Continuity and Discontinuity: Chronological and Thematic Development in Isaiah 40-66 9783666536144, 9783525536148, 9783647536149

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© 2014, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht GmbH & Co. KG, Göttingen ISBN Print: 9783525536148 — ISBN E-Book: 9783647536149

Forschungen zur Religion und Literatur des Alten und Neuen Testaments

Edited by Jan Christian Gertz, Dietrich-Alex Koch, Matthias Ko¨ckert, Hermut Lo¨hr, Joachim Schaper, David Andrew Teeter and Christopher Tuckett

Volume 255

Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht

© 2014, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht GmbH & Co. KG, Göttingen ISBN Print: 9783525536148 — ISBN E-Book: 9783647536149

Lena-Sofia Tiemeyer and Hans M. Barstad (ed.)

Continuity and Discontinuity Chronological and Thematic Development in Isaiah 40 – 66

Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht

© 2014, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht GmbH & Co. KG, Göttingen ISBN Print: 9783525536148 — ISBN E-Book: 9783647536149

With 2 figures Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data available online: http://dnb.d-nb.de. ISBN 978-3-525-53614-8 ISBN 978-3-647-53614-9 (e-book) q 2014, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht GmbH & Co. KG, Go¨ttingen/ Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht LLC, Bristol, CT, U.S.A. www.v-r.de All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without prior written permission from the publisher. Typesetting by Konrad Triltsch Print und digitale Medien GmbH, Ochsenfurt Printed and bound in Germany by Hubert & Co, Go¨ttingen Printed on non-aging paper.

© 2014, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht GmbH & Co. KG, Göttingen ISBN Print: 9783525536148 — ISBN E-Book: 9783647536149

Contents

Foreword

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Lena-Sofia Tiemeyer Continuity and Discontinuity in Isaiah 40 – 66. History of Research

7

. . .

13

Hans M. Barstad Isaiah 56 – 66 in Relation to Isaiah 40 – 55. Why a New Reading is Necessary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

41

Ulrich Berges Where Does Trito-Isaiah Start in the Book of Isaiah?

63

. . . . . . . . . . .

Joseph Blenkinsopp Continuity-Discontinuity in Isaiah 40 – 66. The Issue of Location

. . . .

77

Elizabeth R. Hayes Fading and Flourishing. The Rhetorical Function of Plant Imagery in Isaiah 40 – 66 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

89

Corinna Ko¨rting Isaiah 62:1 – 7 and Psalm 45 – or – Two Ways to Become Queen . . . . . 103 Øystein Lund My Way – My Right. Persuasive Discourse in Isaiah 40 – 66 . . . . . . . . 125 Joachim Schaper Divine Images, Iconophobia and Monotheism in Isaiah 40 – 66

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. . . . . 145

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Contents

Blazˇenka Scheuer “Why Do You Let Us Wander, O Lord, From Your Ways?” (Isa 63:17). Clarification of Culpability in the Last Part of the Book of Isaiah . . . . 159 Konrad Schmid New Creation Instead of New Exodus. The Innerbiblical Exegesis and Theological Transformations of Isaiah 65:17 – 25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 Jacob Stromberg Deutero-Isaiah’s Restoration Reconfigured . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 H.G.M. Williamson Jacob in Isaiah 40 – 66

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 Contributors

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237

Bibliography

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

© 2014, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht GmbH & Co. KG, Göttingen ISBN Print: 9783525536148 — ISBN E-Book: 9783647536149

Foreword

This volume is the result of a conference, »Continuity and Discontinuity in Isaiah 40 – 66,« which was held under the auspices of the Department of Divinity and Religious Studies at King’s College, the University of Aberdeen, 7 – 8 October, 2011. The conference was organized by the Edinburgh Prophecy Network, an international scholarly association with a wide range of international participants from major universities. The focus of the meeting was the relationship between the different texts within Isaiah 40 – 66. The papers reinvestigate and challenge the traditional division between chapters 40 – 55 and 56 – 66 and explore new ways of reading the last 27 chapters of the book of Isaiah. Each contribution examines Isaiah 40 – 55 and/or Isaiah 56 – 66 and discusses continuity/discontinuity within this textual corpus. The authors use a variety of methods. Some contributions belong to the tradition of historical-critical research. They examine existing models of textual development of Isa 40 – 66, and offer new suggestions. These contributions also explore the interplay between the historical development of the text and its thematic continuity and discontinuity. Is the consistent use of a theme a sign of single authorship? Alternatively, are changes in the way a given issue is treated a sign of multiple authorship? Other articles explore the final form of Isa 40 – 66 and suggest reading strategies that do justice to the message of the extant text. Yet other essays make case studies of specific elements of Isa 40 – 66. What is the significance of these texts for the theological development of the ancient Israelite religion? Further, how do they interact with and transform other texts in the Hebrew Bible? The volume opens with the contribution by Lena-Sofia Tiemeyer. She offers a history of research of the relationship between the last 27 chapters of the book of Isaiah. Her article focuses on the composition history of Isa 40 – 66, where she notes the lack of consensus regarding its formation. She further surveys the interconnected issue of the development of literary themes and theological ideas

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throughout these chapters, and she emphasizes both the thematic continuity and discontinuity between the various parts. Hans Barstad discusses the pros and cons of reading the book of Isaiah according to its traditional, historical-critical divisions of First, Second, and Third Isaiah. He advocates reading the final form of Isa 56 – 66 in order to hear its own message, rather than to compare and evaluate it in the light of the preceding material in Isa 1 – 55. Through a textual study of its key lexemes and its use of intertexts, Barstad detects two key themes in Isa 56 – 66: the promotion of the Sabbath and the inclusion of eunuchs and foreigners. Notably, both themes are highlighted in the opening section in Isa 56:1 – 8. Ulrich Berges reopens the question of where Trito-Isaiah begins. He notes the pivotal character of Isa 54:17b where, for the first time in Isa 40 – 66, the plural term R8 =75F appears. Also, up until this verse, the male figure of Yhwh’s Servant and the female figure of Zion have featured in an alternating fashion. Berges further notes three devices which the scribes responsible for 1QIsaa used in order to highlight the importance of this half-verse, probably understood as a superscription of the text to follow. This, in turn, suggests that in the final form of the book of Isaiah, Isa 55 is the starting point of its concluding part. It further has consequences for the interpretation of Isa 55 and 56:1 – 8, two passages which display thematic and lexical affinity. Joseph Blenkinsopp evaluates old and new arguments for and against seeing Isa 40 – 55 as a text which originated in Judah. On the whole, he argues that the issue of location is unimportant for the interpretation of the text. Rather, readers should focus on the message of a new beginning inherent in the text: to return to and to reconstruct Zion. The Zion theme is prevalent not only in Isa 40 – 55 but also in Isa 60 – 62, considered by Blenkinsopp to constitute the core of Isa 56 – 66. Ultimately, Blenkinsopp offers two new arguments for a Babylonian origin of Isa 40 – 55: the fact that Zionism essentially is a diasporic phenomenon, and the significance of the Jacob narrative in Isa 40 – 55. Elizabeth Hayes uses conceptual metaphor theory and conceptual blending theory as two ways of exploring the plant and tree metaphors extant in Isa 40:6 – 8, 23 – 24; 53:2; and 60:21. In particular, she looks at the metaphors »people are plants« and »society is a plant,« with focus on how the metaphors use various biological attributes and characteristics of plants to illustrate the behaviour of the people of Israel. She concludes that while the plant imagery in Isa 40 – 66 adds nuance to the text, it is used in different ways in different texts and, as such, does not demonstrate continuity between the pertinent texts. Corinna Ko¨rting offers an intertextual reading of Isa 62:1 – 7 and Ps 45. The depiction of Zion as a bride in Isa 40 – 66 invites the reader to identify the bride in Ps 45 with Zion. She highlights the shared aspects between the two texts, yet also emphasizes that they envision Zion as having different pasts, and thus also

© 2014, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht GmbH & Co. KG, Göttingen ISBN Print: 9783525536148 — ISBN E-Book: 9783647536149

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two different paths along which to become queen. The portrayal in Isa 62:1 – 7 has Zion’s past suffering as its starting point, as Zion is transformed from a forsaken, suffering woman into the crown in Yhwh’s hand. In contrast, although the depiction of Zion in Ps 45 has many parallels to that in Isa 62:1 – 7, Ko¨rting highlights that the psalm views Zion’s past differently, as something shameful that she needs to forget. Øystein Lund argues that the »way« motif, prevalent in Isa 40 – 66, is used consistently throughout the text. He further notes that this motif often appears in conjunction with the notion of »right« (üHMB) (e. g. Isa 40:27; 58:2; 59:8 – 10; 64:8), or »law« (8L9N) (e. g. Isa 42:24), or »commandments« (89JB) (e. g. Isa 48:17 – 18). He further highlights that the »way« motif in 56:11 resembles that in Isa 53:6. Likewise, the road motif in Isa 57:14 echoes both Isa 40:3 and Isa 62:10. He concludes that the themes of »way« and »right« is attested fairly consistently throughout Isa 40 – 66, and that they allude to each other in a conscious fashion. This observation needs to be taken into account when considering the issue of authorship of the last 27 chapters of Isaiah. Joachim Schaper explores the links between monotheism, aniconism, and creation in Isa 40 – 55, with focus on the relationship between the anti-idol passages in Isa 40 – 46 and the divine statement in Gen 1:26 9DN9B7? 9DB@J5 A74 8MFD. Schaper argues that the point of the polemic of »forming a deity« in Isa 43:10 (@4 LJ9D) and 44:10 (@4 LJ= =B) is that God alone has the capability and the authority to »form a deity.« Schaper further demonstrates that the anti-idol material in Isa 40 – 55 is dependent upon and alludes to the P material in Gen 1. This allusion, especially in Isa 40:18, does not serve to deny Yhwh’s corporeality – that is taken for granted – but to emphasize the futility of producing images of him. Only Yhwh, the Creator-God, can produce an image of himself: A748 (Gen 1:26 – 27). Blazˇenka Scheuer places the accusations against Yhwh, expressed in Isa 63:15 – 19a, against the background of God’s undisputable bond with his people: he has failed in his responsibilities towards the lamenters. These accusations echo the lament traditions in the Hebrew Bible, yet convey a new twist. Not unlike the thoughts expressed in Job 12:24 – 25, Yhwh is accused of causing the people to sin. Scheuer locates the reason behind this development in the postexilic situation. While Isa 40 – 55 saw the problem as the broken relationship between Yhwh and his people, Isa 63:15 – 19a understood the relationship to be malfunctioning. She concludes that human inadequacy cannot be the deciding factor in the relationship between Yhwh and his people. Konrad Schmid explores the use of intertexts in Isa 65:17 – 25. First, Isa 65:17 – 25 extends the mythical horizon of Isa 43:16 – 21. The »old« and the »new« things in Isa 43, understood by Schmid to juxtapose the old and the new exodus, are transformed in Isa 65 into a comparison of the old and the new

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creation. Schmid suggests that this transformation was triggered by the collapse of the Persian Empire in the third century bce, which caused loss of confidence in the present order of creation. Secondly, Isa 65:17 – 25 draws on the earlier prophecy in Isa 11:6 – 9. Thirdly, Isa 65:17 – 25 alludes to and also reverses both the beginning (Gen 1:1; 3:14) and the end (Deut 28:30, 39 – 41) of the Torah, thus implying that the new creation will make the law obsolete. Jacob Stromberg argues that the prophecies of restoration in Isa 40 – 55 were reinterpreted in Isa 56 – 66 to refer to the distant future, along the same lines as what we find in Daniel. Stromberg detects three hermeneutical reflexes in place when chs 56 – 66 allude to the earlier chs 40 – 55: (1) to reaffirm the divine restoration, (2) to regard the earlier restoration promise as having been delayed because of sin, and (3) to transform the restoration in accordance with a new theological paradigm. In particular, Isa 56 – 66 transforms the rhetoric in Isa 40 – 48 about Cyrus and the accompanying statements concerning the »former« and the »latter« things, from speaking about the transition from judgement to restoration into the transition from persecution to a new, future creation beyond the prophet’s day. Hugh Williamson offers an analysis of the occurrences of the name Jacob in Isa 40 – 66 and discusses the significance of and reasons for their uneven distribution. Why does the use of the name Jacob bridge the divide at the end of chapter 48, only to stop abruptly with three occurrences in chapter 49? Williamson suggests that the two final appearances of the name Jacob in 49:5 and 6 offer the solution as to why it does not appear again in Isa 40 – 55: Jacob-Israel, i.e. the people as a whole, has failed in their role as the Servant. As a result, God is reassigning the task to the prophet and his support group, with the hope that they will be more successful. Williamson further maintains that the use of Jacob in Isa 58 – 59 is independent of that in Isa 40 – 55. We wish to express our gratitude for the generous donations from the Principle’s Excellence Fund and the Research Committee of the School of Divinity, History, and Philosophy at the University of Aberdeen. It would not have been possible to arrange the conference without this financial support. We are also grateful to Christ College that allowed us to use the Divinity Library at King’s College for the duration of the conference. Many people in the Department of Divinity and Religious Studies at the University of Aberdeen helped with the practical running of the conference. The doctoral students in Hebrew Bible enabled the conference to run smoothly. This is a good opportunity to thank Juan Cruz, Steven Graham, Hedy Hung, Abi Ngunga, Alexander Prokhorov, Amber Shadle, and William Stalder. Special thanks must also go to Professor Joachim Schaper for suggesting the publication of this volume in the prestigious Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht FRLANT series. Last

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but not least, we want to thank Mrs Helena Cundill, a graduate student in Hebrew Bible at the University of Aberdeen, who has proofread all the contributions. Lena-Sofia Tiemeyer and Hans M. Barstad, Aberdeen and Edinburgh, November, 2013

© 2014, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht GmbH & Co. KG, Göttingen ISBN Print: 9783525536148 — ISBN E-Book: 9783647536149

© 2014, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht GmbH & Co. KG, Göttingen ISBN Print: 9783525536148 — ISBN E-Book: 9783647536149

Lena-Sofia Tiemeyer

Continuity and Discontinuity in Isaiah 40 – 66. History of Research

Introduction Scholars have long explored the relationship between the various chapters in Isa 40 – 66. Much of this research began with Duhm’s watershed theory which differentiates – in time and in space – between chs 40 – 55 and chs 56 – 66. According to Duhm, Isa 40 – 55 was written in Babylon before 539 bce, while Isa 56 – 66 was composed in Judah after 539 bce.1 This historical-critical theory has had tremendous impact on Isaiah scholarship, determining the structure and delimitation of commentaries and monographs. The present article surveys two interconnected areas in Isaiah scholarship that are influenced by, yet also challenge, Duhm’s theory, namely the composition history of Isa 40 – 66 and the development of literary themes and theological ideas within Isa 40 – 66.

1.

The Growth of the Text of Isaiah 40 – 66

Scholars have suggested a cornucopia of theories pertaining to the composition history of Isa 40 – 66. Most of these theories fall into one of the four main categories which follow.

1.1

Isaiah 40 – 66 as One Authorial Unity

According to the first category, all of Isa 40 – 66 was written by the same person. Although this is clearly a minority view nowadays in mainstream scholarship, there are nevertheless a few critical scholars, primarily Jewish and/or Israeli ones, who hold on to this view. Recently, Paul advocates single authorship of the 1 Bernhard Duhm, Das Buch Jesaia (HKAT 3/1; Go¨ttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1892), 390 – 91.

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entire corpus of Isa 40 – 66.2 The theory that Isa 40 – 66 is an authorial unity rests primarily on the perceived stylistic and thematic continuity throughout Isa 40 – 66. Among modern scholars, Sommer in particular has argued that the material in Isa 40 – 66 is defined by a coherent literary style and therefore likely to constitute an authorial unity : 1. Repeated imperative (e. g. “comfort, comfort my people”) or other repeated words (48:11, 15; 51:12) are found throughout the whole corpus of Isa 40 – 66 (40:1; 51:9; 52:11; 57:14; 62:10). 2. A predilection for alliterations, punning and sound play characterizes all of Isa 40 – 66. Similar sounding words are placed in proximity to each other (e. g. Isa 48:19; 61:2 – 3), certain letters are emphasized by the repetition of certain sounds in the same sentence (e. g. Isa 40:6; 57:6 – 7), and the same word is used twice in one sentence, once with one meaning and once with another meaning (Isa 42:3 – 4; 57:6 – 7).3 Several earlier scholars voiced the same kind of sentiments as Sommer. Kaufmann, Haran, as well as Gruber, challenged the reigning consensus which followed Duhm’s division and argued in favour of authorial unity of Isa 40 – 66 on the basis of thematic continuity. Kaufmann argues for thematic continuity, as well as for geographic continuity. He detects no reason for dating Isa 56 – 66 to the post-exilic period as these chapters contain no mention of Zerubbabel and Joshua and of the building of the temple, and no reason for placing it in Judah as these chapters contain no indication of the local environment and betray no knowledge of the social conditions in Judah (such as the poverty referred to in Haggai). Kaufmann further maintains that there is a strong thematic unity throughout Isa 40 – 66. For instance, texts throughout Isa 40 – 66 speak of the ingathering of the exiles, and no text differentiates between those exiles that have already returned and those who will.4 Kaufmann’s position is significantly weakened, however, especially by his insistence that those texts in Isa 56 – 66 which criticize the con-

2 Shalom M. Paul, Isaiah 40 – 48 (Hebrew; A Bible Commentary for Israel; Tel Aviv/Jerusalem: Magnes, 2008), 1:3. The same information is found in the English version of his commentary : Shalom M. Paul, Isaiah 40 – 66: Translation and Commentary (The Eerdmans Critical Commentary ; Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2012), 2. 3 Benjamin D. Sommer, A Prophet Reads Scripture: Allusion in Isaiah 40 – 66 (Contraversions; Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1998), 187 – 95. See also B.D. Sommer, “Allusion and Illusions: The Unity of the Book of Isaiah in Light of Deutero-Isaiah’s Use of Prophetic Tradition,” in New Visions of Isaiah (ed. Roy F. Melugin and Marvin A. Sweeney ; JSOTSup 214; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1996), 156 – 86. 4 Yehezkel Kaufmann, The Babylonian Captivity and Deutero-Isaiah (History of the Religion of Israel. Vol. 4 chapters 1, 2) (New York: Union of American Congregations, 1970), 66 – 70.

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Continuity and Discontinuity in Isaiah 40 – 66

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ditions in Judah speak of the situation in pre-exilic Judah rather than their author’s contemporary situation. Building on Kaufmann’s claims, Haran postulates that the thematic continuity throughout Isa 40 – 66 (e. g. road imagery, servant(s), focus on Zion, see further below) suggests authorial unity. Yet, as Haran detects geographic discontinuity between chs 40 – 48 (Babylon) and chs 49 – 66 (Judah), he postulates one single author who composed Isa 40 – 48 in Babylon and then, after having moved to Judah, wrote the material in Isa 49 – 66.5 Glahn, in 1934, had already put forward a similar position. Recognizing a change at Isa 56, he suggested that the author of Isa 40 – 66, after composing Isa 40 – 55, returned from Babylon to Judah where he wrote the last 11 chapters around the year 530 bce.6 Along similar lines, Gruber maintains that the thematic continuity throughout Isa 40 – 66 points towards authorial unity. Notably, the use of maternal metaphors in association with God characterizes the entirety of Isa 40 – 66.7 These theories are convincing insofar as the material in Isa 40 – 66 attests general similarities in terms of language and style. However, as more recent scholars have pointed out, the various parts of Isa 40 – 66 reveal important differences in choice of vocabulary and style.8 As to chronological continuity, there is little doubt that the social situation, presupposed especially in Isa 56 – 59 and 65 – 66, is markedly different from that in Isa 40 – 55.9 Another small minority of past scholars have regarded all of Isa 34 – 35* and 40 – 66 as an authorial unity. The strongest advocate of this view is Torrey. He argues that the abovementioned chapters stem from a prophet living in Judah at the time of the compilation of the Chronicles.10 Along slightly different lines, ˆ T (Former Prophecies) and HADASHO ˆ T (New Pro5 Menahem Haran, Between RI’SHONO phecies): A Literary-Historical Study in the Group of Prophecies Isaiah 40 – 48 (Hebrew; Publications of the Perry Foundation for Biblical Research in the Hebrew University of Jerusalem: Jerusalem: Magnes, 1963), 81 – 102. See also Menahem Haran, “The Literary Structure and Chronological Framework of the Prophecies in Isa XL – XLVIII,” in Congress Volume, Bonn 1962 (VTSup 9; Leiden: Brill, 1963), 127 – 55. 6 Ludvig Glahn, Hjemkomst Profeten: Enheden af Jesajabogens Kp. 40 – 66 (Copenhagen: Haase, 1929), esp. 203 – 208, 264 – 65. The information above is taken from the Danish original. Glahn’s book was later translated into German as Der Prophet der Heimkehr (Jesaja 40 – 66). Vol. 1 and 2 (transl. Viktor Waschnitius; Copenhagen: Levin & Munksgaard, 1934). 7 Mayer I. Gruber, “The Motherhood of God in Second Isaiah,” RB 90 (1983): 351 – 59 (353 – 54). 8 E.g. Pierre E. Bonnard, Le second Isaı¨e, son disciple et leurs e´diteurs Isaı¨e 40 – 66 (EBib; Paris: Gabalda, 1972), 315 – 17. See also further below. 9 Cf. Jan L. Koole, Isaiah. Part 3, Volume 1: Isaiah 40 – 48 (HCOT; Kampen: Kok Pharos, 1997), 19 – 20. 10 Charles C. Torrey, The Second Isaiah: A New Interpretation (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1928), 20.

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Smart suggests that one author, active in Judah around 538 bce, wrote Isa 35, 40 – 66. As above, Torrey’s and Smart’s interpretations are based on the stylistic and thematic continuity throughout the Isaianic text. To cite Smart, it would be unlikely for two or even three different prophets to share such similar views and attitudes and to express these views in such similar language.11 As to the provenance of Isa 40 – 66, Torrey and Smart uphold geographic continuity. In contrast to Kaufmann, however, they do not place the Isaianic author in Babylon but in Judah. According to them, the material in Isa 40 – 66, as well as that in chs 34 and/or 35, was composed in Judah. The critique against unorthodox rites in Isa 56 – 66 was levelled against the community in post-monarchic Judah.

1.2

Isaiah 40 – 55 and 56 – 66 as Two Distinct Bodies of Literature

The second category consists of those scholars who treat Isa 40 – 55 and Isa 56 – 66 as two distinct bodies of literature. The different theories in this category fall into one of five sub-groups: 1.2.1 Each set of texts forms an authorial unity The notion of two distinct authors, one responsible for Isa 40 – 55 and the other for Isa 56 – 66 has been a dominant view in much of biblical research from Duhm onwards. This commonly held notion gave rise to the names Second Isaiah/ Deutero-Isaiah (DI) and Third Isaiah/Trito-Isaiah (TI) who were often treated as two individual prophets. This notion advocates both chronological and geographical discontinuity : while Second Isaiah lived in Babylon before 539 bce, Third Isaiah lived in Judah after 539 bce. The thematic continuity between their two compositions has often been explained by the supposition that the two prophets belonged to the same tradition or Isaiah school. A variant of this theory has been to maintain that TI was the editor of the material in Isa 40 – 55. As above, this view implies that the material in Isa 56 – 66 is later than the texts in Isa 40 – 55, yet regards the relationship between the two textual corpora as organic and intimately connected to a high degree. The link between Isa 40 – 55 and 56 – 66 is closer than that of two in11 James D. Smart, History and Theology in Second Isaiah: A Commentary on Isaiah 35, 40 – 66 (Philadelphia, PA: Westminster, 1965), 21 – 23, 30 – 33. From a different perspective, Paul, Isaiah, 5, is also open to the possibility that DI wrote all of Isa 35 and 40 – 66. He postulates that Isa 35 was once placed immediately before Isa 40 – 66, prior to the addition of Isa 36 – 39. See also William L. Holladay, “Was Trito-Isaiah Deutero-Isaiah After All?” in Writing and Reading the Scroll of Isaiah. Vol. 1 (ed. Craig C. Broyles and Craig A. Evans; VTSup 70; Leiden: Brill, 1997), 193 – 217, who argues that the author of Isa 35; 40 – 66 uses the same technique when reusing and appropriating earlier material.

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Continuity and Discontinuity in Isaiah 40 – 66

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dependent prophetic compositions, the authors of which belonged to the same prophetic tradition. This theory was first suggested by Elliger who argued that TI, a distinct individual and the author of Isa 56 – 66, edited the earlier material in Isa 40 – 55*. TI also added significant chuncks of text to the earlier DeuteroIsaianic corpus, among them the material in Isa 54 – 55.12 1.2.2 Isaiah 40 – 55 is an authorial unity but Isaiah 56 – 66 is a redactional unity Many scholars hold on to the authorial unity of Isa 40 – 55 (with the possible exception of the four so-called Servant Songs), written by an individual prophet (DI). In contrast, Isa 56 – 66 is considered to be a compilation of texts, written either by DI’s disciples and/or by members of some kind of Isaiah school.13 Several scholars maintain that there was an individual prophet, TI, who wrote the kernel of Isa 56 – 66, often located in Isa 60 – 62*, while a series of later authors added the remaining material of Isa 56 – 66 in subsequent redactions or Fortschreibungen of Isa 56 – 66 and/or of the book of Isaiah. In a few instances, these redactors added already written, external material to the growing corpus of Isa 56 – 66. In particular, the lament in Isa 63:7 – 64:11 is often regarded as an originally independent text which at some point was incorporated and into the growing body of texts in Isa 56 – 66.14 Other scholars challenge this view, instead claiming that Isa 63:7 – 64:11 is purpose-written for its current place in the book of Isaiah by a redactor involved in its Fortschreibung. While Steck upholds that Isa 63 :7 – 64 :11 was composed as part of the final stages of the Fortschreibung of the book of Isaiah,15 Goldenstein sees it as an individual instance of Fortschreibung.16 12 Karl Elliger, Deuterojesaja in seinem Verha¨ltnis zu Tritojesaja (BWANT 63; Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1933), 267 – 72. For the authorial unity of Isa 56 – 66, see Karl Elliger, Die Einheit des Tritojesaia (Jesaia 56 – 66) (BWANT 45; Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1928), 57. 13 See, e. g., Claus Westermann, Das Buch Jesaja (ATD 19; Go¨ttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1966), 10 – 11, 237 – 46, James Muilenburg, “The Book of Isaiah: Chapters 40 – 66,” in IB 5 (Nashville. TN: Abingdon, 1956), 384 – 85, 414, Paul D. Hanson, Isaiah 40 – 66 (IBC; Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, 1995), 186, Elizabeth Achtemeier, The Community and Message of Isaiah 56 – 66: A Theological Commentary (Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg, 1982), 12 – 16. 14 See, e. g., R. Norman Whybray, Isaiah 40 – 66 (NCB; London: Oliphants, 1975), 42, Klaus Koenen, Ethik und Eschatologie im Tritojesajabuch : Eine literarkritische und redaktionsgeschichtliche Studie (WMANT 62 ; Neukirchen-Vluyn : Neukirchener, 1990), 158 – 59, 168, Wolfgang Lau, Schriftgelehrte Prophetie in Jes 56 – 66: Eine Untersuchung zu den literarischen Bezu¨gen in den letzten elf Kapiteln des Jesajabuches (BZAW 225; Berlin: de Gruyter, 1994), 286 – 87, 315, Brooks Schramm, The Opponents of Third Isaiah: Reconstructing the Cultic History of the Restoration (JSOTSup 193; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1995), 150. 15 Odil H. Steck, Studien zu Tritojesaja (BZAW 203 ; Berlin : de Gruyter, 1991), 233 – 42. 16 Johannes Goldenstein, Das Gebet der Gottesknechte : Jesaja 63,7 – 64,11 im Jesajabuch (WMANT 92 ; Neukirchen-Vluyn : Neukirchener, 2001), 170 – 98 (188 – 90), 193, 197 – 98.

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1.2.3 Neither Isaiah 40 – 55 nor Isaiah 56 – 66 is an authorial unity While it has been commonplace for many years to see Isa 56 – 66 as a redactional unity, it is only relatively recently that a significant number of scholars have begun to question the authorial unity of Isa 40 – 55. As already hinted at, scholars have perceived a change in focus after Isa 48. In view of this change, several scholars distinguish between Isa 40 – 48 and 49 – 55 in terms of authorship and/ or location. Haran, mentioned above, argues that the earlier Isa 40 – 48 reflects a Babylonian setting while the later Isa 49 – 55 is shaped by its origins in Judah.17 More recently, it has become common to regard Isa 40 – 55 as comprised of at least three chronologically distinct textual layers of differing geographical origins.18 What follows is a rough amalgamation of the more prevalent redactional schemes. 1. A core layer in Isa 40 – 52* is thought to have been composed by an individual or a group of peoples in the exilic community in Babylon shortly before 539 bce. This early edition was contained within the framework of Isa 40:1 – 11* and Isa 52:7 – 10, identified by their affinity to each other. 2. Upon their arrival in Judah, the people responsible for the core text and/or their disciples redacted the existing core text and also added significant amounts of material to the gradually growing textual corpus of Isa 40 – 55, thus creating a new edition of Isa 40 – 55. At this point the texts in Isa 52:11 – 55:13 were added. A new framework was also written, consisting of an extended introduction in Isa 40:1 – 11 and a new conclusion in Isa 55:1 – 13. Many variations of this theory exist and no consensus exists as to how much of Isa 40 – 48 goes back to the earliest core, yet all maintain that the final form of Isa 40 – 55 cannot be earlier than the last quarter of the sixth century bce. Some 17 Haran, “Literary Structure,” 148 – 55. 18 See further my overview of scholarly redactional schemes in L.-S. Tiemeyer, For the Comfort of Zion: The Geographical and Theological Location of Isaiah 40 – 55 (VTSup 139; Leiden: Brill, 2011), 32 – 40. The most important schemes are: Klaus Kiesow, Exodustexte im Jesajabuch: Literarkritische und motivgeschichtliche Analysen (OBO 24; Freiburg, Schweiz: Universita¨tsverlag, 1979); Hans-Ju¨rgen Hermisson, “Einhet und Komplexita¨t Deuterojesajas: Probleme der Redaktionsgeschichte von Jes 40 – 55,” in The Book of Isaiah (ed. Jacques Vermeylen; BETL 81; Leuven: Leuven University Press, 1989), 287 – 312; Odil H. Steck, Gottesknecht und Zion (FAT 4; Tu¨bingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1992); Ju¨rgen van Oorschot, Von Babel zum Zion: Eine literarkritische und redaktionsgeschichtliche Untersuchung (BZAW 206; Berlin: de Gruyter, 1993); Reinhard G. Kratz, Kyros im Deuterojesaja-Buch (FAT 1; Tu¨bingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1991); Ulrich Berges, Das Buch Jesaja: Komposition und Endgestalt (HBS 16; Freiburg im Breisgau: Herder, 1998), 338 – 413, 549 (summary); Ju¨rgen Werlitz, Redaktion und Komposition: Zur Ru¨ckfrage hinter die Endgestalt von Jesaja 40 – 55 (BBB 122; Berlin, Bodenheim: Philo, 1999), (see especially the conclusion on pp. 359 – 63), Rainer Albertz, Israel in Exile: The History and Literature of the Sixth Century B.C.E (transl. D. Green; SBLSBL 3; Atlanta, GA: SBL, 2003), 392 – 433.

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texts in Isa 40 – 55 may thus have been written at the same time as the earliest material in Isa 56 – 66, a possibility to which we shall return shortly. In this context, it is also important to mention that, ever since Duhm, it was commonplace to regard the four Servant Songs as external to Isa 40 – 55. By now, however, this idea has largely lost its appeal from both a text-historical and a literary perspective. From a text-historical viewpoint, this theory has been superseded by the aforementioned, more elaborate, redactional theories pertaining to the growth of Isa 40 – 55. From a more literary perspective, the Servant Songs and the material about Daughter Zion form an alternating pattern, and both sets of texts are understood to contribute to the overarching message of (the final) text.19 1.2.4 Isaiah 40 – 55 and Isaiah 56 – 66 are two contemporary literary corpora According to the aforementioned three categories, the majority of the texts in Isa 40 – 55 were written prior to the composition of any of the texts in Isa 56 – 66. A fourth and a fifth category exist that question this chronological order. First, a minority of scholars maintain that the two textual corpora in Isa 40 – 55 and Isa 56 – 66 respectively were written roughly at the same time but at different locations and addressing different communities. Recently, Uhlig has argued that Isa 40 – 55 and Isa 56 – 66 constitute two roughly contemporaneous texts, written in the early years of post-monarchic period. They differ from one another in terms of their target audience: while the material in Isa 40 – 55 addresses the exiles in Babylon, the material in Isa 56 – 66 addresses the Judahite population. The difference between the two textual corpora is thus geographical, not chronological.20 The critical problem of this theory is its failure to explain the notable thematic and stylistic continuity between Isa 40 – 55 and 56 – 66. If these two textual corpora were written at the same time by two different authors at two different locations, how can we explain the similarities between their compositions? 1.2.5 Isaiah 56 – 66 was written before Isaiah 40 – 55 Secondly, another scholarly minority advocate at least the possibility that many, if not most, of the texts in Isa 40 – 55 were written after the material in Isa 56 – 66. Koole is the best example of this view, as he argues that the greater part of Isa 56 – 66 (excluding Isa 56:1 – 8) originated in Judah shortly after the catastrophe in 587/6 bce and addresses the situation in Judah in the first decades after the fall 19 See especially Patricia Tull Willey, Remember the Former Things: The Recollection of Previous Texts in Second Isaiah (SBLDS 161; Atlanta, GA: Scholars Press, 1997), 105 – 106, 175 – 81. 20 Torsten Uhlig, The Theme of Hardening in the Book of Isaiah (FAT 2/39; Tu¨bingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2009), 52 – 55, 62, 71, 248, 249.

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of Jerusalem. At a later stage, new material (Isa 40 – 55) was added to the existing Isa 56 – 66 in order adapt the Isaianic message to the situation among the exiles in Babylon.21 Koole bases his dating and his postulated geographical setting of Isa 56 – 66 on two key factors. First, he argues that the affinity between Lamentations and Isa 56 – 66 suggests that the two textual corpora stem from the same geographical place and the same time-period, namely Judah in the earliest post-monarchic period.22 In particular, he detects significant correspondences – which are atypical of the lament genre in general – between Lamentations and the complaints of Isa 59:9 – 15 and 63:7 – 64:11.23 Secondly, he maintains that, in close study of the thematic and stylistic similarities between them, Isa 40 – 55 and Isa 56 – 66 are best understood if Isa 56 – 66 contains the earlier texts to which the later author of Isa 40 – 55 alludes, in order to adjust the message to fit the Diaspora community in Babylon.24 The present arrangement of the texts in Isa 40 – 66 serves to place the proclamation of the Servant in the centre (Isa 53) and thus to highlight his message.25

1.3

Isaiah 40 – 66 as a Gradually Grown Literary Corpus

In addition to the aforementioned five theories, a few scholars dispute the principal division after Isa 55. These scholars reject the idea that Isa 40 – 55 and Isa 56 – 66 are two distinct bodies of texts. Instead, they see Isa 40 – 66 as a compilation of texts which, within the context of the formation of the book of Isaiah, has gradually grown into its current form. According to this view, some texts in chs 40 – 55 may be younger than texts appearing in chs 56 – 66. Steck, the dominant representative of this view, challenges the notion that Isa 40 – 55 ever existed as an independent collection of texts to which Isa 56 – 66 was at one point juxtaposed. On the contrary, the book of Isaiah underwent consecutive redactions/Fortschreibungen when, at each subsequent point, new material was added. Steck postulates a total of four layers of growth of Isa 40 – 66 in the post-monarchic period: 1. An early collection contained Isa 40 – 55*; Isa 60:1 – 11, 13 – 16; 61:1 – 62:7. 21 Koole, Isaiah, 3/1, 23, 27 – 28. 22 Koole, Isaiah, 3/1, 32 – 33. He lists, among other things, the contrast between light and darkness (Isa 58:10; 59:9; 60:1 ff.; and Lam 32). 23 Max Lo¨hr, “Der Sprachgebrauch des Buches der Klagelieder,” ZAW 14 (1894): 31 – 50 (42 – 43, 44, 47, 48), Koole, Isaiah, 3/1, 31 – 32. See also my discussion in L.-S. Tiemeyer, “Two Prophets, Two Laments, and Two Ways of Dealing with Earlier Texts,” in Die Textualisierung der Religion (ed. Joachim Schaper ; FAT 62; Tu¨bingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2009), 185 – 202 (189, n. 19). 24 Koole, Isaiah, 3/1, 23 – 26. 25 Koole, Isaiah, 3/1, 38.

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According to this model, the material in Isa 60 – 62* stands in direct continuity with Isa 40v55*. 2. At this point, the body of texts was brought together with Isa 1 – 39*. The redactor responsible for this move composed and added Isa 51:1 – 8, 11 – 16; 52:3 – 6; 62:10 – 12 to the existing Isa 40 – 55* and 60 – 62*. He also wrote, among other texts, Isa 34:2 – 4; 35 (the rest of Isa 34 had been written earlier). 3. Another redactor composed and added Isa 56:9 – 57:19; 58:1 – 12; 59:1 – 21. He also extended the present Isa 60 – 62* with Isa 60:17 – 22; 62:8 – 9 and added Isa 63:1 – 6. 4. Shortly before the final redaction of the book of Isaiah, yet another redactor added Isa 56:1 – 8; 57:20 – 21; 58:13 – 14; 60:12; 63:7 – 66:24.26 As we can see, the proposed chronological overlaps between chs 40 – 55 and chs 56 – 66 are restricted mainly to chs 49 – 55 and 60 – 62. This shows a general agreement with many of the aforementioned redactional schemes according to which the texts in Isa 49 – 55 are understood to be later Fortschreibungen of the earlier core material in Isa 40 – 48. It also concurs in a broad sense with those theories which regard Isa 60 – 62 to be the earliest material in Isa 56 – 66.

1.4

A New Beginning in Isaiah 55:1 or in Isaiah 56:9

One debate bridges across the abovementioned categories, namely the debate about the role of Isa 55:1 – 56:8 within the book of Isaiah. From what we have seen so far, even those scholars who reject the notion of two fixed textual corpora and instead see Isa 40 – 66 as a gradually growing body of text nevertheless treat Isa 56:1 as the beginning of a new textual section. There are, however, a significant number of scholars who challenge such a division of the text.27 The main reason behind this challenge is the many notable similarities between Isa 55 and Isa 56:1 – 8. First, there are three examples of verbal similarities between the two sections: 1. The expression =NJH; LM4 appears in Isa 55:11 and 56:4a. 26 Odil H. Steck, Bereitete Heimkehr : Jesaja 35 als redaktionelle Bru¨cke zwischen dem Ersten und dem Zweiten Jesaja (SBS 121; Stuttgart: Katholisches Bibelwerk, 1985), 80. 27 See further the brief discussion in Joseph Blenkinsopp, “The Servant and the Servants in Isaiah and the Formation of the Book,” in Writing and Reading the Scroll of Isaiah (2 vols.; ed. Craig C. Broyles and Craig A. Evans; VTSup 70; Leiden: Brill, 1997), 1:155 – 75 (156). Blenkinsopp points out that there are many passages that could serve, together with Isa 40:1 – 5, as an inclusio around a textual corpus. While Isa 55:12 – 13 is one candidate, so are Isa 53:11 – 12 and 57:14 – 21.

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2. The term N=L5 is attested in Isa 55:3 and 56:4a. While Isa 55:3 – 5 speaks of an “everlasting covenant” (A@9F N=L5), Isa 56:6 refers to “[God’s] covenant” (=N=L5). 3. The phrase NL?= 4@ […] AM occurs in Isa 55:13 and 56:6. Secondly, two important themes connect Isa 55 with the subsequent material in Isa 56: 1. Isa 55:11 – 12 lacks information about what God’s word will accomplish in the anticipated future and who can partake of that future. Isa 56:3 – 8 responds to those questions by declaring who exactly can be part of God’s people. 2. The (sincere) invitation to come and eat and drink in Isa 55:1 – 2 corresponds to the (ironic) call in Isa 56:9 – 12 to the animals of the field to come and eat (v. 9).28 Thirdly, the text in Isa 55:5 – 9 has more affinity with the following material in Isa 56 – 66 than with what precedes in Isa 40 – 54: 1. The roots ML7, 4JB, and 5LK in 55:6 are used anew in Isa 65:1 (ML7, 4JB) and in 58:2 (ML7 and 5LK). 2. The “way metaphors” in Isa 55:7 bring Isa 59:7 – 8 to mind. Also, both texts use the term ýL7. These similarities have caused some scholars to question the notion of a main break (between DI and TI) at Isa 56:1, and instead come up with alternatives structures. Kissane postulates a main break after Isa 56:8. He argues, in view of the abovementioned similarities between Isa 55 and 56:1 – 6, that the material in Isa 56:1 – 8, part of the subsection of Isa 55:1 – 56:8, concludes the longer section of Isa 52:13 – 56:8.29 Other scholars place the main break earlier at the beginning of Isa 55. As Kissane, they view Isa 56:1 – 8 as the original continuation of Isa 55. Watts, for example, treats all of Isa 54:17b–56:8 as one section. In contrast to the preceding material in Isa 40 – 54 which, according to Watts, addresses the exiles in Babylon, the subsequent material in Isa 55 – 57 speaks to a larger, undefined group of people about the use of the temple.30 Along slightly different lines, Sweeney argues that in the final form of the text, the main break is already at Isa 28 Willem A.M. Beuken, Jesaja (De prediking van het Oude Testament 3 A; Nijkerk: Callenbach, 1989), 29 – 30, 37, 49 – 53. See also Willem A.M. Beuken, “Isaiah 56.9 – 57.13: An Example of the Isaianic Legacy of Trito-Isaiah,” in Tradition and Re-Interpretation in Jewish and Early Christian Literature: Essays in Honour of Ju¨rgen C.H. Lebram (ed. J.W. van Henten, H.J. de Jonge, P.T. van Rooden, and J.W. Wesselius; StPB 36; Leiden: Brill, 1986), 48 – 64. 29 See, e. g., Edward J. Kissane, The Book of Isaiah (2 vols.; Dublin: Browne and Nolan, 1943), 1:201 – 202. 30 John D.W. Watts, Isaiah 34 – 66 (WBC 25; Waco, TX: Word, 1987), 244 – 45.

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55:1. On the one hand, Isa 55 and Isa 56:4 – 5 both speak of the covenant. On the other hand, there is a change from f.sg. imperatives in Isa 54 to m.pl. imperatives in Isa 55. On this basis, Sweeney maintains that Isa 55 fits best together with the following Isa 56:1 – 8. Looking more broadly at the final form of Isa 40 – 66, Sweeney argues that Isa 55 has two functions. First, it forms, together with Isa 66, a thematic ring-structure around the intermediate material. Isa 55 begins and Isa 66 ends with speeches which discuss God’s criteria for selecting those who fulfil his conditions for participating in the covenant. Secondly, Isa 55 serves as the bridge between Isa 40 – 54 and 56 – 66. The link between Isa 55 and 56:1 – 8 does not, however, reflect the gradual growth of the Isaianic textual corpus. On the contrary, Sweeney upholds the traditional view that Isa 55 was composed originally to serve as the conclusion of Isa 40 – 55.31 Most recently, in the present volume, Berges follows Sweeney’s lead and argues that TI begins at Isa 54:17b. Berges lists the change from a singular “servant” throughout Isa 40 – 53 to plural “servants” in Isa 54:17b. Seitz has suggested a variant of these theories. He stays away from the notion of two corpora in Isa 40 – 66 and instead divides the text into four sections: (1) Isa 40 – 48; (2) Isa 49:1 – 52:12; (3) Isa 52:13 – 53:12; and (4) Isa 54 – 66. The distinction between the third and the fourth section is made in part because of the aforementioned change from one servant in chs 40 – 53 to many servants in chs 54 – 66.32 The chief difficulty with these theories concerns the frameworks which are thought to exist, on the one hand, between Isa 55:10 – 11 and Isa 40:6 – 8, and, on the other hand, between Isa 56:1 – 8 and 66:17 – 24. Isa 55 also agrees with Isa 54 as both chapters are loosely organized under the covenant theme.33 These problems can be partly solved by treating Isa 56:1 – 8 as a very late, redactional unit which connects backwards to Isa 55 and forward to Isa 66:17 – 24. Notably, many scholars argue that Isa 56:1 – 6 was written as a development of the thoughts expressed in Isa 55.34 Koole, for instance, maintains that the similarities between Isa 55 and 56:1 – 8 are redactional rather than organic to the whole corpus of Isa 56 – 66. In other words, the author/redactor responsible for Isa 56:1 – 8 reused the material in Isa 55 in order to compose a beginning to Isa 56 – 31 Marvin A. Sweeney, Isaiah 1 – 4 and the Post-exilic Understanding of the Isaianic Tradition (BZAW 171; Berlin: de Gruyter, 1988), 87 – 88. 32 Christopher R. Seitz, “The Book of Isaiah 40 – 66,” NIB 6 (Nashville: Abingdon, TN, 1994), 323. 33 Roy F. Melugin, The Formation of Isaiah 40 – 55 (BZAW 141; Berlin: de Gruyter, 1976), 174. 34 E.g. Steck, Studien, 244 – 48; Koenen, Ethik und Eschatologie, 229 – 30; Jacob Stromberg, Isaiah after Exile: The Author of Third Isaiah as Reader and Redactor of the Book (OTM; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), 78 – 79.

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66 which would also fit well with the preceding text.35 The same idea is touched upon by Davies who sees Isa 56:3 – 7 as an exposition of Isa 55.36 Rendtorff goes one step further and argues that the juxtaposition of the three terms 8K7J, üHMB, and 8F9M= in Isa 56:1 is a conscious attempt to establish continuity of Isa 56 – 66 with Isa 1 – 39 (prevalent use of üHMB and 8K7J) and Isa 40 – 55 (prevalent use of 37 8K7J and 8F9M=).

1.5

Geographic Continuity and Discontinuity in Isaiah 40 – 66

Often walking hand-in-hand with the issue of authorship, there has long been the consensus that the division between Isa 40 – 55 and Isa 56 – 66 is also a matter of geography. As already hinted at, scholars tend to maintain that the author of Isa 40 – 55 lived in Babylon around 539 bce and aimed his message to the exiles. In contrast, the author(s) of Isa 56 – 66 lived in Judah and their message relate to issues in Judah. Lately, however, scholars have begun to challenge this view on more than one front. First, as already mentioned, several exegetes envision a geographic break already after Isa 48. Haran, for example, argues that the message of Isa 40 – 48 was delivered to the exiles in Babylon, while the material beginning in Isa 49 was composed after the prophetic author’s arrival in Judah.38 Along related lines, those scholars who view Isa 40 – 55 as a gradually composed literary body recognize only a kernel of texts, located in Isa 40 – 48*, to have been written in Babylon. Subsequent redactions are understood to have taken place in Judah upon the exiles’ arrival there. These redactions aimed to adjust the earlier message to fit Judahite circumstances and concerns. According to these theories, there is geographic continuity throughout Isa 49 – 66. Other scholars, among them Barstad,39 Seitz,40 and myself,41 question the validity of a Babylonian setting

35 Koole, Isaiah, 3/1, 23 – 24, 36. 36 Graham I. Davies, “The Destiny of the Nations in the Book of Isaiah,” in The Book of Isaiah (ed. J. Vermeylen; BETL 81; Leuven: Leuven University Press, 1989), 93 – 120 (117 – 18). 37 Rolf Rendtorff, “Isaiah 56:1 as a Key to the Formation of the Book of Isaiah,” in Canon and Theology (transl. M. Kohl; Minneapolis, MN: Fortress, 1993), 181 – 89. 38 Haran, “Literary Structure,” 127 – 55 (142 – 44, 149 – 55). 39 See, e. g., Hans M. Barstad, “Lebte Deuterojesaja in Juda¨a?,” Veterotestamentica (NTT 83/2, 1982), 77 – 87, idem, AWay in the Wilderness: The “Second Exodus” in the Message of Second Isaiah (JSSM 12; Manchester : Manchester University, 1989), idem, The Myth of the Empty Land: A Study in the History and Archaeology of Judah During the “Exilic” Period (SOFS 28; Oslo, 1996), idem, The Babylonian Captivity of the Book of Isaiah: “Exilic” Judah and the Provenance of Isaiah 40 – 55 (Oslo: Instituttet for Sammenlignende Kulturforskning, 1997). 40 Christopher R. Seitz, Word Without End: The Old Testament as Abiding Theological Witness (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1998), 130 – 48. See also Christopher R. Seitz, “On the Question of Divisions Internal to the Book of Isaiah,” in Society of Biblical Literature: 1993

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of any part of Isa 40 – 55. A Judahite setting of Isa 40 – 55 opens up new possibilities for understanding its relationship with the texts in Isa 56 – 66 which are clearly of Judahite origin.

1.6

Scope for Further Research

As we have seen, there is a striking lack of consensus as to the formation and growth of Isa 40 – 66 and many new and intriguing areas of research have opened up. 1. The current order of the material in Isa 40 – 66 in the final form of the book of Isaiah does not necessarily reflect the chronological growth of the text and does not preclude, a priori, the possibility that some of the texts that are placed earlier in the book were composed later. 2. Connected to the first point – are the similarities between the different texts on an authorial or a redactional level? Most pertinently, do the similarities between Isa 55 and Isa 56:1 – 8 mean that Isa 56:1 – 8 was written by the same author as Isa 55, or do they mean rather that a redactor, at the time of the final redaction of the book of Isaiah, composed Isa 56:1 – 8 to fit with the preceding material? 3. Do the texts in Isa 40 – 66 address the same community at different times, or different communities at the same time, or different communities at different times? Expressed differently, how can we explain the thematic and stylistic continuity in Isa 40 – 66 in terms of time and space? 4. Connected to the third point, are we dealing with (1) one author of the whole corpus of Isa 40 – 66, (2) a group of authors who were connected with each other through some kind of Isaianic school yet independent insofar as they wrote individual textual units, or (3) one author whose message was subsequently added to and updated by a group of redactors who also wrote sections and who incorporated other, originally independent, material from outwith of the Isaiah tradition?

Seminar Papers (ed. Eugene H. Lovering; Atlanta, GA: Scholars Press, 1993), 260 – 66 (265), and Seitz, “Book of Isaiah 40 – 66,” 316, 328. 41 Tiemeyer, Comfort of Zion.

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Thematic Continuity and Discontinuity in Isaiah 40 – 66

In the second half of this article, I shall provide an overview of key themes and expressions that appear throughout Isa 40 – 66, and explore how a select number of scholars have interpreted the development of these shared aspects. Most scholars detect clear examples of continuity in terms of style and content, yet while some emphasize the similarities, others stress the differences. Those scholars who argue for authorial unity of Isa 40 – 66 tend to find continuity and, as seen above, maintain that that continuity is an argument for, and also a result of, authorial unity. In contrast, those scholars who accept Duhm’s division between Isa 40 – 55 and 56 – 66 tend to find discontinuity, and often emphasize how the shared themes are used in disparate ways in the different parts of Isa 40 – 66. The same is true for those scholars who, although advocating authorial unity, nevertheless envision either chronological and/or geographical discontinuity. Even if Isa 40 – 66 was written by the same human being, his change of location after Isa 48/55, as well as the perceived later date of the subsequent chapters, resulted in changed applications of the themes and thus a change in emphasis. This observation may seem trivial, but it demonstrates that our pre-dispositions are prone to determine the ways in which we interpret the extant textual evidence. Also, the more discontinuity we find, the more support we have for dividing the text after Isa 55. The endeavour is thus somewhat circular, albeit not unscholarly. Rather, such a step-by-step method is the (only) way a literary theory can be established.42 Surveying the material in Isa 40 – 66 in a very general way, we find that the texts in Isa 40 – 55 often focus on the place of the people of Israel on the international scene. God’s actions are implemented by the Persian monarch Cyrus and there is polemic against the cults of the foreign nations. In contrast, the texts in Isa 56 – 66 look at the internal affairs of Judah. God is held to be directly responsible for his actions, and the critique of the cult targets Israel’s own practices.43 Many scholars have commented on and compiled lists of themes and motifs that appear in throughout Isa 40 – 66. Most scholars working in this field perceive a change between the ways in which a theme is used in Isa 40 – 55 and Isa 56 – 66. They further assume, a priori, that Isa 56 – 66 is the later text and thus that its authors adapted and transformed the earlier material in Isa 40 – 55 to fit the needs of the new situation after 539 bce. As we have seen above, however, the 42 Cf. John Barton, Reading the Old Testament: Method in Biblical Study (London: Darton, Longman and Todd, 1984), 5 – 6, who points out that reading depends on decisions about genre, i. e. what a text is supposed to be read as, yet we cannot determine the genre without first reading the text. 43 Joseph Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56 – 66 (AB 19B; New York, NY: Doubleday, 2007), 30.

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assumption that all texts in Isa 56 – 66 are later than all texts in Isa 40 – 55 can no longer be sustained. It is possible – at least hypothetically – that an expression attested in a text in Isa 56 – 66 is the original occurrence to which a later text in Isa 40 – 55 alludes.44 It is therefore imperative to look at each individual case of lexical and semantic similarity, and to determine the most likely direction of development. That said, however, such investigations cannot be carried out in isolation, but need to take into consideration other factors which contribute to our knowledge of the relative dating of the pertinent texts. The results of such studies can shed new light upon the composition history of Isa 40 – 66.45 The intriguing question to ask is: what do the allusions in Isa 56 – 66 do with the texts in Isa 40 – 55? As early as 1929, Glahn compiled a list of themes and motifs that appear throughout Isa 40 – 66, and he argued that, in the latter part of chs 56 – 66, the shared themes and motifs are transformed to fit the new postexilic setting.46 More recently, Zimmerli, one of the more vocal advocates for discontinuity between Isa 40 – 55 and 56 – 66, acknowledged the dependence of chs 56 – 66 upon chs 40 – 55, yet also stressed the differences between the two textual corpora. In particular, he maintained that the style of the later 11 chapters is inferior to that found in the earlier chs 40 – 55, and that it lacks the same originality and authority. Zimmerli explains the similarity between the two texts as a matter of rendering God’s word in Isa 40 – 55 relevant to new generations.47 Along similar lines, Whybray argues that the purpose of the interpretive activity in Isa 56 – 66 of the text of Isa 40 – 55 was to draw lessons for the present audience from the words of an acknowledged leader (the author of Isa 40 – 55). What we have in Isa 56 – 66 is thus an early form of inner-biblical exegesis.48 Childs concurs, as he argues that the citations from and allusions to Isa 40 – 55 found in Isa 56 – 66 serve to emphasize the authority of the earlier text, and to offer support for its continuous use in the post-exilic community. The citations and allusions thus highlight the continuity between the two sets of texts.49 In the survey below, we shall look at the following ten shared themes. This list does not aim to be exhaustive. Rather, these examples will serve to illustrate the development of key themes. Although the examples are fairly evenly distributed over all of Isa 40 – 66, Isa 40 – 55 and 60 – 62 contain the largest number. 44 See especially Koole, Isaiah, 3/1, 23 – 28. 45 Cf. Kiesow, Exodustexte im Jesajabuch, who uses the perceived changes in the use of the Exodus motif in Isa 40:1 – 11; 43:16 – 21; 49:7 – 12; 51:9 – 10; 52:7 – 12; 55:12 – 15; 62:10 – 12, and 35:1 – 10 as an argument for seeing the latter part of Isaiah as a composite text that has undergone several stages of growth and redactions. 46 Glahn, Hjemkomst Profeten, 204 – 208. 47 Walther Zimmerli, “Zur Sprache Tritojesajas,” in Gottes Offenbarung (TB 19; Munich: Kaiser, 1963), 217 – 33. 48 Whybray, Isaiah 40 – 66, 39. 49 Brevard S. Childs, Isaiah (OTL; Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, 2001), 442.

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1. God’s Arrival in Power and The Way Motif 2. God’s Glory, Honour, and Protection of His People 3. The Watchman 4. The Servant 5. The City of Jerusalem 6. Infants 7. God’s Comfort 8. Raising a Banner 9. The Islands, The Trees, The Former Things, and The Woman 10. God, The Creator

2.1

God’s Arrival in Power and The Way Motif

The expressions “to prepare the way” and “to remove obstacles” are attested in Isa 40:3 (9D=8@4@ 8@EB 85LF5 9LM= R8 ýL7 9DH); 57:14 (=BF ýL7B @9M?B 9B=L8 ýL7 9DH 9@E 9@E) and 62:10 (A=BF8 @F ED 9B=L8 C54B 9@KE 8@EB8 9@E 9@E). In Isa 40:3, the way is prepared for God’s return in Jerusalem. In contrast, Isa 57:14 speaks of preparing the way and removing the obstacles before God’s people. Likewise, Isa 62:10 speaks about preparing the way for the people. Many scholars have argued that Isa 56 – 66 transforms the “way motif” into something new. Zimmerli, for example, argues that what denoted the physical and spiritual deliverance of the exiles in Babylon in Isa 40 – 55 has been altered in Isa 56 – 66 to refer to the spiritual preparation of the people (inneren Bereitung des Volkes).50 Koole holds a more nuanced view as he notes that neither text limits the motif of “God’s road” to the return of the exiles. Isa 40:3 speaks of more than the return of the exiles from Babylon, the mention in Isa 57:14 of the removal of obstacles may include removing whatever was hindering the exiles’ return, and 62:10 may appeal to the people in Jerusalem to remove the rubble from the roads so that the exiles can re-enter Jerusalem (v. 12).51 This view has recently been challenged on two fronts. First, several scholars have demonstrated that the “way” motif in Isa 40 – 55 does not necessarily denote a physical way. Lund highlights that the “way motif” in Isa 40 – 55 in most cases is best understood figuratively as a metaphor for the “way of life”,52 and Lim suggests that the “Way of the Lord” motif in the book of Isaiah has escha50 Zimmerli, “Zur Sprache Tritojesajas,” 224 – 25. 51 Koole, Isaiah, 3/1, 24. 52 Øystein Lund, Way Metaphors and Way Topics in Isaiah 40 – 55 (FAT 2/28; Tu¨bingen: Mohr ˚ 73 (2008): 154 – 57. Siebeck, 2007), 293 – 303 (conclusion). See further my review in SEA

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tological notions.53 In different ways, both Lund and Lim challenge the claim that the “way motif” in Isa 40 – 55 refers to a literal way through the wilderness upon which the returning exiles will wander, while the later Isa 56 – 66 transforms it into a metaphor denoting an ethical way of living. The related expression “to turn to one’s way” occurs throughout Isa 40 – 66. For instance, it is attested in Isa 53:6 and 56:11 (9?L7@ 8DH). If Isa 53:6 is the earlier text, then Isa 56:11 expresses disillusion. Vice versa, if the complaint in 56:11 precedes the confession in Isa 53:6, the later text turns lack into hope.54 While it can be argued that the chronological order of textual allusions tends to go from complaint to encouragement (cf. the relationship between Lamentations and Isa 40 – 55), this can only be a supporting argument so far as there are other, independent factors that point in the same direction. In the particular case of the relationship between Isa 53 and Isa 56, however, it is wiser to understand the development of the concept along the lines of the order of the final form. After all, this is the only sure manner in which to approach the text. As such, the reader journeys from hope to disillusion. The “way motif” and the motif of God’s arrival (in Jerusalem) are often juxtaposed in Isa 40 – 66. In Isa 40:10b, the “way motif” appears together with the motif of God’s arrival. God will arrive and his reward and recompense accompany him (9=DH@ 9N@FH9 9N4 9L?M 8D8). Although many scholars assume that the exiles, although never mentioned in Isa 40:1 – 11, are returning with God, the focus remains that of God’s return (v. 3) and the audience remains that of Jerusalem (vv. 1 – 2). The same theme appears again in Isa 62:11. The verse encourages the “ends of the earth” to tell Jerusalem that her salvation comes and that [God’s] reward and recompense are coming with him (9=DH@ 9N@FH9 9N4 9L?M 8D8 45 ýFM= 8D8). In this case, Isa 40:10b and 62:11 both agree that Jerusalem is the ultimate benefactress of God’s actions. The focus on Jerusalem is strongest in Isa 62, augmented by the statement in the following 62:12 which predicts that Jerusalem will be called “sought out, a city not forsaken” (85:FD 4@ L=F 8M9L7 4LK= ý@9). The main difference between Isa 40:10b and 62:11 concerns the identity of what will arrive. While Isa 40 heralds God’s coming, Isa 62 speaks of the coming of Jerusalem’s salvation. As to the precise identity of God’s recompense, Isa 40:10 is silent. In contrast, the following Isa 62:12 labels the recompense as “the holy people, the redeemed ones of Yhwh” (R8 =@946 M7K8 AF A8@ 94LK9). It is commonplace to assume that Isa 62 alludes to Isa 40.55 The pronominal suffixes on “his reward” 53 Bo H. Lim, The ‘Way of the Lord’ in the Book of Isaiah (LHBOTS 522; London: T&T Clark, 2010). See also my review in JTS 62 (2011): 275 – 77. 54 Koole, Isaiah, 3/1, 24. 55 See, e. g., Lau, Schriftgelehrte Prophetie, 109; Childs, Isaiah, 510.

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and “his recompense” fit better the literary context in Isa 40 which speaks about God in the third person. In contrast, God speaks in the first person in Isa 62. Alternatively, Koole argues that the concept of “redemption” (root @46) is more integrated into Isa 62, thus making Isa 40:10 a later adaptation of Isa 62:12.56 A variant of the aforementioned motif is that “God’s arm” will come in power (Isa 40:10a; 48:14; 59:16 // 63:5; 62:8a). The material in Isa 40:10a describes God as coming in power and that “his arm” will rule for him (9@ 8@MB FL:9 495= K:;5), and Isa 48:14 states that God will show “his arm” [for the] Chaldeans (A=7M? 9FL:9). In Isa 56 – 66, the expression “God’s arm” occurs in Isa 59:16 (9FL: 9@ FM9N9), in the almost parallel passage in Isa 63:5 (=FL: =@ FM9N9), and in Isa 62:8a (9:F F9L:59 9D=B=5 R8 F5MD) “and Yhwh has sworn by his right [arm] and by might of his arm”. It is commonly assumed that the metaphor originated in Isa 40 – 55 and was picked up and changed in Isa 56 – 66. Blenkinsopp, for instance, argues that although the metaphor of “God’s arm” continues in Isa 56 – 66, its tenor changes. From denoting God’s power in the political area in Isa 40 – 55 (e. g. Isa 48:14, against Babylon), it came to denote more specifically God’s power to overcome evil.57

2.2

God’s Glory, Honour, and Protection of his People

The motif of God’s glory/honour (795?) is attested throughout Isa 40 – 66. The statement in Isa 60:1 – 3 that God’s glory/honour has written upon Jerusalem brings Isa 40:1 – 8 to mind. The idea that God’s glory/honour will be visible for all humankind (40:5) has a conceptual affinity with the idea that “nations” and “kings” will come to Jerusalem (Isa 60:3).58 The focus on Jerusalem in Isa 40:1 – 5 corresponds to the focus on Jerusalem in Isa 60:1 – 2. Isa 56 – 66 associates two other motifs with God’s glory/honour, namely that of a vanguard and a rearguard, and that of contrasting imagery of light and darkness. These two motifs exist also in Isa 40 – 55, but there they are not associated with God’s glory/honour. The motif of God’s glory/honour is associated in Isa 58 :8 with the motif of a vanguard and a rearguard (a motif which originated in Exod 13 :21 – 22). Isa 58 :8b states that “your righteousness”, i. e. that of the audience, will go before them, and that “God’s glory/ honour will be their rearguard” ( ýHE4= R8 795? ýK7J ý=DH@ ý@89 ). The motif of God forming the vanguard is 56 Koole, Isaiah, 3/1, 26. 57 Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56 – 66, 31. 58 Koole, Isaiah, 3/1, 25.

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attested earlier in Isa 52 :12b where God himself will walk before the exiles on their way out of exile ( @4LM= =8@4 A?HE4B9 R8 A?=DH@ ý@8 =? ). If we assume that Isa 52 is the earlier text, Isa 58 adds a distinct spiritual aspect to the imagery. Yet 58 :8 is also less radical than 52 :12, as it is not God himself but the audience’s righteousness or God’s attributes that will guard the people. The object of God’s protection has also changed from the returning exiles to the people in Judah. If, however we assume that Isa 58 :8b is the earlier text, a conditional promise about God’s presence (Isa 58) is turned into an acknowledgement (Isa 52). 59 As mentioned above, the current arrangement of the book of Isaiah implies a move from surety to uncertainty. Also, there are no reasons why, on a historical level, surety must win the day. The argument that a positive text must postdate a negative one is unconvincing. The motif of God’s glory/honour is connected with the contrasting images of “light” and “darkness” in Isa 58 and 60. In Isa 58:8 the audience’s “light will break forth like the dawn” (ýL94 L;M? FK5= :4), and in Isa 60:1 – 2 Jerusalem will be filled with light and God’s glory/honour, in contrast to the darkness which covers the earth. The image of light is also found in Isa 59:9b where the speakers describe how they are looking for light and brightness but all is darkness and gloom (ý@8D N9@H45 N986D@ ýM; 8D89 L94@ 89KD), and in 60:19 where God declares that he, rather than the sun, will be the audience’s everlasting light.60 The dark-light imagery is attested throughout Isa 40 – 55, but there it is not associated with God’s glory/honour. Yhwh’s Servant will be “a light to the nations” (Isa 42:6; 49:6 [A=96 L94@]), and God’s righteousness will be “a light to the people” (Isa 51:4 [A=BF L94@]). In addition, in Isa 45:7 God describes himself as the one who “forms light and creates darkness” (ýM; 4L959 L94 LJ9=). It is very likely that the authors of Isa 58, 59, and 60, appropriated the separate motifs of God’s glory/honour, his role as a vanguard, and the light-dark imagery, from Isa 40 – 55, and fused them into a new combined motif which denotes God’s splendour and protection of his people. Finally, there is also affinity between Isa 50:2a (=7= 8LJK L9JK8) and 59:1 (R8 7= 8LJK), as they both express the notion that God’s arm is not too short to save, although using different verbs to denote God’s saving action (50:2 – root 87H /59:1– root FM=). Koole argues for the priority of Isa 59:1 as, in its wider context, God’s hand corresponds to the hand of the people (v. 3a).61 However, there are good reasons to agree with Lau that Isa 50:2 is the earlier attestation of this motif which is later alluded to and modified by Isa 59:1. First, Isa 59:1 – 2 picks up not only the motif 59 Koole, Isaiah, 3/1, 24. 60 Cf. Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56 – 66, 32. 61 Koole, Isaiah, 3/1, 24.

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of God’s arm from 50:2 but also the notion of the people’s sin from the adjacent 50:1. Secondly, the expressions of Isa 50:1 – 2 recur not only in Isa 59:1 – 2 but also in Isa 59:16 and 63:3 (M=4 C=4, cf. Isa 50:2a).62

2.3

The watchman

The notion of “watchmen” (A=HJ) as a metaphor for leaders appears in both Isa 52:8 and 56:10.63 Moreover, the motif of a watchman in Isa 62:6 is reminiscent of the idea in Isa 49:16 that the walls of Jerusalem are forever before God.64 If we assume that Isa 52:8 is the chronologically earlier text, then the latter Isa 56:10 expresses the disappointment that the current leaders are unwilling to perform their God-given tasks. If, on the other hand, we assume that Isa 56:10 is the earlier text, Isa 52:8 promises that the current “blind” and “dumb” leaders one day will see and rejoice in God.65 As already mentioned, issues of disappointment versus hope cannot shed light upon the relative chronology of the texts, given that there is no evidence that the texts in the book of Isaiah were ever read in the order in which they were composed. The present form of the book of Isaiah, the only form that we know has been read, presents disappointment as succeeding hope. It is possible that the material in Isa 40 – 55 originated as a response to the disillusion in Isa 56 – 66, yet the present form of the book of Isaiah rejects this interpretation by its arrangement of the material.

2.4

God’s Servant

The so-called four “Servant Songs” refers to an person called the “Servant of Yhwh” (Isa 42:1 ff.; 49:1 ff.; 50:4 ff.; 52:13 ff.). Although many scholars have sought to identify this person with an individual outside of the text, either a person contemporary with the author(s) or a future person, it is preferable to see the Servant as a literary figure that embodies a certain theological perspective.66 The singular term 75F occur another 10 times in Isa 40 – 55. Isa 41:8 (=75F @4LM= 8N49) and 41:9 (8N4 =75F) speak of Israel as his servant, Isa 42:19 mentions twice Yhwh’s servant (R8 75F? […] =75F), 44:1 – 2 speaks to “Jacob, my servant” 62 Lau, Schriftgelehrte Prophetie, 204 – 205. 63 Cf. Lena-Sofia Tiemeyer, “The Coming of the Lord in Isaiah 40 – 66,” in Let Us Go Up To Zion: Esays in Honour of H.G.M. Williamson on the Occasion of his Sixty-Fifth Birthday (ed. Mark J. Boda and Iain W. Provan; VTSup 143; Leiden: Brill, 2012), 233 – 44. 64 Cf. Koole, Isaiah, 3/1, 26. 65 Koole, Isaiah, 3/1, 24. 66 See further Tiemeyer, Comfort of Zion, 311 – 17.

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(=75F 5KF=) and “my servant Jacob” (5KF= =75F), 44:21 refers to Jacob-Israel as “a servant belonging to me” (=@ 75F), 44:26 mentions Yhwh’s servant in the third person (975F), 45:4 addresses “my servant Jacob” (5KF= =75F), and 48:20 speaks of “his servant Jacob” (5KF= 975F). As can be noted, all these references appear in Isa 40 – 48. Among them, most of them refer to a collective entity, namely Jacob-Israel.67 In addition, according to the Masoretic pointing, Isa 43:10 speaks of the (plural) audience as “my servant” (=75F […] AN4, the yod pointed with a hireq). In contrast, apart from the three aforementioned Servant Songs, there are no references to a singular “servant” in Isa 49 – 55. Isa 54:17, part of a longer oracle addressing Jerusalem, contains a reference to a plural group of “Yhwh’s servants” (R8 =75F). In verse 17a, Yhwh declares that no weapon forged against the city will prevail and that she will refute every tongue that accuses her. In verse 17b, Yhwh states that “this is the portion of Yhwh’s servants” (R8 =75F N@;D N4:) and that “their righteousness is through [Yhwh]” (=N4B ANK7J9). The connection between verses 17a and 17b is unclear. In particular, what does “this” (N4:) refer to? Does verse 17b describe a situation in which Yhwh’s servants will inherit the victory over those who seek to do evil to Jerusalem or will they inherit Jerusalem itself ? The expression “Yhwh’s servants” appears to denote a group of people who are loyal to Yhwh. Given this, several scholars argue that the plural “servants” in verses 17b refers back to “seed” (FL:) in the fourth Servant Song (Isa 53:10). In this manner, the city of Jerusalem addressed in Isa 54 learns that her children will live as Yhwh’s servants.68 The plural expression “Yhwh’s servants” also refers forward to the texts to come in Isa 56 – 66. The plural expression “servants” in Isa 54 rounds off the theme of the (singular) “servant” in the preceding material, and prepares the reader for the evolution of the theme in the following chapters (see below).69 The plural designation “Yhwh’s servants” is attested in several texts of Isa 56 – 66 (56:6; Isa 63:17; 65: 8, 9, 13, 15; 66:14) and denotes (different) groups of faithful persons. The uncertain chronological relationship between the different texts within Isa 56 – 66 renders it difficult to establish the development of the expression. The expression “Yhwh’s servants” appears in the lament in Isa 63:7 – 64:11. The lamenting people plead with Yhwh to return “for the sake of your servants” (ý=75F CFB@ 59M, 63:17. Given the likely early post-monarchic date of the lament 67 See further Blenkinsopp, “The Servant and the Servants,” 162 – 65. 68 Willem A.M. Beuken, “The Main Theme of Trito-Isaiah: The ‘Servant of Yhwh’,” JSOT 47 (1990): 67 – 87 (67 – 68), Koole, Isaiah, 3/1, 27. See also Blenkinsopp, “The Servant and the Servants,” 173, who argues in favour of a link between Isa 52:13 – 53:12 and the group responsible for the plural designation “God’s servants” in Isa 56 – 66. 69 Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56 – 66, 33.

