all the land, Joseph opened all the storehouses, and sold to the Egyptians, for the famine was severe in the land of Egypt. 57 Moreover, all the earth came to Egypt to Joseph to buy grain, because the famine was severe over all the earth. ____________________________________________________________

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4.5 Genesis 41: Joseph becomes the Vizier of Egypt The expectations of the reader are the same as that of the characters. The underlying structure here is a problem and its solution, a movement repeated on various levels. Pharaoh’s dreams are the first problem; they identify the actual issue of the seven years of plenty and the seven years of famine. Who will take charge of the situation? A wise man is needed. The question for the reader is: What about Joseph? Will he get out of prison? His dreams must be fulfilled: Gen 37 must be realized. Joseph is the answer to all three problems: he can interpret dreams, he can organize Egypt, therefore he will be free.

Structure of the Text Exposition (41:1a). The story starts abruptly with the dreams. “After two years” is the only introduction. Complication (41:1b-32). The dreams are recounted, the problem of their interpretation, the Butler’s recall of Joseph, and Joseph is brought. Turning-point (41:33-36). The reader knows what the problem is, as it reaches its highest point of expectation. Perhaps Joseph will now get out of prison? Resolution (41:37-57). This sees Joseph’s appointment, his mission in the years of plenty, the birth of his sons, his mission in the years of famine.

Some Peculiarities This section contains both showing and telling parts. Here showing is more important. Pharaoh’s dreams are told to us, as are conversations between Pharaoh and the courtiers, then with Joseph. Pharaoh tells Joseph his dreams. The section opens and closes with telling parts, with the middle section as a showing part as Joseph comes onto the scene. Narrative time is two years. Narration time is just a day that takes up two pages. Pharaoh’s summoning of Joseph is told in a compressed account of one verse, with breathtaking rhythm (41:14). The pace of the narrative slows down dramatically until the seven years are summarized in few words. All is reduced to essential summary.

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Stylistic Analysis 1) The dreams The numbers have meaning. The reader is prepared to accept the numbers as referring to time. The theme of food dominates. Egypt is always regarded as a land of richness and abundance. The whole Book of Genesis refers to Egypt as a garden, a land of abundance, of marvels. The Nile is the symbol of Egypt, the source of Egypt’s prosperity. The cows come out of the Nile. There is coherence between the dreams, especially in the narrator’s account. All is symmetrically constructed. Adjectives go in pairs. The dreams speak of “fat” years. “Lean” is used of animals, and here is applied also to plants, to the sheaves of wheat. The words of Mary about the dearth of wine at the Wedding Feast at Cana are a quotation of Genesis (Jn 2:3-5).

2) Different versions of the same dream he narrator tells the dream, then Pharaoh tells them himself to Joseph, then Joseph interprets them. The narrator prepares the reader for the interpretation. There is an inclusion in 41:1 & 7: chalam/chalom (to dream/a dream). The narrator stresses similarity by using symmetry. The cows come out of the same river, the grains are on the same stalk. Everything is in pairs. The nouns are feminine in endings. The adjectives repeated are ra` (fat) (usually used for animals and people, not years), and daq (lean) (used in the same way). The two dreams convey the same message. There is coherence and similarity between the dreams. 41: 8 is pivotal. Pharaoh tells the dreams as one. The magicians think there are two dreams with two different meanings. Pharaoh then narrates the dreams to Joseph. There are important differences. He misunderstands the symmetry. 41:19 uses three adjectives instead of two. He changes the adjective for lean cows, so reducing similarity. In 41:19b Pharaoh intervenes in the story to add his own feelings. The same process occurs in 41:20-24. He constantly adds his own reactions and blurs the symmetry. He cannot understand dreams, and misses important aspects. His impressions are too strong, and he ignores the detail of reality. Joseph has only this version to work with. He has to restore the dreams to understand them properly. The young Daniel will have to do the same later, for King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon (Dan 2:25-45). Joseph can interpret the damaged dreams. He says there is only one dream (41:25-26), and one meaning, with the interpretation coming from God. He restores the

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damaged symmetry. He uses new adjectives, interpreting the verbs, the meaning of the action: “eating” and “swallowing”. The dreams are repeated twice, so fixed by God. One must hurry to implement the message. Joseph can explain the details, the main points, the content of the dreams. The narrator is constantly displaying to the reader the skill Joseph commands as an interpreter.

The Rise of Joseph: Stylistic and Semantic Analysis There are three chains of key words. At the beginning of the text there is the semantic field of dreams and dreaming: chalam (“to dream”) (18 times) and pathar (“to interpret) (7 times). The latter occurs at key moments. The Butler remembers Joseph who appears because he can interpret. The second set of important words is: ’elohîm (7 times); and the third is ’eretz (land) in nearly every verse from 41:29. There are links between these three threads. As soon as Joseph appears, God is mentioned. Joseph himself is of no use: only God can provide the answer. Joseph reveals God’s message to Pharaoh. He repeats this often. The message is for all the earth. Joseph receives new garments for the first time since his boyhood. Each stage of his rise is marked by the gift of new garments. The Brothers must now become brothers and discover the meaning of brotherhood. Joseph on the Throne. He married the daughter of the priest of On, a city of Lower Egypt, half a dozen miles from modern Cairo. The Greeks called it Heliopolis (“city of the sun”) since the solar disc was the supreme deity of the Nile Valley. The worship of the sun at Heliopolis was the keynote of Egyptian ritual and the On priesthood was powerful and closely identified with the throne.14

Archaeological Background Ample evidence of famines in Egypt exists. At least two Egyptian officials list among their good deeds the dispensing of food to the needy “in each year of want”. One inscription (c. 100 B.C.) actually describes a sevenyear famine in the days of Zoser of the Third Dynasty (c. 2700 B.C.). This great builder, aided by an extraordinarily able vizier Imhotep, oversaw a period of progress and prosperity.15 The titles of “chief of the butlers” and 14

Hans Baumann, The World of the Pharaohs (London, 1960), p. 231. Baumann, p. 40; Clive Carpenter, The Guinness Book of Kings, Rulers and Statesman (Enfield: Guinness Superlatives Limited, 1978), p. 67. 15

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“chief of the bakers” (40:2) were those of palace officials mentioned in Egyptian documents. The Joseph Story is rich in accurate local and antiquarian details, as are the Egyptian narratives of Genesis and Exodus in general. When Potiphar makes Joseph “overseer of his house” (39:4) the title employed is a direct translation of a position in the houses of Egyptian nobility. Pharaoh gives Joseph an office with a similar title in the administration of the realm (41:46) corresponding precisely to the office of vizier, the chief administrator of the country, second in power to Pharaoh himself. The Egyptian office of superintendent of the granaries was pivotal and apparently filled by Joseph in addition to his duties as prime minister (vizier). Pharaoh’s giving of gifts to Joseph (41:42-43) on the latter’s induction into office was completely in accord with Egyptian customs.

Egyptian Analogies Parallels with “The Tale of the Two Brothers” are again striking. After many days following this, His Majesty, l.p.h. [long preserve him!], made him crown prince of the entire land, and after many days following this, when he had completed many [years] as crown prince in the entire land, His Majesty, l.p.h., flew up to the sky. Then the (new) king said: Have my great officials of His Majesty, l.p.h., brought to me that I may inform them regarding every situation / that I have been involved in. His wife [was] brought to him, and he was judged with her in their presence. A consensus was reached among them. His elder brother was brought to him, and he appointed him crown prince in the entire land. He was thirty years as King of Egypt. He departed from life, and his elder brother acceded to his throne on the day of death. (18,1-19,5, p. 107)

Joseph Revealed to his Brothers: Genesis 42—45 This is one of the finest and most dramatic stories in all literature, filled with authentic Egyptian colouring. When Judah, who had years before engineered the selling of his brother into slavery (37:26), now brings to a climax the emotional throb of the story by offering himself as a hostage for Benjamin (44:18-34), Joseph can no longer restrain himself (45:1-15) and makes himself known. ____________________________________________________________

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Genesis 42 1 When Jacob learned that there was grain in Egypt, he said to his sons, “Why do you look at one another?” 2 And he said, “Behold, I have heard that there is grain in Egypt; go down and buy grain for us there, that we may live, and not die.” 3 So ten of Joseph’s brothers went down to buy grain in Egypt. 4 But Jacob did not send Benjamin, Joseph’s brother, with his brothers, for he feared that harm might befall him. 5 Thus the sons of Israel came to buy among the others who came, for the famine was in the land of Canaan. 6 Now Joseph was governor over the land; he it was who sold to all the people of the land. And Joseph’s brothers came, and bowed themselves before him with their faces to the ground. 7 Joseph saw his brothers, and knew them, but he treated them like strangers and spoke roughly to them. “Where do you come from?” he said. They said, “From the land of Canaan, to buy food.” 8 Thus Joseph knew his brothers, but they did not know him. 9 And Joseph remembered the dreams which he had dreamed of them; and he said to them, “You are spies, you have come to see the weakness of the land.” 10 They said to him, “No, my lord, but to buy food have your servants come. 11 We are all sons of one man, we are honest men, your servants are not spies.” 12 He said to them, “No, it is the weakness of the land that you have come to see.” 13 And they said, “We, your servants, are twelve brothers, the sons of one man in the land of Canaan; and behold, the youngest is this day with our father, and one is no more.” 14 But Joseph said to them, “It is as I said to you, you are spies. 15 By this you shall be tested: by the life of Pharaoh, you shall not go from this place unless your youngest brother comes here. 16 Send one of you, and let him bring your brother, while you remain in prison, that your words may be tested, whether there is truth in you; or else, by the life of Pharaoh, surely you are spies.” 17 And he put them all together in prison for three days. 18 On the third day Joseph said to them, “Do this and you will live, for I fear God: 19 if you are honest men, let one of your brothers remain confined in your prison, and let the rest go and carry grain for the famine of your

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households, 20 and bring your youngest brother to me; so your words will be verified, and you shall not die.” And they did so. 21 Then they said to one another, “In truth we are guilty concerning our brother, in that we saw the distress of his soul, when he besought us and we would not listen; therefore is this distress come upon us.” 22 And Reuben answered them, “Did I not tell you not to sin against the lad? But you would not listen. So now there comes a reckoning for his blood.” 23 They did not know that Joseph understood them, for there was an interpreter between them. 24 Then he turned away from them and wept; and he returned to them and spoke to them. And he took Simeon from them and bound him before their eyes. 25 And Joseph gave orders to fill their bags with grain, and to replace every man’s money in his sack, and to give them provisions for the journey. This was done for them. 26 Then they loaded their asses with their grain, and departed. 27 And as one of them opened his sack to give his ass provender at the lodging place, he saw his money in the mouth of his sack; 28 and he said to his brothers, “My money has been put back; here it is in the mouth of my sack!” At this their hearts failed them, and they turned trembling to one another, saying, “What is this that God has done to us?” 29 When they came to Jacob their father in the land of Canaan, they told him all that had befallen them, saying, 30 “The man, the lord of the land, spoke roughly to us, and took us to be spies of the land. 31 But we said to him, `We are honest men, we are not spies; 32 we are twelve brothers, sons of our father; one is no more, and the youngest is this day with our father in the land of Canaan.’ 33 Then the man, the lord of the land, said to us, `By this I shall know that you are honest men: leave one of your brothers with me, and take grain for the famine of your households, and go your way. 34 Bring your youngest brother to me; then I shall know that you are not spies but honest men, and I will deliver to you your brother, and you shall trade in the land.’“ 35 As they emptied their sacks, behold, every man’s bundle of money was in his sack; and when they and their father saw their bundles of money, they were dismayed. 36 And Jacob their father said to them, “You have bereaved me of my children: Joseph is no more, and Simeon is no more, and now you

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would take Benjamin; all this has come upon me.” 37 Then Reuben said to his father, “Slay my two sons if I do not bring him back to you; put him in my hands, and I will bring him back to you.” 38 But he said, “My son shall not go down with you, for his brother is dead, and he only is left. If harm should befall him on the journey that you are to make, you would bring down my gray hairs with sorrow to Sheol.” ____________________________________________________________

4.6 Genesis 42: The First Meeting between Joseph and His Brothers The scene is common in world literature. The context is famine described in 41:56-7, a preparation for Gen 42. In 43:1 is another mention of the fact: famine was heavy in the whole earth. Jacob is forced to send his sons to look for food.

Narrative Analysis 1) The formal structure of the text There is basic movement from need to fulfilment. The formal structure is abstract and changes. The first need is for food and how they are to get it. The quest could end there, but there is a complication, a second need, for the truth to be discovered. Joseph accuses them of being spies: the word “truth” (’emet) is used in 42:16. In 42:20 ’aman (“to make firm”) is related to truth, verification. “Honest” and “trustworthy men” (kenem) are also used. Joseph in the whole story combines the need for food with a third need, for a brother. If Benjamin comes, they will truly be sons of the one father. The fourth and last need is life itself (42:2). Joseph uses the same vocabulary of life and death (42:20). The coming of Benjamin is the condition of life. The problem is one of survival, life and death. Initially the need is only for food: the lives of the Brothers are at risk. But it is more than this: it becomes a question of truth. Survival is a question of truth, of brotherhood. The need deepens the question. What kind of food do they need to survive? In the context of Genesis it is to do with the survival of Israel. For the first time the term is used: “the sons of Israel” (42:5): bene yisra’el.

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2) The Narrative Structure of the Text The exposition is already presented in the former chapter: 41:56-57.These verses are necessary for understanding the story. Gen 42:1 sees Jacob introduced, and all the other characters supposed already known to the reader. He knows the frame and circumstances of this story. 42:1-5 is really the inciting moment. The problem is the survival of Jacob’s family. He sends his 10 sons, but Benjamin remains at home. The key verb is “to go down”. There is again a parallel: just as Joseph stayed at home, so now does Benjamin. The situation is similar to Gen 37. The family is still divided: one brother is still favoured over the others. The complication is unfolded in 42:6-28. The scene is in Egypt, and the meeting of the Brothers. The transition comes in the journey home (42:26-28). Joseph is presented in 42:6, enhanced by the style. He recognizes his Brothers but twice they do not recognize him. —42:7-13. Joseph asks questions thrice, and twice refuses to accept the Brothers’ answers. —42:21-22-25. The reaction of the Brothers is presented: we are guilty and are now being punished. They live again the experiences of Gen 37. The reaction of Reuben repeats his earlier words in Gen 37. Then Joseph reacts, weeping. Simeon is put in prison, and the money is returned to their sacks. The transition occurs in 42:26-28. The Brothers find the money, and are puzzled and increasingly fearful. The climax comes in 42:29-35. The turning-point is the report to Jacob, the discovery of the money adding to their fear. The climax of the tension must be to take Benjamin to Egypt.. The real problem is now focused on the brother Benjamin. The resolution comes in 42:36-38 with the proposal of Reuben. Some see it as a type of oath: ‘I will bring back Benjamin, so you will never have to kill my sons I leave as surety’. Jacob refuses and deadlock ensues. The problem starts again in the following chapter. Coates sees the climax in 42:36, the first reaction of Jacob. But this is an emotional climax. This is not the highest point of expectation, not the climax of the plot. The chapter can also be divided according to place. But this is a framework rather than a plot connection. Benjamin moves more and more to the centre of the story.

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3) Narration Time and Narrative Time The real time is long, but only a few incidents are mentioned. What matters is not the journey but the confrontations with Joseph and Jacob. Otherwise the reflections of the Brothers are not very significant. The narrator says very little, but the reader expects much. These gaps generate a higher tension. Roles are reversed, expectations are raised. Questions asked, and the reader listens with more attention.

4) The Narrator i) The omniscient narrator The narrator is everpresent and everywhere, sharing his knowledge with the reader. He tells us that Joseph recognizes his brothers, we know more than the Brothers, as much as Joseph in fact. The reader is therefore more on the side on Joseph, and expresses things from his point of view. We side with him, become accomplices of his. Why does Joseph act like this, so harshly? Why does he test them? We remain puzzled, as do the Brothers. Why does he act in this way? The question is more important than the answer. ii) Characters and the narrator There are differences between telling and showing. Only in showing some parts do we learn of exact reactions. The Brothers think they understand: they feel guilty and interpret it as a punishment. But are they right? Joseph says he wants to test or fathom (bachan) their feelings. Does he have a hidden motive? We can only know from what they say. The narrator tells us nothing. In Gen 22 (The Sacrifice of Isaac) the meaning is given in the first verse: “And God put Abraham to the test”. We know this, but the characters within the drama do not. iii) Point of view and Nachholung We perceive the story with Joseph, and are on his side, since we know almost as much as he does. The Brothers’ point of view about Joseph is reported from the past into the present. There is a double flashback and perspective. Joseph knows what the Brothers think because he can listen in to their conversation. Joseph has a point of view on himself through the Brothers. There is a double flashback in the scene: the Brothers remember the events of Gen 37, and hear additional details about it, that Joseph pleaded for mercy. He was not silent. The second flashback is more subtle: Joseph is present and understands. This creates an effect of surprise and emotion, and Joseph weeps. The reader shares this since he suddenly learns that

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Joseph was listening and understanding. Joseph experiences his own distress again in the distress of his Brothers. He can express his feelings simply because his Brothers feel emotion. Previously they were cruel and deaf, and Joseph expressed no feelings. Now he can because they can. It becomes a kind of healing of memory. What the Brothers hid comes back and can be healed. Hence reconciliation can be possible now. But the wounds of the past must be healed first if the meaning of ‘brother’ is to be fully realized. Earlier Joseph was an object, silent and naked. Now he is dressed twice over, and can express his feelings. The pages are wet with tears—right up to the last meeting in Gen 50. Now Joseph becomes a subject, remembered by the Brothers, and able to operate in their lives. The Brothers can listen to him. Jacob is still a central figure, but he must be able to relinquish Benjamin.

Style There are different semantic fields and vocabulary. —The family is the chief register: brother, father, son. —Then comes food: wheat, hunger, eating. —There are verbs of perception: to see, to listen, to know, to recognize (42:7-8). —Verbs and words of emotion: to weep, anguish, anxiety, fear (42:28, 35), sorrow (42:38). —A vocabulary of life and death. —A vocabulary of truth (ken, honest, occurs 5 times). —A vocabulary of numbers —The verb “to go down”. Of these the family is the most important. The Ten Brothers of Joseph are mentioned at the beginning, When they face Joseph, they identify themselves as Twelve Brothers. After three days they speak of Joseph as “our brother”, ’achinu. For Jacob Benjamin is “my son”, beni. When he goes to Egypt, he says “your brother”, ’achi. Jacob is the obstacle: he must lose his son in order to regain the family and complete it.

Gen 42:1-5 Jacob “sees” that there is food in Egypt indispensable for the survival of the family (42:2). He does not ‘see’ that even more than food will be

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found in Egypt. There is a chain: perception—food—survival. The siblings are called the Ten Brothers of Joseph, the group of ten who decided to sell Joseph. —In 42:4 Benjamin is introduced, again as a “brother of Joseph”, but he is isolated. Thus there is a grouping 10+1+1. —In 42:5 the term bene yisra’el refers to the sons of the Patriarch, also the fuller prophetic meaning of the Sons of the Nation.

Gen 42: 6-17 Twelve Brothers are spoken of. Joseph ‘sees’ his brothers, recognizes them, but they do not see him. They do however come to ‘see’ him eventually. In the meantime Joseph accuses them of having come to ‘see’ the land, or to spy. The test of Joseph will be to see if they can see more than just food. They must be able to see more than food in Egypt. They will soon forget about food. The first answer is in 43:7: food; the second answer is in 43:10-11: food and family. They are a family not a gang. The third answer is in 43:13: and this time it is only family: they are Twelve Brothers of one man in Canaan (therefore including Joseph whom they presume dead). Joseph has attacked them in 43:12, accusing them of spying: they must prove they are a genuine family. The condition by which they should establish their integrity and get the food they are looking for is by showing that they are a real family. Even as they had previously lied to Jacob about their family unity (Gen 37), now they must prove it. Two perceptions emerge: Joseph ‘sees’ his brothers and accuses them of ‘seeing’ only the land. He will make them reveal the family. Benjamin must be brought, to end the isolation of one of the Ten. He tests their unity and solidarity. The situation is again similar to Gen 37: one brother is put before the others.

Gen 42:18-28 The second meeting between the Brothers presents verbs of perception again: ‘seeing’ and ‘hearing’ (shama’). Simeon will be kept behind, his name having the same root. At his birth it is said “God listened” (Gen 29:33). Reuben is based on ra’ah (to see): “the Lord saw my need” (Gen 29:32). All the Brothers see and hear at the moment is the presence and the voice of Joseph. 43:21 presents a different perception of the family. Their condition of survival depends on their bringing Benjamin, their youngest brother. Here

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for the first time they show emotions: they recall Joseph’s distress, and Joseph weeps (43:24). They reach a new level of perception of family relationships: Joseph comes back in the memory of the brothers. Truth has emerged in their collective family memory. Verbs of perception are again used in 43:27. They discover the secreted money, and another brother is isolated. They see and fear. Why did Joseph give back the money? Perhaps he is showing that money has nothing to do with the discovery that is needed. They still are not able to understand, so they are afraid. Benjamin becomes the nub of the question: he must be separated from his father. Unless Jacob can give him up, the family cannot be reunited.

Gen 42: 29-38 They open their sacks and they see and fear. Jacob and the Brothers must discover that the family is more than food and riches. If Benjamin does not go, there can be no food. The question of truth is connected to Benjamin going to Egypt. They reach the frontiers of life and death. Benjamin is “my son”, Joseph is “his brother”, and both are separated from the other brothers. The family can only be unified if Benjamin goes down to Egypt. Jacob must accept losing his son, perhaps even the death of his son and himself, for the sake of the family. Attention has shifted from Joseph to the Brothers. All is in the hands of the Brothers: they are the subjects of the action. The reader must be baffled with the Brothers. They are always on stage. Up to Gen 41 Joseph was always central. Now his Brothers take this place. The riddle must be solved by the reader with the Brothers.

Stylistic and Semantic Analysis Key concepts are: ––the need to “go down” —the notion of “brother” —God mentioned by Joseph and the Brothers. Jacob brings God into his thinking when he allows Benjamin to go down to Egypt. God is also present in the dreams which are sent from the divine world. Earlier in Gen 37 there was a conflict between the world of dreams and the world of passion, a conflict that breaks up the family. Here, at the beginning of the reconciliation, there are powerful transforming emotions.

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Genesis 43 1 Now the famine was severe in the land. 2 And when they had eaten the grain which they had brought from Egypt, their father said to them, “Go again, buy us a little food.” 3 But Judah said to him, “The man solemnly warned us, saying, `You shall not see my face, unless your brother is with you.’ 4 If you will send our brother with us, we will go down and buy you food; 5 but if you will not send him, we will not go down, for the man said to us, `You shall not see my face, unless your brother is with you.’“ 6 Israel said, “Why did you treat me so ill as to tell the man that you had another brother?” 7 They replied, “The man questioned us carefully about ourselves and our kindred, saying, `Is your father still alive? Have you another brother?’ What we told him was in answer to these questions; could we in any way know that he would say, `Bring your brother down’?” 8 And Judah said to Israel his father, “Send the lad with me, and we will arise and go, that we may live and not die, both we and you and also our little ones. 9 I will be surety for him; of my hand you shall require him. If I do not bring him back to you and set him before you, then let me bear the blame for ever; 10 for if we had not delayed, we would now have returned twice.” 11 Then their father Israel said to them, “If it must be so, then do this: take some of the choice fruits of the land in your bags, and carry down to the man a present, a little balm and a little honey, gum, myrrh, pistachio nuts, and almonds. 12 Take double the money with you; carry back with you the money that was returned in the mouth of your sacks; perhaps it was an oversight. 13 Take also your brother, and arise, go again to the man; 14 may God Almighty grant you mercy before the man, that he may send back your other brother and Benjamin. If I am bereaved of my children, I am bereaved.” 15 So the men took the present, and they took double the money with them, and Benjamin; and they arose and went down to Egypt, and stood before Joseph. 16 When Joseph saw Benjamin with them, he said to the steward of his house, “Bring the men into the house, and slaughter an animal and make ready, for the men are to dine with me at noon.”

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17 The man did as Joseph bade him, and brought the men to Joseph’s house. 18 And the men were afraid because they were brought to Joseph’s house, and they said, “It is because of the money, which was replaced in our sacks the first time, that we are brought in, so that he may seek occasion against us and fall upon us, to make slaves of us and seize our asses.” 19 So they went up to the steward of Joseph’s house, and spoke with him at the door of the house, 20 and said, “Oh, my lord, we came down the first time to buy food; 21 and when we came to the lodging place we opened our sacks, and there was every man’s money in the mouth of his sack, our money in full weight; so we have brought it again with us, 22 and we have brought other money down in our hand to buy food. We do not know who put our money in our sacks.” 23 He replied, “Rest assured, do not be afraid; your God and the God of your father must have put treasure in your sacks for you; I received your money.” Then he brought Simeon out to them. 24 And when the man had brought the men into Joseph’s house, and given them water, and they had washed their feet, and when he had given their asses provender, 25 they made ready the present for Joseph’s coming at noon, for they heard that they should eat bread there. 26 When Joseph came home, they brought into the house to him the present which they had with them, and bowed down to him to the ground. 27 And he inquired about their welfare, and said, “Is your father well, the old man of whom you spoke? Is he still alive?” 28 They said, “Your servant our father is well, he is still alive.” And they bowed their heads and made obeisance. 29 And he lifted up his eyes, and saw his brother Benjamin, his mother’s son, and said, “Is this your youngest brother, of whom you spoke to me? God be gracious to you, my son!” 30 Then Joseph made haste, for his heart yearned for his brother, and he sought a place to weep. And he entered his chamber and wept there. 31 Then he washed his face and came out; and controlling himself he said, “Let food be served.” 32 They served him by himself, and them by themselves, and the Egyptians who ate with him by themselves, because the Egyptians might not eat bread with the Hebrews, for that is an abomination to the Egyptians. 33 And they sat before him, the first-born according to his birthright and

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the youngest according to his youth; and the men looked at one another in amazement. 34 Portions were taken to them from Joseph’s table, but Benjamin’s portion was five times as much as any of theirs. So they drank and were merry with him.

Genesis 44 1 Then he commanded the steward of his house, “Fill the men’s sacks with food, as much as they can carry, and put each man’s money in the mouth of his sack, 2 and put my cup, the silver cup, in the mouth of the sack of the youngest, with his money for the grain.” And he did as Joseph told him. 3 As soon as the morning was light, the men were sent away with their asses. 4 When they had gone but a short distance from the city, Joseph said to his steward, “Up, follow after the men; and when you overtake them, say to them, `Why have you returned evil for good? Why have you stolen my silver cup? 5 Is it not from this that my lord drinks, and by this that he divines? You have done wrong in so doing.’“ 6 When he overtook them, he spoke to them these words. 7 They said to him, “Why does my lord speak such words as these? Far be it from your servants that they should do such a thing! 8 Behold, the money which we found in the mouth of our sacks, we brought back to you from the land of Canaan; how then should we steal silver or gold from your lord’s house? 9 With whomever of your servants it be found, let him die, and we also will be my lord’s slaves.” 10 He said, “Let it be as you say: he with whom it is found shall be my slave, and the rest of you shall be blameless.” 11 Then every man quickly lowered his sack to the ground, and every man opened his sack. 12 And he searched, beginning with the eldest and ending with the youngest; and the cup was found in Benjamin’s sack. 13 Then they rent their clothes, and every man loaded his ass, and they returned to the city. 14 When Judah and his brothers came to Joseph’s house, he was still there; and they fell before him to the ground. 15 Joseph said to them, “What deed is this that you have done? Do you not know that such a man as I can indeed divine?”

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16 And Judah said, “What shall we say to my lord? What shall we speak? Or how can we clear ourselves? God has found out the guilt of your servants; behold, we are my lord’s slaves, both we and he also in whose hand the cup has been found.” 17 But he said, “Far be it from me that I should do so! Only the man in whose hand the cup was found shall be my slave; but as for you, go up in peace to your father.” 18 Then Judah went up to him and said, “O my lord, let your servant, I pray you, speak a word in my lord’s ears, and let not your anger burn against your servant; for you are like Pharaoh himself. 19 My lord asked his servants, saying, `Have you a father, or a brother?’ 20 And we said to my lord, `We have a father, an old man, and a young brother, the child of his old age; and his brother is dead, and he alone is left of his mother’s children; and his father loves him.’ 21 Then you said to your servants, `Bring him down to me, that I may set my eyes upon him.’ 22 We said to my lord, `The lad cannot leave his father, for if he should leave his father, his father would die.’ 23 Then you said to your servants, `Unless your youngest brother comes down with you, you shall see my face no more.’ 24 When we went back to your servant my father we told him the words of my lord. 25 And when our father said, `Go again, buy us a little food,’ 26 we said, `We cannot go down. If our youngest brother goes with us, then we will go down; for we cannot see the man’s face unless our youngest brother is with us.’ 27 Then your servant my father said to us, `You know that my wife bore me two sons; 28 one left me, and I said, Surely he has been torn to pieces; and I have never seen him since. 29 If you take this one also from me, and harm befalls him, you will bring down my gray hairs in sorrow to Sheol.’ 30 Now therefore, when I come to your servant my father, and the lad is not with us, then, as his life is bound up in the lad’s life, 31 when he sees that the lad is not with us, he will die; and your servants will bring down the gray hairs of your servant our father with sorrow to Sheol. 32 For your servant became surety for the lad to my father, saying, `If I do not bring him back to you, then I shall bear the blame in the sight of my father all my life.’ 33 Now therefore, let your servant, I pray you, remain instead of the lad as

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a slave to my lord; and let the lad go back with his brothers. 34 For how can I go back to my father if the lad is not with me? I fear to see the evil that would come upon my father.” ____________________________________________________________

4.7 Genesis 43—44: The Second Interview between Joseph and His Brothers Most commentaries stop after Gen 43, but one must go on to Gen 45, the return of the Brothers to Canaan. The narrative unit is strongly delimited: the Brothers leave Canaan and must return. The plot seems to suggest this division: Jacob wants them to fetch food for which they have to take Benjamin. Will they bring back food and the youngest brother? The father’s expectation will be fulfilled in both.

Narrative Analysis The story works on the principle of need and its fulfilment. There is a desire that must be realized. The need is much more than the requirement of food, but rather a deep need of the heart. To fulfil the desire for food, they must fulfil Joseph’s need to see Benjamin. The reader knows more than the characters. Food in Egypt is found there because Joseph is there. Food and brotherhood are intimately connected. The one who can provide food is the missing brother. The Brothers come to realize that they need far more than food. The story can be divided into scenes, these governed by changes in place, time and character. Exposition (43:1-2). The inciting moment is mentioned at the beginning. There is no food. This immediately generates a problem. Complication (43:3—44:13). i) Judah and Jacob speak (43:3-14). The problem is Benjamin. ii) The meeting of Joseph and his Brothers (43:15-34). This ends in a meal, a sign of reconciliation. iii) The test of the cup (44:1-14). Peace evaporates in renewed conflict. The problem is no longer food but brotherhood. The unity of the family is broken. Turning point (44:14-17). Joseph is with his Brothers for the third time. He orders his servants to leave the room. The scene of recognition follows. The Brothers return to face Joseph. There is a short conversation with

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Judah. Benjamin must stay with Joseph: this is the climax of the plot. It must be solved in one way or another. Joseph pits the family against food: will the unity of the family be broken or be consolidated? Emotionally speaking, Judah’s talk seems more climactic, but the problem of the plot is the unity of the family. The beginning of the resolution begins with Judah’s words. Benjamin becomes the most important person in the story.

Stylistic Analysis: Acceleration and Retardation 1) Gen 43:1-15. The suggestion is made to go to Egypt in 43:2, but they leave only in 43:15. The discourse about the journey is the main reason for this. As soon as Jacob accepts this, we are transported to Egypt before Joseph. The journey is summarized in a few words, narrated time compressing the narrative time which here has no bearing on the drama 2) Gen 43:16-44. The meeting of Joseph and His Brothers There are three different scenes: i) Joseph and the Steward (43:16) ii) the Brothers and the Steward (43:17-25) iii) Joseph and the Brothers (43:26-44) The meeting is marked by Joseph weeping alone, and the meal together. Everyone expects a direct confrontation between Joseph and Benjamin, but they must first go through the Steward. Joseph must ask about the father and the other brothers until eventually there is a request about Benjamin. Suddenly there is an acceleration in the story (Joseph actually hurries, 43:30, waymaher) (from mahar). All is summarized in very few words. Reaction is sudden and fast. Benjamin is at the centre. Because of him there is delay in the acceleration. 3) Gen 44:1-12. i) Joseph and the Steward (44:1-2) ii) The departure of the Brothers (44:3-5) iii) The Brothers and the Steward (44: 6-12) iv) The Brothers and Joseph (44: 13) The cup is to be discovered. Conversations follow on this. Tension is generated because the reader knows where the cup is although the Brothers do not, but all is delayed until it is found. The narration of discovery is in 44:11-12 (“and they hurried” 43:11, waymaheru). The opening of the sacks begins with the eldest until the youngest is reached. The action is now slow, narrated time now lingering over the narrative time. Given this impression, it heightens the tension. There are three delays and accelerations: —leaving Egypt

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—the meeting of the Brothers and Joseph —the discovery of the cup.

What is Necessary for the Survival of the Family? We must discover what the family really needs to survive. —At the beginning of Gen 43 there are two lines, focussing on Benjamin (43:14-15). —43: 11, 12, 13 have gifts and double the money (mishneh keseph). Benjamin is also taken as payment. Is Benjamin not worth more? —43:15 repeats this. Benjamin seems to be objectified, reduced to the level of the gifts. Benjamin is not only this. For Jacob he is special, but now he has also become “your brother”. Jacob is accepting a change, letting Benjamin go: 43:14 shakol, formerly a reproach (shakkul, barren), now becomes a sign of acceptance: “as I lose him, so I lose him”, or “if I am bereaved, I am bereaved” (shakolti shakalti). Our brother must come with us. Benjamin is seen as more than money. The meeting of Joseph and the Brothers is underlined by the word bayit. They meet with the Steward at the house, meet with Joseph in the house, and share a meal in the innermost room of the house (cheder). The Brothers are brought to the house fearing Joseph because of money: keseph occurs five times. The Steward tells them not to fear. They enter a house of peace: they must leave fear outside. Money is irrelevant. We enter the house with the Steward, to find refreshment. They prepare the gift (mincha), the youngest brother, and they bow down twice. The vocabulary is that of merchants: money, a gift in the house presented in worship to a lord. Then the famous Benjamin is presented: shalum is used thrice. —43:29 There is a sharp contrast between what the narrator tells and Joseph says. Joseph sees his brother, the son of his mother. For the Brothers he is only the youngest brother, for Joseph he is the most important, the most precious. Joseph shows his feelings in private. Here we discover the true situation, the centrality of human relationships. Then comes the meal, all set up in the order of family seniority. Then the order is reversed in the portions of food. Benjamin receives five times

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more. The result is bewilderment. The scene finishes with joy. It is the Gospel situation: the first shall be last and the last shall be first (Mt 19:30; Mk 10:31; Lk 23:30)

Gen 44:1-17 Gen 43 ends with a meal, in a peaceful atmosphere. Then comes a sudden baffling change. Reconciliation seemed possible, so why is there suddenly a veering away, another test? There are a series of small scenes: i) 44:1-2: a conversation with the Steward ii) 44:3-4a: the departure of the Brothers iii) 44:4b-5: again Joseph instructing the Steward, in order to pursue the Brothers iv) 44:6-14:. the Brothers and the Steward; a conversation, the discovery of the cup v) 44:14b-17: Joseph and his Brothers in the house. Suspense is heightened by the dramatic irony in depicting two groups, one knowing, the other ignorant. Only in the fourth scene do they discover what Joseph knew all along—and the reader as well. Confrontation comes in the fifth scene. The focus is always on Benjamin. He is not only the centre of attention, but many questions are asked about him. The cup (gabi`a) has been put in his sack, and he is the one to be punished. Three times he has been isolated: he has the cup not money in his sack. The discovery is made. Joseph wishes to keep him alone as a slave. Why does Joseph do this? Benjamin is his full brother: yet he seems to wish Benjamin punished. How the other brothers react is not told. The solution comes only later, in following the characters. It becomes clearer in the vocabulary of relationship. The problem is to do with family relationships. Yet we find the word ‘brother’ only once, in 44:14. Otherwise they are called ‘men’ (thrice in the plural, five times in the singular). But there is an organization or order among them, arranged in terms of age: 44:2, 12. Words of subordination are common: ‘lord’ and ‘slave’. Men can be lords or slaves (44:17). All are held together by the verb matsa’ (“to find”) (7 times).They look and find the cup in the sack of the youngest, and also find guilt with the punishment of slavery. Suddenly the relationship is disrupted: they all share the guilt (44:16). 44:16-17 provide a new element. The Brothers decide (44:16) to go back, the words of Judah: matsa’ (find) and `ebed (servant) are both here.

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They are guilty, but from Gen 37, from the past, not the present. In Gen 42 they remembered their guilt in ignoring the grief of Joseph their brother. Now Joseph tests the Brothers about the past, to see if they have been healed of it, atoned for it. The present is asking about, exploring, the past. Judah’s answer is about the present but also about the past. There is a hidden question and a hidden answer. Judah does not realize that Joseph is asking about the past, but can answer that way because of hidden meaning. But the position of Benjamin is still unclear. He is apparently guilty, and the family seems to have a new solidarity, being prepared to suffer with him, and for the past. They try to put a weight of guilt on Benjamin that is not his. Benjamin must be in Egypt, but his brothers can go in peace. But what will the father’s reaction be to the loss of his youngest? It is because of the father that Benjamin is so important. A reversal of order will take place: Benjamin is the least important of the Brothers, but the most important for Joseph. Judah seems to take the lead. As firstborn, Reuben failed to save Joseph, and in a manner forfeited his preeminence. Simeon and Levi are also shadowy: in Gen 36 they killed and must be punished for it. There are three key expressions: i) a group of men: ’anashim ii) Judah and his Brothers: ’achim iii) the man in whose sack the cup was found: binjamin There is confrontation with food, justice, innocence and guilt.

Joseph’s Silver Cup When Joseph causes his silver drinking cup to be hidden in the mouth of Benjamin’s sack of corn as the Brothers were about to return to Canaan, Joseph instructs his steward to upbraid them: “Why have you stolen my silver cup? Is it not from this that my lord drinks, and by this that he divines?” (Gen 44:4-5, cf. 15). The words lead us to infer that Joseph prided himself on his power to detecting the truth by means of a divining cup. The use of a cup in this way is common in the folklore of both ancient and modern times. Joseph would have been supposed to have drawn interpretive inferences from figures which appeared to him in the water, a mode of divination practiced in Egypt from ancient times, pouring molten lead or wax into a vessel of water and watching the forms that the substance assumes as it cools in the water.16 16

See James G. Frazer, “Joseph’s Cup” in Folklore in the Old Testament, pp. 258-62.

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Judah’s Discourse Gen 44:18-34 1) Construction 2) Progression 3) Reversal

1) Construction i) 44:18-23 Introduction, relays a short speech by Judah, reporting the conversation of Gen 42. ii) 44:24-29 wayehi (“And it came to pass”): summary of 43:1-14 iii) 44:30-32 we`attah (“Now therefore”): reflects on the future iv) 44:32-34 we`attah (“Now therefore”): Judah’s decision and his motivation. A recurrent word, ’ab (“father”) This word recurs some 14 times. It is also the last word of the passage. Judah realizes that there will be no peace in returning unless Benjamin is with them. New elements appear from Gen 42: —mention of Rachel, the mother of Joseph and Benjamin; —the father loves Benjamin; —Benjamin is the brother of the one who died: —the father would die if Benjamin does not return. i) Judah sees events through the eyes of his father, and his special attachment to the two youngest sons. ii) Again there are new elements from Gen 43. There is mention of Jacob’s wife Rachel. In Gen 43 she is referred to as “my wife”, as if the only wife. The verb taraph (“tear to pieces”) is mentioned from Gen 37 for the first time. Judah has become sensitive to the sorrow of his father, and the love he has for his youngest sons. iii) There is a shift from the past to the future. Judah realizes that the father will surely die if Benjamin does not come back. Judah will be guilty, having accepted the responsibility. He now knows what Benjamin means to Jacob: “His life is bound up with the boy’s life” (44:30: wenaphsho qeshurah benaphsho). iv) Attention is directed to the present: we`attah firstly introduces the argument; secondly the conclusion of the argument. Judah will be a slave: his freedom is less important than his father’s life. In Gen 37 there was jealousy, hatred and envy caused by his father’s love of Joseph, and which

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led to Joseph’s ‘death’. Now Judah pays with his own freedom, even his life, for the sake of his father’s peace.