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(above) and its unclear textual relationship with the rest of the material in Isa 40 – 66,70 the use of the term “servants” here may not tell us much about the textual relationship between Isa 40 – 55 and 56 – 66. The same is true regarding the attestation in Isa 56:6 which states that the foreigners who “join with Yhwh” will be “his servants” (A=75F@ 9@ N9=8@). As it is likely that Isa 56:1 – 8 is among the latest texts in Isa 56 – 66 (see above), the use of the term “servants” here may be a redactional connection which serves to used bind together the preceding and the following material. Most of the examples of the plural term “Yhwh’s servants” (=57F) appear in Isa 65:1 – 66:16 (65:8, 9, 13 [three times], 15; Isa 66:14), a text which was probably written to serve as a response to the immediately preceding lament.71 According to this passage, Yhwh’s servants form a group of elect few who will prosper. Yhwh declares that just as one will not destroy a whole cluster of grapes as there is goodness in it (i. e. some of the grapes are good), so Yhwh will not destroy the entire audience for the sake of his servants. These servants will inherit Yhwh’s mountain and dwell there (v. 9), they will eat, drink and rejoice (in contrast to the audience, v. 13), they will sing for joy (while the audience will cry, v. 14), and God will call them by a new name (L;4 AM). Many scholars have noted the change from singular “Yhwh’s servant” in Isa 40 – 55 to plural “Yhwh’s servants” in Isa 56 – 66 and offered interpretations as to what this change may mean. Beuken argues that the “Servants theme” is the theme of Isa 56 – 66. Although the word “servant” is not attested in Isa 56:9 – 59:21 and 60:1 – 63:6, the frequent use of the terms “offspring” (FL:) and “righteousness” (root K7J) shows that servants are the focal point. These terms, as well as others, allude to key vocabulary and themes in the Servant Songs in Isa 40 – 55. Beuken further argues that Zion has taken over the Servant’s function, and that her seed, i. e. her inhabitants, now serve as the Servant’s seed.72 Yet four reasons suggest that the difference between chs 40 – 55 and chs 56 – 66 may be smaller than what appears to be the case at first glance: 1. Isa 54:17b contains the plural expression. This may suggest a later date and/

70 See further my discussion in “The Lament in Isaiah 63:7 – 64:11 and its Literary and Theological Place within Isaiah 40 – 66,” in The Book of Isaiah: Enduring Questions Answered Anew: Essays Honoring Joseph Blenkinsopp and His Contribution to the Study of Isaiah (ed. Richard Bautch and J. Todd Hibbard; Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2014, forthcoming), 58 – 76. 71 See especially the discussions in Steck, Studien, 221 – 24, and Koenen, Ethik und Eschatologie, 159, 168, 183 (summaries), 252 – 56 (translation). For an evaluation of these theories, see Tiemeyer, “Two Prophets, Two Laments,” 189. 72 Beuken, “Main Theme of Trito-Isaiah,” 67 – 87.

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or a redactional origin of Isa 54:17b. Alternatively, it may imply that the singular and the plural expressions are contemporaneous.73 2. There are good reasons to date the lament in Isa 63:7 – 64:11 and the Servant Songs in Isa 40 – 55 to roughly the same time period, namely Judah prior to 520 bce. This would suggest the coexistence of the singular and the plural form. 3. It is unclear to what extent the use of the expression “Yhwh’s servants” in Isa 65:1 – 66:16 depends on Isa 40 – 55. Given the likelihood that Isa 65:1 – 66:16 was composed in response to the preceding lament, it may be argued that Isa 65:8 alludes primarily to the plural expression in Isa 63:1774 and, to a lesser degree, to the Servant Songs in Isa 40 – 55. 4. Assuming a redactional origin of Isa 56:1 – 8, it is an open question whether the reference to “servants” in Isa 56:6 refers backwards to Isa 54:17 or forward to Isa 63:17 and 65:8 or to both. In addition, several scholars have looked at the first person persona in Isa 61 and explored to what extent he embodies the Servant of Isa 40 – 55. The spirit of Yhwh is upon him (v. 1, cf. 42:1) and he is concerned with the liberation of prisoners (v. 1, cf. 42:7; 49:9).75 As to the direction of influence, it is probably that the first person account in Isa 61 has borrowed select material from the Servant Songs in Isa 40 – 55 and transformed the material to fit its own perspective.76

2.5

The City of Jerusalem

The City of Jerusalem, here called Zion-Jerusalem, is alongside the Servant, the other key dramatic persona who appears throughout Isa 40 – 66. Zion-Jerusalem gradually gains importance as the reader proceeds throughout Isa 40 – 66. The 73 It may be significant in this context that Isa 43:10 uses the singular expression to refer to a plural audience. If we disregard the Masoretic pointing and vocalize the yod with a patach instead of a hireq, the text would read plural “servants.” A singular reading is, however, supported by the LXX (b pa?r). 74 Cf. Beuken, “Main Theme of Trito-Isaiah,” 77. 75 See, e. g., the discussion and cited bibliography in Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56 – 66, 220 – 21. See especially Willem A.M. Beuken, “Servant and Herald of Good Tidings: Isaiah 61 as an Interpretation of Isaiah 40 – 55,” in The Book of Isaiah: Le livre d’Isaı¨e: Les oracles et leur relectures: unite´ et complixite´ de l’ouvrage (ed. Jacques Vermeylen; BETL 81; Leuven: Leuven University Press, 1989), 411 – 40 (415 – 24), and Bradley C. Gregory, “The Postexilic Exile in Third Isaiah: Isaiah 61:1 – 3 in Light of Second Temple Hermeneutics,” JBL 126 (2007): 475 – 96 (480 – 81). 76 Note, however, that Koole, Isaiah, 3/1, 26 – 27, argues for the opposite direction of influence. He maintains that the author(s) of the Servant Songs in Isa 40 – 55 reused select elements from Isa 61.

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names “Jerusalem” and “Zion” occur five times in Isa 40 – 48, eleven times in Isa 49 – 55, and fourteen times in Isa 56 – 66.77 More than one scholar has focussed on the ways in which the different texts in Isa 40 – 66 (especially Isa 49 // 60) portray her destruction and subsequent restoration. There are four main recurring themes: (1) Jerusalem’s destruction; (2) Jerusalem’s returning children; (3) Jerusalem drinking the milk of foreign royalty ; and (4) the humiliation of Jerusalem’s enemies. First, texts throughout Isa 40 – 66 use similar expressions to describe Jerusalem’s destruction. For example, Daughter Zion’s first person speech in 49 :14 (=D;?M =D749 R8 =D5:F) and Yhwh’s speech about Daughter Zion in 60 :15a (L59F C=49 849DM9 859:F ýN9=8 N;N) share the notion that Jerusalem is “forsaken” (root 5:F). In both cases, the following material contains the divine assurance that the situation will change soon. The term 859:F is used elsewhere in Isa 62 :4, 12 where it refers to Jerusalem’s situation which is soon to be changed. Another example is the shared use of the expression L5M9 7M. It occurs in Isa 51:1, referring back to the destruction of Jerusalem (given the 2 f.sg. suffixes that refer to the audience) and in 59 :7, referring to the current evil ways of the (m.pl.) audience.78 Secondly, the motif of Jerusalem’s returning children from afar is attested throughout Isa 40 – 66. Isa 43:6 contains Yhwh’s imperatives to the north and to the south to “bring back” (Hiphil 495) [Yhwh’s] daughters and sons. Likewise, the divine oracle in Isa 49:22 states that the nations will “bring back” (Hiphil 495) Jerusalem’s sons and daughters to her. In contrast, Isa 49:18a encourages Jerusalem to lift her eyes and to see all her sons “coming” (Paal 495) to her. A similar mix of different uses of the root 495 is attested in Isa 60. Isa 60:9 describes the sons as passively being “brought” by foreign ships (Hiphil 495). In contrast, Isa 60:4a, identical to Isa 49:18a, depicts the children as actively “coming” (Paal 495). Notably, while some of the passages in Isa 40 – 55 speak of both sons and daughters, the (later) passages in Isa 60 speak only about the sons.79 Thirdly, both Isa 49 and 60 present Jerusalem as drinking the milk of foreign royalty (although the subject/object relationship differs). The material in Isa 49:23aa speaks of foreign queens who will be Jerusalem’s wet-nurses (ý=NK=D=B – Hiphil), i. e. they will presumably nurse Jerusalem’s returning children (v. 22). According to the same verse, the foreign kings will serve in a related capacity 77 Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56 – 66, 31. 78 Cf. Koole, Isaiah, 3/1, 24 – 25. 79 As to whether Isa 49:18a is earlier than the identical 60:4a or vice versa, Koole, Isaiah, 3/1, 25, maintains that the sentence fits metrically better in Isa 60:4 than in 49:18a. However, as arguments relating to Hebrew meter are notoriously difficult to use, it is preferable to either leave the matter undecided or to accept the order of the final form of the text and thus to see 49:18a as the original text upon which Isa 60:4 depends.

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(ý=DB4 – Paal, the basic meaning of the root being to “support” and to “nourish”). Along similar lines, Isa 60:16 envisions a situation where Jerusalem will be nursed: “You will suck (NKD=9 – Paal) the milk of the nations, and you will suck (=KD=N – Paal) the breast of kings”. Jerusalem is here a metonym for her current and/or future population who will be supported by foreigners. As to the direction of the allusion, the image of Jerusalem being nursed fits best in Isa 49:23, given the reference to her sons and daughters in the preceding verse 22. The fact that the imagery in Isa 60:16 sits uneasily with biological reality, in that Jerusalem will suck from (male) kings’ breasts,80 cannot really be used as an argument for either position. Either a later author (Isa 49) tried to cover up for the blunders in the earlier material (Isa 60),81 or a later author (Isa 60) destroyed the poetry of the earlier text (Isa 49).82 Fourthly, both Isa 49 and 60 attest to the idea that Jerusalem’s enemies will humble themselves before Jerusalem’s feet.83 The material in Isa 49:23 speaks of the humiliating role that foreign kings and queens will play when bringing up Jerusalem’s children. Verse 23ab states that the foreign monarchs shall bow their faces to the ground and lick the dust from [Jerusalem’s] feet (9?;@= ý=@6L LHF9 ý@ 99;NM= IL4 A=H4). Isa 60:14ab, speaking about a related matter, states that the sons of Jerusalem’s oppressors will come and bow before her feet (ý=J4DB @? ý=@6L N9H? @F 99;NM89). There is a clear link between Isa 49:23 and Isa 60:14.84 As Koole notes, Isa 60:14 is well integrated into its present context,85 yet that alone does not necessarily establish its primacy. It can easily be argued that the author of Isa 60 composed his text with the earlier material in Isa 40 – 55 in mind and thus integrated the allusion into his new composition. As such, the allusion would fit perfectly in its (new) context.

80 The NIV, as well as other modern translations, solves this issue by translating “royal breasts.” 81 See Koole, Isaiah, III/1, 25 – 26, who suggests that Isa 49 is a particularization of the more general imagery in Isa 60. 82 Zimmerli, “Zur Sprache Tritojesajas,” 222, who regards the material in Isa 60 as a later “destruction” (unscho¨ne Zersto¨rung) of the earlier imagery in Isa 49. See also Lau, Schriftgelehrte Prophetie, 57 – 58, and Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56 – 66, 216, who show more charity towards the author of Isa 60. 83 For a more general overview of the shifting attitudes towards the nations throughout Isa 40 – 66, see further Joel Kaminsky and Anne Stewart, “God of All The World: Universalism and Developing Monotheism in Isaiah 40 – 66,” HTR 99 (2006): 139 – 63. 84 See, e. g., Paul, Isaiah, 529. In contrast, Lau, Schriftgelehrte Prophetie, 56, denies any conscious allusion between the two texts. 85 Koole, Isaiah, 3/1, 25.

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Infants and Children

The related themes of begetting, carrying, and giving birth to children (root 7@=) appear throughout Isa 40 – 66. The notion of “begetting children” is attested in Isa 45:10; 49:21; 54:1, and the notion of “being in labour to give birth” can be found in Isa 45:10; 51:2; 54:1. The latter notion is attested also in Isa 66:7 – 14. There is in particular a strong similarity between Isa 54:1 and 66:9, two passages which share the imagery of childbirth. Stromberg, for example, has argued that Isa 66:7 – 14 was written in conscious development of Isa 54.86 The word for “infant” (@9F) appears in both Isa 40 – 55 and in 56 – 66 but in different contexts and with different meanings. It is used in Isa 49:15 as a metaphor for Jerusalem. Just as a mother can never forget her infant, so God will not forget Jerusalem. In contrast, in Isa 65:20 the word @9F refers to the (eschatological) future where no infant will die prematurely (A=B= @9F 79F AMB 8=8= 4@). It is, however, unlikely that one text alludes to another.87

2.7

Divine Comfort

Divine comfort is a prevalent theme throughout Isa 40 – 66. In Isa 40 – 55 it is attested in Isa 40:1 (God’s people]); 49:13 (God’s people); 51:3 (Zion), 12 (you, m.pl.), 19 (you, f.sg.); 52:9 (God’s people). Apart from in Isa 40:1, God is the subject of the verb (Piel, root A;D). The motif recurs in Isa 56 – 66. Isa 61:1 – 3 serves, to a certain degree, as a response to the command to comfort in Isa 40:1 – 2. Here the first person speaker declares his intent “to comfort those who mourn” (v. 2b, A=@54 @? A;D@). Likewise, the statement in Isa 66:13 – that as a mother comforts her child, so God will comfort the audience in Jerusalem (9D;DN A@M9L=59 A?B;D4 =?D4 C? 9DB;DN 9B4 LM4 M=4?) – responds to Zion’s complaint in Isa 49:14 – 15a and alludes to God’s answer in 49:15b that although a mother may forget, God will never forget Zion.88

86 Stromberg, Isaiah after Exile, 109 – 14. More generally, see also Beuken, “Main Theme of Trito-Isaiah,” 82 – 83, who argues that Isa 66:7 – 14 probably alludes to the material in Isa 40 – 55. 87 Paul, Isaiah, 604, notes that the two passages contain the same word but refrains from discussing any shared message. Lau, Schriftgelehrte Prophetie, 137, is more open to a direct allusion in Isa 65:20 to Isa 49:15. 88 Cf. Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56 – 66, 31.

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Raising a banner

Two texts, Isa 49:22 and 62:10, speak of a “banner for the people”. The divine oracle in Isa 49:22 states that God will lift up his hand to the nations and raise his banner to the peoples (=ED A=L4 A=BF @49 =7= A=96 @4 4M4 8D8). In a similar manner, the speaker in Isa 62:10 encourages the audience to “raise a banner over the peoples” (A=BF8 @F ED 9B=L8). The two expressions are very similar. Yet, while the text in Isa 49:22 contains the preposition @4, the material in Isa 62:10 contains the preposition @F. More importantly, the role of the banner has changed. In Isa 49:22, consisting of divine speech, the banner was most likely a sign of God’s supremacy. This notion has been toned down significantly in Isa 62:10. Here, the banner welcomes the dawn of the time of salvation.89 Additionally, this imagery is later picked up and modified by the material in Isa 66:19 which refers to “a sign among [the nations]” (N94 A85 =NBM9).90

2.9

The Islands, the Trees, the Former Things, and the Woman

The present list of thematic links between Isa 40 – 55 and 56 – 66 is not meant to be exhaustive. There are many other, shared themes. For instance, Isa 51:5 and 60:9 use related language to express the notion that islands will “wait for/hope in” God. Isa 51:5 claims that the islands will wait for/ hope in God (99K= A==4 =@4), in the context of God’s salvation and judgement of the nations. Likewise, Isa 60:9, speaking about the return of Jerusalem’s children from afar by the hands of the nations, states that the islands will wait for/hope in God (99K= A==4 =@ =?).91 Another example of shared vocabulary is the list of trees in Isa 41:19b and Isa 60:13a (97;= L9M4N9 L87N M9L5). Yet another one is the shared notion of “former things” (N9DM4L8). This expression, prevalent in Isa 40 – 55, recurs in Isa 65:17 where it refers to the present creation which will no longer be remembered in the eschatological future. There is also material in Isa 56 – 66 which echoes whole sections in Isa 40 – 55. As pointed out by Beuken, the description of the audience in Isa 57:10 – 13, personified as a woman, bears a strong resemblance to that of personified Babylon in Isa 47. In Isa 57, the audience is accused of wearying herself with witchcraft (57:10; cf. 47:9, 12, 13, 15), of not taking to heart (57:11, cf. 47:7), hoping that her witchcraft will help her (57:12, cf. 47:12) and that her idols will 89 See, e. g., the discussion in Lau, Schriftgelehrte Prophetie, 111 – 12, and in Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56 – 66, 242 – 43. 90 Noted by Stromberg, Isaiah after Exile, 123 – 28, 132 – 34. 91 Cf. Koole, Isaiah, 3/1, 26.

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help her (57:13, cf. 47:13, 14, 15). According to Beuken, these allusions to Daughter Babylon serve to emphasize that the audience of Isa 57 is like her because of its own magical practices.92

2.10

God the Creator

In a few shared themes, the sense of discontinuity is stronger than the sense of continuity. Most pertinently, while many texts in Isa 40 – 55 emphasize God as Creator (40:26, 28; 42:5; 45:7 – 8, 12, 18), this concept is restricted to a single text only in Isa 56 – 66 (65:17 – 18). It is likely that the creation texts in Isa 40 – 55 served as polemics against the allegedly more powerful Babylonian gods and the religious ideology found in, among other texts, the Enuˆma Elıˆˇs. When the Babylonian Empire fell and was succeeded by the Persian Empire and, with it, the Zoroastrian state religion, there was less of a need to emphasize God’s role as the creator of the universe.93 As a result, only one text in the later Isa 56 – 66 (Isa 65:17 – 18) speaks of God’s creative activity. In verse 17, God creates a new heaven and a new earth, and in verse 18, God “is creating Jerusalem to be a delight” (8@=6 A@M9L= N4 4L95 =DD8 =?) and “its people to be a joy” (M9MB 8BF9). This creation language is less universal in scope and instead focusses on Jerusalem and God’s people. Also, rather than referring backwards to God’s original act of creating at the beginning, it points forward to the eschatological situation where God will recreate the universe.

3.

Conclusion

In this survey, I have sought not only to highlight the lack of consensus in Isaiah scholarship, but also to point towards several areas of research that would benefit from more attention. First, there is no emerging consensus as to the formation of the last 27 chapters of the book of Isaiah. On the contrary, there is a wider range of theories now than ever before. Secondly, there is also disagreement as to the development of the shared themes that appear throughout these chapters. For instance, in a few cases, the direction of development is uncertain as it cannot be ruled out that a text in Isa 56 – 66 is chronologically later than a text in Isa 40 – 55. It is my hope that the rest of the articles in this volume will bring new clarity to many of these matters. 92 Beuken, “Isaiah 56.9 – 57.13,” 55 – 56. 93 Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56 – 66, 32.

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Hans M. Barstad

Isaiah 56 – 66 in Relation to Isaiah 40 – 55. Why a New Reading is Necessary

The division of the book of Isaiah into two major parts, Proto-Isaiah (chapters 1 – 39)1 and Deutero-Isaiah (chapters 40 – 55), appears to be “generally” accepted. However, if we are to judge from the fairly comprehensive scholarly debates, there seems to be very little consensus in these matters. Nevertheless, in the present contribution, for conventional and pragmatic reasons, I follow the view that Isaiah 40 – 55 “roughly” reflects events from around the time of Cyrus the Great (c. 559 – 530 bce.).

“Deutero-Isaiah” Isaiah 40 – 55 consists of the following “genres:”2 Salvation words to the people (40:1 – 14); words against the nations (40:15 – 24); salvation words to the people (40:25 – 31); words against the nations (41:1 – 7); salvation words to the people 1 As we know, “Proto-Isaiah”, “Deutero-Isaiah”, and “Trito-Isaiah” are not at all precise labels. It is purely for practical purpose that I retain these scholarly abstractions. Proto-Isaiah consists of a mixture of oracles/words of judgment against the city of Jerusalem (with condemnations of her inhabitants for their transgressions), oracles/words against the neighbouring nations, and oracles/words of blessing/promise to Jerusalem. In my view, Isaiah 1 – 39 reflects “basically” conditions from the last half of the 8th the century bce. In all likelihood, Isaiah 1 – 39 “originated” reflecting events from the time of Tiglath-pileser III (744 – 727 bce). An anti-Assyrian coalition consisting of the city-states of Damascus, Samaria, and Tyre besieged Jerusalem (“Syro-Ephraimite War”). The war followed Judah’s refusal to join the anti-Assyrian alliance. See, Edward Lipin´ski, The Aramaeans: Their Ancient History, Culture, Religion (OLA 100; Leuven: Peeters, 2000), 405 – 6. 2 For the present purpose, I use “genre” very loosely as another word for “type of literature” or Gattung, almost in a non-technical sense. Nevertheless, in order to be able to talk about a prophetic “genre” it is necessary that a particular “form” of a text corresponds to a certain “content.” Furthermore, the former, form and content, must correspond to a certain “historical” situation. This implies that texts do refer to realities outside themselves. Even if texts are put together in final form at various later stages, they do refer to historical persons and places and events that belong to earlier times. The problem is that it is often very difficult and sometimes even impossible to reconstruct any “original” Sitz im Leben. However, this should

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(41:8 – 10); words against the nations (41:11 – 12); salvation words to the people (41:13 – 14); words against the nations (41:15 – 16); salvation words to the people (41:17 – 19); words against the nations (41:20 – 29); salvation words to the people (42); salvation words to the people (43), mixed with words against the nations (43:3, 9) and against Babylon (43:14); salvation words to the people (44:1 – 8); words against the nations (44:9 – 20) salvation words to the people (44:21 – 28); words against the nations (45:1 – 7); salvation words to the people (45:8 – 13); words against the nations (45:14 – 16); salvation words to the people (45:17 – 21); words against the nations (45:22 – 24), ending in a salvation word to the people (v. 25); words against Babylon (46), ending in a salvation word to the people (v. 13); words against Babylon (47); conditional salvation words to the people (48); salvation words to the people (49:1 – 21); words against the nations (49:22 – 26); salvation words to the people (50:1 – 8a); words against the nations (50:8b–11); salvation words to the people (51:1 – 23), mixed with words against the nations (vv. 6 – 10, 23); salvation words to the people (52); salvation words to the people (53), ending in words against the nations (vv. 11 – 12); salvation words to the people (54); salvation words to the people (55). Needless to say, this very short summary description of the contents of Isaiah 40 – 55 fails to reflect the many different agendas and the rhetorical dynamics of this “poetry with a purpose.” In order to find out what these texts are really about, each and every one of them has to be studied separately and in detail. Moreover, the very nature of the Isaiah scroll itself has to be taken into consideration. In the most recent research on Isaiah (the four last decades, or so), there seems to be less emphasis on the division into three different prophetic books among some exegetes. Today, we are fully aware of the fact that “similarities” can be found across the division into three separate collections. An increasing number of scholars, especially after the 1980’s, have shown interest in the “redactional unity” of the scroll. In particular, they want to take a closer look at the theology of the redactors. Deepened insight that there are no watertight layers, but rather a kind of “osmosis” between the various parts Isaiah 1 – 39; 40 – 55, and 56 – 66 has somehow changed the ways in which we look upon the Isaiah scroll. Today, many assume that there are numerous examples of “intertextuality” and “re-use” of

not prevent us from trying to do so. In present day climates (e. g. “fundamentalism”; “postmodernism”), the greatest danger to a sound and adequate understanding of the texts of the Hebrew Bible would be to leave out the historical dimension. I have dealt with this issue on various occasions. See, for instance, Hans M. Barstad, “The History of Ancient Israel: What Directions Should We Take?,” in Understanding the History of Ancient Israel (ed. Hugh G.M. Williamson; PBA 143; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), 23 – 46.

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other Isaiah texts throughout the scroll. This is above all the case in the relationship between chapters 40 – 55 and 56 – 66.3

“Trito-Isaiah” Isaiah 56 – 66 is commonly referred to as “the Third Isaiah” (“Trito-Isaiah”).4 The content of the last part of the Isaiah scroll does not, like chapters 40 – 55, reflect the period just before the fall of Babylon. Instead, this text must, roughly, 3 The literature on the “unity” of the Isaiah scroll is huge and only a few examples can be mentioned here. Very useful is Hugh G.M. Williamson, The Book Called Isaiah: DeuteroIsaiah’s Role in Composition and Redaction (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994). Williamson also refers to Isaiah 56 – 66. Rich and informative is, Le livre d’Isaı¨e: Les oracles et leurs relectures: Unite´ et complexite´ de l’ouvrage (ed. Jacques Vermeylen; BETL 81; Leuven: Leuven University Press/Peeters, 1989). Vermeylen’s substantial contribution, “L’unite´ du livre d’Isaı¨e”, in Le livre d’Isaı¨e, 11 – 53, reveals some of the theoretical and methodological problems involved in the “unity debate.” From the valuable collection, I may single out, Willem A.M. Beuken, “Servant and Herald of Good Tidings: Isaiah 61 as an Interpretation of Isaiah 40 – 55,” in Le livre d’Isaı¨e, 411 – 40. Two comprehensive volumes are, Writing and Reading the Scroll of Isaiah: Studies of an Interpretative Tradition (ed. Craig C. Broyles and Craig A. Evans; VTSup 70,1 – 2/FOTL I, 1 – 2; Leiden: Brill, 1997). Among a large number of relevant contributions, one could mention, Ronald E. Clements, “‘Arise, Shine; For Your Light Has Come’: A Basic Theme of the Isaianic Tradition,” in Writing and Reading the Scroll of Isaiah I, 441 – 54 and John N. Oswalt, “Righteousness in Isaiah: A Study of the Function of Chapters 56 – 66 in the Present Structure of the book,” in Writing and Reading the Scroll of Isaiah I, 177 – 91. The most recent contributions that I have come across are Jacob Stromberg, Isaiah after Exile: The Author of Third Isaiah as Reader and Redactor of the Book (OTM; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010) and Lena-Sofia Tiemeyer, “The Coming of the Lord: An Inter-Textual Reading of Isa 40:1 – 11; 52:7 – 10; 59:15b–20; 62:10 – 11, and 63:1 – 6,” in Let us Go up to Zion: Essays in Honour of H.G.M. Williamson on the Occasion of his Sixty-Fifth Birthday (ed. Ian Provan and Mark J. Boda; VTSup 153; Leiden: Brill, 2012), 233 – 44. Even if disputed, too little attention has, in my view, been paid to important work based on computerized methods. See, for instance, Yehuda Radday, The Unity of Isaiah in the Light of Statistical Linguistics (Collection Massorah 2/1; Hildesheim: Gerstenberg, 1973) and Jean Bastiaens, Wim Beuken, and Ferenc Postma, Trito-Isaiah: An Exhaustive Concordance of Isa 56 – 66, Especially with Reference to Deutero-Isaiah: An Example of Computer Assisted Research (Applicatio 4; Amsterdam: Free University Press, 1984). 4 For a relevant history of research, see Lena-Sofia Tiemeyer, “Continuity and Discontinuity in Isaiah 40 – 66: History of Research,” in the present volume. A useful recent survey is Reinhard G. Kratz, “Tritojesaja,” in Reinhard G. Kratz, Prophetenstudien: Kleine Schriften 2 (FAT 74; Tu¨bingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2011), 233 – 42. A comprehensive bibliography is found in Joseph Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56 – 66: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary (AB 19B; New York: Doubleday, 2003), 95 – 126. Earlier surveys of “Trito-Isaian” research are found in Brooks Schramm, The Opponents of Third Isaiah: Reconstructing the Cultic History of the Restoration (JSOTSup 193; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1995), 11 – 52; Seizo Sekine, Die Tritojesajanische Sammlung (Jes 56 – 66) redaktionsgeschichtlich untersucht (BZAW 175; Berlin: de Gruyter, 1989), 3 – 23, and Karl Pauritch, Die neue Gemeinde. Gott sammelt Ausgestoßene und Arme. Jes 56 – 66: Die Botschaft des Tritojesaja-Buches literar-, form-, gat-

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originate from the second temple period, in “the time of Ezra and Nehemiah.” From this document, we learn about transition stages between traditions of ancient Israel and nascent Judaism. It is, for instance, characteristic of Isaiah 56 – 66 that prophetic oracles of salvation from Yhwh to the people emphasize, above all, the Sabbath and the Law. In the heyday of classical historical critical scholarship, it was mostly assumed that the Isaiah scroll consisted of two parts. The influence of Duhm’s Isaiah commentary, first published in 1892, led gradually to the creation of “TritoIsaiah.”5 However, today it is altogether more controversial whether it is correct to talk about a “third Isaiah” (“Trito-Isaiah”) in relation to chapters 56 – 66. Tentatively, we can say that, as far as the relationship between Isaiah 40 – 55 and 56 – 66 is concerned, the major issue has been whether chapters 40 – 66 should be regarded as a unity rather than as originating from two different “prophets.” A number of scholars have in fact disputed the existence of a third Isaiah.6 Howtungskritisch und redaktionsgeschichtlich untersucht (AnBib 47; Rome: Pontificial Biblical Institute, 1971), 1 – 30. 5 In this context, one might remind oneself of how Duhm organized the whole of the book of Isaiah into different “groups”. Besides the main units, Duhm also operated with a large number of minor additions (Zusa¨tze). According to Duhm, three different authors wrote chapters 40 – 66. The earliest among them is the so-called Deutero-Isaiah, active around 540 bce. He wrote all of Isa 40 – 55 (with the exception of the later additions). A second author was responsible for the so-called Ebed-Jahve Lieder (Isa 42:1 – 4; 49:1 – 6; 50:4 – 9; 52:13 – 53:12). This writer is dependant upon Second Isaiah, but also upon Jeremiah and Job. Since they were written in a later time, Second Isaiah did not know of the Servant Songs. On the third writer, the author of Isa 56 – 66, Duhm comments: “Wahrscheinlich sind sie [= the Servant Songs] aber a¨lter als die dritte Schrift c. 56 – 66, die sich nach Form und Inhalt als Erzeugnis eines einzigen Schriftstellers ausweist, den wir der Ku¨rze halber Tritojesaja nenne. Die beiden Ha¨lften dieser Schrift, c. 56 – 60 und c. 61 – 66, scheinen durch den Redaktor von c. 40 – 66 umgestellt zu sein. Geschrieben ist sie kurz vor der Wirksamkeit des Nehemia und zwar in Jerusalem. Dass u¨brigens in c. 40 – 66 noch bis in die spa¨teste Zeit allerlei kleine Zusa¨tze gekommen sind, beweist besondernd schlagend c. 51 11 = c. 35 10”. Bernhard Duhm, Das Buch Jesaja u¨bersetzt und erkla¨rt von … (2nd ed.; HKAT 3; Die prophetischen Bu¨cher 1; Go¨ttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1902), XIII. 6 From the varied collection of challengers to the Trito-Isaian thesis, I refer to a few examples only. An early, unswerving opponent to Duhm’s thesis altogether was Charles C. Torrey, The Second Isaiah: A New Interpretation (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1928). To Torrey, there is no “Second Isaiah”. Torrey dates the texts much later as he considers all references to Babylon and to Cyrus to be later interpolations (Torrey, The Second Isaiah, 38 – 52). As for the link between chapters 55 and 56, Torrey considers Isaiah 55:1 – 56:8 to be a unit (The Second Isaiah, 426 – 29). When considering his occasionally low esteem of some of the parts of Isaiah 40 – 66, he has a remarkably high opinion of 55:1 – 56:8. The only exception is Isaiah 56:2 – 6. He disapproves strongly of this text and considers it to be a late insertion (The Second Isaiah, 427). Poru´bcˇan, too, denies the existence of a separate third Isaiah. See, Sˇtefan Poru´bcˇan, Il Patto nuovo in Is. 40 – 66 (An Bib 8; Roma, Pontificio Istituto Biblico, 1958), 199. Watts accepts a second Isaiah, but not a third, John D.W. Watts, Isaiah 34 – 66 (WBC 25; Waco, TX: Word

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ever, it could also be mentioned here that the debate is not consistent. Rather, a variety of different agendas appear to be present.

Why A New Reading Is Necessary Quite a few issues spring to mind when browsing secondary literature on Isaiah 40 – 66. For instance, it is striking how much present day debates on “TritoIsaiah” rely on discussions that took place more than a hundred years ago.7 This observation is valid also for claims made concerning the relationship between Isaiah 40 – 55 and 56 – 66. More often than not, Isaiah 56 – 66 is treated without proper intrinsic consideration of “the text itself.” Frequently, chapters 56 – 66 are felt as “inferior” additions to Isaiah 40 – 55. Moreover, not a few scholars appear to have chapters 40 – 55 at the back of their minds when they make comments on what should be regarded as “valuable” or “interesting” or “relevant” in the Trito-Isaian corpus. One example of this kind of bias within current Trito-Isaian scholarship is, in my view, the commonly accepted notion that chapters 60 – 62 form the core text of “Trito-Isaiah.”8 I feel that such reductionist attempts to find a “canon in the Books, 1987). As for how he delineates the text, Watts regards Isaiah 52:13 – 57:21 as a unity. See, Isaiah 34 – 66, 219 – 64. Other examples are Sekine, Die Tritojesajanische Sammlung; John N. Oswalt, The Book of Isaiah: Chapters 40 – 66 (NICOT; Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1998), 451 – 693, and Benjamin D. Sommer, A Prophet Reads Scripture: Allusion in Isaiah 40 – 66 (Contraversions. Jews and Other Differences; Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1998), 187 – 95. 7 A small selection of influential commentaries, still indirectly important, may consist of Thomas K. Cheyne, Introduction to the Book of Isaiah: With an Appendix Containing the Undoubted Portions of the Two Chief Prophetic Writers in Translation (London: Black, 1895); Duhm, Das Buch Jesaja; Karl Marti, Das Buch Jesaja erkla¨rt von … (KHC, 10; Tu¨bingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1900), and Paul Volz, Jesaja II u¨bersetzt und erkla¨rt (KAT, Band IX, 2, Leipzig: Deicherische, 1932). We must always take into consideration that Cheyne, Duhm, Marti, Volz, Torrey, and all other scholars of their generations share hermeneutical presuppositions that are no longer current. However, this does not at all imply that their contributions can be ignored. These scholars have all contributed to what Gadamer refers to with the German word Tradition, vital among the various presuppositions that make understanding possible. However, since ideas from the past are not static or timeless, there will always be culture translation problems involved. 8 Among several who assume or indicate that chapters 60 – 62 constitute the most important part of Trito-Isaiah, only a few can be mentioned here: Walther Zimmerli, “Zur Sprache Tritojesajas,” in idem, Gottes Offenbarung. Gesammelte Aufsa¨tze zum Alten Testament (Theologische Bu¨cherei 19; Mu¨nchen: Kaiser, 1963), 217 – 33 [originally published in 1950]; Poru´bcˇan, Il Patto nuovo, 201 – 02; Claus Westermann, Das Buch Jesaja Kapitel 40 – 66 u¨bersetzt und erkla¨rt von … (2nd ed.; ATD 19; Go¨ttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1970), 237; Sekine, Die Tritojesajanische Sammlung, 68 – 104. Sekine’s arguments are not convincing. He simply takes over current views of Isa 60 – 62 automatically. He claims, however, to be

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canon” fail to do justice to this rich, varied, and informative text. Or, if one insists on reductionist approaches (which I do not), there are other “candidates” that are better suited (e. g. Sabbath).9 My notes on Isaiah 56 – 66 below are based on a “close reading” of the text. The hermeneutical process has been usefully described by, among others, Gadamar and Ricœur.10 The process of reading and understanding may not be as simple as one might think. This has partly to do with the role and nature of reader presuppositions. Presuppositions (e. g. personal circumstances, scholarly upbringing, and the study of secondary literature) are, according to Gadamer, necessary prerequisites for understanding texts. However, presumptions change continuously also during our work with texts. Close reading is a process that never ends. However, for purely pragmatic reasons, we simply cannot just go on reading. We will have to accept that what we write down (even in the most detailed commentary) will always remain “unfinished.” At the same time, our work represents necessary contributions and corrections to never ending exegetical and hermeneutical processes. Isaiah 56 – 66 represents a piece of classical Hebrew poetry.11 Occasionally, the text is difficult to read. Some words cannot be understood at all. In a few places, the text is damaged beyond repair, and the meaning has to be guessed. My own work on the Isaiah scroll has been inspired by some of the debates on linearity and spatiality. Already in my book on Deutero-Isaiah in 1989, I found this a

critical as he rearranges chapters chronologically from 60 – 62 to 60 – 61 – 62 and considers 60:14aß to be a late Glosse (Die Tritojesajanische Sammlung), 101; Odil Hannes Steck, Studien zu Tritojesaja (BZAW 203; Berlin: de Gruyter, 1991), 119 – 39; Wolfgang Lau, Schriftgelehrte Prophetie in Jes 56 – 66: Eine Untersuchung zu den literarischen Bezu¨gen in den letzten elf Kapiteln des Jesajabuches (BZAW 225; Berlin: de Gruyter, 1994), 22 – 117; Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56 – 66, 38. 9 However, it should also be mentioned that only a minority of Trito-Isaian researchers should be accused of being too heavily based on “old scholarship.” My remarks above may be felt unfair by the many that do not belong in this group. Refreshingly different is Gregory J. Polan, In the Ways of Justice Toward Salvation: A Rhetorical Analysis of Isaiah 56 – 59 (American University Studies Series, 7; Theology and Religion, 13; New York: Peter Lang, 1986). For a highly interesting attempt to study Isaiah 56 – 66 from an iconographical point of view, see Izaak J. de Hulster, Iconographic Exegesis and Third Isaiah (FAT 2/36; Tu¨bingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2009). The volume at hand represents yet another example of attempts to break new ground. 10 Hans-Georg Gadamer, Wahrheit und Methode: Grundzu¨ge einer philosophischen Hermeneutik (6th ed.; Hermeneutik 1. Gesammelte Werke 1; Tu¨bingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1990). This work was originally published in 1960. Paul Ricœur, Temps et re´cit (3 vols.; 1. L’intrigue et le re´cit historique; 2. La configuration dans le re´cit de fiction. 3. Le temps raconte´ ; Paris: Seuil, 1983 – 1985). For my own part, I have often found Gadamer more useful than Ricœur. 11 The present work is based on Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia (ed. Karl Elliger and Wilhelm Rudolph; 5th ed.; Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 1997).

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useful tool for entering into the complexities of the text.12 In my view, the observation that classical Hebrew poetry is both linear (like a text) and spatial (like a painting) at the same time is highly relevant for how we approach the message of the text. In some of the secondary literature, it may occasionally seem as if the poetic nature of prophetic texts has been underestimated. In the present contribution, the interest lies not primarily in the relationship between “Deutero-” and “Trito-Isaiah.” Rather, I want to look more closely at the main message of Isaiah 56 – 66. This is, in my view, useful due to biases that have developed within “Trito-Isaian” research over the years. I would like to stress that my reading does not at all exclude other readings. In present day intellectual climate, we should all endorse multi-methodological approaches to texts. By reading quickly through Isaiah 56 – 66, one will, roughly, find the “usual” prophetic types of literature: Salvation words (conditional) to the people (56:1 – 8); criticism of the local leaders (56:9 – 12); accusations against the people (57:1 – 13a); salvation words to the people (Isaiah 57:13b–21); accusations against the people (58:1 – 7); conditional salvation words to the people (58:8 – 14); accusations and threats of punishment against the people (59:1 – 15a); salvation words to Israel and judgment for the nations (59:15b–21); a mixture of salvation words to Israel and words against the nations (60 – 61); salvation words to the people (62); judgment for Edom and the nations (63:1 – 6); prayer concerning Israel’s salvation (63:7 – 64:12); conditional salvation words to the people (65), and a mixture of salvation and judgment words to the people and words against the nation (66). When working with the Trito-Isaian corpus during the last year or so, I frequently ran into difficulties. Due to its spatial nature, it is difficult to find a feasible way “into” the text. I changed my mind many times concerning what topics might be counted as the most important ones. Apparently, a multitude of different issues seem pertinent as “door openers” to Isaiah 56 – 66. Among them, we find “God,” “Israel,” “Jerusalem,” “Zion,” “temple,” “foreigners,” “Holiness,” “Sabbath,” “idol worship,” and “eligibility to the congregation.” Others, too, could have been included.

12 Hans M. Barstad, A Way in the Wilderness: The “Second Exodus” in the Message of Second Isaiah (JSSM 12; Manchester : University of Manchester, 1989), 20, n. 53. Since then, this useful tool has been developed even further. For two “recent” contributions in this area, see William J.T. Mitchell, “Spatial Form in Literature: Toward a General Theory,” Critical Inquiry 6 (1980): 539 – 67 and Jessica Smith, “The Plasticity of Poetry,” Literature Compass 3 (2006): 613 – 24.

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Isaiah 56:1 – 8: Two Ways of Approaching the Text I ended up by taking my starting point at Isa 56:1 – 8. For obvious reasons, many have discussed this introductory passage to the Trito-Isaian corpus over the years.13 Particularly useful, in my view, are contributions that consider Isa 56:1 – 8 to be a meaningful “unit.” Among recent Isaiah scholars, I have, among others, profited from the works of Wim Beuken, Joseph Blenkinsopp, Brevard Childs, and John Oswalt. In spite of differences due to their time of writing, I have also learnt a lot from reading Karl Elliger14 and Hugo Odeberg.15 Both Elliger and Odeberg read Isaiah 56, more or less, in its “final” form. In my view, this works very well. Obviously, methods and mentalities are very different today, but these issues should always be taken into consideration. Elliger is a dedicated and competent Literargeschichtler. Nevertheless, he is able to see the text as a meaningful unity. However, he dates Isa 56:1 – 8 as a later addition to “Trito-Isaiah.” In meiner Schrift „Die Einheit des Tritojesaja“ habe ich den Beweis zu erbringen versucht, daß entgegen der gewo¨hnlichen Annahme die elf Schlußkapitel des Jesajabuches, abgesehen von einigen Zusa¨tzen, aus der Hand eines Verfassers stammen, und zwar aus der zweiten Ha¨lfte des VI. Jhs.16

The few later additions are, according to Elliger, Isa 56:3 – 8; 57:13b, 20 f.; 58:13 – 14.; 59:5 – 8, 21; 60:12, 17aß; 65:20b, and 66:17, 18 – 22, 23 – 24.17 At least to me, there appears to be no clear logic behind this selection of “later additions.” Odeberg, too, works as a source historian. He will, in principle, accept later insertions, glosses, and emendations of the text throughout the commentary. He would, as a rule, have few objections to Elliger’s suggestions.18 However, Odeberg disagrees with Elliger on Isa 56:1 – 8.

13 The literature on Isaiah 56:1 – 8 is huge. For convenience, see Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56 – 66, 129 – 43; Brevard S. Childs, Isaiah: A Commentary (OTL; Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2001), 451 – 59, and Oswalt, The Book of Isaiah, 449 – 61. All of these interpreters underline usefully the necessity of reading the final form of the text. 14 Karl Elliger, Die Einheit des Tritojesaja (Jesaja 56 – 66) (BWANT 45; Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1928) and, by the same author, Deuterojesaja in seinem Verha¨ltnis zu Tritojesaja (BWANT 63; Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1933). 15 Hugo Odeberg, Trito-Isaiah (Isaiah 56 – 66): A Literary and Linguistic Analysis (Uppsala ˚ rsskrift Teologi, 1; Lund: Lundequistska, 1931). Universitets A 16 Karl Elliger, “Der Prophet Tritojesaja,” ZAW 49 (1931): 112 – 41, here 113. 17 Elliger, “Der Prophet Tritojesaja,” n. 2. 18 Odeberg would, for instance, write about Isa 58:13 – 14: “58 13. 14 generally recognized as a later addition” (Trito-Isaiah, 162).

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The question of the authenticity (i. e. the unity of authorship with the other parts of chs 56 – 66), thus, must refer to the whole of vss. 1 – 8 (Duhm, Box), not to 3 – 8 alone (Elliger). The section, however, contains so many characteristic terms, expressions, and peculiarities of language in common with the rest of Trito-Isaiah – for which reference may here be made to pp. 33 – 62 below – that it would seem that the reasons for regarding vss. 1 – 8 as belonging to Trit(!)-Isa weigh down the arguments against this view.19

In my view, Odeberg has shown convincingly how Isa 56:1 – 8 is integrated fully into the Trito-Isaian corpus. Odeberg’s monograph is also laudably international, referring to a huge variety of contemporary Hebrew Bible scholars.20 It utilizes successfully the different approaches to Isaiah 56 – 66 in a true multimethodological fashion. Due to the comprehensiveness of the work and the eminent skills of its author, Odeberg may still be helpful. However, the work is not acceptable in today’s intellectual climate and should be used with caution. Above all, there are problems in relation to Odeberg’s use of comparative texts. More often than not, claims concerning “allusion,” “assonance,” “echo,” “quotation,” “influence,” “similarity,” or other related terms, are based on some kind of dating procedure of individual texts. This is unfortunate due to several circumstances. The remarks that follow are solely mine, of course. Undoubtedly, others will have different, equally adequate views. Over the last forty years or so, I have encountered numerous attempts to date individual passages in the Hebrew Bible. I have never (I believe) come across an unequivocal one. Since dating is such a rickety business, many comparisons that attempt to demonstrate “influence” from one particular text to another are easily jeopardized. Without secure criteria for influence direction, we must ask if comparisons of this kind should be undertaken at all? This question would apply for all texts of the Hebrew Bible. However, in the present context, I am only concerned with the Isaiah scroll. A separate issue, of course, is why comparisons are made in the first place? Why do scholars claim that certain words or phrases in Isaiah 56 – 66, or Isaiah 40 – 55, “derive from” or “are influenced by” other texts? Quite frequently, the contrasting of texts appears to be based on a conviction that knowledge about

19 Odeberg, Trito-Isaiah, 8. 20 Odeberg’s influences are above all Karl Elliger and George Herbert Box (Odeberg was a student of Box), both equally eminent. Among other scholars, we find Rudolf Abramowski, Thomas Kelly Cheyne, Franz Delitzsch, August Dillmann, Bernhard Duhm, Arnold B. Ehrlich, Franz Feldmann, Wilhelm Gesenius, Ludvig Glahn, Gustav Ho¨lscher, Ludwig Ko¨hler, Karl Marti, Jacques Marty, Sigmund Mowinckel, John Skinner, George Adam Smith, Carl Steuernagel, George W. Wade, and Owen C. Whitehouse. As we see, all of these names belong among the foremost Isaiah experts of the time.

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how a text came into existence, or the study of its “history,” will also lead to a better understanding of the message of a text. In Odeberg’s 1931 study, Isa 56:1 – 8 is construed as a unity. In this, Odeberg follows Elliger. However, both with regard to the nature of the Isaiah scroll and in relation to how Isaiah 56 – 66 came into existence, there would be some problems with their approach today. To Odeberg, as far as I can see, the text is like a “quilt,” or “mosaic,” made up of pieces taken from Proto- and Deutero-Isaiah, and, not least, from a series of texts extrinsic to the Isaiah scroll. Odeberg’s list of allusions (the term used is “affinities”) to other texts in Isaiah 56 – 66 is comprehensive.21 However, the organization and nature of the work is piecemeal and fragmentised, influenced by contemporary “origin” views. Clearly, Odeberg should not be criticised unduly. We are all subject to tastes and ways of thinking of the times in which we live. Here, of course, I am only repeating old exegetical knowledge (“Auf die Brille kommt es an”). Whereas hindsight is not a scholarly virtue, clear-sightedness ought to be. It is important to assess and to “reuse” valuable secondary literature, and to try to make it accessible for contemporary exegetical purposes. The main problem with Odeberg for today, in my view, is that sources extrinsic to Isaiah 56 – 66 become too dominant in the interpretation of Isaiah 56 – 66. In this way, methods useful as epistemological and preliminary procedures replace the text itself and become “text substitutes.” One of the “best” worst examples of this practice may be found in the role attributed to “allusions” in some of the secondary literature. Allusions form a common part of classical Hebrew literature, possibly more frequent in poetry than in prose. However, as they constitute a part of language usage, they are more universal than specific. The purpose of this feature is to underline a particular argument. However, the point made in the text is rarely found outside of the text where the allusions occur. Allusions are important as rhetorical motivations. However, they are by nature preliminary and introductory. Allusions have a similar effect as 8NF9 statements. Notwithstanding the length of the elaborate introductory phrases, what follows after 8NF9 always represents the important part of the message. In the periods following Elliger and Odeberg, exegetical contributions to “Trito-Isaiah” can, very roughly, be divided into two groups. Whereas formerly “diachronic” methods were dominating, recent decades have witnessed a growing number of “synchronic” approaches. Diachronic scholars have a different way a reading and understanding Isa 56:1 – 8 from the one that I propose in the essay at hand. 21 Odeberg discusses “all” occurrences of words and phrases in the Hebrew Bible relating to Isa 56:1 – 8 (Trito-Isaiah, 33 – 62).

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For illustration, I will, very briefly, mention only two representative “redaction historians” here, Seizo Sekine22 and Wolfgang Lau. According to Sekine, Isa 56:1 – 8 consists of two parts, where the original unit 56:1 – 5 should be dated between 515 and the first part of the 5th century bce. In addition, Isa 56:9 – 57:13 represents yet another post-exilic unit.23 However, Sekine is highly critical of Budde, Westermann and others who believe that 56:9 – 57:13 should be divided into several sub-units.24 A weakness in Sekine’s work is the attempt to argue against the “unity” of Isaiah 56 – 66 based on the arguments of Karl Elliger. Obviously, Elliger’s work is extremely important to all scholars interested in Isaiah 56 – 66. However, it is anachronistic (and even unfair) to use Elliger’s studies without taking into due consideration differences in time and mentality between the two authors. Texts and languages are not static or timeless. To Lau, too, Isa 56:1 – 8 is not well regarded.25 The text belongs, with 63:1 – 626 and 63:7 – 64:1127 to Lau’s youngest, non-prophetic Einzelu¨berlieferungen. Isa 56:9 – 12 and 57:1 – 2, on the other hand,28 belong to Lau’s Tradentenkreis III, with Isa 59:1 – 2129 and Isa 58:1 – 14.30 Even if Lau’s study is learned and very useful for its exegetical observations, the overall arguments are, in my view, too speculative and fail to convince. A house divided? It cannot be denied that there are multiple disagreements between “synchronic” and “diachronic” approaches to Isa 56 – 66. Nevertheless, it is vital that the two “camps” read each other’s works. A “final form” reader will always find valuable exegetical observations in high quality diachronic studies (like those of Sekine and Lau referred to above). In my view, different methods are never mutually exclusive. They always supplement each other. With Blenkinsopp, Childs, Oswalt, and other commentators, I read Isa 56:1 – 8 in its final form. I do this simply because it is possible to read and understand it as a text. To me, Isa 56:1 – 8 makes sense as a (conditional) salvation word to Israel.

22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

Sekine has a full discussion of Isa 56:1 – 8 (Die Tritojesajanische Sammlung, 31 – 42). Sekine, Die Tritojesajanische Sammlung, 42. Sekine, Die Tritojesajanische Sammlung, 111. Lau, Schriftgelehrte Prophetie, 262 – 79. Lau, Schriftgelehrte Prophetie, 279 – 86. Lau, Schriftgelehrte Prophetie, 286 – 315. Lau, Schriftgelehrte Prophetie, 229 – 39. Lau, Schriftgelehrte Prophetie, 203 – 29. Lau, Schriftgelehrte Prophetie, 240 – 61.

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Isaiah 56:1 – 2 56:1. Thus speaks Yhwh: Keep (9LBM) justice (üHMB) and do (9MF9) righteousness (8K7J) for my salvation (=NF9M=) is imminent, and my righteousness (=NK7J9) will soon be revealed (N9@68@). 2. Blessed (=LM4) is the one (M9D4) who does (N4:.8MF=) this, the one who (A74.C59) holds fast (K=:;=) to it, who keeps (LBM) Sabbath, not profaning it (9@@;B), and keeps (LBM) his hand from doing any evil (FL.@?).

The addressee of this message is, similar to what we find in Isaiah 1 – 39 and 40 – 55, Jerusalem/Israel. Isa 56:1 – 2 contains a string of Deutero-Isaian assonances. However, unlike chapters 40 – 55, the flavour of Isaiah 56 is “priestly-theological,” reflecting issues that were probably discussed in the time of the “authors.” The particular “priestly” flavour is indicated by LBM, here in the meaning “observe,” “keep obligation.”31 The term LBM appears four times in Isa 56:2 – 4. However, it is not found elsewhere in the corpus. This distinctive distribution reveals the programmatic status of LBM in Trito-Isaiah. Furthermore, LBM also occurs twice in related usages in Isaiah 1 – 55, once in Isa 26:2 and once in Isa 42:20. This certainly cannot be a coincidence. Rather, it shows how Isaiah 56 – 66 uses from the whole Isaiah tradition. The 8NF9 effect, on the other hand, only concerns the Sabbath. The Sabbath is the key to understanding the Trito-Isaian text. The general, final summing up statement in Isa 56:2 about not doing any evil (FL.@?), is also introduced through LBM. In this way, even further weight is put on Sabbath. The general, more generic reference to profaning the Sabbath in Isa 56:2 is matched by the occurrence of the lexeme FL in Isa 59:7; 59:15, and 65:12. Isa 59:1 – 8 consists of a long list of transgressions and constitutes a well-composed piece of poetry on sinful behaviour. Isa 59:1 – 8 clearly reflects Isa 56:1 – 2, as well as other “sin” related statements in Isaiah 56 – 66 (on Isaiah 59, see below). In these contexts, one should note the negative reference to the worship of the deities Gad and Meni in Isa 65:11, preceded by a long list of idolatrous practices in Isa 65:3 – 7. Isa 57:4 – 10, too, refers to various illicit cults. Finally, Isa 66:3 also deals with a related issue. The high concentration of salvation terminology in Isa 56:1 – 2 reflects the

31 There are no reasons today why any elements in “Trito-Isaiah” cannot be referred to as “prophecy.” Odeberg belonged to a generation that assumed that prophecy ended with the Second Temple era. “It is safe, then, to state that the introduction of 56 2 is not that of a prophetic oracle” (Odeberg, Trito-Isaiah, 36). The continued existence of “prophecy” in ancient Israel is now amply attested in the secondary literature. See, for instance, David Aune, Prophecy in Early Christianity and the Ancient Mediterranean World (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1983) and John Barton, Oracles of God: Perceptions of Ancient Prophecy in Israel after the Exile (London: Darton, Longman and Todd, 1986).

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importance of salvific issues throughout the Trito-Isaian corpus.32 In 56:1 – 8, “foreigners” and “eunuchs,” are put at the forefront of the soteriological debate (on these important groups, see below). In addition to the reference in Isa 56:1, üHMB appears also in 58:2 (twice); 59:8; 59:9; 59:11; 59:14; 59:15, and 61:8. 8K7J appears in Isa 56:1 (twice). Other occurrences in Trito-Isaiah are Isa 57:12; 58:2; 59:9; 59:14; 59:16; 59:17; 60:17; 61:10; 61:11; 63:10, and 64:5. Beyond Isa 56:1, 8F9M= appears in 59:11; 59:17; 60:18, and 62:1. Related usages are FM= in Isa 61:10 and 62:11, and F=M9B in Isa 60:8 and 63:8. Verbal forms of FM= occur in Isa 59:1; 59:16; 63:1; 63:5; 63:9, and 64:4. As we see, three of the most important soteriological terms in the Hebrew Bible (and in the Isaiah scroll!) are well represented in the Trito-Isaian corpus. Their importance is clearly indicated in the introductory pericope Isa 56:1 – 2. The term FL is the common generic antonym for all of these salvific terms.

The Sabbath The lexeme N5M is rare in the Isaiah scroll and appears only once in Isa 1:13 outside of Trito-Isaiah.33 N5M ipsissimum verbum appears in Isa 56:2; 56:4; 56:6; 58:13 (twice); 66:22, and 66:23. The occurrence in Isa 66:23 is cursory and different. The overwhelming importance of Sabbath in Isaiah 56 – 66 is not easily seen from its distribution alone. For this reason, all Sabbath texts need to be discussed in detail. This, of course, cannot be done in the present context. Some weight should be put on the introductory unit Isa 56:1 – 8 where Sabbath is a key issue for entering late post-exilic temple society (see below).34

32 Still useful is Friedrich V. Reiterer, Gerechtigkeit als Heil. K7J bei Deuterojesaja: Aussage und Vergleich mit der alttestamentlichen Tradition (Graz: Akademische Druck und Verlagsanstalt, 1976). However, whereas there are some references to Isaiah 1 – 39 in this monograph, there is no mention of Isaiah 56 – 66. I may also mention John W. Olley, “Righteousness” in the Septuagint of Isaiah: A Contextual Study (SBLSCS 8; Missoula, MT: Scholars Press, 1979). Olley also deals with Isaiah 56 – 66. Even if Septuagint research is different today this work still has some interesting points. For a fine study of “righteousness” in the whole of the Isaiah scroll by John Oswalt, see n. 3 above. 33 On Isa 1:13, see Hugh G.M. Williamson, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Isaiah 1 – 27: Commentary on Isaiah 1 – 5 (3 vols.; ICC; London/New York: T&T Clark, 2006), 1:94. 34 I am not so sure that it is possible to date Isa 56:1 – 8 the way some have attempted to do. See, for example, Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56 – 66, 143 (ca. 520 bce), and Steck, Studien zu Tritojesaja, 34 – 44 (early Hellenistic).

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Sabbath in Isaiah 58:13 The next reference to Sabbath is in Isa 58:13, in a word of judgement (conditional) to “Israel.” The “main” issue in chapter 58 is criticism of the fast/A9J (Isa 58:3 – 7), followed by a word of salvation in 58:8 – 12.

Isaiah 58:1 – 7 This text contains accusations against Israel. The expression 5KF= N=5/=BF appears in Isa 58:1.35 The people are pretending to do the right thing. The “ironic” exhortation in 58:2 – 3 has a double reference to 8K7J and üHMB. The admonition concerns the proper way to fast. Fasting should not be empty rituals, but should include a concern for the oppressed, hungry, and homeless. And again we note the “Deutero-Isaian” flair of Isa 58:1 – 2.

Isaiah 58:8 – 14 Throughout this unit there are Deutero-Isaian echoes. The condition for future prosperity is that the fast must be changed to become more of an act of solidarity with the poor and oppressed. The text is built up with a series of :4/A4 statements, all relating to the lack of proper fast practices described in 58:1 – 7. Among soteriological terms in 58:8 – 10 are 8K7J, 8?L4, L94, and 795?. Isa 58:11 – 12 refers to water motifs and the rebuilding of walls. 58:13 underlines the importance of the Sabbath as the most important ritual. If you hold back your foot from the Sabbath, and desist from doing your own delights on my holy day, and call the Sabbath a pleasure, and honour the holy day of the Lord, if you honour it instead of going your own ways, or pursuing what you want, or talking empty words, (v. 14) then you will take pleasure in the Lord, and I will make you ride upon the heights of the earth, and I will feed you with the heritage of Jacob your father, for the mouth of the Lord has spoken.

If there is a specific “Trito-Isaian” style, Isa 58:13 – 14 would be a fine example of it. We notice, once more, how contemporary issues are addressed, and how texts are used to make more general theological statements. From the description in 35 On AF, see below.

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Isaiah 58, it is clear that fasting is not regarded as vital or necessary in the belief system promoted in Isaiah 56 – 66. The role of the fast would be comparable to the relative importance of sacrifices extant in this text. This is, yet again, the 8NF9 technique. When compared with Sabbath, fasting is really not important at all.

Isaiah 59: An Anthropological, Soteriological, and Harmartiological “Cocktail” As we noted above under the discussion of Isa 56:1 – 2, there is a particularly high concentration of 8K7J, üHMB, and FM= in Isaiah 59. This chapter, consequently, contains soteriological reflections that are representative for the whole of Third Isaiah. Similarly, the contrasting of “sin” and “salvation” terminology is typical not only for the Isaiah scroll but also for prophetic texts of the Hebrew Bible in general. Moreover, the close connection between Isa 56:1 – 2 (the opening verses of the “prologue” Isa 56:1 – 8) and Isa 59, represents, yet again, a fine illustration of the inter-textuality found throughout the Trito-Isaian corpus. From a spatial point of view, we may observe how important salvific terms emanating in Isa 56:1 – 2 drizzle also other central scenes of the “painting.” Isaiah 59, too, abound in Second-Isaian assonances. One of the clearest examples is found in Isa 59:1. However, yet again the purpose of these phrases is purely rhetorical, signalling 8NF9. What comes now is not for what was before, but for the present audience. The topic is “accusations” against the many “sins” of the Jerusalemites. What happened before is not really of any relevance. The main function of these references to the past is to show that God is as concerned with his people today as in former times. The addressees are, roughly, the same throughout the Isaiah scroll: the “people” of Jerusalem and, to a lesser degree, “foreign nations.” However, since historical backgrounds differ, the events over which there is dispute vary. From Isa 59:2, we learn that Israel has not been saved because of “your iniquities”/ A?=ND9F and “your sins”/ A?=N94ü;9.36 In order to show “inter-textuality” in 36 “Iniquities,” “sins.” I follow no consistency in this essay when rendering various Hebrew lexemes for “sin” into English (e. g. “evil,” “vice,” “murder,” “iniquity,” “wickedness,” “crime,” “injustice”). The reason for this is partly because there is little consistency in Hebrew language usage. Hebrew poetic words for “sin” are not technical terms. Still useful as an orientation is Gabriel te Stroete, “Su¨nde im Alten Testament: Die Wiedergabe einiger hebra¨ischen Ausdru¨cke fu¨r ‘Su¨nde’ in fu¨nf gangbaren west-europa¨ischer Bibelu¨ber¨ bersetzung und Deutung: Studien zu dem Alten Testament und seiner setzungen,” in U Umwelt Alexander Reinhard Hulst gewidmet von Freunden und Kollegen (Nijkerk: Callenbach, 1977), 164 – 76.

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Trito-Isaiah, I list the most relevant “sin” lexemes below. For practical purposes, I mention the rest of the Isaiah scroll only when words are infrequent. The term C9F occurs in Isa 57:17; 59:2; 59:3; 59:4; 59:12; 64:5; 64:6; 64:8, and 65:7. N4ü; occurs in Isa 3:937; 6:7; 27:9; 30:1 (twice); 40:2; 43:24; 43:25; 44:22; 58:1; 59:2, and 59:12. 84ü; occurs in Isa 5:18. 4ü; occurs in Isa 1:18; 31:7; 38:17, and 53:12. 4ü; (adjective) in Isa 1:18;38 13:9, and 33:14. 4ü; (verb, in a variety of meanings), occurs in Isa 1:4;39 29:21; 42:24; 43:27; 64:4, and 65:20. N4ü; in the meaning “sin offering” is (apparently) not used in the Isaiah scroll (frequent in Ezekiel). Another offence referred to as irreconcilable with true Yhwh-worship is the term A7, “murder,” occurring in Isa 59:3 and 59:7. In Isa 1:15 – 16, the expression “their hands are full of blood (A=B7)” turns up in a catalogue of sins for Zion.40 Formally, the addressees are the same in these two Isaiah texts. However, since historical circumstances are changed and other issues are at stake, in reality, audiences are not identical. The word A7 also appears in Isa 66:3. Here, however, the text is not at all comprehensible. There appears to be a criticism against blood sacrifices in general. What is clear in this verse, however, is the reference to L=:;.A7. This fits also the wider context (cf. the reference to eating swine’s flesh in Isa 65:4). Critique of sacrifices is typical of all prophetic literature. However, as the contents of texts vary a lot, each and every instance has to be looked into separately. Undoubtedly, some of the harsh attacks on cultic activity in Isaiah 56 – 66 are directed towards “foreign” cults (see above). However, there are also indications of mentality changes. Attitudes towards traditional sacrifices are different in Isaiah 56 – 66 because of the relative importance of the Sabbath. However, as it is the case in other prophetic books, we may also be dealing with a kind of “spiritualizing” where more weight is put on “morals” and “ethical” behaviour. If this were the case, this would be similar to what we noted above in relation to the fast. A few further hamartiological idioms should be mentioned. LKM, “lie,” “deception,” appears in Isa 57:4; 59:3, and 59:13. 98N, “nothingness,” in Isa 59:4 is a rare word. However, more than half the occurrences in the Hebrew Bible appear in the Isaiah scroll (Isa 24:10; 29:21; 34:11; 40:17; 40:23; 41:29; 44:9; 45:18; 45:19; 49:4, and 59:4). Due to the several occurrences of 98N in Deutero-Isaiah, there can be but little doubt that we are, yet again, dealing with allusions.

37 38 39 40

For this verse, see Williamson, Isaiah 1 – 5, 1:217 – 18. Thoroughly discussed by Williamson, Isaiah 1 – 5, 1:111 – 18. Detailed discussion in Williamson, Isaiah 1 – 5, 1:36 – 46. For this expression, see Williamson, Isaiah 1 – 5, 1:97 – 98.

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However, the clearest lawsuit “parallel” is found in Isa 29:21. 49M, “worthlessness,” is also a “rare” word, occurring in Isa 1:13; 5:18; 30:28, and 59:4.

“Foreigners” and “Eunuchs” Whereas “eunuchs”41 are rare in the Hebrew Bible, “foreigners”42 fill the prophetic texts of the Old Testament. The same applies for Isaiah 56 – 66. However, a variety of words are used for “foreigner” and each text has to be looked into separately. This is particularly the case in Isaiah 56 – 66 where quite different issues are involved. The status of eunuchs and foreigners are dealt with in Isa 56:3 – 7. It is possible that these two important social groups are mentioned together as many “eunuchs” may have been “foreigners.” The text makes a strong point that both of these groups must be accepted as full members of the Jerusalem temple congregation. There are no reasons why there should be restrictions to this admission the way some scholars assume.

Isaiah 56:3 – 5 56:3. And the foreigner who adheres (89@68)43 to Yhwh must not say, surely Yhwh will exclude me (=D@=75= @758) from his people (9BF). And the eunuch (E=LE8) must not say : See, I am but a dry tree. 4. For thus speaks Yhwh: To the eunuchs who keep (9LBM=) my Sabbaths and choose what is pleasing to me (=NJH;), and who cling (A=K=:;B9) to my covenant (=N=L55), 5. I will give them, in my house and within my walls, a memorial (7=) and a name better than sons and daughters; I will give him an everlasting name that shall not be cut off (NL?=).

41 The literature on “eunuchs” in the ancient Near East is growing rapidly. In this area, too, some of the commentaries on Isa 56 – 66 still reflect outdated mentalities. The most updated discussion on “eunuchs” and “eunuchism” that I have come across is Llloyd Llewellyn-Jones, King and Court in Ancient Persia 559 to 331 bce (Debates and Documents in Ancient History ; Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2013), 38 – 40, and passim (see index). 42 The latest contribution to the role of “foreigners” in the “Second Temple Period” that I have seen is Mark A. Awabdy, “Yhwh Exegetes Torah: How Ezekiel 44:7 – 9 Bars Foreigners from the Sanctuary,” JBL 131 (2012): 685 – 703. Very comprehensive, including comparative materials, is Markus Zehnder, Umgang mit Fremden in Israel und Assyrien: Ein Beitrag zur Anthropologie der „Fremden“ im Licht antiker Quellen (BWANT 168; Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 2005). 43 Niphal of 89@ in Isa 14:1; 44:5; 50:4 – 9; 56:3, and 56:6. Other occurrences in Jeremiah 50:5; Zechariah 2:15; Psalm 83:9; Esther 9:27, and Daniel 11:34.

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The word @758 appears also in Isa 59:2 in a different, but relevant text. The statement about the foreigner in Isa 56:3 echoes the use of the lexeme in Leviticus 20:24. Another interesting text is Ezra 6:21. The lexeme AF is frequent Trito-Isaiah, occurring in Isa 56:3; 56:7; 57:14; 58:1; 60:21; 61:9; 62:10 (twice); 62:12; 64:12 63:3; 63:6; 63:8; 63:14; 63:18; 64:8; 65:2; 65:10; 65:18; 65:19, and 65:22. In Isa 56:3, AF is used in relation to “foreigner” (L?D8.C5). In 56:7, however, the plural form is used in a universal sense, “all peoples.” In 57:14, =BF appears in a word of salvation (Deutero-Isaian assonance). In Isa 58:1, =BF (also with DeuteroIsaian echo) introduces the “sins” of the people. In 60:21, in another word of salvation, likewise with Deutero-Isaian flavour, we read, “and all of your people shall be righteous (A=K=7J), they shall possess (9ML==) land (IL4) forever.” In Isa 61:9, in yet another salvation word to Zion, their descendants (AFL:) and offspring (A8=4J4J) will be so prosperous that the nations will realize that God has blessed them. In 62:10, in a salvation word to Zion, reminiscent of Isaiah 40 – 55, AF in singular refers to the people, whereas the plural form in the same verse concerns the nations. In 62:12, the very same people are referred to as M7K8.AF. In Isa 63:3, a holy war text against Edom, A=BF is, yet again, used of the foreign nations. The same is the case for A=BF in Isa 63:6. In the “Community Lament,” Isa 63:7 – 64:12, AF appears ironically in 63:8 (“Surely, they are my people”); with a reference to the past in Isa 63:14 (“Thus you led your people”); with despair in 63:18 (the sanctuary of the holy people is violated), and with a confidence declaration in Isa 64:8 (“we are all your people”). The final occurrences of AF are found in a salvation oracle in Isaiah 65. In Isa 65:2, the people are referred to as LL9A AF. However, this is now a thing of the past and in 65:10 =BF occurs in a conditional word of salvation. This prosperous future for =BF and Jerusalem is described also in Isa 65:18; 65:19, and in Isa 65:22. An interesting discovery above is the considerable weight put on “off-spring.” FL: appears in Isa 1:4; 5:10; 6:13; 14:20; 17:11; 23:3; 30:23; 41:8; 44:3; 45:3; 45:19; 45:25; 48:19; 53:10; 54:3; 55:10; 57:3(!); 57:4; 59:21; 61:9 (twice); 65:9; 65:23, and 66:22. The verbal form is present in Isa 17:10; 28:24; 30:23; 32:20; 37:30; 40:24, and 55:10. One should also note the synonym A=4J4J, occurring only in Isa 22:24; 34:1; 42:5; 44:3; 48:19; 61:9, and 65:23 and in Job 5:25; 21:28; 27:14, and 31:8. Semantically related expressions to “off-spring” are “inheritance/possession” and “inherit/take possession of.” The verb ML= occurs in Isa 57:13; 60:21; 61:7; 63:18, and 65:9 (twice). @;D appears in Isa 14:2; 49:8, and 57:13. 8@;D turns up in Isa 19:25; 47:6; 49:8; 54:17, and 58:14. K@; is found in Isa 14:5. IL4 also occurs, in similar usages, in Isa 57:13; 60:18; 60:21, and 62:4 (thrice). We can observe how statements like “what is pleasing to me” and “who cling

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to my covenant”44 are synonyms in Isa 56:4. When used of God, IH; can refer to different issues. In 56:4, the term is used of the acceptance of “eunuchs” and “foreigners” into the Jerusalem temple congregation. The lexicographical survey above shows the wider economic, sociological and cultural implications of being accepted as a part of 898= AF. For this reason, it is quite clear that what is referred to in Isa 56:1 – 8 must refer to a “complete” integration. In other words, this text must have been of major contemporary importance with far reaching economic and theological consequences.