Fig.21. Joseph makes himself known to his Brethren (Gustave Doré, 1855)

2) Progression Affection is now present in Judah’s memories of the past, and affects his conception of the future. The first becomes the last.

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3) Reversal The first becomes last in a new reversal. Benjamin is called na`ar, as if in conversation with Jacob. Judah also uses yeled and qatan. Semantically these are also very close to ‘servant’ or ‘slave’ (`ebed). Benjamin is the last and the least. He appears last of all in the story, and says nothing. Like Joseph, he is like an object or an item. All the Brothers treat him like an object. He is like nothing. The reversal is Judah’s decision to take the place of the youngest and least. In this way he founds a new order of brotherhood where the first becomes the last. ____________________________________________________________

Genesis 45 1 Then Joseph could not control himself before all those who stood by him; and he cried,” Make every one go out from me.” So no one stayed with him when Joseph made himself known to his brothers. 2 And he wept aloud, so that the Egyptians heard it, and the household of Pharaoh heard it. 3 And Joseph said to his brothers, “I am Joseph; is my father still alive?” But his brothers could not answer him, for they were dismayed at his presence. 4 So Joseph said to his brothers, “Come near to me, I pray you.” And they came near. And he said, “I am your brother, Joseph, whom you sold into Egypt. 5 And now do not be distressed, or angry with yourselves, because you sold me here; for God sent me before you to preserve life. 6 For the famine has been in the land these two years; and there are yet five years in which there will be neither plowing nor harvest. 7 And God sent me before you to preserve for you a remnant on earth, and to keep alive for you many survivors. 8 So it was not you who sent me here, but God; and he has made me a father to Pharaoh, and lord of all his house and ruler over all the land of Egypt. 9 Make haste and go up to my father and say to him, `Thus says your son Joseph, God has made me lord of all Egypt; come down to me, do not tarry; 10 you shall dwell in the land of Goshen, and you shall be near me, you and your children and your children’s children, and your flocks, your herds, and all that you have; 11 and there I will provide for you, for there are yet five years of famine to

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come; lest you and your household, and all that you have, come to poverty.’ 12 And now your eyes see, and the eyes of my brother Benjamin see, that it is my mouth that speaks to you. 13 You must tell my father of all my splendour in Egypt, and of all that you have seen. Make haste and bring my father down here.” 14 Then he fell upon his brother Benjamin’s neck and wept; and Benjamin wept upon his neck. 15 And he kissed all his brothers and wept upon them; and after that his brothers talked with him. 16 When the report was heard in Pharaoh’s house, “Joseph’s brothers have come,” it pleased Pharaoh and his servants well. 17 And Pharaoh said to Joseph, “Say to your brothers, `Do this: load your beasts and go back to the land of Canaan; 18 and take your father and your households, and come to me, and I will give you the best of the land of Egypt, and you shall eat the fat of the land.’ 19 Command them also, `Do this: take wagons from the land of Egypt for your little ones and for your wives, and bring your father, and come. 20 Give no thought to your goods, for the best of all the land of Egypt is yours.’“ 21 The sons of Israel did so; and Joseph gave them wagons, according to the command of Pharaoh, and gave them provisions for the journey. 22 To each and all of them he gave festal garments; but to Benjamin he gave three hundred shekels of silver and five festal garments. 23 To his father he sent as follows: ten asses loaded with the good things of Egypt, and ten she-asses loaded with grain, bread, and provision for his father on the journey. 24 Then he sent his brothers away, and as they departed, he said to them, “Do not quarrel on the way.” 25 So they went up out of Egypt, and came to the land of Canaan to their father Jacob. 26 And they told him, “Joseph is still alive, and he is ruler over all the land of Egypt.” And his heart fainted, for he did not believe them. 27 But when they told him all the words of Joseph, which he had said to them, and when he saw the wagons which Joseph had sent to carry him, the spirit of their father Jacob revived; 28 and Israel said, “It is enough; Joseph my son is still alive; I will go and see him before I die.” ____________________________________________________________

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4.8 Genesis 45 1) Construction 2) Narrative features 3) Thread of the passage 4) Centre of passage 5) Re-reading connections

1) Construction There are four different scenes: i) 45:1-15: a recognition scene ii) 45:16-20: the interview with Pharaoh iii) 45:21-24: Joseph and the Brothers: orders are given iv) 45:25-28: Jacob and Sons in Canaan The Brothers are present in all the scenes. In Gen 37—41 we follow Joseph; in Gen 42—50 we follow the Brothers.

2) Narrative Features i) Anticipation ii) Delay or retardation i) Anticipation is found in 45:3. Joseph is heard weeping: the whole of Egypt and the house of Pharaoh now seem to know. This repeated in 45:16. ii) Delay is found in the recognition scene. Joseph delivers two discourses. Then there are two invitations: first Joseph, then Pharaoh, ask Jacob to come and live in Egypt. After that the Brothers speak twice to Jacob before he understands. Points can be made or understood only after the second effort.

3) The Thread of the Passage The news is the binding thread. The Brothers are agents of news, focusing on the discovery that Joseph has brothers who have come to Egypt. This causes excitement in Egypt, and amazement to Jacob.

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4) The Centre of the Passage: the Function of the News Joseph explains it himself in his second discourse to the Brothers, 45:4-11: “You did not sell me but God sent me before you for your survival”. i) Who was the subject of the action? ii) How can we define the plot? iii) What was the final purpose of the action? The answers appear to be: i) The Brothers seem to be behind the action. They decided to sell him, but Joseph sees that it was God who sent him to Egypt: God is mentioned thrice. ii) It seemed to be a sale but it was really a mission: shalach is also repeated thrice. Joseph uses shalach (“send forth”) not makar (“to sell”). This transforms the story completely. iii) The purpose of the Brothers was to get rid of Joseph, intending first to kill him. He became like nothing. For Joseph the purpose was life: 45:5,7 chayah. He remains, survives, 45:8. The two plans seem to contradict each other. God opposes the Brothers, Joseph sees it as a plan to save his family: he eliminates contradiction and opposition. Joseph’s plan is not the opposite but the same. Joseph is able to read the action in this way. He could have taken vengeance, been recriminatory or moralistic, but he has the capacity to read the events in this way. He understands and accepts that he must save his Brothers, to bring life not death. He assumes his responsibility for the Sons of Israel. Judah discovers something deeper than he knew before: his concern for the youngest, the weakest, the least. Joseph too discerns his function in the history of his family, of Israel. People discover their roles in history. The reader must reach this level of perception and reality. The characters give the answers to the questions raised about the meaning of the text. They have been able to reach the heights of new awareness. Showing and telling parts are here as well. The showing parts indicate that this is no longer a gesture of fashion, but of deep human responsibility. They are able to control themselves and their passions.

5) Re-Reading Connections There is contrast between this and the earlier scenes. Joseph invites the Brothers to come near (45:4). The distance, psychological and geographical, between Joseph and his Brothers is overcome. The

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Brothers speak with him (45:15 cf. 37:4 where they could not speak to him in their aversion). Joseph gives them all festal garments: just as he was stripped, so now he is a provider of garments as symbols of reconciliation and forgiveness. The Brothers recognize God’s plan behind all that has happened, and a deeper level of brotherhood, a responsibility for each other. The past is healed, and the story is now open to the future. ____________________________________________________________

Genesis 46 1 So Israel took his journey with all that he had, and came to Beer-sheba, and offered sacrifices to the God of his father Isaac. 2 And God spoke to Israel in visions of the night, and said, “Jacob, Jacob.” And he said, “Here am I.” 3 Then he said, “I am God, the God of your father; do not be afraid to go down to Egypt; for I will there make of you a great nation. 4 I will go down with you to Egypt, and I will also bring you up again; and Joseph’s hand shall close your eyes.” 5 Then Jacob set out from Beer-sheba; and the sons of Israel carried Jacob their father, their little ones, and their wives, in the wagons which Pharaoh had sent to carry him. 6 They also took their cattle and their goods, which they had gained in the land of Canaan, and came into Egypt, Jacob and all his offspring with him, 7 his sons, and his sons’ sons with him, his daughters, and his sons’ daughters; all his offspring he brought with him into Egypt. 8 Now these are the names of the descendants of Israel, who came into Egypt, Jacob and his sons. Reuben, Jacob’s first-born, 9 and the sons of Reuben: Hanoch, Pallu, Hezron, and Carmi. 10 The sons of Simeon: Jemu’el, Jamin, Ohad, Jachin, Zohar, and Shaul, the son of a Canaanitish woman. 11 The sons of Levi: Gershon, Kohath, and Merar’i. 12 The sons of Judah: Er, Onan, Shelah, Perez, and Zerah (but Er and Onan died in the land of Canaan); and the sons of Perez were Hezron and Hamul. 13 The sons of Is’sachar: Tola, Puvah, Iob, and Shimron. 14 The sons of Zeb’ulun: Sered, Elon, and Jah’leel 15 (these are the sons of Leah, whom she bore to Jacob in Paddan-aram, together with his daughter Dinah; altogether his sons and his daughters numbered thirty-three).

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16 The sons of Gad: Ziph’ion, Haggi, Shuni, Ezbon, Eri, Aro’di, and Are’li. 17 The sons of Asher: Imnah, Ishvah, Ishvi, Beri’ah, with Serah their sister. And the sons of Beri’ah: Heber and Mal’chi-el 18 (these are the sons of Zilpah, whom Laban gave to Leah his daughter; and these she bore to Jacob—sixteen persons). 19 The sons of Rachel, Jacob’s wife: Joseph and Benjamin. 20 And to Joseph in the land of Egypt were born Manas’seh and E’phraim, whom As’enath, the daughter of Poti’phera the priest of On, bore to him. 21 And the sons of Benjamin: Bela, Becher, Ashbel, Gera, Na’aman, Ehi, Rosh, Muppim, Huppim, and Ard 22 (these are the sons of Rachel, who were born to Jacob -- fourteen persons in all). 23 The sons of Dan: Hushim. 24 The sons of Naph’tali: Jahzeel, Guni, Jezer, and Shillem 25 (these are the sons of Bilhah, whom Laban gave to Rachel his daughter, and these she bore to Jacob—seven persons in all). 26 All the persons belonging to Jacob who came into Egypt, who were his own offspring, not including Jacob’s sons’ wives, were sixty-six persons in all; 27 and the sons of Joseph, who were born to him in Egypt, were two; all the persons of the house of Jacob, that came into Egypt, were seventy. 28 He sent Judah before him to Joseph, to appear before him in Goshen; and they came into the land of Goshen. 29 Then Joseph made ready his chariot and went up to meet Israel his father in Goshen; and he presented himself to him, and fell on his neck, and wept on his neck a good while. 30 Israel said to Joseph, “Now let me die, since I have seen your face and know that you are still alive.” 31 Joseph said to his brothers and to his father’s household, “I will go up and tell Pharaoh, and will say to him, ‘My brothers and my father’s household, who were in the land of Canaan, have come to me; 32 and the men are shepherds, for they have been keepers of cattle; and they have brought their flocks, and their herds, and all that they have.’ 33 When Pharaoh calls you, and says, “What is your occupation?” 34 you shall say, ‘Your servants have been keepers of cattle from our youth even until now, both we and our fathers,’ in order that you may dwell in the land of Goshen; for every shepherd is an abomination to the Egyptians.”

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Genesis 47 1 So Joseph went in and told Pharaoh, “My father and my brothers, with their flocks and herds and all that they possess, have come from the land of Canaan; they are now in the land of Goshen.” 2 And from among his brothers he took five men and presented them to Pharaoh. 3 Pharaoh said to his brothers, “What is your occupation?” And they said to Pharaoh, “Your servants are shepherds, as our fathers were.” 4 They said to Pharaoh, “We have come to sojourn in the land; for there is no pasture for your servants’ flocks, for the famine is severe in the land of Canaan; and now, we pray you, let your servants dwell in the land of Goshen.” 5 Then Pharaoh said to Joseph, “Your father and your brothers have come to you. 6 The land of Egypt is before you; settle your father and your brothers in the best of the land; let them dwell in the land of Goshen; and if you know any able men among them, put them in charge of my cattle.” 7 Then Joseph brought in Jacob his father, and set him before Pharaoh, and Jacob blessed Pharaoh. 8 And Pharaoh said to Jacob, “How many are the days of the years of your life?” 9 And Jacob said to Pharaoh, “The days of the years of my sojourning are a hundred and thirty years; few and evil have been the days of the years of my life, and they have not attained to the days of the years of the life of my fathers in the days of their sojourning.” 10 And Jacob blessed Pharaoh, and went out from the presence of Pharaoh. 11 Then Joseph settled his father and his brothers, and gave them a possession in the land of Egypt, in the best of the land, in the land of Ram’eses, as Pharaoh had commanded. 12 And Joseph provided his father, his brothers, and all his father’s household with food, according to the number of their dependents. 13 Now there was no food in all the land; for the famine was very severe, so that the land of Egypt and the land of Canaan languished by reason of the famine. 14 And Joseph gathered up all the money that was found in the land of Egypt and in the land of Canaan, for the grain which they bought; and Joseph brought the money into Pharaoh’s house. 15 And when the money was all spent in the land of Egypt and in the land of Canaan, all the Egyptians came to Joseph, and said, “Give us food;

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why should we die before your eyes? For our money is gone.” 16 And Joseph answered, “Give your cattle, and I will give you food in exchange for your cattle, if your money is gone.” 17 So they brought their cattle to Joseph; and Joseph gave them food in exchange for the horses, the flocks, the herds, and the asses: and he supplied them with food in exchange for all their cattle that year. 18 And when that year was ended, they came to him the following year, and said to him, “We will not hide from my lord that our money is all spent; and the herds of cattle are my lord’s; there is nothing left in the sight of my lord but our bodies and our lands. 19 Why should we die before your eyes, both we and our land? Buy us and our land for food, and we with our land will be slaves to Pharaoh; and give us seed, that we may live, and not die, and that the land may not be desolate.” 20 So Joseph bought all the land of Egypt for Pharaoh; for all the Egyptians sold their fields, because the famine was severe upon them. The land became Pharaoh’s; 21 and as for the people, he made slaves of them from one end of Egypt to the other. 22 Only the land of the priests he did not buy; for the priests had a fixed allowance from Pharaoh, and lived on the allowance which Pharaoh gave them; therefore they did not sell their land. 23 Then Joseph said to the people, “Behold, I have this day bought you and your land for Pharaoh. Now here is seed for you, and you shall sow the land. 24 And at the harvests you shall give a fifth to Pharaoh, and four fifths shall be your own, as seed for the field and as food for yourselves and your households, and as food for your little ones.” 25 And they said, “You have saved our lives; may it please my lord, we will be slaves to Pharaoh.” 26 So Joseph made it a statute concerning the land of Egypt, and it stands to this day, that Pharaoh should have the fifth; the land of the priests alone did not become Pharaoh’s. 27 Thus Israel dwelt in the land of Egypt, in the land of Goshen; and they gained possessions in it, and were fruitful and multiplied exceedingly. 28 And Jacob lived in the land of Egypt seventeen years; so the days of Jacob, the years of his life, were a hundred and forty-seven years. 29 And when the time drew near that Israel must die, he called his son Joseph and said to him, “If now I have found favour in your sight, put your hand under my thigh, and promise to deal loyally and truly with me. Do not bury me in Egypt,

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30 but let me lie with my fathers; carry me out of Egypt and bury me in their burying place.” “He answered, “I will do as you have said.” 31 And he said, Swear to me”; and he swore to him. Then Israel bowed himself upon the head of his bed. ___________________________________________________________

4.9 Genesis 46—47:12: The Journey of Jacob to Egypt and the Settlement of the Family in Egypt 1) The Vision of God at Beersheba, 46:1-4 In this last appearance to the Patriarch Jacob, God assured him He would bring the Israelites again out of Egypt. The story could logically end here. Few commentators go beyond Gen 46. If in Gen 45 Joseph discovers God’s plan and function as saviour of the family, here it begins to work out. The father was the cause of the problems, because of his favouritism. This will continue to the end, and the Brothers will have to adapt to it. But why should the family go down to Egypt which is not the Promised Land?

2) The Journey of Jacob: Gen 46:1—47:12 The text begins with a journey that ends in settlement. The narrative thread is desire-fulfilment i) Jacob wants to see Joseph before his death. ii) Joseph wants to see his Brothers and his family iii) Behind all this is the desire for food. All three desires are fulfilled.

3) The Moments of the Narration i) Exposition is already in the context ii) Development and Complication (46:1—47:2). The journey iii) Turning-point (46:3-4). This comes in the interview with Pharaoh, to settle the Brothers in the land. There is a slight inconsistency here since they are shepherds. iv) Resolution (47:5-12). Pharaoh accepts, presents, invites them to remain in the Land of Goshen.

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4) The Different Scenes of the Story There are six main scenes based on place, time and characters. i) Beersheba (46:1-5a). This is the only oracle of the Joseph Story when God speaks. This is the last city before the desert: to leave Beersheba is to leave the Promised Land (Dan—Beersheba). God is supposed to be alive and active only in the Promised Land. ii) The Journey to Egypt (46:5b-28). There is a long digression and genealogy (46:8-27). This shows the credentials at the frontiers. iii) The meeting of Joseph and his family (46:28-34). Goshen is the frame here. Judah is sent to prepare. Joseph prepares for the meeting with Pharaoh (46:32-34). There is a short scene of weeping. iv) The first audience in Pharaoh’s palace (47:1-6). Joseph and five Brothers go to Pharaoh in Goshen. v) The audience of Jacob with Pharaoh (47:7-10). Jacob blesses him (barak). vi) Jacob’s family settles in Egypt (47:11-12). The repetition is a structuring device. Joseph provides as always.

5) The Thread in the Narration Can Jacob’s family settle in Egypt? This question is present from the first in Beersheba. God assures Jacob that he will be with them. They try to find the place where they will settle.

6) Commentary The Oracle (46:2-4). This has been called a Heilszusage, a promise of assistance and support, as in Deutero-Isaiah 43 (C. Westermann).17 There are three main elements: i) presentation of the divinity: “I AM God” (’anoki ha’el) ii) the formula: “fear not” (’al tira’) iii) explanation: “because I will go down with you to Egypt” (’anoki ’ered `immeka mitzraymah) All these elements are present in Gen 46. 17 Claus Westermann, The Promises to the Fathers. Studies on the Patriarchal Narratives (Philadelphia 1980), 1:2, 258-59 (about Gen 15:1 and Is 41).