Isaiah 56:6 – 7 56:6. And the foreigners (L?D8 =D59) who join themselves (A=9@D8) to Yhwh, to minister to him (9NLM@), to love (8584@9) the name of Yhwh, and to be his servants,45 all who keep the Sabbath, and do not profane it (9@@;B), and hold fast my covenant, 7. I will bring them to my holy mountain,46 and let them rejoice (A=N;BM9) in my house of prayer; their burntofferings and their sacrifices will be accepted (C9JL@) on my altar; for my house shall be called house of prayer for all peoples.

The term NLM, “minister”, occurs in Isa 56:6; 60:7, and 60:10 in cultic contexts. This word is particularly frequent in Ezekiel. The noun NLMB appears in Isa 61:6. N=L5 appears in Isa 24:5; 28:15; 28:18; 33:8; 42:6; 49:8; 54:10; 54:10; 55:3; 56:4; 56:6; 59:21, and 61:8. 584 occurs in Isa 1:23; 43:4; 48:14; 56:10; 57:8, and 61:8; 8584 in Isa 56:6 and 63:9; and 584 (“friend”) in Isa 41:8 and 66:10. In 56:7, the phrase =M7K L8.@4 A=N94=589 is used of foreigner (L?D8.C5) and eunuch (E=LE8). =M7K L8 in Isa 56:7 is contrasted with the not so holy mountain in the 57:7. Here, a series of “illegal” sacrifices are described (Isa 57:3 – 13). In the lengthy verse 13, the whole issue is summed up by condemning idols and encourage true worship that will result in “possessing land and inheriting my holy mountain.” The concentration in verse 7 around “temple terminology” is remarkable. It shows how important foreigners and eunuchs were in contemporary society. It was, above all for economic reasons, necessary to include these population groups into the Jerusalem temple society. Moreover, not a few of the other “foreigner” texts in Isaiah 56 – 66 should be understood in the light of this. We note with interest that sacrifices will be accepted. 8@F appears in Isa 1:11; 40:16; 43:23; 56:7; 61:8; ;5: in Isa 1:11; 19:21; 34:6; 43:23; 43:24; 56:7; 57:7. This implies that proper sacrifices are accepted. However, from the Sabbath texts in 44 45 46

N=L5 occurs in Isa 24:5; 28:15; 28:18; 33:8; 42:6; 49:8; 54:10; 55:3; 56:4; 56:6; 59:21, and 61:8.

in plural is used in Isa 19:21. occurs in Isa 56:7; 57:7; 57:13; 63:19; 64:2; 65:7; 65:9; 65:11; 65:26, and 66:20.

A=75F L8

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Isaiah 56 – 66 one has to conclude that sacrifices are less important than the Sabbath. The word C9JL appears in Isa 49:8; 56:7, 58:5; 60:7; 60:10, and 61:2. 8JL is found in Isa 40:2 and 42:1. IH; is more frequent in the Isaiah scroll and occurs in Isa 1:11; 13:17; 42:21; 53:10; 55:11; 56:4; 58:2 (twice); 58:3; 58: 13 (twice) 62:4 (twice); 65:12; 66:3, and 66:4. In Isaiah 58 the lexeme IH; is used contrastively and ironically about the people’s delight. This chapter is built up around a critique of the fast because. Instead of oppressing workers, true fasting is to provide for the poor, hungry, home-less, and needy.

Isaiah 56:8 56:8. Thus speaks (A4D) the Lord God who gathers (I5KB) the scattered (=;7D) of Israel; Again, I will gather (79F I5K4) to him, to his already gathered ones (9=J5KD@).

The root I5K is relatively frequent in the Isaiah scroll. The lexeme appears in Isa 11:12; 13:14; 22:9; 34:15; 34:16; 40:11; 43:5; 43:9; 44:11; 45:20; 48:14; 54:7; 56:8 (trice); 60:4; 60:7; 62:9, and 66:18. ;7D, “scattered”, is not frequent and appears in Isa 11:12; 16:3; 16:4; 27:13, and 56:8. “To him” and “his” emphasize that is it God who acts. The triple use of I5K is not accidental and underlines even more the compact message of this verse.47 Ingathering texts and terminology are complex and manifold, as well as widespread throughout the Hebrew Bible. These texts fill many different purposes, and each and every one of them has to be looked into separately. Too often one may find simplified claims about these texts as referring to “return from exile.” This is more often than not simply incorrect.48 The same applies for Isaiah 56 – 66. Here, too, soteriological “ingathering” motifs are composite. Most commonly they refer to future (economic) prosperity for Jerusalem (see, Isa 60:1 – 7; 62:1 – 12, and 66:18).49 Isa 56:8 is a masterfully construed piece of poetry, short, and full of “intertextual” and “spatial” information to the listener/reader. The various divine epithets all underline the importance of the message. Verse 8 is not the end of

47 On triplets as a poetic technique, see, David Reimer, “On Triplets in a Trio of Prophets,” in Let us Go up to Zion: Essays in Honour of H.G.M. Williamson on the Occasion of his Sixty-Fifth Birthday (ed. Ian Provan and Mark J. Boda, VTSup 153; Leiden: Brill, 2012), 203 – 17. 48 For a broad discussion of many relevant texts, see Odeberg, Trito-Isaiah, 59 – 62. 49 See A=@M9L= in Isa 62:1; 62:6; 62:7; 64:9; 65:18; 65:19; 66:10; 66:13, and 66:20. See also C9=J in Isa 59:20; 60:14; 62:1; 64:9, and 66:8.

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56:1 – 7, nor the beginning of 56:9 – 12. Rather, it permeates the whole of Isaiah 56 – 66.

Isaiah 56:9 – 12 These verses contain solely very strong accusations against the leaders in Jerusalem (Isa 56:10, “his watchmen”, following Qere 9=HJ). I do not think that Isa 56:9 – 12 should be read in connection with Isaiah 57 as some do. These verses represent really an independent part. The leaders are all blind and do not understand. The “beasts” are unclear, but what is said about the leaders in general is unproblematic.

Conclusion Recent research has demonstrated beyond doubt the redactional “unity” of the Isaiah scroll. Due to many “overlaps” and numerous inter-textual references throughout Isaiah 1 – 66, we cannot any longer keep up artificial scholarly units like “Proto-Isaiah,” “Deutero-Isaiah,” or “Trito-Isaiah,” the way it has hitherto been done. Nevertheless, there are also some problems connected with these developments. For instance, there appears to be very little consensus concerning the nature of the “inter-textuality” of the Isaiah scroll and the way the text developed during approximately 400 years. Occasionally, scholarly biases have become too influential in the reading of “Trito-Isaiah.” One example of this could be the way some exegetes regard Isaiah 60 – 62 as the nucleus of the text. In reality, Isaiah 56 – 66 represents a completely new agenda and should not be read in the light of Proto- or Deutero-Isaiah. In my view, the by far most important message in Isaiah 56 – 66 is promotion and upgrading of the Sabbath in the Jerusalem congregation. The strong weight put on Sabbath implies, at the same time, a relativization of pre-exilic customs like fasts and sacrifices. Equally important is the full admittance of “foreigners” and “eunuchs” into the Jerusalem temple congregation. Large parts of the TritoIsaian corpus appear to be concerned with “correct” behaviour as prerequisites for “salvation.” There can be little doubt that certain texts in the Isaiah scroll refer to historical events that are known also from external sources. For instance, it is probable that parts of Isaiah 1 – 39 mirror events from the time of Tiglath-pileser III (ruled 744 – 727 bce). Similarly, in all likelihood, parts of Isaiah 40 – 55 reflect the period following the accession to the throne of the Achaemenid king Cyrus II

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(the Great) in 559 bce. In neither instance should we expect “all of” these texts to go back to attested historical periods. Nevertheless, knowledge of historical circumstances under which ancient texts originate are vital for a sound and adequate understanding of the their message. For this reason, it is particularly regrettable that all the topics that we have identified in Trito-Isaiah above are too general for dating purposes. Both in Isaiah 1 – 39 and in Isaiah 40 – 55 we find indications in the texts themselves that prophecy arose from particularly threatening international events. If we want to look for a similar situation, the Achaemenid empire on the eve of the conquest by Alexander would be a possibility. In the period following the murder of Darius III in 330 bce, reorientation and consolidation would be particularly needed.50

50 Llewellyn-Jones, King and Court, 143 – 44.

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Ulrich Berges

Where Does Trito-Isaiah Start in the Book of Isaiah?1

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Introductory Remarks

The beginning of Trito-Isaiah is not really a hot disputed issue in academic circles. On the contrary, there seems to be no problem at all and voices that present different views are mostly ignored. The majority of scholars is quite happy to rely on locating the beginning in Isa 56:1, for whatever reasons given in the past. Metaphorically speaking: why lay bare the foundations of the house if the building seems to stand fairly intact? But does the house of Trito-Isaiah really stand so safe and sound considering the latest developments in the approach to Deutero-Isaiah? Changing ideas on one major issue will affect the thinking on other points – it is just one great puzzle! Whatever one thinks of these chapters, a single prophet for the whole of Isa 40 – 55 is not very likely anymore. For example, Lena-Sofia Tiemeyer writes on the so called prologue of these chapters: “In other words, the final form of Isa 40:1 – 11 invites the reader to understand the rest of Isa 40 – 55 as the divine oracles conveyed by this distinct prophetic figure as the representative of a larger group of prophets.”2 If this is the case – a larger group of prophets – does this have any consequences for the transition from the second to the third part of the book? Before tackling this question, let us go back for a moment to the one who invented “Trito-Isaiah” in the first place and its starting point in Isa 56:1 – 8.3 In his commentary on Isaiah (first edition in 1892), Bernhard Duhm states about 1 For a preliminary version of this paper, see Ulrich Berges, “Neuer Anfang und neuer Davidbund in Tritojesaja,” in Ex oriente Lux: Studien zur Theologie des Alten Testaments (ed. Angelika Berlejung and Raik Heckl; ABG 39; Leipzig: Evangelische Verlags-Anstalt, 2012), 391 – 406. 2 Lena-Sofia Tiemeyer, For the Comfort of Zion: The Geographical and Theological Location of Isaiah 40 – 55 (VTSup 139; Leiden: Brill, 2011), 18. 3 For a very instructive overview of the research before Duhm, see Christian Moser, Umstrittene Prophetie: Die exegetisch-theologische Diskussion um die Inhomogenita¨t des Jesajabuches von 1780 bis 1900 (BThS 128; Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener, 2012).

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these verses: “This passage links up with the writing of Deutero-Isaiah only superficially[…] Isa 56:1 – 8 seems to be clumsy and looks more like an addendum or an insertion by a foreign hand.”4 This is somewhat surprising because Duhm himself, as the Founding Father of the Trito-Isaiah-hypothesis, seems not to be too convinced about this beginning. And the question is still valid: can the simple speech formula 898= LB4 8? in 56:1 really serve as an introduction to this last major section of the book of Isaiah? From time to time different divisions between Deutero- and Trito-Isaiah are proposed. Thus Christopher Seitz opts for a new starting point in 54:1 and he calls the following chapters until the end of the book: “Vindication of the Servant by God.” According to him, the promises of Isa 40 – 53 and especially the ones about the Suffering Servant are fulfilled in Isa 54 – 66.5 James Watts puts Isa 54:17c–56:8 into one section and thinks of 54:17c as “a kind of title beginning this new section”6 and Jacques Vermeylen judges 56:9 to be the starting point of Trito-Isaiah,7 but he did not get many followers. More recently, Alexander Rofe´ (2004) wrote on the beginning of Trito-Isaiah, by building on an article from 1988.8 He stresses the relevance of the works of Abraham Kuenen (1892) and Karl Elliger (1933) and favours a somewhat flexible division. According to Rofe´, chapters 54 – 55 were written by Trito-Isaiah, a disciple of Deutero-Isaiah; thus, the similarities and the differences in content and style can be explained.9 His position comes close to what Hans Christoph Schmitt considered to be “schultheologische Bearbeitung[en].” In an article dedicated to the memory of Karl Elliger in 1979, he stated that Isa 48 and Isa 55 4 Bernhard Duhm, Das Buch Jesaia (5th ed.; HKAT, 3,1; Go¨ttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1968), 419: “Der Abschnitt knu¨pft oberfla¨chlich an Dtjes.s Schrift an, hat dagegen keinen Anschluss an die Fortsetzung […] Freilich ist 56,1 – 8 in der Form besonders ungeschickt und sieht eher wie ein Nachtrag oder ein Einsatz von fremder Hand aus.” 5 Christopher R. Seitz, “The Book of Isaiah 40 – 66,” in NIB 6 (ed. Leander E. Keck; Nashville, TN: Abingdon, 2001), 307 – 552 (481). 6 John D.W. Watts, Isaiah 34 – 66 (WBC 25; Waco, TX: Word, 1987), 244. 7 Jacques Vermeylen, Du prophe`te Isaı¨e a` l’apocalyptique Isaı¨e: I – XXXV, miroir d’un demimille´naire d’expe´rience religieuse en Israe¨l. Volume 2 (EBib; Paris: Gabalda, 1978), 451 – 58: “La troisie`me partie du livre ne s’ouvre donc pas en LVI, 1, mais au v. 9.” (458). 8 Alexander Rofe´, “The Extent of Trito-Isaiah According to Kuenen and Elliger : Chaps. 54 – 66,” Henoch 26 (2004): 128 – 35; Idem, “How is the Word Fulfilled? Isaiah 55:6 – 11 within the Theological Debate of its Time,” in Canon, Theology, and Old Testament Interpretation (ed. Gene M. Tucker, David L. Petersen, Robert R. Wilson, and Brevard S. Childs; Philadelphia, PA: Fortress, 1988), 246 – 61 (255 – 6). 9 Karl Elliger, Deuterojesaja in seinem Verha¨ltnis zu Tritojesaja (BWANT 4/11; Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1933), 143: “Stehen nun die beiden Stu¨cke c 54 und c 55 inhaltlich so unbedingt zu Dtjes., wie man gewo¨hnlich annimmt, oder kommt nicht etwa Trtjes. als Verfasser eher in Frage?” Conclusion: “Das Ergebnis kann kaum zweifelhaft sein…auch Jes 54 und 55 stammen von Trtjes.” (167).

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were composed by followers of the great exilic prophet called “Deutero-Isaiah.”10 Rofe´ thinks that we have to go back to Kuenen and Elliger to solve the problem: “Let us go back to Kuenen and Elliger and reopen the question: what in Isaiah 40 – 66 really belongs to Deutero-Isaiah?”11 If we have to move back to Kuenen and Elliger to find a solution, this can surely be debated, but to reopen the question seems to me to be suitable and necessary : where does Trito-Isaiah start? Recently, Paul Wegner felt the same need to deal with this problem again and he wrote in an article about “Seams in the Book of Isaiah” (2010): “Duhm’s break between Isa 55 and 56 is likewise questionable. Is Isa 55 really intended to conclude Deutero-Isaiah? […] It is far too simplistic to suggest that the phrase ‘Thus says Yhwh’ beginning ch. 56 indicates a new oracle.”12 I do not agree with Wegner, because like many other scholars I do not think that the verses 48:22 and 57:21 are the seams of Isa 40 – 66, i. e. 40 – 48; 49 – 57; 58 – 66. Rather, in my point of view, the exclusion of the wicked (A=FM1L) in Isa 48:22 and Isa 57:21 perfectly goes with the “positive-negative alternation in the second part of the book.” Consequently, these verses are much more likely to be regarded as very late redactional additions13 that place all emphasis on an internal conflict: “Compared with hymns and exodus commands, the structuring force of 48.22 and 57.21 is rather weak, since in the one case, there is only a connection through key words (A=FM1L and A9@M1 in 57.21 from 57.19), and in the other, a straight quotation.”14

10 Hans–Christoph Schmitt, “Prophetie und Schultheologie im Deuterojesajabuch. Beobachtungen zur Redaktionsgeschichte von Jes 40 – 55,” ZAW 91 (1979): 43 – 61: “Ebenso wie das Jeremia- und das Ezechielbuch verdankt auch das Deuterojesajabuch seine jetzige Gestalt einer nachexilischen Schultheologie, hinter der hier allerdings die deuterojesajanische Grundschicht noch deutlich zu erkennen ist.” (59 – 60). 11 Rofe´, Extent, 135 (it is the last sentence of the article!). 12 Paul D. Wegner, “Seams in the Book of Isaiah: Looking for Answers,” in The Bible as a Human Witness to Divine Revelation: Hearing the Word of God through Historically Dissimilar Traditions (ed. Randall Heskett and Brian Irwin; LHBOTS 469; London: T&T Clark, 2010), 62 – 94 (84). 13 Joseph Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40 – 55: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary (AB 19 A; New York, NY: Doubleday, 2002), 168. 14 Ulrich F. Berges, The Book of Isaiah: Its Composition and Final Form (transl. Millard C. Lind; HBM 46; Sheffield: Sheffield Phoenix Press, 2012), 311; see also Idem, Isaiah: The Prophet and his Book (transl. Philip Sumpter ; Classic Reprints; Sheffield, Sheffield Phoenix Press, 2012), 61; Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40 – 55, 298, also views Isa 48:22 as taken from Isa 57:21.

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The Place and the Function of Isaiah 54:17b

It is astonishing how little attention is paid to the concluding verse of Isa 54: “This is the heritage of the servants of Yhwh, and their righteousness from me, says Yhwh” (v. 17b). Even exegetes who consider this line to be important do not see a compositional marker there. Thus, Odil Hannes Steck who stresses the value of this verse in the Great Scroll of Isaiah regards it just as the opening of the pericope 54:17b–55:5.15 Simone Paganini goes a step further and states that with 54:17 something new starts in the book of Isaiah but without drawing any further conclusions.16 What is especially striking about Isa 54:17b is the fact that instead of the singular “servant” the plural “servants” is used for the first time in the book of Isaiah and this is the case until the end of the book.17 This designation follows right after the promise of Yhwh to Zion/Jerusalem that no weapon and no tongue will harm “you” (2 f.sg.). From the dramatic flow of these chapters it is clear that the “servants” (A=75F) are identical with those who are called “children of Zion” and “disciples of Yhwh” (54:13).18 The offspring of the female figure “Zion” and the male “Ebed” receive the title “‘abadıˆm.” The promise that their righteousness (ANK7J) lays with Yhwh stands right between the assurances to Zion/Jerusalem in Isa 54 and Isa 55, where the addressees are exhorted to direct themselves to God and find satisfaction therein (vv. 1 – 3a). To become a disciple of Yhwh does not happen without human intervention, but presupposes listening and learning, i. e. the acceptance of his Torah enclosed within the prophetic book itself: “The children of Zion are the servants of the Lord if they learn from his teaching. This is exactly what the servant claims for himself in Isa 50:4 – 5 and there too the expectation is that God will justify him (50:8) and that no one will be able to prove him guilty (50:9, compare 54:17).”19 15 Odil Hannes Steck, Die erste Jesajarolle von Qumran (1QJesa): Schreibweise als Leseanleitung fu¨r ein Prophetenbuch (SBS 173/1; Stuttgart: Katholisches Bibelwerk, 1998), 100. 16 Simone Paganini, “Eigenart und Kontext von Jes 55: Geht Deuterojesaja mit Jes 55 zu Ende?,” in Basel und Bibel: Collected Communications to the 17th Congress of the International Organization for the Study of the Old Testament, Basel 2001 (ed. Matthias Augustin and Hermann M. Niemann; BEATAJ 51; Frankfurt/M.: Peter Lang, 2004), 143: “Mit Jes 54,17 beginnt im Jesajabuch etwas Neues.” He thinks of 54:1 – 56:9 as a compositional unity [“kompositorische Einheit”]. 17 Isa 54:17; 56:6; 63:17; 65:8, 9, 13, 14, 15; 66:14. 18 Klaus Krupp, “Das Verha¨ltnis Jahwe-Israel im Sinne eines Ehebundes in Is 40 – 55” (Ph.D. diss., Albert Ludwigs Universita¨t, Freiburg im Breisgau, 1972), 42 (also 48 – 49). 19 So Marjo C. A. Korpel and Johannes C. de Moor, The Structure of Classical Hebrew Poetry : Isaiah 40 – 55 (OtSt 41; Leiden: Brill, 1998), 605: “The children of Zion are the servants of the Lord if they learn from his teaching. This is exactly what the servant claims for himself in Isa. 50:4 – 5 and there too the expectation is that God will justify him (50:8) and that no one will be able to prove him guilty (50:9, compare 54:17).”

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The demonstrative pronoun N4: in Isa 50:11 introduces the negative consequences the enemies have to bear ; likewise the positive outcome for the servants in Isa 54:17b opens with N4:. The servants are best understood as the corporate personality of the true servant Jacob/Israel in the Persian period of restoration.20 They are a special group, fighting among other things, for the opening of Israel to Yhwh-followers from among the nations.21 Their heritage consists not in some parts of the land (thus Isa 49:8; 58:14; 63:17), but in the assurance of God’s protection. The term “heritage” (8@;D) suggests affinity with levitical thinking and world view. The Levites did not possess any share in the land, instead their inheritance was the priestly service (Jos 18:7a). They received the tenth from the offerings (Numb 18:20 – 21, 23 – 24, 26; 26:62; Jos 14:3) and Yhwh himself was their share (Deut 10:9; 12:12; 14:27, 29; 18:2; Jos 13:14, 33; Ezek 44:28).22 With all this in mind the levitical authors of Isa 54:17b were thus saying: we lost the priestly status in the post-exilic period but we are sure that Yhwh stands on our side and will be our righteousness!

2.1

The Importance of Isa 54:17b in the Great Isaiah Scroll of Qumran (1QIsaa)

The special significance of Is 54:17b is historically documented by the way the scribes in Qumran treated this verse in their Great Isaiah Scroll. They highlighted this line by using many of the devices at their disposal.23 Firstly, the last word of the foregoing verse 54:17a ;@J= “it shall not prosper” stands alone at the beginning of line 17 of column XLV (54:4 – 55:8). The rest of that line is left empty (vacat). The following line according to the MT “and every tongue that shall rise against you in judgement you will condemn” is not reproduced in 1QIsaa, but from 4QIsac it is evident that the writers in Qumran knew this line.24 It is not very probable that they left this huge space in order to fill in the missing line later.25 20 Korpel and de Moor, Structure, 605: “Again our structural analysis lends support to the interpretation of the servant of the Lord as a corporate personality.” 21 Cf. Reinhard G. Kratz, Kyros im Deuterojesaja-Buch: Redaktionsgeschichtliche Untersuchungen zu Entstehung und Theologie von Jes 40 – 55 (FAT 1; Tu¨bingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1991), 147: “Mit V.17b umfaßt der Ebed-Jhwh jetzt die innerhalb Israels abgesonderte Gruppe der “Knechte Jhwhs,” die in 56,6 sowie im Bereich von Jes 63 – 66 (vgl. bes. 54,13.17/ 66,12.14 nach 48,17 f.) wieder begegnen und schichtenspezifisch sind.” 22 Gunther Wanke, “8@);#D( nahala¯ Besitzanteil,” in vol. 2 of THAT 2, 55 – 59 (59). 23 See Donald W. Parry and Elisha Qimron (ed.), The Great Isaiah Scroll (1QIsaa): A New Edition (STDJ 32; Leiden: Brill, 1999), 90 – 1; Odil H. Steck, Die erste Jesajarolle von Qumran (1QIsa): Textheft (SBS 173/2; Stuttgart: Katholisches Bibelwerk, 1998), 69. 24 In 1QIsab this passage is missing – it starts with 55:2b and in 4QIsac there seems to be no evidence of a division between Isa 54 and Isa 55; cf. Eugene Ulrich et al. (ed.), Qumran Cave 4. Vol. 10. The Prophets (DJD 15; Oxford: Clarendon, 1997), 70 – 1.

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The second device is a tiny horizontal stroke the copists placed beneath ;@J= “it shall not prosper.” This sign is set 56 times in the Isaiah Scroll to mark the end of a paragraphos. The so called paragraphos alerts the reader not to rush too quickly to the next section.26 Thirdly, there can be observed a spatium of six millimeters after Isa 54:17b leaving the “woe” (=98) at the beginning of Isa 55:1 as the only word of that new oracle in line 18.27 In view of these three devices (vacat; paragraphos; spatium) Josef Oesch concludes that Isa 54:17b played a special function for the delineation in the scroll: “In 54:17b one remarks the particular delineation; by the paragraphos the separation in two words of Yhwh is underlined. It looks as if they are directed at two different addressees: 54:11 – 17a as words of God to Jerusalem and 54:17b–55:5 as words of God to the ‘servants of Yhwh’.”28 Thus, the demarcation in 1QIsaa stresses that the word of Yhwh to Zion/Jerusalem is followed by words to the servants. Therefore it can be concluded that the demarcation in 1QIsaa hints at the fact that Isa 54:17b functions in a special way, most probably as the superscription to what follows.29

3.

Consequences for the Division between Deutero-Isaiah and Trito-Isaiah

If one takes Isa 54:17b as superscription to what follows then the astonishing =98 in 55:1 gets back its rhetorical force, i. e. pointing to the growing separation between the servants and their opponents which reaches its peak in chapters 65 – 66. Already some 25 years ago Marvin Sweeney went along these lines stressing the importance of the “hoy” at the beginning in Is 55: “The last section of Isa 40 – 66 is chapters 55 – 66 […] In any case, [the ‘hoy’] serves as the 25 See Steck, Jesajarolle, 100, n. 216: “Die Konstellation frZE/ NZ [freies Zeilenende/Neue Zeile UB] inmitten von 54,17 ist angesichts von Textverlust nicht sicher Signal fu¨r HA [Hauptabschnitt UB], sondern ko¨nnte auch mit Leerraum fu¨r Textnachtrag zusammenha¨ngen…” But at the end of the same note he states: “Wahrscheinlich ist 54,17b der Beginn eines HA, der bis 55,5 reicht.” 26 Thus Josef M. Oesch, Petucha und Setuma: Untersuchungen zu einer u¨berlieferten Gliederung im hebra¨ischen Text des Alten Testaments (OBO 27; Freiburg/Schweiz: Universita¨tsverlag Freiburg/Go¨ttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1979), 218 – 19. 27 Parry and Qimron, Great Isaiah Scroll, 90 – 91; Steck, Jesajarolle, 69. 28 Oesch, Petucha, 221; cf. Idem, “Textgliederung im Alten Testament und in den Qumranhandschriften,” Henoch 5 (1983): 289 – 321. 29 Cf. John W. Olley, ““Hear the Word of Yhwh:” The Structure of the Book of Isaiah in 1QISAa,” VT 43 (1993): 19 – 49: “a major division before ‘this is the inheritance of the servants of Yhwh,’ followed by a minor division at lv 1, links liv 17b with ch. lv.” (46).

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introduction for a new formal unit. Furthermore, Isa 55 is distinguished from the preceding material by its use of masculine plural imperatives whereas Isa 54 uses feminine singular imperatives to address Zion!”30 But in most of the commentaries this “hoy” is merely seen as an exclamation catching the attention of the audience [Aufmerksamkeitsruf]: “Hey, everyone who is thirsty, come for water.”31 But why should one neglect only here the threatening tone that strictly belongs to this expression (cf. Isa 1:4; 5:8, 18, 20, 21 – 22; 10:1, 5; also 45:9, 10)?32 The threat fits perfectly at this place, too: only those who come to the fountain of water (i. e. the Torah) can find delight in Yhwh who is willing to be found (55:6). An appropriate translation would be: “Up! [make your decision now].” Something similar can be found in the closest parallel – that is in the triple “hoy” in Zech 2:10 – 11: “Up, up! Flee from the land of the north […] Up! Escape to Zion, you that live with daughter Babylon.” In both passages the “hoy” introduces an invitation to come to Zion – but including a clearly audible threat addressed to those who are not willing to join. Thus, Isa 55:1 – 3 goes perfectly with 55:6 – 7 stressing the fact that those invited to come to Zion are only those who are willing to search for Yhwh by an ethical way of life.33 If one takes Isa 54:17b as seriously as the scribes of Qumran did, the consequence lie at hand, i. e. to view Isa 49 – 54 as one section followed by Isa 55 – 66. Joseph Blenkinsopp comes somewhat close to this result when he states: “That chs. 49 – 54 were conceived at some point in the history of the book as a distinct unit is suggested by the address of the ‘ebed (“servant”) at the beginning (49:1 – 6) and the reference to the ‘abadıˆm (“servants”) at the end (54:17). On that reading, ch. 55 would be transitional between 49 – 54 and 56 – 66 but closer to what follows than to what precedes (see “the everlasting sign/name that shall not be cut off,” 55:13 and 56:5).”34 That Isa 55 is indeed “closer to what follows than to what precedes” can also be deduced from the alternation in Isa 49 – 54 between Ebed and Zion, that Joseph Blenkinsopp rightly observed. This change of the main characters (besides Yhwh himself) starts with the servant in 49:1 – 13 and ends with the “apos30 Marvin A. Sweeney, Isaiah 1 – 4 and the Post-Exilic Understanding of the Isaianic Tradition (BZAW 171; Berlin: de Gruyter, 1988), 87 – 88. 31 For example, John Goldingay and David Payne, Isaiah 40 – 55. Volume 2 (ICC; London, 2006), 367. 32 From the missing “hoy” in LXXIsa 55:1 one cannot deduce that the word is secondary in the MT (Elliger, Deuterojesaja, 136) because it is also absent in LXX Isa 45:9 – 10. 33 Goldingay and Payne, Isaiah 40 – 55, 364, speak in regard of vv. 1 – 3a and 6 – 7 of a “double ‘warning speech’” (referring to K. Arvid Ta˚ngberg, Die prophetische Mahnrede: Form- und traditionsgeschichtliche Studien zum prophetischen Umkehrruf (FRLANT 143; Go¨ttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1987), 118 – 21. 34 Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40 – 55, 298.

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trophe“ to Zion/Jerusalem in 54:1 – 17a.35 Thus Marvin Sweeney entitles Isa 49:1 – 54:17 as “Announcement of the Restoration of Yhwh’s Relationship with Zion” and considers Isa 55 to open the last section of the book: Chapters 55 – 66 begin and end with speeches which discuss Yhwh’s criteria for selecting those who fulfill His conditions for participation in the covenant. This is because these chapters are primarily concerned with discussing the nature of the new covenant community, the selection of those who will be a part of it, and the rejection of those who will not.36

This does not mean that there are no links between Isa 54 – 55 but in the present composition Isa 55 serves as an introduction to the last section of the book: There are certainly many strong connections between chapters 55 and the preceding material. But while it is likely that chapter 55 was originally composed as the conclusion for chapters 40 – 55, in its present context it serves as an introduction to chapters 56 – 66, forming a ‘bridge’ between chapters 40 – 54 and 56 – 66. Isa 55 – 66 would then serve as the conclusion to Isa 40 – 66.37

To sum up: the alternation of the male (Servant) and female character (Zion/ Jerusalem) in Isa 49 – 54 and the first mention of the servants in Isa 54:17b as well as the special demarcation of this verse in the Great Isaiah Scroll in Qumran speak much in favour of Isa 55 as starting point of the last section of the Book.38

3.1

Some Further Consequences for the Interpretation of Isaiah 55

Together with Willem Beuken39 it was Joseph Blenkinsopp40 who strongly underlined the importance of the “servants” for the last part of the Book of Isaiah.41 The promise that Yhwh stands firmly on the side of the ‘abadıˆm (54:17b) serves as an introduction to the remaining chapters: 35 Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40 – 55, 60; see also Jill Middlemas, “Did Second Isaiah Write Lamentations III,” VT 56 (2006): 505 – 25 (509). 36 Sweeney, Isaiah 1 – 4, 88. 37 Sweeney, Isaiah 1 – 4, 88. 38 Contrary to Seitz, “The Book of Isaiah 40 – 66,” 471, who opts for 54:1 – 66:24 (“Vindication of the Servant by God”). 39 Willem A. M. Beuken, “The Main Theme of Trito-Isaiah: ‘The Servants of Yhwh’,” JSOT 47 (1990): 67 – 87; see also Ulrich Berges, “Who were the Servants?” A Comparative Inquiry in the Book of Isaiah and the Psalms,” in Past, Present, Future: The Deuteronomistic History and the Prophets (ed. Johannes C. de Moor and Harry F. van Rooy ; OtSt 44; Leiden: Brill, 2000), 1 – 18. 40 Joseph Blenkinsopp, “A Jewish Sect of the Persian Period’,” CBQ 52 (1990): 5 – 20; Idem, “The ‘Servants of the Lord’,” PIBA 7 (1983): 1 – 23; Idem, “Temple and Society in Achaemenid Judah,” in Second Temple Studies. I. Persian Period (ed. Philip R. Davies; JSOTSup 117; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1991), 22 – 53.

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Since this designation occurs in the plural only in chs. 56 – 66 (56:6; 65:8 – 9, 13 – 15), 54:17b serves to introduce a major theme in the last section and functions as an important editorial link between sections […] Since it is clear from the final chapters of the book that these servants (‘aba¯dıˆm), also known as ‘those who tremble at his word’ (ha˘re¯dıˆm 66:5), form a minority rejected by the authorities in the community and since ˙ much is said there about the respective destinies of the servants and their opponents (cf. the reference to the naha˘laˆ of the servants of Yhwh in 54:17b), it may be that the ˙ conclusion to our passage, and therefore the conclusion to 40 – 54 as a whole, comes from the same “servant” source. By adding this codicil, the servants are appropriating for themselves the salvation promised in the address to Jerusalem.42

Together with the consideration of Marvin Sweeney quoted above, the estimation of Joseph Blenkinsopp leads to the following hypothesis: it was the servants who by inserting Isa 54:17b into the scroll converted Isa 55 that was originally meant as closure of Isa 40 – 55 into the introduction of their final part of the Book.43 This new orientation of Isa 55 certainly does not nullify the inclusion of the “divine word-theology” in verses 10 – 11 referring back to 40:6 – 8 but the driving force is now directed to what follows. Some other effects are to be observed, too, especially regarding the invitation to come to Zion for abundant food and drink (Isa 55:1 – 5). This summons was originally meant for the exiled and dispersed members of Israel including people from the nations (cf. Exod 12:38) who are willing to join the homecomers. The hymnic conclusion in Isa 55:12 – 13 fits in and concludes the other two instructions to leave in Isa 48:20 – 21. and 52:11 – 12.44 According to the sure mercies of David (55:3) (A=DB4D8 797 =7E;) Yhwh will make an eternal covenant (A@9F N=L5) with all those accepting the invitation to come to Zion. This divine promise implies nothing less than a “Broadening of the Covenant Commitment”45 that becomes true when individuals from the nations join the covenant too (cf. Isa 56:1 ff.). The former David was called to conquer nations, the new David is called to accept those coming from among the nations. Thus after the superscription of Isa 54:17b, inserted by the ‘abadıˆm, Isa 55 can be read as a programmatic statement of the servant community! Not only is David a witness (7F), leader (7=6D), and commander (89JB), but according to Isa 55:4 the servants can also be characterized 41 “Servants”: Isa. 56:6; 63:17; 65:8, 9, 13, 14, 15; 66:14; “chosen”: 65:9, 15, 22; “my people who have sought me”: 65:10 (cf. 63:8; 64:8; 65:19, 22); “blessed of Yhwh”: 65:23. 42 Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40 – 55, 366. Cf. p. 74: “…the intent to emphasize the Servant motif as a theme binding together both section 49 – 54 and section 56 – 66 is placed in high relief.” 43 This accords well with Peter Ho¨ffken, “Eine Bemerkung zu Jes 55,1 – 5: Zu buchinternen Bezu¨gen des Abschnitts,” ZAW 118 (2006): 239 – 49, who speaks of a hinge function (“Scharnierfunktion”) (247) of Isa 55:1 – 5 taking over motives from Isa 40 ff., and at the same time pointing towards what follows. Ho¨ffken himself sees his position close to the one of Blenkinsopp “who regarded Isa 55 as connecting link between Deutero- and Trito-Isaiah” (247). 44 Cf. Berges, The Book of Isaiah, 308 – 9. 45 Goldingay and Payne, Isaiah 40 – 55, 363.

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like this. Reading and hearing the plural “you” in verse 3 (“I make with you [plural] an everlasting covenant”) they applied it to themselves. The Davidic covenant was no longer primarily broadened to all of post-exilic Israel46 but concentrated upon the group of the servants, the offspring of the Ebed and of mother Zion. Having returned to Jerusalem they see themselves in the line of David, the nagid of Israel (cf. 1 Sam 13:14; 25:30; 2 Sam 5:2; 6:21; 7:8). Now they will be nagid of nations; in contrast, the title ý@B is not used anymore because Yhwh himself is the only “king” (cf. Isa 52:10). As David integrated non-Israelite nations into his reign, now foreign people are admitted into the new people of God. But, differently from David, the task of the servants is not one of dominion but of guidance. As “commander” (89JB) for nations (cf. 51:4; 49:6; 42:6) the servants do not just guide Israel – as Moses did who commanded the Torah only to his people – but they guide all people who are willing to gather in Zion, the earthly abode of the heavenly king and creator.47 The inclusion of foreigners, who by gathering at Zion come to Yhwh himself,48 is made explicit in Isa 55:5: “See, you call people (=96) that you do not know, and people (=96) that do not know you shall run to you because of Yhwh, your God, the Holy One of Israel, for he has glorified you” (2 f.sg). The fact that “people” (=96) is once constructed with the singular (F7N 4@) and once with the plural (9F7= 4@/ 9J9L=) in the same bi-colon (v. 5a) seems to indicate that individuals and groups – not whole nations – are expected to join the feast in Jerusalem.49 This invitation to come to Zion for food and drink has nothing to do with the call of a seller in a market-place but with “an invitation to come to the new Jerusalem where Yahweh reigns and to share in its wealth.”50 Marjo Korpel has convincingly shown that the Ugaritic parallels of such summons for eating and drinking are to be seen in relation to the New Year festival in autumn.51 It is well known that in Israel this feast 46 Marvin A. Sweeney, “The Reconceptualization of the Davidic Covenant in Isaiah,” in Studies in the Book of Isaiah: Festschrift Willem A.M. Beuken (ed. Jacques van Ruiten and Marc Vervenne; BETL 132; Leuven: Leuven University Press, 1997), 41 – 61 (especially p. 47). 47 Norbert Lohfink, “Bund und Tora bei der Vo¨lkerwallfahrt (Jesajabuch und Psalm 25),” in Der Gott Israels und die Vo¨lker : Untersuchung zum Jesajabuch und zu den Psalmen (ed. Norbert Lohfink and Erich Zenger; SBS 154; Stuttgart: Katholisches Bibelwerk, 1994), 37 – 83: “Shall Israel therefore be a ‘witness,’ in as much as it interprets its acquired position of ‘Davidic’ ruler with respect to the nations to mean that Israel, like Moses, proclaims the Torah to them?” (54). 48 Hendrik C. Spykerboer, “Isaiah 55:1 – 5: The Climax of Deutero-Isaiah. An Invitation to Come to the New Jerusalem,” in The Book of Isaiah: Le livre d’Isaı¨e: les oracles et leurs relectures unite´ et complexite´ de l’ouvrage (ed. Jacques Vermeylen; BETL 81; Leuven: Leuven University Press, 1989), 357 – 59: “In other words, to come to Jerusalem or to God is one and the same thing” (359). 49 For =96 as “a multitude, many people,” see 2 Kgs 6:18; Isa 26:2; Ps 43:1. 50 Spykerboer, “Isaiah 55:1 – 5,” 358. 51 Marjo C.A. Korpel, “Metaphors in Isaiah LV,” VT 46 (1996): 43 – 55 (44); Cf. Idem, “Second Isaiah’s Coping with the Religious Crisis. Reading Isaiah 40 and 55,” in The Crisis of Israelite

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of the harvest was connected with the divine gift of Torah. Additionally, followers from the nations are also linked to this festival at the end of the agricultural year (cf. Zech 14:16 – 19). Possibly, the rite of water in Isa 12:3 (“With joy you will draw water from the wells of salvation”) that is alluded to in a song of Zion which inaugurates the oracles of the nations in Isa 13 ff. was originally performed at the Feast of Tabernacles. According to b.suk 4.5,52 water was brought on that occasion to the altar of the temple in Jerusalem while a priest was reciting Isa 12:3. The expression “springs of salvation” is reminiscent of Ps 87:7, a Psalm of Zion from the Korahites, where pilgrims from all over the world sing their praise of being citizens of Zion!53 Likewise, in Ps 65:3 all flesh (L2M5 @?), which has come to God on Zion, sings of “God’s stream full of water” (v. 10), which ensures the rich fertility of crops and livestock. In the background of Isa 55:1 – 5 stands the invitation for Israelites and foreigners to receive the nourishing food of Yhwh’s Torah in Zion and Jerusalem. That the metaphorical speech of eating bread, of being hungry and thirsty signifies the yearn for the word of Yhwh is well known in the OT (cf. Deut 8:3; Amos 8:11; Sir 15:1 – 3).54 If the invitation at the beginning of the chapter to purchase water and food for nothing is a metaphorical call to receive Torah instruction (cf. 55:11 with Deut 8:3), it suggests that the final verse about the transformation of nature from useless to beneficial plants should also be understood in a figurative sense. Those who have left evil paths and turned to Yhwh are compared to cypress and myrtle which grow up in place of thorns and thistles and are a memorial and sign for Yhwh. Everyone who comes to Zion, the earthly place of Torah, will become like a tree planted at rivers of flowing water (Ps 1:3), like a watered garden (Isa 58:11). This transformation of a waterless land, symbol of the absence of divine blessing, into a watered land, symbol of Yhwh’s presence and protection, comes as the result of his word that is as effective as rain and snow fertilizing the earth. The Targum interprets the transformation from useless to useful vegetation as the replacement of the sinner with the righteous!55 But that transformation does not happen by chance but presupposes that people are willing to seek Yhwh since he may be found and to call on him since

52 53 54 55

Religion: Transformation of religious Tradition in Exilic and Post-Exilic Times (ed. Bob Becking and Marjo C. A. Korpel; OtSt 42; Leiden: Brill, 1999), 90 – 113. Babylonian Talmud fol. 50b (German edition; Lazarus Goldschmidt, Band 3, p. 393). See Berges, The Book of Isaiah, 118 ff. Paganini, “Eigenart,” 141 – 43, thinks instead that a situation of social need is adressed here. “Instead of the wicked the righteous shall be established, and instead of the transgressors they that fear sin shall be established: and it shall be before the Lord for a name, for an everlasting sign that shall not fail” (translation by John F. Stenning, The Targum of Isaiah [Oxford: Clarendon, 1953], 186).

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he is near (Isa 55:6). The word “near” (59LK) points back to 50:8 [cf. 51:5] and at the same time anticipates 56:1. In 55:6 – 7 it is about the invitation to seize Yhwh’s offer of salvation, which means concretely that the wicked, as in the stipulations of the entrance liturgies (cf. Isa 33:14 – 16; Pss 15; 24), changes his way of life (ýL7) and the evildoer abandons his plans and turns to God (cf. Isa 44:22). Nobody needs to fear that “our God” might take advantage of this reversal to punish the repenting sinner, he “is great in forgiveness.” Whoever turns to Yhwh can be completely sure of his compassionate love (A;L), a phrasing that points back to Isa 54:7.8.10. The loving affection that Yhwh promised to Zion there is available here to all those who return to him, who begin the way back from sin (cf. Deut 4:29 – 31). Yhwh does not repay in the same coin but rather forgives; this is demonstrated by the incomparability of his action: All are able to return to him.56

3.2

Some further consequences for the interpretation of Isa 56

If one takes the metaphor of 55:12 – 13 seriously then the connection with 56:1 – 8, which is intentionally indicated by the repetition of key words,57 can be seen even more clearly. When the foreigner or the eunuch laments that, in spite of all his striving to fulfill the covenant demands, he is still counted as a “dry tree” (IF M15=), it must be viewed against the background of the eschatological sign of the transformation from sinners to righteous. Whoever does not admit Yhwhbelievers from the nations into Zion rejects at the same time the eschatological sign (N94) of the final coming of salvation in 55:12 – 13. In other words, whoever compares Yhwh’s word with rain and snow that come from heaven and provide for fertility and seed will not be surprised when this seed sprouts and comes full of joy and gratitude to Zion! That Isa 55 and Isa 56 cannot be divided by a demarcation between Deuteroand Trito-Isaiah is also apparent by the second occurence of the term “servants” (after Isa 54:17b). On the level of the final text foreigners and even eunuchs are not only admitted by the servants but also into the group of the servants! The open perspective in Isa 54 – 55 is getting very real in Isa 56:1 – 8 when different social groups come into the picture. The place of water and life in Isa 55:1 is, according to 56:7, the holy mountain of Yhwh, his temple, open to people from Israel and the nations.58 In both chapters the closeness (59LK) of God, i. e. his 56 See Korpel, “Metaphors,” 50; cf. Jer 29:11: “thoughts for welfare, and not for harm”; Jer 31:34: “I will forgive their iniquity and remember their sin no more.” 57 Cf. 56:1 (859LK) with 55:6; and 56:5 (NL?= 4@) with 55:13. 58 Willem A.M. Beuken, “Isa. 56:9 – 57:13: An Example of the Isaianic Legacy of Trito-Isaiah,”

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salvation, plays an important role (55:6; 56:1). The everlasting sign (A@9F N94) that shall not be cut off (55:13) hints at the everlasting name (A@9F AM1) that will not be cut off (NL?= 4@) (56:5). At the end of the book, the key word “sign” (N94) surfaces again (66:19); there it deals with the survivors who are sent to the nations that still have not heard of Yhwh. The proselytes who claim affiliation with Zion in 56:1 – 8, following on 55:12 – 13, will be sent by Yhwh himself at the conclusion of the book to be “missionaries” among the nations. On the semantic level it is evident that the word-pair “justice/righteousness” (üHM1B/8K7J) in Isa 56:1, especially known in the first part of the book of Isaiah59 indicating ethical behaviour continues the wording in the second part “salvation/ righteousness”60 (8F9M1=/8K7J) pointing at divine deliverance.61 This is an important indication that the servants as authors and redactors of the last part of the book had the former parts already at their disposal.62 What was formerly meant for Israel as a nation is now applied “to the fate of individuals, such as those eunuchs and foreigners who choose to uphold his covenant (56:2, 4, 6).”63 How radical their position really was regarding the integration of foreigners can perhaps be deduced from the fact that the scribes of the Great Isaiah Scroll omitted one verse-line of 56:6, i. e. “to minister him and to love the name of Yhwh”64 – but an “aberratio oculi” (from the first tetragram to the second) is equally possible. What was certainly not placed by accident in Isa 56:2 is the expression A74 C5 which directs the attention immediately to the book of Ezekiel. With Ezek 44:4 – 31 a clear background emerges for the discussion in Isa 56:1 – 8. The two texts are not only linked by the theme of admission to the temple cult, but also have individual motifs in common.65 The vigorous insistence on the exclusion of

59 60 61 62

63 64 65

in Tradition and Reinterpretation in Jewish and Early Christian Literature (ed. Jan W. van Henten et al.; StPB 36; Leiden: Brill, 1986), 48 – 64 (56). Isa 1:27; 5:7, 16; 9:6; 16:5; 26:9; 28:17; 32:1, 16; 33:5. Isa 45:8, 21; 46:13; 51:5, 6, 8. See Rolf Rendtorff, “Is 56:1 as a Key to the Formation of the Book of Isaiah,” in Idem, Canon and Theology : Overtures to an Old Testament Theology (ed. and transl. Margaret Kohl; Minneapolis, MN: Fortress, 1993), 181 – 94. See, for scribal activities in the book of Isaiah, Robert R. Wilson, “Scribal Culture and the Composition of the Book of Isaiah,” in The Bible as Human Witness to Divine Revelation: Hearing the Word of God through Historically Dissimilar Traditions (ed. Randall Heskett and Brian Irwin; LHBOTS 469; London: T&T Clark, 2010), 95 – 107. Jacob Stromberg, Isaiah After Exile: The Author of Third Isaiah as Reader and Redactor of the Book (OTM; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), 76. See Roy D. Wells, “‘Isaiah’ as an Exponent of Torah: Isaiah 56.1 – 8,” in New Visions of Isaiah (ed. Roy F. Melugin and Marvin A. Sweeney ; JSOTSup 214; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1996), 140 – 55 (147 – 48). Cf. Vermeylen, Du prophe`te Isaı¨e, 456: “Sabbath observance” in Ezek 44:24; Isa 56:2, 4, 6; “foreigner” in Ezek 44:9 and Isa 56:3, 6; “to break the covenant” (Ezek 44:7) versus “to hold on to the covenant” (Isa 56:4, 6); “to profane” in Ezek 44:7 and Isa 56:6.

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uncircumcised foreigners in Ezek 44:7 and the permanent admission of foreigners and eunuchs to the temple cult in Isa 56:3 – 7 are diametrically opposed to each other. If the servants in the last part of the book of Isaiah do have a levitical background then the fierce polemic against the levites in Ezek 44:9 – 14 is very understandable. The servants of the book of Isaiah were accused by the priestly party that they would act as their abominable ancestors did in the time of Moses. Thus, their degradation to mere temple servers would be more than justified – in the eyes of the levitical priests, the sons of Zadok (Ezek 44:15). In order to reach at these and other conclusions it is not absolutely necessary to start Trito-Isaiah with Isa 54:17b, but doing so and holding the ‘abadıˆm responsible for this historically testified demarcation (cf. 1QIsaa), both the literary composition and the sociological background become clearer and even more plausible. So why do we not do it?

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Joseph Blenkinsopp

Continuity-Discontinuity in Isaiah 40 – 66. The Issue of Location

One aspect of the continuity-discontinuity issue in research on Isaiah 40 – 66 which has influenced, at least tangentially, the way in which the different parts of this text have been read and the connections between them have been understood is the question of their original place of composition. The discussion has touched not only on chapters 40 – 55 or 40 – 66 over against 1 – 39, but chapters 40 – 48 over against 49 – 55. As early as the nineteenth century Samuel Davidson argued that chapters 40 – 48 were composed in Babylon and 49 – 55 together with 56 – 66 in Judah, and the same theory was proposed with variations more recently by Menahem Haran.1 The place of composition of Isaiah 40 – 55 or its putative core, has in fact been in dispute since the thesis of the distinct character and origin of these chapters in the book of Isaiah began to establish itself as the critical orthodoxy in the late eighteenth century. Since chapters 1 – 39 had always been seen as the work of a prophet or prophets active in Jerusalem, while chapters 40 – 55 deal with the anticipated fall of Babylon and the return to Judah from Babylon of expatriate Judaeans, it seemed natural to assign a Babylonian origin to the latter. The author of Isaiah 40 – 55 also appeared to be well informed on international affairs, especially Babylonian intellectual and religious traditions and the career of Cyrus, to an extent that seemed unlikely in Judah devastated in the aftermath of the Babylonian conquest.

1 Samuel Davidson, An Introduction to the Old Testament, Critical, Historical and Theological. Vol. 3 (London: Williams & Norgate, 1863), 57 – 59; Menahem Haran, “The Literary Structure and Chronological Framework of the Prophecies in Is 40 – 48,” in Congress Volume, Bonn 1962 (VTSup 9; Leiden: Brill, 1963), 127 – 55.

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The Thesis of Babylonian Origins Questioned

None of this went unchallenged for long. It will suffice to mention in passing the hypothesis of origins in a Judaean community in Egypt, first proposed by Heinrich Ewald in 1868, or in northern Phoenicia, a suggestion of Bernhard Duhm in 1902. Both proposals relied heavily on the interpretation of the gentilic sıˆnıˆm (A=D=E) in Isa 49:12, by Ewald identified with the inhabitants of Pelusium in the Nile delta, by Duhm with a Phoenician ethnic group, and by Franz Delitzsch with the Chinese. All three hypotheses have now been abandoned.2 Criticism of the Babylonian theory began to be heard in the early decades of the twentieth century, and has continued intermittently since then. The history of the ensuing controversy between “Judaeans” and “Babylonians,” together with a critique of the arguments advanced in support of the Babylonian nearconsensus, has been thoroughly researched and presented in several publications over a number of years by Professor Hans M. Barstad, which relieves us of the necessity of covering this contested ground again.3 Those arguing against a Babylonian location seek to show that the author did not need to reside in Babylon to know about such matters as the career of Cyrus (44:28; 45:1 – 7, 13; 48:14 – 16) or Babylonian deities and their cults (46:1 – 2; 47:1 – 15). Nor does the adoption of Akkadian loan words or expressions, or the use of formulaic language indicative of Babylonian court protocol, require residence in Mesopotamia.4 On the contrary, it was argued, satire directed against Babylonian deities and their cults, together with zealous sponsorship of Cyrus, would have been dangerous if not suicidal if written and promulgated in Babylonia; witness the fate of the nationalist prophet-martyrs Ahab and Zedekiah as reported – or anticipated – by Jeremiah (Jer 29:21 – 23). 2 Heinrich Ewald, Die ju¨ngsten Propheten des Alten Bundes (Go¨ttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1868), 30 – 31; Bernhard Duhm, Das Buch Jesaja u¨bersetzt und erkla¨rt (4th ed.; Go¨ttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1922), 373. On the proposed identification with the Chinese (sıˆnıˆm in Modern Hebrew) see G. Lambert, “Le livre d’Isaı¨e, parle-t-il des Chinois?,” NRTh 75 (1953): 965 – 72. The now generally accepted identification is with Syene (Aswan) at the first cataract of the Nile. 3 Hans M. Barstad, “Lebte Deuterojesaja in Juda¨a?,” NTT 2 (1982): 77 – 87; “On the So-Called Babylonian Literary Influence in Second Isaiah,” SJOT 2 (1987): 90 – 110; “On the History and Archaeology of Judah during the Exilic Period: A Reminder,” OLP 19 (1988): 25 – 36; AWay in the Wilderness (Manchester : Manchester University, 1989); The Myth of the Empty Land (Oslo: Scandinavian University Press, 1996); The Babylonian Captivity of the Book of Isaiah:“Exilic” Judah and the Provenance of Isaiah 40 – 55 (Oslo: Novus Forlag, 1997). 4 The instances of the latter most often cited are the god summoning the king or official by name (Isa 45:3), or clasping his hand (Isa 42:6; 45:1). Both may have their original situation in a ceremony of installation in office. This issue of the use of Babylonian Hofstil in Deutero-Isaiah was put on the scholarly agenda by the much-cited article of Rudolph Kittel, “Cyrus und Deuterojesaja,” ZAW 18 (1898): 149 – 62.

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The proponents of a Judaean origin also pointed out that the Babylonian thesis rested heavily on a naive acceptance of the impression conveyed by the biblical description of Judah after the Babylonian conquest as a country thinly populated by peasant farmers, presumably illiterate, who had escaped death and deportation; to all intents and purposes an empty land.5 What we now know of the archaeology of Neo-Babylonian Judah, always subject to revision, has persuaded most scholars that this view of post-destruction Judah is in need of correction.6 The myth of an original Israelite entry into an empty land, which appears in Hecataeus of Abdera writing in the early Hellenistic period, is probably a retrojection from Jewish apologetic in the early Persian period as we find it in both the Deuteronomistic History and Chronicles and, somewhat later, in the book of Judith (Jud 5:19) and Josephus (Ant 10:184).7 The land, a diminished version of the former kingdom of Judah, was not empty, but a reliable estimate of its population during the late Neo-Babylonian period which would settle the issue has proved hard to come by.8 On the positive side, the “Judaeans” claimed that the flora and fauna (cedar, cypress, acacia, pine trees, etc), and the physical environment in the background of Isaiah 40 – 55, are characteristically Palestinian rather than Mesopotamian (41:19; 44:14; 55:12 – 13). Topographical and geographical allusions, especially with reference to “islands and coastlands” (A==4), understood to refer primarily to the Palestinian-Phoenician litoral and the Aegean, also seemed to make a 5 That only the lowest social and economic stratum of the population was left behind is stated after both the 597 and 586 Babylonian campaigns (2 Kgs 24:14; 25:12). According to 2 Chr 36:21 the land was not even cultivated after the deportations. 6 Robert P. Carroll, “The Myth of the Empty Land,” in Ideological Criticism of Biblica Texts. Semeia 59 (1992), 79 – 93 (ed. David Jobling and Tina Pippin); Hans M. Barstad, The Myth of the Empty Land; Joseph Blenkinsopp, “The Bible, Archaeology and Politics; or, the Empty Land Revisited,” JSOT 27 (2002): 167 – 81; Charles E. Carter, “Ideology and Archaeology in the Neo-Babylonian Period,” in Judah and the Judeans in the Neo-Babylonian Period (ed. Oded Lipschits and Joseph Blenkinsopp; Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2003), 301 – 22; Oded Lipschits, The Fall and Rise of Jerusalem (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2005), 185 – 271. The archaeological evidence is reviewed once again by the most recent defender of Judaean origins, Lena-Sofia Tiemeyer, For the Comfort of Zion: The Geographical and Theological Location of Isaiah 40 – 55 (VTSup 139; Leiden: Brill, 2011), 58 – 65. 7 2 Kgs 24:14 – 16; 25:11 – 12; 2 Chr 36:19 – 21. For the text of Hecataeus, see Menahem Stern, Greek and Latin Authors on Jews and Judaism. Vol. 1 (Jerusalem: Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities, 1976), 1:20 – 24, on which see Doron Mendels, “Hecataeus of Abdera and a Jewish ‘Patrios Politeia’ of the Persian Period (Diodorus Siculus XL.3),” ZAW 95 (1983): 96 – 110. 8 The difficulty is apparent from the widely differing estimates of the population of Judah at the end of the Iron Age and the early Persian period. For recent estimates see Oded Lipschits, “Demographic Changes in Judah between the Seventh and Fifth Centuries B.C.E.,” in Judah and the Judeans in the Neo-Babylonian Period (ed. Oded Lipschits and Joseph Blenkinsopp; Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2003), 323 – 76; idem, The Fall and Rise of Jerusalem, 258 – 71. Lipschits estimates 108,000 at the end of the Iron Age and 30,125 in the early Persian period.

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better fit with a Palestinian rather than a Babylonian perspective.9 Finally, urgent injunctions to leave Babylon in these chapters (@55B 94J) “get out of Babylon!”, 48:20; (AMB 94J) “get out from there!”, 52:11) were thought to make better sense if coming from someone not in that city – someone in Judah, for example. We shall return to these two injunctions at a later point.

2.

Issues of Method and Approach

Before going any further, one or two preliminary clarifications may be permitted. In dealing critically with biblical texts it is generally not a good idea to begin with the issue of authorship. Stating the issue as “the original habitat of Deutero-Isaiah” risks giving the impression that Isaiah 40 – 55 is the work of one anonymous author produced in one place, if not all at one time. This is theoretically possible, but simply to assume it is rarely justified with biblical texts of the length and complexity of Deutero-Isaiah. One complication which confronts us at an early stage is the distinctive character of chapters 40 – 48 over against 49 – 55, or over against 49 – 54 if chapter 55 is regarded as the conclusion to both sections, or even over against 49 – 66. To name just the principal distinguishing features of Isaiah 40 – 48: the figure of Cyrus dominates here and is completely absent from the rest of the book in which the community no longer looks to Cyrus, or any human agency, for a reversal of fortune. After chapter 48 the tone is, by and large, quite different, the emotional and affective level much lower, and the focus no longer on international affairs but on the internal affairs of the community. Another feature of chapters 40 – 48, almost completely absent from 49 – 55, is the strong emphasis on Yhwh as creator-deity. A pointer in this direction is the incidence of the verb 4L5 with reference to the creation of the world or humanity : nine times in 40 – 48 and not at all in 49 – 55.10 This cosmological and protological language in 40 – 48 is related to the Cyrus theme since it aims to persuade the prophet’s public that it is the almighty Creator of the World who is sponsoring the enterprise of Cyrus. It also reveals interesting parallels with the canonical Babylonian creation myth recited on the fourth day of the akitu festival in honour of the imperial deity Marduk, especially the claim 9

A==4:

Isa 40:15; 41:1, 5; 42:4, 10, 12; 49:1; 51:5. In Isaiah 1 – 39, the term A==4 has specific referents: the Philistine coastal area (20:6), Phoenicia (23:2, 6), the west (11:11; 24:15). In chapters 40 – 45, however, usage is associated with far distant peoples and the ends of the earth, therefore much more indeterminate. 10 Isa 40:26, 28; 42:5; 45:7, 7, 8, 12, 18, 18. In Isaiah 49 – 55, 4L5 occurs twice in 54:16 where Yhwh creates the blacksmith and the destroying angel. 10 Isa 40:26, 28; 42:5; 45:7, 7, 8, 12, 18, 18. In Isaiah 49 – 55, 4L5 occurs twice in 54:16 where Yhwh creates the blacksmith and the destroying angel.

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of incomparability.11 Another related theme is polemic against the manufacture and veneration of religious images (idols), prominent in the first section, absent from the second. Commentators have also noted a marked shift in chapters 49 – 55 in the language of servanthood, together with a greater concentration on traits of the servant suggestive of an individual figure rather than a social entity. The fact that three of Duhm’s Ebed-Jahwe-Lieder are in this second section (Isa 49:1 – 6; 50:4 – 9; 52:13 – 53:12) might, in view of the distinctive features of 40 – 48 over against 49 – 55, alert us to the possibility of a quite different approach to the interpretation of the first of the four passages (42:1 – 4).12 None of this requires us to postulate a different location or a different author for chapters 49 – 55, but it may give some comfort to those who locate only these last seven chapters of Deutero-Isaiah in the Neo-Babylonian province of Judah. I add, as a footnote, one instance in the second section of Deutero-Isaiah which may have escaped the attention of the “Judaeans,” one in which it is quite clear that inhabitants in post-disaster Judah are being addressed by one sympathetic to their situation, and therefore plausibly one of them: Look to Abraham your father, and to Sarah who gave you birth. When I called him, he was but one, but I blessed him and made him many. (Isa 51:2)

This appeal to Abraham will inevitably bring to mind a roughly contemporary prophetic text recording a similar argument attributed to “the inhabitants of these waste places in the land of Israel”: Abraham was only one man, yet he took possession of the land; we are many, surely the land has been granted us as a possession. (Ezek 33:23 – 24)

The concern in the first text is demographic and in the second territorial, but the “scriptural” argument advanced by post-disaster Judaeans resident in Judah is identical. Beyond this rather straightforward division into two sections, each with its 11 Compare the language of Isa 45:5, 6, 14, 18, 21, 22; 46:9, encapsulated in the formulaic expression 79F C=4 with Isa 47:8, 10, the claim made by the woman Babylon in the name of her deity, and with Enuma Elish VII 14, 18. This mirror-imaging in Deutero Isaiah is developed further in my paper “The Cosmological and Protological Language of Deutero-Isaiah,” CBQ 73 (2011): 493 – 510. 12 The reference to “the heritage of the servants of Yhwh ” in Isa 54:17 may be read as introducing one of the principal themes of Isa 56 – 66 with chapter 55 as the conclusion to chapters 40 – 54, perhaps even to an edition of the book of Isaiah as it existed at that stage of formation.

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distinctive themes and concerns, Deutero-Isaiah has been subjected to a great deal of analysis which either simply rejects its unitary character or, without denying the presence of an identifiably authorial hand, sections it into successive layers or re-readings (Fortschreibungen, relectures), in some essays covering a span from the sixth to the third century bce. Only a few examples from a vast body of commentary from around the mid-nineteenth century to the present can be mentioned, and without any attempt at an adequate discussion and evaluation. According to J.M. Vincent, Deutero-Isaiah is neither in whole nor in part the production of an individual but rather a collection of sayings emanating from Jerusalemite cult prophets over several generations. A somewhat similar position was presented to English-language readers two years later by J.H. Eaton.13 A more common procedure, however, is to identify the core of the collection and then add successive expansions in chronological sequence, generally on the basis of distinct but connected themes – Zion-Jerusalem, the Servant passages, polemic against idolatry – to name the ones most frequently recurring.14 Several of these studies have been criticized as unduly speculative

13 Jean Marcel Vincent, Studien zur literarischen Eigenart und zur geistigen Heimat von Jesaja Kap. 40 – 55 (BBET 5; Frankfurt am Main: Lang, 1977); John H. Eaton, Festal Drama in Deutero-Isaiah (London: SPCK, 1979). The idea that Deutero-Isaiah originated as liturgical drama is developed to its fullest extent by Klaus Baltzer, Deutero-Isaiah: A Commentary on Isaiah 40 – 55 (Hermeneia; Minneapolis, MN: Fortress, 2001). 14 For Jacques Vermeylen, Du Prophe`te Isaı¨e a` l’Apocalyptique. Vol. 2 (Paris: Gabalda, 1978), the core consists in the Cyrus sayings to which were added successive expansions, with passages dealing with idols and the destiny of the nations coming at the end of the process. For Klaus Kiesow, Exodustexte im Jesajabuch: Literarkritische und motivgeschichtliche Analysen (OBO 24; Freiburg, Schweiz: Universita¨tsverlag/Go¨ttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1979), Isa 40:13 – 48:20, the Babylonian core of Deutero-Isaiah, was augmented by Judaean expansions, 49:1 – 52:10 and 52:13 – 55:13. More adventurously, Rosario P. Merendino, Der Erste und der Letzte: Eine Untersuchung von Jes 40 – 48 (VTSup 31; Leiden: Brill, 1981), identified five small collections of sayings to which were added a universalizing strand, wisdom sayings, polemic against images, and numerous small addenda. Odil Hannes Steck, whose contributions to Deutero- and Trito-Isaiah studies practically defy documentation, identified the core as recoverable from Isa 47:1 – 15 + 48:20 – 21 + 52:7 – 10, 11 – 12, to which were added three layers of Fortschreibung dealing with the Zion theme. The Cyrus allusions are from the early years of Darius I. By the time of Ezra and Nehemiah the Servant had come to be identified with the Judaeo-Babylonian community, and by the time of the final redaction of Isaiah, ca. 270 bce, with the devout minority of whom we hear in Isaiah 56 – 66. See his “Israel und Zion: Zum Problem konzeptioneller Einheit und literarischer Schichtung in Deuterojesaja,” in Gottesknecht und Zion: Gesammelte Aufsa¨tze zu Deuterojesaja (FAT 4; Tu¨bingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1991), 173 – 207. Steck’s influence on Reinhard Kratz is apparent especially in his dating of the Cyrus material to the first phase of the reign of Darius I. There is a Babylonian core in Isaiah 40 – 48 dating from the fall of the city in 539 bce, augmented successively by a Zion phase, a Cyrus supplement, anti-idolatry polemic and, finally, the Servant theme. See his Kyros in Deuterojesaja-Buch: Redaktionsgeschichtliche Untersuchungen zu Entstehung und Theologie von Jes 40 – 55 (FAT 1; Tu¨bingen: Mohr Siebeck,

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and lacking the feel for the text as a literary work with its own integrity and coherence. We may share these misgivings, but this brand of scholarly Literarkritik, which seems to be coming back into vogue after a period of benign neglect, cannot be simply ignored. At the very least, it will be admitted that additions have been made to prophetic texts from time to time in keeping with changing needs and circumstances calling for new readings. For some commentators this situation would apply especially to the Servant texts, namely, the four passages identified by Bernhard Duhm as Ebed-Jahwe-Lieder (Isa 42:1 – 4; 49:1 – 6; 50:4 – 9; 52:13 – 53:12), whether one agrees with Duhm’s conclusions about their origin or not.15

3.

Problems with the Thesis of Judaean Origins

A further caveat on the location debate may be mentioned. Hans Barstad was right to criticize the “empty land thesis,” but to establish a Judaean origin for chapters 40 – 48 it is not enough to demonstrate that Judah was not depopulated after the Babylonian punitive campaign. The production of a sophisticated and complex piece of writing like Deutero-Isaiah, with its knowledge of the wider world outside the bounds of Judah, and its many rhetorical resources, would seem to require a specialized environment of some kind, something like a smaller-scale version of the Egyptian “House of Life” or the Babylonian “tablet house” (bit tuppi), or perhaps an establishment like “the place Casiphia” in southern Babylonia where Ezra was able to recruit temple personnel to join his caravan en route to Jerusalem (Ezra 8:15 – 20).16 The land was not depopulated, but the principal elements of the national infrastructure – dynasty, court, temple, the professional classes who could be expected to sponsor literary activity – had been liquidated or deported. There was also considerable destruc1991). A similar sectioning appears in Ulrich Berges, Das Buch Jesaja: Komposition und Endgestalt (HBS 16; Freiburg im Breisgau: Herder, 1998), 322 – 413 (see his Schaubild, 549). 15 Duhm, Das Buch Jesaja, 19, 311. For different perspectives on the formation of Isaiah 40 – 55, see Hans-Ju¨rgen Hermission, “Einheit und Komplexita¨t Deuterojesajas: Probleme der Redaktionsgeschichte von Jes 40 – 55,” in The Book of Isaiah: Le Livre d’Isaı¨e: les oracles et leurs relectures unite´ et complexite´ de l’ouvrage (ed. Jacques Vermeylen; BETL 81; Leuven: Leuven University Press, 1989), 287 – 312; Joseph Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40 – 55: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary (AB 19 A; New York, NY: Doubleday, 2002), 69 – 81. 16 On the “House of Life” attached to a temple see Alan Gardiner, “The House of Life,” JEA 24 (1938): 164 – 75; and on the “Tablet House,” see Eleanor Robson, “The Tablet House: A Scribal School in Old Babylonian Nippur,” RA 95 (2001): 39 – 66; and on writing in general, see Joseph Blenkinsopp, Sage, Priest, Prophet: Religious and Intellectual Leadership in Ancient Israel (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, 1995), 28 – 32 (“Writing in the Service of the State System”); Karel van der Toorn, Scribal Culture and the Making of the Hebrew Bible (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007), 51 – 73, 82 – 89.

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tion of property, as the frequent references to ruins, desolate estates and demolished houses in Isaiah 40 – 55 attest.17 Benjaminite Mizpah (Tell en nasbeh), which served as the administrative centre of the province throughout the remainder of the Neo-Babylonian period following on the sack of Jerusalem,18 has been proposed as a site of literary activity.19 The possibility cannot be entirely excluded, but in view of the manifest political and ideological disconnect between Benjamin and Judah at that time, it seems unlikely that Benjaminite Mizpah would have provided a hospitable environment for the kind of ardent Zionism in evidence throughout Deutero-Isaiah. On the other hand, activity involving nationalist prophets was apparently at a high level at the centre of the Neo-Babylonian empire, and the strength of antiBabylonian sentiment and of aspirations towards national restoration among the deported in southern Mesopotamia can be seen in Jeremiah’s attempt to silence these diasporic prophets and to undermine their message of an imminent change of fortune.20 Even leaving aside the disputed question of the location of the Priestly historical narrative and the Deuteronomistic History, the preservation of religious traditions would presuppose an institutional network of some kind, a sort of proto-synagogal organization of the kind hinted at in the meetings between Ezekiel and the elders in his house (Ezek 8:1; 14:1; 20:1). Not more than a century after the time of Deutero-Isaiah, Ezra was able to recruit a group of @?M =MD4 (“educated people”), an equal number of Levites, and 220 neˇtıˆnıˆm (minor temple personnel) from “the place Casiphia,” probably attached to a place of worship somewhere in the Nippur region (Ezra 8:16 – 20). And, in general, Babylonia boasted an intellectual tradition much more developed and of far greater antiquity than that of Judah, and it would not be surprising if members of the Judaean Diaspora were able to profit by it. The paradigm instance is the fictional account of the three Judaean youths in the Babylonian Diaspora who, having completed a three-year curriculum in the language and literature of Mesopotamia, were fully endowed with knowledge, insight, and the competence required for service at the Babylonian court (Dan 1:3 – 7). 17 Isa 44:26 – 28; 45:13; 49:8, 19; 51:3, 19; 52:9. 18 Joseph Blenkinsopp, “Bethel in the Neo-Babylonian Period,” in Judah and the Judeans in the Neo-Babylonian Period (ed. Oded Lipschits and Joseph Blenkinsopp; Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2003), 93 – 107. 19 Mizpah as the place of composition of a Benjaminite version of the history of Israel is proposed by Philip R. Davies, The Origins of Biblical Israel (New York & London: T&T Clark, 2007), 108 – 15 and, more recently, but for different reasons, Tiemeyer, For the Comfort of Zion, 63 – 68. 20 Diasporic prophets known to us by name are Ahab ben Kolaiah, Zedekiah ben Maaseiah, Shemaiah of Nehelam (Jer 29:15, 21 – 22, 24 – 32) and, of course, Ezekiel who seems not to have been politically active. Their counterpart in Judah was Hananiah ben Azzur, Jeremiah’s opponent (Jer 28:1 – 17).

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If for a moment we look beyond Deutero-Isaiah to Haggai and Zechariah 1 – 8, which reflect the crisis precipitated by the usurpation of Darius and the subsequent revolts throughout the Near and Middle East, the emphasis is solidly on religious initiatives originating in Judaean expatriate communities in Babylonia. They focus on Zerubbabel whose name betokens a Babylonian origin, his secret coronation is funded by a delegation from the Babylonian Diaspora (Zech 6:9 – 14), and it is those far off who will come and work on the rebuilding of the Jerusalem temple (Zech 6:15). On another point, Hans Barstad was right to doubt the validity of arguments picked off the surface of the text, for example allusions to botanical details21 and topographical and geographical features deemed to be more in keeping with a Judaean location.22 Quite apart from the fact that the natural environment and ecology of a region can change significantly after the passage of more than two and a half millennia, any reasonably educated person in Palestine or Babylon or, for that matter, anywhere in the Mediterranean region and Near East at that time, would have heard about the famous cedars of Lebanon, would have been familiar with cypresses and no doubt other species of trees,23 and would have had an at least vague idea of the location of Kedarite Arabs (42:11) and Sabaeans (45:14). Further to which, it is a matter of experience that expatriates, and especially those expatriated involuntarily, will often retain a better knowledge of, and a stronger emotional attachment to the sights, sounds and topographical features of the home country than those of their current environment. Since what we do not know will always exceed by far what the biblical texts tell us, none of these arguments can deliver a definitive answer to the question where Deutero-Isaiah was composed. Within the limited range of our knowledge of conditions in Judah and the Babylonian Diaspora at that time, we can do no more than ask which of the two would have provided the more hospitable environment for the production of such a text.

21 Isa 40:20, C?EB8, (“mulberry”), NRSV, REB, NJPS, following a proposal of C.C. Torrey, The Second Isaiah: A New Interpretation (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1928), 307 – 8, is textually uncertain. Isa 41:19 lists cedar, acacia, myrtle, wild olive, cypress, fir and boxwood, but they are to be planted in the wilderness and the desert. Isa 44:4, A=5LF, usually translated “willows,” is certainly found in Mesopotamia (cf. Ps 137:2). Isa 55:13, cypress and myrtle, are to grow miraculously where previously there were briars or nettles and camel thorn, but it is not clear where this is to take place. 22 The Babylonian Captivity of the Book of Isaiah, 61, 71, 89. He nevertheless favours the Judaean view but is more concerned to question the hypothesis of Babylonian origin. 23 At least one of which, the A=5LF of Isa 44:4 (probably the populus euphratica), served a useful purpose for dispirited Diaspora musicians in Babylon (Ps 137:2), and was therefore certainly indigenous to that country. A ruling for the proper celebration of Sukkoth in Lev 23:40 mentions A=5LF together with A=LBN (palm trees). This should further discourage apodictic arguments about flora and fauna.

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Zionism Ancient and Modern

I suggest that what should claim our attention more urgently is the emphasis in Deutero-Isaiah on making a new beginning with the return to and reconstitution of Zion. This is surely a dominant theme in these chapters and in numerous other parts of the Isaianic compilation where Zion is mentioned. The main lines are familiar : Yhwh will establish his kingdom in Zion, and those deportees in Babylon who have remained faithful will follow (52:7 – 12). Yhwh will comfort Zion and transform her ruins into Eden, the garden of Yhwh (51:3). Those ransomed from captivity will return and joyfully enter the city (51:11; 52:1 – 2). The Zion theme is dominant throughout the book. Zion is Yhwh’s dwelling (Isa 8:18; 18:7) where he will bring about salvation and judgement (1:27; 10:12; 24 – 27), take action against enemies (29:8; 31:4; 34:8), and set up his eschatological kingdom (24:21 – 23). It is to be inhabited by the purified and penitent remnant of Israel (1:27; 4:2 – 6; 37:32) and it will be the goal of pilgrims from foreign lands (2:1 – 5). The same complex of Zion-related themes occurs with particular urgency in Isaiah 56 – 66, especially chapters 60 – 62, the core of Trito-Isaiah, the close affinity of which to Deutero-Isaiah has often been noted.24 We are here at the historical origins of what, since the late nineteenth century, has been known as Zionism; and Zionism, whether ancient or modern, is, in its origins, essentially a diasporic phenomenon. In comparison with this indisputable fact, the question where this biblical author, or these biblical authors, happened to be living at the time of the production of Isaiah 40 – 55 seems to me to be relatively unimportant. The point may be reinforced by considering another feature of DeuteroIsaiah, one easily overlooked. The name Jacob, with reference to the nation or ethnic group as a whole, or some part of it, occurs often in prophetic texts and psalms but does so with notable frequency in Isaiah 40 – 66, more especially so in Isaiah 40 – 48.25 In Genesis (25:1 – 35:15), the Jacob story has been skillfully composed as both a psychologically credible life history and a projection of the future destiny of the people who would claim Jacob as their founding father. The hinge on which the plot turns, the central point, is the twenty-year exile of Jacob in Mesopotamia (Gen 31:38, 41). In Deutero-Isaiah Jacob, like the expatriates in Babylon, is to be taken from the ends of the earth and summoned from its furthest reaches (Isa 41:9). Since all Jacob’s sons except Benjamin are born in Mesopotamia (Gen 29:31 – 30:24), it is during this exilic period that the seeds of 24 See my Isaiah 56 – 66: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary (AB 19B; New York, NY: Doubleday, 2003), 59 – 63, 207 – 8. 25 The name occurs as a collective term nineteen times in chapters 40 – 48, three times in chapters 49 – 55 (49:5, 6, 26), and five times in chapters 56 – 66. It usually occurs in combination with Israel, but Jacob is named first with one exception (41:8).

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a new people are sown. Jacob is assured before, during, and after his exile that he will inherit the Abrahamic promises (Gen 28:3 – 4, 13 – 14; 30:27 – 30; 35:11 – 12), but it is only after the return to the Canaanite or Palestinian homeland that he does so as Israel (Gen 32:27 – 28; 35:10). It would be widely accepted that the Jacob story in Genesis reflects, in its broad lines, the experience of the Judaean deportees after the fall of Jerusalem, but we can perhaps go further by claiming that certain features of the narrative suggest the possibility that, in its final form, it was put together with the intention of rendering that experience less opaque and theologically more intelligible.26 One of its major themes is endemic hostility between Jacob and Esau (Gen 25:21 – 26; 27:41 – 45), which may be understood as reflecting Edomite hostility to Judah, a prominent theme in prophetic polemic following on the destruction of Jerusalem and the deportations.27 Along the same lines, Jacob’s vow made at Bethel before departure (Gen 28:20 – 22), the command given him both during and after his exile to return to Bethel (Gen 31:13; 35:1 – 4), his rejection of foreign cults before returning to that sanctuary (35:2 – 4), and the repetition of the name change there (35:9 – 15), reflect the role of the Bethel sanctuary, in close proximity to the administrative centre of the province at Mizpah, after the sack of Jerusalem and destruction of its temple. Jacob himself affirms that Bethel will be “the house of God” (A=8@4 N=5) after his return from exile (Gen 28:22). Other features of the Jacob narrative may correlate with live issues at the time of the composition of Deutero-Isaiah. We know that title to real estate was a crucial consideration after expatriates began to return, and would have been a concern even earlier for those who contemplated the possibility of return. It has been observed that negotiations between “the people of the land” and Abraham, newly arrived from Mesopotamia, for the purchase by the latter of a plot of land (Genesis 23), correspond to land contracts from Neo-Babylonian and early Achaemenid Mesopotamia. This circumstance, together with the emphasis on the complete legality of the real estate transaction, could have served as a model for immigrants from the Babylonian Diaspora in their dealings with the indigenous population.28 A similar function may have attached to Jacob’s purchase 26 I am assuming with the great majority of critical scholars that the Jacob story, comprising most of Genesis 25 – 35, is a composite of Priestly (P) and non-Priestly material, however the latter may be further defined and characterized. I assume further that these two components derive from a date no earlier than the Neo-Babylonian period, and that the narrative achieved its final shape even later. 27 Isa 34:5 – 17; 63:1 – 6; Jer 49:7 – 22; Ezek 25:12 – 14; Ob 10; Mal 1:2 – 5. 28 On the land contracts see Herbert Petschow, “Die neubabylonische Zwiegespra¨chsurkunde und Genesis 23,” JCS 19 (1965): 103 – 20; Gene M. Tucker, “The Legal Background of Genesis 23,” JBL 85 (1966): 74 – 84. On Abraham as model for immigrants see Joseph Blenkinsopp, “Abraham as Paradigm in the Priestly History in Genesis,” JBL 128 (2009): 225 – 41.

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of land for a specific, named price from the Shechemites (Gen 33:19). A related issue concerns marriage alliances. In the Genesis story Jacob leaves Canaan not just to escape retribution at the hands of Esau but to avoid marriage with indigenous women (Gen 26:34 – 35; 28:1 – 2, 6 – 9). This issue became highly visible and contentious with the beˇneˆ haggoˆlaˆ during the early and middle years of Achaemenid rule, but it would have been foreseen as problematic even earlier. We need not assume, finally, that all of this was present in the mind of the author or authors of Isaiah 40 – 55 in invoking so insistently the memory of Jacob the great patriarch. The point is rather that, irrespective of where these chapters were composed, they envision a future restoration dependent on the return of the deported from other lands, in the first place from the Babylonian Diaspora.

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Elizabeth R. Hayes

Fading and Flourishing. The Rhetorical Function of Plant Imagery in Isaiah 40 – 66

Introduction The idea of looking at plant imagery as a possible area of continuity or discontinuity within Isaiah 40 – 66 seems to fly in the face of textual study based upon formal textual analysis, with its emphasis upon lexical items and syntactic similarities and differences. While these studies are needed and desirable, it is the contention of this paper that plant and tree imagery plays an important rhetorical role in Isaiah 40 – 66. This span of text is marked by sections of persuasive poetry, thus, attention to rhetorical style is appropriate for examining the text.1 Such rhetoric uses myriad tropes and figures of speech and, as Blenkinsopp notes, imagery is among these rhetorical features. For this reason, an examination of plant and tree imagery as part of the rhetoric of Isaiah 40 – 66 is an appropriate avenue for research.2 What, then, does the rhetorical use of plant imagery add to the question of textual continuity and discontinuity within the text of Isaiah 40 – 66? In an attempt to address this question, this study will provide a brief overview of the frequency and clustering of plant and tree imagery in Isaiah 40 – 66. This will be followed by an introduction and explanation of the role of conceptual metaphor and conceptual blending for exploring such imagery. Finally, selected examples (Isa 40:6 – 8; 40:23 – 24; 53:2; 60:21) will be examined within their larger contexts. It will be shown that although plant imagery is rhetorically significant at 1 The term “persuasive poetry” is used because the oracles are poetic in form, but the message in these passages moves beyond Jakobson’s category of poetic function (with its emphasis upon the message for its own sake), to that of persuasive rhetoric. Adele Berlin, The Dynamics of Biblical Parallelism (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1985), 50 – 52. 2 Blenkinsopp approaches the rhetorical nature of Isaiah 40 – 55 as follows: “Rhetoric is the art of persuading by effective communication of a message in a particular situation. It involves development of an argument that articulates the speaker’s intentions and does so by employing strategies for engaging the interest and emotions of the speaker’s public and persuading them to accept the message.” Joseph Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40 – 55: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary (AB 19 A; New York, NY: Doubleday, 2002), 61.

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the local level, when taken on its own this imagery does not contribute towards large scale continuity at the textual level for Isaiah 40 – 66.3 Rather, continuity and discontinuity may only be observed between the complete sections of text in which the imagery participates, namely Isa 40:1 – 31; 53:1 – 12; and 60:1 – 22. Thus, determining the relationship between these sections and the remainder of the text is fundamental for determining continuity and discontinuity.

1.

Plant and Tree Imagery in Isaiah 40 – 66

Two basic questions come to mind when considering the rhetorical role of plant imagery in Isaiah 40 – 66: First, “what, exactly, is an image?” Secondly, “How does imagery function?” Imagery has been defined and redefined in the past decade. The Dictionary of Biblical Imagery, published in 1998 states, “An image is any word that names a concrete thing (such as a tree or house) or action (such as running or threshing). Any object or action that we can picture is an image.”4 This definition seems overly broad, but it is a starting place. Reflecting a growing awareness of cognitive approaches, Howe’s 2008 New Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible entry reads, “Images are embodied mental responses prompted by words or phrases that activate a reader’s sensory memory of taste, touch, hearing, sight, or smell.”5 Both definitions comment upon the concrete nature of images and the importance of a reader’s pre-understandings regarding an image. Howe adds to this understanding when she notes, “Ornate images build up and elaborate on basic images. Imagery follows language conventions and patterns of thinking, so experience and cultural knowledge matter in the interpretation of images.” More to the point for this study, Howe notes that images can provide the source domains for conceptual metaphor.6

3 Indeed, Job Jindo uses a similar cognitive approach to argue for the “Destruction Model” as a global metaphor in Jeremiah 1 – 24. While his discussions regarding local metaphors are persuasive, his proposal of a global metaphor is viewed with some reservations by the present author. Job Y. Jindo, Biblical Metaphor Reconsidered : A Cognitive Approach to Poetic Prophecy in Jeremiah 1 – 24 (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2010), 71 – 150. 4 Leland Ryken and others, Dictionary of Biblical Imagery (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1998), xiii. 5 Bonnie Howe, “Image, Imagery,” in NIB (Nashville, TN: Abingdon, 2008), 21. 6 Howe, “Image, Imagery,” 21.

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Conceptual Metaphors Involving Plant and Tree Imagery in Isaiah 40 – 66

Because images can function as source domains for conceptual metaphor, conceptual metaphor theory and conceptual blending theory are two useful ways of looking at plant and tree imagery in Isaiah 40 – 66. Both of these conceptual approaches provide insight into the ways humans construe the world around them. The ubiquity of conceptual metaphor instantiated by plant and tree imagery, both in everyday language (he is flourishing in the music programme, her hopes for a brighter future withered more with every passing day) and in literary texts such as Isa 61:11 (“For as the earth brings forth her growth, and a garden makes the seed shoot up, so the Lord GOD will make victory and renown shoot up, in the presence of the nations,” JPS), make this a likely approach for further investigation into these examples.7 While the following list is by no means exhaustive, approximately 13 instances of plant imagery occur within the text of Isaiah 40 – 66: six in Isaiah 40 – 55 (40:6 – 8; 40:23 – 24; 44:1 – 5; 45:8; 53:2; and 55:12) and seven in Isaiah 56 – 66 (56:1 – 8; 58:11; 60:21; 61:11; 63:2; 65:21 – 23; 66:14). On the basis of lexical material alone, the passages show a startling lack of continuity : there are no repetitions of any of the horticultural or arboreal terms. Thus, the search for continuity must be engaged in at the semantic and conceptual levels found in the larger sections of text in which the imagery participates.8 The larger sections to be examined in this paper include: Isa 40:1 – 31; 53:1 – 12; and 60:1 – 22.

1.2

Conceptual Metaphor Definitions

Given that conceptual metaphor incorporates imagery as one aspect of conceptualization which plays into both literary features (such as metaphor and simile) and into everyday language, a few definitions will be useful.

7 For the importance of metaphor for Isaiah studies, see Yehoshua Gitay, “Why Metaphors? A Study of the Texture of Isaiah,” in Writing and Reading the Scroll of Isaiah: Studies of an Interpretive Tradition (ed. Craig C. Broyles and Craig A. Evans; 2 vols; VTSup 70, 1 – 2; Leiden: Brill, 1997), 57 – 65. 8 This is the purview of cognitive approaches such as cognitive stylistics, cognitive poetics and text world theory. See, for example the discussions of text world theory in Joanna Gavins, Text World Theory : An Introduction (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2007). See also Lesley Jeffries and Dan McIntyre, Stylistics (Cambridge Textbooks in Linguistics; New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, 2010); Peter Stockwell, Cognitive Poetics: An Introduction (London: Routledge, 2002).

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1.2.1 Extended Great Chain of Being First of all, conceptual metaphor based upon plant imagery derives from the more generic conceptual metaphor known as the extended great chain of being, which is one way we order information about the world around us. The extended great chain of being comprises the following hierarchy : Divine Creation/Cosmos Society Humans: higher order attributes, behaviour Animals: instinctual attributes, behaviour Plants: biological attributes, behaviour Complex objects: structural attributes, functional behaviour Natural physical things: natural physical attributes, behavior While the chain itself does not indicate the presence of conceptual metaphor, as Ko¨vecses notes, the great chain becomes a metaphor system “[…] when a particular level of the chain (human, animal, etc) is used to understand another level.”9 We see this at work in selected texts of Isaiah, where the author creates literary figures (metaphor, simile) that are based upon understanding society and people in terms of the biological attributes and behavior of plants. 1.2.2 Conceptual Metaphor: Source and Target Domains Secondly, Ko¨vecses emphasizes four features of conceptual metaphor :10 a. A conceptual domain is any coherent organization of experience. An example of this is the biological behavior and attributes of plants.11 b. Conceptual Metaphor involves […] understanding one conceptual domain in terms of another conceptual domain. The domain to be understood is called the Target Domain; the domain used to create understanding is called the Source Domain. Metaphor so construed is mono-directional, moving from Source to Target. Using the biological attributes and behavior of plants to understand humans or society as a whole are examples of this.12 c. As demonstrated in Figure 1, a convenient shorthand way of capturing this view of metaphor is the following: conceptual domain (A) is conceptual domain (B).13 9 Zolta´n Ko¨vecses, Metaphor : A Practical Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 126. 10 It is conventional to indicate conceptual metaphors by small caps in order to differentiate them from literary metaphors. Literary metaphors are often based upon the highly schematic conceptual metaphors that are part of the conceptual repetoire of readers and hearers. 11 Ko¨vecses, Metaphor, 4. 12 Ko¨vecses, Metaphor, 4. 13 Ko¨vecses, Metaphor, 4.

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d. Entities are associated with one another via a set of cross-domain mappings.14

Figure 1: Basic Conceptual Metaphor – people are plants

The diagram in Figure 1 demonstrates the mono-directional nature of a simple conceptual metaphor. Here the common characteristics of eating/drinking, growing and dying are mapped from the plant, which eats and drinks via a root system, grows in one spot (unless transplanted) and eventually dies are mapped to humans, who eat and drink via their mouths, who grow, but are not confined to one spot, and who eventually die. The reverse could also be accounted for by creating a plants are people, in which case the source and target domains would be reversed. Conceptual metaphor is effective for understanding both literary metaphor and metaphor in everyday language as well. Conceptual metaphor may be taken one step farther by including source and target domains in a conceptual blending diagram that clarifies the dynamics of metaphor in use.

1.3

Conceptual Blending

Conceptual blending can be used to elaborate upon the source and target domains of a given conceptual metaphor by exploring the way such metaphor interacts with other knowledge, i. e. encyclopedic background knowledge of the world (historical and cultural contexts), in the process of creating understanding. The diagram in Figure 2, below, illustrates the conceptual blending process for the metaphor divine speech is human speech, which is employed frequently by the prophetic writers. As Figure 2 illustrates, the top-most space in a conceptual blending diagram is called the Generic Space. This space contains only what is common to all and is often schematic: here we have two figures and an interaction. The left middle 14 Ko¨vecses, Metaphor, 6 – 7.

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Figure 2: Basic Conceptual Blend – divine speech is human speech

space is termed Input Space 1, the Target Domain. It includes two speech participants: one human, one divine. The right middle space is termed Input Space 2, the Source Domain. It includes two speech participants: both are the usual human suspects. Cross-space mappings, tracking right to left, include human to human for one speaker and human to divine for the other. Mapping a human speaker to the Divine brings the Divine to human scale. This creates a communication situation in which including the Divine appears to be quite normal. All of this plays out in the bottom-most space, which is termed the Blend. This space inherits generic structure from the Generic Space, including the two entities that communicate with one another. It also inherits human to human prototypicality from the Source Domain and the Divine as speaker from the Target Domain.15 The resultant blend is a “plausible impossibility” of great theological importance. More important for this study, the texts in these examples represent conceptual blends created by the writers/editors. Hence, the examples themselves would belong in the blended space. The interpreter’s task is to discover which aspects of the blend represent generic information and which

15 Gilles Fauconnier and Mark Turner, The Way We Think: Conceptual Blending and the Mind’s Hidden Complexities (New York, NY: Basic Books, 2002).

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aspects of the source and target domains, the input spaces, contribute to the final blended space.

1.4

Simple and Complex Metaphors

Conceptual metaphor operates on different levels, from simple metaphors such as people are plants, to complex metaphors, such as an abstract complex system is a plant.16 Two recurring simple metaphors in Isaiah are people are plants and society is a person. As previously mentioned, Figure 1 provides a few possible cross-space mappings between plants as a source domain and people as a target domain: plants take nourishment, people take nourishment; plants grow, people grow; plants die, people die. One can easily add more mappings. An example is in order. Isa 66:14a reads, “You shall see, and your heart shall rejoice; your bodies shall flourish like the grass.” Here the phrase “your bodies shall flourish like grass” is a simile that plays upon the people are plants metaphor. As is generally the case, concrete entities in the source domain (here healthy grass) encourage further understanding of abstract notions in the target domain (here physical and possibly emotional well-being). Other examples of the people are plants metaphor include Isa 40:6 – 8; 40:23 – 24; 53:2; 56:1 – 8 and 58:10 – 11. The society is a person metaphor is used to scale society as a whole down to human scale. The vocative “O, Jacob” in Isa 44:1 is an example of this, as is the collective use of the term “Israel” elsewhere. This maneuver can create a complex metaphor, such as the society is a plant metaphor at Isa 60:21. The society is a plant metaphor at Isa 60:21 is an instantiation of the complex metaphor abstract complex system is a plant. Other examples are Isa 44:4; 45:8; 65:21 – 23; and 66:14. Such metaphors explore the workings of human institutions. The state of development of an institution is of concern for the society is a plant metaphor : is society fading or flourishing?17

16 Ko¨vecses, Metaphor, 83 – 84. 17 Ko¨vecses, Metaphor, 8.

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2.

Selected Examples of Plant and Tree Imagery in Isaiah 40 – 55 and 56 – 66

This section will explore some specific examples of plant and tree imagery in more detail. The first three examples (Isa 40:6 – 8; 40:23 – 24; and 53:2) use the people are plants metaphor, while the fourth (Isa 60:21) uses the abstract complex system is a plant metaphor. Each of the metaphors utilizes various aspects of biological attributes and characteristics of plants to understand aspects of the higher order attributes and behavior of humans. The first three are simple metaphors. The final example is a complex metaphor, in which the grammatically single mass noun “people” maps to the singular term “shoot of my planting.” The paired examples in Isa 40 are used as a starting point.

2.1

Isaiah 40 – 55

2.1.1 Isaiah 40:1 – 31 Isaiah 40:6 – 818 LB4 @9K 4LK LB49 4LK4 8B L=J; LM58 @? 87M8 I=J? 97E; @?9 L=J; M5= I=J @5D L=J; 95 85MD 898= ;9L =? AF8 L=J; C?4 L=J; M5= I=J @5D A@9F@ A9K= 9D=8@4 L579

6 A voice says, “Cry out!” And I said, “What shall I cry?” All people are grass, their constancy is like the flower of the field. 7 The grass withers, the flower fades, when the breath of the Lord blows upon it; surely the people are grass. 8 The grass withers, the flower fades; but the word of our God will stand forever.

Isa 40:1 – 11 has been described as a prologue to Isaiah 40 – 55 and, alternatively, as a possible example of the call-account genre.19 Importantly, the very first part of this new section of Isaiah includes three instances of the people are plants 18 BHS/NRSV. 19 For Isaiah 40:1 – 11 as prologue, see Lena-Sofia Tiemeyer, For the Comfort of Zion: The Geographical and Theological Location of Isaiah 40 – 55 (VTSup 139; Leiden: Brill, 2011), 333 – 345. See also Brevard S. Childs, Isaiah (Louisville, KY/London: Westminster John Knox, 2001), 294 – 295. For the call-account genre, see the influential article by Norman Habel, “The Form and Significance of the Call Narratives,” ZAW 77 (1965): 309 – 323.

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conceptual metaphor. The first instance is found at Isa 40:6b, where the phrase L=J; LM58 @? (“all flesh is grass”) precedes a vivid description of withering grasses and fading flowers, which is arguably one of the most memorable images in the book of Isaiah. The second instance is found immediately after this, at Isa 40:7b, as indicated by the phrase AF8 L=J; C?4 (“surely the people are grass”). Both of these instances map the “fading” aspect of wind-dried plant life in the source domain to some type of decline in human life in the target domain. While this is accomplished by a statement in the first instance, there is a certain logical progression that occurs before the second instance. There is a subtle argument within this section: a) all flesh is grass; b) grass and flowers wither and fade when the breath of Yhwh blows upon them; c) therefore, the people wither and fade when the breath of Yhwh blows upon them. When the situation in the text is taken as a conceptual blend a more detailed explanation for the plant metaphor emerges. The specific mappings from the source domain “plants” to the target domain “people” focus upon “decline of life” issues for plants. The focus is upon the final fading stages in the life of grasses and wild flowers: their health and beauty is subject to the “breath of Yhwh.” Furthermore, even as grasses and flowers fade when the breath of Yhwh blows upon them, so humans fade as well. Here, the transitory nature of grasses and flowers illustrates the transitory nature of human initiative and power : this stands in direct contrast with the initiative and power of Yhwh, whose very word remains standing. Finally, moving backwards to the generic space, we discover that all spaces have in common a created entity, a creating entity, and proximate distance between them. Human and divine are in immediate relationship. This becomes a recurring feature for the generic spaces in the remaining examples as well. Rhetorically speaking, there is a move from the general, as indicated by the term LM58 @? in verse 6b, to the specific, as indicated by the term AF8 in verse 7b. We are still left in the dark as to the specific identity of the people in verse 6b, but it is possible to see the generality of the phrase LM58 @? as a precursor to the third example of plant metaphor in 40:24, where the princes and rulers of the earth are also subjected to the wind of Yhwh. All flesh is grass, including the leaders of the oppressing Babylonian regime.20 Now it might be asked how the issues of the people’s proximity to God, and God’s initiative and power, inform the section as a whole. This requires interaction with literary, historical and cultural information relevant to the text at hand. Here we discover several difficulties. From a literary perspective, the identity of the initial speaker is not known; rather he is simply presented as “a

20 Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40 – 55, 183 – 184.

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voice.”21 Likewise, there is discussion regarding Isa 40:6b: does this continue the first person speaker’s thought or does it begin the section of text that comprises the message that this speaker is to “cry out”? Significantly, the argument presented above holds in either scenario. Isaiah 40:23 – 24 C=4@ A=D:9L CN9D8 8MF 98N? IL4 =üHM 9FüD @5 G4 9FL: @5 G4 AF:6 IL45 MLM @5 G4 A85 GMD A69 9M5=9 A4MN MK? 8LFE9

23

who brings princes to naught, and makes the rulers of the earth as nothing. 24 Scarcely are they planted, scarcely sown, scarcely has their stem taken root in the earth, when he blows upon them, and they wither, and the tempest carries them off like stubble.

At Isa 40:12 the topic shifts to the identity of Yhwh with the rhetorical question: “who has measured the waters in the hollow of his hand and marked off the heavens with a span”? In this section creation language is used to detail the “credentials” of Yhwh. Still farther into the chapter, at Isa 40:22 – 23, we discover that he also has the initiative and power to depose human rulers. It is Yhwh “[…]who brings princes to naught, and makes the rulers of the earth as nothing […] Scarcely are they planted, scarcely sown, scarcely has their stem taken root in the earth, when he blows upon them, and they wither, and the tempest carries them off like stubble.”22 In Isa 40:24 the mappings from the source domain “plant” include references to the early life of the plants. A new feature here is the addition of an unidentified “gardener.” In this case, however, the young plants which are so newly planted, newly sown and just beginning to set down roots, are susceptible to the breath of Yhwh. Just as it is the breath of Yhwh that determines the plants untimely end, so the breath of Yhwh causes the downfall of leaders. Again, the initiative and power of Yhwh are affirmed. 21 Text World theory, with its initial analytical tool of identifying world builders such as time, location, characters and objects, reinforces the observations of commentators who observe that both the identity of the addressees of the imperative “Comfort, comfort” (v. 1) and their location is ambiguous. For a basic introduction to the text world model, see Stockwell, Cognitive Poetics 137 – 38. Shalom Paul presents a clear argument that the addressees are members of the heavenly court. Shalom M. Paul, Isaiah 40 – 66: Translation and Commentary (Eerdmans Critical Commentary ; Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans), 127 – 28. 22 While this paper is interested in the commonalities between Isaiah 40 – 55 and 56 – 66, this verse contains the term F:6, which Shalom Paul notes is a term that only appears in Isaiah 11:1 and Job 14:8. Because Paul treats Isaiah 40 – 66 as a unit, this data serves to connect the two independent units together. Paul has compiled a generous amount of data that demonstrates continuity between Isaiah 1 – 39 and 40 – 66. See Paul, Isaiah 40 – 66, 5 – 12, 50 – 53.

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When this section is viewed as a conceptual blend it is possible to discover some interesting parallels with the previous example. First, the generic space for this blend also contains created entities, a creator entity and similar proximate distance between them. While the created entities are not identical to those in the first example (although they might be construed as part of the “all flesh” statement), the identity of the creator entity, Yhwh, is the same. Additionally, from the blend itself, we discover that there is conceptual linkage between the forces applied to both sets of created entities: the breath of Yhwh is the cause of their destruction. It is now possible to examine this section from literary, historical and cultural perspectives. From a literary perspective, this section is part of a larger section that is marked by rhetorical questions that push for identifying Yhwh as creator. The time frame for this section is likely during the Babylonian captivity. During this time it is entirely possible that the topic of creation gained momentum for the prophetic writer as a rhetorical antidote to Babylonian creation claims. Importantly, this rhetoric would not require physical presence in Babylon to be effective and no claim is made here for a Babylonian provenance over any other.23 2.1.2 Isaiah 52:1 – 12 Isaiah 53:2

2

For he grew up before him like a young plant, and like a root out of dry ground; 984LD9 L78 4@9 9@ L4N 4@ he had no form or majesty that we should look at him, 987B;D9 84LB 4@9 nothing in his appearance that we should desire him. 9=DH@ KD9=? @F=9

8=J IL4B MLM?9

Isa 53:2 states: “For he grew up before him like a young plant, and like a root out of dry ground; he had no form or majesty that we should look at him, nothing in his appearance that we should desire him” (NRSV). This verse stands at the beginning of one of the texts known since the time of Duhm as Servant Songs. Regardless of one’s interpretation of the servant’s identity, this metaphor provides a powerful statement about certain under-discussed characteristics of the servant: those having to do with the beginning of his life and career. In this verse the source domain contains the terms “grew up,” “young plant,” and “root out of dry ground.” Here the specific mappings from the source domain “plants” to the target domain “people” focus upon beginning of life issues for plants. The focus is upon growing, young and seemingly vulnerable plant life. Importantly, the image of a “root out of dry ground” is that of a sturdy plant, healthy and flourishing, although in a rather non-descript fashion. Hence, 23 See Tiemeyer, Comfort of Zion, 130.

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the servant is not portrayed as a powerful figure, rather sturdy figure that goes on to suffer mightily. When this verse is examined as a conceptual blend, the generic space contains a divine entity and a human entity in close proximity to one another. This example differs from the previous two, however. Here God and the servant are in close proximity to one another, but there is no display of divine power. What the examples do all have in common is the interrelationship between the human and divine entities: they are proximate to one another.

2.2.

Isaiah 56 – 66

Isaiah 60:21 21

Your people shall all be righteous; they shall possess the land forever. 9FüB LJD They are the shoot that I planted, =7= 8MFB the work of my hands, L4HN8@ so that I might be glorified.

A=K=7J A@? ýBF9 IL4 9ML== A@9F@

The final example, Isa 60:21 reads: “Your people shall all be righteous; they shall possess (the) land forever. They are the shoot that I planted, the work of my hands, so that I might be glorified” (NRSV). This verse has a number of interesting points. First, the initial phrase, A=K=7J A@? ýBF9 describes the people in a grammatically plural form, while the second phrase uses the grammatically singular construct phrase 9FüB LJD. Thus, singular term “vine” in the source domain “plants” maps to the grammatically plural term “your people” in the target domain. So, while this could be construed as a simple people are plants metaphor, because of the disparity in number, the resulting metaphor is actually an example of the an abstract complex system is a plant metaphor. In this case, the phrase “your people” represents a future iteration of the current addressee’s society. The statement “your people shall all be righteous” indicates a time in the future when this society will be a healthy, flourishing entity, growing and bearing fruit as it should. This will be the result of the work of the creatorplanter, who is Yhwh, himself. When taken as a conceptual blend, this verse is the most explicit example with regard to both proximity and power. The generic space could be populated with a divine entity and a created entity ; in this case society itself is construed as a single plant. The metaphor is vivid in describing the people as a vine, highlighting the role of Yhwh as a caretaking gardener for the dependent vine. On the basis of conceptual blending, each of the examples addressed in this study demonstrate generic commonalities of proximity and power : the Divine is

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shown to be present with humankind and creation and powerful over all. The cognitive approach taken in this study shows that while the use of plant imagery gives added meaning to each of the sections of text, it has created a nuanced reading of three individual sections of text, but has not created demonstrable continuity between them.

Conclusion This paper has explored some of the ways that conceptual metaphor might contribute to understanding plant imagery in Isaiah 40 – 55 and 56 – 66. Additionally, it has explored the cognitive substrate for elements that might be claimed to create continuity and discontinuity in the text. According to this analysis, the plant metaphors in Isaiah are linguistic instantiations of the people are plants and an abstract complex system is a plant metaphors. In Isa 40:6 – 8 and Isa 40:22 – 23 “end of life” elements are mapped from plants to people via the people are plants metaphor, emphasizing the initiative and power of Yhwh in contrast to that of human figures. In Isa 53:2 “beginning of life” and natural growth are mapped from the plants to the Servant via the people are plants metaphor. The mappings emphasize the lowly, almost nondescript way that the Servant is portrayed; yet the plants are new and hardy. Finally, Isa 60:21 maps characteristics of a single vine to the future offspring of the addressees via the an abstract complex system is a plant metaphor. This example also highlights the initiative and power of Yhwh. Both proximity to the divine and divine action (or inaction, as in Isa 53:2) are strong conceptual aspects of each of these examples. Rhetorically speaking, the plant metaphors provide significant information regarding the fading and flourishing of each of the human entities involved, be they individuals or collective referents. There are some areas of continuity, particularly in the contiguous examples in chapter 40. However, it has not been demonstrated that the strength of the generic commonalities of proximity and power might be claimed as markers of continuity and discontinuity in the text. Of interest, however, is the movement from “end of life” elements in Isa 40, to “beginning of life” elements in Isa 53:2 and the “future hope” aspect of Isa 60:21, a pattern that reflects the general movement of the text as a whole.

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Corinna Ko¨rting

Isaiah 62:1 – 7 and Psalm 45 – or – Two Ways to Become Queen

Using the image of the queen is not the most common way in OT literature to speak about Zion. Zion is known as a mountain, as a city and, especially in prophetic literature including Lamentations, as the suffering woman. However, according to Isa 62:3, Zion will become the crown in God’s hands; Zion will become queen. The image of Zion as queen has been developed continuously in Isa 40 – 66 and Isa 62:3 seems to be its peak.1 What shall be discussed in this article is the path Zion takes – through suffering, restoration and exaltation – in order to become queen. Much of it is reflected in Isa 62:1 – 7, but points back to Isa 28:1 – 6 and several passages in Isa 40 – 55 and 60 – 62 which shall be discussed as well. Moreover, the presentation of Zion as queen is a rather late trend in the portrayal of Zion. In order to sharpen the picture given by the Isaianic texts, a second text, or, so to speak, a second model of Zion becoming queen – as young in its present form and context as Isa 62:1 – 7 – shall be looked at. This will be Ps 45. The text offers an alternative picture of Zion as Queen, while it is obvious that both texts are coming back to the same imagery and the same pool of traditions and tradents. Reading Isa 60 – 62 we are residing in the time of the second temple. The temple has been rebuilt, as have the city walls, but the expectations have somehow not been fulfilled; the restoration has not been completed and has stagnated in difficulties.2 Now Isaiah speaks by reviving earlier sayings (cf. Isa 49:14 – 26) about an even greater hope: Zion as Queen for Israel and the nations.

1 Spoken in terms of literary history it is to say that Isa 62:1 – 7 as part of Isa 60 – 62 has a function as a Fortschreibung of Isa 1/40 – 55. The text is based mainly on what we know from Isa 40 – 55, but takes also Isa 28:1 – 6 into account. 2 Cf. Ulrich Berges, Das Buch Jesaja: Komposition und Endgestalt (HBS 16; Freiburg im Breisgau: Herder, 1998), 429 – 32.

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The Crown in God’s Hand

Isaiah 62:1 – 7 – The Textual Basis The text unit opens with the statement: “For Zion’s sake I will not keep silent.” A parallel statement is found in verse 6. It expands what has been said before: “upon your walls, O Jerusalem, I have posted sentinels; all day and night they shall never be silent.” The question arises whether verses 6 – 7 open a new text unit or close what begins in verse 1. A few reasons shall be given as to why Isa 62:1 – 7 should be understood as a unit. Verses 1 and 6 – 7 function as a frame.3 Both have the same speaker,4 who takes Zion’s and Jerusalem’s side and will speak up for her. Verse 1 and verses 6 – 7 set a time frame using the term “until” (7F). Until Zion’s status has not changed the speaker will not be silent. In addition it should be noted that verse 7 deepens the thought of rebuilding Zion (v. 5) when it speaks about “establishing” (C9?) Jerusalem. This connection unites the image of Zion as queen and the marriage of the personified city in verses 1 – 5 with the city in verses 6 – 7, the city as space. Verses 2a and 7 mention, finally, the witnesses of Zion’s new status: the nations and the whole earth.5 While verses 1 – 7 present a harmonious unit, verses 8 – 9 differ from that.6 Verse 8 speaks about a powerful vow of Yhwh, which follows in direct speech. It is a vow that

3 The structure: V. 1 “I cannot be silent” 7F/until Vv. 2 – 3 Explication of 7F; until she becomes queen and gets a new name V. 4 Explication of the new name in terms of desired by Yhwh V. 5 Explication of the marriage metaphor Vv. 6 – 7 “They shall not be silent” 7F/until 4 For a different view, cf. Bernhard Duhm, Jesaia (5th ed.; KHAT; Go¨ttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1968), 458 – 60, who suggests that it is the prophet in v. 1 but Yhwh in v. 6. Various opinions are to be found. Others besides Duhm also argue for the prophet in v. 1: Paul Volz, Jesaja II (KAT 9; Leipzig: Deichertsche, 1932), 251 – 52; Klaus Koenen, Ethik und Eschatologie im Tritojesajabuch (WMANT 62; Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener, 1990), 123 – 27; Marvin A. Sweeney, “The Reconceptualization of the Davidic Covenant in Isaiah,” in Studies in the Book of Isaiah: Festschrift for Willem A.M. Beuken (ed. Jacques T.A.G.M. van Ruiten and Marc Vervenne; BETL 132; Leuven: Leuven University Press, 1997), 41 – 61 (54). Other scholars argue for Yhwh: Carl F. Keil and Franz Delitzsch, Isaiah (Commentary on the Old Testament Vol. 7; transl. James Martin; Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1976), 434; Odil H. Steck, Studien zu Tritojesaja (BZAW 203; Berlin/New York: de Gruyter, 1991), 126 – 28; Berges, Buch Jesaja, 457. 5 V. 2a is, as it will be shown, part of a longer chain of expectations for Zion’s future status, connected to the first (v. 1b “until her vindication shines out …”) with perf. constr. In v. 7 the chain of expectations closes with the earth as witness, again attached with the word 7F. 6 Cf. Koenen, Ethik, 122, 128.

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touches upon Jerusalem, who as a city is also the provider for her inhabitants (cf. Ps 132:15 – 16).7

Isaiah 62:1 – 3 – Zion as a Royal Figure Taking Isa 62:1 – 7 as the textual basis for the following discussion, some observations related to terminology and content shall be reflected upon. The statement of not keeping up the silence about the fate of Zion frames the text unit and sets everything said into perspective. Zion’s status is not what it should be. A destructive silence is lying upon her, but it shall be broken. There is one who stands up for her, speaking with the voice of the prophet.8 The addressees are Zion and Yhwh at the same time: Zion is directly addressed in verses 2 – 4, to let her know that someone is speaking for her and that her fate is to be changed into a glorious future. Yhwh is addressed, in that everything said is based on his word and he is the one to make the change happen. A third group should be mentioned here as well, namely those who listen to the message. The text is an invitation to them to join the speaker of verse 1 as the watchmen do according to verse 7.9 What is expected is no less than that Zion’s justice shall shine, and her salvation shall be visible like a burning torch. The word 8F9M= “salvation” is a term typical of Isaiah’s prophecy through all parts of the book. Usually Yhwh is the subject; it is his salvation the people and Zion are hoping for.10 Only Isa 62:1 dedicates 8F9M= with a suffix 3.f.sg. directly to Zion as hers. Though, taking not just 8F9M= but more aspects of Isa 62:1 – 2 into account, another text comes into focus whose perspective has been enlarged in chapter 62. Isa 52:7 – 10 speaks 7 Cf. Steck who sees a difference between the positive view of the nations who shall see and praise the fate of Zion in v. 2, and the negative view of the non Israelites in v. 8 (Steck, Studien, 124 – 25). This has been strongly criticized by Berges, Buch Jesaja, 456. 8 Cf. Koenen, Ethik, 123 – 27. Yhwh has to be excluded because the text (vv. 2 – 5) speaks about him continuously in 3.m.sg. The first verse is, on the contrary, part of the mission of the prophet (cf. Isa 58:1). Differently, Steck points out that only Yhwh can call upon a watchman, not a prophet (Studien, 128); cf. also Berges, Buch Jesaja, 459 – 61. Wolfgang Lau, Schriftgelehrte Prophetie in Jes 55 – 66: Eine Untersuchnung zu den literarischen Bezu¨gen in den letzten elf Kapiteln des Jesajabuches (BZAW 225; Berlin/New York: de Gruyter, 1994), 90; 102 – 5, argues for scribal literature. 9 Willy Schottroff, “Gedenken” im Alten Orient und im Alten Testament (2nd ed.; WMANT 15; Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener, 1967), 263, presupposes that the one positioning the sentinels on the wall is Yhwh. Therefore he suggests for L?: part. Hiphil “(die Ankunft) Jahwes melden.” 10 God’s salvation: cf. Isa 25:9; 52:10; in 1.sg. speech 49:6; 51:6, 8; 56:1; God’s salvation as “ours” 33:2. Cf. also Isa 60:18, where the walls are called “salvation.”

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about the return of Yhwh to Zion, which means salvation for the city.11 This gets witnessed by the nations, just as they are also called to witness in 62:2.12 They are part of the universal dimension of God’s kingship, his return and the change of Zion’s fate. But calling the nations as a witness will force Yhwh to act on behalf of Zion, as the break of the silence (Isa 62:1) will compel him. Regarding the terms K7J and 795? (Isa 62:2) we can make the same observations. Terminology important for characterizing God and his deeds is applied to Zion.13 The word K7J is even more prominent than 8F9M= in Isaiah’s prophecy but only twice dedicated directly to Zion, in Isa 62:1 – 2, where we read about her righteousness. The combination of both K7J and 8F9M= (root FM=) is mentioned in Isa 51:5 as God’s salvation and righteousness.14 Finally 795? and K7J serve in Ps 97:6 as characteristics of God as king.15 All the nations shall see these attributes. Verse 3 continues with an impressive image: Zion will be a crown of beauty, a royal diadem in the hands of Yhwh. The image used here has been built up continuously in Isa 40 – 55 and following. It evokes connotations on at least two levels: the rebuilding of the city by her city walls – the spatial perspective – and the city, installed as a royal figure. Maier points in her article on “Daughter Zion as Queen and the Iconography of the Female City” to both options, based mainly on examples from Assyria, Phoenicia and Greece.16 The mural crown symbolizes 11 Cf. Christina Ehring, Die Ru¨ckkehr JHWHs: Traditions- und religionsgeschichtliche Untersuchungen zu Jesaja 40,1 – 11, Jesaja 52,7 – 10 und verwandten Texten (WMANT 116; Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener, 2007), 86 – 90. Odil H. Steck, “Beobachtungen zu Jesaja 49,14 – 26,” BN 55 (1990): 36 – 46 (46), sees this return in redaction-historical terms as the kernel for the coming salvation of Zion. 12 Cf. Mark E. Biddle, “Lady Zion’s Alter Egos: Isaiah 47.1 – 15 and 57.6 – 13 as Structural Counterparts,” in New Visions of Isaiah (ed. Roy F. Melugin and Marvin A. Sweeney ; JSOTSup 214; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1996), 124 – 39 (135); Antti Laato, “About Zion I will not be Silent”: The Book of Isaiah as an Ideological Unity (ConBOT 44; Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1998), 155, 207 – 8. 13 Odil H. Steck, Gottesknecht und Zion (FAT 4; Tu¨bingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1992), 132, stresses that Zion gets “Jahwequalita¨t.” 14 The words K7J and 8F9M= as we find them attributed to Zion in v. 1 are characteristics of God and requested of him in Ps 119:123. 15 In Isa 58:8, the only other passage besides 62:2 and Ps 97:6 where these two characteristics are combined, the text speaks about the righteousness of the one who cares for the poor and God’s glory. 16 With a few examples she goes even further back to the 19th-18th centuries bce, looking at Syria. Cf. Christl M. Maier, “Daughter Zion as Queen and the Iconography of the Female City,” in Images and Prophecy in the Ancient Eastern Mediterranean (ed. Martti Nissinen and Charles E. Carter ; FRLANT 233; Go¨ttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2009), 147 – 62 (149 – 54); cf. also Mark E. Biddle, “The Figure of Lady Jerusalem: Identification, Deification and Personification of Cities in the Ancient Near East,” in The Biblical Canon in Comparative Perspective (Scripture in Context 4; Ancient Near Eastern Texts and Studies 11; ed. K. Lawson Younger, et al.; Lewiston, NY: Mellen, 1991), 173 – 87 (178 – 79).

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the city.17 Isa 54:11 – 13 is probably the closest text to Isa 62:3 in this respect. It tells about a wall of most precious stones that shall be built around Jerusalem. This wall resembles a crown because of its form and material. But whereas God holds Zion in his palm as a crown and a diadem in Isa 62:3, he inscribes her in his palm and has her walls before him according to Isa 49:16.18 Isa 49:17 continues with the promise that those who are coming to rebuild19 her will outdo the destroyers. Isa 60:10 expands this picture and speaks about foreigners who will rebuild her. The text continues with: and kings will serve her. Beside the image of the mural crown Isa 60:10 also connects rebuilding and the royal status of the city. The second sign of her new status, the 8?9@B G=DJ is used in Zech 3:5 as a headpiece of the high priest. The 8LüF is his headpiece in Zech 6:11, 14. This might point to Zion reaching the highest status regarding the cult.20 This has to be looked at carefully, especially because it is the 8?9@B G=DJ. In addition G=DJ can be used simply as a decorative head cover (cf. Isa 3:23). Still, in Isa 52:1, the city has been called holy. This is the city Yhwh comes back to.

But Zion is not just space, she is a personified city, and as such is more than a representative for her inhabitants. She stands as an intermediary between God

17 Cf. Lena-Sofia Tiemeyer, For the Comfort of Zion: The Geographical and Theological Location of Isaiah 40 – 55 (VTSup 139; Leiden: Brill, 2011), 274 – 75, who stresses that the population is also included in these verses. 18 Volz, Jesaja, 102, among others suggests that it might be the city’s name inscribed into God’s palm, not the object of the second clause. Because of the parallelism, I have no doubt that both the suffix of the 2.f.sg in v. 16a and the word NB9; in v. 16b represent the city as a whole and need not to be distinguished (cf. Jan L. Koole, Isaiah III/2 Isaiah 49 – 55 [HCOT; Leuven: Peeters, 1998], 56 – 57). The LXX has 2p· t_m weiq_m lou 1fycq\vgs\ sou t± te_wg (I have painted your walls on my hands). 19 1QIsaa and most ancient versions read “builders” as pertaining to the city map and contrasting the destroyers mentioned in the same line; cf. Hans-Ju¨rgen Hermisson, “Die Frau Zion,” in Studies in the Book of Isaiah: Festschrift for Willem A.M. Beuken (ed. Jacques T.A.G. M. van Ruiten and Marc Vervenne; BETL 132; Leuven: Leuven University Press, 1997), 19 – 39 (32); Gerlinde Baumann, “Prophetic Objections to YHWH as the Violent Husband of Israel: Reinterpretations of the Prophetic Marriage Metaphor in Second Isaiah (Isaiah 40 – 55),” in Prophets and Daniel (ed. A. Brenner; A Feminist Compendium to the Bible Sec. Ser. 8; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2001), 88 – 120 (103); Christl M. Maier, Daughter Zion, Mother Zion: Gender, Space and the Sacred in Ancient Israel (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress, 2008), 164 – 66 For a different view, see Steck, “Beobachtungen,” 36 – 37. Koole speaks in this case about a double entendre because v. 18 continues with those coming back to Zion, which would support the reading of “sons” not “builders” (Isaiah III/2, 58 – 59). 20 Cf. Berges (Buch Jesaja, 458), who stresses that it is the people, Zion’s population, who become a holy people (Isa 62:12) and take over “Hoheitsgewalt” from the high priest. Rolf A. Jacobson, “A Rose by Any Other Name,” in Images and Prophecy in the Ancient Eastern Mediterranean (ed. Martti Nissinen and Charles E. Carter ; FRLANT 233; Go¨ttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2009), 124 – 46 (129), restricts its meaning to royalty.

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and his people – as Steck has shown very clearly.21 The personified city with a crown (8LüF) in Isa 62:2 is a royal figure. While Ezek 16:12 uses this image to stress Jerusalem’s guilt in contrast to God’s precious gifts to her, in Isa 62 she finally becomes queen, the crown in God’s hands. The question as to why Zion does not have the crown on her head might get its answer from Isa 28:5. Yhwh Zebaoth declares himself as becoming a crown for the remnant of his people – a position Zion shall inherit – she is not just getting but becoming a crown.22 The connection of Isa 62:3 with Isa 28:5 is interesting insofar as Isa 62:1 – 7 has often been read, and here I would like to hint especially to Steck, as a text that has its roots in Isa 40 – 55 but is not connected with Isa 1 – 39.23 The direct connection given by the wording of both verses and, in addition, the context of the destruction of cities and the rebuilding of the society leaves no other solution than a direct connection between the two. Isa 28:5 has been regarded as rather late, as a post-exilic edition.24 It might come from the same milieu, using the same imagery as Isa 62:3. Still, the reading direction goes from Isa 28 to Isa 62.25 It is Yhwh’s position as “crown” that has been handed over to Zion and not the other way around.26

21 Cf. Steck, Gottesknecht, 126 – 33; Biddle, “Lady Zion,” 137. Critique on this position can be found in Hermisson, “Frau Zion,” 30; Tiemeyer, For the Comfort, 252 – 64. 22 Interestingly, Isa 28:1, 3 announces the destruction of the crown of Ephraim, which is the city of Samaria (cf. Berges, Buch Jesaja, 207 – 10; Willem A.M. Beuken, Isaiah II/2 Isaiah 28 – 39 [HCOT; Leuven: Peeters, 2000], 17, 22, 24). Also in this text crown as marking space and crown as royal figure come together. Differently, Jacobson, “A Rose,” 127. Another city, Borsippa, is described as being a crown for Bel (ANET, 331). In addition, Lam 5:16 has to be mentioned. Zion is the crown the people lost because of their guilt. Cf. Biddle, “Figure,” 185; Ulrich Berges, Klagelieder (HThKAT; Freiburg im Breisgau: Herder, 2002), 292 – 93. Another explanation is to be found with Keil and Delitzsch. According to them, God has the crown in his hands because he is working on it for his glory and for the perfection of his kingdom (Keil and Delitzsch, Isaiah, 435). 23 Steck, Studien, 12 – 15. Steck formulates this a little more carefully in Gottesknecht, 123. 24 Besides the garland of glory and diadem of beauty it is the “remnant ” L4M in v. 5 that has to be related to (post)exilic Israel. Cf. Hans Wildberger, Isaiah 28 – 39 (CC; transl. Thomas H. Trapp; Minneapolis, MN: Fortress, 2002), 11 – 12; Berges, Buch Jesaja, 222 – 23; cf. also Beuken, Isaiah II/2, 22, who regards the whole passage Isa 28:1 – 6 as late. 25 John L. McKenzie, Second Isaiah (AB 20; Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1968), xxii, suggests that some oracles including Isa 28:5 – 6 were incorporated in the literary and theological framework within which Second Isaiah speaks. Gary Stansell, “Isaiah 28 – 33: Blest be the Tie that Binds (Isaiah Together),” in New Visions of Isaiah (ed. Roy F. Melugin and Marvin A. Sweeney ; JSOTSup 214; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1996), 68 – 103, speaks just about Isa 28:5 anticipating Isa 62:3 (p. 98), without making a redaction historical statement (p. 69); cf. also Joseph Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1 – 39 (AB 19; New York, NY: Doubleday, 2000), 390. 26 Berges points out clearly that Zion is the diadem but Yhwh is king (Buch Jesaja, 258). That is to say that Zion’s status of being queen never questions God’s kingship, on the contrary, becoming the crown that Yhwh wants to be for his people, she has a share in his kingship – expressed in her status as queen. And, this has to be mentioned as well, never makes her divine; just as the ideal king has a share in God’s kingship without becoming divine.

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Not only has the image of the crown been sketched, but also other aspects pointing to Zion’s royal status are described, and lead to her final rank reached in Isa 62:1 – 3. Kings and princesses will care for Zion’s children, and will honour her while bowing down and licking the dust off her feet (Isa 49:23). She has to put on her beautiful garments in order to prepare herself for the return of the king (Isa 52:1 f.). Especially Isa 52:1 – 2, 7 – 8 and finally Isa 62:3 present Zion as queen27 in a position formerly inherited by the Davidic kings.28 The terminology used to characterize Zion’s new status stresses this. She gets the highest position among the nations.29 God, her king, acts on her behalf and through her on behalf of her children and the world. In this respect Zion becomes more than she has been before. Zion has been known as God’s mountain or as God’s city. But before Zion can be portrayed as becoming queen, the image of the personified city had to be developed. As woman, and as daughter Zion, she suffers from God’s wrath. These images, shown explicitly in the figuration of Zion in Lamentations, are preconditions for her new status.30 Her suffering is present in the second part of the text. The new name M7; AM is a singular expression. Nevertheless, the use of M7; in Isaiah gives some insight into the dimension of Zion getting a new name. The term is used in eight verses31 and stands in direct connection with the new things to come, a new people, a new time, a new Zion and a new heaven and earth – salvation as new creation. On the basis of Isa 62:1 – 7 the new name seems to be what is referred to in v. 4 – the flow of the text is interrupted by the image of the crown. Zion will be called “My delight is in Her.” This should be read also in context with Isa 60:14 “they shall call you the City of the Lord, the Zion of the Holy One of Israel.” The new name might also point carefully to what Biddle stresses. Zion/Jerusalem cannot just be restored but must be replaced by a new Jerusalem (Isa 66).32

27 We can already in Isa 52:1 – 2 speak about Zion as queen on the basis of her new garments and her sitting position; cf. Maier, Daughter Zion, 168 – 70. Berges interprets Zion as bride in this passage (Buch Jesaja, 377). 28 Cf. Steck, Gottesknecht, 140, 144; cf. also Maier, Daughter Zion, 169. See more under paragraph: Intermediate Result II. 29 Cf. Steck, “Beobachtungen,” 42 – 43. 30 Cf. Steck, Gottesknecht, 143. Also the contrastive figuration of Zion against Babylon is a prerequisite for the development; cf. Biddle, “Lady Zion,” 129 – 30; Hermisson, “Frau Zion,” 36 – 38. 31 Isa 41:15; 42:9,10; 43:19; 48:6; 62:2; 65:17; 66:22. 32 Biddle, “Lady Zion,” 139.

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Isaiah 62:4 – 5 – Zion as Bride Some of the aspects mentioned in Isa 62:1 – 7 point to the situation Zion comes from by predicting how things shall be – she shall gain righteousness, salvation and glory (Isa 62:1 – 2). The new name and the explication of the new name in combination with the marriage imagery make this even clearer. Zion will no longer be called “forsaken” (Isa 49:14/62:4). This has been the case for a short while (Isa 54:6 – 7) but now she will be called “my delight is in her” (Isa 62:4) and will be married again (Isa 62:5). Verse 4 presents this with alternating statements on Zion and her land,33 addressing both by telling what has been and how things shall become. The final conclusion is drawn in verse 5. Zion shall marry. Still, two questions shall be discussed: whom is Zion marrying and is this marriage a precondition for her royal status? In order to answer the first question it has to be stated that it is already a matter of discussion whether Zion has been divorced and can remarry now or not. Isa 50:1 says that Zion never received a bill of divorce. Berges argues therefore that Zion cannot marry again.34 He reads @F5 in verse 5 as “to take possession.”35 Lau, on the other hand, interprets 859:F (v. 4) as “getting divorced” and sees no difficulty in Zion’s (re)marriage.36 Yet, looking at Isa 40 – 66, we have several kinds of figurative speech related to Zion beside each other. Hermisson writes: “Zion ist also ganz und gar nicht auf eine bestimmte Rolle festgelegt: Die Figur bleibt beweglich und wird dem jeweiligen Bedu¨rfnis angepaßt.”37 Looking at the context and the dominating imagery we have to read the statements on Zion in verse 5 from the perspective of marriage, which means that Zion is getting married. If we can agree that the whole passage in verses 4 – 5 starts with reminding the reader that Zion has been forsaken but shall be married, we can ask again whom she shall marry. The MT reads that she shall marry her/your sons ý!=% D) 5), (pl.constr. 38 C5). Other readings have been suggested: ý=D25, your builders, or ýD25, your builder 33 Interestingly, Zion’s land (2 f.sg. ýJL4) is included. The city and the land surrounding her, or belonging to her, is not often mentioned. There are cases that belong to judgment over a city (Jer 4:7; Isa 23:10; Nah 3:13) as well as cases speaking about its restitution (here and Isa 60:18). 34 Cf. Deut 24:1 – 4; Jer 3:1 – 5; Berges, Buch Jesaja, 375. 35 Cf. Berges, Buch Jesaja, 459; Joseph Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 55 – 66 (AB 19B; New York, NY: Doubleday, 2003), 233; Maier, Daughter Zion, 181. 36 Cf. Lau, Schriftgelehrte Prophetie, 98. For a different view, see Hanne Løland, Silent or Salient Gender? (FAT 2/32; Tu¨bingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2008), 181 – 82, on Isa 49:14; 54:6; 60:15 and 62:4. 37 Hermisson, “Frau Zion,” 31. Tiemeyer adds, related to Isa 54, that it would be rather difficult to bring all the roles of Zion into a chronological order (Tiemeyer, For the Comfort, 301 – 4). 38 1QIsaa confirms this reading. The LXX of v. 5 has uRoi but changes the verb and does not speak about “to marry” but about “to settle”, “to dwell” jatoij]y. However, can Zion marry her sons? It would be the only case in OT writings. Ps 147:2 knows God as the builder of

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(cf. Pss 102:15; 147:2). All three readings make sense. Coming from verse 4 and taking Isa 54:5 into account, where it is said that her maker (8MF) is her husband (part. @F5), the last solution seems to be appropriate. Yhwh, who has his delight in Zion, will marry her. Still, a change of the Hebrew spelling is necessary. That Zion shall marry her sons is understandable only against the background of @F25 as “taking possession.” The problem is that this does not fit very well with the image of the young man marrying the young woman (v. 5aa).39 Reading ý=D25, your builders, does fit with the consonantal text. It is supported by the context of rebuilding and re-establishing of the city and it is inherent also in the picture of the crown resembling the city-wall.40 This means that the first comparison in verse 5 parallels the young man marrying the young woman with the builders marrying Zion. The second comparison relates the joy of the bridegroom with Yhwh’s joy over Zion. The comparisons used in verses 4 – 5 point to a new beginning for Zion due to the marriage with her builders. The second question, whether marriage is a precondition for Zion’s status, has to be dealt with briefly. The themes taken up in these few verses form a chain of promises to Zion, but they do not have a chronological order. Everything seems to happen at the same time: her salvation, getting a new name, being the crown, her marriage. Becoming a married woman is part of Zion’s restitution but is not a pre-condition to becoming queen. Intermediate Statement I In Isa 62:1 – 7 several images are combined, portraying the changing fate of Zion that takes place in chapters 40 – 61 in the book of Isaiah. The forsaken woman shall become queen. Many important aspects of her new status have been mentioned in the previous chapters. What is different now is that watchmen will

Jerusalem; Isa 54:5 knows God as her husband and maker who never divorced her (cf. Isa 50:1). Yet, we have to deal with a similar problem in Isa 49:17. In Isa 49:17, the MT reads ý=D5 (your sons), while in this case IQIsaa reads ý=D95 (your builders) and so does the LXX with oQjodolgh^s,. There are mainly two arguments speaking for the participle of 8D5 congruent with 1QIsaa. First, the whole unit draws a picture about the relation of Zion and God. Zion as a mother and her relation to her children is no subject of the text. Second, the term stands parallel with “destroyers,” which makes a better contrast than “children” and adds to the image of v. 16. Cf. Norman Whybray, Isaiah 40 – 66 (NCB; London: Oliphants, 1975), 144; Claus Westermann, Das Buch Jesaja: Kapitel 40 – 66 (5th ed.; ATD 19; Go¨ttingen and Zu¨rich: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1986), 296. 39 Cf. Løland, Silent or Salient, 182. 40 That her builders are in some cases to identify with her sons adds another dimension to the chosen picture. Cf. Hermisson on Isa 47:17 – 18 (“Frau Zion,” 32); Steck, “Beobachtungen,” 36 – 37; Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 55 – 66, 237.

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not keep silent41 until the day has been reached when Yhwh holds Zion as a crown in his hand. This specific promise is more than just an addition to what has been said before. Zion shall inherit, as the crown in Yhwh’s hand, a position he once claimed for himself as being the crown for his people.

II.

A Love Song42

Due to the strong impact of the Religionsgeschichtliche Schule on psalm research, Ps 45 has consequently, more or less, been read as a royal psalm composed for a royal wedding.43 Scholars of the so-called Myth and Ritual School discuss some variations on the subject, especially a yearly repetition of the royal wedding as part of the cultic-mythical enthronement ceremony.44 However only the question of who is getting married gets a variety of answers. Joram might have been the groom, Ahab and Isabel the couple, or a foreign princess the bride.45 It was Kraus, among others,46 who argued that a historical reading is highly unlikely because of all the different declarations of perfection made about the king. An allegorical reading, on the other hand, like that which has been practiced in Judaism and Christianity, which identifies the bride with the congregation of 41 Cf. Ps 102:14 – 15. The servants are having compassion for Zion’s stones. It is their compassion that means a change for Zion’s fate. 42 The psalm has a headline consisting of four elements that point to different aspects of the texts. Markus Saur, Die Ko¨nigspsalmen: Studien zur Entstehung und Theologie (BZAW 340; Berlin/New York: de Gruyter, 2004), 126 – 127, is correct in pointing out that the last term, L=M N7=7=, is misleading if one wants to understand the whole text. It points to an aspect, the wedding, which is secondary to the psalm. However, I chose this part of the headline as a headline for a reason: it stresses the one aspect of the psalm that makes it so unusual among the psalms. It sings about the ideal king getting married. It is especially this aspect that made the writer of Song of Songs allude to Ps 45 several times. 43 Cf. Hermann Gunkel, Die Psalmen (6th ed.; Go¨ttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1986), 189, 191; Arnold A. Anderson, The Book of Psalms (2 vols.; NCB; Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1972), 1:346; Peter C. Craigie, Psalms 1 – 50 (WBC 19; Waco, TX: Word Books, 1983), 337; Samuel Terrien, The Psalms: Strophic Structure and Theological Commentary (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2003), 365. 44 Cf. John H. Eaton, Kingship and the Psalms (SBT 2/32; London: SCM, 1976), 119, who remarks that the Davidic king’s wedding was associated with the rites of enthronement or its renewal. Cf. Aage Bentzen, Fortolkning til de gammeltestamentlige salmer (København: Gad, 1939), 247. 45 Cf. Joram: Carl F. Keil and Franz Delitzsch, Psalms (Commentary on the Old Testament 5; transl. James Martin; Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, reprint 1976), 75 – 76; Ahab and Isabel: Terrien, Psalms, 367; the foreign bride: Else K. Holt and Kirsten Nielsen, Dansk kommentar til Davids Salmer (Vol. 2; 2nd ed; København: Anis, 2003), 173. 46 Hans-Joachim Kraus, Psalmen (2nd ed.; BKAT 15/1; Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener, 1961), 333.

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Israel, or with the church marrying the anointed,47 has generally been avoided during the last century. But how do we define the framework for the reading of this psalm? The psalm is unique within the Psalter. It pictures an ideal figure, the ideal king, meeting his bride and getting married. While the first part of the psalm (vv. 2 – 9/10) shows some similarities with royal psalms like Pss 2 or 72, speaking about the king’s just rule and his power over the nations, the marriage is an element that goes beyond the framework of the other royal psalms. This fact deserves attention because in Ps 45 the bride is an additional actor, besides God and King, people and nations. At first glance it seems that Song of Songs might be the right context for Ps 45. The headline points in this direction. Yet, Song of Songs is mainly read as a love song and not as a wedding song. Zakovitch stresses that only Song 3:7 – 11 can be called a wedding song, but it parodies a text like Ps 45.48 This brings us back to the immediate context. Kraus asks rightly why the song has been integrated at all into the Psalter.49 It is exactly this question that might lead us to an understanding of the text in the context of the Korah psalms (Pss 42/ 43 – 49; 84 – 85 and 87 – 88). To start with, the ideal king and his @?=8 become connected via placement to God’s chosen dwelling place, which forms the geographical and theological centre of the Korah psalms. This centre is Zion. In addition, I suggest an intertextual reading of Ps 45 with Isa 40 – 66. The presentation of Zion as bride and queen in the Isaianic tradition invites such a reading. This kind of approach cannot point out dependencies between Ps 45 and Isa 40 – 66. But it gives an understanding of the role of the bride in Ps 45, which is so unusual for the Psalter on the one hand, and, on the other hand, an image so familiar to those knowing the Isaianic tradition. Along these lines the analysis shall be done in four smaller steps looking at 47 For the Jewish tradition, cf. Kimhi, who identifies the bride with the NED? of Israel, who is the mistress of the nations (on Ps 45:16; Sidney I. Esterton [ed.], The commentary of Rabbi David Kimhi on Psalms [42 – 72] [Cincinnati: John Hopkins University, 1931], 333). August Wu¨nsche, Midrasch Tehillim (2 vol.; second reprint Trier 1892; Hildesheim: Georg Olms, 1999), 292; Louis Jacquet, Les Psaumes et le cœur de l’homme: Etude textuelle, litte´raire et doctrinale. Psaumes 42 a` 100 (Gembloux: Duculot, 1977), 40; Ruben Zimmermann, “‘Bra¨utigam’ als fru¨hju¨disches Messias-Predikat? Zur Traditionsgeschichte einer urchristlichen Metapher,” BN 103 (2000): 88 – 100. In modern exegesis such concepts are defended by Claus Schedl, “Neue Vorschla¨ge zu Text und Deutung des Psalmes XLV,” VT 24 (1964): 310 – 318 (318). Alfons Deissler, Die Psalmen II. Teil (Ps 42 – 89) (2nd ed.; Du¨sseldorf: Patmos, 1967), 18 – 21; Jacquet, Psaumes, 38 – 65. Cf. Gunkel (Psalmen, 193) who calls the interpretation as the messianic king as secondary. The text pictures the king, on the contrary, as very mundane (ibid.). The expression of messianic hope connected to a historical king is defended by Keil and Delitzsch, Psalms, 74. 48 Yair Zakovitch, Das Hohelied (HThKAT; Freiburg im Breisgau: Herder, 2004), 50. 49 Kraus, Psalmen, 337.