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—This is the only oracle in the Joseph Cycle, and a crucial moment for the Patriarch Jacob. —The Oracle for Abraham is in Gen 12. Abraham arrives in the Promised Land only to confront famine, and has to go off to Egypt. Isaac is told to stay in the Promised Land. Jacob is told to go. —The Oracle for Isaac is in Gen 26: famine is addressed, a recurrent situation for the Patriarchs. —The central Oracle for Jacob is in Gen 28:13-15: the Heavenly Ladder at Bethel. Joseph, the Brothers, and eventually Jacob must go down to Egypt—and God will go with them and will bring them up (Ex 3:8). God will be in Egypt too. Perhaps there is something of a fertility myth in this: the god who goes down to Hell and comes up again. The vegetation god dies yearly, disappears into the Underworld, and with spring arises again. Mesopotamia has Tammuz, who is mentioned in Judges (11:40) and Ezekiel (8:14). He was a beautiful youth killed by a boar, symbolizing the conquest of summer by winter. The rite of celebrating the death and resurrection of vegetation was celebrated annually. In Phoenicia he is Baal who conquers the drought with rains in September-October. In Egypt it is Osiris. There is no mythological language or ideas in the Bible, but the mythic concept is part of the collective unconscious. Food is the central question in the Joseph Story, the fecundity of the land. Joseph must go down to Egypt—like the god of the myth. In Egypt he finds food for his family. The God of Israel goes down to Egypt with Jacob and will bring him up again. The family must go down, but there are important differences. This is neither seasonal nor cyclic: it happens over a period of seven years. It is not natural but abnormal. The protagonists are not gods. In the religions of the Ancient Near East the enemy is often the dark god of the Underworld. Usually, a female divinity (Isis, Anat, Ishtar) has to go down to the Underworld to save the wounded or murdered god (Osiris, Baal, Tammuz). In Genesis God is beyond the natural annual cycle. Human freedom is present and affects actions which are ultimately formed according to God’s plan and saved by his grace. Salvation is God’s gift not a cycle. There are some similarities though. This mythical movement is analogous to the Joseph Story: ‘going down’ and ‘coming up’. The first is a condition of the second: the experience of death is somehow a condition for the real experience of life. The People of Israel go down to Egypt and come up again in the Exodus. Life must pass through death to real life. This is an experience of God. Jacob thinks he must leave God behind, in

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the territory and field of experience where he has shown himself active. We normally would not expect God to speak outside the Promised Land, but at the moment of departure, the divinity speaks and assures Jacob of his presence in Egypt. In Jacob’s Story God speaks similarly: in Gen 28, the Promise at Bethel; in Gen 32, the Encounter at the Jabbok, the crucial experiences at the moment of crossing the stream. (Later, it was Julius Caesar’s crossing of the Rubicon River in 49 B.C. that marked the decisive turning point in his career.) Now God speaks at Beersheba in Gen 46. Jacob is about to ‘cross the frontier’ in many ways. Going down to Egypt will be a new discovery of God’s mystery. It is a constant of Biblical revelation that every new experience is an insight into the nature and presence of God. He is on hand in all the events of life, and will give his blessing.

7) The Meeting between Jacob and Joseph Gen 46:30 Arrival in Egypt, 46:5-34. The descendants of Jacob are enumerated (46:8-26) as well as Joseph’s sons who were born in Egypt (46:27). Israel meets Joseph (46:28-30), and Joseph gives directions concerning Pharaoh. Jacob can die now that he has seen Joseph. This experience contrasts with Gen 37: Jacob does not go down to Sheol, but he goes down to Egypt and to Joseph. Jacob is reconciled to life and now can face death. Joseph is his sign of life, his future.

8) Jacob Blesses Pharaoh Gen 47:1-10 Jacob before Pharaoh, 47:1-10. The mighty monarch of the Nile graciously receives the Patriarch. In turn the aged Jacob blesses the powerful potentate, an illustration of how Israel is yet to bless the nations (Is 42:6; 43:10; 49:6). This is the bridge between Genesis and Exodus: how Israel came to Egypt, how Israel settled in a specific area (Goshen), and why they remained a distinct nation and did not become Egyptians. The story is now full of blessings: of Jacob on Pharaoh, on Ephraim and Manasseh, on the Twelve Sons. There are promises made to Abraham (Gen 12), Isaac (Gen 26) and Jacob (Gen 28): they will be a blessing for all the nations. The presence of the Patriarchs means a blessing on those benevolently disposed. Blessings mean strength, power, life. Pharaoh asks Jacob his age, which is 130 years. The ideal age for the Egyptians is 110, the age of Joseph when he dies. Jacob is superior to Pharaoh: his age is greater, he lives longer. The consequence of the blessing is salvation for Egypt,

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survival of the famine. In the reforms of Joseph in Gen 47 he reorganizes the agricultural system, the whole population becomes enslaved, but the chief consequence is the survival of the Egyptians.18 The first condition of survival is reconciliation between the family members. Then they had to find food, and consequently go down to Egypt. The Promised Land has to be lost to be found again. In Egypt the blessing of God is active again. Israel’s Settlement in Goshen, 47:11-31. Goshen was the North Eastern section of Egypt nearest Palestine. It was called “the best of the land” and “the land of Raamses”, which agrees with the character of this region, excellent for grazing and certain kinds of farming, but not particularly wanted by the pharaohs because distant from the irrigation canals coming from the Nile. This region is called Goshen only in the Bible. It was a valley some 35 miles long, with its centre in the Wadi Tumilat and stretching from Lake Timsah to the Nile. Then Joseph’s pragmatic administration is described (47:13-26), and Jacob’s last days (47:27-31).

Archaeological Light It is noteworthy that so far no Egyptian records have been found of Israel’s sojourn in Goshen. But since the Pharaoh often allowed such groups to settle in Egypt, such an instance would scarcely be unusual. Besides the piece of sculpture depicting the entrance of the family of Ibshe into Egypt about 1900 B.C., another Egyptian inscription indicates that it was customary for frontier officials to allow people from Palestine and Sinai to enter this section of Egypt in periods of dearth. This document (c. 1350 B.C.) tells of such a group “who knew not how they should live, have come begging a home in the domain of Pharaoh...after the manner of your [Pharaoh’s] fathers’ fathers since the beginning.”

4.10 Genesis 47: 13-26 Joseph the Administrator 1) This section seems to be a digression. In Gen 37—41 we are always with Joseph; in Gen 42—45 we are always with the Brothers; in Gen 46—50 we are always with Jacob. There is the danger of death, and Joseph saves them all. The passage is inserted between two distinct passages of settlement. 2) There is a disturbing picture of Joseph as he seems to enslave the people. What does it mean? Normally we tend to identify with the hero. 18 See B. A. McKenzie, “Jacob’s Blessing on Pharaoh. An Interpretation of Gen 46: 31-46”, WestmThJ 45 (1983): 386-99.

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Fig.22. Joseph and His Brethren Welcomed by Pharaoh (Paul Tissot, 1910)

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Here we do not seem to be able to. There is a clash between the politicalsocial picture we have and the one presented here. We are frustrated in our interest, involved in the reading of a book, the Bible, where our interest is in truth, beauty or practicalities. It is a problem of morality and ethics. We do not like the absence of judgement on Joseph’s action in the text. In Gen 37 the narrator helps us to form our judgement, and disagrees with the actions of the Brothers. Here it is hard to trace any judgement. The world of values behind Gen 47 is different from ours. The moral and social order is from another age. We do not have to agree with what happened, or follow this example, but we must see the text in its own context.

Formal Structure The underlying pattern is danger and the removal of danger—hunger and its removal through Joseph’s plan.

The different moments of the narration i) Exposition (47:13). There is hunger. ii) Development (47:14-18). There is a growing crisis in three steps: —the people must give money for food —the people must give cattle —the people must give themselves and their lands. The whole population is indentured or enslaved. iii) Turning-point (47:19). The question of hunger reaches a highpoint of tension. The people propose to forfeit life and land. iv) Resolution (47:20-31). This is the implementation of Joseph’s plan.

The Technique of Gradation A narrative technique of accumulation is used throughout the Bible: —Gen 1:1-7: the Creation of the world: chaos–organized cosmos —Gen 7:17-24: the Flood, “the waters prevailed” —Gen 11:1-9: the Tower of Babel —Gen 18:22-33: the Pleading of Abraham —Gen 26:12-33: the wealth of Isaac —1 Kings 1:9-16: Elijah and the soldiers —Ezekiel 47:1-7: water from the Sanctuary —Hosea 1:4-9: the three children and their names —Amos 4:6-13: the three plagues sent by God —Job 1:13-22: the disasters of Job

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People use repetition and then gradations (the same formula with slight variations, to show the changes and developments) as a stylistic device. The interest is not quantity but quality and moral implications. We like a story because of what we find in it. Here gradation is also operative: —47:15, 18 to come to an end —47:15, 19 the people come to die Repetitions build a pattern of similarity: —silver —silver and cattle —silver, cattle, body and soil.

The Meaning For a Hebrew the story means that Joseph was the saviour of Egypt, an example of wealth and power. Joseph’s presence meant life, blessing for the Egyptians. His influence and work brought riches, wealth and power for Pharaoh. The monarch’s power stemmed from Joseph. This is the triumph of the weak. So in the end the first consequence of Jacob’s blessing is Joseph’s agrarian reform, the very survival of Egypt in a time of famine (And they said, “You have saved our lives; may it please my lord, we will be slaves to Pharaoh”, 47:25). ____________________________________________________________

Genesis 48 1 After this Joseph was told, “Behold, your father is ill”; so he took with him his two sons, Manas’seh and E’phraim. 2 And it was told to Jacob, “Your son Joseph has come to you”; then Israel summoned his strength, and sat up in bed. 3 And Jacob said to Joseph, “God Almighty appeared to me at Luz in the land of Canaan and blessed me, 4 and said to me, ‘Behold, I will make you fruitful, and multiply you, and I will make of you a company of peoples, and will give this land to your descendants after you for an everlasting possession.’ 5 And now your two sons, who were born to you in the land of Egypt before I came to you in Egypt, are mine; E’phraim and Manas’seh shall be mine, as Reuben and Simeon are.

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6 And the offspring born to you after them shall be yours; they shall be called by the name of their brothers in their inheritance. 7 For when I came from Paddan, Rachel to my sorrow died in the land of Canaan on the way, when there was still some distance to go to Ephrath; and I buried her there on the way to Ephrath (that is, Bethlehem).” 8 When Israel saw Joseph’s sons, he said, “Who are these?” 9 Joseph said to his father, “They are my sons, whom God has given me here.” And he said, “Bring them to me, I pray you, that I may bless them.” 10 Now the eyes of Israel were dim with age, so that he could not see. So Joseph brought them near him; and he kissed them and embraced them. 11 And Israel said to Joseph, “I had not thought to see your face; and lo, God has let me see your children also.” 12 Then Joseph removed them from his knees, and he bowed himself with his face to the earth. 13 And Joseph took them both, E’phraim in his right hand toward Israel’s left hand, and Manas’seh in his left hand toward Israel’s right hand, and brought them near him. 14 And Israel stretched out his right hand and laid it upon the head of E’phraim, who was the younger, and his left hand upon the head of Manas’seh, crossing his hands, for Manas’seh was the first-born. 15 And he blessed Joseph, and said, “The God before whom my fathers Abraham and Isaac walked, the God who has led me all my life long to this day, 16 the angel who has redeemed me from all evil, bless the lads; and in them let my name be perpetuated, and the name of my fathers Abraham and Isaac; and let them grow into a multitude in the midst of the earth.” 17 When Joseph saw that his father laid his right hand upon the head of E’phraim, it displeased him; and he took his father’s hand, to remove it from E’phraim’s head to Manas’seh’s head. 18 And Joseph said to his father, “Not so, my father; for this one is the first-born; put your right hand upon his head.” 19 But his father refused, and said, “I know, my son, I know; he also shall become a people, and he also shall be great; nevertheless his younger brother shall be greater than he, and his descendants shall become a multitude of nations.” 20 So he blessed them that day, saying, “By you Israel will pronounce blessings, saying, ‘God make you as E’phraim and as Manas’seh’”;

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21 Then Israel said to Joseph, “Behold, I am about to die, but God will be with you, and will bring you again to the land of your fathers. 22 Moreover I have given to you rather than to your brothers one mountain slope which I took from the hand of the Amorites with my sword and with my bow.” ____________________________________________________________

4.11 Genesis 47:27—48:22: Jacob Blesses Ephraim and Manasseh Jacob’s adoption of Ephraim and Manasseh Joseph’s sons are presented (48:1-14). As children of a gentile wife Asenath, Joseph’s two sons were now in danger of becoming gentiles themselves and forgetting their father’s house. Jacob avoided this by adopting them.

Jacob’s blessing and last words to Joseph, 48: 15-22. Jacob’s move was by faith (Heb 11:21), once again preferring the younger (Ephraim) before the elder (Manasseh). Jacob has settled in Goshen, and the Patriarch must pass on his blessing into the future.

Formal Structure The underlying pattern is request, and request granted. The different moments of the narration are: i) Exposition (48:1a). Jacob is ill ii) Development (48:1b-7). Joseph comes with his two sons, with his plan of blessing. iii) Turning-point (48:8). The sons are there, the plan can be fulfilled. iv) Resolution (48:9-22). The sons are blessed, with the younger first.

Stylistic Analysis The effect of surprise is dominant. There is a pleasure of deciphering, discovering. The reader must show a skill in interpreting a coded message. He must collaborate with the narrator. If he can, he will find a special pleasure of collusion. This can be at the expense of some other character,

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or perhaps of the narrator himself. We must understand the clues left by the narrator. The two brothers are together (48:1b). There is a key term: —48:4, mapreka, “I will make you fruitful” (from parah). Jacob quotes the message of God at Bethel. In Gen 41:52 Joseph uses the same root to describe the name of Ephraim: “fruitful in the land of my suffering” —48:5. The order of the names is very important. The two eldest sons seem to be cancelled to make way for Joseph’s two sons. Reuben and Simeon lose their birthright to the sons of Joseph. This means that the order of Jacob’s wives is reversed: Leah the first wife is superseded by Rachel, the second wife and younger sister. —48:7. Jacob remembers the death of Rachel, seemingly out of context, stimulated by his memory of blessing? Otherwise Rachel still haunts Jacob’s memory. Joseph is her son whom he has seen again in Egypt. Perhaps here Rachel is meant to be the first wife? She died in Ephrata, a name connected thereafter with Ephraim. Joseph is about to overtake Reuben and Simeon. Is Ephraim to take over from Manasseh? This is implied. —48:10. Jacob is nearly blind. This reminds one of the blessing in Gen 27, when Jacob tricked Isaac with his mother Rebekah. The reader expects a reproduction of the similar pattern. This creates a special effect, “an interest in certain qualities”.19 The manner in which it is reproduced is all important. —48:13. Joseph’s trick is to have Jacob put his left hand on Ephraim and his right on Manasseh. Joseph does not want the natural order reversed, as it has been in the past. To this point Joseph has been successful: will he be so again? —48:17. Jacob crosses his hands so that his right hand is on Ephraim and his left hand on Manasseh. The reader should not be completely surprised, since the preference for the younger is ever present in Genesis. The irony is created by the narrator at Joseph’s expense. Irony is a superiority of knowledge on the part of one of the parties. There is a double layer of irony. Joseph’s plan is frustrated: Joseph is blessed (48:15) for his children. He was the youngest, and this pattern is reproduced in his life. He is favoured more than Reuben and Simeon. Yet Joseph does not wish Ephraim to be 19

See Wayne Booth, “Distance and Point of View” in P. Stevik (ed.) The Theory of the Novel (London, 1967).

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blessed above Manasseh. But the trickster is tricked. He must accept that the younger is favoured. This begins with Cain and Abel (Gen 4), Ishmael and Isaac (Gen 17), Esau and Jacob (Gen 27), Leah and Rachel (Gen 30), Jacob’s favouring of Benjamin (Gen 42), and so goes on to Manasseh and Ephraim (Gen 48). The narrator expects the reader to have a deep memory and to cooperate in the collusion and irony of the narration. Joseph loses out for the only time, and Jacob seems more sympathetic.20 —48:17. The reader sees with Joseph what happens, but we see with greater knowledge. The reader intuitively enjoys this irony. ____________________________________________________________

Genesis 49 1 Then Jacob called his sons, and said, “Gather yourselves together, that I may tell you what shall befall you in days to come. 2 Assemble and hear, O sons of Jacob, and hearken to Israel your father. 3 Reuben, you are my first-born, my might, and the first fruits of my strength, pre-eminent in pride and pre-eminent in power. 4 Unstable as water, you shall not have pre-eminence because you went up to your father’s bed; then you defiled it -- you went up to my couch! 5 Simeon and Levi are brothers; weapons of violence are their swords. 6 O my soul, come not into their council; O my spirit, be not joined to their company; for in their anger they slay men, and in their wantonness they hamstring oxen. 7 Cursed be their anger, for it is fierce; and their wrath, for it is cruel! I will divide them in Jacob and scatter them in Israel. 8 Judah, your brothers shall praise you; your hand shall be on the neck of your enemies; your father’s sons shall bow down before you. 9 Judah is a lion’s whelp; from the prey, my son, you have gone up. He stooped down, he couched as a lion, and as a lioness; who dares rouse him up? 10The scepter shall not depart from Judah, nor the ruler’s staff from between his feet, until he comes to whom it belongs; and to him shall be the obedience of the peoples. 11 Binding his foal to the vine and his ass’s colt to the choice vine, he washes his garments in wine and his vesture in the blood of grapes; 12 his eyes shall be red with wine, and his teeth white with milk. 13 Zeb’ulun shall dwell at the shore of the sea; he shall become a haven 20 See Robert Letellier, Day in Mamre, Night in Sodom, 4.b.7 The Cult of Twins: Duple Divinities and Ethnic Forefathers, pp. 220-222.

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for ships, and his border shall be at Sidon. 14 Is’sachar is a strong ass, crouching between the sheepfolds; 15 he saw that a resting place was good, and that the land was pleasant; so he bowed his shoulder to bear, and became a slave at forced labor. 16 Dan shall judge his people as one of the tribes of Israel. 17 Dan shall be a serpent in the way, a viper by the path, that bites the horse’s heels so that his rider falls backward. 18 I wait for thy salvation, O LORD. 19 Raiders shall raid Gad, but he shall raid at their heels. 20 Asher’s food shall be rich, and he shall yield royal dainties. 21 Naph’tali is a hind let loose, that bears comely fawns. 22 Joseph is a fruitful bough, a fruitful bough by a spring; his branches run over the wall. 23 The archers fiercely attacked him, shot at him, and harassed him sorely; 24 yet his bow remained unmoved, his arms were made agile by the hands of the Mighty One of Jacob (by the name of the Shepherd, the Rock of Israel), 25 by the God of your father who will help you, by God Almighty who will bless you with blessings of heaven above, blessings of the deep that couches beneath, blessings of the breasts and of the womb. 26 The blessings of your father are mighty beyond the blessings of the eternal mountains, the bounties of the everlasting hills; may they be on the head of Joseph, and on the brow of him who was separate from his brothers. 27 Benjamin is a ravenous wolf, in the morning devouring the prey, and at even dividing the spoil.” 28 All these are the twelve tribes of Israel; and this is what their father said to them as he blessed them, blessing each with the blessing suitable to him. 29 Then he charged them, and said to them, “I am to be gathered to my people; bury me with my fathers in the cave that is in the field of Ephron the Hittite, 30 in the cave that is in the field at Mach-pe’lah, to the east of Mamre, in the land of Canaan, which Abraham bought with the field from Ephron the Hittite to possess as a burying place. 31 There they buried Abraham and Sarah his wife; there they buried Isaac and Rebekah his wife; and there I buried Leah— 32 the field and the cave that is in it were purchased from the Hittites.” 33 When Jacob finished charging his sons, he drew up his feet into the bed, and breathed his last, and was gathered to his people.

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4.12 Genesis 49: Jacob’s Prophecy Jacob’s Call, 49: 1-2. Jacob assembles his 12 sons to prophesy their tribal future. The Prophecy, 49:3-27. This covers in a remarkable manner the entire sweep of Israelite history, past, present and future. It has a strong coherence in terms of the internal thematic of Biblical interpretation. That part concerning Reuben (49:3-4), Simeon and Levi (49:5-7), characterizes the nation until the advent of the Messiah. Judah (49:8-12) points to the period when the Lord is on the earth. The words concerning Judah are detailed because from him was to come shebet, an epithet of the Messiah, who rules with ‘a kingly sceptre’ (Num 24:17). Zebulun (49:13), and Issachar (49:14-15), located where sea traffic and commerce were prominent, portray Israel as a trading people scattered among the nations. Dan (49:16, 18) suggests an apostate Israel during the reign of the Antichrist. Gad (49:19), Asher (49:20), and Naphtali (49:21), portray the godly Jewish remnant of the Great Tribulation. Joseph (49:22-26), speaks of the second advent of the Messiah, and Benjamin (“son of the right hand”), of the rod-of-iron righteous rule of the King in the Age of the Kingdom. ____________________________________________________________

Genesis 50 1 Then Joseph fell on his father’s face, and wept over him, and kissed him. 2 And Joseph commanded his servants the physicians to embalm his father. So the physicians embalmed Israel; 3 forty days were required for it, for so many are required for embalming. And the Egyptians wept for him seventy days. 4 And when the days of weeping for him were past, Joseph spoke to the household of Pharaoh, saying, “If now I have found favour in your eyes, speak, I pray you, in the ears of Pharaoh, saying, 5 My father made me swear, saying, ‘I am about to die: in my tomb which I hewed out for myself in the land of Canaan, there shall you bury me.’ Now therefore let me go up, I pray you, and bury my father; then I will return.” 6 And Pharaoh answered, “Go up, and bury your father, as he made you swear.”