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first at the groom, second the bride as royal bride and queen in Ps 45 and third against the background of Isa 40 – 66. Fourth the results will finally be read in the context of the Psalter. The King – The Groom Ps 45 is clearly divided into two main parts followed by two concluding verses. Verses 2 – 10 concentrate on the king, verses 11 – 16 are directed to the queen. Verses 17 and 18 are, because of the suffix 2.m.sg., explicitly aimed at the king, but do not exclude the bride. The king is depicted as an ideal figure. He is the most handsome of men (v. 3) and a strong warrior (vv. 4, 6);50 his palaces, his robes51 and the princesses around him (vv. 9, 10)52 show his wealth; he is God’s chosen (v. 5; cf. Ps 89:4, 20) and anointed (v. 8). Still, the imagery used goes beyond what is possible for a human:53 he is blessed A@9F@ (v. 3) and his throne is A@9F 7F9 (v. 7; cf. Ps 89:5), an earthly counterpart to God’s throne (cf. Ps 9:8);54 his deeds are wondrous (v. 5), usually awe-inspiring deeds of God (cf. Ps 65:6); his sceptre is of equity (v. 7; cf. Isa 11:4); he loves justice (v. 8; cf. Ps 99:4)55 and fights for righteousness.56 He can even be addressed as A=8@4 (v. 8; cf. Isa 9:5).57 He mediates God’s historical and 50 Cf. Saul: 1 Sam 9:2; 10:23; David: 1 Sam 16:12, 18; Absalom: 2 Sam 14:25; Adonijah: 1 Kings 1:6; King of Tyre: Ezek 28:12, 17; or Joseph: Gen 39:6. 51 For robes and fragrances cf. Song 5:13. Cf. Zakovitch, Hoheslied, 50, 112, 197, 203. 52 Cf. 1 Kings 10:1 – 13. Cf. Zakovitch, Hoheslied, 175. 53 Sigmund Mowinckel, Han som kommer: Messiasforventningen i Det gamle testamente og pa˚ Jesu tid (København: Gad, 1951), 48 – 49 connects, according to his cult centred perspective, the “guddommelige evner og kvaliteter” of the king to the act of anointment. He stresses that the name “Yhwh’s anointed” is most distinctive for God’s special relation to his king; cf. Zimmermann, Bra¨utigam, 88; Saur, Ko¨nigspsalmen, 129. 54 Cf. Craigie, Psalms, 339. Cf. also Pss 2:6; 110:2. According to these texts the king shall be enthroned on God’s holy mountain, Zion, God’s throne or footstool (Ps 99:5, 9). 55 Cf. also Ps 72:1 – 4. Interestingly, Ps 45 formulates more directly. While in Ps 72 God gives his righteousness to the king, in Ps 45 the king does the same as God himself; he loves (584) righteousness (cf. Ps 99:4). 56 The terminology used here shows in its concentration on justice, righteousness and equity close relations to the post-exilic Isaiah texts 9:1 – 6 or 11:1 – 9. We cannot speak about quotations but it seems that we can speak about the same milieu they stem from (cf. FrankLothar Hossfeld and Erich Zenger, Die Psalmen I. Psalm 1 – 50 (NEchtB 29; Wu¨rzburg: Echter, 1993), 279; Anderson, Psalms, 350). 57 This way of addressing the king as god points on the one hand to a phenomenon we know from the ancient Near East (cf. Marie-Joseph Seux, “Ko¨nigtum,” in RlA 6 [1980 – 1983]: 140 – 73 [142, 170 – 71]; Charles F. Whitley, “Textual and Exegetical Observations on Ps 45,4 – 7,” ZAW 98 (1986): 277 – 82 (280 – 82) connects it directly with the act of anointing. According to Joachim Becker, Israel deutet seine Psalmen (2nd ed.; SBS 18; Stuttgart: Katholisches Bibelwerk, 1967), 84, this title is on the same line as the verses about the son-ship in Pss 2:6 or 110:3. In this special context, it stands in direct connection with the king’s just rule – a justice and righteousness given from God (cf. Saur, Ko¨nigspsalmen, 121).

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political acts among the nations as well as God’s proximity through the cult.58 The anointed one combines central aspects of Israel’s relation with God.59 Until verse 9 the text describes the king in all his splendour and power. Verse 10 functions as a link between the two parts of the psalm.60 Daughters of kings61 are among the king’s ladies of honour, pointing to his high status, while the queen appears elegantly dressed to his right side. Now the queen stands beside him. The continuation might have been, as Zenger suggests, in verse 17 where the king is addressed again and a future including his sons is predicted. To read verses 2 – 10, 17 – 18 as the basic psalm makes sense for several reasons. These verses speak exclusively about the king in his beauty and power. The idea of a wedding does not occur without verses 11 – 16. The statement on eternity in verses 3, 7 and 18 structures the passage.62 Assuming that these verses are a preexilic royal psalm,63 verses 11 – 16 add a completely new aspect to the text. The ideal king shall marry. The Bride As the passage about the king opens with an imperative directly addressing him, also the passage about the bride opens with direct addresses to her, only not just with one but with four imperatives: hear, look, listen64 and then forget. Her attention is drawn exclusively to what is waiting for her, which is her king. The fourth imperative, however, prepares her specifically : she has to be free from old bonds in order to belong completely to him. Therefore she shall forget her 58 Cf. Rainer Albertz, Religionsgeschichte Israels in alttestamentlicher Zeit (GAT 8/1; Go¨ttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1992), 184. 59 Cf. Bernd Janowski, “Die Frucht der Gerechtigkeit: Psalm 72 und die juda¨ische Ko¨nigsideologie,” in “Mein Sohn bist du” (Ps 2,7): Studien zu den Ko¨nigspsalmen (ed. Eckart Otto and Erich Zenger ; SBS 192; Stuttgart: Katholisches Bibelwerk, 2002), 94 – 134 (94); Mowinckel, Han som kommer, 48 – 49. He becomes the anointed of the End Time (Isa 61:3; 11Q13 II,18 – 19; 4Q174); cf. Zimmermann, “Bra¨utigam,” 89. 60 Cf. Saur, Ko¨nigspsalmen, 117 – 18, 128. 61 Craigie (Psalms, 336 – 337) reads A=?@B N9D5 as sg. in connection with the verb ( 5JD perf. Niphal 3.f.sg.). 62 Cf. Saur, Ko¨nigspsalmen, 117 – 18, 123. 63 Cf. Becker, Israel, 81; Hossfeld and Zenger, Psalmen, 278 – 279; Ju¨rgen van Oorschot, “Der ferne deus praesens des Tempels: Die Korachpsalmen und der Wandel israelitischer Tempeltheologie,” in “Wer ist wie du Herr, unter den Go¨ttern?” Studien zur Theologie und Religionsgeschichte Israels. Fu¨r Otto Kaiser zum 70. Geburtstag (ed. Ingo Kottsieper; Go¨ttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1994), 416 – 30 (419, n. 19); Zimmermann, “Bra¨utigam,” 86 – 87. 64 For the intense use of these imperatives, cf. Stansell, “Isaiah,” 75 – 77. Saur (Ko¨nigspsalmen, 123) points with Becker (Israel, 87) to wisdom as background for the imperatives. Interestingly, these three imperatives of FBM, 84L, and C:4 8üD are to be found only four times in the OT. Three times directed to God in order to help Jerusalem/Zion, and once directed to Zion/ the bride herself (2 Kgs 19:16; Isa 37:17; Dan 9:18; and Ps 45:11).

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people and her father’s house (v. 11). Every link to the past has to be cut; the future belongs to her king.65 He is her C74 and she has to bow66 before him. Her relation to the king depicts the bride’s status as queen. The coming of the richest people, including the daughter of Tyre – Israel’s richest neighbour (cf. Ezek 27) – and that they are bringing gifts to her (cf. Ps 72:10), adds to her royal status as do her noble dresses and the maidens guiding her. Finally, joy and gladness determine the picture when the bride enters the king’s palace (@?=8). With her way into the palace we are again led back to the first part of the text singing of the king’s ivory palaces (@?=8 v. 9). It seems that all descriptions of the bride are subordinated to the description of the king. The most important aspects that connect the king and the queen besides the beauty of both (vv. 3, 12) are the dresses (vv. 9, 14, 15) and their companions (vv. 8, 15). Even the future perspective, given by the appeal to forget the past (v. 12), might find its counterpart in verse 17, when the sons of the king shall take over the places of the ancestors. Though not using the same terminology, the dependence of verses 11 – 16 on verses 3 – 10, 17 – 18 seems obvious.

The self-contained shape of the passage on the groom not pointing to a wedding at all, in addition with various images connecting the description of the bride with the one of the groom, leads to the presumption of a later extension of the song about the ideal king.67 Connections of the bride’s passage to other Korah psalms mentioning Tyre, e. g. Pss 45 and 87, as well as the universal perspective that her appearance adds to the text, lead to a post-exilic dating of Ps 45 in its present shape. 68

65 This has generally been connected with the foreign background of the bride (cf. Saur, Ko¨nigspsalmen, 123 – 24). 66 The root 89; as “to bow down/to worship” is used 17 times in the Psalter. It expresses prayer in the temple (Pss 5:8; 138:2), the worship of Yhwh as the God of his people (Ps 81:10), as king and ruler over all the earth (Pss 22:28, 30; 29:2; 66:4; 86:9; 95:6; 96:9; 97:7), before Zion as his footstool (Pss 99:5, 9; 132:7) and the ideal king (Pss 45:12; 72:11), and finally the golden calf (Ps 106:19). As a key term for the relation between bride and groom this is rather surprising. The usage might take into account that we do not speak about an average groom or bride, might they be royal even, but Zion praising the ideal king. Becker presents another option. He reads 89; as part of v. 13 and Tyre as the subject who worships the king (cf. Becker, Israel, 82, 88 – 89). 67 Different to Saur (Ko¨nigspsalmen, 125 – 26), I do read, because of these connections, the passage on the bride as written for the context and not as a bridal song that existed separately. 68 Cf. Markus Saur, Der Tyroszyklus des Ezechielbuches (BZAW 386; Berlin/New York: de Gruyter, 2008), 306.

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Reading Psalm 45:11 – 15 (16 – 17) Against the Background of Isaiah 40 – 66 While the king as an ideal ruler is a well known “figure” in the psalms, a royal bride is scarcely found. This is different in the prophecy of Isaiah. As it has been shown before, the image of the queen and royal bride has been developed in Isa 40 – 66. Reading Ps 45:11 – 15 (16 – 17) against this background,69 a coherent picture evolves: ´ Verse 11 opens with addressing the “daughter” (N5), telling her to forget her people and her father’s house. It is “the idea of the bride having to cut off every bond uniting her with her own family in order to be completely incorporated in that of her husband.”70 According to Isa 54:4, Jerusalem hears that she shall forget the shame of her youth. Forgetting the past and forgetting her past is an important aspect of Isaiah’s message. In addition, Jerusalem’s origin is such that the admonition to forget her people functions with her and her past. In Ezek 16:3 God tells her that she is of Canaanite birth, her father was an Amorite and her mother a Hittite, but she has been taken care of by him (cf. Ezek 16:45).71 ´ The use of N5 in order to address the bride strongly connects her to the way Zion is addressed in the book of Isaiah, but this address is also commonly used for cities in general, and in a few cases in the Psalter.72 ´ The motif of kings and honourable ladies serving and guiding her (vv. 13 – 14) is one we have looked at already (cf. Isa 49:23; 60:3, 16). They are bringing gifts of high value (Isa 60:5 – 7; cf. also Isa 60:9 and Ps 72:10 – 11). Zion gets treated like a queen. ´ Text of reference for the wedding is mainly Isa 62:1 – 7. Zion will marry. She will no longer be forsaken. The scene is one of great joy (Isa 62:5). ´ The dresses are important indications of the status of the bride and they show the change of status for Zion. The one who has been dressed in dust shall now appear like a queen (Isa 52:1 – 2). ´ The motif of having many children is of special importance for the prophecy 69 Intertextuality is understood as “Sinnerzeugung,” that gets initiated when two or more texts or contexts are brought together. See Renate Lachmann and Schamma Schahadat, “Intertextualita¨t,” in Literaturwissenschaft (Rowohlts Enzyklopa¨die 523; 6th ed.; ed. Helmut Brackert and Jo¨rg Stu¨ckrath; Reinbek bei Hamburg: Rowohlt, 2000), 678 – 87 (678): “Partizipation meint den intertextuellen Dialog, das heißt die sich im Schreiben vollziehende Teilhabe an den Texten der Kultur. Ein Text, der an fremden Texten partizipiert, schreibt sich ein in die Tradition, wobei Tradition nicht als diachrone Textkette zu verstehen ist, sondern als offener Raum, als Textuniversum” (679). 70 Cf. Ivan Engnell, Studies in Divine Kingship in the Ancient Near East (Uppsala: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1943), 147. 71 Cf. Baumann, “Prophetic Objections,” 95 – 97; Maier, Daughter Zion, 113 – 14. 72 Zion in Isaiah and Psalms: Isa 1:8; 3:16 – 17; 4:4; 10:32; 16:1; 37:22; 52:2; 62:11; Ps 9:15; other cities in psalms like the cities of Judah: Pss 48:12; 97:8; Tyre: Ps 45:13; Babylon: Ps 137:8.

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of Isa 40 – 66 (cf. Isa 49:20; 54:1 – 3; 66:7 – 12). Although this motif is mainly directed to the king in Ps 45 it is important for Zion’s mother too.73 ´ Finally Zion’s relation to the king shall be taken up. The king is, according to Isaiah, God himself. It is his way that shall be prepared and that finds its goal in Zion. “Together they sing for joy ; for in plain sight they see the return of Yhwh to Zion” (Isa 52:8). The bride of Ps 45 can easily be identified with Zion on the basis of Isa 40 – 66. Ps 45 is in itself not configured to connect the bride only with Zion. Still, the way Zion is depicted in Isaiah opens up this possibility. A reading in the context of the Psalter has to strengthen this reading. Intermediate Statement II: Zion as Queen and Bride between YHWH and the Ideal King Although it could be shown that Ps 45:11 – 15 (16 – 17) can be read against the background of the figuration of Zion in Isa 40 – 66, one aspect has to be stressed. It is God as king (Isa 6; 66:1) who is close to Zion,74 who returns to her, who is married to her. God, Zion and the people of Israel stand in a triangular relationship (that also opens up for the nations). Zion is the one who suffered for her sins (Isa 40:2) and for the sins of her children (Isa 50:1).75 Zion will become the shining queen, yet Zion has no specific relation to the ideal king.76 On the contrary, it looks like she is herself taking over the role of the ideal king.77 Just as kings and the richest people bring presents for the king (Ps 72:10), they bring presents to Zion (Isa 60:6/Ps 45:13).78 As the sons of the desert and the enemies 73 Knud Jeppesen, “Mother Zion, Father Servant: A Reading of Isaiah 49 – 55,” in Of Prophets’ Visions and Wisdom of Sages. Essays in Honour of R. Norman Whybray on his Seventieth Birthday (ed. David J.A. Clines and Heather A. McKay ; JSOTSup 162; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1993), 109 – 25, stresses especially the aspect of having many children for his discussion of the relation of Zion and the servant. 74 Cf. also Isa 24:23; 33:17. 75 Cf. Baumann, “Prophetic Objections,” 105 – 6. 76 While God is mentioned frequently as king in Isa 40 – 66 (cf. especially his return to Zion in Isa 52:7 – 12), David is mentioned only once in Isa 55:3, “where it is made clear that the covenant God had formerly made with his house is now to be transferred to the people as a whole”. See Hugh G.M. Williamson, Variations on a Theme: King, Messiah and Servant in the Book of Isaiah (Carlisle, Cumbria: Paternoster, 1998), 5; cf. also 10, 117 – 18. Even in ProtoIsaiah they are not connected, except from Isa 11:9, which describes the ideal time on God’s holy mountain. 77 Cf. Sweeney on the relation of Isa 11:1 – 16 and Isa 60 – 62; 65 – 66 (“Reconceptualization,” 43, 57). 78 Cf. Erich Zenger, “‘Es sollen sich niederwerfen vor ihm alle Ko¨nige’ (Ps 72,11): Redaktionsgeschichtliche beobachtungen zu Psalm 72 und zum Programm des messianischen Psalters Ps 2 – 89,” in “Mein Sohn bist du” (Ps 2,7): Studien zu den Ko¨nigspsalmen (ed. Eckart Otto and Erich Zenger ; SBS 192; Stuttgart: Katholisches Bibelwerk, 2002), 66 – 93 (69, 82 –

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lick the dust of the king’s feet (Ps 72:9), kings lick the dust of Zion’s feet (Isa 49:23). Even more: Ps 72:5 says that the king shall live while the sun endures and as long as the moon (cf. Ps 89:37 – 38). For Zion the promise is even greater. God himself will be her sun and moon, her eternal light (Isa 60:19 – 20), and her “days of mourning shall be ended.”79 Zion’s “take-over” of the Davidic hope has been discussed a lot on the basis of Isa 55:3 – 5. It is the people,80 or Zion herself,81 standing now in line for the Davidic kingdom promises. The focus of research has been the concept of “Kollektivierung.”82 But in addition, it is her function as a witness of Yhwh’s faithfulness for the nations and her openness for the nations, as an invitation to come, that makes a continuation of the Davidic promise possible only in her. The relation between Zion and the Servant has often been discussed as well.83 It seems that they are in some cases differentiated from each other, in other cases they can be identified with each other. Without continuing the discussion in this context two aspects have to be stressed. For both of them the royal depiction84 is of importance (cf. Isa 42:1 – 4), as well as their task as light for the nations85 (Isa 49:1 – 6; 60:1 – 3).

79 80 81 82

83 84 85

84). The terminological and ideological connections between Ps 45, 11 – 16; Isa 60 – 62 and Ps 72 raise questions about dependencies. While Zenger stresses that Isa 60 predates Ps 72:8 – 11 (pp. 83 – 84), Martin Arneth, “Sonne der Gerechtigkeit”: Studien zur Solarisierung der Jahwe-Religion im Lichte von Psalm 72 (BZAR 1; Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2000), 171 – 200, understands Isa 60 as a relecture of Ps 72. Without taking up all the arguments that have been given, I would like to add the following remarks to this discussion: the universalistic ideas connected to Zion in Isaiah are based on her relation with Yhwh as king. The same can be said about the ideal king of Ps 72. As Yhwh’s justice goes over to Zion (Isa 62:2) and the king (Ps 72:1 – 2), the nations, who come and see Zion or the king, get an understanding of Yhwh’s power. It seems that these concepts do not differ very much in age, but they differ in perspective. While the Isaianic tradents do not set their hope in the Davidic ideal king, the psalmists do. They finally subordinate Zion to the ideal king (Ps 45:12). Cf. Thomas Podella, Das Lichtkleid JHWHs: Untersuchungen zur Gestalthaftigkeit Gottes im Alten Testament und seiner altorientalischen Umwelt (FAT 15; Tu¨bingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1996), 207 – 8. Cf. Westermann, Isaiah, 283 – 86; Williamson, Variations, 116 – 29; Sweeney, “Reconceptualization,” 47. Steck, Gottesknecht, 102; Hermisson, “Frau Zion,” 34 – 36; Berges, Buch Jesaja, 400. Cf. among others Magne Sæbø, “Vom Individuellen zum Kollektiven: Zur Frage einiger innerbiblischer Interpretationen,” in Scho¨pfung und Befreiung. Fu¨r Claus Westermann zum 80. Geburtstag (ed. Rainer Albertz, Friedemann W. Golka, and Ju¨rgen Kegler ; Stuttgart: Calwer, 1989), 116 – 25 (121). Cf. Leland E. Wilshire, “The Servant-City : A New Interpretation of the ‘Servant of the Lord’ in the Servant Songs of Deutero-Isaiah,” JBL 94 (1975): 356 – 67; for an overview, cf. Tiemeyer, For the Comfort, 312 – 17; also Sweeney, “Reconceptualization,” 44 – 48. For the servant, cf. Williamson, Variations, 130 – 46. Cf. Ulrich Berges, “Personifications and Prophetic Voices of Zion in Isaiah and Beyond,” in The Elusive Prophet: The Prophet as a Historical Person, Literary Character and Anonymous Artist: Papers Read at the Eleventh Joint Meeting of The Society for Old Testament Study and Het Oudtestamentisch Werkgezelschap in Nederland en Belgie¨ held at Soesterberg 2000 (ed.

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In short: God returns as king, Zion awaits him as queen. The ideal Davidic king is out of focus. This looks different in the Psalter. The ideal king and Zion as space are connected. The ideal king is installed on God’s holy mountain, on mount Zion. Here stands his throne (Pss 2:6; 110:2). Here he has his share in God’s kingship (Ps 99:2). Ps 45 is, as it will be shown, an exception. Context Psalter Ps 45 belongs to the royal psalms. That the depiction of the ideal king corresponds mainly with other royal psalms has been mentioned. Though, interestingly, Ps 45 has, as opposed to the royal psalms Pss 2; 72; 89 – “welche die u¨ber das menschliche Maß weit hinausragende Wu¨rde des Davididen feiern”86 – not a distinctive position for the shape of the Psalter. The others open the whole Psalter or close the books two and three respectively, and they have no headline connecting them to one of the collections,87 while Ps 45 is connected to the Korah psalms via headline.88 This supports the necessity of looking for the relevance of Ps 45, especially for the neighbouring psalms. Coming from Ps 44, Ps 45 reads as an answer to the lament of the people. In Ps 44:4 God is reminded that he lifted his right hand and his arm in ancient times, as the fathers have told it. But now the enemies are powerful, God has sold his people, and made them a taunt of the neighbours. The psalm closes with the plea to God to rise up and come to help. The answer given is the powerful king. People fall under him. It is not God’s but the king’s right hand that does powerful things (Ps 44:4/45:5). And not the fathers will tell about it any longer but the sons (Ps 44:4/45:17). They will rule the country. As part of the Korah psalms, Ps 45 is in a group of psalms expressing the yearning of the individual to meet the holy God on Zion (Pss 42/43; 84). They celebrate God’s kingship on Zion and his power over the nations (Pss 46 – 48); Johannes C. de Moor ; OtSt 45; Leiden: Brill, 2001), 54 – 82 (66 – 72); cf. Berges, “Die Zionstheologie des Buches Jesaja,” EstBib 58 (2000): 167 – 98 (184 – 95). ¨ gypten und Israel,” in “Mein Sohn bist du” (Ps 86 Klaus Koch, “Der Ko¨nig als Sohn Gottes in A 2,7): Studien zu den Ko¨nigspsalmen (ed. Eckart Otto and Erich Zenger; SBS 192; Stuttgart: Katholisches Bibelwerk, 2002), 1 – 32 (28). 87 They are parts of collections but the headlines are singular inside the collection. Ps 110 has such a headline, pointing to the Davidic collection, which seems to have the same function as the headline for Ps 45 – the connection to a collection. Different to Pss 2; 72 and 89, the position of Ps 110 in the fifth book of the Psalter has long been open. 11QPsa, for example, knows the neighbouring psalms but not Ps 110. Cf. Koch, “Ko¨nig als Sohn,” 27 – 29; Peter W. Flint, The Dead Sea Psalms Scrolls and the Book of Psalms (STDJ 17; Leiden: Brill, 1997), 172 – 201, offers a reconstruction that includes Ps 110 as does Martin Leuenberger, “Aufbau und Pragmatik des 11QPsa-Psalters,” RevQ 22 (2005/2006): 165 – 211 (167 – 68, 181 – 82, 210). His reconstruction points to the importance of Ps 110 for the composition of the Davidic collection. 88 For the various elements of the headline, cf. Saur, Ko¨nigspsalmen, 126 – 27.

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they celebrate Zion itself (Ps 87). At first sight it is not much that Ps 45 shares with the other Korah psalms.89 However, what happens directly in Pss 2 or 110, the installation of the ideal king over Zion, has been done here through the placement of the psalm. The ideal king and Zion are connected. In God’s city stands his @?=8. The inclusion of the bride adds to this picture. However in order to understand her function, it is necessary to read Ps 45 against the background of Isa 40 – 66. Only Zion can fill in the role as bride and queen. Only Zion as queen welcomes the nations that they may serve her. This reading based on Isaiah connects Ps 45 not just to Pss 46 and 48 but mainly to Ps 87, which as well celebrates Zion’s special role among the nations.90 It is supported by the fact that in Ps 45 it is specifically the bride that opens the perspective for an inclusion of the nations, not the king.91 As opposed to a historical reading that identifies the bride with Jezebel or others, this reading contributes to the understanding of the whole collection. Kraus was asking for the function of Ps 45 in the Psalter. Now we can give an answer based on the position of the text. The ideal king is connected to Zion, God’s city. He incorporates future hope,92 a hope that has the ability to convert the tradition of the indestructible city (Ps 46) into the future, despite the experience of 586 bce. The same can be said about Zion as bride and queen. The image of Zion as bride and queen, married to the ideal king, has the ability to translate old ideals into a new future. Still, a last crucial point needs to be discussed. To whom is Zion married? This has been a question for Isa 62:1 – 7 and the question has to be asked here again. In the Psalter, the closest “personal” relationship Zion has is with Yhwh. He loves her (Pss 78:68; 87:2). He desires her (Ps 132:13 – 14)93 like the king desires her beauty (Ps 45:12). Zenger suggests that because of the context (Pss 46 and 48)

89 For the terminological links between Pss 42 – 49; 84 – 85 and 87 – 88, cf. Hossfeld and Zenger, Psalmen, 266. 90 The unusual role of Tyre, at least in comparison with prophecy, supports this connection. In Ps 45, as well as Ps 87, Tyre is a positive character, representing parts of the nations coming peacefully to Zion (cf. Saur, Tyroszyklus, 302 – 6). 91 This finds support in Ps 72, where, according to Zenger, the passages that point to the universal dimension of the ideal king’s reign are secondary and stand in an intertextual relation with Isa 49 and 60 (cf. Hossfeld and Zenger, Psalmen 51 – 100, 312, 314). Cf. also Hag 2:7. 92 Cf. Klaus-Peter Adam, Der Ko¨nigliche Held: Die Entsprechung von ka¨mpfendem Gott und ka¨mpfendem Ko¨nig in Psalm 18 (WMANT 91; Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener, 2001), 175 – 76; Saur, Ko¨nigspsalmen, 129 – 31. 93 In the Psalter, the word 894 is used only four times. Three times the desired is the bride/Zion (Pss 45:12; 132:13 – 14); once (Ps 106:14) it has the negative connotation of the people’s misguided desire.

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we have to think of God marrying Zion.94 He points to the fact that the palace of the king in Ps 45:16 is called @?=8 like God’s temple (cf. Pss 27:4; 48:10; 65:5; 68:30). It is not very easy to agree with this line of thought. Zion would enter the temple, which has often been identified with Zion in the psalms. At least, we have to admit that the images used here are enigmatic. Just as it is sometimes difficult to differentiate between God and his king95 it is difficult to differentiate between all the connotations Zion can present: the widow, mother or barren one (Isa 54:1 – 8; 66:7 – 12); the mountain and city (Ps 48); the mountain or temple (Ps 84) or mother and city (Ps 87). On the other hand the king of Ps 45 is the ideal king and not Yhwh.96 Taking this seriously we find the marriage of two ideal figures, the king and Zion, making way for Israel’s future – having many children and being praised by the nations (Ps 45:17 – 18/Isa 62:2, 7).

III.

Zion Becomes Queen

Ps 45 supported what could be seen in Isaiah, a late tendency to present Zion as the shining queen. In depicting Zion as royal figure and as bride, Isa 62:1 – 7 and Ps 45 have several aspects in common. These are the images of the crown, as well as her fine garments and the people around her pointing to her high status. Yet, she is more than the beautiful bride. She has a task as queen for Israel and the nations. However, the path Zion takes in order to become queen differs in our two texts. The rhetorical function of the textual units differs as well. The initial situation for Isa 62:1 – 7 is Zion’s suffering. Besides the frame that points to the fact that she has not reached yet the status promised, it is the aspect of change, of a new beginning expressed by the new name and the marriage comparison, that points contrastively to this past. She has been the forsaken woman, suffering for her sins, suffering for the sins of her children (Isa 50:1). Isa 62:1 – 7 takes Isa 40 – 55 as given, knows about Zion’s suffering as well as the promises that have been made to her, but goes beyond the given borders of simple restitution. Zion shall become more than she has been. Characteristics specifically pointing to Yhwh shall now characterise her, letting her shine before the nations. She shall become the crown God wanted to be himself for his people. She becomes the heir of the Davidic kingdom. Zion becomes queen. 94 Hossfeld and Zenger, Psalmen, 283; cf. also Engnell, Divine Kingship, 175; Berges, Buch Jesaja, 401 – 2; van Oorschot, “Deus praesens,” 419, 428. 95 Cf. Corinna Ko¨rting, Zion in den Psalmen (FAT 48; Tu¨bingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2006), 213 – 14. 96 For the discussion, cf. Zimmermann, “Bra¨utigam,” 90; esp. Saur, Ko¨nigspsalmen, 306 – 8, with whom I agree. Following this discussion it becomes obvious, to a greater extent than I am able to show, how important the context is for the reading. For a different view, see Becker, Israel, 81.

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Ps 45 points differently to her past, which she has to forget. It is not the suffering city that stands behind the picture of the beaming bride, but her shameful youth. The nations are not called as witnesses for her regained righteousness and glory but they are simply there to serve her. In Ps 45 two ideal figures marry, the messianic king and the royal Zion, a city of such splendour that people who look at her will see God’s power (cf. Ps 48:14 – 15). This combination is at first glance quite common. The messianic king shall have his throne on Zion (Pss 2:6; 110:2). The way the two ideal figures are combined is however unique. The key is probably the following psalms, Pss 46 and 48. For the messianic king this contextual reading means a close connection to the city known as the city of the great king, the city of God. For Zion, on the other hand, the marriage means transforming the old ideas of the city of God into a messianic future, where Zion is queen. The final conclusion has to be that the texts show two ways to overcome the past, to reach a new future, two ways for Zion to become queen.

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Øystein Lund

My Way – My Right. Persuasive Discourse in Isaiah 40 – 66

Introduction A number of verses in Isa 40 – 55 are concerned with “ways.” It used to be an established exegetical tradition to combine many of these texts and to read them as an implied story which imagines and describes a forthcoming second Exodus from Babylon to Jerusalem. The remaining way-passages in Isa 40 – 55 have often, by the same exegetical tradition, been viewed as disparate metaphorical expressions, without any significant connection with each other or with the aforementioned “Exodus verses.”1 It seems further to have been a pattern that many scholars assumed that a transformation of the way motif occurs from Isa 40 – 55 to Isa 56 – 66. The dominant view is related to the notion that all way texts in Isa 40 – 55 are part of the description of a path from Babylon to Jerusalem, while the texts in Isa 56 – 66 utilize road imagery to denote the people’s behaviour. Zimmerli, for example, argues that what denoted a physical and a spiritual deliverance of the exiles in Babylon in Isa 40 – 55 has been altered in Isa 56 – 66 to refer to the spiritual preparation of the people (inneren Bereitung des Volkes).2 This view has in recent years been challenged by a number of scholars.3 I have 1 Cf. Øystein Lund, Way Metaphors and Way Topics in Isaiah 40 – 55 (FAT 2/28; Tu¨bingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2007), 1 – 2. 2 Walter Zimmerli, “Zur Sprache Tritojesajas,” in Gottes Offenbarung (TB 19; Munich: Kaiser, 1963), 224 – 25. Cf. also Joseph Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56 – 66: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary (AB 19B; New York, NY: Doubleday, 2003), 242. 3 Cf. Klaus Kiesow, Exodustexte im Jesajabuch: Literarkritische und motivgeschichtliche Analysen (OBO 24; Freiburg, Schweiz/Go¨ttingen: Universita¨tsverlag/Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1979); Horacio Simian-Yofre, “Exodo en Deuteroisaias,” Bib 61 (1980): 530 – 53; Ernst Haag, “Der Weg zum Baum des Lebens: Ein Paradiesmotiv im Buch Jesaja,” in Ku¨nder des Wortes: Beitra¨ge zur Theologie der Propheten (ed. Lothar Ruppert and Erich Zenger; Wu¨rzburg: Echter, 1982), 35 – 52; Erich Zenger, “Der Gott des Exodus in der Botschaft der Propheten – am Beispiel des Jesajabuches,” Con 23 (1987): 15 – 22; Hans M. Barstad, A Way in the Wilderness: The “Second Exodus” in the Message of Second Isaiah (JSSM 12; Manchester : Man-

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earlier, in the monograph Way Metaphors and Way Topics in Isaiah 40 – 55, argued in detail that such a reading is problematic, and that a more metaphorical interpretation produces a more coherent reading.4 In this reading, most of the texts dealing with ways do in fact centre on the lacking ways of the people, and with the question about which ways the people will choose for the future. In some of the texts, however, the motif of return to Jerusalem is present. This, in turn, calls for a re-examination of whether the metaphorical descriptions of the way throughout Isa 40 – 66 constitute a continuum, where the metaphorical expressions are interrelated and also use the way imagery in the same manner. In the study of 2007, I also argued that there was a parallel thematic discourse running through the text of Isa 40 – 55, concerning the theme “right.” The very source for both these thematic lines was to be found in Isa 40:27 where Israel/ Jacob is quoted as saying: 27

How can you say, Jacob, and speak, Israel, “My way is hidden from Yhwh, and my right passes by my God”?

The significant claim for this essay is that these thematic lines continue in the chapters following Isa 55. The initial accusation of the people’s – that Yhwh does not see their ways and their right – is challenged and gradually changed so that the central question rather becomes whether the people are able to deal adequately with Yhwh’s ways and His law. These themes are then used in texts that continue partly to address the people’s actual behaviour, and partly to describe a prosperous future. This essay will show that a coherent use of metaphors related to “way,” and a discourse on whose “right” is to be established, can be found throughout the whole of Isa 40 – 66. This observation, however, does not necessarily need to be combined with the assumption that an identical author group stands behind all the chapters. Observations made by earlier scholars on vocabulary, themes, and context of Isa 56 – 66, indicate that other author groups may have contributed. Also this essay does not pretend to provide new evidence for a different genesis chester University, 1989); Enrique F. Navarro, El Desierto Transformado: Una imagen deuteroisaiana de regeneracio´n (AnBib 130; Roma: Pontificio Istituto Biblico, 1992); John N. Oswalt, The Book of Isaiah: Chapters 40 – 66 (NICOT; Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1998); Ulrich Berges, “Der zweite Exodus im Jesajabuch: Auszug oder Verwandlung?,” in Das Manna fa¨llt auch heute noch: Beitra¨ge zur Geschichte und Theologie des Alten, Ersten Testaments. Festschrift fu¨r Erich Zenger (ed. Frank-Lothar Hossfeld and Ludger Schwienhorst-Scho¨nberger ; HBS 44; Freiburg im Breisgau: Herder, 2004), 77 – 95. Cf. also Bo H. Lim, The “Way of the Lord” in the Book of Isaiah (LHBOTS 522; London: T&T Clark, 2010). 4 Lund, Way Metaphors, 120.

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of the text. However the significant observation is that these chapters seem to connect to central discourses of Isa 40 – 55.

1.

Isaiah 40 – 48

Isa 40 starts out with what most scholars take to be a prologue or an overture, and the text uses different images to convey and undergird the introductory message of comfort in verse 1. Isa 40:3 introduces the preparation of the way of Yhwh, and the changes in the landscape, as an image of salvation. The key to the passage is the foundational understanding of “desert” as a conventional symbol, in the culture that Isa 40 – 55 is a part of, for denoting curse, judgement/punishment, and death.5 Also, more specifically, the desert of Isa 40:3 is used to describe the people’s hopeless situation after the fall of Jerusalem in 587 bce.6 The desert functions as the source domain for the metaphors that describe the people’s situation or the nation’s fall in Ezek 19:13; 20:35 and Jer 31:2. Cf. also Ps 126:4. The desert ceases to be way-less and the making of a way foreshadows Yhwh’s return to his people. The image of salvation probably denotes a literal improvement of the people’s situation and should not be exclusively understood in spiritual or abstract categories. A liberation from Babylon can be included in such a transformation of the people’s situation, but does not constitute the only focal point of the salvation. From verse 12, the reader is addressed directly with a series of rhetorical questions.7 In the subsequent chapters, the text continues in a pattern that best can be described as a discourse of persuasion. Lena-Sofia Tiemeyer has argued – in accordance with other scholars – that it is a useful reading strategy to approach Isa 40 – 55 as a reading drama, in as 5 Shemaryahu Talmon, “‘The Desert Motif ’ in the Bible and in Qumran Literature,” in Biblical Motifs: Origins and Transformations (ed. Alexander Altmann; Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1966), 31 – 63 (37). Cf. also Shemaryahu Talmon, “L57B,” in TDOT 8 (ed. Helmer Ringgren and G. Johannes Botterweck; Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1977), 111 – 14. 6 Simian-Yofre, “Exodo,” 538 – 39, Robert L. Cohn, The Shape of Sacred Space: Four Biblical Studies (AAR Studies in Religion 23; Chico, CA: Scholars Press, 1981), 8; Haag, “Weg,” 40; Zenger, “Der Gott des Exodus,” 16; Jan von Goudoever, “The Celebration of the Torah,” in The Book of Isaiah – Livre d’Isaı¨e: Les oracles et leurs relectures unite´ et complexite´ de l’ouvrage (ed. Jacques Vermeylen; BETL 81; Leuven: Leuven University Press, 1989), 313 – 17 (315); Barstad, A Way ; Berges, “Der zweite Exodus,” and Lund, Way Metaphors, 73 – 85. Cf. also Lim, Way, 53 – 61. 7 For illumination of the rhetorical questions in Isaiah 40 – 55, see J. Kenneth Kuntz, “The Form, Location, and Function of Rhetorical Questions in Deutero-Isaiah,” in Writing and Reading the Scroll of Isaiah: Studies of an Interpretive Tradition. Vol. 1 (ed. Craig C. Broyles and Craig A. Evans; VTSup 70; Leiden: Brill, 1997), 121 – 41.

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much as it emphasizes the dialogic character of the chapters.8 Through this reading drama, and through the use of literary means in a persuasive strategy, the audience is drawn into the discussion. They are not just persuaded to change their opinions, but also challenged at a deep level, so that their main perspective, and their view on reality, is challenged. The stream of persuasive statements does generally take the form of monologues. However, in a few places the addressee of the text is drawn into the text through utterances that have the form of a quotation. This is surely the case in Isa 40:27 and 49:14,9 and probably also in Isa 49:4. These utterances seem to have a key function in the persuasive pattern of Isa 40 – 55, and what is equally interesting is that key passages in Isa 40 – 66 also seem to relate to the same pattern. The quotation in verse 27 starts a discourse where a main theme is the people’s problems concerning “ways” and “right.”

1.1

Isaiah 40:27

27

How can you say, Jacob, and speak, Israel, “My way is hidden from Yhwh, and my right passes by my God”? 28Do you not know? Have you not heard? An everlasting God is Yhwh, the Creator of the ends of the earth. He does not faint or grow weary ; unsearchable is his understanding. 29He gives power to the faint, and strengthens the powerless. 30Youths grow tired and weary, the young stumble and fall; 31but those who wait for Yhwh will regain their strength, they will sprout wings like eagles, they will run and not be weary, they will walk and not faint.

In Isa 40:12 – 26 a series of rhetorical questions are raised, and these remain unanswered. A quotation is then introduced in verse 27, which most exegetes take as the centre and the climax of the controversy. Verse 28 carries forward a strong reaction to the quotation, and breaks out in a response to the fact that the issue is raised, starting with a 49@8. The monologue continues in verse 29 more in the tone of comfort and salvation, and here we find an attempt to provide an answer or comment on people’s utterance in verse 27. Isa 40:27 – 31 has traditionally not been considered to play a significant role in any potential structure of Isa 40 – 55.10 Roy F. Melugin has, however, claimed 8 Cf. Lena-Sofia Tiemeyer, For the Comfort of Zion: The Geographical and Theological Location of Isaiah 40 – 55 (VTSup 139; Leiden: Brill, 2011), 47 ff., together with the listed bibliography. 9 The discourse following the utterance in Isa 49:14 “But Zion said, ‘Yhwh has forsaken me, my Lord has forgotten me’,” is not dealt with in this essay. Cf. however the discourse on the theme of forsakenness in Isa 49:14; 54:6 – 7; 55:7; 58:2; 60:15; 62:4, 12; 65:11. 10 Cf. Lund, Way Metaphors, 120.

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that Isa 40:27 has the function of setting up a problem within chapters 40 – 48.11 Melugin claims that Isa 41 – 48 makes the allegation in Isa 40:27 the basis for the presentation of its material and that these chapters seek to correct the people’s view of this problem. According to Melugin, Isa 41 – 48 seeks to make the people realize that their way was not hidden from Yhwh and that he had not overlooked their right. “Verses 27 – 31 […] attempt to persuade Israel that her way is not hidden from Yahweh, nor has he overlooked her mispat (v. 27).”12 Rikki E. Watts has also been concerned with the role that Isa 40:27 – 31 plays in the subsequent chapters.13 Assuming the work of J.W. Miller in the classification of what Miller calls a rising use of polemic in Isa 40 – 55, Watts stresses that polemical forms (trial speeches, disputation, anti-idol confrontations) dominate Isa 40 – 48.14 Watts points out here that the first disputation, Isa 40:12 – 31, initiates a running polemic where the focus is on Jacob/Israel’s particular lack of ability to understand. Watts then seeks to show how this polemic is developed by trials against the nations and Israel/Jacob, disputations with Jacob/Israel and open confrontations with regard to the role of Cyrus. Watts shows, in this discussion, that the people’s speech about their lack of üHMB in Isa 40:27 is the first of several passages throughout Isa 40 – 48 which take up the theme of right. Watts also shows that a number of passages take up the question of Yhwh’s wisdom and plan, which was raised in Isa 40:13 – 14. Watts does not, however, include the way theme in his discussion of Isa 40 – 48, despite the fact that this theme is introduced side-by-side with both the theme of justice and wisdom in Isa 40:12 – 31. Although the expression in verse 27 has a vocabulary that is conventional in complaints in the Old Testament, it is striking that the way is not described as closed for the traveller, but rather that it is hidden from Yhwh.15 Isa 40:27 thus finds itself to be an astonishing contradiction to contradicts the very idea that 11 Roy F. Melugin, The Formation of Isaiah 40 – 55 (BZAW 141; Berlin/New York: de Gruyter, 1976), 92 – 93. 12 Melugin, Formation, 92 – 93. Cf. also Claus Westermann, Das Buch Jesaja: Kapitel 40 – 66, (ATD 19; Go¨ttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1966), 51 – 53; Bruce D. Naidoff, “The Rhetoric of Encouragement in Isaiah 40 12 – 31: A Form-Critical Study,” ZAW 93 (1981): 62 – 76 (73), and Brevard S. Childs, Isaiah (OTL; Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, 2001), 310 – 11. 13 Rikki E. Watts, “Consolation or Confrontation? Isaiah 40 – 55 and the Delay of the New Exodus,” TynBul 41 (1990): 31 – 59. 14 Watts “Consolation,” 35 ff. Cf. John W. Miller, “Prophetic Conflict in Second Isaiah: The Servant Songs in the Light of Their Context,” in Wort, Gebot, Glaube: Beitra¨ge zur Theologie des Alten Testaments: Walther Eichrodt zum 80. Geburtstag (ed. Hans J. Stoebe, Johann J. Stamm, and Ernst Jenni; AThANT 59; Zu¨rich: Zwingli, 1970), 77 – 85, and Lund, Way Metaphors, 121 – 23. 15 Lund, Way Metaphors, 109.

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Yhwh knows all ways.16 Likewise, it is striking that the expression concerning üHMB does not dwell primarily upon the absence of justice but upon the fact that right passes (unnoticed) by Yhwh.17 Isa 40:27 could at one level be seen as a protest against a passive and unjust divinity,18 but much points to the fact that the quotation in Isa 40:27 goes further in that the author has the people claiming that their miserable situation is due to God’s insufficiency. The response to the people’s allegation in verse 28 indicates that the author in fact takes the quotation in verse 27 primarily as devaluation of Yhwh and his attributes. Verse 27a is shaped as a question where the author asks Israel/Jacob about why they say what they say, or how they can say what they say : “how can you possibly say…”. The indirect communicative action that takes place seems to be a criticism of the people’s position and attitudes. The result is that the statement, placed in the mouth of Jacob/Israel, is characterized as inadequate.19 Meindert Dijkstra’s characterization of Isa 40:12 – 31 and similar passages in Isa 40 – 55 makes, in my opinion, a good contribution to the interpretation of the whole of Isa 40 – 66. Dijkstra suggests that the form of “disputation” that we find in verses 12 – 31 – and further in Isa 40:12 – 42:13 – should be understood as monologues where the author addresses and, in part, more or less ficticiously, quotes his own addressees.20 According to Dijkstra, these monologues represent

16 Cf. in the context Isa 40:14. 17 The verb L5F, “to pass by,” occurs in a number of passages with CB, however, never in combination with üHMB. In some cases the combination denotes a local meaning “…he went on from there” or something similar, cf. Gen 18:3; Deut 2:8; Jos 18:13; 19:13; Judg 18:13; 2 Sam 15:24. Cf. Karl Elliger, Deuterojesaja 40:1 – 45:7 (BKAT 11; Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener, 1978), 93, for a further discussion. 18 Cf. Job 19:8. 19 Cf. Christopher R. North, The Second Isaiah: Introduction, Translation and Commentary to Chapters XL – LV (Oxford: Clarendon, 1964), 89. Cf. also Willem A.M. Beuken, Jesaja (De prediking van het Oude Testament 2 A; Nijkerk: Callenbach, 1979), 51: “Het retorische ‘waarom?’ (la¯mma¯) vraagt niet objectief naar de reden van Israe¨ls klacht, maar suggereert verwijtend dat er geen reden aan te voeren valt, juist zoals Gods onvergelijkelijke macht bekend had kunnen zijn (vgl. 12 vv. 21, 26b).” 20 Meindert Dijkstra, “Lawsuit, Debate and Wisdom Discourse in Second Isaiah,” in Studies in the Book of Isaiah: Festschrift Willem A.M. Beuken (ed. Marc Vervenne and Jacques van Ruiten; BETL 132; Leuven: Leuven University Press, 1997), 251 – 71 (257 – 58). The words of Israel/Jacob are probably a pseudo-quotation where the author has the people speaking, but himself shapes the quotation as a part of his own rhetorical strategy, cf. Lund, Way Metaphors, 106, together with the listed bibliography. Cf. also Tiemeyer, Comfort, 217, and Berges, Jesaja 40 – 48, 156. The latter calls it a “fingiertes Zitat.”

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a typical kind of persuasive strategy developed by wisdom teachers with the goal of convincing an audience in a format that is instructive and thoughtful.21 However, I think it probable that the discourse after Isa 40:27 is not just about convincing people that they have mistaken Yhwh’s attitude towards the people, and that their “way” and their “right” after all is within Yhwh’s sphere of interest. In my view, the persuasive strategy of the text seems to be even more complex and elaborated. What is at stake is not a normal argument where one party objectively tries to repel a contention. That the people have had, and are having, problems on their journey, is maintained, but another diagnosis is supplied. The utterance in Isa 40:27 starts a process where other texts in Isa 40 – 66 contribute to give new perspectives to the understanding of “way” and “right” – yet unknown to Israel/Jacob, as well to the reader. Verses 29 ff., however, deals with the problems of the people in a more pastoral way. Tiemeyer rightly maintains that the verses show more of divine cajoling than divine wrath.22 Verses 29 ff. maintain that the people have problems on their journey on the way, but instead of dwelling on the reason for this, the passage looks ahead and predicts a solution to the problems the people are having on their way and journey. The people will have the opportunity to travel once again – this time strengthened by Yhwh himself. Read as a whole, verses 27 – 28 question the people’s allegation concerning Yhwh’s lack of competence and interest concerning their way and right, while verses 29 – 31 use imagery connected to the way when the prosperous future of the people is foreshadowed.

1.2

Isaiah 41: In the Court

Traditionally, Isa 41:1ff has been taken to be a new unit. Yhwh himself begins to speak and a new text-internal addressee is introduced. It is, however, of significance that while Isa 40:29 – 31 responded with words about wandering on a road, Isa 41:1 sets the scene in as a judicial trial. A preliminary response to the problems of the “way” is immediately given in verse 29. The accusation concerning the people’s üHMB – “right” is analogously given a response in Isa 41:1 ff. Isa 41 starts out summoning the parties to approach each other in order to settle üHMB. The ones invited are the islands and the people – those representing the larger picture in the events of history. Included in this summon are also the 21 Dijkstra, “Lawsuit, Debate and Wisdom Discourse,” 258. There is, at any rate, much in Isaiah 40 – 55 that echoes the Wisdom literature and Wisdom rhetoric. 22 Cf. Tiemeyer, Comfort, 218.

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idolmakers (v. 7). In this speech, Yhwh introduces Cyrus and further challenges the people to see his dominion in the world and over history. Through different images, the people’s situation is expressed (especially the thirsty people in the way-less desert), and the people’s situation will be positively altered. The speech also awards negative characteristics to the idols – and those who make idols. The discourse concerning the “right” is picked up again in Isa 41:21 where judicial language again is used: 21

Set forth your case, says Yhwh; bring your proofs, says the King of Jacob.

Chapter 41 ends with a challenge to the idols, and the speaker concludes by stating that the idols cannot bring about anything. In contrast, the speaker argues that Yhwh is able to create the needed transformation.

1.3

Isaiah 42 – Justice to the Nations – Exalted Torah

We get to hear in Isa 42:1 that the servant of Yhwh will bring justice (üHMB) to the peoples. The same justice and law (8L9N) of Yhwh are further referred to in verse 4.23 These verses present a different angle or perspective on üHMB than was the case in Isa 40:27. The motif of the servant bringing justice and law to the nations is followed by an invitation to a song of praise, and then by words of salvation. In verse 16 the text presents to the blind a way that is not yet known. The images in Isa 42:16 are conventional and the negative components in the expression are often used as images of punishment, and as images describing the result of bad conduct. This situation will change dramatically with Yhwh’s entry into the life experience of the blind people, and by his leading along this way.

23 In the lexical field around the lexeme üHMB, there are several words which are combined with üHMB in different texts in such a way that is seems probable that they at least have some overlap as synonyms. The most relevant words in this lexical field are 8L9N and 89JB. The lexeme 8L9N in Isa 42:1 – 4 and 42:21, 24 should probably not be understood as an established collection of written, or oral, laws and commands, but more generally as guidance from Yhwh through his prophets and through his revelation. In Isaiah 40 – 55, 8L9N seems to be closely connected to Yhwh’s establishing of justice on earth – particularly expressed through the establishing of üHMB, cf. Isa 42:4 and 51:4. In Isa 51:7, 8L9N is in a parallelism with righteousness (K7J). This corresponds well with a wisdom-influenced meaning of 8L9N in Isa 30:9, which Isa 42:24 is possibly alluding to. Cf. Joseph Jensen, The Use of Toˆraˆ by Isaiah: His Debate with the Wisdom Tradition (CBQMS 3; Washington, DC: Catholic Biblical Association of America, 1973), 112 – 21. Cf. also Willem A.M. Beuken, Isaiah 2/2 Isaiah 28 – 39 (HCOT; Leuven: Peeters, 2000).

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Isa 42:16 picks up the motif of a hidden and unknown way. Compared with the kind of imagery in Isa 40:27, the perspective has changed; the road is hidden and unknown to the people, while, in Isa 40:27, it was said to be hidden from Yhwh. It is also significant that Isa 42:16 has many linkages to the wording of 58:8 – 10. It seems evident that these texts utilize related, conventional imagery when describing the people’s hard-pressed conditions. The verses following verses 16 – 17 also deal with the ways of the people, and their relation to what is right. In Isa 42:18 – 25, the most significant verse for our theme is verse 24: 24

Who gave up Jacob to the spoiler and Israel to the robbers? Was it not the Lord, against whom we have sinned, in whose ways they would not walk, and whose law they would not obey?

By referring to the people’s lacking interest for Yhwh’s law (8L9N) and way (ýL7), the verse establishes a link to the question about “right” and “way” introduced in Isa 40:27. Isa 42:24 combines the words ýL7 and 8L9N. The word 8L9N was introduced in Isa 42:1 – 4, and then significantly as a parallel word to üHMB. Isa 42:21 picks up again on Yhwh’s law (8L9N) and states that Yhwh’s plan was to make this great and glorious. This failed, then, because of the people’s catastrophic journey. A journey that, in turn was due to the very fact that the people would not walk in the way (ýL7) of Yhwh, nor would they listen to the law (8L9N) of Yhwh (v. 24). The description of not walking the way, in Isa 42:24, is given the form of an allegation. The passage can also, continuing on from the exhortation in verse 23, have the function of an admonition to walk again in the ways of Yhwh. Melugin rightly points out that the goal of the passage is not, primarily, to address and accuse the people, but to point out the possibility of a different future, which is clearly expressed in verse 23: “Who among you will give heed to this, who will attend and listen for the time to come?” Melugin understands, therefore, that the disputation speech as a whole is redemptive, and not primarily condemning.24 Isa 42:24 contributes to an alternative explanation of why the people are now experiencing a very difficult time. The wording of Isa 42:24, in the light of Isa 40:27, is significant. Both passages speak of “ways” and “right/law.” The difference is found, however, in what kind of right/law is spoken of here and which protagonist is (not) maintaining these.

24 Melugin, Formation, 42.

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Isaiah 43 – 47

In Isa 43 – 44 the text follows a pattern where words of comfort are followed by an oracle of judgement or strict admonition. Significantly, the words of comfort use mainly the image of the way and the image of the dry landscape that is transformed into a fertile landscape when describing salvation and the change of the situation of the people (Isa 43:1 – 7; 16 – 21; 44:1 – 4). Importantly, the positive words do also include words of forgiveness based on the fact that the people have sinned and transgressed Yhwh’s laws (Isa 43:25, 27; 44:22). In the texts that confront the listener (e. g. oracle of judgement, admonition, trial speech), the content seems to deal with the fact that the people are blind and deaf. The people do not seem to be able to recognize, let alone experience, Yhwh’s actions and unique position, and the people have burdened Yhwh with their sins, have wearied him with their iniquities (Isa 43:24). Isa 43:9 – 10 speaks about bringing out the “blind and deaf people,” summoning them with the nations, in a settlement where witnesses are called for, and that bears resemblance to a court. Isa 43:26 challenges the reader to bring the case to court: “Remind me, and we will judge (8üHMD) this together ; account for your case and justify yourself.” All these different texts can be related to the theme that was presented in Isa 40:27. How should the situation concerning the people’s experience of the lacking way and the missing right be explained? Isa 44 is also the chapter in which Yhwh summons to a final settlement in which the past is left behind, and in which forgiveness and a new beginning is promised. In Isa 45 and 46, the pattern of words of comfort, followed by an oracle of judgement or strict admonition, is continued. In these chapters the main theme seems to be the presentation of Yhwh’s salvation and his saving acts.25 Isa 47 deals with Babylon and Isa 48 starts out with accusations of Jacob/Israel containing unusually strong terms. This chapter continues with persuasive words toward the same addressee (vv. 12 – 16) and ends with words of exhortation. In this text, the words used are, again, significant.

1.5

Isaiah 48

Isa 48:17 – 18 reads: 17

Thus says Yhwh, your Redeemer, the Holy One of Israel: “I am Yhwh your God, who teaches you to profit, who leads you in the way (ýL7) you should go. 18O that you had hearkened to my commandments (=N9JB)! Then your peace would have been like a river, and your righteousness like the waves of the sea. 25 Cf. K7J/8K7J in Isa 45:8, 13, 19, 23 – 25; 46:12 – 13.

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Similar to the texts which I have discussed previously, this text also deals with the people’s relation to ways and right; here expressed through the words ýL7 and 26 27 89JB. In this salvific text a vision of how the future could have been is given. The people are foreshadowed peace, justice and fertility in rich abundance, together with an eternal name with Yhwh, if they had only paid attention (5MK) to his road and to his commandments. It seems probable that this text somehow is related to Isa 42:24 where the people are told precisely that their terrible fate was due to the fact that they did not walk in Yhwh’s ways and did not pay attention (5MK) to his commands. In the text that follows verses 17 – 19, the people are encouraged to leave the Babel that chapter 47 has condemned. Verses 20 – 21 most probably also contain figurative language, but it is not necessary to discuss this further in this essay.28

2.

Isaiah 49 – 55

2.1

Isaiah 49 – 54

Isa 49:1 – 13 starts out with a significant pericope dealing with üHMB, followed by a text which make use of way-imagery and imagery from other source domains. The text seems to be a passage that, at the same time, can be taken figuratively and literally. As such it is an example of a skilled use of imagery, where imagery and tones of literary meaning intertwine.29 All the verses describe an imminent restoration of the relationship between Yhwh and his people, and a restoration of Jerusalem and the land. In Isa 49:4 the servant describes the history and the content of his vocation, and as a part of this he describes his aimless past and his present reliance on God, uttering:30 26 The word 89JB occurs only here in Isaiah 40 – 55. The word possibly refers to the same kind of commands and laws that we can find in a number of Deuteronomistic passages. It would, in that case, harmonize well with the fact that 89JB here stands as a parallel to the way (ýL7) in v. 17. 27 The expressions used (“your redeemer” and “the Holy One of Israel”) have a positive basic tone and are used as a pair elsewhere in Isaiah 40 – 55 exclusively to introduce salvation. Cf. Isa 41:14; 43:14; 47:4; 54:5. 28 For a discussion, see Lund, Way Metaphors, 220 – 27. 29 For such a combination, cf. Peter W. Macky, The Centrality of Metaphors to Biblical Thought: A Method for Interpreting the Bible (Studies in the Bible and Early Christianity 19; Lewiston, NY: Mellen, 1990), 67 – 72. Cf. also Thorir K. Thordarson, “The Mythic Dimension: Hermeneutical Remarks on the Language of the Psalter,” VT 24 (1976): 212 – 20. Thordarson’s analysis includes Pss 84; 42; 80. 30 On the question of the identity of the servant, cf. Lund, Way Metaphors, 233 – 36.

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4

But I said, “I have laboured in vain, I have spent my strength for nothing and vanity ; yet surely my right (üHMB) is with the LORD, and my recompense with my God.”

Here the people admit a lack of strength and confess, at the same time, that their right (v. 4), as well as their strength (v. 5), surely lies in Yhwh’s hands. In the discourse running from Isa 40:27, the text has allowed the people to undergo a transformation in perspective. In Isa 40:29 – 31, the people are from Yhwh’s perspective described as wanderers lacking strength. The people’s allegation regarding Yhwh’s lack of observance of their right was first challenged when Yhwh summoned the people in order to settle justice, and by explaining that his plan is to bring justice (üHMB) and law (8L9N) forth. This plan was destroyed, however, when the people did not adequately relate to Yhwh’s right (Isa 42:21, 24). In spite of this, the passages prescribe that the people will again receive the benefits of righteousness and justice (cf. also Isa 45:25; 46:13). In a number of passages there occurs an apparent settling of accounts, before Yhwh in Isa 48:17 – 19 commands the people to pay attention to his commands, with righteousness as a result. The same image is now used when the servant confesses that he has spent his strength for nothing and that the right surely is with God. In Isa 49:5 the servant will lead the people back to Yhwh, and in verse 6 and verse 8 the servant is allotted the task of restoring Israel again and re-populating Jerusalem. The verses move from a figurative description of the changed situation in verses 9 – 11 to a literal return home in verse 12 – though with a symbolic undertone here as well. There is a shepherd motif in verses 9b–10 which echoes that in 40:11. Moreover, the road motif pairs 40:3 – 5. The image of the sheep that goes astray and walks in its own ways is used in Isa 53:6 to describe the people having turned away from Yhwh, and having brought guilt upon themselves because of their sins. Isa 53:6 (“We had all gone astray like sheep, each turning to his own way”) stands out as a confession made by the people. The verse makes use of way symbolism and shepherd symbolism. I find it probable that Isa 53:6 interacts with other passages in Isa 40 – 55 which make use of images with the same source domain. The confession in Isa 53:6 confirms the image of the people drawn up in other passages in Isa 40 – 55 – they have chosen their own ways before Yhwh’s ways (cf. Isa 40:27; 42:24). It is also telling that the only confession in Isa 40 – 55 – made by the people – uses the image of the flock of sheep gone astray and of the people who are choosing their own ways. Isa 49:9 – 12 thus describes the result of the aforementioned programme (vv. 5 – 6 and 8) in a depiction that manages to combine figurative images with the description of a literal journey. On the one hand, conventional images are

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used that denote a wide-reaching transformation of the people’s situation, independent of where they might find themselves.31 On the other hand, the passages also denote a return home to Jerusalem, but then not only from Babylon. In Isa 50:8 the servant again utters words, and this time he asserts that he is now confident that, by the help of Yhwh, he will prevail in the trial at court: 8

He who vindicates me is near : Who will contend with me? Let us stand up together. Who is my accuser (=üHMB @F5)? Let him approach me.

Finally in Isa 51:4, Yhwh announces that “a law (üHMB) will go forth from me, and my justice (=üHMB) for a light to the peoples.” In Isa 40:27; 49:4/50:8 and 51:4, three different speakers has given words to their view on their misˇpat. Through these three utterances we see a development from despair, to confidence, to salvation. The next occurrence of üHMB is in Isa 54:17, where the situation is set in a courtroom scene.32 This text also functions as an assurance of a completely new situation concerning the people’s right. In this text, the people – as the servants of Yhwh – are told to receive their heritage and their righteousness (8K7J) from Yhwh. The use of 8K7J as a parallel to üHMB continues in the following chapters.

2.2

Isaiah 55:6 – 13

The problem connected to the “way” in Isa 40:27 is taken to a preliminary climax in Isa 55:6 – 9. Prior to this text, Isa 49:7 – 12 has supposed that Yhwh’s way for the people includes a restoration of Jerusalem and a re-population of the city. Also, significantly, Isa 53:6 (which is the only confession of the people in Isa 40 – 55) states: “We had all gone astray like sheep, each turning to his own way.” In Isa 55:6 – 9, Yhwh exhorts the ungodly to leave his way and turn to him so that “he may have mercy on him.” And the text then speaks about the difference between God’s ways and the ways of the people: 8

For my thoughts are not your thoughts and your ways are not my ways, declares Yhwh. 9For the heavens are as high above earth as my ways are above your ways, my thoughts above your thoughts.

The people’s accusation of Yhwh for not relating properly to their “ways” and “right” (Isa 40:27) has now completely been reversed. Isa 55:6 ff. directly exhorts 31 For the geographical location of the servant and the flock described, see Lund, Way Metaphors, 238 – 48. 32 Cf. Thomas L. Leclerc, Yahweh is Exalted in Justice: Solidarity and Conflict in Isaiah (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress, 2001), 125 – 26.

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the people to leave their own ways and thoughts and, instead, to walk in Yhwh’s ways and to conform themselves to the plans of Yhwh. Isa 55:6 ff. maintains that the people’s future lies in the ways of Yhwh. This conclusion is prepared by means of a number of other passages that, firstly, point out the people’s bad choice of way (Isa 53:6; 42:24), and, secondly, point out how Yhwh’s ways and leading will bring the people into a good future (Isa 40:29 ff.; 42:16; 43:2; 43:18 ff.; 48:17ff; 49:9 ff.; 50:10). In Isa 55:12 – 13 the people are led out along the ways of Yhwh and the people’s desert is transformed into fertile country. The claim that God was not able to see the people’s way (Isa 40:27), has in Isa 55 been turned into a statement that Yhwh’s roads appear to be higher – and better and more unapproachable – than the people’s roads. These are to be the ways of the people.

3.

Isaiah 56 – 66

It stands out as evident that the theme connected to “way” and “right” has undergone a development from the introduction in Isa 40 and to Isa 51 and Isa 55 respectively. It is significant, however, that these themes and words continue to play an important role in several texts in the chapters after Isa 56. There are texts that deal with one of the themes separately, and there are significant texts that deal with the themes in conjunction. On the one hand, Isa 55:6 – 9 urges and exhorts the people to walk the right way (ýL7), and on the other hand, Isa 56:1 ff. exhorts the people to keep justice (üHMB) and do righteousness (üHMB). Chapter 56 starts out: 1

Thus says the LORD: “Keep justice (üHMB), and do righteousness (8K7J), for soon my salvation will come, and my deliverance be revealed.”

If read together, Isa 55:1 – 56:8 exhorts the people – after having changed their perspective around – both to choose the right ways and to do justice. In this way, the initial complaint, put in the mouth of Israel/Jacob in Isa 40:27, is brought to a possibility of a future life where Yhwh fully takes part in the people’s life, and has full attention to their ways and their justice. Isa 56 – 66 seems to be of a more disparate structure that was the case in Isa 40 – 55. Most scholars hold Isa 60 – 62 to be at the core of the chapters. These are characterized by a salvific message that superceeds Isa 40 – 55. The chapters preceding Isa 60 – 62 give evidence for emerging disputes among the people after exile. These chapters also seem to exhort the people to a renewed way of life, and to proclaim the possibility of a new settlement between Yhwh and his people. Isa 63 – 66 is of a more complex character and apparently more randomly arranged.

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And here both the themes of vision and dispute are being even more sharply focused. In the end of Isa 56, in verse 11, the leaders of Israel are described thus: “they have all turned to their own way (9DH A?L7@).” This wording resembles the confession of the people in Isa 53:6: “each man turning to his own way” (9D=DH 9?L7@ M=4).33

3.1

Isaiah 57

In Isa 57:3 the text shifts the focus from the leaders and takes up a disputation with the people on the theme idolatry. As a part of this disputation, the text presents salvific words. The image of the way is used in both cases. The road described in Isa 57:10 is the unhappy past of the people, leading up to the present situation. The people have become wearied (F6=), a description that echoes Isa 40:28 – 31. In both texts the people are described as being wearied along a difficult way. The hiking along this difficult past way is also alluded to in Isa 57:17 – 18, and in this verse this imagery is combined with the image of the God of wrath who hides himself (cf. Isa 54:8 – 9). Also in the salvific part of the chapter, way-imagery is in the fore. Isa 57:14 declares the bright future of the people by stating: “And it shall be said; Build up, build up, prepare the way, remove every obstruction from my people’s way.” And in verse 18, where Yhwh has stated that he has seen he former ways of the people (contra 40:27), he will in the future lead the people (cf. – with different verbs – Isa 40:11; 49:10). The preparing of the people’s way in verse 14 echoes the preparation of Yhwh’s way in Isa 40:3 and the clearing of the people’s way in 62:10. All of them are to be understood metaphorically describing a transformation of the people’s troublesome present.34 Thus, the use of the way-image in Isa 57 seems to correspond, to a large degree, with the way-imagery of Isa 40 – 55.

33 Jan L. Koole, Isaiah 3/1 Isaiah 40 – 48 (HCOT; Kampen: Kok Pharos, 1997), 39. 34 Cf. Lim, Way, 114 – 30.

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Isaiah 58

In Isa 58, we find again the combination of the way (ýL7) and justice (üHMB). When Israel’s evil and sin is described in verse 1, the text presents the people as those who pretend to be pious and righteous. When doing so, the following words are used: 2 Yet they seek me daily, and delight to know my ways (ýL7), as if they were a nation that did righteousness and did not forsake the ordinance (üHMB) of their God; they ask of me righteous judgments (ý7J =üHMB), they delight to draw near to God.

The text turns towards a possible salvation, given that the people act according to Yhwh’s expectations. And here the reader is introduced to an image, which in addition to predicting Yhwh’s leading (8;D) of the people, clearly resembles the many texts of Isa 40 – 55 which deal with the people struggling in their present desert (cf. Isa 40:3; 41:17 – 20; 43:1 – 7; 43:16 – 21; 44:3 – 4): 11

And Yhwh will guide you continually, and satisfy your desire with good things, and make your bones strong; and you shall be like a watered garden, like a spring of water, whose waters fail not.

Two different shapes of the desert image are employed – the people as thirsty individuals in the desert and the people as plants. These two shapes work perfectly side by side due to the fact that the tenor (the communicative element) of the image is consistent. In this passage Yhwh is said first of all to lead the people in the desert, and thereafter to predict for them a life as “a watered garden.” A common element for the figurative use of the “desert” seems to be that the desert symbolism describes the present hard-pressed situation where Yhwh’s blessing is absent.

3.3

Isaiah 59

In Isa 59, a number of verses apply the word-pair of “way” and “right”/“righteousness.” The people are accused in Isa 59 of having committed gross sin and performed a number of misdeeds. The description culminates in verse 8 with the accusation of the people’s past described through their mistaken choice of way (ýL7 and @6FB), and their lack of peace and justice (A9@M and üHMB). It then goes on to describe the situation of judgment, resulting from this, that the people find themselves in: 8

The way of peace (A9@M ýL7) they do not know, and there is no justice (üHMB) in their paths (@6FB). Their roads (N95=ND) they have made crooked (MKF); no one who walks in them knows peace. 9Therefore justice (üHMB) is far from us, and righteousness (8K7J)

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does not reach us; we wait for light, and lo! There is darkness; and for brightness, but we walk in gloom. 10We grope like the blind along a wall, groping like those who have no eyes; we stumble (@M?) at noon as in the twilight, among the vigorous as though we were dead.

The descriptions of the people’s situation in Isa 58 coincide to a quite high degree with the imagery found in several texts in Isa 40 – 55. First, Isa 40:30 describes the people that complain over their God’s lacking knowledge of their roads, as stumbling (@M?).35 Next in Isa 59:8 – 10 the people are described in in imagery that reflect 42:16 at a number of points. Of the images used, we note in particular the presence of darkness and night in verse 9 and the hope of light, which does not come (cf. 42:16: “I will turn the darkness before them into light”). Moreover, we find in verse 10 the description of the people as blind and their need for leadership (cf. 42:16: “I will lead the blind in a way that they know not”). Crookedness can also be found in verse 8 as a description of the people’s earlier journey (cf. Isa 42:16: “I will turn […] the rough places into level ground”). It is difficult to envisage a situation in which Isa 59:8 – 10 could be understood literally, and the obviously figurative character of the text thus points to the probability that the same combination of motifs in Isa 42 was originally understood as figurative. Isa 59:8 – 10 thus seems to describe a situation quite similar to the one that Yhwh will lead the blind out of in Isa 42:16. However, the negative description continues. In Isa 59:11, the people are looking for justice (üHMB) in vain, and in Isa 59:15, the whole description of the people’s sinful situation is summed up with the words: üHMB C=4 =? – There was no justice. However, in Isa 59 as well, Yhwh’s salvific actions will change the situation (Isa 59:16 – 20).

3.4

Isaiah 60 – 66

The themes described above are used in additional texts in the subsequent chapters as well. Isa 61 presents salvific words, and the speaker – filled by Yhwh’s Spirit – proclaims completely liberating good news. What has been torn down will be raised, the priestly service will be resumed, shame will be replaced with joy. In this context Yhwh predicts a final settlement where his üHMB is again the core value (v. 8): 8

For I Yhwh love justice (üHMB), I hate robbery and wrong; I will faithfully give them their recompense, and I will make an everlasting covenant with them. 35 Cf. Lim, Way, 117 – 18, who also discusses the relation to Isa 3:8 and 35:3.

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The following text describes the prosperous future of the people by using the same kind of growth and plant metaphors that are used in several texts in Isa 40 – 55 (cf. Isa 40:3 – 5; 41:17 ff.; 43:19 f; 44:1 ff.). Also the way theme is picked up again in Isa 60 – 66 in a way that continues to resemble the way metaphors of Isa 40 – 55. The tension between the people’s unsuccessful ways and the good ways envisaged by Yhwh is a recurring theme. There are three texts that describe the bad history of the people in which they chose or walked the wrong ways (cf. Isa 63:17; 65:2 and 66:3). Isa 63:17 is somewhat special due to the fact that the people – in a prayer – ask Yhwh why he has made them err (8FN) from his ways. In the people’s confession in Isa 53:6, they used a similar formulation: “We had all gone astray (8FN) like sheep, each turning to his own way (ýL7).” Likewise, 65:2 reads “I spread out my hands all the day to a rebellious people, who walk in a way that is not good, following their own devices (N5M;B).” It seems likely that this text somehow relates to Isa 55:7 – 9. In fact, except for these two texts of Isaiah, the combination of ýL7 and N5M;B occurs within the Hebrew Bible only in Jer 18:11. Isa 62:10 is a text that foreshadows a good future for the people through the image of a preparition of a way (cf. Isa 40:3 and 57:14 – see above). The last text to be mentioned in this brief survey is Isa 64:8. 8

You meet those who gladly do right (K7J), those who remember you in your ways (ý=?L75). But you were angry ; we sinned – and are in them [sin]; are we ever to be saved?

In this text, the combination of “right” and “ways” is again presented in a text that describes Yhwh’s expectations. Through a series of texts, the allegation concerning Yhwh’s lack of competence and interest concerning their way and right, expressed in Isa 40:27, has been dealt with and different perspectives have been presented. The text has maintained that the people’s horrific situation was due to them not walking in Yhwh’s ways and not obeying his law (Isa 42:24). Isa 48:17 – 18 foreshadowed a prosperous future only if the people would walk in Yhwh’s way and pay attention to his commandments. In Isa 49:1 – 13 the servant – in this text a part of the people – stated that his right after all was with Yhwh. Immediately following this, the people’s salvation is described by the image of a way in which Yhwh leads them. Isa 55 and 56 also combine the lexemes. The ungodly person is exhorted to leave his way and to turn to Yhwh – whose ways are high above the ways of the people. Isa 56:1 proclaims salvation if justice is kept. In Isa 58 the people are described as living in a state where true justice is missing. People seem to think that they live according to the will of Yhwh, but alas, no. Also Isa 59:8 – 10 described the people’s behavior negatively by using same kind of vocabulary. Then Isa 64:8 gathers the treads together by expressing positively that Yhwh will favour those who do right and relate positively to his ways.

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The themes “way” and “right” seem to be employed in the text corpus of Isa 40 – 66 in a way that creates a series of linkages between different texts, and the treatment of the themes of “right” and “way” seems to be fairly consistent across all the 27 chapters. I hold it to be likely that a competent reader of the text would notice the way that the different texts play on each another. This essay has not worked deeply into the question of genesis of these 27 chapters, nor has it focused on the question as to who the authors were. Yet, I propose that the discourse on “right” and “ways” presented above should be considered as a part of the whole picture when further research regarding the genesis of these chapters is being done .

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Joachim Schaper

Divine Images, Iconophobia and Monotheism in Isaiah 40 – 66

1.

Introduction

The problem of monotheism in (Deutero-)Isaiah has received a very considerable amount of attention in historical-critical scholarship, and so have the anti-idol polemics found in the book. What has received very little attention is how the two hang together, or, indeed, how they connect with the concept of Yhwh as creator. In what sense, if any, are anti-idol polemics a constitutive part of the monotheistic “project,” so to speak? Are they – and, more generally, is aniconism – an essential and indispensable component of monotheistic Yahwism? And what, if anything, do the examples of a link between monotheism and aniconism in Isaiah have to tell us about the history of the book? These are the questions which I shall seek to answer in the present paper. Obviously I cannot go into great detail since all the questions just listed would need a monograph each to address them properly. Yet they have to be perceived in their interrelation in order to understand more deeply the theological “message,” the religionsgeschichtlicher background and the literary history of Isaiah 40 – 66.

2.

The Terminology Used in the Anti-idol Polemics of Isaiah 40 – 66

The first passage in Isaiah 40 – 66 which displays anti-idol polemics and propagates a monotheistic view of the deity, while it also depicts him as the creator, is found in Isaiah 40:18 – 20,1 or rather, in 40:18 – 25.2 It describes ‘El’ (not Yhwh!) 1 It seems strange to treat only Isa 40:19 – 20 as forming the first “idol-fabrication passage,” as does Knut Holter, Second Isaiah’s Idol-Fabrication Passages (BBET 28; Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 1995), 33 – 79. V. 18 asks the question which is answered by vv. 19 – 20; the three verses are inseparable, which is also shown by the correlation between N9B7 in v. 18 and @EH in vv. 19 and 20. Ulrich Berges, Jesaja 40 – 48 (HThKAT; Freiburg im Breisgau: Herder, 2008), 140, rightly treats the three verses as a unit. Holter’s decision puts his analysis on the wrong

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as an incomparable God of whom no likeness (N9B7) can be produced (Isa 40:18); the term used is the same as that in Gen 1:26. The reference to the famous passage in P is obvious3 and has not escaped the notice of Isaiah commentators, but, as we shall see, few (if any) students of Isaiah have probed the full depth of this reference. It is significant that the first (at least implicitly) monotheistic statement of Isaiah 40 – 66 occurs right at the beginning of the text, and that it is inextricably linked with an instance of anti-idol polemics. Gen 1:26 speaks of a N9B7 of A=8@4, and so does Isa 40:18. However, while Gen 1:26 – 27 states that such a N9B7 exists – viz., the human being –, Isa 40:18 effectively asserts that a N9B7 of A=8@4 does not exist and that it is impossible to produce – impossible to produce, that is, for human beings. The author exemplifies that by referring to the A=@EH that are typically made of gods; cf. N9B7 being taken up and exemplified by @EH in verses 19 and 204 – the craftsman skilfully puts up the image; one “seeks out a skilled artisan to set up an image that will not topple” (v. 20, NRSV). The efforts of those who produce and put up cultic images are thus ridiculed: producing an image, it is implied, may be considered appropriate by followers of other deities, but it simply makes no sense with regard to Yhwh. Why not? Because he is enthroned on high (v. 22). Verses 26 – 29 then explicate verses 21 – 25; verses 26 and 28 finally say clearly and explicitly what had hitherto been implied: the “Holy One” himself states that he is the creator of the universe (4L5 =B 8@4), and he is named as Yhwh, the eternal god who has made (4L95) the ends of the earth. Yet Isa 40:18 implies that God himself would be able to produce a N9B7 of himself; we shall return to this point later.5 We should note that even now, right at the beginning of Isaiah 40 – 66 and in the case of the first “idol-fabrication passage,” we already have a clear case of interaction between the passage and its surroundings, between Isa 40:18 – 20 and verses like 40:25, 26 and 28 which give the reasons why a N9B7 of such a god cannot be fashioned. Other passages in which Deutero-Isaiah polemicises against the production and veneration of images are found in 41:6 – 7 (which closely corresponds with

2 3 4

5

track. He discusses 40:18, but concentrates on its links with 40:25 and 46:6 and the comparison with Gen 1:26 (Holter, Idol-Fabrication Passages, 79 – 89), thus discussing one part of the complex problem while ignoring the other, i. e., the significance of 40:18 as the opening of 40:18 – 20 and, indeed, of the whole of 40:18 – 25 and the wider context of the rest of chapter 40. Vv. 18 and 25 form an inclusio. Cf. Holter, Idol-Fabrication Passages, 79 – 89. The verses are, incidentally (against Elliger), unlikely to be secondary : there is no good reason to assume that N9B7 refers to a mental image and that a glossator misunderstood the text; cf. Klaus Koch, “Ugaritic Polytheism and Hebrew Monotheism in Isaiah 40 – 55,” in The God of Israel (ed. Robert P. Gordon; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 205 – 28 (221). See below, section 3.

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40:18 – 20 and implicitly refers back to the @EH mentioned in that passage); 41:29 (against the A=?ED, which is effectively another term for A=@EH “No, they are all a delusion; their works are nothing; their images are empty wind,” [NRSV]; C94, 8bFB and A=?ED are mentioned in parallel, referring to “idols”); 42:8 (which denigrates A=@EH “I am the LORD: that is my name: and my glory will I not give to another, neither my praise to graven images” [AV]); 42:17 (with both @EH and 8?EB as the object of polemics); 44:9 – 20 (again with the A=@EH and their sculptors as the objects of scorn); 45:16 (against A=L=J and their makers); and 46:5 (where the cultic image is referred to as a “god,” @4): 46:5 – 7 echoes 40:18 – 20. A thread of anti-idol polemics thus runs through the first seven chapters of Isaiah 40 – 66, and @EH is the key term which occurs again and again, typically in passages that centrally make statements about the nature of Yhwh. (As we have seen, a few other terms are also used to refer to divine images used in cultic contexts: A=?ED, 8?EB and A=L=J; there is no room to discuss them here.) We can already say that the widespread use itself is an important argument against seeing Isa 40:18 – 20 and other anti-idol passages as later insertions (contra the traditional view in critical scholarship established by Duhm and followed by many others), a problem to which we shall return later. Key verbs denoting the production of images are ýED and LJ= (44:10 is a particularly good example), but 8bF is also used to denote the making of “gods,” i. e., statues (cf. 46:6). In several instances the verb LJ= is employed with regard to the making of cultic images. But it is also used with reference to Yhwh himself when it says, in 43:10: Ye are my witnesses, saith the LORD, and my servant whom I have chosen: that ye may know and believe me, and understand that I am he: before me there was no god (@4) formed (LJ9D), neither shall there be after me. (AV)

This is a remarkable verse since it applies, in a non-polemical manner, the verb LJ= to Yhwh who likens himself to, indeed effectively refers to himself as, a god who was formed (LJ9D). What the text does here is to establish a dialectic between the pejorative use of LJ= in connection with the forming of idols and its positive use with reference to the Israelite deity. With Yhwh comparing himself to gods (i. e., images of gods) that have been formed (LJ9D), a paradox is established. This important fact has been explained away by Duhm and overlooked by other famous Isaiah commentators, like Elliger and Westermann, who completely miss the point of the paradox.6 Of course Duhm is right when he says that we must not conclude that Yhwh is depicted here as a god who was formed (and 6 The same is true of John Goldingay and David Payne, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Isaiah 40–55 (2 vols.; ICC; London: T&T Clark, 2006), 1:287, who state that the text “suggests some irony here.” But this is not simple “irony,” it is a deeply paradoxical and dialectical statement.

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thus came into existence at some point in the past and therefore is not eternal),7 yet it is nevertheless also true that, in 43:10, a paradox is being created: the terminology normally used to refer to the human production of divine images (cf. the use of @4 LJ= as, for example, in 44:10) is now used to refer to the one actual, real deity, Yhwh, and to compare him with other deities – whose existence is simultaneously being negated! Yhwh is thus depicted as the incomparable god who nevertheless compares himself to other gods and their coming into existence – an existence the reality of which Yhwh negates. The point of comparison is the forming – LJ= – of the deity (i. e., the image of the deity) which, in the minds of contemporary readers and listeners, conjured up the image of the production of divine images. Therefore, the point of using LJ= in this context is not, as Berges and others claim, to make a statement against the usual ancient Near Eastern theogonies.8 Rather, as Isa 44:10 quite clearly shows (also cf. Isa 44:12 and 44:9 – 10 as well as Hab 2:18), @4 LJ= is a set phrase referring to the production of divine images by artisans. In the context of Isaiah 40 – 66, as investigated so far, the verb LJ= thus oscillates between the positive and the negative. This is reinforced by the fact that LJ= is also used, in a very positive sense, as a synonym of 4L5, the verb for divine creative activity that is exclusively reserved for Yhwh. We find an example of that use in 43:1, with reference to the creation of Israel: “But now thus says the LORD, he who created (4L5) you, O Jacob, he who formed (LJ=) you, O Israel” (NRSV). Again in Isa 43:7, LJ= is used, in parallel with 8bF, to explicate the use of 4L5 with reference to Yhwh as the creator of the sons and daughters of Israel. Here LJ= is again employed in an entirely positive manner. So is 8bF. In very much the same fashion, LJ= and 8bF are used in parallel in 45:18, once again to explicate 4L5. In Isa 54:16 – 17, there is another example of the use of key terms for creative activity : 4L5 and LJ= are used alongside each other in order to stress that Yhwh is the creator of humans who engage in creative activity, in craftsmanship; it is Yhwh who creates the smiths, who in turn create weapons. This goes to show that Yhwh is ultimately in control; it also seems to be an implicit reference back to the statements about the activity of the craftsmen who produce idols. Once again the point is made that Yhwh is the source of all real and significant human creativity. Thus far, we can conclude from the evidence that the use of vocabulary referring to creative activity is ambiguous. The verbs which are used in connection with the production of cultic images can equally well be used to refer to 7 Bernhard Duhm, Das Buch Jesaia (5th ed.; HKAT 3/1; Go¨ttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1968), ad locum. 8 Berges, Jesaja 40 – 48, 284 – 85.

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the creative activity of the deity, variously referred to as El and Yhwh. In the context of divine creative activity, however, LJ= and 8bF are qualified by being used as explications of the exclusively divine activity, 4L5. However, when LJ= and 8bF are employed to refer to the production of “idols” (they can also refer to the production of other objects, like weapons), they do not have 4L5 as their reference point. The human activities of LJ= and 8bF are thus characterized, if and when the verbs are used with regard to the production of images, as unauthorized and unsuccessful attempts to emulate the deity. It seems that the intention is to portray the activity of the craftsmen who produce the ` -vis the Divine. In A=@EH and the A=?ED as an instance of human hubris vis-a principle, however, human creative production, referred to by the verbs LJ= and 8bF, is portrayed as being based on and authorized by divine creativity and as a wholly salutary enterprise. Can we trace the use of that terminology further through chapters 40 – 66 of Isaiah? Beyond the sequence of passages displaying terms for images and their production which we have just discussed there is very little in terms of polemics against idols specifically. It is true that one does find, beyond chapter 46, polemics that are directed against cultic practices perceived as aberrant. Yet there are very few direct references to “idols.” The exception is found in Isa 66:3 where it says that the evildoer blesses an C94 and that some take their delight in A=J9Ka. Both terms are in parallel (with the MT and against some commentators, verse 3 should not be pulled apart), and – against some modern translations and commentators – that would seem to indicate that both terms, C94 and A=J9Ka, refer to cultic images. However, this is the only instance of anti-“idol” polemics after Isaiah 46, and both its vocabulary and its “message” are unlike those of the other instances discussed. This result underlines the result arrived at (from a different perspective) by Duhm a long time ago: Isaiah 56 – 66 has to be seen as an originally separate entity ; “Trito-Isaiah” is characterised by a theological outlook that is markedly different from that of “Deutero-Isaiah.”

3.

Anti-idol Polemics in Isaiah 40 – 55 – A Dialogue with Genesis 1:26 – 27, Interpreted Against the Background of Deuteronomy 4

Isaiah 40 – 55 contains a remarkable number of allusions to material found in the book of Genesis; references to the Garden of Eden, the flood story, the Abraham and Sarah narrative, Jacob and the descent of Israel into Egypt.9 However, what is 9 Cf. Shalom M. Paul, Isaiah 40 – 66: Translation and Commentary (The Eerdmans Critical Commentary ; Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2012), 44 – 45.

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much less clear is the precise relationship between Isa 40:18 (and the other antiidol passages, especially 46:5 – 7) and Gen 1:26 – 27. It is remarkable that, while there are obvious similarities between the passages just mentioned (especially with regard to the use of N9B7), “few exegetes have shown any interest in discussing a possible deliberate relationship,” as Holter rightly sums up.10 And it is equally true that, “among those scholars who have actually taken this question into consideration, the answer is mostly negative” – indeed, it has been the case that “the topics of Gen 1:26 and Isa 40:18, 46:5 are thought to be so far from each other that these verses can hardly reflect a deliberate connection.”11 And Holter himself “share[s] the common scepticism concerning any claim of a literary dependence by Second Isaiah upon P,” yet believes “that there is some connection between the ideas expressed in Isa 40:18, 25; 46:5, and Gen 1:26.”12 I do not subscribe to the scepticism invoked by Holter, but I share his view that – at the very least! – the ideas informing the respective passages need to be seen in conjunction. Yet while he finds the “terminological similarities” between Isa 40:18, 25/46:5, and Gen 1:26 – 27 “striking,”13 Holter nevertheless “conclude[s] that Second Isaiah, as far as his creation terminology is concerned, seems on the whole to be independent of P” and “find[s] allusions not only to P – or J – but to creation passages from a much larger spectrum of the Old Testament.”14 While the latter is true, it is also true that Gen 1 is the main reference point of the Deutero-Isaianic texts in question, and that there is indeed, contra Holter, “literary dependence by Second Isaiah upon P.”15 This can be shown by paying attention both to the remarkable amount of Priestly terminology found in the Isaianic material (keeping in mind that, for example, in Isaiah 40 – 55, 4L5 is used in a striking number of instances: 40:26, 28; 41:20; 42:5; 43:1, 7, 15; 45:7 bis; 45:8, 12, 18 bis; 54:16) and to the theological argument that is being conducted between the two texts, so to speak. In order to understand that argument more clearly, we have to address the notion of divine corporeality. S.M. Paul’s views can serve as a counterfoil here. In a manner similar to that informing his discussion of Deuteronomy 4,16 Paul argues that “the prophet retorts” against the notion of divine corporeality implied in Gen 1:26 – 27: “‘To whom, then, can you liken God? What form compare to Him?’ (Isa 40:18) […].”17 This is a misunderstanding of the gist of Deutero10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

Holter, Idol-Fabrication Passages, 86. Holter, Idol-Fabrication Passages, 86. Holter, Idol-Fabrication Passages, 87. Holter, Idol-Fabrication Passages, 81. Holter, Idol-Fabrication Passages, 85. Holter, Idol-Fabrication Passages, 87. See Paul, Isaiah 40 – 66, 47 – 50. Paul, Isaiah 40 – 66, 20.

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Isaiah’s argument: it is not directed against the notion of divine corporeality ;18 rather, the rhetorical question “[…] what form compare to him?” implicitly assumes that the deity actually has a “form,”19 as does (as Paul rightly acknowledges) Gen 1:26 – 27. Contrary to Paul’s assumption, however, Isa 40:18 argues not against the concept of divine corporeality but against the human desire to produce images of Yhwh.20 Deutero-Isaiah takes the corporeality of God for granted, but he also takes for granted that man-made artefacts can never adequately portray the divine reality of the divine “form.” The reader is asked to supply the answer to the rhetorical question of Isa 40:18 by referring to Gen 1:26 – 27: the N9B7 which can be made of God cannot be produced by a human being, but it can indeed be produced by God himself, and that N9B7 is none other than the living human being. The two passages are complementary ; that is what the author of Isa 40:18 intended them to be when he asked the question the answer to which he had already found in Gen 1:26 – 27. The ultimate theological point made by Gen 1:26 – 27 is thus that a N9B7 of Yhwh can actually be produced (like [!] Isa 40:18 and related texts, Gen 1:26 – 27 takes the corporeality of God for granted), but only by Yhwh himself – and that he has indeed produced it, and has produced it as a A@J, a cult image:21 the human body is that living cult statue of Yhwh.22 What does this mean with regard to the Deutero-Isaianic texts? As we have already indicated, the wider context of Isa 40:18 helps the reader to understand the point in greater depth. It is God’s creative activity that is contrasted, in Isa 40:12 – 31, with the derivative, futile activity of a sculptor trying to produce a N9B7 of that God: verse 25, posing yet another rhetorical question, takes up verse 18, using the same root (8B7 I qal), which is most likely a subtle allusion to Gen 1:26. It is astonishing that the parallel which Deutero-Isaiah draws between God as creator and the sculptors as would-be creators had been overlooked by the vast majority of scholars before Holter made the point forcefully and convincingly in his study on the “idol-fabrication passages”: the “appeal to human 18 Cf. Benjamin D. Sommer, The Bodies of God and the World of Ancient Israel (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 176, n. 17. 19 Contrary to Knut Holter, Deuteronomy 4 and the Second Commandment (Studies in Biblical Literature 60; New York/Oxford, NY: Lang, 2003), 111, n. 215, Isa 40:18, 25 and 46:5 contain more than just a “rhetorical question […] ironically challenging the audience to point out a N9B7 for God”; rather the rhetorical question implies the assumption that God is corporeal and can be portrayed, but only by God himself. 20 This has rightly been stressed by Berges, Jesaja 40 – 48, 142. However, Berges does not seem to see that the passage is, so to speak, in dialogue with Gen 1:26 – 27. 21 Cf. Stephen L. Herring, Divine Substitution: Humanity as the Manifestation of Deity in the Hebrew Bible and the Ancient Near East (FRLANT 247; Go¨ttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2013). 22 Cf. Herring, Divine Substitution, 222 – 23.

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reason” in Isa 44:9 – 20, Holter states, “is theologically motivated.” He goes on to say : Second Isaiah is no rationalist, not even in the idol-fabrication passages. It is not least the ironical paralleling of Yahweh and the idol-fabricator that shows this: The Creator of heaven and earth is contrasted with the ‘creators’ of gods and idols! But since the latter are only human beings […], they lack any creative power. Thus, the outcome of their ‘creation’ can hardly be anything other than – although decorated! – a piece of wood.23

Holter rightly stresses that Isa 44:9 – 20 parallelises Yhwh and the sculptors (“idol-fabricators”) in order to make the theological point that human beings cannot emulate the creative powers of the deity. In order to make that point, the author draws the parallel we have pointed out and simultaneously clarifies that the statues which the sculptor produces are lifeless. He thus demonstrates that, while human beings may strive to emulate the life-giving activity of the creator god, they cannot and will not succeed: the “gods” whom they create remain lifeless. There is a further hidden dimension here which Holter does not seem to have detected, and that is the deeper significance of the polemic against the idols. With regard to Isa 45:20 ff., he writes: Encountering this clear identification of god and idol, interpreters of Isa 40 – 55 have often gone into discussions of whether it corresponds with the actual pagan Selbstversta¨ndnis, and, if not, what kind of a Mißversta¨ndnis of pagan religion such an identification of god and idol reflects. Now, the first aspect is highly relevant, but it cannot be discussed without going seriously into the enormous amounts of material from Israel’s neighbouring cultures. The second aspect reflects a Mißversta¨ndnis itself. Second Isaiah, and the other Biblical writers, were obviously not scholars of religion in any modern meaning of the word. And we can be positively sure that they never intended to ‘understand’ pagan religion. These writers, and not least Second Isaiah, were theologians, and their Yahwistic theology is also reflected in their presentation of idols and idolatry.24

Holter fails to see the implication of Isa 44:9 – 20: the author of the text must have been highly aware of the “pagan” conception of “idols”-production. Why? Because he attempted to fight – without addressing, let alone discussing explicitly – the central tenet of that conception, viz. that life can be induced into the “idols” with the help of correctly conducted rituals (i. e., the mı¯s pıˆ and pı¯t pıˆ rituals). This is why the author so forcefully stresses that the images are lifeless. He probably knew very well what the “pagan” sculptors of divine images wanted to achieve through the mı¯s pıˆ (“Mouth-Washing”) and pı¯t pıˆ (“Mouth-Opening”) rituals and argues against the faith in the supposedly life-inducing ceremonies, 23 Holter, Idol-Fabrication Passages, 206. 24 Holter, Idol-Fabrication Passages, 204 – 5.

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but does so in a circumspect manner, without arguing against those ceremonies as such. Holter is right to say that “Second Isaiah, and the other Biblical writers, were obviously not scholars of religion in any modern meaning of the word.”25 But Holter also says that “we can be positively sure that they never intended to ‘understand’ pagan religion!”26 Here one has to be very careful: of course, the author of Isa 44:9 – 20 had no interest in “understanding” Mesopotamian cult practices in order to do them justice. Of course his intention was a polemical one, and of course he was a “Yahwistic” “theologian.” However, he must have had considerable knowledge of those cult practices and of the assumptions that informed them – this is exactly why he could go straight for the jugular, hitting out at the central assumption of the Mesopotamian and other “idol-worshippers,” i. e., that the images were alive with the powers of the deity. By polemicising against that assumption, he posited that human beings, however much they try, are unable to induce life into the “idols” they produce. Thus the author of the anti-idol passages, while he does not explicitly address the underlying assumptions that informed “pagan” veneration of cult-statues of deities, clearly had a good general knowledge of those assumptions. It is true that “Isa 44:9 – 20 […] ironically portrays the idol-fabricator as having taken the role of Yhwh: he makes an idol in the likeness of himself.”27 But the deeper meaning of Isa 44:9 – 20 goes well beyond the ironical denunciation of the human sculptor’s efforts. It does not just ridicule the artisans’ efforts to create a true “god,” but it also implies that their attempts are blasphemous: a true @EH of God (the one God) can only be produced by God himself, and trying to imitate his creative activity by producing a @EH is not just a vain effort – it is an insult to God. The author of Isa 45:20 and of Isa 44:9 – 20 thus stresses the contrast between the vain efforts of the “idol-fabricators” and the Creator-God of Gen 1:26 – 27 who succeeds where they fail; he creates divine images, indeed images of himself, and living ones to boot! What is more, the polemics of 44:9 – 20 are contrasted with the amazing statement of 44:21: one of the key verbs denoting the production of images, LJ= (cf. 44:10!), is now, in 44:21, used to refer to Yhwh himself (cf. 43:10!), and it is Jacob whom Yhwh “fashions”! Now this is as clear an analogy with Gen 1:26 – 27 as can be expected: the verb normally used to denote the making of “gods,” i. e. of statues, is used to refer to the deity’s production of a living “statue,” i. e., Jacob. Like the Deutero-Isaianic anti-idol passages, Gen 1:26 – 27 was written with the Mesopotamian mı¯s pıˆ and pı¯t pıˆ rituals in mind: “The Priestly use of A@J does reflect a conceptualization of presence similar to its Akkadian cognate salmu. ˙ 25 Holter, Idol-Fabrication Passages, 205. 26 Holter, Idol-Fabrication Passages, 205. 27 Holter, Deuteronomy 4 and the Second Commandment, 11, n. 215.

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Although there is nothing so elaborate as the mı¯s pıˆ ritual in the Hebrew Bible, this conclusion is supported by other evidence, including the context surrounding Genesis 1:26 – 27, the literary style of the verses in question, and the relationship between these verses, Genesis 5:3, and 9:6.”28 This brings us to the ultimate point of the reasoning which informs Deutero-Isaiah’s anti-“idol” polemics. The Unvergleichlichkeitsaussagen of the Deutero-Isaianic passage cannot be explained by reference to (vaguely) similar statements in texts like the acclamation of Marduk or the designation of Sin as incomparable.29 Those texts have the divine rule and the divinity of the deities as their point of reference. Texts like Isa 40:18 – 25, by contrast, focus on creative activity. It is the divine creativity which Deutero-Isaiah’s theological interest is focused on, as is that of the Priestly Writer in Gen 1:26 – 27. In his famous commentary on Isaiah, Bernhard Duhm says, with reference to Isa 40:17 – 20: Dtjes. spricht hier also nicht gegen eigentlichen Go¨tzendienst, sondern gegen die Verehrung Gottes im Bilde. Trotzdem ist es zweifelhaft, ob er Israel anredet; nach dem ganzen Zusammenhang ist die Menschheit u¨berhaupt gemeint, eben darum steht auch der Qualita¨tsbegriff @4ú statt des Eigennamens Jahwe. Also geht der Verf., vielleicht ohne deutliches Bewußtsein, von der Vorstellung aus, daß man mit den Bildern im Grunde Jahwe darzustellen versucht, weil es keinen anderen Gott gibt. Diese monotheistische Stimmung steht ohne Zweifel in Beziehung zu dem Gedanken von der Weltscho¨pfung. E i n Scho¨pfer und Weltherrscher, also auch nur e i n Gott.30

Duhm sees a connection between the author’s monotheistic “mood,” his anti“idol” polemics and his creation theology, which is an important observation that few, if any, other biblical exegetes have made. He also thinks that the main reason for the anti-“idol” polemics was the author’s perception that, ultimately, all pictorial and glyptic representations of deities were attempts to represent Yhwh and therefore had to be ridiculed and suppressed. This is speculative and well-nigh impossible to prove. What is apposite in Duhm’s observations, however, is the link between monotheism, creation and aniconism which he postulates. It will be helpful here to adduce a counter-intuitive observation made by social anthropologists. Fieldwork in numerous African pre-literate societies has shown that even in the polytheistic religious systems of those societies there is a clear link between aniconism and the worship of creator gods: “In Africa the indigenous Supreme Deity, who is usually referred to in English as the High God, […] is not represented, imaged,

28 Herring, Divine Substitution, 96. 29 Contra Berges, Jesaja 40 – 48, 141. 30 Duhm, Das Buch Jesaia, 296.

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iconed, and, with occasional exceptions, not even given an altar, a material focus, not even a twig or pebble.”31 It is significant, and counter-intuitive to typical “Western” views of preliterate societies, that such beliefs exist in pre-literate societies, leading Goody to the conclusion that, in the case of the African concept of aniconic worship, “the order of spirituality could be considered higher rather lower than in Christianity, since there is no figurative image, and only rarely an altar.”32 Goody thus posits a contrast between the “material” (representation) and the “immaterial” (deity). The present author is not competent to decide whether that is a correct description of the African conceptualisation of the Supreme Deity ; i. e., whether that deity is really thought of as being “immaterial.” The Israelites, in any case, did not conceive of their deity as being immaterial, as we have already pointed out.33 Yet the analogy between the aniconic worship of creator deities in Africa and the aniconic worship of Yhwh is immensely helpful: The rejection of the bodily image of gods, and especially of God, the Creator God, was part of the contradiction involved in conceiving gods anthropomorphically and then having them create humanity or order its life in ways that were possible only to nonmaterial beings. That contradiction is particularly acute in the case of the Creator God but it exists for all other supernatural agencies because of the opposition of the material to the immaterial, the sacred to the profane, of humanity to deity and of the natural to the spiritual. It expresses some more general doubt about representations.34

As stated earlier, I am not sure whether the opposition between the “material” and the “immaterial” is helpful; in any case, a highly interesting conclusion follows from the above: in a manner comparable to the developments detectable even in some non-literate cultures, Deutero-Isaiah “brings out” an aniconic tendency which had been an undercurrent of Israelite culture (and, indeed, of other ancient Near Eastern cultures),35 but had hitherto not become dominant.36 Once writing had risen to cultural hegemony in ancient Judah, the aniconic tendency had the “basis” it needed in order firmly to establish itself. This is, 31 Jack Goody, Representations and Contradictions: Ambivalence Towards Images, Theatre, Fiction, Relics and Sexuality (Oxford: Blackwell, 1997), 56. 32 Goody, Representations, 59. 33 Cf. above, n. 18. 34 Goody, Representations, 52. 35 Cf. Tallay Ornan, The Triumph of the Symbol: Pictorial Representation of Deities in Mesopotamia and the Biblical Image Ban (OBO 213; Freiburg, Switzerland: Universita¨tsverlag/ Go¨ttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2005), on Neo-Assyrian examples. 36 Contrary to Tryggve N.D. Mettinger, No Graven Image? Israelite Aniconism in Its Ancient Near Eastern Context (ConBOT 42; Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1995), Israel’s worship was not originally and inherently aniconic. It only become aniconic when the contradictions inherent in representation became palpable, resulting in religious “revolution from above” which eventually led to fully aniconic worship in the post-exilic period.

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indeed, “another example where written cultures make explicit the contradictions and problems that are implicit in oral ones.”37 In this regard, Deuteronomy 4 has an important contribution to make to our understanding of Deutero-Isaiah’s anti-idol polemics: it deepens it by giving us the “theoretical” background necessary to understand the mindset of DeuteroIsaiah. S.M. Paul claims that Deutero-Isaiah polemicised, like Deuteronomy 4 (!), against the notion of the corporeality of God, and refers the reader to the similarity between Deut 4:12 (as well as 4:3, 36) and Isa 40:18 (as well as 40:25; 46:5).38 While it is true that the Deuteronomic and the Deutero-Isaianic passages share the same view of the pictorial representation of the deity, they do not argue against the notion of divine corporeality. As a matter of fact, they both take for granted that the deity has a form (8D9BN in Deuteronomy 4, N9B7 in Isaiah 40) which can, at least in principle, be captured by and in a @EH, but they both pronounce such representations anathema. This is a fascinating indicator of the fact that, by the late exilic or early post-exilic period, the concept of Yhwh as Creator-God was sufficiently deeply rooted for the notion of divine creativity and the concomitant ban on pictorial representations to “override” the age-old notion of divine corporeality : while that corporeality continued to be taken for granted, it was no longer acceptable to try to capture it in images.

4.

Conclusion

By way of concluding, let us first turn to the theological implications of the terminology of anti-idol polemics found in Deutero-Isaiah and of the way it is employed in the book. As we have seen, certain key verbs relating to the production of images, verbs that come from the realm of craftsmanship, are also used with regard to the work of Yhwh as creator, the most often used and most prominent being LJ=, with 18 occurrences spread out across chapters 40 – 66 (43:1, 7, 10, 21; 44:2, 9, 10, 12, 21, 24; 45:7, 9 bis, 11, 18; 46:11; 49:5; 54:17; 64:7). In a number of instances, LJ= is in parallel with 8bF, and both are interwoven with uses of 4L5. As we have seen, the investigation of the distribution of terminology related to divine images can be used to throw light on the question of authorship. In Isaiah 40 – 66, we have a very uneven distribution of such terminology. It exists both in chapters 40 – 55 and in chapters 56 – 66, but – as demonstrated – it is much more prominent and more evenly spread out in the first seven chapters of the former section. There seems to be an indissoluble link between the propagation of 37 Goody, Representations, 73. 38 Cf. Paul, Isaiah 40 – 66, 47.

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monotheism, on the one hand, and of aniconism, on the other, which is particularly prominent in Deuteronomy but no less clear in Isaiah 40 – 55. However, whereas the anti-“idol” polemics of Deutero-Isaiah are, in a very specific manner and with semantic precision and quite a breadth of terminology, directed specifically against images, standing pars pro toto for the wrong cults, matters are rather vague in the one relevant passage in Isaiah 56 – 66. Anti-“idol” polemics in Isaiah are expressions of monotheism, and especially of nascent monotheism. Once a monotheistic position had been fully established among the exiles and the Judaeans (probably under the immediate impression of image-centred cults; i. e., in Babylonia and not in Judah), the tone became less polemical, as is witnessed by the pertinent texts in Isaiah 56 – 66. We have demonstrated why monotheistic religion has a special propensity to suppress pictorial representations of the deity ; modern anthropological research has yielded the interesting result that even in polytheistic systems that entail a central creator-god, that god is often worshipped aniconically. This would seem to lead to the conclusion that it is not monotheism but the creator function ascribed to the deity that triggers the suppression of iconic worship of the deity. The two aspects were already inseparable in the Yahwism of the period in question, but creation theology applied to Yhwh probably was the decisive factor that generated the anti-idol polemics in Deutero-Isaiah, as is indicated by the intricate use of creation-related terminology in the book. Also, the anti-idol polemics are so close to the heart of the creation-theological propositions of Deutero-Isaiah that they most likely were not put in later, as part of a “Go¨tzenbilderschicht,” but have always been integral to the argument. It further follows from the analysis provided in the present study that it does not make much sense to postulate a dichotomy between supposed proponents and supposed enemies of iconic worship, as does (amongst many others) Andreas Schu¨le when he states that: It is remarkable that very much at the same time when prophets like Deutero-Isaiah and Ezekiel poured scorn on the idols, the idea of the “Image of God” was very much alive in another strand of biblical tradition that is probably about contemporaneous with these prophets: according to the priestly telling of creation in Gen 1,1 – 2,4a it is not lifeless matter, not a man-made statue, but humans as living beings that are envisioned to be indeed the true image of God.39

As we seen, the matter is more complicated, and Deutero-Isaiah is much more subtle than many exegetes assume. Gen 1:26 – 27 is as opposed to “idol-worship” as is Deutero-Isaiah. The point of both P and Deutero-Isaiah is that the Creator cannot be “captured” or “contained” by statues. His universal creative activity is 39 Andreas Schu¨le, “Made in the ‘Image of God’: The Concepts of Divine Images in Gen 1 – 3,” ZAW 117 (2005): 1 – 20 (2).

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just that: universal. This is why it cannot be emulated by human beings – it permeates the whole world and leaves no room for other such activity. Also, a statue would not be able to contain the Creator or “presentify” him – on the one hand, that would simply not be possible; on the other, it is not necessary, for the reason that the universal Creator is thought to be ubiquitous. As we have seen, it is very instructive to turn to social anthropology in order to get an impression of the world-view that underlies such religious concepts. The African example shows with great clarity that anti-“idol” polemics typically are inextricably linked with the belief in a creator god and thus lends further support to our view that the anti-“idol” passages in Deutero-Isaiah are integral to the creation-theology proposed by Deutero-Isaiah. Only one kind of statue does justice to the God of Israel: the one that he himself has produced. The answer to the question of Isa 40:18 – “[t]o whom then will you liken God, or what is the likeness you could provide for him?”40 – is found in Gen 1:26: A748.

40 NRSV, modified.

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Blazˇenka Scheuer

“Why Do You Let Us Wander, O Lord, From Your Ways?” (Isa 63:17). Clarification of Culpability in the Last Part of the Book of Isaiah

In the second part of the book of Isaiah, the Babylonian exile and its aftermath is in focus. While Isaiah 40 – 55 (DI) uses techniques of persuasion to incite the Babylonian exiles to return not only to their land but also to their deity, Isaiah 56 – 66 (TI) seems to struggle with the consequences of the return: some have returned, others have been there all the time — who is going to embody the true Israelite? Historical reality of return from the Babylonian exile is in Isaiah 40 – 66 described in theological terms: the exile, caused by Yhwh, is portrayed as a demonstration and a consequence of a broken relationship between the people and their god; the return from exile is portrayed as Yhwh’s return to and reestablishment of the relationship; while the struggles between different groups after the return are defined in terms of polarization between the pious and impious, Yhwh’s servants and idolaters. Clearly, the political and historical circumstances the authors of the Hebrew Bible lived in were interpreted in terms of relationship between a people and their deity, in this case the Israelites and Yhwh. The fate of every individual as well as the Israelites as a group was directly dependent one’s attitude towards this relationship. Among the texts of the last 11 chapters of the book of Isaiah, Isa 63:7 – 64:11 is a unit that particularly stresses the questions of relationship between Yhwh and the Israelites. This composition is widely recognized as a liturgical arrangement in a style of communal lament, similar to those we find in the book of Psalms.1 In recent scholarship, Isa 63:7 – 64:11 is often understood to be a 1 Thus earlier commentaries such as Claus Westermann, Isaiah 40 – 66: A Commentary (OTL ; London: SCM, 1969), 386, and Roger N. Whybray, Isaiah 40 – 66 (NCB; Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1975), 255. Rainer Albertz, A History of Israelite Religion in the Old Testament Period. Vol. 2: From the Exile to the Maccabees (OTL; Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, 1994), 377 – 78, stresses the fact that psalms of communal lament, such as the one in Isa 63:7 – 64:11, dominated exilic worship. Joseph Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56 – 66: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary (AB 19B; New York, NY: Doubleday, 2003), 259 – 61, discusses the text as a literary construction which rather imitates the language of lamentation psalms. See also Rodney A. Werline, Penitential Prayer in Second Temple Judaism: The Development of a Religious Institution (SBLEJL 13; Atlanta, GA: Scholars

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post-exilic prayer of penitence and as such is grouped together with the prayers in Ezra 9:6 – 15 and Neh 9:63 – 67.2 Particularly curious in this composition is the wording of Isa 63:15 – 19a, a part of Isa 63:7 – 64:11, that seems to add a particularly sharp and uncharacteristic view of the terms of the Yhwh-Israelite relationship. Isa 63:15 – 19a is commonly defined as the core of the composition and as such is often agreed to belong to the oldest stratum of the same.3 Form critically, this part stands out as a lament bringing up the question of Yhwh’s absence and its dire consequences for his people. Typically for the form, the people are calling for Yhwh’s intervention on their behalf. The cry for intervention follows the general style of communal laments.4 One uncharacteristic and remarkable detail of this call stands in the middle of the unit, in v. 17, with a direct accusation against Yhwh, and an exhortation to Yhwh to return/turn back/repent.5

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Press, 1998), 41. For a history of interpretation of this lament see Johannes Goldenstein, Das Gebet der Gottesknechte: Jesaja 63,7 – 64,11 im Jesajabuch (WMANT 92; NeukirchenVluyn: Neukirchener, 2001). See particularly Richard J. Bautch, Developments in Genre between Post-Exilic Penitential Prayers and the Psalms of Communal Lament (SBLABib 7; Atlanta, GA: SBL, 2003), 26 – 27, 55 – 63. Bautch argues that the prayer has been formed around the original lament in Isa 63:15 – 19a from the seventh century, subsequently growing in two stages, both dated to the fifth century as a prayer appropriated by the Jews in Yehud shortly after the exile. See also Hugh G. M. Williamson, “Isaiah 63,7 – 64,11: Exilic Lament or Post-Exilic Protest?,” ZAW 102 (1990): 48 – 58, and Jill Middlemas, The Troubles of Templeless Judah (OTM; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), 157. Isa 63:7 – 64:11 is generally divided into the following units: 63:7 – 9, 10 – 14; 63:15 – 19a; 63:19b–64:6; 64:7 – 11. These represent the characteristic elements of communal laments such as: historical reminiscence, praise, description of the present situation, complaints, petition, assurance of hearing, thanksgiving. Scholarly work on communal laments, however, demonstrates the difficulty of precise definition of this genre. See the overview of William S. Morrow, Protest Against God: The Eclipse of a Biblical Tradition (HBM 4; Sheffield: Sheffield Phoenix Press, 2007), 76 – 81, 79, who prefers to define the communal laments as “those compositions that contain complaint against God on behalf of the community.” See also Williamson, “Isaiah 63,7 – 64,11,” and Bautch, Developments in Genre, 55 – 63. Claus Westermann, Lob und Klage in den Psalmen (5th ed.; Go¨ttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977), 39, has proposed five constitutional parts of communal lament genres in the book of Psalms: address, complaint, expression of confidence, request, and praise. The root 59M1 is in TI used twice in Qal (Isa 59:20 and 63:17), twice in Hiphil (Isa 58:13 and 66:15), once in Pilel (Isa 58:12). According to M. Graupner, “59M1,” in TDOT 14:505, this is the only occurrence of the verb original to TI. Isa 57:17c, usually read as an adjective, can also be understood as intensive form – Polal : “he kept going his own way.”

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Look down from heaven and see, from your holy and glorious habitation. Where are your zeal and your might? The yearning of your heart and your compassion? They are withheld from me. 16 For you are our father, though Abraham does not know us; and Israel does not acknowledge us, You, O Lord, are our father; our Redeemer from of old is your name.

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Why, O Lord, do you make us stray from your ways and harden our heart, so that we do not fear you? Turn back for the sake of your servants, for the sake of the tribes that are your heritage. 18 Your holy people took possession for a little while; but now our adversaries have trampled down your sanctuary. 19 We have long been like those whom you do not rule, like those not called by your name.6

The following structure of the text might illustrate its main ideas: Admonition to see, care, and intervene, and accusatory statement that Yhwh’s zeal, might, pity and compassion are withheld. (v. 15) Reasons for Yhwh to intervene: strong family bonds. (v. 16) Accusatory question and direct exhortation; Yhwh turn back! (v. 17) Reasons for Yhwh to intervene: property in ruins. (v. 18) Accusatory statement: Yhwh does not care. (v. 19)

The exhortation placed at the centre of this text discloses a firm belief in Yhwh’s sovereignty which in this case seems to deny human freedom of choice. Yhwh is responsible for not ending the present suffering of the people, but also for the cause of that suffering, i. e. their rebelliousness, their failures, and their stubbornness. Such an accusation against Yhwh is rare in the Hebrew Bible and must therefore be closely analyzed. On what grounds are these allegations brought against Yhwh? What are the basic assumptions about Yhwh and about the people in this text and how is the relationship between the two parties perceived? How is the emphasis on Yhwh’s negative action, of leading astray and hardening the hearts, to be understood? In the same manner, how is the exhortation to Yhwh to turn back, to repent, to be understood? Clarifying these questions of theology in the text will provide information about issues of a historical nature. Why, and possibly when is this text written? What kind of historical reality does it speak to? How does it relate to Isa 40 – 55 specifically and to the book of Isaiah as a whole?

1.

Isaiah 63:15 – 19a in Scholarship

Although scholars have been attentive to the key ideas in Isa 63:15 – 19a, the accusation against Yhwh in verse 17 is generally marginalized. Westermann discusses this text against a background of monotheistic belief among the pe6 The translation is from NRSV. The Hebrew text is well preserved and 63:17 has no major text critical remarks. Cf. Bautch, Developments in Genre, 31 – 32.

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titioners who are in a state of cognitive dissonance, where Yhwh’s sovereignty is not in alignment with the lived reality.7 Thus he concludes that laments like these present arguments and questions about Yhwh which in our day usually come from atheistic circles. In other words, the reality indicates that Yhwh is inactive, which is the reason to turn to Yhwh with a request to demonstrate his presence and to prove the skeptics wrong. In his discussion of verse 17 in particular, Whybray stresses two aspects related to the relationship between Yhwh and his people: the belief among the people that Yhwh in the Hebrew Bible is “the initiator of all that happens in the world,” and the duty of the people to constantly remind Yhwh of his relationship with, and his duties towards, his people.8 While recognizing the accusation against Yhwh in Isa 63:17, Oswalt says that this text does not mean that Yhwh forced his people to err. Rather, Oswalt concludes, this text highlights the sovereignty of Yhwh in the relationship with humans: without God, humans cannot turn to or away from God. This does not imply, however, that the people are not responsible for their failures.9 In recent studies, Isa 63:17 tends to be explained (away) in light of the whole unit, Isa 63:7 – 64:11, with the effect that the tone of the accusation and the following exhortation in verse 17 tends to be softened by the dominating cry for help.10 The question of the culpability of Yhwh in this text is generally not discussed.11 Closer attention to the accusation against Yhwh in Isa 63:17 will cast light on the understanding of the relationship between Yhwh and the people in this text.12 What is the basis of people’s accusations, what exactly is Yhwh accused of, and what image of God does the accusation reveal? 7 Westermann, Isaiah 40 – 66, 394. 8 Whybray, Isaiah 40 – 66, 255. 9 John N. Oswalt, The Book of Isaiah: Chapters 40 – 66 (NICOT; Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1998), 613 – 14. 10 For example, Werline, Penitential Prayer, 41 – 45, and Morrow, Protest Against God, do not mention the implications of this verse for the whole unit at all. 11 Thus, Westermann, Isaiah 40 – 66, 394, in a more subtle manner states that “[s]uch language is only possible where men who believe that all things come from God choose one or other of two things.” Whybray, Isaiah 40 – 66, 261: “This paradox of the ‘hardening of the heart’ finds no solution in the OT, but it is never held to absolve human beings of their responsibility for their actions.” Thus also Edward J. Young, The Book of Isaiah: The English Text, with Introduction, Exposition, and Notes (3 vols.; NICOT; Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1972), 3:49. See also Anneli Aejmelaeus, “Der Prophet als Klageliedsa¨nger : Zur Funktion des Psalms Jes 63,7 – 64,11 in Tritojesaja,” ZAW 107 (1995): 41 – 42. Not so Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56 – 66, 263, who moves away from this justification of Yhwh and insightfully states that “we should not underestimate the willingness of biblical authors to charge God with indifference to or even complicity in human evildoing.” Cf. also Walter Brueggemann, Isaiah: 40 – 66 (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, 1998), 232 – 33. 12 The God–people relationship is one of the dominant themes of both penitential prayers and communal laments as demonstrated by, among others, Samuel E. Balentine, Prayer in the

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2.

Guilt versus Responsibility

2.1

Glory, Duty, and Reputation: The Rationale and Theology of Accusation

Isaiah 63:15 – 19a contains elements typical of communal lament: petition to Yhwh to act in his merciful zeal (vv. 15, 17b), complaint about the present situation in which the people are abandoned by their God while their sanctuary is destroyed and trampled (vv. 18, 19a), and a confession of confidence in Yhwh as the father and the redeemer (v. 16).13 At the centre of this piece stands verse 17 with a question that surpasses general complaint against Yhwh and is familiar from other communal laments (Pss 44; 79; 80 etc.).14 The question in Isa 63:17a accuses Yhwh of causing the people to sin. Before returning to the implications of the accusation in Isa 63:17a, I shall briefly review the basis of the people’s accusatory claims against Yhwh. The confession of confidence in verse 16 forms the basis upon which both the petition and the complaint are built: Yhwh is their father and their closest kin, their redeemer (@46). The image of Yhwh as the redeemer (@46) is fully developed, and frequently used by DI. It is in DI that this terminology, brought from the sphere of family law, is elaborated in such a way that it becomes a kind of intrinsic characterization of Yhwh, not necessarily bound to a specific redeeming action (Isa 44:6; 48:17).15 Yhwh is therefore also in Isa 63:16b the Redeemer A@9FB “from old.” Addressing Yhwh as the father of the people is a novelty in TI, a fact well noticed by scholars.16 Although this is the first time in the book of Isaiah that Yhwh is addressed as a father, the image is not new to the Hebrew Bible. In Isa

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Hebrew Bible: The Drama of Divine-Human Dialogue (OBT; Minneapolis, MN: Fortress, 1993), 261 – 64. As mentioned above in footnote 4, Westermann identifies five constitutive parts of communal laments found in the Psalms, Westermann, Lob und Klage, 39 – 48. The components not present in Isa 63:15 – 19a are the introductory address and the song of praise. However, the genre of communal lament is not easily defined and different diagnostic elements of the genre have been proposed. For a brief outline of scholarly discussion, see Morrow, Protest Against God, 76 – 81. In these psalms, Yhwh is generally accused of being silent and absent, and inactive in times of political and social disaster. Therefore Yhwh is urged to forgive (Ps 79:9) and to save his people from their enemies’ hands (Pss 44:23 – 26; 80:14 – 18). See the discussion further below. Helmer Ringgren, “@46,” in TDOT 2:355, and Tryggve N.D. Mettinger, In Search of God: The Meaning and Message of the Everlasting Names (Philadelphia, PA: Fortress, 1988), 162 – 66. See also Blazˇenka Scheuer, The Return of Yhwh: The Tension between Deliverance and Repentance in Isaiah 40 – 55 (BZAW 377; Berlin: de Gruyter, 2008), 134 – 35. Westermann, Isaiah 40 – 66, 393; Whybray, Isaiah 40 – 66, 260 – 61; Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56 – 66, 262 – 63. For a closer study of the use of this term in Isa 63:17 – 64:11, see Paul Niskanen, “Yhwh as Father, Redeemer, and Potter in Isaiah 63:7 – 64:11,” CBQ 68 (2006): 397 – 407.

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40 – 55, the idea of a father-child relationship is present in those texts where Yhwh talks of the people as his children (Isa 45:11). The fatherhood of Yhwh is here connected to the fact that he is their creator. There are two other, lessnoticed contexts in DI where the fatherhood of Yhwh is implied. First, those texts in DI which present Yhwh, Zion, and the people as one soon-to-be-happy family : “Where is your mother’s bill of divorce with which I put her away?” (Isa 50:1), and “For your Maker is your husband, Yhwh Zebaoth is his name; the Holy One of Israel is your Redeemer, the God of whole earth he is called” (Isa 54:5).17 Second, the democratization of the Davidic promise in Isa 55:3 implies that the promise to David in 2 Sam 7:8 – 16 is now transferred to the people. The idea of a father-son relationship from 2 Sam 7:14 must also be viewed as part of that democratization. From now on, when the Davidic king is no more, the people are to be the son of Yhwh.18 This analogy to the family relationship is paralleled by analogy to political relationships: Yhwh is the owner and ruler of his people. Two principal expressions are used: 5 @aB “rule someone,” and @F Aa 4LK, “the name invoked upon” (Isa 63:19). The idea of Yhwh as a ruler of his people is a fundamental principle in the Hebrew Bible, as such based ultimately in the creation theology (Pss 8:7; 103:19) and in the theology of Yhwh as the Lord of History (Ps 66:7).19 In the book of Isaiah, the expression 5 @aB “rule someone,” is used only once, in Isa 40:10, to announce the deliverance from Babylon. In the Psalms as well as in DI and TI, the idea of Yhwh ruling his people is closely connected with his salvific activity on their behalf: Yhwh needs to react to the fact that his sanctuary is trampled by the enemies.20 A third analogy is to the cultic relationship. The idea of a name being invoked upon something or someone expresses a concept of ownership, originally brought from the domain of property law. However, in the Hebrew Bible the expression is used in a cultic sense, meaning that Yhwh owns the Ark (2 Sam 6:2), the temple (1 Kings 8:43), and the people as well (Deut 28:10; Jer 14:9; 2 Chr 7:14). In all these instances the premise is that Yhwh and his people are in a mutual and absolute partnership, which requires both Yhwh’s saving actions and the loyalty of the people. In sum, the problem in Isa 63:15 – 19a is the absence of Yhwh, demonstrated 17 For themes connected with child and woman metaphors, see Katheryn Pfisterer Darr, Isaiah’s Vision and the Family of God (LCBI; Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, 1994). 18 Cf. Paul D. Hanson, The Dawn of Apocalyptic: The Historical and Sociological Roots of Jewish Apocalyptic Eschatology (Philadelphia, PA: Fortress, 1979), 79 – 99; Grace Emmerson, Isaiah 56 – 66 (OTG; Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1996), 107 – 8. 19 See Heinrich Gross, “@aB,” in TDOT 9:69 – 71. 20 Again, an idea well represented in Isa 40 – 55 where Yhwh himself expresses concern with his glory in the world (Isa 42:8; 48:11).

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through the fact that the people are suffering and that the temple is trampled by the “ungodly.” The appeal to, and thereby the underlying accusations against, Yhwh is based on the view that there exists an indisputable bond between Yhwh and the people. Yhwh is a father whose glory is at stake as his children live in humiliation and misery ; Yhwh is a redeemer whose duty is to intervene on the people’s behalf; and Yhwh is a ruler and owner who has a reputation to maintain.21 According to the undeniable terms of relationship, Yhwh should defend, rebuild, and bestow prosperity upon his people. Why is he not doing so? 2.2

Confession and Accusation: The Clarification of Culpability

The psalms of communal lament are generally responding to questions raised by the devastating absence of Yhwh. Although Yhwh’s absence is by and large connected to his anger against his people, the reasons for this anger are often not stated in the laments. The reasons for Yhwh’s anger and consequent absence in Isa 63:7 – 64:11 are, however, connected to the sin and infidelity of the people (Isa 63:10; 64:6 – 7, 9). This is also presupposed by Isa 63:17, yet remarkably enough, Isa 63:17 turns these confessions of sin and infidelity into an accusation against Yhwh himself, culminating in an exhortation to Yhwh to turn back from his actions. Yhwh is urged to repent. Why, O Lord, do you make us stray from your ways and harden our heart, so that we do not fear you? Turn back for the sake of your servants, for the sake of the tribes that are your heritage.

ý=?L7B 898= 9DFNN 8B@ ýN4L=B 9D5@ ;=aKN ý=75F CFB@ 59a ýN@;D =ü5a

The people are aware of the fact that they stray from the paths of Yhwh and that their hearts lack the fear of Yhwh. Yhwh’s absence keeps them in this condition (Isa 64:4b–6). However, in Isa 63:17 this awareness, this underlying confession is transferred into a question with an implied statement about Yhwh’s culpability : Yhwh is causing the people to stray (Hiphil of 8FN) from his paths, he makes their hearts hard (Hiphil of ;aK) so they do not fear him. This is quite a stern accusation and one must ask where the idea comes from and why it is placed in this context. One often-mentioned possibility, argued for by Whybray mentioned above, is the notion of Yhwh’s sovereignty as the one who is behind everything that happens on earth, both good and bad, an idea possibly suggested in DI.22 21 Niskanen, “Yhwh as Father,” 407, argues that the understanding of Yhwh as the Father is nuanced by the metaphor of Redeemer, which then reflects “a covenantal bond and its ensuing obligations” of Yhwh towards Israel. 22 There is one text in DI in particular that has been traditionally understood as monistic evidence according to which Yhwh is the author of both evil and good. Isa 45:7 states, “I

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However, nowhere in DI is Yhwh accused of being responsible for people’s rebelliousness. On the contrary, DI clearly states that the people carry the total responsibility for the exile,23 declaring at the same time that their guilt now is expiated thus marking the beginning of the era of salvation.24 A survey of the use of the vocabulary of Isa 63:17 reveals an interesting picture. The verb 8FN, “wander about, stray,” is in Isaiah 1 – 39 (PI) used in Hiphil a number of times. The most relevant cases are those with either humans or with Yhwh as the subject. When humans are described as those who lead people astray, it is usually the leaders or the prophets of the people who have caused them to err (Isa 3:12 and 9:15, and also Mic 3:5). In two cases, Yhwh is the subject of the verb: in Isa 30:28, where Yhwh causes the nations to err ; and, in an indirect manner, through the spirit of confusion upon their leaders, Yhwh has caused Egyptians to err, Isa 19:13 – 14.25 Thus, nowhere in the book of Isaiah is this word used to express the idea that Yhwh would cause his people to err or wander away from his paths. On the contrary, as stated earlier, DI expresses the opposite in the confession of “we” the group who “have gone astray ; we have all turned to our own way” (Isa 53:6).26 Bautch rightly points out that the idea of the people being caused to err is not late, but early, pre-exilic. The lament in Isa 63:15 – 19a echoes prophetic theology of the eighth century prophets.27 However, it is important to notice that the author of Isa 63:15 – 19a shapes this inherited idea and sharpens the tone: the reasons for their stumbling are not to be sought in other gods/idols (Amos 2:4; Hos 4:12), deceitful prophets, or corrupt leaders (Isa 3:12; 9:15; Mic 3:5). The reasons are to be found in Yhwh himself.

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form light and create darkness, I make weal and create woe; I the Lord do all these things.” However, Fredrik Lindstro¨m has convincingly argued against such an understanding of this statement in Isaiah. Examining the way DI employs the vocabulary of light and darkness, Fredrik Lindstro¨m, God and the Origin of Evil: A Contextual Analysis of Alleged Monistic Evidence in the Old Testament (ConBOT 21; Lund: Glerup, 1983), 178 – 99, concludes that DI refers to the specific historical activity through which Yhwh liberates his people from Babylon and not to general monistic principles. See my study on the accusations in Isa 40 – 55, Scheuer, Return of Yhwh, 32 – 59. This is illustrated by two texts of transformation in Isa 43:25 and 44:22a. See Scheuer, Return of Yhwh, 76 – 78. Joseph Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1 – 39: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary (AB 19; New York, NY: Doubleday, 2000), 315. In other prophetic books, the word is used to describe how the Israelites are led astray because of their worship of other gods (Amos 2:4 and Hos 4:12). See further Ulrich Berges, “8FN,” in TDOT 15:732 – 36. Richard J. Bautch, “Lament Regained in Trito-Isaiah’s Penitential Prayer,” in Seeking the Favor of God: The Origins of Penitential Prayer in Second Temple Judaism (3 Vols.; ed. Mark J. Boda, Daniel K. Falk, and Rodney A. Werline; EJL 21; Atlanta, GA: SBL, 2006), 1:88.

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Now the idea that Yhwh hardens the hearts of the people is, in Isa 63:17, expressed through the use of an unusual vocabulary. The verb ;aK, “hard, stubborn,” occurs only twice in the Hebrew Bible and only here with the heart as the object of hardening. Yet, Yhwh in the Hebrew Bible is known as the one who hardens hearts through the use of semantically related root 8aK, “hard, stubborn.”28 In Exod 7:3 Yhwh makes Pharaoh’s heart hard so that he becomes trapped in bad decision-making (cf. also Deut 2:30). In other words, the accusation stresses the fact that Yhwh is treating his people as if they did not belong to him but were his enemies. Again, here lies the novelty of Isa 63:15 – 19a: Yhwh, and no other god or leader, causes his people to sin, thus treating his people as strangers, not as children and not as his possession. The juxtaposition of this idea with the idea presented in the expression of confidence is striking: Yhwh, the father treats his children as strangers. Yhwh, the leader, is leading his people astray. Yhwh abuses his powers. The effect of Yhwh’s deceiving actions should be mentioned because it brings us close to Deuteronomistic ideas and yet contests them as well. The effect of causing to err is a departure from the ways of Yhwh, while the effect of hardening the heart is lack of fear of Yhwh. Both these expressions are echoing Deuteronomistic theology : “departing from the ways of Yhwh” (Deut 9:12, 16; 11:28; 31:29) and “the fear of Yhwh” (4:10; 5:26; 6:2). This leads Bautch to conclude that “this lament’s predominant echoes are to those sources that represent an early articulation of Deuteronomistic theology.”29 This is probably correct, yet Deuteronomistic understanding of culpability differs from the understanding presented in Isa 63:15 – 19a. The explanation for the exile, or any other political catastrophe for that matter, is in Deuteronomistic theology, as well as in Isa 40 – 55, to be found in the culpability of the Israelites, not Yhwh. Again, it seems that the author of Isa 63:15 – 19a adapts the inherited Deuteronomistic ideology of exile, culpability and restoration, turning the Deuteronomistic explanation into an accusation against Yhwh: if our persistently dreadful situation is due to our lack of fear of Yhwh and due to our own ways then it must be Yhwh’s doing. The question of Yhwh’s guilt and his responsibility for the present desperate situation of the petitioner is dealt with in the individual laments of the book of Psalms. In particular Ps 88 declares the active role of Yhwh in the life-threatening situation of the petitioner : “…you overwhelm me with all your waves” (v. 8), “you have caused my companions to shun me” (v. 9), you have made me a thing of horror” (v. 9), “you have caused friend and neighbor to shun me…” (v. 28 See Moshe Zipor, “8aK,” in TDOT 13:195. The other instances are in Job 39:16, and later also in Sir 30:12. 29 Bautch, “Lament Regained,” 89.

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19).30 However, nowhere in the individual laments of the Psalms is the idea of Yhwh’s active role in human sin to be found. On the other hand, just as in these psalms, so in Isa 63:15 – 19a, no rational answer to the question Why? is stated, nor is it expected. Rather, the general aim of these texts is to compel Yhwh to change the course of his action. Thus, Lindstro¨m’s stress on the irrationality of Yhwh’s actions in the individual laments illustrates also the mood of Isa 63:15 – 19a: “Like a child plagued by a parent’s unexplainable irritation, the petitioner in Ps 88, like his “brothers” in Pss 6; 27; 42 – 43, feels that he is the object of an incomprehensible divine action.”31 The consequent exhortation to Yhwh to turn back (Isa 63:17b) is expressed through an imperative. Exhortations directed to Yhwh to turn back, change the direction of his activity in order for the people to be saved, are found elsewhere, foremost in the book of Psalms (Pss 6:5; 90:13). Again, the affinities between Isa 63:17 and the Psalms are there, as are the differences.32 In the Psalms, the call to Yhwh to return is a call to show mercy by taking away the suffering or ending the disastrous situation (Pss 6, 80:15 f; 90:13). There is no accusation against Yhwh for causing the people to sin, merely for being inactive. Only Ps 79:9 connects the salvation of the people and Yhwh’s actions with the sin of the people. Yet, what the psalmist is saying is not that Yhwh is responsible for their sin, but that only Yhwh can free them through forgiveness (LH?) of sins. In other words, nowhere in the lamentation psalms do we find the notion of Yhwh actively leading the petitioner astray, merely having the power to put an end to the sinning. The accusation in Isa 63:17 seems to be unique. Summing up, Isa 63:15 – 19a echoes several well-known, and by the authors inherited, traditions of the Hebrew Bible. The vocabulary used and the ideas expressed remind the reader of the theology of the pre-exilic prophets, of the Psalms of individual and communal laments, as well as of typically Deuteronomistic concepts. In a similar way to the texts of Isa 40 – 45, these influences are transformed and sharpened. TI seems to put a twist to the inherited ideas. Why? The reason lies in the historical reality.

30 My emphasis. See further Fredrik Lindstro¨m, Suffering and Sin: Interpretations of Illness in the Individual Complaint Psalms (ConBOT 37; Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1994), 196 – 217. 31 Lindstro¨m, Suffering and Sin, 453. 32 See Bautch, Developments in Genre, in particular, 37 – 40.

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Guilt and Responsibility: Changing Image of God in Post-exilic Times

Isaiah 40 – 66 deals largely with the impact of the exile on the self-understanding of the community.33 In these chapters the central questions discussed are the question about responsibility for the situation and, consequently, the questions about required course of action. The similarities and differences between DI and TI (particularly Isa 63:15 – 19a) when dealing with the question of relationship between the people and their deity could be illustrated by the following: In DI The problem: the broken relationship between Yhwh and his people. The fall of the temple, of Jerusalem and of the Davidic line. The responsibility : the people are responsible: they are rebellious. The message: the declaration of salvation from the exile. Yhwh returns (59a, inf. const., 52:8) due to his responsibility as their creator, their father and their closest kin, yet also for his own gain. The expected course of action: Yhwh acts in salvation, now the people must act. (ý=N@46 =? =@4 859a, imp., Isa 44:22b).

In TI (esp. 63:15 – 19a): The problem: the malfunctioning relationship. The temple is trampled and Yhwh is absent. The responsibility : Yhwh is responsible: he makes their hearts hard and not fearing Yhwh. The message: the petition and exhortation: Yhwh must return (59a, imp., 63:17) due to his responsibility as their creator, their father and their closest kin, yet also for his own gain. The expected course of action: the people act in prayer, now Yhwh must act. (ý=75F CFB@ 59a, imp., Isa 63:17b).

The question is how these differences between the ideas of return in DI and TI can be accounted for. Is Isa 63:15 – 19a written before, after or at approximately the same time as DI? In a study from 1975, P.H. Hansson argued extensively for a direct influence between DI and Isa 63:7 – 64:11.34 He presupposed the same historical situation in Isa 63:7 – 64:11 as in DI, a situation in which the community still “awaits deliverance as a day in which Yhwh himself will appear in glory to save his people.”35 His arguments have been rejected by Hugh Williamson who maintains that the passage should be seen as part of exilic pen33 See, among others, Jacob Stromberg, Isaiah after Exile: The Author of Third Isaiah as Reader and Redactor of the Book (OTM; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), 53. Scholars have argued that these two corpuses reflect the position and concerns of different times and circumstances, possibly and probably of the two exilic communities, the Babylonian and the Judahite, Jill Middlemas, The Troubles, 157 – 58. 34 Hanson, The Dawn of Apocalyptic, 79 – 100. 35 Hanson, The Dawn of Apocalyptic, 92. Thus also Morrow, Protest Against God, 101, 203, who claims that Isa 63:7 – 64:11 “protests over the duration of national distress as the exile continued.”

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itential liturgy with similarities to Ps 106 and Neh 9.36 I tend to agree with Williamson’s argument that Isa 63:7 – 64:11 can hardly depend solely on the tradition of DI, but that affinities of this passage in TI lie, as presented above, with texts from the late exilic and, in some aspects, with the pre-exilic period. Yet, Williamson’s conclusion that Isa 63:7 – 64:11 is an exilic lament rather than post-exilic protest does not really take into consideration the accusation against Yhwh in Isa 63:17. A closer look at the post-exilic prayers of penitence such as Neh 9, displays certain similarities but also differences. Just as in Isa 63:7 – 64:11, Nehemiah’s prayer depicts a history of the relationship between Yhwh and his people: Yhwh has justly punished his people’s rebelliousness, but also has responded with salvation to his people’s repentance. Although in Neh 9 there is no reference to any kind of active role of Yhwh in the sin of the people, the idea that Yhwh is the one who can save them from the misery of the present situation is there (Neh 9:32). In that aspect, Yhwh is not guilty for the origin of the present suffering but responsible for ending it. Thus, the fact that Isa 63:15 – 19a evokes older and contemporary traditions yet differs from them as well indicates that the lament has been adapted, and probably created, for the specific purpose of protesting. The lament raises the question of responsibility for the situation, which contrary to earlier promises has not improved.37 The ultimate fulfillment of expected salvation, promised in DI, was still not brought about and the authors/editors of Isa 63:15 – 19a turn to Yhwh in a voice of desperation.38 The historical setting of this text is illuminated by two other lines of argument: the redaction of the book of Isaiah, and the exilic and post-exilic literature dealing with the question of theodicy.39 In an article on Isaiah 63:7 – 64:11, Judith Ga¨rtner explores the redactional significance of this composition upon the book of Isaiah.40 She focuses explicitly 36 Williamson, “Isaiah 63,7 – 64,11.” 37 This is corroborated by the fact that the lament receives an answer in Isa 65:1 – 66:17, an answer in which affinities with DI are obvious. See Lena-Sofia Tiemeyer, Priestly Rites and Prophetic Rage: Post-Exilic Prophetic Critique of the Priesthood (FAT 2/19; Tu¨bingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2006), 100 – 9. See also Stromberg, Isaiah after Exile, 39 – 31, 109 – 41, who argues that the lament is presupposed by and responded to by the author/editor of 65 – 66. Stromberg then discussed the influence of DI in Isa 65 – 66. 38 Werline, Penitential Prayer, 30 – 31. See also Bautch, “Lament Regained,” 98, who concludes that laments like Isa 63:7 – 64:1 “voice the pain and theological bewilderment of postexilic Jews.” 39 The textual history of this lament indicates that is has been reworked after the exile. This is suggested by Bautch, Developments in Genre, 58 – 61. 40 Judith Ga¨rtner, “‘…Why Do You Let Us Stray from Your Paths…’ (Isa 63:17): The Concept of Guilt in the Communal Lament Isa 63:7 – 64:11,” in Seeking the Favor of God: The Origins of Penitential Prayer in Second Temple Judaism (3 vols.; ed. Mark J. Boda, Daniel K. Falk, and Rodney A. Werline; EJL 21; Atlanta, GA: SBL, 2006), 1:145 – 63. See also Anneli Aejmelaeus, “Der Prophet als Klageliedsa¨nger : Zur Funktion des Psalms Jes 63,7 – 64,11 in Tritojesaja,”

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on the questions of sin and guilt as expressed in the lament of Isa 63:15 – 19a. Ga¨rtner shows that although literary connections are few, Isa 63:17 refers to the same idea of hardening the heart as Isa 6:9 – 11 does: “[t]he prophecy of the hardness of heart made in Isa 6:9 – 11 has become the reality of those who offer this prayer.”41 Scholars have of course noted this connection, yet generally only in passing. Oswalt states that Isa 63:17 is a response to Isa 6:9 – 10. His conclusion still frees Yhwh in some way : “If we continue to persist in our sin, cries the heartbroken prophet, it must be because God will not intervene to stop it.”42 Yet as I argued above, what we have in Isa 63 is more than Yhwh’s passivity : it is not just that Yhwh needs to intervene to stop the sinning, he needs to stop causing it.43 The lack of fear of Yhwh exposes a hard heart which in turn is caused not by the iniquity of the people but by Yhwh himself. Yhwh is guilty and in need of repentance! The use of the verb 59a creates associations.44 In Isa 6:9 – 10, the people’s return (59a) to Yhwh is made impossible, which is the reason that the petitioner in Isa 63:17 compels Yhwh to return (59a). In Isa 44:22 the people are called to return (59a) to Yhwh. The people whose return is initially made impossible by the deity find the solution in crying out to the deity to return instead.45 Thus, the exhortation in Isa 63:17b forms a natural ending to a book which starts with the judgment of Isa 6:9 – 10.