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7 So Joseph went up to bury his father; and with him went up all the servants of Pharaoh, the elders of his household, and all the elders of the land of Egypt, 8 as well as all the household of Joseph, his brothers, and his father’s household; only their children, their flocks, and their herds were left in the land of Goshen. 9 And there went up with him both chariots and horsemen; it was a very great company. 10 When they came to the threshing floor of Atad, which is beyond the Jordan, they lamented there with a very great and sorrowful lamentation; and he made a mourning for his father seven days. 11 When the inhabitants of the land, the Canaanites, saw the mourning on the threshing floor of Atad, they said, “This is a grievous mourning to the Egyptians.” Therefore the place was named A’bel-mizraim; it is beyond the Jordan. 12 Thus his sons did for him as he had commanded them; 13 for his sons carried him to the land of Canaan, and buried him in the cave of the field at Mach-pe’lah, to the east of Mamre, which Abraham bought with the field from Ephron the Hittite, to possess as a burying place. 14 After he had buried his father, Joseph returned to Egypt with his brothers and all who had gone up with him to bury his father. 15 When Joseph’s brothers saw that their father was dead, they said, “It may be that Joseph will hate us and pay us back for all the evil which we did to him.” 16 So they sent a message to Joseph, saying, “Your father gave this command before he died, 17 ‘Say to Joseph, Forgive, I pray you, the transgression of your brothers and their sin, because they did evil to you.’ And now, we pray you, forgive the transgression of the servants of the God of your father.” Joseph wept when they spoke to him. 18 His brothers also came and fell down before him, and said, “Behold, we are your servants.” 19 But Joseph said to them, “Fear not, for am I in the place of God? 20 As for you, you meant evil against me; but God meant it for good, to bring it about that many people should be kept alive, as they are today. 21 So do not fear; I will provide for you and your little ones.” Thus he reassured them and comforted them. 22 So Joseph dwelt in Egypt, he and his father’s house; and Joseph lived a hundred and ten years. 23 And Joseph saw E’phraim’s children of the third generation; the

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children also of Machir the son of Manas’seh were born upon Joseph’s knees. 24 And Joseph said to his brothers, “I am about to die; but God will visit you, and bring you up out of this land to the land which he swore to Abraham, to Isaac, and to Jacob.” 25 Then Joseph took an oath of the sons of Israel, saying, “God will visit you, and you shall carry up my bones from here.” 26 So Joseph died, being a hundred and ten years old; and they embalmed him, and he was put in a coffin in Egypt. ____________________________________________________________

4.13 Genesis 50: Jacob’s Death and the Final Reconciliation of the Brothers Jacob’s Decease and Burial 50:1-13. Joseph grieved (50:1-3), and had his father embalmed (50:2). This is the only direct Bible reference to mummification by Hebrews. Spices were placed in certain body cavities and the body treated in an elaborate way to prevent decay. This highly developed science was practised for 30 centuries in ancient Egypt. The Egyptians mourned for Jacob for 70 days, which was the period required for mummification, while 40 days are specified for Jacob’s embalming. Accompanied by a great company, headed by Joseph and Egyptian officials, Jacob’s body was taken to Canaan for burial (50:4-13). Burial was in the cave of Machpelah (see Gen 23:17-23; and for the tradition of the burial of the Patriarchs there, 25:9, 35:29, 49:30. 50:12). Genesis 23:17-23: 17 So the field of Ephron in Mach-pe’lah, which was to the east of Mamre, the field with the cave which was in it and all the trees that were in the field, throughout its whole area, was made over 18 to Abraham as a possession in the presence of the Hittites, before all who went in at the gate of his city. 19 After this, Abraham buried Sarah his wife in the cave of the field of Mach-pe’lah east of Mamre (that is, Hebron) in the land of Canaan. 20 The field and the cave that is in it were made over to Abraham as a possession for a burying place by the Hittites.

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Delimitation of the Text Jacob is ill and about to die. Before he dies he transmits the power of life to his descendants. After the death of Jacob there is a conversation between the Brothers, to be followed by Joseph’s death. Jacob asked not to be buried in Egypt, and is taken to the cave of Ephron. Joseph asks them to take his own body to Canaan when they eventually return. In Exodus Moses carries the bones of Joseph (Ex 13:19) who is eventually buried in Shechem (Josh 24:32).

The Return to Egypt 50:14-21. Joseph’s magnanimous treatment of his Brothers is outlined. The Brothers discuss brotherhood.

Narrative Analysis The model is request and request granted (forgiveness) The moments of narration: Exposition (50:15a). They see that Jacob is dead. Complication (50:15b-17a). They send a message describing the situation. Turning-point (50:17b). They ask for forgiveness, Joseph can say yes or no. He says yes: “and I wept in hearing the words of the message”. Resolution (50:18-21).Joseph introduces the conclusion: we’attah. He assures them of forgiveness and support.

Structure by Scenes i) The fear of the Brothers (50:15) ii) The message of the Brothers (50:16-17a) iii) Joseph is alone and weeps (50:17b) iv) The Brothers come and Joseph is with them (50:18-21) The effect is one of gradation: the Brothers prepare the scene and come to Joseph. The fear and request of the Brothers links the scene together.

The Death of Joseph 50:22-26. Jacob was 147 years old (47:28) Joseph 110 when they died. Joseph’s faith is shown by the oath he requires his Brothers to take, to

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transport his bones to Canaan (cf. Ex 13:19; Josh 24:32; cf. Gen 33:19, Acts 7:15-16, Heb 11:21-22). Ex 13:19 And Moses took the bones of Joseph with him; for Joseph had solemnly sworn the people of Israel, saying, “God will visit you; then you must carry my bones with you from here.” Josh 24:32 The bones of Joseph which the people of Israel brought up from Egypt were buried at Shechem, in the portion of ground which Jacob bought from the sons of Hamor the father of Shechem for a hundred pieces of money; it became an inheritance of the descendants of Joseph. Gen 33:19 And from the sons of Hamor, Shechem’s father, he [Jacob] bought for a hundred pieces of money the piece of land on which he had pitched his tent. Acts 7:15-16 15 and Jacob went down into Egypt. And he died, himself and our fathers, 16 and they were carried back to Shechem and laid in the tomb that Abraham had bought for a sum of silver from the sons of Hamor in Shechem. Hebrews 11:21-22 21 By faith Jacob, when dying, blessed each of the sons of Joseph, bowing in worship over the head of his staff. 22 By faith Joseph, at the end of his life, made mention of the exodus of the Israelites and gave directions concerning his burial.

4.14 The Conclusion of the Joseph Story The conclusion helps us to see the story as an open parable, as opposed to a closed one. An open parable ends without a clear conclusion. One cannot be sure of the correct solution. Perhaps the main character is unsympathetic? Open parables try to reflect real life. A closed parable provides a definite interpretation, where the narrator has provided sufficient clues for clear conclusions and answers. The Parable of the Prodigal Son is an open parable (Lk 15:11-32). We do not know the answer of the Elder Son. The reader must provide the answer. The Book of Jonah ends with a question (4:11). The conclusion remains open, and w have to provide the answer. In the Joseph Story the clues are provided but not decisively. The questions left give a sense of

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completion needed. The frame of the passage is given by the roots for fear and seeing. Joseph says “do not fear” (50:19, 21). Evil also helps to structure the passage. The Brothers fear that Joseph will do evil to them now that Jacob has died. Jacob was the cause of all the troubles. He has gone now. The brotherhood was not deep enough, but needed dependence on Jacob. Now it must assume its own profundity. For the first time the Brothers see their action as evil. Esau in Gen 21 had promised to kill Jacob after the death of their father Isaac. Now the Brothers ask for forgiveness. The passage is full of religious terms. An aspect unknown before emerges: it is recalled that Jacob told them to ask for forgiveness: a Nachholung, a flashback. They are able to recognize God behind the family situation and its values. Through their father Jacob they reach the God behind him. They appeal to God and Joseph’s religious sense. The idea is found a third time, pronounced by Joseph himself: “What you meant as evil God has meant for good” (Gen 50:20 cf. Rom 8:28). Once the evil is situated in God’s plan, it can be turned to good. What the Brothers intended by evil God has used for good, to provide fecundity and life for the People of Israel. Joseph assures them, and speaks to their hearts (50:21b). He tries to convince them, but we are not given the answer of the Brothers. Are they able to discover God’s plan, accept Joseph’s forgiveness? The reader has to try to find the right interpretation. It is the story of a people, a nation. Will they be able to fulfil their future as a nation in Egypt? In the whole of Genesis there is an opposition of good and evil, blessing and curse. Here for the first time brothers can be reconciled, Joseph accepts to enter God’s plan, and since he can remove fear, he can take the place of God (Gen 50:19 “Fear not, for I am in the place of God”, cf. Gen 3:22).

4.15 Joseph the Messianic Patriarch Why is so large a section of Genesis (37—48) devoted to Joseph? 1) Joseph is the link between the family of Israel and the nation of Israel. Up to the time of Joseph the Israelites were a family. Joseph initiated the sojourn in Egypt and the birth of the nation. 2) Joseph is the most complete type of Christ to be found in the Bible—not that he was faultless, as his youthful self-importance and later political actions in Egypt demonstrate. Nonetheless, numerous parallels between his life and that of Jesus may be enumerated, although it is nowhere actually stated that he was such a type.

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Comparisons between Joseph and Jesus 1) Narrative Comparisons The story of Joseph has a clear prophetic message. The similarities between Joseph and Jesus are not only striking, but even the unfolding of their storylines suggests a deeper spiritual providence at work. i) They were both shepherds of their father’s sheep (Gen 37:2) cf. John 10:11: “I am the good shepherd” ii) They were both their father’s beloved sons (Gen 37:3) cf. Matthew 3:17:”This is my beloved son in Him I am well pleased” iii) They were both sent by their father to their brothers (Gen 37:13) cf. Matthew 15:24:”I was sent only to the lost sheep of the House of Israel” iv) Both were hated by their brothers, rejected, and treated with injustice which they accepted in mute silence (Gen 37:20, 24) cf. 1 Peter 2:21-25: 21 For to this you have been called, because Christ also suffered for you, leaving you an example, that you should follow in his steps. 22 He committed no sin; no guile was found on his lips. 23 When he was reviled, he did not revile in return; when he suffered, he did not threaten; but he trusted to him who judges justly.

v) Others plotted to harm them (Gen 37:20) cf. John 11:49-53: 49 But one of them, Ca’iaphas, who was high priest that year, said to them, “You know nothing at all; 50 you do not understand that it is expedient for you that one man should die for the people, and that the whole nation should not perish.” 51 He did not say this of his own accord, but being high priest that year he prophesied that Jesus should die for the nation, 52 and not for the nation only, but to gather into one the children of God who are scattered abroad. 53 So from that day on they took counsel how to put him to death.

vi) Both were tempted with the prospect of great power (Gen 39:7-10) cf. Matthew 4: 1-11:

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1 Then Jesus was led up by the Spirit into the wilderness to be tempted by the devil. 8... the devil took him to a very high mountain, and showed him all the kingdoms of the world and the glory of them...

vii) They were both taken to Egypt (Gen 37:29) cf. Matthew 2:13-15: while Joseph was sold into slavery and carried off to Egypt, Jesus was spirited into Egypt by his foster father, who was warned by an angel to go there to save Jesus’ life. 13 Now when they had departed, behold, an angel of the Lord appeared to Joseph in a dream and said, “Rise, take the child and his mother, and flee to Egypt, and remain there till I tell you; for Herod is about to search for the child, to destroy him.” 14 And he rose and took the child and his mother by night, and departed to Egypt, 15 and remained there until the death of Herod. This was to fulfil what the Lord had spoken by the prophet, “Out of Egypt have I called my son.”

viii) Both had special robes that were taken from them (Gen 37:23) cf. John 19:23-24: 23 When the soldiers had crucified Jesus they took his garments and made four parts, one for each soldier; also his tunic. But the tunic was without seam, woven from top to bottom; 24 so they said to one another, “Let us not tear it, but cast lots for it to see whose it shall be.” This was to fulfil the scripture, “They parted my garments among them, and for my clothing they cast lots.”

ix) Both were sold for the price of a slave (Gen 37:28) cf. Matthew 26:15-16: 14 Then one of the twelve, who was called Judas Iscariot, went to the chief priests 15 and said, “What will you give me if I deliver him to you?” And they paid him thirty pieces of silver. 16 And from that moment he sought an opportunity to betray him.

x) Both were bound in chains (Gen 37:28) cf. John 18:21: So the band of soldiers and their captain and the officers of the Jews seized Jesus and bound him.

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xi) Both were falsely accused, even though they were innocent (Gen 39:13-17) cf. John 18:19-23: 21” Why do you ask me? Ask those who have heard me, what I said to them; they know what I said.” 22 When he had said this, one of the officers standing by struck Jesus with his hand, saying, “Is that how you answer the high priest?” 23 Jesus answered him, “If I have spoken wrongly, bear witness to the wrong; but if I have spoken rightly, why do you strike me?”

xii) Both were placed with two other prisoners, one who was saved and the other lost (Gen 40:1-2) cf. Luke 23:32-43: 32 Two others also, who were criminals, were led away to be put to death with him. 33 And when they came to the place which is called The Skull, there they crucified him, and the criminals, one on the right and one on the left.... 39 One of the criminals who were hanged railed at him, saying, “Are you not the Christ? Save yourself and us!” 40 But the other rebuked him, saying, “Do you not fear God, since you are under the same sentence of condemnation? 41 And we indeed justly; for we are receiving the due reward of our deeds; but this man has done nothing wrong.” 42 And he said, “Jesus, remember me when you come into your kingdom.” 43 And he said to him, “Truly, I say to you, today you will be with me in Paradise.”

xiii) Both were about 30 years old at the beginning of their public recognition (Gen 41:46) cf. Luke 3:1-3, 21; 4:14: 14 And Jesus returned in the power of the Spirit into Galilee, and a report concerning him went out through all the surrounding country.

xiv) Both were exalted after suffering (Gen 41:39-45) cf. Luke 24:26 (also John 12:32; Philippians 2:9-11): “Was it not necessary that the Christ should suffer these things and enter into his glory?”

xv) Both forgave those who wronged them (Gen 50:19-21) cf. Luke 23:34:”Father forgive them; for they know not what they do.”

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xvi) Both brought salvation to their nation Israel (Gen 45:16-28) cf. Romans 9—11, esp. 11:25-27 25 Lest you be wise in your own conceits, I want you to understand this mystery, brethren: a hardening has come upon part of Israel, until the full number of the Gentiles come in, 26 and so all Israel will be saved; as it is written, “The Deliverer will come from Zion, he will banish ungodliness from Jacob”; 27 “and this will be my covenant with them when I take away their sins.”

xvii) Both brought bread to the people (Gen 45:11) cf. The Feeding of the Five Thousand (Mt 14:15; Mk 6:30; Lk 9:10; Jn 6:1-14): John 6:51:”I am the living bread” xviii) What men did to them God turned to good—even for the salvation of many people (Gen 45:4-8; 50:19-20) cf. Matthew 28:16-20: 16 Now the eleven disciples went to Galilee, to the mountain to which Jesus had directed them. 17 And when they saw him they worshiped him; but some doubted. 18 And Jesus came and said to them, “All authority in heaven and on earth has been given to me. 19 Go therefore and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, 20 teaching them to observe all that I have commanded you; and lo, I am with you always, to the close of the age.”

xix) Both were considered dead but later found out to be alive (Gen 45:26-28) cf. Matthew 28:5-10: 5 But the angel said to the women, “Do not be afraid; for I know that you seek Jesus who was crucified. 6 He is not here; for he has risen, as he said. Come, see the place where he lay. 7 Then go quickly and tell his disciples that he has risen from the dead, and behold, he is going before you to Galilee; there you will see him. Lo, I have told you.” 8 So they departed quickly from the tomb with fear and great joy, and ran to tell his disciples. 9 And behold, Jesus met them and said, “Hail!” And they came up and took hold of his feet and worshipped him. 10 Then Jesus said to them, “Do not be afraid; go and tell my brethren to go to Galilee, and there they will see me.”

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xx) Their brethren vowed never to bow down to them but eventually did (Gen 42:6-9) cf. Matthew 21:42: 42 Jesus said to them, “Have you never read in the Scriptures: ‘The very stone which the builders rejected has become the head of the corner; this was the Lord’s doing, and it is marvellous in our eyes’?” (cf. Philippians 2:9-11)

xxi) Their brothers at first do not recognize them, but later come to understand who they are (Gen 45:4-5) cf. Luke 24:31: And their eyes were opened and they recognized him; and he vanished out of their sight (cf. John 21).

2) Thematic Comparisons The surface narrative analogies suggest a deeper symbolism, a theologicalprophetic underpinning. i) Both Joseph and Jesus were special objects of a powerful father’s love (Gen 37:3; cf. Mt 3:17; Jn 3:35; 5:20): Matthew 3:17 and lo, a voice from heaven, saying, “This is my beloved Son, with whom I am well pleased.” John 3: 35 The Father loves the Son, and has given all things into his hand. John 5:20 For the Father loves the Son, and shows him all that he himself is doing; and greater works than these will he show him, that you may marvel.

ii) Both were hated by their own kin (Gen 37:4 cf. Jn 15:24-25): 24 If I had not done among them the works which no one else did, they would not have sin; but now they have seen and hated both me and my Father. 25 It is to fulfil the word that is written in their law, ‘They hated me without a cause.’

iii) Both made unusual claims which were rejected by their people (Gen 37:8; cf. Jn 15:24, 25; Mt 21:37-39—the Parable of the Vineyard): 37 Afterward he sent his son to them, saying, ‘They will respect my son.’

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38 But when the tenants saw the son, they said to themselves, ‘This is the heir; come, let us kill him and have his inheritance.’ 39 And they took him and cast him out of the vineyard, and killed him.

iv) In both cases brethren of their race conspired to slay them (Gen 37:18; cf. Mt 21:3-4): 3 Then the chief priests and the elders of the people gathered in the palace of the high priest, who was called Ca’iaphas, 4 and took counsel together in order to arrest Jesus by stealth and kill him.

v) Joseph was symbolically put to death by his brethren, but Jesus actually was killed by them (Gen 37:24; cf. Mt 27:35-37): 35 And when they had crucified him, they divided his garments among them by casting lots; 36 then they sat down and kept watch over him there. 37 And over his head they put the charge against him, which read, “This is Jesus the King of the Jews.”

vi) Both became a blessing among the Gentiles and acquired a Gentile bride (Gen 41:1-45; cf. Acts 15:14; Eph 5:25-32): Acts15:14 Simeon has related how God first visited the Gentiles, to take out of them a people for his name. Ephesians 5: 25 Husbands, love your wives, as Christ loved the church and gave himself up for her, 26 that he might sanctify her, having cleansed her by the washing of water with the word, 27 that he might present the church to himself in splendour, without spot or wrinkle or any such thing, that she might be holy and without blemish.

vii) Just as Joseph reconciled his brethren to himself and afterward exalted them, so at His second advent Jesus will reconcile the converted Israel to himself and bring blessings to the whole world (Gen 45:1-15; Deut 30:1-10; Hos 2:14-18; cf. Rom 11:1, 15, 25, 26). Deuteronomy 30: 1 “And when all these things come upon you, the blessing and the curse, which I have set before you, and you call them to mind among

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4.16 Joseph as World Hero The story of Joseph has pertinence in the universal tale of the hero common to the mythologies of all peoples through the ages. The key premise is that the journey undertaken by the hero, which forms the basis for all Western stories, myths and legends, is a remnant of an ancient ritual drama enacted at the coronation of a priest-king (probably in ancient Mesopotamia). A ritual, according to Lord Raglan, is a specific act performed for a magical purpose. 21 A dramatic ritual is a ritual performed for an audience, and a ritual drama is a dramatic ritual where the participants play specific roles. In order to play roles, a story/plot was needed, and this story forms the myth. The myth of the priest-king outlived the ritual and became the many myths and folktales we are familiar with—from the Greek Hercules to the medieval English Robin Hood to modern science fictional Luke Skywalker and schoolboy wizard Harry Potter. Raglan argues that at one time kings were more than kings, they were priests, even gods, and replaced on a regular basis. The ritual surrounding this replacement involved sacrificing the old king (in reality 21

Lord Raglan, The Hero: A Study in Tradition, Myth and Drama, pp. 174-75.