41 42 43

44

45

ZAW 107 (1995): 31 – 50, and Michael Emmendo¨rffer, Der ferne Gott: Eine Untersuchung der alttestamentlichen Volksklagelieder vor dem Hintergrund der mesopotamischen Literatur (FAT 21; Tu¨bingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1998). Ga¨rtner, “Why Do You Let Us Stray,” 157. Oswalt, Book of Isaiah, 614. The tendency to decrease Yhwh’s role in causing the people to sin can be seen in many translations of these verses. Isaiah 63:17a is often translated as “…why do you let us stray from your paths…” (my emphasis), thus for example Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56 – 66, 253, and Ga¨rtner, “Why Do You Let Us Stray,” 147. Others retain the active aspect of Yhwh’s action: “Why do you, LORD, cause us to err from your ways…”, as Bautch, Developments in Genre, 30. In an extensive study of the root 59a in the Hebrew Bible, William Holladay discusses the so called “covenantal usage” of the word, concluding that “[i]t is the use of the verb as an expression of the covenant between God and Israel that allows us to employ the term ‘covenantal usage’.” William Lee Holladay, The Root Sˇuˆbh in the Old Testament: With Particular Reference to its Usages in Covenantal Contexts (Leiden: Brill, 1958), 117, 120. Holladay does not count Isa 63:17 in this group, yet he admits that Isa 63:17 might be interpreted within the framework of covenantal usage but is better understood within the framework of the laments in the book of Psalms (Pss 6:5 and 90:13). This polarization is, in my view, unnecessarily rigid. It might, however, be form-critically justified. In covenantal contexts, as often in the book of Jeremiah and in contexts of communal or individual lamentation, the issue at stake is the state of the relationship between a deity and a human being. This is why I see Isa 63:17 as an attempt to reestablish the presupposed, yet obviously not functioning, relationship between Yhwh and the people. I also propose reading this verse, as well as Isa 63:15 – 19a, as a sincere attempt to hold Yhwh fully responsible for the situation. Scheuer, Return of Yhwh, 77, n. 194. DI has its own way of dealing with the difficult message

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One final place to look for parallels is the book of Job. Isaiah 63:15 – 19a shows literary and thematic connections with this book.46 Thus, the Hiphil of root 8FN, used in Isa 63:17 to express the idea that Yhwh causes the people to stray, is also used in Job 12:24 – 25 in a very similar way : God causes the leaders of the peoples to err and walk in emptiness. In the continuation of that speech, Job expresses the absurdness of Yhwh’s expectations on humans: A mortal, born of woman, few of days and full of trouble, comes up like a flower and withers, flees like a shadow and does not last. Do you fix your eyes on such a one? Do you bring me into judgment with you? Who can bring a clean thing out of an unclean? No one can. Since their days are determined, and the number of their months is known to you, and you have appointed the bounds that they cannot pass, look away from them, and desist, that they may enjoy, like laborers, their days. (Job 14:1 – 6)

In line with the pre-exilic temple theology of the individual laments, the book of Job connects Job’s suffering to Yhwh. In line with the theology of individual retribution, the book of Job presumes that suffering comes to the unrighteous and prosperity to the righteous. In line with Isa 63:15 – 19a, Job turns against God accusing god of iniquity and depraved management: there is no way for humans to be found righteous before God. If the intrinsic underperformances of humans are the reason for Yhwh to strike humankind with suffering then “the earth is given into the hand of the wicked” (Job 9:24). Like Job 19:25 – 27, so also Isa 63:15 – 19a demonstrates that only in Yhwh is there protection against Yhwh. Thus, Isa 63:15 – 19a is not a claim of innocence in the first place, and not necessarily a claim that possibility of conversion lies in Yhwh hands. Rather it is awareness that human character cannot determine the relationship between Yhwh and humans. Yhwh’s responsibility must surpass Yhwh’s rights; Yhwh’s mercy must be beyond Yhwh’s judgment. In more concrete words, the ultimate explanation for human suffering cannot be that they deserve it. Isaiah 63:15 – 19a refuses to put the blame on the people. Accepting the idea that human inadequacy should be the decisive factor in the relationship between Yhwh and the Israelites was not an option for biblical writers of this time. Isaiah in Isa 6:9 – 10 in that DI actively calls the people to return: Isa 44:21 – 22 and 55:6 – 7. Possibly, the logic is that the people have sinned in such a way that Yhwh turned against them (Isa 6). DI calls upon the people to realize their guilt and to return to Yhwh because he has already returned to them. In TI, the people have returned to Yhwh only to find themselves treated as his enemies. Having confessed their sin, the people ask Yhwh to act as the sovereign part in the relationship. 46 Cf. Morrow, Protest Against God, 128. As an example of literary connection, it is interesting to notice that the unusual verb 8MK, used in Isa 63:17 to express the idea of Yhwh “hardening the heart” of the people, is used in one other instance in the Hebrew Bible, in Job 39:16.

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63:15 – 19a heralds the question of theodicy in late biblical times.47 The question about the responsibility for the national catastrophe, thoroughly debated and answered by DI, has in TI been changed into a kind of theodicy : who is ultimately responsible for our suffering? Among the voices of the Hebrew Bible, Isa 63:17 – 19a is one.

47 Francis Landy, “Exile in the Book of Isaiah,” in The Concept of Exile in Ancient Israel and its Historical Contexts (ed. Ehud Ben Zvi and Christoph Levin; BZAW 404; Berlin: de Gruyter, 2010), 254. Bautch, “Lament Regained,” 8, recognizes this “move towards theodicy,” yet he does not develop the idea further. Instead Bautch focuses on pre-exilic echoes in Isa 63:17.

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Konrad Schmid

New Creation Instead of New Exodus. The Innerbiblical Exegesis and Theological Transformations of Isaiah 65:17 – 251

1.

The Literary and Historical Problem of “Third Isaiah”

The promise of a new heaven and new earth in Isa 65:17 – 25 is found in the larger section of Isa 56 – 66 – the section of the Book of Isaiah generally known as “Third Isaiah.” Bernhard Duhm introduced this artificial designation to scholarly discussion in the context of his 1892 Isaiah commentary as a label for the body of material in Isa 56 – 66.2 Duhm recognized that these chapters made up a distinct unit within the second part of the Book of Isaiah (40 – 66), which itself should be seen as fundamentally separate from chapters 1 – 39. There is a clearly recognizable break between Isa 55 and Isa 56 that supports Duhm’s distinction: in contrast to the unconditional salvation oracles in Isa 40 – 55, judgment oracles return in chs 56 – 66. Social and religious problems within the congregation now stand in the way of the final realization of salvation promised in Isa 40 – 55. These earlier chapters interpret the inbreaking of salvation as immanent, while Isa 56 – 66 identify several obstacles that hinder salvation from manifesting itself. Isaiah 56 – 66’s ongoing literary allusions to Isa 40 – 55, as well as to the earlier chs 1 – 39, probably do not point to the work of an independent prophet (i. e., “Third Isaiah”) whose oral prophecies stand behind Isa 56 – 66, as has often been, and continues to be suggested.3 It is more likely that even the earliest layers of this section are the work of scribal tradents.4 Even Duhm himself considered this direction ¨ berbietung 1 This article is an updated and reworked translation of my “Neue Scho¨pfung als U des neuen Exodus: Die tritojesajanische Aktualisierung der deuterojesajanischen Theologie und der Tora,” in Konrad Schmid, Schriftgelehrte Traditionsliteratur : Fallstudien zur innerbiblischen Schriftauslegung im Alten Testament (FAT 77; Tu¨bingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2011), 185 – 205. 2 Bernhard Duhm, Das Buch Jesaja (5th ed.; HKAT 3/1; Go¨ttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1892). 3 Cf. Klaus Koenen, Ethik und Eschatologie im Tritojesajabuch (WMANT 62; NeukirchenVluyn: Neukirchener, 1990); Paul A. Smith, Rhetoric and Redaction in Trito-Isaiah: The Structure, Growth and Autorship of Isaiah 56 – 66 (VTSup 62; Leiden/Boston: Brill, 1995). 4 Odil Hannes Steck, Studien Zu Tritojesaja (2 vols.; BZAW 203; Berlin/New York: de Gruyter,

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feasible: “It is certainly possible that Third Isaiah only composed his text as a continuation of Deutero-Isaiah.”5 It is very probable that the text complex of “Third Isaiah” (Isa 56 – 66) never existed as an independent composition, but was part and parcel of the Book of Isaiah throughout the various stages of its development. The compositional history of Isa 56 – 66 began as Fortschreibung, first of Deutero-Isaiah (the core texts in Isa 56 – 66 can be found in chs 60 – 62) and then of the Isaiah tradition as a whole (successive addition of the texts in chs 56 – 59; 63 – 66). Nonetheless, various texts and historical events outside the Isaiah tradition also played a role in the compositional history of Isa 56 – 66, especially in Isa 65:17 – 25, as I will argue below. The considerations mentioned so far allow for a general determination of the date of composition for Isa 56 – 66. The existence of the textual material of Isa 40 – 55 – the Vorlage – forms the terminus a quo, and the oldest layer of this text complex emerges from the Persian king Cyrus’ bloodless capture of Babylon (539 bce), seen above all in Isa 45:1 – 2.6 The great Isaiah Scroll from Qumran – while diverging slightly from the Masoretic version, but attesting most of Isa 56 – 66 – provides the terminus ante quem, as a witness to the “final form” from the end of the second century bce.7

1991); idem, “Autor und/oder Redaktor in Jes 56 – 66,” in Writing and Reading the Scroll of Isaiah: Studies of an Interpretive Tradition (ed. Craig C. Broyles and Craig A. Evans; VTSup 70/1; Leiden/Boston: Brill, 1997), 219 – 59; Reinhard G. Kratz, “Tritojesaja,” TRE 34 (2002): 124 – 30; cf., though with a different emphasis, also Wolfgang Lau, Schriftgelehrte Prophetie in Jes 56 – 66: Eine Untersuchung zu den literarischen Bezu¨gen in den letzten elf Kapiteln des Jesajabuches (BZAW 225; Berlin/New York: de Gruyter, 1994); Burkard M. Zapff, Jesaja (NEchtB 37; Wu¨rzburg: Echter, 2006); Judith Ga¨rtner, “Erlebte Gottesferne: Drei schriftexegetische Antworten (Jes 58,1 – 12; 59,1 – 15a; 57,14 – 21),” in Sieben Augen auf einem Stein (Sach 3,9): Studien zur Literatur des Zweiten Tempels: Festschrift fu¨r Ina WilliPlein zum fu¨nf und sechzigsten Geburtstag (ed. Friedhelm Hartenstein; Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener, 2007), 81 – 100. 5 Duhm, Jesaja, 390. 6 Cf. Konrad Schmid, Literaturgeschichte des Alten Testaments: Eine Einfu¨hrung (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 2008), 132 – 37. On Rainer Albertz, “Darius in Place of Cyrus: The First Edition of Deutero-Isaiah (Isaiah 40.1 – 52.12),” JSOT 27 (2003): 371 – 83; cf. the critical response by Ulrich Berges, “Dareios in Jes 40 – 55? Zu einem Vorschlag von Rainer Albertz,” in Beru¨hrungspunkte: Studien zur Sozial- und Religionsgeschichte Israels und seiner Umwelt: Festschrift fu¨r Rainer Albertz zu seinem 65. Geburtstag (ed. Ingo Kottsieper, Ru¨diger Schmitt, and Jakob Wo¨hrle; AOAT 350; Mu¨nster : Ugarit Verlag, 2008), 253 – 66. 7 Cf. Kratz, “Tritojesaja,” 129.

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The Promise of a New Heaven and a New Earth

Isaiah 65:17 – 25 A=M17; A=BM1 4L95 =DD8.=? 8M17; IL49 N9DM14L8 8DL?:N 4@9 35@.@F 8D=@FN 4@9 7F.=7F 9@=69 92M=2M.A4.=? 4L95 =D4 LM14 8@=6 A@M19L=.N4 4L95 =DD8 =? 32M92MB 8BF9 A@M19L=5 =N@69 =BF5 =N2M2M9 79F 85 FBM1=.4@9 :8KF: @9K9 =?5 @9K 79F AM1B 8=8=.4@ A=B= @9F 9=B=.N4 4@B=.4@ LM14 CK:9 N9B= 8DM1 84B.C5 LFD8 =? 3@@K= 8DM1 84B.C5 95M1=9 A=N5 9D5 9D59 3A=LH 9@?49 A=BL? 9FüD9 5M1= L;49 9D5= 4@ @?4= L;49 9Fü= 4@ =BF =B= IF8 =B=?.=? A8=7= 82MFB9 3=L=;5 9@5= K=L@ 9F6== 4@ 8@85@ 97@= 4@9 8B8 898= =?9L5 FL: =? 3AN4 A8=4J4J9 94LK=.ALü 8=89 8DF4 =D49 A=L57B A8 79F 3FBM14 =D49

17 For now I am creating a new heaven and a new earth, and the former things will no longer be remembered, and they will no longer be considered (in your heart). 18 Rather, be glad and rejoice forever8 in what I am creating! For now I am creating Jerusalem as a joy and her people as a delight. 19 And I will rejoice over Jerusalem, and I will delight in my people. And in her will not again be heard the cry of weeping or the cry of distress. 20 There will no longer be an infant from there that lives only a few days, nor an old person that does not complete their lifetime, because a young man will be one that dies at a hundred years old, whoever fails9 to reach one hundred will be considered accursed. 21 And they will build houses and dwell [in them] and plant vineyards and eat their fruit. 22 They will not build so that another might dwell, they will not plant so that another might eat, because the age of my people will be like the age of a tree, and the labors of their hands my chosen will enjoy 23 They will not labor for nothing and not bear children for calamity, because they are the seed of the blessed by Yhwh, and their offspring will remain with them. 24 And before they call, I will answer, While they are still speaking, I will hear

8 Concerning the originality of this imperative (which in the present divine oracle is directed toward the wicked, not toward the pious) cf. Odel Hannes Steck, “Der neue Himmel und die neue Erde: Beobachtungen zur Rezeption von Gen 1 – 3 in Jes 65,16b–25,” in Studies in the Book of Isaiah (ed. Jacques van Ruiten and Marc Vervenne; BETL 132; Leuven: Peeters, 1997), 351, n. 9. 9 For this translation see Koenen, Ethik, 174 – 75; Joseph Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56 – 66: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary (AB 19B; New York, NY: Doubleday, 2003), 21; Jacob Stromberg, Isaiah After Exile: The Author of Third Isaiah as Reader and Redactor of the Book (OTM; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), 53.

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25 The wolf and lamb will feed together, and the lion will eat straw like the ox, and the snake – its food will be dust. Evil and destruction will not be done on my holy mountain says Yhwh.

The promise of a new heaven and a new earth in Isa 65:17 – 25 is one of the most well-known texts in Isa 56 – 66. The works of especially W.A.M. Beuken and O.H. Steck have demonstrated that this passage should not be interpreted as an independent section, but instead as part of its broader context.10 This context consists – within the immediate framework of Isa 65 – 66 – of “five divine speeches that respond to the previous prayer of 63:7 – 64:11 and that, as scholarship has repeatedly shown, form a frame for the Book of Isaiah with its allusions to the beginning.”11 It is particularly important in this regard to recognize that Isa 65:17 – 25 is therefore only directed to those designated as pious in the previous section – the new heaven and new earth are reserved for them (Isa 65:9 – 10), while the wicked fall prey to judgment (Isa 65:11 – 12).12 Scholars have often pointed out that Isa 65:17 – 25 did not formulate its ideas in isolation, but instead depends on numerous earlier texts. In terms of content, similarities have been detected in texts such as Zech 7 – 8, Ps 37, and also Deut 31 – 32.13 Literarily speaking, Isa 65:17 – 25 is most closely associated with Isa 43:16 – 21; 11:6 – 9; Gen 1 – 3; Deut 6:10 – 11; and 28:30. The following discussion investigates these points of literary contact. A further section will also include Qoh 1:9 – 11, a text that was most likely composed subsequently to Isa 65:17 – 25 and grapples deeply with it.14

10 Willem A.M. Beuken, Jesaja 1 – 12 (HThKAT; Freiburg im Breisgau: Herder, 2003); Steck, Studien, 217 – 62; see also Smith, Rhetoric, 152. 11 Steck, “Himmel,” 350; on the dating of Isa 63:7 – 64:11, see, on the one hand Steck, Studien, 217 – 42; Johannes Goldenstein, Das Gebet der Gottesknechte: Jesaja 63,7 – 64,11 im Jesajabuch (WMANT 92; Neukirchen-Vluyn, Neukirchener, 2001) (end of fourth century bce); and on the other Hugh G.M. Williamson, “Isaiah 63,7 – 64,11: Exilic Lament or Post-Exilic Protest?,” ZAW 102 (1990): 48 – 58; Jill Middlemas, The Troubles of Templeless Judah (OTM; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), 156 – 58; Jill Middlemas, The Templeless Age: An Introduction to the History, Literature, and Theology of the “Exile” (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, 2007), 48; Stromberg, Isaiah, 5, n. 21; 30 – 32 (sixth century bce). For the purposes of this article it is sufficient to note that Isa 65 – 66 is a literary reaction to Isa 63:7 – 64:11. 12 Cf. Stromberg, Isaiah, 54. 13 Steck, “Himmel,” 354 – 55. 14 Cf. Thomas Kru¨ger, “Dekonstruktion und Rekonstruktion prophetischer Eschatologie im Qohelet-Buch,” in “Jedes Ding hat seine Zeit…”: Studien zur israelitischen und altorientalischen Weisheit: Diethelm Michal zum 65. Geburtstag (ed. Anja A. Diesel, Reinhard G. Lehmann, and Eckhart Otto; BZAW 241; Berlin/New York: de Gruyter, 1996), 107 – 29; repr.

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The Reception of Isaiah 43:16 – 21 in Isaiah 65:17 – 25

Several observations underline the interaction of the “Third-Isaianic” section Isa 65:17 – 25 with the Deutero-Isaianic text of Isa 43:16 – 21.15 First, there is the connection through the phrase “no longer consider the former things” (prohibitive in Isa 43:18, imperfect in 65:17).16 Second, there is also the divine announcement of creating “something new” (in both texts formulated as futurum instans, that is, immanent). The conspicuous combination of these elements provides further support for assuming a literary relationship between the sections. The close relationship between the two passages serves to highlight their differences. While Isa 43:16 – 21 juxtaposes the old and new exodus,17 Isa 65:17 – 25 in Kritische Weisheit: Studien zur weisheitlichen Traditionskritik im Alten Testament (Zu¨rich: Pano, 1997), 151 – 72. 15 On the contextual connections, see Jean-Daniel Macchi, “‘Ne ressassez plus les choses d’autrefois’: Esaı¨e 43,16 – 21, un surprenant regard deute´ro-e´saı¨en sur le passe´,” ZAW 121 (2009): 225 – 41. 16 Lau, Prophetie, 135, and others. 17 Hans M. Barstad disputes that there is a “new” or “second exodus” in Second Isaiah. See A Way in the Wilderness: The “Second Exodus” in the Message of Second Isaiah (JSSM 12; Manchester : Manchester University, 1989), 107 – 12. See the review of scholarship on this topic in Lena-Sofia Tiemeyer, For the Comfort of Zion: The Geographical and Theological Location of Isaiah 40 – 55 (VTSup 139; Leiden/Boston: Brill, 2011), 156 – 68. Barstad admits, however, that Isa 43:14 – 21 and 48:17 – 21 constitute an exception (110, n. 286). In addition, he apparently distinguishes between “the accepted meaning of the phrase” (sc. “exodus text”) (AWay in the Wilderness, 108) which, he argues, does not provide an adequate literal understanding of the metaphor (“the return of exiles from Babylon through the desert to Judah, modeled on the ancient Israelite tradition of the flight from Egypt and the wanderings in the wilderness” (ibid, 107), and the “ingathering of the golah” (ibid, 92). According to him, this “… is something quite different. If one should want to do so, one may, of course, refer to this ingathering from the golah as a ‘new exodus’. But then one should be well aware of the fact that this motif does not form a very important part of the message of Second Isaiah” (ibid, 92). Interestingly, Barstad sees Isa 43:16 – 21 as a text about “new creation” rather than about “new exodus”: “In another text in Second Isaiah, Is 43:19, the particular motif of making roads in the desert, partly dealt with above, is combined with the motif of making streams in the wilderness. In this very illustrative text, these motifs, again, are combined with the well known Second Isaiah phraseology of making new things, clearly indicating that the metaphorical use of the roads and the streams in the wilderness is giving expression to the new prosperity of Judah, following the intervention and action of Yahweh. All of these different metaphorical allusions, consequently, are nothing but poetical variations of the same basic theme of the restoring of the nation and the bright and prosperous future of the Judeans. They are in fact, creation texts, bearing witness to the creation of the new nation; the new Judah!” (ibid, 32 – 33). Barstad is certainly correct in stressing the poetic and metaphorical quality of the texts in question, but his contrasting of “strongly metaphorical”/”not concrete” suggests a mutual exclusivity that probably overdoes his point. In addition, he does not address the possibility of different layers in Isa 40 – 55. On this matter, see, e. g., Reinhard G. Kratz, Kyros im Deuterojesaja-Buch: Redaktionsgeschichtliche Untersuchungen zu Entstehung und Theologie von Jes 40 – 55 (FAT 1; Tu¨bingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1991).

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compares the old and new creation. This difference shows that Isa 65 extends the mythical horizon of Isa 43 considerably. Isaiah 65 reaches beyond the foundational events of Israel’s salvation history to the creation of the world: the world’s creation itself will be surpassed in the future acts of divine redemption. What brings about this replacement? And by what means is it accomplished on the literary level? A closer look at Isa 43:16 – 21 helps to answer these questions by providing a solid foundation for investigating the transformation that takes place in Isa 65:17 – 25. Isaiah 43:16 – 21 898= LB4 8? ýL7 A=5 CN9D8 385=ND A=:F A=B59 :9:F9 @=; E9E9.5?L 4=J9B8 95?M1= 97;= 9B9K=.@5 395? 8NM1H? 9?F7 N9DM14L 9L?:N.@4 39DD5NN.@4 N9=DB7K9 ;BJN 8NF 8M17; 82MF =DD8 89F7N 49@8 ýL7 L57B5 A=2M4 G4 3N9L8D C9BM1=5 872M8 N=; =D75?N 8DF= N9D59 A=DN A=B L57B5 =NND.=? CB=M1=5 N9L8D 3=L=;5 =BF N9KM18@ =@ =NLJ= 9:.AF 39LHE= =N@8N

16 Thus says Yhwh, who makes a way in the sea and a path in the mighty waters, 17 who brings out chariot and horse, army and strength, they will lay there together, they no longer will rise, extinguished, quenched like a wick. 18 Remember not the former things, the things of old – do not consider. 19 Look, I am doing a new thing, now it sprouts forth, do you not perceive it? Indeed, through the wilderness I am making a way and rivers18 through the desert. 20 The animals of the field will honor me, the jackals and the ostriches, because I provide water in the wilderness,19 rivers in the desert, to give water for my people, my chosen ones, 21 this people whom I formed for myself. They will declare my glory.20

Understanding Isa 43:16 – 21 is complicated by the “heterodoxical” nature of the section. It can easily be divided into three sections. The first section (43:16 – 17) praises God in a hymn formed by participles, evoking images of the exodus from 18 1QIsaa reads N95=ND “paths”; the MT is preferable as the lectio difficilior and is likely the product of an aberratio oculi; cf. Ulrich Berges, Jesaja 40 – 48 (HThKAT; Freiburg im Breisgau: Herder, 2008), 291; also Karl Elliger, Deuterojesaja (BKAT 11/1; NeukirchenVluyn: Neukirchener, 1974), 355; Macchi, “Choses,” 236, n. 38. 19 1QIsaa reads CN4, which is clearly lectio facilior (Elliger, Deuterojesaja, 343). 20 On the connection between vv. 20b–21 with the preceding section, see Elliger, Deuterojesaja, 358 – 59; Klaus Kiesow, Exodustexte im Jesajabuch: Literarkritische und motivgeschichtliche Analysen (OBO 24; Freiburg, Schweiz: Universita¨tsverlag/Go¨ttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht , 1979), 67 – 68.

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Egypt and the deliverance of Israel at the Sea of Reeds. The resumption of the exodus tradition is clear, “but the language and style of the portrayal shares remarkably little in common with the most well-known occurrences of the tradition in Exodus 14 and 15 beyond the basic conception and a few thematic expressions.”21 Rather than relying textually on a written Vorlage, Isa 43:16 – 17 seems to reflect the remembered tradition, which is to be expected in the ancient Near Eastern and ancient Israelite scribal culture.22 However, Isa 43:16 – 17 transforms this tradition to fit with its own concerns: the human actors in the exodus narrative – Moses and Pharaoh – completely disappear in order to highlight God as the sole mover. Following immediately after Isa 43:16 – 17, the second section (43:18 – 19) states directly that God’s actions in the past are no longer worth remembering because God will now perform a new and more wonderful deed. Finally, the third section (43:20 – 21) explicates this new thing and describes it in terms of a new exodus through the desert, during which water will not run short.23 The text and its structure juxtapose the old exodus with the new to show that the former should no longer be recalled because it will be replaced by the latter.24 It is somewhat surprising how Westermann, for example, comments on the content of this passage: Did Deutero-Isaiah really intend to say in this oracle that the new work of God and the concomitant new exodus would result in placing such a shadow over the former exodus that it should be forgotten in favor of the new, soon to be expected [one]? It would be very

21 Elliger, Deuterojesaja, 346; cf. also Michael Fishbane, Biblical Interpretation in Ancient Israel (Oxford: Clarendon, 1985), 363 – 64; Macchi, “Choses,” 229, n. 13; Eberhard Bons, “Y a-t-il une typologie de l’Exode en Isaı¨e 43,16 – 23?,” in Typologie biblique: De quelques figures vives (ed. Raymond Kuntzmann; LD; Paris: Cerf, 2002), 86 – 89; also Patricia Tull Willey, Remember the Former Things: The Recollection of Previous Texts in Second Isaiah (SBLDS 161; Atlanta, GA: SBL, 1997), 28 – 33. 22 Cf. David M. Carr, Writing on the Tablet of the Heart: Origins of Scripture and Literature (New York/Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005); idem, “Mu¨ndlich-schriftliche Bildung und der Ursprung antiker Literaturen,” in Lesarten der Bibel: Untersuchungen zu einer Theorie der Exegese des Alten Testaments (ed. Helmut Utzschneider and Erhard Blum; Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 2006), 183 – 98. 23 Øystein Lund, Way Metaphors and Way Topics in Isaiah 40 – 55 (FAT 2/28; Tu¨bingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2007), 191 (cf. 197), emphasizes that there is “little reason to narrow the use of imagery to concern only such a journey” (i. e. home from Babylon), but he admits that the “new life” envisioned by Isa 43:16 – 21 can “for some people also incorporate a journey home from Babylon.” Similarly Joseph Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40 – 55: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary (AB 19 A; New York, NY: Doubleday, 2000), 228. 24 Tiemeyer, Comfort, 183, disputes that Isa 43:16 – 21 is “alluding to a Second Exodus out of Babylon” and, following Barstad (Way, 93 – 98, but see 110, n. 286), interprets the exodus motif “as a word of doom for Babylon.” This interpretation downplays the expression “to give water for my people” and is driven by her overall attempt to prove the exclusive Judahite origin of Isa 40 – 55. Nevertheless, also Judahite authors could have written about an exodus of former deportees out of Babylon.

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strange if Deutero-Isaiah, who held fast to the traditions of his people more than any other prophet, who repeatedly and insistently reminded them of God’s great works in the past, who entrusts his people with the important charge of being God’s witnesses to the undertakings of God with the gods of the nations, that is to bear witness to the trustworthy continuity between God’s words and God’s actions, his announcements and their fulfillments – it would be very strange if this very Deutero-Isaiah states here, ‘forget what I did before and pay attention to it no more!’25

Westermann likely has in mind texts such as Isa 46:9: “Remember the first things from ancient times: I am God and there is none other; divine, and nothing is like me.” There is, however, a decisive difference between assertions such as Isa 46:9 and 43:16 – 21, as Berges correctly notes: “The ‘new’ is not related to Yhwh himself, but rather to his actions towards Israel as is the case in Isa 43:18.”26 The structure of 43:18 – 1927 leaves little room to doubt that the old and new exoduses are not analogous according to Isa 43:16 – 21: the new exodus will make the old one obsolete. Following Berges, one can adduce the antithetical arrangement of the two verses: V.18aa: “Remember not” V.18ab: “Former things” V.18ba: “Past things” V.18bb: “Do not consider”

– V.19aa: “See, I am doing” – V.19ab: “New” – V.19ba: “Now it sprouts forth” – V.19bb: “Do you not perceive it”

Westermann and other readers of his era were unwilling to consider the possibility that Isa 43:16 – 21 actually appears to imply that the old exodus had lost its redemptive power. But Isa 43:16 – 21 seems to be clear about this: God is creating something new, and this new thing is not analogically comparable with the former salvation event. This highly innovative conception does not, however, affect the nature of God’s identity. Neither does it imply the abrogation of every previous act of redemption, 25 Claus Westermann, Das Buch Jesaia, 40 – 66 (ATD 19; Go¨ttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1966), 104 – 5. In fact, Elliger (Deuterojesaja, 353) also resists understanding the “the former” in relation to the exodus: “The meaning of 18 is really very general: leave the past to itself and focus on the future that I am now proclaiming.” See also Kiesow, Exodustexte, 71 – 73 (with detailed discussion): “The earlier things are the suffering of the people – concretely, the demise of Jerusalem and the deportation.” Similarly also Barstad, Way, 94 – 95, n. 233: “With the ‘former things’ he simply refers to everything that was before and which led to the catastrophe of 587/586, including the punishment for the transgressions of the people […]. With ‘new things’ he is simply referring to his own message: Yahweh has forgiven his people their sins, and they can now look forward to a bright future under his mighty protection.” See also Macchi, “Choses,” 234, n. 28. Cf. the discussion in Kratz, Kyros, 68, n. 240; Kru¨ger, “Dekonstruktion,” 155, n. 22; Stromberg, Isaiah, 92 – 93. 26 Berges, Jesaja, 301. 27 Berges, Jesaja, 300.

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which is especially clear with regard to the reception and reworking of the traditions of the ancestors in Isa 40 – 55.28 How is one to interpret this extraordinarily negative evaluation of the traditional exodus narrative? Deutero-Isaiah’s historical setting, after the demise of Judah and Jerusalem, appears as confirmation to the fact that the tradition of Israel coming up out of Egypt had lost its redemptive relevance. The former exodus from Egypt evidently set in motion a sequence of perdition that culminated in the loss of the land. The traditional exodus narrative could, therefore, no longer form the foundation for the relationship between Israel and its God. Isa 43:16 – 21 contends that there will be a new exodus, this time from Babylon, which will totally surpass the earlier one. First Yhwh himself will leave Babylon, and the people will then follow. This new exodus will form the basis for a new relationship between God and his people, so the theological memory of the former exodus can be abandoned and forgotten. It is worth noting that this new exodus will also include a “water miracle,” yet not one that destroys the enemy like in Exod 14. On the contrary, God will provide water in the desert to satisfy his people. One can be quite sure that the inspiration for this motif of a new exodus as a kind of procession arose from corresponding ritual events in Babylonian religion: the festive processions in Babylon in relation to the New Year’s celebration (akı¯tu-festival)29 seem to be the model for the expected return of God and his people to their own land for the Deutero-Isaiah tradition.30 When compared with Isa 43:16 – 21, the theological profile of Isa 65:17 – 25 28 Cf. Odil Hannes Steck, “Deuterojesaja als theologischer Denker,” KD 15 (1969): 280 – 93; repr. in Wahrnehmungen Gottes im Alten Testament: Gesammelte Studien (TB 70; Munich: Kaiser, 1982). 29 Cf. Beate Pongratz-Leisten, Ina Sˇulmi ˇIrub: Die kulttopographische und ideologische Programmatik der akı¯tu-Prozession in Babylonien und Assyrien im 1. Jahrtausend v. Chr. (BF 16; Mainz: von Zabern, 1994). Barstad, Way, 18 – 19, n. 51; idem, “On the So-Called Babylonian Literary Influence in Second Isaiah,” SJOT 2 (1987): 90 – 110, is very skeptical about the assumption of such a background. See the comprehensive discussion in Tiemeyer, Comfort, 77 – 130. Her rebuttal of Ehring’s interpretation of Isa 40:1 – 11 (Christina Ehring, Die Ru¨ckkehr JHWHs: Traditions- und religionsgeschichtliche Untersuchungen zu Jesaja 40,1 – 11, Jesaja 52,7 – 10 und verwandten Texten [WMANT 116; Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener, 2007]) is, however, unconvincing (Tiemeyer, Comfort, 174 – 76). 30 For a theological evaluation, cf. Blazˇenka Scheuer, The Return of Yhwh: The Tension between Deliverance and Repentance in Isaiah 40 – 55 (BZAW 377; Berlin/New York: de Gruyter, 2008), 143 – 45. Deutero-Isaiah interacts very differently with the ancestor traditions than with the exodus tradition. Because the ancestor story is rooted in the promise of the land, it is the lone salvation-historical tradition with abiding theological relevance. As a result these ancestor traditions are taken up and developed extensively (cf. Isa 41:8 – 10). By calling the people Israel by the name of their ancestors, Deutero-Isaiah activates the promise theology from the Genesis ancestral narratives that grant Israel ownership of the land through God’s unconditional promise. Unlike the exodus tradition, the ancestor traditions provide orientation for attempts to come to terms with the catastrophe of the exile. See the still important discussion in Steck, “Deuterojesaja.”

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presents both similarities and differences. Like Isa 43:16 – 21, Isa 65:17 – 25 also juxtaposes old and new, but the topic is now creation itself. Unlike Isa 40 – 55, Isa 65:17 – 25 no longer differentiates within salvation history, but opposes old and new creation. While Isa 43:16 – 21 announces that “the former things will no longer be remembered,” such a call is no longer necessary in Isa 65:17 – 25 because the former things will sink into oblivion on their own. In the further-developed situation of Isa 65:17 – 25, the antithesis between old exodus–new exodus is no longer sufficient. God’s new acts of redemption can only be understood in the context of an entirely new creation. It is crucial, however, to see that Isa 65:17 – 25 is not introducing a completely new topic, but is activating a theme that is central to the theological argumentation of Isa 40 – 55. This theological position makes sense in light of the historical situation of Isa 65:17 – 25 in the third century bce. It seems to reflect the disappearance of a stable world order, as was the case during the Persian empire.31 While according to the Priestly Code, one of the most prominent writings of the Persian period, creation had lost its status as “very good” (Gen 1:31) early on, the autonomy of cult and language nevertheless continued to guarantee a sufficient, if qualified, basis for life under the Persian empire. The collapse of this empire, which had an enormous intellectual and religious impact on ancient Judah, also meant the loss of this confidence in the creative order. This loss of confidence led to the notion that for creation to function sufficiently, it needed a foundational change of its very nature: Isa 65:17 – 25 formulates this change in terms of a new creation of heaven and earth. While not apocalyptic itself, this conceptualization does prepare the way for apocalypticism: Isa 65:17 – 25 does not yet speak of a new, second world to come,32 but of a renewal of this world. Furthermore, Isa 65:17 – 25 does not yet envision a resurrection of the dead, but considers the question of a long life.

4.

The Reception of Isaiah 11:6 – 9 in Isaiah 65:25

As part of its vision of new creation, Isa 65:25 depicts a peaceful animal world in quite similar fashion to Isa 11:6 – 9. These verses belong to the larger context of 11:1 – 9, which Hermisson especially has shown to consist of various layers, namely the promise of the ruler in 11:1 – 5 and the following section concerning peace among animals in 11:6 – 9.33 The language of the latter section relies on both 11:1 – 2 31 Cf. the summary in Schmid, Literaturgeschichte, 177 – 211. 32 On the doctrine of two ages, see footnote 50. 33 Hans-Ju¨rgen Hermisson, “Zukunftserwartung und Gegenwartskritik in der Verku¨ndigung Jesajas,” EvTh 33 (1973): 59 – 61; cf. Hermann Barth, Die Jesaja-Worte in der Josiazeit: Israel und Assur als Thema einer produktiven Neuinterpretation der Jesajau¨berlieferung (WMANT 48; Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener, 1977), 60 – 63; Odil Hannes Steck, “‘… ein kleiner

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and also Isa 1:3 – 4 (N;M1/FFL).34 The motifs of Isa 11:6 – 9, however, are idiosyncratic and do not directly belong to the tradition-historical context of royal ideology evoked by 11:1 – 5.35 The strongest indication for this disunity is 11:4,36 which speaks of the future ruler implementing justice. The contrast between this image and the paradisiacal, nonviolent vision of 11:6 – 9 shows that they could hardly belong to the same literary layer. The allocation of vegetarian food for carnivorous animals is reminiscent of Gen 1:29 – 30 (“P”), but also allows 11:6 – 9 to be understood “as an appendix that cancels a declaration such as Lev 26:22: ‘Then I will turn the beasts of the field loose against you so that they rob you of your children and wipe out your animals …’”37 One should probably date 11:6 – 9 later than the Priestly Document and the Holiness Code, and therefore no earlier than the middle of the Persian period.

Isaiah 11:6 – 9 2M5?.AF 54: L69 I5L= =76.AF LBD9 97;= 4=LB9 L=H?9 @6F9 3A5 68D CüK LFD9 8D=FLN 579 8LH9 C8=7@= 9J5L= 97;= 3C5N.@?4= LK5? 8=L49 KD9= FM1FM19

34

35 36

37 38

And the wolf will live with the lamb and the leopard will lie down with the young goat. And calf, young lion, and fatling will be together,38 and a young child will lead them. 7 And cow and bear will graze, and their young will lie down together, and the lion will eat straw like the ox. 8 And the nursing child will play

Knabe kann sie leiten’: Beobachtungen zum Tierfrieden in Jes 11,6 – 8 und 65,25,” in Alttestamentlicher Glaube und biblische Theologie: Festschrift fu¨r Horst Dietrich Preuß zum 65. Geburtstag (ed. Jutta Hausmann and Hans-Ju¨rgen Zobel; Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1992), 104 – 109. Different, but unconvincing is Wolfgang Werner, Eschatologische Texte in Jesaja 1 – 39: Messias, Heiliger Rest, Vo¨lker (FzB 46; Wu¨rzburg: Echter, 1982), 48 – 49. Cf. Steck, “Knabe,” 106 – 107, 110 ff.; Erich Bosshard-Nepustil, Rezeptionen von Jesaja 1 – 39 im Zwo¨lfprophetenbuch: Untersuchungen zur literarischen Verbindung von Prophetenbu¨chern in babylonischer und persischer Zeit (OBO 154; Freiburg, Schweiz: Universita¨tsverlag/Go¨ttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1997), 212, n. 4. Cf., however, Erich Zenger, “Die Verheißung Jesaja 11,1 – 10 – universal oder partikular?,” in Studies in the Book of Isaiah: Festschrift for Willem A.M. Beuken (ed. Jacques T.A.G.M. van Ruiten and Marc Vervenne; BETL 132; Leuven: Leuven University Press, 1997), 146. On the text-critical problem, see Hans Wildberger, Jesaja: 1. Teilband: Jesaja 1 – 12 (BKAT 10/1; Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener, 1972), 438; Erhard Blum, “Jesajas prophetisches Testament – Beobachtungen zu Jesaja 1 – 11,” ZAW 109 (1997): 12 – 29 (27, n. 63); Beuken, Jesaja, 302. Steck, “Knabe,” 112. On the conjecture 94LB= for 4=LB9, cf. Beuken, Jesaja, 302; Jacques T.A.G.M. van Ruiten, “The Intertextual Relationship Between Isaiah 65:25 and Isaiah 11:6 – 9,” in The Scriptures and the Scrolls: Studies in Honour of A.S. van der Woude on the Occasion of his 65th Birthday (ed. Florentino Garcı´a Martı´nez, Antonius Hilhorst, and Casper J. Labuschagne; VTSup 49; Leiden/Boston: Brill, 1998), 33, n. 7.

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186 CNH L;.@F =D9FHJ NL94B @F9 3878 97= @9B6 9N=;M1=.4@9 9FL=.4@ =M17K L8.@?5 IL48 84@B.=? 898=.N4 8F7 A=E?B A=@ A=B?

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over the hole of the viper, and into the hole39 of the adder the small child will stretch out a hand. 9 Nowhere will one do evil or destruction on my holy mountain, because the land is full of the knowledge of Yhwh, as water covers the sea.

While expressed differently, Isa 65:25 (7;4? 9FL= 8@ü9 54:) opens with a declaration that mirrors the content of Isa 11:6 (M2 5?.AF 54: L69), Isaiah 65:25 then goes on to use exactly the same formulation as Isa 11:7c (C5N.@?4= LK5? 8=L49). The third strophe (9B;@ LHF M1;D9) unquestionably recalls Gen 3:14, but its language is quite distant from the Genesis statement: 9B;@ does not even appear there. The fourth stanza of Isa 65:25 is word for word the same as Isa 11:9a (=M17K L8.@?5 9N=;M1=.4@9 9FL=.4@), except for the concluding 898= LB4.40 It is generally assumed that Isa 65:25 is patterned after Isa 11:6 – 9.41 The contextual setting of each of the passages – the one in First Isaiah and the other in Third Isaiah – seem to argue self-evidently that Isa 11:6 – 9 is older than Isa 65:25. But their contexts in and of themselves do not yet form a solid argument. The extensively developed form of Isa 11:6 – 9 might be interpreted as the result of an expanding reception of Isa 65:25.42 However, the traditional conclusion is not only dependent on the redactional setting of Isa 65:17 – 25 in Isa 65 – 66, which is held to be a late text. A quite clear indicator of the direction of dependence is the interweaving of Gen 3:14 in Isa 65:25, which does not play any role in Isa 11:6 – 9. Genesis 3:14 is itself a relatively late text.43 Therefore, Isa 11:6 – 9 should be accepted as earlier, likewise Isa 65:25.44 39 The term itself is unclear, but perhaps it is a mistakenly written form of NLFB? Cf. Wildberger, Jesaja, 438; Beuken, Jesaja, 302. 40 A helpful synopsis on translation can be found in van Ruiten, “Relationship,” 33 – 34. 41 Cf. the discussion in Steck, “Knabe,” 108 – 9, and in van Ruiten, “Relationship.” 42 Otto Kaiser, Das Buch des Propheten Jesaja: Kapitel 1 – 12 (5th ed.; ATD 17; Go¨ttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1981), 240, for example, sees Isa 11:9 as a citation of material from Isa 65:25b and Hab 2:14, and Isa 11:6 – 8 as an expansion of Isa 65:25a. On this relation see Stromberg, Isaiah, 105 – 7. 43 The exact historical placement is disputed. Eckart Otto, “Die Paradieserza¨hlung Gen 2 – 3: Eine nachpriesterschriftliche Lehrerza¨hlung in ihrem religionshistorischen Kontext,” in “Jedes Ding hat seine Zeit…”: Studien zur israelitischen und altorientalischen Weisheit: Diethelm Michael zum 65. Geburtstag (ed. Anja A. Diesel, Reinhard G. Lehmann, and Eckhart Otto; BZAW 241; Berlin/New York: de Gruyter, 1996), 167 – 92, argues for a post-Priestly original for all of Gen 2 – 3. Kratz and Spieckermann suggest a post-Priestly date for the final form, cf. Reinhard G. Kratz and Hermann Spieckermann, “Scho¨pfer/Scho¨pfung II,” TRE 30 (1999): 271 – 74; Hermann Spieckermann, “Ambivalenzen: Ermo¨glichte und verwirklichte Scho¨pfung in Genesis 2 f,” in Verbindungslinien: Festschrift fu¨r Werner H. Schmidt zum 65. Geburtstag (ed. Axel Graupner, Holger Delkurt, and Alexander B. Ernst; Neukirchen-

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What thematic guidelines did the reception of Isa 11:6 – 9 in Isa 65:25 follow? Apparently Isa 65:25 responds to Isa 11:6 – 9 in three ways: 1) the framing statements of the peaceful animal kingdom in 11:6 – 7 are used as a summary for this motif; 2) the material concerning small children in Isa 11:8 is omitted; 3) 11:9a does appear, while 11:9b does not. The reason for the omission of Isa 11:8 in Isa 65:25 could be contextual or content related. It is possible that a further statement addressing small children was felt to be extraneous, given their appearance in 65:23. The theme itself may also have played a role: the motif of small children in eschatological texts can trigger messianic connotations that the author of Isa 65:25, given his theocratic worldview (cf. Isa 66:1),45 wanted to avoid.

5.

The Reception of Genesis 1 – 3 in Isaiah 65:17 – 25

The incorporation of material from Gen 1 – 3 in Isa 65:17 – 25, namely of Gen 1:1 in Isa 65:17 and of Gen 3:14 in Isa 65:25, is as palpable as the reception of Isa 43:16 – 21,46 although scholars have traditionally been reluctant to date Isa 56 – 66 after P. One might suspect that the inclusion of the opening verse of Gen 1 and another from the concluding section in Gen 3 together suggest that Isa 65:17 – 25 intends to allude to the entire section of Gen 1 – 3. The statement about the snake in Isa 65:25, which serves to regulate the provision of food, clearly alludes to Gen 3:14, where the statement is a curse.47

44 45

46

47

Vluyn, Neukirchener, 2000), 363 – 76. The universalization of the “Deuteronomistic” interpretation of Israel’s history (expulsion from the garden of Eden as consequence of humanity’s sin) and the radical transformation of traditional wisdom theology (“knowledge of good and evil” as a problem for human beings, cf. the opposite view in 1 Kgs 3:4 – 9) suggest a terminus ante quem non no earlier than the Babylonian Exile. See also the discussion in Schmid, Literaturgeschichte, 153 – 56. See also Stromberg, Isaiah, 102 – 7. ¨ berlegungen zu Cf. Konrad Schmid, “Herrschererwartungen und -aussagen im Jesajabuch: U ihrer synchronen Logik und ihren diachronen Transformationen,” in The New Things: Eschatology in Old Testament Prophecy : Festschrift for Hank Leene (ed. Ferenc Postma, Klaas Spronk, and Eep Talstra; ACEBTS 3; Maastricht: Shaker, 2002) repr. in Prophetische Heilsund Herrschererwartungen (ed. Konrad Schmid; SBS 194; Stuttgart: Katholisches Bibelwerk, 2005), 73. On the non-reception of Isa 11:1 – 5 in Isa 65:25, see also Stromberg, Isaiah, 108 – 9. See especially Steck, “Himmel.” More cautious: Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56 – 66, 287. On the references to the Pentateuch in the later layers of the Isaiah tradition, cf. Steck, “Knabe,” 109, n. 30. The term 4L5 is rooted very securely in Isa 40 – 48 (40:26, 28; 41:20; 42:5; 43:1, 7, 15; 45:7 [bis], 8, 12, 18 [bis]; 48:7), see Stromberg, Isaiah, 92, with notes 22 – 23. For conceptual transformation regarding 4L5 between Isa 40 – 48 and Isaiah 65 – 66, see ibid, 95 – 96. Van Ruiten (“Relationship,” 40 – 41) interprets the allusion to Gen 3:14 in Isa 65:25 in light of Mic 7:17 and Ps 72:9, viewing the snake as an enemy held in check (see also Blenkinsopp,

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The combination of “create” with the direct objects “heaven” and “earth” points unquestionably to Gen 1:1. The possibility that the reader of Isa 65:17 – 25 is meant to keep in mind all of Gen 1 – 3 on account of the incorporation of material from the beginning and end of Gen 1 – 3 can neither be proved nor ruled out, but it is not unlikely. There is little question that Gen 1 – 3 is taken up in Isa 65 and not the other way around. The mention of a “new” heaven and a “new” earth refers to something logically prior. Furthermore, Gen 1 can be attributed a comparatively secure absolute date as part of the Priestly Document, whose basic edition (Grundschrift) should be dated between 539 and 525 bce.48 In light of the later developments within Jewish apocalypticism, one should keep in mind that the notion of a “new heaven” and a “new earth” in Isa 65 – 66 is not to be understood as an example of the doctrine of two ages. This doctrine first appears in 4 Ezra and 2 Baruch, which were composed in the wake of the destruction of the temple in 70 ce. While the origins of apocalypticism have been placed in various historical settings (the earliest Enoch texts are attested in Qumran around 200 bce),49 it seems that the notion of the two ages arose no earlier than the experience of the destruction of the Second Temple.50 Such an intellectual background is irrelevant for the time of Isa 65:17 – 25’s composition. This text does not consider a “new creation” in the sense of a cosmological re-ordering of the world: heaven and earth manifestly remain in place as cosmic structures. It is instead the world order within the “old” creation that is “renewed” – one could also speak of a “renewed” creation.51 The noteworthy themes taken from Gen 1 – 3 are easily recognizable. Yet this “new” creation is differentiated from the “first” creation by the permanence of its good original state: it will not fall prey to depravity (cf. Gen 6:11 –

48 49 50

51

Isaiah 56 – 66, 290). However, the formulation of Isa 65:25 bears little similarity to Mic 7:17 and Ps 72:9, nor does this understanding fit the overall context of Isa 65 – 66. Albert de Pury, “Pg as the Absolute Beginning,” in Les dernie`res re´dactions du Pentateuque, de l’Hexateuque et de l’Enne´ateuque (ed. Thomas Ro¨mer and Konrad Schmid; BETL 203; Leuven: Leuven University Press, 2007), 99 – 128 (125 – 28). Hartmut Stegemann, “Die Bedeutung der Qumranfunde fu¨r die Erforschung der Apokalyptik,” in Apocalypticism in the Mediterranean World and the Near East (2nd ed.; ed. David Hellholm; Tu¨bingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1989), 495 – 509. Cf. the fuller discussion in Konrad Schmid, “Die Zersto¨rung Jerusalems und seines Tempels als Heilsparadox: Zur Zusammenfu¨hrung von Geschichtstheologie und Anthropologie im Vierten Esrabuch,” in Zersto¨rungen des Jerusalemer Tempels: Geschehen – Wahrnehmung – Bewa¨ltigung (ed. Johannes Hahn; WUNT 147; Tu¨bingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2002), 183 – 206. Cf. the related discussion of the covenantal theme in Walter Groß, “Erneuerter oder Neuer Bund? Wortlaut und Aussageintention in Jer 31,31 – 34,” in Bund und Tora: Zur theologischen Begriffsgeschichte in alttestamentlicher, fru¨hju¨discher und urchristlicher Tradition (ed. Friedrich Avemarie and Hermann Lichtenberger ; WUNT 92; Tu¨bingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1996), 41 – 66.

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12). It is also completely undergirded and constituted by blessing, while the first creation limited blessing to the sea creatures (and with certain limitations to the birds as well)52 and the humans (cf. Gen 1:22, 28). Finally, there is no possibility for negative influences at its edges: even the snake no longer lives under a curse. All in all the conception of redemption in Isa 65:17 – 25 approaches that of a bucolic idyll. The imagined elements of this new creation are comparatively modest, being limited to permanent joy, the elimination of premature death (especially of children), enjoyment of the fruits of one’s own labor, an intact relationship with God, as well as – and this is the only element that springs the bounds of a perfected life within given human experience – peace among animals.

6.

The Reception of the Futility Curses of Deuteronomy in Isaiah 65:21 – 22

In addition to the above-mentioned motifs in Isa 65 :17 – 25, all of which can be clearly identified as literary allusions to earlier texts, Isa 65 :21 – 22 also contains further allusions to other biblical texts : “And they will build houses and live in them, and plant vineyards and eat their fruit. They will not build that another might dwell in, nor plant, that another might eat.” These verses in Isaiah clearly play off statements in Deuteronomy and cannot be understood without them. Most important are the futility curses in Deut 28, which – like the material of Deut 28 in general – follow ancient Near Eastern patterns.53

52 Cf. Martin Leuenberger, Segen und Segenstheologien im alten Israel: Untersuchungen zu ihren religions- und theologiegeschichtlichen Konstellationen und Transformationen (AThANT 90; Zu¨rich: Theologischer Verlag Zu¨rich, 2008), 386 – 87. 53 Cf. Moshe Weinfeld, Deuteronomy and the Deuteronomic School (Oxford: Clarendon, 1972), 122; Hans-Ulrich Steymans, Deuteronomium 28 und die adeˆ zur Thronfolgeregelung Asarhaddons: Segen und Fluch im Alten Orient und in Israel (OBO 145; Freiburg, Schweiz: Universita¨tsverlag/Go¨ttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht , 1995), 183 – 84; cf. Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56 – 66, 289. See also the discussion in Stromberg, Isaiah, 94.

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Deuteronomy 28:30, 39 – 41 M 2 L4N 8M14 54

8D@6M1= L;4 M1=49 8D5N N=5 95 5M1N.4@9 FüN AL? 39D@@;N 4@9

N75F9 FüN A=BL? 8NM1N.4@ C==9 L64N 4@9 3NF@N8 9D@?4N =? ý@956.@?5 ý@ 9=8= A=N=: ý9EN 4@ CBM19 3ýN=: @M1= =? 7=@9N N9D59 A=D5 ý@ 9=8=.4@9 =5M15 9?@= =?

30 You will become engaged to a woman, but another man will lie with her. You will build a house, but you will not live in it. You will plant a vineyard, but not enjoy it. […] 39 You will plant vineyards and dress them, but you will not drink wine nor harvest, because the worm will eat it. 40 You will have olive trees in your entire territory, but you will not anoint with oil, because your olives will drop off. 41 You will have sons and daughters, but they will not remain yours, because they will go into captivity.

Within the context of the promise of a new heaven and a new earth, the appearance of the assurance of living in one’s own house and the enjoyment of one’s own fruit seems surprising: was this not normally the case under the world order of the “old” creation as well? The reversal was only threatened for cases of disobedience. What underlies this connection? It seems important to notice that Isa 65:21 – 22 plays off a cornerstone chapter of the Torah: the promise of Isa 65:17 – 25 attempts to highlight that, unlike under the world order of the “old” creation, it will no longer be possible for the good world order of the “new” creation to be subverted. Isaiah 65:17 – 25 appears to allude to opening and concluding sections of the Torah in a sort of “canonical” consciousness in order to formulate a new perspective that presents itself as an alternative that is equivalent to the Torah. In light of the statements regarding progeny in Isa 65:20, 23, it is noteworthy that this motif also appears in Deut 28:41, and the possible negative consequences of the Deuteronomic text are overcome in Isa 65:20, 23. A reversal of the motif from Deut 28:30, 39 – 41 within Deuteronomy itself also appears in Deut 6:10 – 12, an expansion within the paranesis of Deut 6:4 – 9, 20 – 25.55

54 The Samariah Pentateuch and various other versions provide the more familiar – with the same meaning – 8BF 5?M1=. 55 Cf. Timo Veijola, Das 5. Buch Mose Deuteronomium: Kapitel 1,1 – 16,17 (ATD 8,1; Go¨ttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2004), 186.

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Deuteronomy 6:10 – 12 ý=8@4 898= ý4=5= =? 8=89 ý=N54@ F5M1D LM14 IL48.@4 5KF=@9 K;J=@ A8L54@ ý@ NN@ N5ü9 N@76 A=LF 3N=D5.4@ LM14 59ü.@? A=4@B A=N59 [email protected]@ LM14 A=59J; NL59 N5J;.4@ LM14 A=N=:9 A=BL? NFüD.4@ LM14 3NF52M9 N@?49 ý@ LBM18 898=.N4 ;?M1N.CH A=LJB IL4B ý4=J98 LM14 3A=75F N=5B

When Yhwh your God brings you into the land that he swore to your ancestors, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, to give to you – large, fine cities that you did not build, 11 houses, full of all kinds of goods, that you did not fill, hewn cisterns, that you did not hew, vineyards and olive groves, that you did not plant – And when you eat and become satisfied, 12 then watch yourself, that you do not forget Yhwh, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of slavery.

In the vision of Isa 65:17 – 25, Yhwh’s elect will still have to build their own houses and cultivate their own vineyards, but their use and enjoyment is assured.

7.

The Reception of Isaiah 65:17 – 25 in Qohelet 1:9 – 11

In keeping with the inner-biblical observations of this paper, it can be added that Isa 65:17 – 25 was not some sort of final word in the evolution of inner-biblical interpretation of these motifs. It itself is taken up in the still later text of Qoh 1:9 – 11.56 Qohelet 1:9 – 11 8=8=M1 498 8=8M1.8B 82MF=M1 498 82MFDM1.8B9 3M1BM18 N;N M17;.@? C=49 LB4=M1 L57 M1= M17; 8:.84L A=B@F@ 8=8 L5? 498 39DDH@B 8=8 LM14

9 What has been will be again, and what has been done, will be done again: there is nothing new under the sun.57 10 Is there something of which it might be said: “Look, here is something new”? It has already been, in the ages that were before us.

56 Cf. Schmid, Literaturgeschichte, 183 – 85. 57 On the translation, see Thomas Kru¨ger, Kohelet (Prediger) (BKAT 20 Sonderband; Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener, 2000), 110: The statement is ambivalent, meaning either “there is nothing new at all” or “there is nothing completely new.” The context suggests that the second understanding is more probable.

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11 There is no memorial for the former things and also for the later things, which are yet to come, C9L?: A8@ 8=8=.4@ there will be no memorial 38DL;4@ 9=8=M1 AF for those who come after them. A=DM14L@ C9L?: C=4

9=8=M1 A=DL;4@ A69

There is little doubt that Qoh 1:9 – 11 draws on the thematically related texts within the Isaiah tradition.58 The theme of the “new” is introduced in such a way as to imply that Qoh 1:9 – 11 responds critically – almost mockingly – to Isa 43:16 – 21 and 65:17 – 25 with its polemics against the “remembrance” of the “former things” as well as the “later things.” In its use of the Primeval History of Gen 1 – 11,59 Qoh 1:9 – 11 to a certain degree opposes Isa 65:17 – 25 (as understood within the context of Isa 65): God’s world order remains constant. The “later things” will experience the same fate as the “former”: both vanish from memory. In fact, the fruits of eschatological redemption set out for the “pious” in Isa 65:13 are described by Qoh 3:13 (cf. 3:22; 5:17 – 19; 9:7 – 10; 11:7 – 10) as the essentials for life in the present world. Isaiah 65:13 898= =D74 LB4.8? C?@ 9@?4= =75F 8D8 95FLN AN49 9NM1= =75F 8D8 94BJN AN49 9;B2M= =75F 8D8 39M15N AN49

Therefore, thus says the Lord Yhwh: Look, my servants will eat, but you will be hungry! Look, my servants will drink, but you will thirst! Look, my servants will rejoice, but you will be put to shame!

Qohelet 3:13 And whenever any human eats and drinks 59ü 84L9 and takes pleasure, 9@BF.@?5 in all his toil 34=8 A=8@4 NNB also this is a gift of God.

@?4=M1 A748.@? A69 8NM19

A small concession may possibly be made to the eschatological approaches in the formulation “nothing new under the sun” in Qoheleth. Strictly speaking, only the 58 Kru¨ger, “Dekonstruktion,” 155; idem, Kohelet, 120 – 21, n. 35. 59 Cf. Thomas Kru¨ger, “Die Rezeption der Tora im Buch Kohelet,” in Das Buch Kohelet: Studien zur Struktur, Geschichte, Rezeption und Theologie (ed. Ludger Schwienhorst-Scho¨nberger ; BZAW 254; Berlin/New York: de Gruyter, 1997), 173 – 93, repr. in Kritische Weisheit: Studien zur weisheitlichen Traditionskritik im Alten Testament (Zu¨rich: Pano, 1997).

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sub-solar region is addressed. However, Isa 65:17 – 25 is also only concerned with “newness” in the sub-solar regions of the world, suggesting that the cosmological framework remain constant. As a result the phrase “under the sun” should not be seen as a reservatio mentalis in Qoh 1:9 – 11 in opposition to Isa 65:17 – 25.

8.

Concluding Reflections

Isaiah 65:17 – 25 presents a complex – and for this reason especially informative – example of inner-biblical interpretation in the Old Testament. On one hand, the text is anchored strongly within the Book of Isaiah itself. Special reference is made to the “Deutero-Isaianic” section of Isa 43:16 – 21, which it updates and radicalizes: God’s eschatological work will result in a new creation rather than merely in a new exodus for his people. Whether this new exodus in Isa 43:16 – 21 should be understood literally or figuratively is a matter of dispute (cf. footnotes 23 and 24), but it need not be decided here. There is at least some consensus that the notion of an exodus of some Judeans from Babylon is not excluded in the vision of Isa 43:16 – 21. At any rate, it seems quite obvious that at least the authors of Isa 65:17 – 25 understood Isa 43:16 – 21 to be contrasting an old and a new exodus. The comparatively this-worldly description of redemption in the new creation in Isa 65:17 – 25 is, however, left behind through the inclusion of the fantastic element of peace among the animals. The presence of this very element may be explained by its rootedness in the earlier Isaianic tradition: Isa 11:6 – 9. The inner-Isaianic references should also be interpreted in light of the wellknown fact that Isa 65 – 66 as a whole refers back to Isa 1. Apparently, Isa 65 – 66 arose as part a redaction of the book as a whole.60 The “heaven” and the “earth” in 1:2 are juxtaposed with the “new heaven” and the “new earth” in 65:17 and 66:22. The expression =5 FM1H “to break with me” first appears in 1:2, where it refers to Israel. It then reappears at the very end of the book in 66:24. Here, however, the expression refers to the enemies of God. Zion’s desolation in 1:8 is juxtaposed with the wealth of its children in 66:8, 10. The polemics against the flawed worship on “New Moon” and “Sabbath” in 1:13 – 14 are contrasted at the end of the book with the expectation of worship of God by the nations on “New Moon” and “Sabbath” in 66:23. The juxtaposition of defective worship in 1:11 – 13 with correct worship in 66:20 – 21 also appears in a more general manner. The notion of the pilgrimage of nations can be found both in 2:2 – 4 and 66:12, 16. Finally, the image of a judgment of fire upon Judah in 1:31 (cf. 1:7) reappears as a judgment of fire upon God’s enemies in 66:15 – 16, 24.61 60 Cf. Stromberg, Isaiah, 248. 61 Cf. David M. Carr, “Reading Isaiah from Beginning (Isaiah 1) to End (Isaiah 65 – 66): Mul-

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The “new heaven” and the “new earth” in Isa 65:17 – 25 can be seen as the final station of the scribal development of the Isaiah tradition – at least in the opinion of the redactors who conceived Isa 65 – 66 as the conclusion of the Book of Isaiah. Isaiah 65:17 – 25’s field of vision is not limited solely to Isaianic perspectives as seen in its references to prominent Torah texts. More precisely, according to the literary positions of the texts mentioned – Gen 1:1 and 3:14 at the beginning of the Torah and as part of the outer frame of Gen 1 – 3 as a whole, and Deut 28:30 at the end of the Torah – Isa 65:17 – 25 may intend to allude to the Torah as a whole. Apparently the Torah is viewed as regulative for the “old” creation, whose difficulties arise because its original “goodness” (Gen 1:31) included the possibility of its own perversion, which very quickly became a reality (Gen 6:12). The fact that Isa 65:17 – 25 alludes to the Torah as a whole attempts to show that the “new” creation and its world order are meant to be permanent, thereby making obsolete the interweaving of history and law found in the Torah.

tiple Modern Possibilities,” in New Visions of Isaiah (ed. Roy F. Melugin; JSOTSup 214; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1996), 188 – 218; Marvin Sweeney, “Prophetic Exegesis in Isaiah 65 – 66,” in Writing and Reading the Scroll of Isaiah: Studies of an Interpretive Tradition (ed. Craig C. Broyles and Craig A. Evans; VTSup 70/1; Leiden/Boston: Brill, 1997), 465 – 66; Konrad Schmid, “Jesaja/Jesajabuch,” in RGG 4 (2001): 451 – 56; Stromberg, Isaiah, 148 – 54 (see the discussion 148, n. 5).

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Jacob Stromberg

Deutero-Isaiah’s Restoration Reconfigured

Soaring hopes of restoration mark the prophecies of DI,1 giving them a tone that has engendered hope in readers far removed from the original circumstances of their composition. Perhaps as a testament to the power of DI’s rhetoric, its message of restoration (however transformed) has outlived the historical context to which it was first addressed – a process some have detected in the editing of the chapters themselves.2 The lively interpretive afterlife of DI’s restoration hopes is evident everywhere in late Second Temple literature, to go no further.3 As a matter of historical fact, DI’s hopes emerged from the firm belief that the fortunes of Zion and her people had taken a turn for the better with the rise of the Persians and consequent fall of Babylon: exiles were to be returned, Jerusalem and the cities around it restored, and the temple rebuilt. No doubt, these hopes were squarely grounded in the successes of the Persian king Cyrus. He is men1 I use DI as a literary designation for chs 40 – 55. 2 See, e. g., Hans C. Schmitt, “Prophetie und Schultheologie im Deuterojesajabuch: Beobachtungen zur Redaktionsgeschichte von Jes 40 – 55,” ZAW 91 (1979): 43 – 61; Antje Labahn, “The Delay of Salvation within Deutero-Isaiah,” JSOT 85 (1999): 71 – 84; Rainer Albertz, “Darius in Place of Cyrus: The First Edition of Deutero-Isaiah (Isaiah 40.1 – 52.12) in 521 bce,” JSOT 27 (2003): 371 – 83. Many others are discussed in Rainer Albertz, Die Exilszeit. 6. Jahrhundert v. Chr. (BE 7; Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 2001), 283 – 323. [= Rainer Albertz, Israel in Exile: The History and Literature of the Sixth Century B.C.E. (SBLSBL 3; Leiden and Boston: Brill, 2004), 376 – 434.] 3 Among other studies especially relevant to the present essay, see James H. Charlesworth, “Intertextuality : Isaiah 40:3 and the Serek Ha-Yahad,” in The Quest for Context and Meaning: Studies in Biblical Intertextuality in Honor of James A. Sanders (ed. Craig A. Evans and Shemaryahu Talmon; Leiden: Brill, 1997), 197 – 224; Arie van der Kooij, “‘Coming’ Things and ‘Last’ Things: Isaianic Terminology as understood in the Wisdom of Ben Sira and in the Septuagint of Isaiah,” in The New Things: Eschatology in Old Testament Prophecy : Festschrift for Henk Leene (ed. Ferenc Postma et al.; Maastricht: Shaker, 2002), 135 – 40. On the history of Isaiah’s interpretation in general (including much material that relates to chs 40 – 55), see Joseph Blenkinsopp, Opening the Sealed Book: Interpretations of the Book of Isaiah in Late Antiquity (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2006); Brevard Childs, The Struggle to Understand Isaiah as Christian Scripture (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2004); Christian Metzenthin, Jesaja-Auslegung in Qumran (AThANT 98; Zu¨rich: Theologischer Verlag, 2010).

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tioned twice by name and alluded to several other times as the one in connection with whom these aspects of restoration would be fulfilled (e. g. 44:28; 45:1). The importance placed on Cyrus for DI’s restoration can be seen plainly in the titles applied to him: in 44:28 God says of Cyrus, “he is my shepherd, and will do all that I desire”; in 45:1 he is called Yhwh’s “anointed”; in 46:11 God designates him “the man of my plan.” Such titles have led some to conclude that here DI grants Cyrus the status of Messiah, that is, he is seen as “the genuine Judean king” bringing back the status quo ante.4 Whatever the validity of this argument, there can be little doubt that DI couples its restoration with the Persian king. This figure would be instrumental to implementing the divine plan.5 These prophecies of restoration, grounded though they were in the political situation of the day, saw their own history of interpretation begin to unfold before the book of Isaiah was even complete. The interpretive afterlife of this restoration can be discerned already in TI as it looks back to DI through various forms of textual borrowing, a feature which I (alongside many others) have sought to describe elsewhere.6 TI alludes to passages throughout DI, including those proclaiming the advent of restoration under Cyrus.7 In this paper, I will argue that, when TI reconfigured this earlier material though allusion, it anticipated a hermeneutic fundamental to later Second Temple interpretation, here

4 So (among others) Lisbeth S. Fried, “Cyrus the Messiah? The Historical Background to Isaiah 45:1,” HTR 95 (2002): 392 – 93. 5 Since the larger issue at stake in the argument here turns on the construal of the Persian period as a whole, it matters little whether later events of this period have been worked editorially into the depiction of Cyrus, or even whether some of the passages (through a similar process) refer to Darius (though he is never named): see Albertz, “Darius in Place of Cyrus,” 371 – 83. He seeks to develop some of the arguments of Reinhard G. Kratz, Kyros im Deuterojesaja-Buch: Redaktionsgeschichtliche Untersuchungen zu Entstehung und Theologie von Jes 40 – 55 (FAT 1; Tu¨bingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1991). As far as I can tell, the results of these studies would not seriously alter the conclusions of the present argument. However, it has to be noted that some have expressed reserve in accepting the conclusions of these studies: see, e. g., Joseph Blenkinsopp, “The Cosmological and Protological Language of Deutero-Isaiah,” CBQ 73 (2011): 477 – 92 (494, n. 6); Brevard Childs, Isaiah (Louisville, KY: Westminster, 2000), 349; John Goldingay and David Payne, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Isaiah 40 – 55, 1: Isaiah 40.1 – 44.23 (ICC; London: T&T Clark, 2006), 6 – 7; Marvin A. Sweeney, “Review of R.G. Kratz, Kyros im Deuterojesaja-Buch,” JBL 113 (1994): 129 – 31. Moreover, to the extent that all such redactional approaches depend on identifying a core of Deutero-Isaianic material written in Babylon, there is now the need to integrate into the discussion the contribution of Lena-Sofia Tiemeyer, For the Comfort of Zion: The Geographical and Theological Location of Isaiah 40 – 55 (VTSup 139; Leiden: Brill, 2011). 6 For my own account as well as the major works on this, see Jacob Stromberg, Isaiah After Exile: The Author of Third Isaiah as Reader and Redactor of the Book (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011). 7 PI, DI, and TI are used here as literary designations to refer to chapters 1 – 39, 40 – 55, and 56 – 66 respectively.

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represented by Daniel 9. The prophets were read as referring not to their own day, but to a far distant future.8

1.