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or ritually) and raising up a suitable substitute. There are at least twenty-two aspects to this mono-myth and the closer the legend fits these aspects the less likely the hero was a historical personage at all. His argument is that all historical persons that we know of from actual evidence have differed greatly from these twenty-two motifs. However, all purely legendary heroes curiously share most of them. 1) He is born of a royal virgin. 2) His father is a king and 3) often a near relative of mother, but 4) the circumstances of his conception are unusual and 5) he is reputed to be the son of a god. 6) An attempt is made to kill him at birth (often by father or father-figure) but 7) he is spirited away and 8) raised by foster parents in a far country. 9) We are told nothing of his childhood. 10) On reaching manhood he journeys to his future kingdom. 11) He faces trials and tests. 12) He marries a princess and 13) becomes king. 14) He rules uneventfully 15) He prescribes laws. 16) He loses favour with the gods or his subjects and 17) is driven away where 18) he meets with a mysterious death 19) often at the top of a hill. 20) His children, if any, do not succeed him. 21) His body is not buried. 22) He has one or more holy resting places. The lives of the Old Testament heroes have been heavily edited, but the typical pattern is nonetheless evident. In the case of Joseph, his mother Rachel is the daughter of a patriarch (1). His father Jacob is a patriarch (2), and the first cousin of his mother (3) (Gen 29:9-12). His mother conceives him unusually, by eating mandrakes (4) (Gen 30:14). In his childhood his brothers attempt to kill him (6) (Gen 37:20) but he is saved by the stratagems of Reuben and Judah (7) (Gen 37:21-24, 26-28), and reared in Egypt (8) (Gen 39). On reaching manhood he is the victor in a contest of dream-interpretation and climatic forecasting (11) (Gen 41:14-36); is married to a lady of high rank (12) (Gen 41:45); and becomes the ruler of

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Egypt (13) (Gen 41:45-46). He reigns prosperously (14) (Gen 41:46-57); and prescribes laws (15) (Gen 47:20-28) which nearly loses him the favour of his subjects (16) (Gen 47:21, 25). We hear little of his later years and he dies in mystery (18) (Gen 50:22). His children do not succeed him in Egypt (20) (Gen 50:23); and his body is not buried there (21) (Gen 50:25; Ex 13:19); but he does eventually have a holy resting place in the Promised Land (22) (Josh 24:32). Character development continues to increase thorough the course of the Book of Genesis. Abraham is a more identifiable personality than Adam and Eve and Noah, but Jacob and Joseph are far more developed as characters than Abraham. Jacob, the wily trickster in his youth, undergoes trial and deception himself, confronts the divine, experiences forgiveness, promotes overweening favouritism, and by the end of his life is a passive figure, himself more deceived than cared for by his sons. Joseph when first met is a naive and thoughtless seventeen-year-old, completely oblivious to the effects of his father’s preference on his Brothers, uncomprehending of the implications of telling them of his vivid dreams of dominion. His experiences of rejection and suffering shape his character so that later in his life he has become a wise, sensitive and insightful man, able to run the Egyptian economy, to forgive his Brothers, and to save his formerly dysfunctional family. This narrative tendency of increased character development partly derived from the number and length of the stories associated with Abraham, Jacob and Joseph, but also because of the nature of the stories themselves. Throughout Genesis personalities become more human in their characterization, more specifically individual, most especially in their meeting with God. They grow as people in their encounter with the divine, assume a more a significant position in relation to the deity, and take more personal control of their destiny.22

22

Richard Elliot Friedman, The Hidden Face of God, p. 40.

CONCLUSION

The close reading of Primordial and Patriarchal Narrative in the Book of Genesis, using both synchronic and diachronic approaches, strengthens the sense that this book is truly the foundational text of revelation. Genesis is quoted or cross-referenced more than any other book in the rest of the Bible, with at least 165 passages either cited or alluded to in the New Testament. It describes and addresses the most basic questions concerning the world and the place of mankind in it. Where do we come from? How did this happen? What does it mean? What is the point of life? Can anything make life worth living? The famous description of the Six Days of Creation (Gen 1) brings into focus the origins not only of the Earth but the whole of the cosmos. The beauty and variety of the created order are adumbrated, as are the unique role of humankind, the nature of his conscious intelligence, and his consequent responsibilities for the breathing planet (Gen 2). The diverse, complex and passionate nature of humanity is the next consideration: where we came from, what we are for, why we appear to be less than perfect for all our insights and gifts? The lack of completion, the disruptive tendencies, the sense of alienation and loss, the urge of appetite, are all explored in the narratives of the first human beings and the emergence of society (Gen 3—11). Sin, murder, conflict and aspiration are presented in a succession of stories that capture the archetypal explanations or etiologies of the human race, the world in its length and breadth, its various history, the many races of man, their origins, their fortunes, their mutual alienation, their conflicts. The call of Noah, and then of Abraham, the birth of Isaac, and the annals of the family of Jacob with his Twelve Sons, present the concepts of spiritual election, promise, discipleship and mission. These are captured in the vital biblical concept of covenant, a channel or medium of divine grace, whether with a renewed creation (as with Noah in primitive times) (Gen 9), or in history as a pledge of hope and salvation for all the nations of the earth (who will be blessed in Abraham) (Gen 15—17). To be called by God is to be the recipient of a commission that must affect all aspects of life and how it is lived. The family, the core unit of human experience, can be a source of blessing or curse, of joy or sorrow, of life and death. For all the brokenness of human intention, trust and responsibility, the

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affirmation of a sense of providence, of a life-changing perception of purpose, can generate more elevating human perceptions and actions that can overcome disruption and chaos. Generosity and forgiveness, as with Esau and Jacob, can lead to positive alteration of the human condition, and to hope and growth in human affairs that look beyond even this life (Gen 32—33). The concepts of family, and brotherhood within the family, are central to the Patriarchal Narratives of Jacob and Joseph. They function on a literal level as among the most absorbing and attractive stories of world literature. But more symbolically they serve as metonyms for the kinship of all mankind and for the family of nations (Gen 37—50: This is the history of the family of Jacob). God’s purposes are at work, even if they are hidden. Joseph’s moving story of rejection, suffering, loss, restitution and triumph is a parable of human transformation through imaginative compassion and reconciliation. These signify redemptive qualities, a situation underscored by Joseph’s close and prophetic Messianic parallels with Jesus. Joseph, in his suffering and in the divine providence that guides his way (Gen 39:21), becomes not only saviour of his family, but also redeemer for the nation of Egypt. Genesis embraces the whole of humanity, the world, and indeed the entire cosmos, in a message of the divine love manifested in and operating through the ages for the hope and salvation of all.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Historical Texts BIBLIA HEBRAICA STUTTGARTENSIA. Ed. K Elliger and W. Rudolph. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 1967, 1977. THE BIBLE. The RSV (Revised Standard Version) gives the classic translation. More modern versions: NEB (New English Bible), NAB (New American Bible), TOB (Traduction Oecuménique de la Bible). BEROSSUS, The Babyloniaca (Contra Apionem). ENUMA ELISH. —.Speiser, E. A., in Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament. 3rd edition, ed. James Pritchard. Princeton, 1969. —. King, L. W. The Seven Tablets of Creation. London, 1902. GILGAMESH. —.Sandars, N. K. The Epic of Gilgamesh. An English Version with an Introduction. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1960; rev. 1964; 1972. HESIOD. Theogony and Works and Days. Trans M. L. West. Oxford World’s Classics, 2008. HOMER. The Odyssey of Homer. A Modern Translation by Richard Lattimore. London: Harper & Row, 1965, 1967. JOSEPHUS. The Antiquities of the Jews (Jewish Antiquities). Translated by William Whiston [1737], with an. Introduction by Brian McGing. Wordsworth Editions Ltd; new edition, 2006. KALEVALA. The Land of the Heroes. In Two Volumes. Translated by W. F. Kirby. Introduction by J. B. C. Grundy. London: Dent (Everyman’s Library), 1907; 1974. OLD TESTAMENT PSEUDEPIGRAPHA. —.Charlesworth, James H. The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha: Vol. 1 & 2. Hendrickson Publishers Inc., 2010. OVID. Fasti. English translation by A. S. Kline (2004). Project Gutenburg (original text in Latin). “The Tale of the Two Brothers” —.SIMPSON, William Kelly. The Literature of Ancient Egypt. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1973; pp. 92-107.

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Select Bibliography ALBRIGHT, W. F. ‘The Table of Nations’ in Robert Young’s Analytical Concordance to the Bible. London: Lutterworth Press, 1879, 7th ed. rev. 1900, 8th ed. rev. 1939, 9th ed. rev. 2005. ALLEN, John L. Jr. “Pope cites Teilhardian vision of the cosmos as a ‘living host’,” National Catholic Reporter (28 July 2009). ALTER, Robert. The Art of Biblical Narrative. London: George Allen & Unwin, 1981. ANDERSON, B. W. “Human dominion over nature” in M. Ward (ed.), Biblical studies in contemporary thought. Somerville: Greeno & Hadden, 1975; pp. 25-45. AUGUSTINE OF HIPPO. Confessions. Translated with an Introduction by R. S. Pine-Coffin. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1961, 1979. —. Concerning the City of God against the Pagans. A New Translation by Henry Bettenson with an Introduction by David Knowles. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1972. BARTH, Karl. Church Dogmatics. Ed. T. F. Torrance and G. W. Bromiley (1932–67); Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1956–75. —.Church Dogmatics. The Doctrine of Creation. Volume 3, Part 3: The Creator and His Creature. Continuum International Publishing Group, 2004. BARTHÉLEMY, D. Critique textuelle de l’ancien Testament. Göttingen, 1982. BAUMANN, Hans. The World of the Pharaohs. London: Oxford University Press, 1960. BEAUCHAMPS, P. Création et séparation. Étude du chapitre premier de la Genèse. Paris: BSR, 1969. BETTELHEIM, Bruno. The Uses of Enchantment. The Meaning and Importance of Fairy Tales (1976); London: Penguin Books, 1991. BETTENSON, Henry (sel. & ed.). Documents of the Christian Church. London: Oxford University Press, 1963, 1975. —. (ed. & trans.). The Early Christian Fathers. A selection from the writings of the Fathers from St. Clement of Rome to St. Athanasius. London: Oxford University Press, 1956, 1974. BIRD, Phyllis A. “‘Male and Female He Created Them’: Gen 1:27b in the Context of the Priestly Account of Creation,” Harvard Theological Review 74 (1981): 129-59, especially 137-44. BOOTH, Wayne. “Distance and Point of View” in P. Stevik (ed.), The Theory of the Novel. London, 1967. BREASTED, James Henry. Ancient Records of Egypt: Historical

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COURLANDER, Harold. A Treasury of African Folklore. New York: Marlowe & Company, 1996. CRÜSEMANN, F. Der Widerstand gegen das Königtum. Die antiköniglichen Texte des Alten Testaments und der Kampf um den frühen israelitischen Staat. Neukirchener Verlag, 1978. DAVIDSON, Benjamin. The Analytical Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon. Every Word and Inflection of the Hebrew Old Testament Arranged Alphabetically and with Grammatical Analyses. A Complete Series of Hebrew and Chaldee Paradigms, with Grammatical Remarks and Explanations (1848). Peabody, MS: Hendrickson Publishers, 1982. DE GUBERNATIS, Angelo. La mythologie des plantes; ou, Les légendes du règne végétal. Paris: C. Reinwald, 1879-82. DELITZSCH, Friedrich. Wo Lag das Paradies? in Kommentar über die Genesis. Leipzig, 1872. ELIADE, Mircea. Patterns in Comparative Religion. New York, 1974. FOLKARD, Richard. Plant lore, legends, and lyrics. London: S. Low, Marston, Searle & Rivington, 1884. FOKKELMANN, J. P. Narrative Art in Genesis. Amsterdam: Assen, 1975. FOWLER, Henry Thatcher. A History of the Literature of Ancient Israel from the Earliest Times to 135 B.C. New York: Macmillan Co., 1912. FRANKFORT, Henri. The Art and Architecture of the Ancient Orient (1954). Pelican Books, 1970. FRAZER, James G. Folklore in the Old Testament. Studies in Comparative Religion, Legend, and Law (1923). New York: Avenel House, 1988. FRIEDMAN, Richard Elliott. The Hidden Face of God. San Francisco: Harper, 1995. FRYE, Northrop. The Great Code: The Bible and Literature. London: Ark Paperbacks, 1981, 1982. GERONTOLOGY RESEARCH GROUP [GRG] (Index 1997-2014). GINSBURG, C. G. The Kabbalah, its Doctrines, Development, and Literature. London, 1920. GORE, Albert. Earth in the Balance: Ecology and the Human Spirit. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1992. GUNKEL, Hermann. Schöpfung und Chaos in Urzeit und Endzeit. Eine religionsgeschichtliche Untersuchung über Gen 1 und Ap Joh 12. Göttingen, 1895. —. Genesis: Translated and Explained. 1st ed. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1901; Introduction translated by William Herbert Carruth and published as The Legends of Genesis, 1901.

Bibliography

289

—. Genesis: Translated and Explained. Translated by Mark E. Biddle. 3rd ed. (1910). Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 1997. Introduction available as The Stories of Genesis. —. The Folktale in the Old Testament (1917). Translated by M. D. Rutter. Sheffield: Almond Press, 1987. HALL, Douglas John. The steward, a Biblical symbol come of age. Wipf & Stock, 1986, 1990, rev. 2004. HATTINGH, Tian. Birds and Bibles in History. The London Press, 2012. HENDEL, Ronald. “Historical Context” in EVANS, Craig; Joel N. LOHR; and David L. PETERSEN (eds). The Book of Genesis: Composition, Reception, and Interpretation. (Supplements to Vetus Testamentum, 152.) Leiden: Brill, 2012. HERBERT, A. S. Genesis 12-50. London, 1962. HOPKINS, David C. The Highlands of Canaan: agricultural life in the early Iron Age. Sheffield: Almond, 1985. JACOB, Benno. The First Book of the Bible: Genesis [German: Das erste Buch der Tora, 1934]. New York, 1974. JARRETT, Bede. The Abiding Presence of the Holy Ghost in the Soul (1918). Kessinger Publishing, 2010. JOHN OF THE CROSS. The Collected Works of St John of the Cross. Translated by Otilio Rodriguez. ICS Publications, U.S.; New edition, 1994. KEEL, O. The Symbolism of the Biblical World. New York, 1978. KELLY, J.N.D. Early Christian Doctrine (1960). Rev. ed. A. & C. Black, 1968. KERENYI, Otto. The Gods of the Greeks. Harmondsworth: Pelican Books 1958. KVAM, Kristen E.; Linda S. SCHEARING; and Valerie H. ZIEGLER (eds). Eve and Adam: Jewish, Christian and Muslim Readings on Genesis and Gender. Indiana University Press, 1999. LAURENTIN, René. The Truth of Christmas. Beyond the Myths. The Gospels of the Infancy of Christ. Translated from the French by Michael J. Wrenn. Petersham, MS: St Bede’s Publications, 1986. LETELLIER, Robert Ignatius. Day in Mamre, Night in Sodom. Abraham and Lot in Genesis 18 and 19. (Biblical Interpretation Series 10.) Leiden: Brill, 1995. —. The Bible and Covenant: Using Sacred Text and Images to Understand Salvation History. New York: St Paul’s, 2013. LUTHER, Martin. D. Martin Luthers Werke, Kritische Gesamtausgabe. Tischreden. 6 vols. Weimar: Verlag Hermann Böhlaus Nochfolger, 1912-21.

290

Creation, Sin and Reconciliation

—. Luther’s table talk; or, Some choice fragments from the familiar discourse of that godly man. Ed. & trans. Charles Heel et al. London: A. & R. Spottiswoode. 1832 —. Luther’s Table Talk: A Critical Study. New York: Columbia University Press, 1907. —. Table Talk. London: Religious Tract Society, n.d. McGUIRE, E. “The Joseph Story: A Tale of Son and Father” in B. O. LONG, Images of God and Man. Old Testament Stories in Focus. Sheffield, 1981. MCKENZIE, B. A. “Jacob’s Blessing on Pharaoh. An Interpretation of Gen 46:31-46,” Westminster Theological Journal, 45 (1983): 386-99. MCKENZIE, John F. Dictionary of the Bible. London: Geoffrey Chapman, 1966, 1981. MALY, E. H. “Genesis” in The Jerome Biblical Commentary. Ed. R. Brown et al. London, 1968. MENANT, M. J. Les pierres gravées de la Haute-Asie. Recherche sur la glyptique orientale. Paris, 1883, 1886. NEWMAN, John Henry. Apologia Pro Vita Sua. London: Longman, Green & Co, 1890. O’CALLAGHAN, M. “The Structure and Meaning of Genesis 38: Judah and Tamar,” PIBA, 5 (1981): 72-88. O’DONNELL, Hugh. The Eucharist and the Living Earth. New and revised edition. Blackrock: The Columba Press, 2012. PHILPOT, J. H. The Sacred Tree in Religion and Myth. London: Macmillan & Co., Ltd., 1897. Reprinted. New York: Dover Publications Inc., 2004. POPE BENEDICT XVI. See Ratzinger. POPE FRANCIS. Laudato Si’. Rome, 2015. POPE PIUS XII. Humani Generis. Rome, 1950. RAGLAN, Lord. The Hero: A Study in Tradition, Myth and Drama. London: Methuen, 1936. RATZINGER, Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger [Pope Benedict XVI].’In the Beginning...’ A Catholic Understanding of the Story of Creation and the Fall [German: 1986]. English, Huntington, Indiana: Our Sunday Visitor, 1990. REDFORD, D. B. A Study of the Biblical Story of Joseph. Leiden, 1970. ROBBINS, Ellen A. The Storyteller and the Garden of Eden. Pickwick Publications, 2012. SÄNGER, Dieter. Das Ezechielbuch in der Johannesoffenbarung. Neukirchener Verlag, 2006. SAYCE, A. H. (Archibald Henry). Higher Criticism and the Verdict of the

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Monuments. London, 1894. —. Religion of the Ancient Babylonians. Gifford Lecture IV. London, 1887. —. The religions of ancient Egypt and Babylonia; the Gifford lectures on the ancient Egyptian and Babylonian conception of the divine delivered in Aberdeen, by A. H. Sayce. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1903. SCHMAUS, Michael. Dogma 6. Justification and the Last Things. London: Sheed & Ward, 1977; 7th impression, 1994. SCHMID, Konrad, “Genesis in the Pentateuch” in EVANS, Craig; Joel N. LOHR; and David L. PETERSEN (eds). The Book of Genesis: Composition, Reception, and Interpretation. (Supplements to Vetus Testamentum, 152.) Leiden: Brill, 2012. SKA, Jean-Louis. “Genesis 2—3. Some Fundamental Questions” in SCHMID, Konrad and Christoph RIEDWEG (eds). Beyond Eden. The Biblical Story of Paradise (Genesis 2—3) and its Reception History. (Forschungen zum Alten Testament, 2:34.) Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2008; pp. 1-27. —. Introduction to Reading the Pentateuch. Eisenbrauns, 2006. —. "Our Fathers Have Told Us". Introduction to the Analysis of Hebrew Narratives (Subsidia Biblica 13.) Rome, 1990. —. “Séparation des eaux et de la terre ferme dans le récit sacerdotal.” NRTh 113 (1989): 512- 32. —. “The Story of the Flood: a Priestly Writer and Some Later Editorial Fragments” in The Exegesis of the Pentateuch. Exegetical Studies and Basic Questions. (Forschungen zum Alten Testament 66.) Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2009; pp. 1-22. —. “The Study of the Book of Genesis: The Beginning of Critical Reading” in EVANS, Craig; Joel N. LOHR; and David L. PETERSEN (eds). The Book of Genesis: Composition, Reception, and Interpretation. (Supplements to Vetus Testamentum, 152.) Leiden: Brill, 2012. —. “The Yahwist, a Hero With a Thousand Faces. A Chapter in the History of Modern Exegesis” in GERTZ, Jan Christian; Konrad SCHMID; and Markus WITTE (eds). Abschied von Jahwisten. Die Komposition des Hexateuchs in der jüngsten Diskussionen. (Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die Alttestamentische Wissenschaft.) Berlin and New York, 2002. SMITH, George. The Chaldean Account of Genesis: Containing the Description of the Creation, the Fall of Man, the Deluge, the Tower of Babel, the Times of the Patriarchs, and Nimrod: Babylonian Fables,

292

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and Legends of the Gods; from the Cuneiform Inscriptions. New York: Scribner, Armstrong & Company, 1876. SPEISER, E. A. (Ephraim Avigdor). “Genesis” in The Anchor Bible. Ed W. F. Albright et al. New York, 1964. STERNBERG, M. The Poetics of Biblical Narrative. Ideological Literature and the Drama of Reading. (Indiana Literary Biblical Series 1.) Bloomington, 1985. TEILHARD DE CHARDIN, Pierre. Le Phénomène Humain (1955). Eng. The Phenomenon of Man (1959). Harper Perennial, 1976; reprint 2008. UNGER, Merrill F. Unger’s Bible Dictionary. Chicago: Moody Press, 1957, 1965. VAWTER, Bruce. On Genesis. A New Reading. London, 1977. VON RAD, Gerhard. Genesis. A Commentary. London, 1963. —. “The Joseph Narrative and Ancient Wisdom” in Problems of the Hexateuch and Other Essays. London, 1966. WESTERMANN, Claus. The Promises to the Fathers. Studies on the Patriarchal Narratives [German: Göttingen, 1976]. Philadelphia, 1980. WHITE, Lynn. “The Historical Roots of Our Ecologic Crisis” (26 December 1966, Washington meeting of the AAAS [The American Association for the Advancement of Science]); published in the journal Science 155:3767 (10 March 1967). WILSON, Leslie S. The Serpent Symbol in the Ancient Near East: Nahash and Asherah, Death, Life, and Healing. (Studies in Judaism.) University Press of America, 2001. WITTGENSTEIN, Ludwig. Culture and Value. Ed. by Georg Henrik von Wright (1977); rev. ed. London: Wiley-Blackwell, 1980, 1984. YARNOLD, Edward. The Theology of Original Sin. The Mercier Press, 1972. YOUNG, Robert. Analytical Concordance to the Bible. London: Lutterworth Press, 1879; 7th ed. rev. 1900, 8th ed. rev. 1939, 9th ed. rev. 2005.

INDEX 1. Biblical References ............................................................................ 293 2. Index of Biblical Names .................................................................... 302 3. Index of Places, Objects, Images and Themes ................................. 305 4. Index of Texts and Scholars .............................................................. 310

1. Biblical References The Old Testament Amos 3:10 4:6-13 6:3

113 261 113

1 Chronicles 1:7

142

2 Chronicles 34—35

132

Daniel 2&4 2:25-45 8:21 10:20

219 225 141 141

Deuteronomy 12:31 19:21 30:1-10 32:11

136 96 279 19

Ecclesiastes [Qoheleth] 2 :5 48 3:11 158 11:20b 130 Esther 7:8

69

13:6

27

Exodus 3:1—4:17 13:19 16:22-30 20 21:18-23 21:24 25:17-20 25:40 26 & 27

15 271, 272 30 xxiv 96 96 79 31 31

Ezekiel 1:4-14 1:28 8:16 12:19 27:7 27:12 27:13 28:12-19 32:26 38:2 38:6 39:1 39:6 45:9 47

53 131 23 113 142 142 141 12, 76 141 141 141 141 141 113 53

294

Creation, Sin and Reconciliation

Ezra — Genesis 1 1—2 1—11 1:6-9 1:6, 9, 18 1:7 1:11-12 1:14f 1:16-18 1:20 1:22 1:24 1:26 1:26, 28 1:27 1:28 1:29-30 2

2—3 2:1 2:2-3 2:3 2:4 2:4a 2:4-7 2:4-25 2:5-6 2:7 2:10-14 2:15-17 2:21-25 2:23 3

3—4

7-9, 21, 35, 38 57-71 xxiv 22 63 27 69 63 70 69 27 69 69 93 69 17, 28, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71 114 3, 9, 31, 33, 4041, 41, 46, 48, 137 xxvii, 27, 35, 42, 44, 49 14 14, 33 15, 17, 30 15, 41 41 44 1, 46 45 4 60, 65 51-54 55-57 161 xxiv, 3, 42, 44, 46, 48, 58, 7475, 75-94,96, 108, 137, 159 96

3&4 3—11 3:1-5 3:3, 22 3:5 3:6-8 3:7 3:7, 21 3:14 3:15 3:16, 19 3:20-21 3:21 3:22 3:24

104 283 153 93 90 194 80 93 76 86, 102, 160 157 78 78, 103 78, 90, 273 93

4

3, 4, 94-95, 96105, 108, 113 xx 123 154 96, 98

4:1-17 4:3-5 4:7 4:9 5 5:5 5:24 6 6—9 6:1-6 6:4 6:5 6:9 6:9—11:9 6:19 7 7:11 7:11-12 8 8:21

105-107,107108 52 107, 117 108, 109-110, 110-120 3, 130 12 159 159 117 xxiii 123 120-121, 123133, 261 123 21, 42 121-122, 123133 112, 124, 135, 137, 159

Index 9

9:1 9:1-7 9:11-15 9:13 9:20 9:20-28 9:21 10 10—11 10:4 10:7 10:7-29 10:11 10:15-20 10:25

xxvi, 126, 134135, 135-139, 283 148 70 21 123 222 138 159 139-140, 140146, 148 3 142 146 142 145 136 148

11:1-9 11:4-9 11:7

131, 146-148, 148-155 148 149 27

12 12—50 12:3 15 15—17 15:5 15:17-21

131, 258 xxii 153, 257 164 283 170 169

17 17:1-27

xxvi, 266 xxiv

18 18—19 18:22-33

xxiii xxiii, 92 164, 194, 261

19 19:1, 5

xxiii, 138 114

21

196, 273

11

295 22 23:17-23

232 270

25:2 25:19—35:29 25:21 25:27-34 25:28

202 xxiv 177 xxiii 164

26 27 27:1-45 27:26 27:29 27:41

258 176, 196, 265, 266 xxiii 177 164 179

28 28:10-17 28:10-22 28:12 28:13-15

258 152 176 168 257

29 29:9-12 29:32 29:33

176, 213 281 234 234

30 30:14

266 281

31 31:18 32

169 195 180, 181, 183186, 258 169, 170, 176, 179, 196, 284 179 180 179 182 180 179 194 164 178

32—33 32:1 32:7 32:9-12 32:13-30 32:20 32:24-30 32:24-32 32:25-33 32:28

Creation, Sin and Reconciliation

296 32:30 32:31—33:16

180 182

33 33:1-6 33:10b 33:16-20 33:19

166-167, 187189 179 179 183 271, 272

34

176, 206

35 35:22

206 200

36

244

37

195, 197-199, 199-204, 207, 213, 214, 215, 231, 232, 234, 235, 244, 245, 258, 261 195, 249, 259 195 195 207 200, 211, 284 83, 274 274, 278 274, 278 278 201 274 279 274, 281 274 281 275 279 275 275

38:12 38:12-19 38:18 38:21-22 38:26

207 209 200 209 207

39

196, 200, 206, 207, 210-211, 220, 281 195 274 276 212, 284

39—41 39:7-10 39:13-17 39:21-28 40

37—41 37—44 37—50 37 & 38 37:1-11 37:2 37:3 37:4 37:8 37:12-17 37:13 37:18 37:20 37:20, 24 37:21-24, 26-38 37:23 37:24 37:28 37:29 38 38:1-11

204-206, 206, 207, 211 208

40:1-2 40:8 41 41:1-45 41:14-36 41:16 41:25 41:39-45 41:45-46 41:46 41:46-57 41:52 42

42—50 42:1 42:6-9 43 43:1 43:27 44 44:4-5, 15

216-218, 218220 276 194 xix, 220-223, 224-227, 235 279 281 194 194 276 281 276 281 265 227, 228-230, 230-235, 244, 245, 266 249, 250 231 278 236-238, 240243, 245 230 235 238-240, 243247 244

Index 45

45:1-15 45:4-8 45:11 45:16-28 45:26-28 46 46—50 46:2-4 47 47:20-28 47: 21, 25 47:27a

195, 196, 240, 247-248, 249251, 255 279 277, 278 277 277 277 196, 251-252, 255-258 259 256 195, 200, 253255, 255-262 282 282 195

297 8:7

151

Isaiah 2:2 2:10-11 5:1-7 6:8 11:6 13:12 14:12-14 14:13-14 21:2 26:20-21 27:1 40 42:6 43 43:1-2 45:7 46:10 65:8-9 65:17-20 66:18-19 66:19

153 117 137 27 29 146 11, 76 12 141 117 4 18 258 256 204 52 10 28 158 142 141

21 23 55 91 19 10 10 10 69 124

27 116 261 12 90 116 158 146

48

262-264, 264266, 266

49 49:5-6 49:22

266-267, 268 200, 268 268

50

195, 196, 197, 233, 268-270, 270-273 273 276 273 282 282 282

Jeremiah 4:28-29 8:2 16 17:8-9 23:9 26:1 27:1 28:1 34:11, 16 51:27

261 10 56 279, 280

Job 1 1:6 1:13-22 1:16 1:21 2:1 14:4 22:24

50:19 50:19-21 50:20 50:22 50:23 50:25 Habakkuk — Haggai — Hosea 1 1:2 2:1-7 2:14-18

Creation, Sin and Reconciliation

298 36:27 38:7 38:8 38:12-13 39

45 13 19 21 130

17:11 18 20 24:20 25:43

Joel 2:10 3:6 3:18

24 141 53

Malachi 3:3 Micah 4

Jonah —

159 144 169 145 271, 272, 282

Judges 8:24 11:40 13:7 19:10-11

202 257 186 144

2 Kings 2:34-36 9:15-23 17:6 18:11 19:15-23 19:37 23

219 146 201 130 27

42 196 141 141 196 124 132

Lamentations — Leviticus 11

203 153

Nahum —

Joshua 7:11 15:63 21:38 24:2-3 24:32

1 Kings 3:3-9 9:26-28 12 17:3-7 22

117 136 136 96 68

132

Nehemiah 3:15 5:5

48 69

Numbers 3:1 21:9 32:22,29

45 84, 86 69

Obadiah — Proverbs 3:18 8:22-31 11:30 13:12 15:14

49 15 49 49 49

Psalms 1 8 19:1-6 19:2 23:6 27 27:4 29:3-4 39:4-7 45:9 46 51:1 54:4 65:4

92 15 24 39 31 20 32 125 158 146 128 158 54 31

Index 68:27 74:12-17 80 88 93 96—99 103:11-21 104:1-9 104:19 105:16-22 105:16-23 130:3

27 19, 22, 24 137 19 4, 19 31 27 1 24 192 195 158

Ruth —

299 The Deutero-Canonical Books Baruch — Ecclesiasticus (Sirach) 10:13 160 24:1-23 15 25:24 158 44:17-18 73 44:23 163 Judith — 1 Maccabees 2:13

27

2 Maccabees 7:26

11

1 Samuel — 2 Samuel 5:2 5:6-7 6:20 7:7 12:1-7 15—16

143 144 159 143 210 200

Sirach (see Ecclesiasticus) Tobit — Wisdom (Wisdom of Solomon) 2:24 86 16:5-7 86

Song of Songs (Canticles) 2:11-14 130 6:2 48 Zechariah 1:7-21 9:13 14:8

Apocrypha 1 Esdras —

53 141 53

2 Esdras 2:12 2:18

51 51

Zephaniah —

The New Testament Acts of the Apostles 7:15-16 272 15:14 279 16:9 219 Apocalypse (see Revelation)

Colossians 1:16

25

1 Corinthians 6 6:16 11:7-9 15:21-22

55 55 77 52

Creation, Sin and Reconciliation

300 2 Corinthians 5:17-19 11:3, 14

vi 76

Ephesians 1:4-6 2:1-5 4:18-19 5 5:22-25 5:25-32 5:31

25 78 78 55 55, 77 55 55

18:21 19:5 19:26 19:26-27 19:41 20:15

275 160 161 161 160 160

1 John (Epistle) 2:16

157

2 John (Epistle) — 3 John (Epistle) —

Galatians — Hebrews 5:8-10 9:22 11:4 11:7 11:21-22

160 103 103 117 272

James — John (Gospel) 1:3 1:14 1:29 1:42 2:3 2:3-5 2:4 2:19-22 3:14-15 3:35 4:22 4:22b 5:20 6 6:1-14 6:48-51 8:21 12:32-33 15:1 15:1-11 15:24-25

25 153 103 19 161 225 161 152 87 278 140 136 278 90 277 87 275 87 160 137 278

Jude 6 11

116 102

Luke 2:35 9:10 15:7 15:11-32 22:17-18 23:9 23:30

161 277 xix 179, 272 161 103 243

Mark 1:12-13 6:30 10:31

160 277 243

Matthew 1:1 1:1, 3, 5, 6 3:16 3:17 4:1-11 8:22 9:13 12:50 14:15 16:17-18 19:12 19:30 21:3-4

107, 108 207 130 278 14 52 208 208 277 19 55 243 279

Index 21:37-39 21:42 22:30 26:36-56 27:35-37 28:19 1 Peter 2:21-25 3:20-21 2 Peter 2:2-9 2:4-5 2:5 3:4-6 3:8

278 278 114 14-15 279 208

274 127 116 116 126 123 34

301 22:2

49

Romans 3: 8-13 3:24-26 5:12-21 5:18 7 7:14-23 8:28 8:18-25, 28-29 9 9—11 11:1, 15, 25, 26 11:17 11:25-27 11:28-32

78 78 78, 157 78 55 156 213, 273 vi 4 277 279 136 277 140

Philemon — 1 Thessalonians — Philippians 2:9-11

278

Revelation (Apocalypse) 4:3 131 6 53 10:1 131 12:1 86 12:9 86 14:4 55 21:23 161

2 Thessalonians 2:7 1 Timothy 2:11-14 3:16 2 Timothy — Titus —

155

77 155

Creation, Sin and Reconciliation

302

2. Index of Biblical Names Abel, xvii, xx, xxiii, 94-105, 100 (illus.),159, 265 Abimelech, 212 Abraham, xxii, xxiii, xxv, xxvi, 91, 108, 131, 136, 137, 138, 152, 153, 164, 165, 170, 194, 196, 200, 202, 232, 257, 258, 261, 263, 267, 269, 270, 272, 282, 283 Adah, 95 Adam, xvii, xxiii, 2, 28, 42, 43 (illus.), 46, 47, 52, 54, 55, 56, 61 (illus.), 75, 77, 78, 79 (illus.), 80, 81, 87, 92, 93, 94, 95, 98, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 113, 118, 138, 154, 157, 158, 160, 161, 282 Arpachshad, 140, 145, 146, 147, 155 Sons of Arpachshad (Shelah, Eber, Peleg, Reu, Serug, Nahor, Terah, Abram, Nahor and Haran), 155 Bathsheba, 207 Benjamin, 206, 227, 228, 230, 231, 233, 234, 235, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245, 247, 248, 252, 266, 267, 268 Cain, xx, xxiii, 4, 95-1-5, 100 (illus.), 114, 159, 265 Canaan, xvii, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 142, 144 (illus.), 145, 167 Cherubim, 75, 78, 79 (illus.), 80, 83, 93, 103, 159 Dan, 252, 256, 267, 268 Daniel, 219, 225 David, King of Israel, xxiv, 144, 145, 159, 195, 200, 204, 210 Dinah, 206, 251

Enoch, 95, 103, 106, 107, 117 Enosh, 95, 103, 106 Ephraim, xxiii, 196, 201, 258, 264, 265, 266 Esau, xvii, xxiii, xxiv, 2, 104, 163191. 191 (illus.), 194, 196, 266, 273, 284 Eve, xvii, xxiii, 56, 61 (illus.), 75, 77, 78, 79 (illus.), 80, 88, 92, 94, 96, 98, 102, 138, 158, 161 (Eve and Mary), 282 God, vi, xvii, xix, xx, xxiv, xxvi, 1190, 194-196, 200, 203, 204, 206, 211-214, 216, 217, 219, 220-223, 225, 226, 228, 229, 232, 234, 236, 237, 239, 247, 250, 251, 255, 256-259, 261265, 267, 269, 270, 272-274, 276, 277, 279, 280, 282, 283; illus., v, 20, 26, 43, 60 El/El Shaddai, xxvi, 256 Elohim, xxiv, 12, 24, 46, 76, 77, 114, 116, 168, 226 YHWH, xxiv, xxvi, 18, 41 Ham, 107, 109, 121, 135, 136, 137, 139 Sons of Ham (Cush, Egypt, Put, Canaan), 139, 142 Imhotep, Egyptian vizier, 226 Isaac, xxiii, xxiv, 2, 152, 164, 165, 170, 194, 196, 212, 232, 251, 257, 258, 261, 263, 265, 266, 267, 270, 273, 283 Jacob (Israel), xvii, xxii, xxiii, xxiv, xxv, xxvi, 3, 28, 45, 104, 152, 162, 164-190, 177 (illus.), 186 (illus.), 191 (illus.), 194, 195, 196, 197, 199, 200, 202, 204 207, 213, 228, 229, 230-235, 240, 241, 242, 245, 247-249, 251-259, 262, 264-268, 270-

Index 273, 277, 281, 282-284 Sons of Jacob (with Leah) Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun; (with Rachel) Joseph, Benjamin; (with Bilhah, Rachel’s maid) Dan, Naphthali; (with Zilpah, Leah’s maid) Gad, Asher, xxiii, xxiv, 266-267 Sons of Israel (bene yisra’el), 228, 230, 234, 248, 252, 270 Japheth, 107, 109, 121, 135, 139, 140 Sons of Japheth (Gomer, Magog, Madai, Javan, Tubal, Meshech, Tiras, Jared), 139 Jesus, the Christ,14, 19, 25, 35, 80, 90, 92, 129, 130, 152, 160, 161, 204, 207, 208, 219, 273, 274279, 284 Joseph, the Patriarch, xvii, xix, xxiii, xxiv, xxv, 83, 104, 166, 167 171, 193-204, 206-208, 210-282, 246 (illus.), 260 (illus.), 284 Joseph, the Carpenter, the foster father of Jesus, 219, 275 Jubal, 95 Judah, 28, 113, 195, 199, 200, 201, 202, 203, 204-210, 227, 236, 238, 239, 240, 241, 243, 244, 245-247, 250, 251, 252, 256, 266, 268, 281 Kenan, 166 Lamech, 95, 96, 103, 106, 107, 108 Levi and Simeon, 176, 200, 206, 244, 251, 266, 268 Lot, 116, 138, 147, 164, 208 Lot’s Daughters, 208 Ma-hal’alel, 106 Manasseh, xxiii, 258, 264, 265, 266

303 Mary (the Blessed Virgin Mary), 86, 161 (the New Eve), 225 Mary Magdelene, 160 Methuselah, 107 Moses, xxv, xxvi, 31, 52, 84, 87, 90, 132, 204, 271, 272 Nebuchadnezzar, 219, 225 Nephilim, 106, 114, 116, 159 Noah, xvi, xxiii, xxiv, xxvi, 2, 73, 107-112, 114-118, 115 (illus.), 120-124, 126, 128 (illus.), 129, 130, 132, 133 (illus.), 134-140, 144, 148, 149, 154, 154, 159, 194, 282, 283 Paul, the Apostle, 156, 157, 159, 219 Pharaoh, xvii, xix, 90, 127, 142; in the Joseph Story: 194, 199, 210, 213, 216-218, 220-228, 239, 247-249, 251, 252-256, 258-260 (illus.), 262, 268 Akhenaten, 142 Amenophis III, 142 Seti II, 101, 211 Zoser, 226 Potiphar, 210-211, 212, 213, 214, 215, 216, 227 Potiphar’s Wife, 207, 211-216, 220 Rahab, 207 Rachel, xxvii, 166, 167, 171, 200, 206, 245, 252, 263, 265, 266, 281 Rebekah, xxvii, 164, 265, 267 Reuben, 198, 199, 200, 202, 203, 206, 229, 230, 231, 234, 244, 251, 262, 265, 266, 268, 281 Ruth, 207 Satan (Lucifer, the Devil), 11, 86, 160 Serpent, the, 42, 75, 76, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 104, 160

304

Creation, Sin and Reconciliation

Seth, 28, 95, 96, 97, 98, 103, 104, 105, 106, 114 Shem, 2, 107, 109, 121, 135, 136, 137, 139, 140, 145, 147, 154, 155 Sons of Shem (Elam, Asshur, Arpachshad, Lud, Aram), 140, 145, 147, 155 Simeon. See Levi and Simeon Snake, the. See Serpent, the

Sons of God (bene ’Elohîm), vi, 13, 109, 110, 114. Also see Nephilim Sons of Israel (bene yisra’el), 228, 230, 234, 248, 252, 270 Tamar, 200, 204-210 Zillah, 95

Index

305

3. Index of Places, Objects, Images and Themes African folklore, 4 Animals, 3, 4, 17, 18, 25, 26 (illus.), 27, 29, 34, 38, 47, 54, 55, 57, 58, 60, 63, 64, 65, 70, 74, 82, 85, 88, 110, 111, 114, 118, 120122, 123, 126, 130, 132, 138, 153, 259, 160, 178, 179, 225 Ark, Noah’s, xvii, xx, 109-110, 117, 117, 118, 120-121, 124, 127, 132, 134-135, 143 ; illus., 115, 128 Ararat, Mt, 124, 127, 129, 130, 148 Archaeology, 44, 108, 140, 143 Archaeological background/light, 5, 105, 118, 123, 138, 145, 153, 226, 259 Atonement (kippur), 78, 102, 117, 129 Author, Authorship, xx, xxiv, 39, 59, 71, 92, 169, 176, 180, 182, 202 Authority, 39, 54, 57, 68, 69, 70, 71, 77, 83, 90, 137, 185, 222, 272 Babel, the Tower of, xvii, xxiii, 3, 27, 137, 143, 146-154 (illus.), 159, 162 (illus.), 261 Babylon, Babylonian, xvii, xxv, 5, 6, 19, 42, 44, 49, 58, 118-120, 123, 124, 142, 143, 145, 148, 153, 154 (illus.), 159, 225 Bethel, xvii, 176, 177 (illus.), 257, 258, 265 Birds, xvii, 8, 9, 16, 17, 18, 21, 24, 25, 29, 30, 41, 48, 49, 54, 57, 59, 64, 109, 110, 119, 120, 121, 122, 124, 126, 129-130 (raven, dove), 134, 218, 220, 280; illus., 26, 128, 133 Bless/Blessing, xxvi, 1, 8, 9, 16, 17, 24, 25, 26, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 48, 51, 65, 67, 87, 92, 105, 120, 123, 126, 130, 131, 134, 135, 136, 137, 140, 152, 153, 161, 163, 164, 166, 169,

170, 172, 173, 178, 185, 186, 189, 190, 195, 196, 197, 210, 213, 253, 256, 258, 259, 262, 263, 264, 265, 267, 272, 279, 283 Bricks, 146, 150, 153 Brotherhood, 96, 99, 137, 226, 230, 240, 243, 251, 271, 273, 284 Canaan, the Land of, xxvi, 50, 119, 136, 138, 139, 148, 167, 169, 171, 172, 173, 174, 182, 188, 195, 197, 204, 228, 229, 234, 238, 240, 244, 248, 249. 251, 252, 253, 262, 263, 26, 268, 269, 270, 271 Cattle, 8, 9, 41, 64, 74, 95, 101, 121, 134, 187, 170, 171, 175, 189, 215, 258, 253, 254, 261, 262 Covenant, xx, xxiv, xxvi, 2, 55, 66, 73, 110, 111, 112, 126, 131, 134, 135, 137, 138, 159, 163, 277, 280, 263 Creation, vi, xvii, xviii, xx, xxii, xxiv, 3, 4, 5, 9, 10, 11, 13, 15, 16-38, 42, 44, 48, 54-76, 80, 95, 107, 114, 123, 125, 126, 127, 129, 138, 159, 283; illus., v, 20, 26, 43 Creation Stories, 4-6, 13, 22, 31, 32, 38, 39, 42, 53, 93-94; illus., 7, 50 Curse, 28, 76, 82, 87, 90, 122, 136, 137, 158, 272, 279, 283 Descendants. See Generations Dialogue, 28, 47, 56, 81, 82, 138, 155, 174, 181, 183 Dominion (radah), 9, 21, 24, 25, 28, 59, 62-63, 67-71, 76, 83, 93, 197, 282 Dreams, xix, 194, 219, 226, 228, 235, 282 Jacob, xvii, 152, 176, 177

306

Creation, Sin and Reconciliation

(illus.), 257 Joseph, 194, 197, 198, 200, 201, 202, 203, 217-221, 224, 225, 226, 228, 282 Joseph the Carpenter, 219 Nebuchadnezzar, 219, 225 Paul, 219 Pharaoh, 221, 224, 225, 226 Pharaoh’s Baker, 216, 217, 218, 220, 221 Pharaoh’s Butler, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220 Pontius Pilate’s Wife, 219 Solomon, 219 Earth/Ground/Dust (’adamah), 9, 46, 47, 81, 87, 104, 113, 137 Eden, the Garden of, xvii, xxv, xxvii, 21, 40, 42-44, 48, 49, 50 (illus.), 51, 52, 53, 65, 75, 77, 76, 77, 78, 79 (illus.), 80, 88, 89, 90, 92, 93, 94, 95, 103, 153, 160, 161 Enuma Elish, xvii, 3, 5-7 (illus.) Egypt, Egyptian, xxii, 4, 5, 22, 27, 42, 44, 53, 84, 87, 93, 101, 139, 143, 152, 154, 195, 197, 198, 199, 201, 202, 203, 207, 210273 (Joseph in Egypt), 255-271 (Jacob in Egypt), 275, 280, 281, 284; illus., 217, 246, 260 Euphrates (and Tigris), rivers, 6, 40, 44, 118, 143, 145, 148 Fairy tales, xix, xx, 85, 87, 88; Eve and the Serpent/Apple (Snow White, sexual desire and jealousy); Cain and Abel, Joseph (Cinderella and rival siblings), 104, 105, 200. See also Folktales Family, xx, xxiii, xxvi, 2, 52, 96, 104, 111, 118, 137, 164, 170, 172, 181, 187, 188, 189, 195, 196, 197, 200, 203, 206, 207, 231, 233, 234, 235, 240, 241, 242, 243, 244, 250, 255, 256,

257, 259, 273, 282, 283, 284 Famine, 193, 197, 222, 223, 224, 226, 228, 229, 230, 236, 247, 253, 254, 257, 258, 262 Feast, 10, 23, 129, 161 (Cana), 129, 188 (Booths), 218, 225 (Cana) Fertile Crescent, 44 Festivals, 23, 66, 119, 129, 188. See also Sabbath Folktales, xix, xx, xxiii, 87, 116, 206, 280 Food, xx, 9, 24, 25, 29, 40, 47, 54, 70, 87, 89, 90, 93, 101, 102, 110, 114, 126, 134, 210, 218, 222, 223, 225, 226, 228, 230, 232, 234-242, 244, 253, 254, 257, 259, 261, 267 Fruit, xx, 8, 9, 10, 29, 48, 50 (illus.), 51, 52, 53, 54, 64, 74, 80, 81, 83, 87, 88, 90, 93, 94, 103, 137, 151, 157, 159, 161, 236 Garden, xx, 11, 48, 49, 50 (illus.), 57, 148, 160, 225 Garments, xx, 1, 5, 20, 58, 75, 83, 135, 199, 203, 205, 209, 211, 214, 223, 226, 248, 251, 266, 275, 279 Generations (toledot), xxiii, 2, 3, 4, 9, 15, 28, 29, 40, 41, 103, 104, 105, 107, 108, 109, 134, 139, 164 Genealogy, xxvii, 98, 110, 145, 154, 207, 256 Gerontology, 108 Gilgamesh, 88, 89, 118, 124, 125, 127 Goshen, land of, 195, 247, 252, 253, 255, 256, 258, 259, 264, 269 Greeks, the, 124, 141, 226 Hero, 85, 89, 118, 119, 168 (Jacob), 176, 259, 280-282 (Joseph) Image and Likeness (tselem we demuth), 27, 39, 69, 126

Index Jabbock, the stream, 166, 170, 172, 173, 176-179, 182, 185, 189, 258 Jacob: place names ’El-’Elo’he-yisra’el, 167, 171, 172, 175, 189 Mahanaim, 169, 170, 171, 173, 175, 184, 189 Peni’el, 166, 168, 170, 175, 180, 182, 183, 184, 189 Penu’el, 166, 168, 169, 171, 173 Succoth, 167, 176, 172, 174, 175, 183, 189 Jerusalem, 31, 53, 55, 132, 144, 145, 158, 161, 168, 195 Jordan, the river, 20, 130, 165, 269 Judgement, xx, 12, 21, 23, 47, 76, 80, 116, 117, 123, 136, 148, 261 Julius Caesar, Roman general, 258 Language, xvii, xx, 1, 2, 12, 15, 35, 42, 56, 57, 59, 81, 82, 99, 104, 139, 140, 141, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 162 (illus.), 153, 183, 257 Law, xx, 37, 63, 86, 101, 103, 116, 132, 156, 157, 176, 204, 278, 281, 282 Mark, of Cain, 102 Maya, the, 4 Mesopotamia, 17, 22, 23, 27, 38, 39, 44, 84, 97, 105, 143, 145, 154 (illus.), 257, 280 Messiah, Anointed One, xx, 159, 206, 268 Messianic line/reign, 19, 103, 107108,155, 206, 273, 284 Mountain, xx, 1, 6, 11, 12, 13, 21, 24, 28, 31, 48, 51, 53, 113, 119, 120, 121, 124, 125, 126, 128, 130, 142, 148, 153, 264, 267, 275, 277. Also see Ararat, Nisir Murder, xx, 3, 98, 101, 102, 103,

307 179, 257, 283 Narrative, xix (and symbolism), xxii, xxiii, xxiv, xxvii, 3, 11, 1315, 31, 34, 41, 45, 46, 51, 57, 58, 60, 73, 75, 76, 80, 84, 88, 92, 98, 102, 111, 112, 114, 123, 132, 141, 149, 159, 163, 168, 170, 171, 172, 173-178, 179, 180-183 (modalities), 184, 189, 190, 193, 194-196, 206, 208, 210, 219, 224, 227, 230-235, 240-241, 249-251, 261, 271272, 274-278 (narrative comparisons), 282, 283 Nile, the river, 220, 221, 225, 226, 258, 259 Nisir, Mt, 124 Oracle, 11, 51, 112, 256-257 Original Sin, 34, 36, 91, 92, 155161 Osiris, as resurrection myth, 257 Paradise, 48, 51, 57, 75, 80, 86, 158, 276 Passivity, 203, 282 Passion, 203 Pitch (kaphar), as metaphor of atonement, 109, 117, 118, 119, 150, 153 Prometheus, the myth of, 92 Proto-Evangelium, 160 Providence, 103, 174, 176, 190, 274, 284 Rainbow, xxiv, xxvi, 21, 123, 126, 131, 135, 138 Reconciliation, vi, xviii, 92, 131, 172, 174, 179, 183, 187, 190, 191 (illus.), 195, 196, 197, 233, 235, 240, 251, 259 284 Reflection, 34, 35, 57, 60, 132, 137, 141, 149, 155, 203, 232 Rubicon, the river, 259 Sacrifice, xx, 78, 102, 103, 111,

308

Creation, Sin and Reconciliation

119, 123, 124, 125, 130, 132, 138, 251 Sabbath, xx, xxvi, 23, 25, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 59, 62, 66, 77 Serpent, 25, 49, 50, 76, 81, 83, 8489, 91, 93, 94, 102, 138, 153, 267; the Bronze Serpent in the Wilderness, 87 Servant, xx, 12, 28, 68, 118, 146, 165-167, 170, 178, 182, 183, 187, 189, 211, 214, 218, 221222, 228, 237-240, 243, 247, 248, 252, 253, 268-269 Sheep, xx, 6, 12, 94, 119, 125, 205, 274 Sin, Sinner, Sinful, xx, 2, 11, 12, 13, 34, 36, 52, 76, 77, 78, 80, 91, 92, 94, 96, 97, 101, 102, 103, 108, 111, 113, 114, 116, 117, 127, 149, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 178, 206, 208, 211, 229, 269, 274, 277, 278 Slave, Slavery, Enslavement, 22, 69, 91, 97, 135, 137, 168, 193, 194, 195, 196, 200, 201, 202, 215, 216, 227, 237, 238, 239, 240, 243, 245, 247, 254, 258, 259, 261, 262,267, 275 Snake. See Serpent Style, 15, 59-60, 99-101, 149-151 (inclusion, repetition, pun, alliteration), 185, 201, 231, 233234 Figures of speech and poetry: Alliteration: 149, 150, 185, 188 Assonance : 184, 185 Inclusions : 15, 30, 42, 96, 148, 149, 150, 151, 195, 209, 214-215, 225 Puns: 150-151,185, 201 Repetitions: 16, 24, 59, 104, 150, 213, 262 Syntax, 59, 103 Adverbial conjunction: we`attah (“And therefore”), 245, 271

Temporal indicator: wayehi (“And it came to pass”), 214, 215, 218, 245 Verbal forms: Causative verbs (Hiphil): 17, 82, 113, 207 Intensitive verbs (Piel): 31 Passive forms (Pual): 30, 54, 55, 98, 203 Narrative sequence/chain (wayyiktol): 45, 184, 203, 209 Sumeria, xvii, 4, 5, 19, 45, 50 (illus.), 89, 123, 143, 153 Symbols, Symbolism, xx, xxi, xxvi, 15, 16, 22, 23, 32, 34, 54, 70, 78, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 104, 127, 129, 130, 131, 137, 153, 157, 159, 161, 169, 170, 171, 172, 174, 175, 176, 180, 182, 183, 184, 187, 188, 189, 216, 225, 251, 257, 278, 279, 284 Tabernacle, xx, 31, 78, 127 Tammuz, as resurrection myth, 257 Temple, xx, 21, 31, 48, 53, 55, 127, 130, 132, 143, 152, 153 Theology, Theological Reflection, xviii, 5, 11, 35, 36, 62, 63, 66, 68, 69, 70, 71, 76, 92, 102, 114, 133, 156, 157, 159, 161, 176, 194, 278, Theophany, 36, 174, 176, 177 (illus.), 186 (illus.) Tower, xvii, xxiii, 3, 27, 137, 143, 146, 148, 149, 150, 152, 153, 154, 261 Tree of Life, 40, 46, 49, 51, 75, 78, 83, 93, 159 Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil, 40, 46, 49, 51, 52, 74, 90, 157 Two Brothers, motif and tale, xvii, 54, 98, 99, 101, 135, 172, 211, 215, 216, 217 (illus.), 227, 265

Index Utnapishtim, 116, 118, 124 Vine, xx, 137, 161, 217, 266, 278, 279 Water, xx, 4-8, 12, 13, 18, 21-25, 29, 38, 40-42, 45-49, 53, 56, 53, 56, 59, 63, 65, 69, 85, 89, 91, 109, 111, 117-130, 132, 134, 178, 198, 204, 215, 237, 244, 261, 266, 279 Woman, 28, 41, 42, 44, 46, 47, 49,

309 50, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 74-77, 80-83, 85, 86, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 97, 102, 108, 120, 124, 136, 158, 160, 161, 205, 251 Yom Kippur, 117, 129. Also see Atonement, Pitch Ziggurat, xvii, 125, 143, 153, 154 (illus.)

310

Creation, Sin and Reconciliation

4. Index of Texts and Scholars Historical Texts Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia, 97 The Bible AV (Authorized Version), 55, 103 NAB (New American Bible), 10 NEB (New English Bible), 10, 45 RSV (Revised Standard Version), 10, 45, 67, 76, 98, 142, 184 Septuagint, 2, 114, 154, 169 TOB (Traduction Oecuménique de la Bible), 10 Vulgate, 169 Berossus, 42 Enuma Elish. The Seven Tablets of Creation, xvii, 3, 5-7 (illus.) Gilgamesh, The Epic of, 88-89, 118, 124, 128 Hesiod, Theogony, 4, 51 Homer, Odyssey, 51, 141 169, 179 Josephus, Antiquities, 141, 142 Kalevala, 19 Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, 51 Ovid, Fasti, 116, 117 “The Tale of the Two Brothers”, 101, 211-212, 215, 217 (illus), 227

Index of Scholars Albright, W. F. , 140, 291 Allen, John L. Jr., 36 Alter, Robert, xxii, 60 Anderson, B. W., 63, 68 Aquinas, Thomas, 157 Augustine of Hippo. Confessions, 32, 33, 36, 155, 156; The City of God, 160 Barth, Karl, 66 Barthélemy, D., 10, 97, 98. Baumann, Hans, 226 Beauchamps, P., 18 Bettelheim, Bruno, 85, 88, 105, 200 Bettenson, Henry, 156, 158, 161 Bird, Phyllis A., 69, Booth, Wayne, 265 Breasted, James Henry, 44 Brown, Raymond et al (eds), 290

Buhrer, Walter, xxvii Caird, G. B., xxi Campbell, Joseph, xxiii, 80 Cannato, Judy, 35 Carpenter, Clive, 226 Carruth, William Herbert, 214 Cassuto, Umberto, 45, 46 Castelli, Enrico, 68 Charlesworth, James H., 51, 84 Catechism of the Catholic Church (CCC), 155, 157, 158, 160 Clines, David, xxvi, 3 Coats, G. W., 13, 42, 295, 197, 202 Cohn, Norman, 133 Conradie, Ernst, 63 Courlander, Harold, 4 Crüsemann, F., 196

Index Davidson, Benjamin, 10. De Gubernatis, Angelo, 48 Delitzsch, Friedrich, 44 Eliade, Mircea, 81 Folkard, Richard, 49 Fokkelmann, J. P., 150 Fowler, Henry Thatcher, 44 Frankfort, Henri, 105 Frazer, James G., 42, 51, 58, 89, 102, 119, 132, 154, 179, 244 Friedman, Richard Elliott, 37, 39, 40, 90, 93, 164, 282 Frye, Northrop, xxi Gerontology Research Group (GRD), 108 Ginsburg, C. G., 56 Gore, Albert, 70 Gunkel, Hermann, 19, 116, 131, 197, 214, 216, 220 Hall, Douglas John, 70 Hattingh, Tian, 130 Hendel, Ronald, 140, 141 Herbert, A. S., 169, 179, 184 Hopkins, David C., 70 Jacob, Benno, 45 Jarrett, Bede, 32 John of the Cross, 32, 130

311 Maly, E. H., 168, 182 Menant, M. J., 49 Newman, John Henry, 157 Novalis (Friedrich von Hardenberg), 39 O’Callaghan, M., 207, 209 O’Donnell, Hugh, 36 Philpot, J. H., 48 Pope Benedict XVI. See Ratzinger. Pope Francis, 37 Pope Pius XII, 34 Raglan, Lord, 168, 280 Ratzinger, Cardinal Joseph (Pope Benedict XVI), 34, 36 Redford, D. B., 195, 197 Robbins, Ellen A., 92 Sandars, N. K., 125 Sänger, Dieter, 131 Sayce, A. H. (Archibald Henry), 44, 51 Schmaus, Michael, 33 Schmid, Konrad, xxv, 53 Simpson, William Kelly, 101 Ska, Jean-Louis, xviii, xxv, xxvi, 23, 53, 114 Smith, George, 49 Speiser, E. A., 6, 168, 170, 176 Teilhard de Chardin, Pierre, 36, 37

Keel, O., 180 Kelly, J. N. D., 101, 156 Kerenyi, Otto, 117 Kvam, Kristen E., 92 Laurentin, René, 208 Letellier, Robert Ignatius, 116, 131, 136, 138, 158, 164, 208, 266 Luther, Martin, 104 McKenzie, B. A., 259 McKenzie, John F., 140

Unger, Merrill F., 140 Vawter, Bruce, 168, 177 Von Rad, Gerhard, 169, 178, 180, 182, 195, 207 Westermann, Claus, 3, 195, 256 White, Lynn, 62, 68 Wilson, Leslie S., 84 Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 155

312 Yarnold, Edward, 156

Creation, Sin and Reconciliation Young, Robert, 140