Cyrus and the Restoration in Ezra–Nehemiah, Chronicles, and Daniel

In linking the advent of restoration with Cyrus, DI is not alone. Several texts see the beginning of the fulfillment of restoration prophecy in the activities of this ruler. 2 Chron 36:20 – 23 regards the transition from Babylonian to Persian rule as the end of the 70 year period spoken of by Jeremiah, a period in which the empty land could enjoy its Sabbaths while the people were in exile. Here, the Chronicler sees Jeremiah through the lens of Lev 26:34 – 35, 43.9 This 70 year period, according to the Chronicles passage, was to give way to a time of restoration, initiated by the decree of Cyrus, thereby fulfilling “the word of Yhwh by the mouth of Jeremiah.” Closely related to this text is Ezra 1 (probably the source of the edict in Chronicles). This passage gives a fuller version of Cyrus’ edict, so that the decree initiates the whole account of restoration that follows in Ezra-Nehemiah, again seen as a fulfillment of Jeremiah. Restoration beginning with Cyrus is an outlook fully shared by DI. In fact, the language employed in the account of this edict (Ezra 1:1 – 4; 2 Chron 36:22 – 23) could suggest a connection with DI more direct than a shared outlook. In both, Yhwh is said to have “stirred up” Cyrus (L=F8), a parallel some have explained through the influence of DI on Ezra 1 at this point (Isa 41:2, 25; 45:13; Ezra 1:1 // 2 Chron 36:22).10 Be that as it may, all three texts certainly share the same outlook: the period of re8 On this “mode of reading” the Hebrew Bible in post-biblical tradition, see John Barton, Oracles of God: Perceptions of Prophecy in Israel after the Exile (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), esp. 141 – 273. 9 John Bergsma, The Jubilee from Leviticus to Qumran (VTSup 115; Leiden: Brill, 2007), 207 – 12; Michael Fishbane, Biblical Interpretation in Ancient Israel (Oxford: Clarendon, 1985), 480 – 81. 10 See, e. g., those listed in Hugh G.M. Williamson, Ezra, Nehemiah (WBC 116; Waco, TX: Word, 1985), 9 – 10. According to Williamson, the author of Ezra 1 had these DI texts in mind, but only secondarily. The more direct influence on his composition came from Jer 51 (‘Behold, I will stir up [L=FB] the spirit [;9L] of a destroyer against Babylon’ [v. 1]; ‘Yhwh has stirred up the spirit [;9L N4 898= L=F8] of the kings of the Medes [LXX: king], because his purpose concerning Babylon is to destroy it’ [v. 11]). Of the relevant passages from DI and Jeremiah, the last of these two verses (Jer. 51:11), though perhaps a later prose insertion, stands closest to the phrase in Ezra 1:1 (ML9? ;9L N4 898= L=F8). Cf. John Applegate, “Jeremiah and the Seventy Years in the Hebrew Bible: Inner-Biblical Reflections on the Prophet and His Prophecy,” in The Book of Jeremiah and Its Reception (ed. A.H.W. Curtis and T. Ro¨mer ; Leuven: Leuven University Press, 1997), 100; Robert Carroll, “Second Isaiah and the Failure of Prophecy,” ST 32 (1978): 129.

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storation began with Cyrus. And both Ezra and Chronicles see this as the fulfillment of Jeremiah. At the same time, other texts do not see the fulfillment of restoration prophecy beginning in the activities of Cyrus. According to Daniel 9, the period of Jerusalem’s “desolations” prophesied by Jeremiah was to be prolonged by a factor of seven (probably in the light of Lev 26).11 Thus, Jeremiah’s 70 years, the end of which was to signal the beginning of restoration, would instead last a total of 490 years. Thus, the fulfillment of Jeremiah’s restoration is made to look far beyond the events initiated by Cyrus and narrated in Ezra-Nehemiah. Indeed, according to John Bergsma, the whole Persian period is seen by Daniel 9 as a penitential period. Gabriel reveals to Daniel in 9:24 that this prolonged sentence over Jerusalem had been appointed “to atone for iniquity” (C9F LH?@).12 Nothing could be farther from DI’s perspective where Jerusalem’s “iniquity” had been “expiated” (8D9F 8JLD [40:2])13 with the exile, so that the restoration was to begin immediately with the divine appointment of Cyrus. It seems, then, that we should set Ezra 1, 2 Chron 36, and DI on one side of the equation as texts which see the restoration beginning under Cyrus, and Daniel 9 on the other side as a passage which looks for restoration far beyond the events inaugurated by this Persian king.14 In this late Second Temple text the promised restoration has been decoupled from the activities of Cyrus.15 When did this decoupling take place? Was it with Daniel 9? Or, alternatively, was there an antecedent to Daniel 9, an antecedent perhaps in the interpretive history of restoration prophecy (as might be suggested by the role of Jeremiah in the above passages)? This essay will argue that a significant antecedent to this move can be discerned in the interpretive activity so vital to the formation of Isaiah, the book 11 John Bergsma, “The Persian Period as Penitential Era: The ‘Exegetical Logic’ of Daniel 9.1 – 27,” in Exile and Restoration Revisited: Essays on the Babylonian and Persian Periods in Memory of Peter R. Ackroyd (ed. Gary N. Knoppers and Lester L. Grabbe, with Deirdre N. Fulton; LSTS 73; London: T&T Clark, 2009), 50 – 64; Fishbane, Biblical Interpretation in Ancient Israel, 487 – 89. 12 On Daniel 9 in this respect, see especially Bergsma, “Persian Period,” 50 – 64. 13 Or, “punishment” had been “accepted.” Cf. Lev 26:41, 43. 14 Ezra 1 and 2 Chron 36 may not contrast as sharply with Daniel 9 when the broader compositional aims of Ezra-Nehemiah and Chronicles are taken into account. In this respect, see Sara Japhet, “Exile and Restoration in the Book of Chronicles,” in The Crisis of Israelite Religion: Transformation of Religous Tradition in Exilic and Post-Exilic Times (ed. Bob Becking and Marjo Korpel; OtSt 42; Leiden: Brill, 1999), 33 – 44; Hugh G.M. Williamson, “The Torah and History in Presentations of Restoration in Ezra-Nehemiah,” in Reading the Law: Studies in Honour of Gordon J. Wenham (ed. J. Gordon McConville and Karl Mo¨ller ; London: T&T Clark, 2007), 156 – 70; J. Gordon McConville, “Ezra-Nehemiah and the Fulfillment of Prophecy,” VT 36 (1986): 205 – 24. 15 While Daniel may contain sources reaching back to the Persian period, most see its final form as Hellenistic.

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being the product of editors who were as a consequence also interpreters. In particular, I will argue that when TI developed the prophecies of DI regarding Cyrus, it anticipated and arguably even influenced the later outlook of Daniel 9.

2.

Third-Isaiah: Yes, or No?

First, however, it is necessary briefly to address the compositional shape and history of chapters 40 – 66. In the light of recent redactional approaches which see DI as a highly composite text,16 as well as arguments for a Palestinian (as opposed to Babylonian) setting for DI,17 it has become necessary to address a problem the resolution of which will have major consequences for the analysis that follows: can we continue to view TI as a discrete section later than DI? Have the boundaries between DI and TI been sufficiently blurred by these recent analyses so as to make reference to these terms unhelpful and inaccurate? While TI was certainly written as a continuation of what comes before it in the book (some of which may have been edited in the light of TI),18 there are two lines of evidence suggesting we may still speak of a TI in relation to an earlier DI. To begin with, TI has been given a distinct compositional shape that suggests it was to be taken as a meaningful unit of text vis-a`-vis the book. Here, Rolf Rendtorff ’s analysis of 56:1 bears repeating.19 Thus says Yhwh, keep justice (üHaB) and do righteousness (8K7J), for soon my salvation (8F9a=) will come, and my deliverance (8K7J) be revealed.

He notes that this verse combines two verbal collocations found elsewhere in the book. The combination 8K7J and üHaB occurs frequently in chaps. 1 – 39, but not a single time in chaps. 40 – 55. Instead, in chaps. 40 – 55 we several times find the combination between 8K7J and 8F9a=, or between the related words 8F9aN and Fa=, a combination which never occurs at all in chaps. 1 – 39. This means that in the book of Isaiah we find two different concepts of 8K7J. The one, dominant in chaps. 1 – 39, relates 8K7J to üHaB, thereby emphasizing the righteousness which has to be kept and done. The other, 16 Albertz, Die Exilszeit, 283 – 323. [= Albertz, Exile, 376 – 434.] 17 See most recently Tiemeyer, Comfort. 18 My own account of this, though not exhaustive, can be found in Stromberg, Isaiah After Exile, 229 – 47. Compare the earlier work of Karl Elliger, Deuterojesaja in seinem Verha¨ltnis zum Tritojesaja (BWANT 63; Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1933). 19 Rolf Rendtorff, “Isaiah 56:1 as a Key to the Formation of the Book of Isaiah,” in Idem, Canon and Theology : Overtures to an Old Testament Theology (ed. and transl. Margaret Kohl; Minneapolis, MN: Fortress, 1993), 181 – 94.

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specific to chaps. 40 – 55, speaks of God’s own 8K7J, whose coming is announced and whose character will be 8F9a=, salvation.20

As Rendtorff observes, Isaiah 56:1 is the first point in the book where each collocation is combined with the other, suggesting an attempt to bring both parts of Isaiah together. For this reason, he concludes (rightly in my opinion) that the first verse of TI presents itself as “the deliberate beginning of something new” in the book. Reinforcing the sense that TI has a meaningful shape (and therefore presents itself as a discrete unit of text within the book) is the frame so clearly given it. This frame consists of well-known parallels shared between the opening of TI (56:1 – 8) and its conclusion (65 – 66), only a summary of which can be given here.21 Both passages speak of an eschatological movement towards “my holy mountain,” employing the expression =a7K L8 (@F) @4 4=58, found only here in the OT (56:7; 66:19 – 20).22 Both passages apply the language of the priesthood to foreigners (56:6; 66:21). Both passages promise the ingathering (I5K) of the nations (56:8; 66:18). In TI this verb occurs only here with non-Israelites as its grammatical object. Both passages emphasize keeping the Sabbath ([N5M] 56:2, 4, 6; 66:23). Both describe obedience with the same phrase – IH; La45 L;5 – which occurs only in these texts in the OT with Yhwh as subject of IH; (56:4; 65:12; 66:3 – 4).23 Both label the obedient the “servants” of Yhwh (56:6; 65:8 – 9, 13 – 15; 66:14), a term occurring only one other time in TI. Finally, both passages promise a name (Aa) to the obedient (56:5; 65:15; 66:22). These parallels frame TI giving it a beginning and ending and therefore suggest an effort to give it a distinct literary shape. Like TI’s opening verse, these parallels distinguish this section of the book vis-a`-vis DI. This is not to say, of course, that TI ever circulated independently of DI, or that DI shows no signs of editing from this later quarter of the book. It is simply to say that on the whole the shape of TI allows us to distinguish it literarily from DI. The same might be said for DI, since scholars have often found an attempt to frame this part of the book in, for example, the statements about the constancy and efficacy of the divine “word” (40:8; 55:10 – 11).24 Whether or not there was such an attempt to frame DI, the above evidence suggests that it is entirely appropriate 20 Rendtorff, “Isaiah 56:1 as a Key,” 183. 21 I discuss this issue in Stromberg, Isaiah After Exile, 13 – 30. 22 Klaus Koenen, Ethik und Eschatologie im Tritojesajabuch (WMANT 62; Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener, 1990), 29. 23 Koenen, Ethik und Eschatologie, 31. 24 E.g. Kratz, Kyros, 1; Albertz, Exile, 428; Klaus Baltzer, Deutero-Isaiah: A Commentary on Isaiah 40 – 55 (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress, 2001), 58; Joseph Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40 – 55 (AB 19 A; New York, NY: Doubleday, 2002), 179; Claus Westermann, Das Buch Jesaia, 40 – 66 (ATD 19; Go¨ttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1966), 38.

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on grounds internal to TI to continue to refer to this section of the book as a meaningful literary unit. The second line of evidence distinguishing TI from DI is that of date. Distinguishing TI from DI on literary grounds does not mean that it is later. That position is maintained by virtually every scholar for different reasons. Only a few points need to be noted here. What evidence we have for the absolute dating of these texts suggests that TI is later than DI. To pick one example, where Isa 44:28 looks forward to the rebuilding of the temple under Cyrus, Isa 66:1 – 2 assumes that the building of the temple is underway or complete, a view reinforced by Isa 56:5, 7; 66:6. In this connection it should be noted that TI never mentions the name of Cyrus, which tends to suggest a situation later than that presupposed at least in chs 40 – 48 where this king plays a prominent role. The picture painted by evidence for absolute dating is strengthened considerably by the evidence for a relative dating. Here it needs to be recalled that scholars have unearthed a mountain of evidence suggesting that TI looks back to and develops DI through allusion,25 a situation that is possible only if the former was on the whole written after the latter. This still leaves open the possibility that some passages in DI may have been written contemporaneously with, or after, TI, complicating the relative chronology of these two sections. But, while there are certainly some fine examples of this to be noted, Rainer Albertz has pointed out that, according to most redactional hypotheses applied to Isaiah 40 – 55, these chapters were largely in place at the time chs 60 – 62 were composed, a section of TI that many scholars regard as its earliest core.26 For example, this Trito-Isaianic core presupposes parts of Isaiah 40 and 55, two chapters held by many to be the latest in DI.27 If the earliest part of TI (60 – 62) assumes the latest parts of DI (40 and 55), then we are certainly justified in regarding TI on the whole as later than DI. Thus, despite attempts to argue to the contrary (sometimes on the basis of chs 54 – 55),28 we may continue to distinguish TI from DI, 25 There are too many works to list here. The main ones are mentioned in Stromberg, Isaiah After Exile, 1 – 10, 69 – 141. 26 Albertz, Die Exilszeit, 284, 320. [= Albertz, Exile, 379, 429 – 30.] 27 Albertz, Die Exilszeit, 320; Willem A.M. Beuken, “Servant and Herald of Good Tidings: Isaiah 61 as an Interpretation of Isaiah 40 – 55,” in The Book of Isaiah: Le livre d’Isaı¨e: les oracles et leurs relectures unite´ et complexite´ de l’ouvrage (ed. Jacques Vermeylen; BETL 81; Leuven: Leuven University Press, 1989), 430 – 31; Stromberg, Isaiah After Exile, 71 – 73. 28 Some argue that TI (or the last segment of the book, whatever it is called) really begins in ch. 54 or 55, a position which I have not found persuasive. Two verses may be mentioned here. (1) Isaiah 54:17 employs the plural ‘servants’ like TI (over against the singular ‘servant’ like DI). The argument that this is evidence that ch. 54, or v. 17 alone, marks the beginning of TI’s work overlooks the close affinity of ch. 54 to DI over against TI. It also ignores the fact that many scholars see v. 17 as a later addition, in which case it likely derives from the author of TI who has structured chs 56 – 66 as a distinct literary unit: see Stromberg, Isaiah After Exile, 243 – 47. (2) Isaiah 55:13 is so close to 56:5 that many scholars are compelled to assert

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not only for reasons of literary shape, but also on the basis of both absolute and relative dating.

3.

Cyrus and Two Key Themes in Isaiah 40 – 48

With that methodological point in place, I now turn to the portrayal of Cyrus within DI. The first thing to note here is that within DI Cyrus is referred to only in 40 – 48. In this section, there are two themes in particular that have been employed in connection with the role of this figure. An examination of these themes here will help illuminate TI’s reconfiguration of DI’s restoration, a topic which will be considered below. The two themes are (1) the language of “former” and “latter” (or “new”) things29 and (2) the pervasive use of creation language,30 both of which are widely acknowledged to be major themes within 40 – 48, but some form of literary relationship between the two verses, either the one depending on the other, or both being written by the same hand. While it is perfectly consistent with what is evident everywhere else in TI to assert that 56:5 is the later of the two and is dependent on 55:13, some have argued that 55:13 shows that TI begins earlier and includes ch. 55. Problematic for this view is the clear difference between the two verses, suggesting their relationship is one in which one of the verses has been written in development of the other. If 56:5 is the later of the two, then what was said of Yhwh in 55:13 is taken up and applied to the eunuchs in 56:5, a striking reapplication. That 56:5 is the later verse written in development of 55:13 is suggested by two points. First, 55:12 (which belongs with v. 13) employs the verb 4J= in speaking of the people’s return, which is perfectly consistent with chapters 40 – 55 (e. g. 48:20; 49:9; 52:11 – 12). This is not, however, consistent with chapters 56 – 66 which never use 4J= for the return, but instead employ I5K for this purpose. Indeed, the unit of text, to which 56:5 belongs, concludes with a threefold use of I5K in v. 8. Second, we can see that ch. 55 was taken up and developed at several other points in TI, suggesting 56:5 ought to be seen as another instance of this trend. See Jacob Stromberg, “The Second Temple and the Isaianic Afterlife of the 797 =7E; (Isa 55, 3 – 5),” ZAW 121 (2009): 242 – 55; Stromberg, Isaiah After Exile, 87 – 91, 243 – 47. 29 See (all with references to further literature) the studies of Christopher R. North, “The ‘Former Things’ and the ‘New Things’ in Deutero-Isaiah,” in Studies in Old Testament Prophecy Presented to Professor Theodore H. Robinson on his sixty-fifth birthday, August 9th, 1946 (ed. Harold H. Rowley ; New York: Scribner, 1950), 111 – 26; Menahem Haran, “The Literary Structure and Chronological Framework of the Prophecies of Is. XL – LXVI,” in Congress Volume: Bonn 1962 (VTSup 9; Leiden: Brill, 1963), 127 – 55; Hugh G.M. Williamson, The Book Called Isaiah: Deutero-Isaiah’s Role in Composition and Redaction (Oxford: Clarendon, 1994), 67 – 77; Franz Feldmann, “Das Fru¨here und das Neue,” in Festchrift Edward Sachau, zum siebzigsten Geburtstage gewidmet von Freunden und Schu¨lern (ed. Gotthold Weil; Berlin: Reimer, 1915), 162 – 69. 30 See, e. g., Richard J. Clifford, “The Unity of the Book of Isaiah and Its Cosmogonic Language,” CBQ 55 (1993): 1 – 17; Theodore M. Ludwig, “The Traditions of the Establishing of the Earth in Deutero-Isaiah,” JBL 92 (1973): 345 – 57; Philip B. Harner, “Creation Faith in Deutero-Isaiah,” VT 17 (1967): 298 – 305; Blenkinsopp, “Cosmological,” 493 – 510. See also, in connection with the theme of “former” and “latter” things, Carroll Stuhlmueller, “‘First and Last’ and ‘Yahweh-Creator’ in Deutero-Isaiah,” CBQ 29 (1967): 495 – 511.

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not in 49 – 55. References to the “former” and “latter” things can be found only in 40 – 48 within DI. The same is true for the theme of creation, except for three brief references in 49 – 55 (51:13, 16; 54:16). Indeed, while the verb 4L5 (“to create”) occurs more frequently in 40 – 48 (14x) than in any other section of the Hebrew Bible,31 it appears in only one verse within 49 – 55 (54:16). These two themes do not always occur in direct connection with Cyrus in 40 – 48, but the fact that all three – creation language, the former and later things, and references to Cyrus – occur exclusively in these chapters within DI (the only exception being the few references to creation in 51 and 54) strongly suggests they all are interrelated. As we shall now see, this close relationship emerges in several passages mentioning Cyrus in connection with one or the other of the two themes, or both at once. The first passage to mention in connection with Cyrus is 41:1 – 4. Here, the nations are invited to enter into debate with Yhwh; and to them the question is posed: “Who roused (L=F8) one from the east” (v. 2). The “one from the east” is usually understood as Cyrus, a view that tends to be confirmed by a comparison with 45:1, 13 where Cyrus is named and the verb “to rouse” is employed in connection with him. Following this is a description of the victories given this figure and a second question with a similar thrust (“who acted”). Then comes the answer “I, Yhwh, am first (C9M4L); and I myself am with the last (A=DL;4).” The language of the former and latter things thus serves to ground the call of Cyrus. It was the God who spanned all history who had control and was therefore able to rouse this one to victory. Additionally, if one takes seriously the link with the previous passage (;? 9H=@;= [40:31; 41:1]), then the depiction of Cyrus here attaches itself also to the language of creation found there; the link apparently serves to contrast the nations who “renew their strength” for a futile debate with God with those who “renew their strength” by trusting in the creator (4L5). This passage is usually compared with 41:21 – 29, the next text to be considered here.32 In this passage, the gods, rather than the nations, are challenged. “The former things (N9DM4L8), what are they? Proclaim them, that we may ponder and know (8F7D9) their end (CN=L;4) […]; proclaim the coming things (N9=N48) hereafter that we may know (8F7D9) you are gods […]; do something good or bad that we may be astonished […]” Having failed to meet these divine requests, they are told “behold you are nothing (C=4B).” With this negative conclusion in place, the passage turns to the positive assertion that, in contrast to these non-gods, Yhwh is able to perform his deeds in history and, what is more, to proclaim 31 Cf. Blenkinsopp, “Cosmological,” 495. 32 This passage is widely held to be a single unit. See, e. g., Goldingay and Payne, Isaiah 40.1 – 44.23: 191 – 92; Roy F. Melugin, The Formation of Isaiah 40 – 55 (BZAW 141; Berlin: de Gruyter, 1976), 98; Westermann, Das Buch Jesaia, 40 – 66, 69 – 70.

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them in advance. “I roused him (=N9L=F8) from the north and he came […]; he tramples33 officials like clay.” This victorious figure is taken by most to be Cyrus. Having announced this divine deed, the author then asks a pointed rhetorical question directed to the non-gods: “Who proclaimed this formerly that we might know it (8F7D9)?” This question, a reference back to the earlier challenge made in the passage, receives an answer similar to before, “no one (C=4) heard your words.” Thus, the God of Israel emerges as superior to the gods, because of his ability to control history (Cyrus included) and foretell it in advance. Once again, the rhetoric of DI regarding Cyrus employs the language of the former and latter things. It is worth noting, in connection with our discussion of Ezra 1 and 2 Chron. 36, that Isaiah 41:21 – 29 – the passage presently under consideration – implies (or asserts explicitly) that, though the non-gods were unable to proclaim the rise of Cyrus in advance, Yhwh did do so, a claim that may have been made explicit in the surely corrupt text of verse 27. Without the implied (or explicit) claim that Yhwh did announce this beforehand, the argument in the present passage would stop mid-course, asserting that he acts in history, but falling short of making the necessary claim that he announced it in advance, which is in fact the other half of the challenge made to the gods. This seems to be the answer to the rhetorical question of verse 26. Supporting this, the claim to prediction is made in another passage sharing the same basic themes. Also referring to Cyrus, Isaiah 46:8 – 13 reads:34 Remember the former things (N9DM4L) from antiquity, because I am God and there is no other, God and there is none like me – proclaiming the end (N=L;4) from the beginning (N=M4LB) and from antiquity that which was not done, saying ‘my purpose (=NJF) will stand, I will do all my desire,’ calling a bird of prey from the east, the man of my plan (=NJF) from a distant land; surely I spoke, surely I will bring it.

In the light of this passage (which contributes to our theme in its own right), a wide base of opinion sees in 41:21 – 29 the claim that Yhwh’s rousing Cyrus was prophesied beforehand,35 a view that seems to be embedded in Ezra 1 and

33 Reading E5=9 instead of 45=9. 34 For a discussion of the image of a bird of prey here in its ancient Near Eeastern context (along with an extensive listing of those seeing Cyrus behind the passage), see Michael J. Chan, “Cyrus, Yhwh’s Bird of Prey (Isa. 46.11): Echoes of an Ancient Near Eastern Metaphor,” JSOT 35 (2010): 113 – 27. 35 E.g., see (citing other passages as well) Klaus Koch, “Die Stellung des Kyros im Geschichtsbild Deuterojesajas und ihre u¨berlieferungsgeschichtliche Verankerung,” ZAW 84 (1972): 150; Roddy L. Braun, “Cyrus in Second and Third Isaiah, Chronicles, Ezra and Nehemiah,” in The Chronicler as Theologian: Essays in Honor of Ralph W. Klein (ed. M. Patrick Graham, Steven L. McKenzie, and Gary N. Knoppers; London: T&T Clark, 2003), 146 – 64; Haran, “Structure,” 137; North, “Former,” 121.

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therefore 2 Chron 36, though these passages point explicitly to Jeremiah as the source of this prophecy, whereas the source of DI must be inferred from its language and is consequently a matter of much debate.36 (At least in the case of Isaiah 46:8 – 13, a reference to chs 13 – 14 seems quite probable.37) The common appeal to fulfilling an earlier prophecy would further unite the three texts – Ezra 1, 2 Chron 36, and DI – with respect to their understanding of the restoration under Cyrus. Be that as it may, there can be little doubt that in 41:21 – 26 Cyrus is once again tied to the former and latter things. And it may be observed that, once again, the passage dealing with Cyrus in 41:21 – 26 follows directly on another where creation language is employed in connection with the anticipated redemption (e. g. 4L5 in v. 20). As before, there is evidence suggesting the two were linked through a similar phrase (“to consider it” [vv. 20, 22]).38 One of the most impressive uses of creation language in DI comes in the longest oracle proclaiming Cyrus’ role in the restoration, Isaiah 44:24 – 45:13, which scholars usually divide into two sections. The first half (44:24 – 45:8) places the work of Cyrus squarely within the providential dealings of the God of Israel on behalf of his people. The Persian king, before whom no obstacle would stand by virtue of divine will, would accomplish all that God wanted; Jerusalem would be rebuilt and the temple founded (44:28). Here, the work of Cyrus is subsumed to divine providence by several literary techniques, including framing the first section of the oracle with the statement, “I Yhwh make all things (@? 8bF)” (44:24; 45:7). Thus, everything, including the victory enjoyed by this foreign king, belongs to divine providence: “I am Yhwh and there is no other, former (LJ9=) of light and creator (4L95) of darkness, maker (8bF) of wellbeing and creator (4L95) of hard times” (45:6b–7a). This all-encompassing claim no doubt served to explain God’s use of Cyrus: if God is the creator of all (@?), it 36 See the discussion of this in footnote 27 above. 37 “I am God […] proclaiming the end from the beginning […]saying ‘my purpose (=NJF) will stand (A9KN) […] calling […] the man of my plan (=NJF) from a distant land” (Isaiah 46:9 – 12). When did he proclaim this? The language of the passage invites a comparison with Isaiah 14:24 – 27, which, in assuring the plan to remove the Assyrian yoke (“Just as I planned [=NJF=], so it will stand [A9KN]”), universalizes that plan against the Assyrian oppressors to include any foreign oppressor (“This is the plan planned [8J9F=8 8JF8] against all the earth; and this is the hand outstretched against all the nations. For Yhwh of Hosts has planned [IF=] and who can frustrate?”). The application of this plan to “all the nations” almost certainly serves to ground the preceding oracle against Babylon (13:1 – 14:23) which speaks of the rise of the Medes against Babylon so that Israel can be released from its “hard service” under Babylonian oppression. In the light of connections such as this, it seems probable that the relationship between Isaiah 13 – 14 and 46 (or DI more broadly) is a compositional one. See further Williamson, Book, 157 – 75. 38 Literally to place (A=M) one’s heart (5@); “heart” is probably implied in v. 20. See BDB, p. 963 (at 2.b).

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follows that international politics also fall under his purview, and can be utilized for the sake of his people.39 This point is reinforced by further elements at the beginning and end of the text. The passage begins with a series of attributive participles leading from creation to Cyrus: “I am Yhwh, maker of all, the one stretching out the heavens by myself, spreading out the earth […], the one saying to Cyrus, ‘you are my shepherd’” (44:24 – 28). And the passage ends in verse 8 with a short hymn calling the heavens and earth to respond to the redemption just announced. Shot through with creation language the hymn concludes “I Yhwh have created it” (9=N4L5). The second half of the Cyrus oracle comes in 45:9 – 13. It begins with what many see as a response to those who would object to the use of a foreign king in Israel’s affairs;40 but it quickly moves (perhaps also in response to the same objection) to the following declaration in verses 12 – 13: I (=?D4) Yhwh made the earth; and I created (=N4L5) man upon it. As for me (=D4), my hands stretched out the heavens; I commanded all their hosts. I (=?D4) myself roused him (98NL=F8) in righteousness; and I will smooth all his ways. He will rebuild my city ; and he will let go my exiles.

The first two lines recount creation; the second two narrate the divine dealings with Cyrus. The divine first person pronoun repeated throughout again ensures a seamless flow of divine activity from creation to Cyrus. The restoration will come through this foreign king, and he has been roused by the one who made all things, Yhwh. Accordingly, both halves of the Cyrus oracle in 44:24 – 45:13 employ the language of creation to articulate the theological rationale for God’s use of this controversial figure. The Creator of all – Israel’s God – seizes the right hand of Cyrus to ensure this foreign king’s victory, a mighty act preformed “for the sake of Jacob” (45:1 – 3). The imagery seeks to subordinate the Persian ruler to a broader sequence of events controlled by the divine will. The final passage to be considered combines in the clearest way the language of creation with that of the former and latter things. Isaiah 48 has long been recognized as a pivotal passage within DI as it concludes the first of the two halves of chs 40 – 55. Immediately following the announcement of Babylon’s fall in ch. 47, Isaiah 48 urges the people “come out from Babylon, flee from there” (v. 20). This chapter adopts a tone unusually harsh for chs 40 – 48, as the people are told, “Of old I announced the former things (N9DM4L8) […] suddenly I acted and 39 Cf. Terence E. Fretheim, God and World in the Old Testament (Nashville, TN: Abingdon, 2005), 185. 40 E.g. Fried, “Cyrus,” 392; Westermann, Das Buch Jesaia, 40 – 66, 134; Roger N. Whybray, Isaiah 40 – 66 (NCB; Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1975), 107; Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40 – 55, 252.

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they came, because I know you are hard […]; Of old I told to you […] lest you say ‘my idol did them’” (vv. 3 – 5), and, “Now I proclaim to you new things (N9M7;), hidden things which you did not know; now they are being created (94L5D), and not in the past […]; lest you say ‘behold, I knew them’” (vv. 6 – 7). These divine actions (and their accompanying accusations) are motivated by the concern expressed in verse 11, “I will not give my glory to another.” Immediately after this statement, the concern is addressed again in 48:12 – 15. This passage mentions Cyrus, illuminates the former and new things just mentioned, and does so through a reiteration of the themes found in the passages discussed above. Listen to me, O Jacob, O Israel, one called by my name. It is I myself who am first (C9M4L); indeed I am last (C9L;4). Surely my hand founded the earth; and my right hand spread out the heavens. I call them and they stand together. Gather together, all of you, and listen; who among you41 proclaimed these things? Yhwh loves him, the one who will do his desire against Babylon; and his arm shall be against the Chaldeans.42 I myself spoke; indeed, I called him; I brought him; and his way will prosper.

Here, in connection with Cyrus’ work against Babylon, are references both to creation and to the former and latter things. The one claiming the status of first and last, of creator, and of foreteller, is the one who summoned this foreign king to do his bidding. Taken together, all of these passages make it abundantly clear that the language of creation and that of the former and latter things are closely connected in DI’s rhetoric regarding the restoration under Cyrus. As I mentioned earlier, these two themes are sometimes employed in 40 – 48 without an explicit connection to this figure. However, because all such instances are clearly connected to the restoration hopes of 40 – 48 and because those hopes are obviously made to depend on this figure, these other references lacking an explicit connection to Cyrus would seem to be connected to the Persian king as well.43 It seems probable then, that all of the language regarding creation and the former and latter things in 40 – 48 serves some purpose in advancing the message of restoration under Cyrus.

41 Reading A?5 instead of A85. 42 Cf. GKC §§119hh. 43 The principle passages not mentioned above are 42:5 – 10; 43:1 – 7, 8 – 13, 41 – 21; 44:1 – 5, 6 – 8; 45:18 – 19, 21.

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TI Reconfigures DI’s Restoration

Having examined the linguistic shape of DI’s restoration under Cyrus, I now turn to the question of TI’s reconfiguration of these hopes. Since any comprehensive treatment of this topic here is simply out of the question, I will focus more narrowly on the two themes discussed above, which brings us immediately to a passage in Isaiah 65. To understand the reconfiguration present in this passage, we need to place it within the broader context of TI, concerning which there are two issues of special relevance to the present argument. First, what is the compositional shape of these eleven chapters? And, second, what is the broader pattern of Deutero-Isaianic reuse found therein? Many scholars would agree that TI is composite, incorporating and commenting on earlier sources now preserved in its present form. Chapters 60 – 62 are usually taken as an early core44 and 63:7 – 64:11 as an early lament,45 both of which have been incorporated into the final composition. At the other end of TI’s formative history, Isaiah 56:1 – 8 and 65 – 66 are taken together as the latest material,46 forming a deliberate frame around the whole that draws on the sources incorporated into it. The rest of TI is usually assigned either to the author of this core or to that of the frame, any one passage often being seen as a mixture of both layers (though some posit even further layers).47 While this certainly cautions against drawing any casual conclusions regarding the outlook of TI as a whole, there is nevertheless something resembling a unified perspective in the last eleven chapters of the book as they look back to DI; and this, because the whole of TI owes its present existence to the author of this late frame. A close coordination of source and redaction in TI is supported by the evidence. 44 See, e. g., Koenen, Ethik, 215; Lesek Ruszkowski, Volk und Gemeinde im Wandel: Eine Untersuchung zu Jesaja 56 – 66 (FRLANT 191; Go¨ttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2000); Johannes Goldenstein, Das Gebet der Gottesknechte: Jesaja 63,7 – 64,11 im Jesajabuch (WMANT 92; Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener, 2001), 229; Jill Middlemas, “Divine Reversal and the Role of the Temple in Trito-Isaiah,” in Temple and Worship in Biblical Israel (ed. J. Day ; LHBOTS 422; London: T&T Clark, 2005), 164 – 87. Others are mentioned in Stromberg, Isaiah After Exile, 11 – 13. 45 See, e. g., Odil H. Steck, Studien zu Tritojesaja (BZAW 203; Berlin: de Gruyter, 1991), 221 – 25; Koenen, Ethik, 161; Goldenstein, Gebet, 201 – 28; Ruszkowski, Volk, 81; Paul A. Smith, Rhetoric and Redaction in Trito-Isaiah (VTSup 62; Leiden: Brill, 1995), 132. 46 Views differ over the composition of 56:1 – 8 and 65 – 66. Should they to be regarded as composite texts or whole cloth compositions? I regard the latter view as the more probable of the two, though there is obviously room for debate: Stromberg, Isaiah After Exile, 42 – 68. See, e. g., Seizo Sekine, Die Tritojesajanische Sammlung (Jes 56 – 66) redaktionsgeschichtlich untersucht (BZAW 157; Berlin: de Gruyter, 1989), 57; Paul Hanson, The Dawn of Apocalyptic (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress, 1975), 388 – 89; Ulrich Berges, Das Buch Jesaja: Komposition und Endgestalt (HBS 16; Freiburg im Breisgau: Herder, 1998), 481 – 534, 550; Smith, Rhetoric, 204. 47 For a summary of views on this (in addition to his own proposal), see Smith, Rhetoric, 62.

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Thus, my focus on Isa 65 should illuminate the larger corpus as it relates to the earlier prophecies of DI.48 Indeed, there are passages in the earlier parts of TI supportive of the argument that follows.49 But an analysis of these is precluded by the necessary constraints of space. Turning from the compositional shape of TI, I now consider the pattern of DI reuse found therein. Though composite, TI consistently exhibits at least three hermeneutical reflexes in alluding to DI. Each reflex suggests a later reading deeply influenced by the earlier vision of restoration. First, TI everywhere reaffirms the divine restoration announced by DI. In chs 60 – 62, for example, one finds a vision of restoration beginning with the announcement “arise shine (=L94), because your light (ýL94) has come”; this vision quotes so many lines from DI that it almost constitutes a pastiche of this earlier material.50 This reaffirming mode of allusion, together with the view that many of DI’s hopes had not been realized by the time of TI’s final composition, fed into the second hermeneutical reflex. This was to regard the earlier restoration promise as having been delayed because of sin. Thus, Isaiah 59, alluding to both DI and ch. 60, announces “behold the hand of Yhwh is not too short to save” (59:1, quoting 50:2), “rather your transgressions are separating you from your God” (59:2). Alluding back to the “light” of ch. 60 (itself based on DI), Isaiah 59:6 explains “For this reason justice is far from us [. . .] we expect light (L94), but behold, darkness”.51 For TI as we have it, sin delayed the light (L94) of DI’s restoration. Reaffirmed but delayed, DI’s restoration was also transformed by TI; and this is the third reflex. Where TI reaffirms a particular restoration hope from DI, it often transforms it in accordance with a different, though not necessarily new, theological paradigm. Perhaps the most obvious (and therefore best known) example of this emerges from TI’s adoption of the terms “servant” and “chosen

48 Some would regard the vision of a new heavens and earth in 65 to belong to an earlier layer of TI, a position which I do not accept: see Stromberg, Isaiah After Exile, 42 – 68, esp. 51 – 56. 49 See, e. g., Hugh G.M. Williamson, Variations on a Theme: King, Messiah and Servant in the Book of Isaiah (Carlisle: Paternoster, 1998), 174 – 88. 50 Compare, for example, the following: 60:4//49:18; 60:9a//51:5b; 60:9b//55:5; 60:13//41:19; 60:16//49:26; 61:1//42:1; 62:10//40:3, 49:22; 62:11//40:10. Many more could be added. In addition to most commentaries, see especially Beuken, “Isaiah 61,” 411 – 40; Wolfgang Lau, Schriftgelehrte Prophetie in Jes 56 – 66 (BZAW 225; Berlin: de Gruyter, 1994), 22 – 117; Walther Zimmerli, “Zur Sprache Tritojesajas,” in Gottes Offenbarung: Gesammelte Aufsa¨tze (Munich: Kaiser, 1969), 221 – 25. For further literature and a more recent discussion of this, see Judith Ga¨rtner, Jesaja 66 und Sacharja 14: Eine traditions- und redaktionsgeschichtliche Untersuchung zum Abschluss des Jesaja- und des Zwo¨lfprophetenbuches (WMANT 114; Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener, 2006), 119 – 22. 51 In this, Isaiah 59 should be seen together with 58: see Smith, Rhetoric, 110 – 14, 17, 26 – 27; Stromberg, Isaiah After Exile, 12 – 13.

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one” from DI.52 Here, TI transforms DI’s “Jacob my servant (=7%5F) and Israel my chosen one (=L%=;5)” (45:4) into a righteous remnant “from Jacob” called “my servants” (=7(5F) and “my chosen ones” (=L(=;5) (65:9). Underlying this transformation is a reconfiguration of the criterion of selection. In DI Israel’s status as “chosen one” (L=;5) arose from God’s choice (he “chose” Israel [L;5]).53 In the new context of TI, however, L=;5 receives its meaning from the refrain in 56:1 – 8 and 65 – 66 where the righteous choose (L;5) what pleases God and the wicked do not (56:4; 65:12; 66:4). Reconfiguring DI’s language of election, TI has effectively transformed the basis for inclusion in the restoration: in DI God chooses his people who therefore enjoy restoration; in TI his people choose him with the same result.54 In alluding to this theme, TI reveals a paradigm shift at work in the reception of DI’s restoration, a shift placing new emphasis on ethical individuals as the heirs of salvation. A restoration initially promised to the whole has been limited to the few. Such a hermeneutic marks the final composition of TI. All three hermeneutical reflexes – reaffirmation, responding to perceived delay, and transformation – are present in ch. 65. Isaiah 65 addresses the frustrated expectations for restoration that are given voice in the lament preceding it in chs 63 – 64. Responding to destroyed cities and a ruined temple, the lament in 63:7 – 64:11 recounts God’s past divine deeds of salvation for his people, on this basis expecting him to act now “on account of his servants” (63:17). Revealing frustrated expectations in the light of ongoing devastation, the lament ends with the troubling question, “over these things [. . .] will you be silent?” In what is widely recognized as a response to this lament,55 Isaiah 65 answers that God had not been silent, but had made himself available (v. 1).56 The chapter also promises that he will not be silent (v. 6), vowing instead to repay the people for their sins. Despite judgment, the oracle assures that God would act “on account of his servants” saving a righteous remnant (vv. 8 – 9). What he would do for that remnant is then described in a stunning vision of a new heavens and earth with Jerusalem at its center (vv. 16 – 25). In this new world the righteous remnant from Jacob would enjoy supernaturally long life, freedom from foreign powers (“they will not plant and another eat of it”), fecundity, and safety from dangerous animals. 52 See, especially in relation to the term “servant,” Willem A.M. Beuken, “The Main Theme of Trito-Isaiah ‘The Servants ofYhwh’,” JSOT 47 (1990): 67 – 87; Joseph Blenkinsopp, “The Servant and the Servants in Isaiah and the Formation of the Book,” in Writing and Reading the Scroll of Isaiah: Studies of an Interpretive Tradition (ed. Craig C. Broyles and Craig A. Evans; VTSup 70; Leiden: Brill, 1997), 153 – 75. 53 Isa 41:8, 9; 44:1, 2; 48:10; 49:7. 54 Cf. Ruszkowski, Volk, 124 – 25. 55 See those listed in Stromberg, Isaiah After Exile, 30 – 32. 56 On the translation of 65:1, see Stromberg, Isaiah After Exile, 88.

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More clearly than any other passage in TI, this vision in ch. 65 develops the two themes shaping DI’s language regarding restoration under Cyrus. Thus, in the introduction to this vision many detect an allusion to the themes of creation and of the “former” and “new things” from Isaiah 40 – 48.57 This introduction reads, The former troubles (N9Da4L8 N9LJ8) are forgotten and hidden from my eyes, because, behold, I am creating (4L95) a new (A=a7;) heavens and a new (8a7;) earth, and the former things (N9Da4L8) will not be remembered, nor will they come to mind. Rather, exult and rejoice forever because of that which I am creating (4L95). For behold, I am creating (4L95) Jerusalem to be a rejoicing and her people an exultation. (65:16b–18)

An allusion seems probable for several reasons. (1) Outside Isa 40 – 48 and 65:16 – 17 the feminine plural adjective N9Da4L occurs only one other time in the OT, the other occurrence having no obvious connection to the theme in Isaiah.58 (2) Like chapters 40 – 48, Isaiah 65:16 – 17 pairs the adjectives C9a4L and a7;. (3) Isaiah 65:17 says the former things (N9Da4L) are not to be remembered (L?:), precisely what is said of them at 43:19 (cf. 46:9). (4) In light of these connections, the verb 4L5 in 65:17 – 18 almost certainly recalls its pervasive use in 40 – 48, where (as noted above) it appears fourteen times.59 Taken together, these lexical connections form a strong case for an allusion at 65:16 – 18. This passage clearly redeploys both themes connected to the restoration under Cyrus in 40 – 48 – the language of creation and that of the former and latter things. By means of allusion to the language of restoration in 40 – 48, this TritoIsaianic passage reaffirms the earlier vision of restoration promised to Jerusalem and her people (v. 18), no doubt because the older oracles were received as authoritative by this later literate visionary. However, in reaffirming the earlier vision, the later author also reconfigured it. Both themes undergo a stunning transformation evident in specific textual reformulations. Isaiah 65:16 transforms 40 – 48’s N9Da4L (“former things”) into N9Da4L8 N9LJ8 (“the former troubles”), and 65:17 reworks 40 – 48’s N9a7; (“new things”) into 8a7; IL49 A=a7; A=Ba (“a new heavens and new earth” [cf. 66:22]). When seen in context, these textual transformations speak to the reformulation of the original vision of restoration in 40 – 48. In the new vision, the 57 See, e. g., Berges, Buch, 505; Risto Nurmela, The Mouth of the Lord has Spoken: Inner-Biblical Allusions in Second and Third Isaiah (Studies in Judaism; Lanham: University Press of America, 2006), 125 – 26; Eberhard Sehmsdorf, “Studien zur Redaktionsgeschichte von Jesaja 56 – 66 (Jes 65:16b–25 66:1 – 4 56:1 – 8),” ZAW 84 (1972): 517 – 62, 562 – 76 (520); Lau, Prophetie, 135 – 36; Westermann, Das Buch Jesaia, 40 – 66, 323 – 24; Joseph Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56 – 66 (AB 19B; New York, NY: Doubleday, 2003), 286 – 87; Childs, Isaiah, 537; Williamson, Book, 113, n. 46. 58 Gen 41:20. 59 Isa 40:26, 28; 41:20; 42:5; 43:1, 7, 15; 45:7, 7, 8, 12, 18, 18; 48:7.

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“former things” are identified as “troubles” (N9LJ8) in a construction that never appears in 40 – 48. While scholars debate the reference(s) of the “former things” in DI,60 it is nevertheless understandable that this later author read the earlier references to “former things” negatively. The clear movement from judgment to salvation in DI informed this later author’s reading of the transition from the former to the new. Such a move is understandable because DI as a whole clearly speaks about a transition from judgment to restoration and, in doing so, indicates that the new things replacing the former things are tied to better times for Israel. Such logic tends to suggest that the former things were associated with a darker time. What were the troubles to which this later author refers? They may not have differed all that much from what was meant in 40 – 48, assuming that some of the references there refer to a troubled past. However, one aspect in ch. 65 does seem new, and that is the element of persecution. Isaiah 65:9 – 16 indicates that the divine judgment on the wicked among the people would allow the “former troubles” to be forgotten. Since elsewhere these same wicked ones are said to have persecuted the servants who were to enjoy the new world (66:5), the forgetting of the “former troubles” that would usher in the new world likely entailed the end of persecution.61 The end of the wicked meant the end of persecution and so the end of the trouble. Such a reading is a clear adaptation of DI to a later situation of conflict. Or, to put it differently, the later situation was read in the light of the earlier oracles, a move that is only possible when a high degree of authority is ascribed to the older textual vision. When would the former things give way to the new things? The timing of this transition has also been reconfigured in the later vision, though again not in a way entirely out of step with the source from which it drew (see below). In 40 – 48, the “former things” belonged to the past and were being replaced by the new, a transition at the center of which stood Cyrus. However, in the vision of TI (written after this figure’s fate had been sealed), this transition remained a thing of the future. This transformation of temporal expectation required a further grammatical reformulation. Where 43:18 – 19 exhorts “do not remember (9L?:N @4) the former things [. . .] behold I am doing something new; now it sprouts up”, 65 :17 proclaims “the former things will not be remembered (8DL?:N 4@)” when God creates the new world. A present time reference gives way to a future one with the slightest modification of imperative to imperfect. In both passages the forgetting marked the beginning of the restoration. Accordingly, 60 Compare, for example, the approaches of Brevard Childs, Introduction to the Old Testament as Scripture (Philadelphia, PA: Fortress, 1979), 329; North, “Former,” 111 – 26; Haran, “Structure,” 127 – 55. 61 I have sought to give an account of the composition of chs 65 – 66 in Stromberg, Isaiah After Exile, 42 – 68.

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the reformulation defers DI’s imperative to forget to a future beyond TI’s composition, as a consequence also deferring the restoration to a more distant future. The passing of the former things in 65 also meant something very different from, though not entirely discontinuous with, their passing in 40 – 48. In this later vision the passing away of the former things would inaugurate the supernatural conditions described in 65:18 – 25. While this later vision echoes a few elements of the earlier restoration (e. g. v. 18), it clearly goes beyond anything hoped for in 40 – 48, as we shall now see. Perhaps the most impressive transformation comes in the scope of the restoration, which here has been widened to encompass a new heavens and earth. While creation language is used extensively in DI, never is it said that what God is creating is a “new heavens and earth.” Thus, when DI speaks of the future, it never employs “heavens and earth” as the object of the verb 4L5 (“to create”), as is the case in this later vision.62 And, in line with this, DI never couples the word M7; (“new”) with “heavens” or “earth,” as does the author of the later vision in 65 – though the earlier material does employ this word in connection with verbs of creation,63 a fact no doubt inspiring this later connection. Indeed, it could be argued that, somewhat paradoxically, it was the very theology of DI that motivated the transformation evident in chs 65. As seen above, DI clearly grounds its vision of restoration in the claim that Israel’s God is in fact the creator of all things. Precisely this theology, derived from the earlier vision, stands at the center of the later oracle of restoration. It seems reasonable to conclude, therefore, that this later vision broadened the restoration of Jerusalem proclaimed in 40 – 48 by means of a theological principle internal to that earlier material. Put simply, the later author believed not only in the restoration of the people and their land anticipated in his source, but also in the God depicted there, the creator of all. In accordance with the earlier Deutero-Isaianic vision (and perhaps under the coercion of other authoritative texts concerning creation),64 the author of Isaiah 65 expanded the narrow promise of chs 40 – 48 into a vision encompassing all things. One last reformulation of the earlier Deutero-Isaianic restoration is evident in 62 The distribution of 4L5 in DI is as follows: it refers to the past act of creation in 40:26 (stars/ heavens), 8 (earth); 42:5 (heavens); 45:12 (people on the earth), 18 (the heavens and earth); to the creation of Israel in 43:1, 7, 15; to the creation of darkness and hard times in 45:7; to the restoration under Cyrus in 45:8; to the transforming the desert into a place of water and trees in 41:20; to the creation of a destroyer in 54:16. 63 Isa 42:9; 43:19; 48:6. 64 On the role of Gen. 1 – 3 here, see Odil H. Steck, “Der neue Himmel und die neue Erde: Beobachtungen zur Rezeption von Gen 1 – 3 in Jes 65,16b–25,” in Studies in the Book of Isaiah: Festschrift for Willem A.M. Beuken (ed. Jacques T.A.G.M. van Ruiten and Marc Vervenne; Leuven: Leuven University Press, 1997), 357 – 65.

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65:18: “Behold, I am creating (4L95) Jerusalem to be a rejoicing and [creating] her people to be an exultation.” This would enable God to “rejoice in Jerusalem and exult in my people (=BF)” (v. 19), a stark contrast to the present reality reflected in 65:3, where “the people” (AF8) provoke God to his “face continually.” Read in context where the judgment of his people leads to a righteous remnant (vv. 8 – 9), Isaiah 65:18 states that God will “create” (4L5) a righteous remnant to be pleasing to himself. Just how far this goes in developing 40 – 48 may be illustrated with several passages from this earlier material where, by contrast, the verb 4L5 is employed to make the point that God is committed to restoring all Israel. In Isaiah 43, for example, several participial epithets for God are employed amidst promises of national restoration, epithets whose rhetorical purpose was to assure the audience that God was committed to restoring his people (vv. 1 – 3, 5 – 6, 14 – 15). Isaiah 43:1 reads, “thus says Yhwh, your creator (ý4L5), O Jacob; your maker, O Israel, ‘Do not be afraid, for I have redeemed you.’” He would protect them from all manner of danger (v. 2), because, as verse 3 states, “I am Yhwh your God, the holy one of Israel, your savior (ýF=a9B).” The epithet ý4L5 (“your creator”) here serves to strengthen the promise of national restoration, as is evident by its use alongside “your savior.” The same point can be made with verses 14 – 15 where “creator of Israel” (@4Lb= 4L95) follows “your redeemer” (A?@46). Such examples reflect a broader deployment of language in DI grounding the promised restoration of the whole people in the language of creation.65 It is surely striking that, in contrast to DI’s use of the verb 4L5 to ground national redemption, Isaiah 65 redeploys it to make the point that only part of the people would be saved in a refining judgment, a judgment preceding the new creation and having as its purpose the creation of a righteous people pleasing to God. In 40 – 48 no such refining judgment precedes the advent of the new things; the restoration under Cyrus – described with the same verb (4L5) – applied to the whole nation. Thus, restoration initially aimed at the whole has been limited to only a part. It is hard not to see the motivation behind this bold move as the later author’s negative assessment of the people’s response to the earlier divine offer alluded to in 65:1 – 3. I was ready to be sought (=NaL7D) by those who did not ask for me, I was ready to be found (=N4JBD) by those who did not seek me. I said “here I am, here I am” to a people who did not call (4LK) on my name; every day I spread out my hands to a rebellious people, those who walk in the way (ýL78) which is not good, after their own devices (A8=N5a;B), the people who provoke me continually to my face. (65:1 – 3) 65 Note the similar participial use of the verbs LJ= (“to form”) and 8aF (“to make”) in DI (43:1; 44:2, 24; 45:7, 11, 18 – 19; 51:13; 54:5) – the latter also occurring in 66:22 in connection with the “new heavens and earth” mentioned there.

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To what does this refer? In all probability, it recalls the offer made at the conclusion of the older Deutero-Isaianic collection, where in identical language the plea goes forth:66 Seek (9aL7) Yhwh while he may be found (94JB85), call upon him (984LK) while he is near ; let the wicked forsake his way (9?L7) and the man of iniquity his devices (9=N5a;B). Let him return to Yhwh and he will heal him, to our God for he will greatly forgive. For my thoughts (=N95a;B) are not your thoughts (A?=N95a;B) and your ways (A?=?L7) are not my ways (=?L7), says Yhwh. For as the heavens are higher than the earth, so my ways (=?L7) are higher than your ways (A?=?L7B) and my thoughts (=N5a;B) than your thoughts (A?=N5a;BB). (55:6 – 9)

If the logic of restricting DI’s restoration to the righteous alone can be found in this allusion, then once again the transformation evident in the later vision has arisen out of the theology of the earlier collection. Indeed, if such an allusion is present, it cannot be coincidence that the criterion for inclusion in the blessings of the new heavens and earth is couched in the language of this Deutero-Isaianic source. According to 65:9 – 10, those who will partake of the new world are the “servants”, the “chosen ones” – the righteous remnant called a “seed from Jacob” – those “who sought me” (=D9ML7). All aspects of the reformulation I have been discussing point in one direction. Seen through the lens of this later vision, DI’s restoration – once coupled with Cyrus as the agent of divine action – was no longer so. The earlier vision of restoration now looked beyond his day. Restoration had been decoupled from this figure through a process of careful reflection on the words of the earlier vision. The presence of this decoupling in the allusive texture of this later vision is plainly evident. Nowhere does Isa 65, or TI for that matter, name Cyrus as the agent of restoration. In fact, the passage does not assign any foreign political power such a capacity. The absence here of any foreign political entity in implementing the restoration is all the more striking when it is recalled that TI is widely thought to have been written in the early to mid-Persian period, precisely when (according to Ezra-Nehemiah) Cyrus issued his decree, appeals to which then became the basis for ongoing efforts at restoration (Ezra 1:1 – 8; 3:7; 4:3; 5:13 – 14, 17; 6:3, 14). Perhaps the absence of a foreign political power in the restoration of ch. 65 owes itself to the theology of the author’s source, namely, DI. It is difficult to see how the author of ch. 65 could have given an ancient near eastern monarch any role in creating a new heavens and earth without jeopardizing the theological stance on creation he had inherited from his predecessor, who was so insistent that this role belonged to God alone. Furthermore, in 66 On this allusion along with issues of translation and text (including the active rendering of 4LK in 65:1), see Stromberg, Isaiah After Exile, 87 – 91.

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any case, DI’s vision of restoration under Cyrus is so theocentric that, given the right circumstances, this later heir may have felt led to dispense with the notion of such political aid, and in the very act of doing so to have regarded himself as having dealt faithfully with his authoritative source. Finally, from the standpoint of the relevant passages in DI, Cyrus had been put into action and was about to restore the people. In the light of this, and because also from the standpoint of DI the former things had come and the new things were now replacing them,67 Cyrus is placed right at the moment of transition: the new things, replacing the old, were coming into being in his day. All of this makes good sense if, as is usually thought to be the case, the new things refer to the restoration ushered in by Cyrus himself. It is telling, however, that here in TI – a text written after Cyrus – the new things (i. e. “the new heavens and earth”) had not yet replaced the former things (i. e. “the former troubles”). The transition – at the very moment of which stood Cyrus in DI – had not yet occurred (according to this later author) even after the Persian king had passed from the scene. Thus, the transition from the old to the new, a restoration once anticipated in Cyrus’ day, is read for a later day, effectively decoupling the restoration anticipated by DI from the very figure that had seemed to offer it so much hope. For this later author, the divine word had outlived the political situation into which it was first spoken, a thought embedded in the very source of his inspiration: “All flesh is grass […]; grass withers and the flower fades, but the word of our God will stand forever” (40:8).68

5.

Conclusion

With this conclusion in place, our argument has come full circle. Like Daniel 9, this Trito-Isaianic vision decouples the restoration from Cyrus. Also like Daniel 9, it does so through studied reflection on earlier texts: Isaiah 65 clearly draws on DI and perhaps other texts as well;69 Daniel 9 seems to produce a theological synthesis of passages from Jeremiah, Leviticus, and (significantly) Isaiah.70 It is 67 E.g. 43:18 – 19 (“I am doing a new thing”); 46:9, 13 (“recall O sinners, remember the former things […] I have brought my vindication near ; it will not be far, and my salvation will not tarry”); 48:3 – 6 (“now they [the new things] are being created [94L5D]”). 68 If (as mentioned above) the final author(s) of TI reaffirmed the promise of DI, but regarded it as unfulfilled, then it is an inevitable consequence of these two positions that it should have remained on the horizon of the future after Cyrus had faded into the past, another hermeneutical lens likely encouraged by the Deutero-Isaianic collection itself: “my word […] will not return to me empty” (55:11). 69 See, e. g., Steck, “Himmel,” 349 – 65. 70 On the role of Jeremiah, Leviticus, and possibly other passages in Daniel 9, see (with much further literature) Bergsma, “Persian Period,” 50 – 64. On the role of Isaiah in Daniel 9 (esp.

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of course true that scholars have labeled parts of TI (especially ch. 65) “protoapocalyptic”, so that in the broader scheme of intellectual history TI anticipates the outlook of Daniel.71 In the context of the present argument, however, this immediately raises the possibility that TI (or even the particular vision therein which has been the focus here) contributed directly to Daniel 9’s hermeneutical stance regarding the earlier prophecies. This possibility is transformed into an attractive position by an abundance of evidence suggesting that Isaiah (especially its later chapters) influenced Daniel more directly as a source of textual reflection, so that it is not merely an earlier stage in Jewish thought leading up to “apocalyptic” of which Daniel is an exemplar.72 Accordingly, there emerges a strong circumstantial case that the hermeneutics embedded in TI, as a reflection on DI’s restoration under Cyrus, fed into the theological synthesis evident in the textual blend of Daniel 9. One significant point of contact suggesting there may be evidence for this beyond the circumstantial comes at the end of Isaiah in 66:22 – 24, a further description of the new heavens and earth, no doubt related to that vision in ch. 65.73 Here, Isaiah 66 outlines the conditions that were to obtain in the “new heavens and earth.” The righteous seed will endure; all flesh will worship; but the bodies of those who rebel will be an “abomination” (C94L7), a word whose occurrence in a similar scenario at the end of Daniel has suggested to many scholars direct influence from this quarter of Isaiah: “many will awake from sleep in the dusty earth, some to everlasting life and others to reproach and everlasting abomination (C94L7)” (Dan 12:2).74 This word occurs nowhere else in

71

72

73 74

vv. 26 – 27), see Fishbane, Biblical Interpretation in Ancient Israel, 489 – 91; Andrew Teeter, “Isaiah and the King of As/Syria in Daniel’s Final Vision: On the Rhetoric of Inner-Scriptural Allusion and the Hermeneutics of ‘Mantological Exegesis’,” in ATeacher for All Generations: Essays in Honor of James C. VanderKam (ed. Eric F. Mason and Samuel I. Thomas; JSJSup 153/1; Leiden: Brill, 2012), 174 – 83. In this respect, see (above all) Hanson, Dawn. Cf. Blenkinsopp, Opening, 18. Collins is somewhat critical of Hanson’s argument that the “dawn of apocalyptic” begins with postexilic prophecy (TI being at the center of Hanson’s analysis), but he nevertheless concedes “significant continuity” between the two: see John J. Collins, The Apocalyptic Imagination: An Introduction to Jewish Apocalyptic Literature (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1998), 21 – 23. E.g. Teeter, “Isaiah,” 169 – 99; Fishbane, Biblical Interpretation in Ancient Israel, 458 – 524; Matthias Henze, “The Use of Scripture in the Book of Daniel,” in A Companion to Biblical Interpretation in Early Judaism (ed. M. Henze; Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2011), 279 – 307. This connection is almost universally recognized. While the last two chapters of Isaiah are certainly not straightforward as a composition, they do (in my opinion) form the work of a single hand: see Stromberg, Isaiah After Exile, 42 – 68. See, e. g., James A. Montgomery, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Book of Daniel, (ICC; Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1927), 472; ibid.; Henze, “The Use of Scripture in the Book of Daniel,” 298; Jon D. Levenson, Resurrection and the Restoration of Israel: The

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the entire Hebrew Bible. Moreover, the very next verse in Daniel seems to draw on the famous servant passage of Isa 53, and to do so in a manner which may be compared with TI’s own reflection on DI’s servant language – suggesting another instance where TI has influenced Daniel’s understanding of DI.75 I do not doubt that further textual evidence could be adduced for TI as an interpretive antecedent in the sense mentioned above; but that is an argument which must await another day. Until then, it seems to me that enough has been said here to make such a line of influence very plausible. The hermeneutical process evident in TI’s reflection on DI likely presents us with a significant antecedent to the textual reflections underlying Daniel 9, providing us a window into a wider dynamic in the Hebrew Bible regarding Cyrus and the restoration anticipated by the prophets.

Ultimate Victory of the God of Life (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2006), 190; Fishbane, Biblical Interpretation in Ancient Israel, 493. There are significant differences between the outlook of Isaiah 66:24 (where the rebels are dead) and Daniel 12:2 (where the wicked are resurrected) that suggest this is not simply a case of the Isaiah text having been added so late that it reflects the later perspective of Daniel; pace Westermann, Das Buch Jesaia, 40 – 66, 340; Karl Marti, Das Buch Jesaja (KHC; Tu¨bingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1900), 414. 75 On the reference to Isa 53, see Blenkinsopp, Opening, 22; John J. Collins, Daniel (Hermeneia; Minneapolis, MN: Fortress, 1993), 393; Fishbane, Biblical Interpretation in Ancient Israel, 493; Harold L. Ginsberg, “The Oldest Interpretation of the Suffering Servant,” VT 3 (1953): 400 – 4. The point of similarity between Dan 12:3’s use of DI’s servant theme and the use of this theme found in TI is that both apply what in DI refers to one individual (corporate or not) to many individuals. Hence, there is a shift from singular to plural in both the Daniel passage and in TI when compared to their source in DI. Isaiah 53 was applied perhaps in the belief that the servant was a figure to be emulated. For the comparison between Daniel and TI in this respect, I am indebted to Michael A. Lyons. On the theme of the “servants” in TI as alluding to the theme of “servant” in DI, see the discussion above.

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Jacob in Isaiah 40 – 66

A striking and well-known feature of the central chapters of the book of Isaiah is the fact that the prophet refers to his audience quite frequently under the name “Jacob.” The reason why this should be so in a manner that seems to be disproportionate when compared with other comparable bodies of literature is not certain. While the question is not of particular importance for our present investigation, it should probably, in my opinion, be associated with the use of the same name within the Jerusalem cult tradition (as attested most clearly in the Psalms), a liturgical inheritance that seems to have exerted a particularly strong influence on these chapters.1 It is true that the usage is occasionally attested in the first half of the book (2:3, 5, 6; 8:17; 9:7; 10:21; 14:1; 17:4; 27:6, 9; 29:22, 23), but the majority of these occurrences should certainly be dated no earlier than the exilic period and some of them are later still. While opinions will differ, it is possible that only 2:6; 8:17; 9:7 will have been in the earliest form of the book, so that influence from that quarter on Deutero-Isaiah with regard to this particular topic is unlikely. Closer examination reveals, however, that the distribution of the name within 40–55 is peculiar. As we shall see in more detail shortly, it is frequent indeed in chapters 40 – 48 and there are three occurrences in chapter 49. It is then wholly absent from 50 – 55 while it returns five times in 56 – 66. This is by no means the only topic that is familiar in 40 – 48 that disappears from 49 – 55 (e. g. material related to Cyrus, references to Babylon, anti-idol polemic, trial scenes, the contrast between the “former things” and “the new [or coming] things”), so that a number of commentators have suggested that we should be more attentive to 1 For a similar conclusion with reference to another topic, see Graham I. Davies, “The Destiny of the Nations in the Book of Isaiah,” in The Book of Isaiah: Le livre d’Isaı¨e: les oracles et leurs relectures: unite´ et complexite´ de l’ouvrage (ed. Jacques Vermeylen; BETL 81; Leuven: Leuven University Press, 1989), 93–120. It is also, of course, a fundamental premiss, albeit worked out at a more literary level, of the great commentary by Claus Westermann, Das Buch Jesaja, Kapitel 40 – 66 (ATD 19; Go¨ttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1966). English Translation: Isaiah 40–66: A Commentary (OTL; London: SCM, 1969).

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the shift in emphasis in 49 – 55 than a general reference to Deutero-Isaiah might imply.2 On the whole, however, these topics do not reappear in the same form in 56 – 66 either. In view of the topic of the present volume, it is clear that we shall need to ask whether the occurrences in 56 – 66 are closely related to those in the earlier chapters or whether they reveal differences that might be significant in both compositional and exegetical terms. Moreover, the three occurrences in chapter 49 clearly require some sort of explanation. Why do they occur in this chapter, unlike the other elements noted that are distinctive to 40 – 48, and why do they bridge this apparent divide but nevertheless stop abruptly after chapter 49? So far as I am aware, these two questions have not been fully addressed in the past. Commentators on the relevant sections of Isaiah outline the use and significance of Jacob in Isaiah 40 – 55,3 and most recently Tiemeyer has offered a full analysis of the occurrences of Jacob-Israel in these same chapters.4 Her primary concern, however, is to specify the identity of the community addressed as being those who were resident in Judah during the Neo-Babylonian period rather than, as has usually been thought, the exiled community in Babylon. This particular issue does not appear to have a major bearing on our present discussion, although I shall nevertheless refer to her analysis where relevant. In surveying the twenty-two occurrences of the name Jacob in 40 – 49, two may be quickly set aside. These are the occasions when the name is used as part of a divine name or title. At 41:21 the speaker is identified as “the King of Jacob,” in parallel with the preceding use of the Tetragrammaton. This divine title does not occur anywhere else in the Old Testament, but it is perfectly intelligible here. The theme of God as king occurs elsewhere in these chapters: he is called King of Israel in 44:6 and “your king” at 43:15. In addition, the clause “your God reigns” occurs at 52:7. It looks, therefore, as though the title “King of Jacob” has been coined on the basis of the very common parallelism elsewhere of Jacob and Israel. It “is used by the prophet for the sake of his audience, to assure them that it is for their sake that Yahweh is battling.”5 Berges finds a helpful connection here with the title in 49:26: “Dabei betont ‘Jakob’ in diesem Zusammenhang […] JHWH’s Fu¨rsorge fu¨r sein Volk, […] das 2 See, for instance, Peter Wilcox and David Paton-Williams, “The Servant Songs in DeuteroIsaiah,” JSOT 42 (1988): 79–102; Joseph Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40–55: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary (AB 19A; New York, NY: Doubleday, 2000), 59–61. 3 See, for instance, Karl Elliger, Deuterojesaja, Vol. 1: Jesaja 40,1–45,7 (BKAT 11/1; NeukirchenVluyn: Neukirchener, 1978), 95–96; John Goldingay and David Payne, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Isaiah 40–55 (2 vols.; ICC; London: T&T Clark, 2006), 1:125–26. 4 Lena-Sofia Tiemeyer, For the Comfort of Zion: The Geographical and Theological Location of Isaiah 40–55 (VTSup 139; Leiden: Brill, 2011), 215–50. I am not aware of any other such extended treatment of this subject. 5 R. Norman Whybray, Isaiah 40–66 (NCB; London: Oliphants, 1975), 68.

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sich ganz auf den ‘Starken Jakobs’ (Jes 49,26) verlassen kann.”6 This latter title is attested elsewhere, of course (Gen 49:24; Isa 60:16; Ps 132:2, 5; Sir 51:12; at Isa 1:24 we find the parallel “Mighty One of Israel”7). For our purposes, the only point we need note here is that, as a familiar title for God, its occurrence in chapter 49 is not an exception to the general position set out above, since it is not on a par with the distinctive nature of identification of the audience. In no less than thirteen of the remaining twenty occurrences Jacob appears without further qualification in parallel with Israel and as the first element in the parallelism (40:27; 41:14; 42:24; 43:1, 22, 28; 44:1, 21, 23; 45:4; 48:12; 49:5, 6). Furthermore two of the remaining occurrences may be added without difficulty to this list, for the variance is only slight and does not concern the main facts that Jacob is mentioned first and that the reference is clearly to the audience/reader of the words. At 44:2 Jeshurun stands in the place of Israel in the second position. As a survey of the commentaries could show it is not certain why this particular name is chosen here; it is rare8 (occurring elsewhere only in Deut 32:15; 33:5, 269) and its precise meaning is uncertain. It is generally thought to be either an affectionate or an honorific name for Israel. The author may have preferred to choose an alternative for Israel because he had already used the Jacob/Israel pair in the previous verse and so was anxious simply to introduce some variation rather than mechanical repetition. At 46:3 we find “house of Jacob” followed by the parallel “all the remnant of the house of Israel.” Since, as occasionally elsewhere (44:1; 48:12; cf. 44:21), these names follow a summons to “listen to me,” it is again difficult to see that this is anything more than a variation, suited, admittedly, to the required contextual rhetoric. The remaining five occurrences require separate treatment in order to appreciate the full range of usages. Simplest to note is 48:20, where Jacob occurs without any direct parallel in the sentence: “say : ‘The Lord has redeemed his 6 Ulrich Berges, Jesaja 40–48 (HThKAT; Freiburg im Breisgau: Herder, 2008), 215. 7 For some discussion of the vocalization (which may be secondary) as well as the background to this apparently traditional name or title, see my comments at A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Isaiah 1–27, Vol. 1: Isaiah 1–5 (ICC; London: T&T Clark, 2006), 141–42. 8 For consequential variation in the versions, some of which read “Israel,” see Elliger, Deuterojesaja, 363; Goldingay and Payne, Isaiah 40–55, 322–23. 9 Tiemeyer, For the Comfort of Zion, 229, states that “this latter word-pair [i.e. Jacob-Jeshurun] is attested elsewhere in” these passages in Deuteronomy. That is not strictly correct as in fact it does not occur in any of the three passages in the MT, although admittedly at Deut 33:5 a reference to Jacob occurs in the preceding line. Interestingly, at 32:15 there is strong textual (Samaritan Pentateuch) and versional (LXX) evidence that a line may have been lost from the MT, namely F5M=9 5KF= @?4=, “Jacob ate and was satiated.” If adopted (as, for instance, in the NRSV), that would certainly provide the same parallelism as at Isa 44:2. However, precisely because of corresponding passages elsewhere, others take the view that the Samaritan Pentateuch’s and others’ reading is secondary. For some discussion with further references, see Paul Sanders, The Provenance of Deuteronomy 32 (OtSt 37; Leiden: Brill, 1996), 178–79.

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servant Jacob.’” This comes just after the first direct command to the exiles to go out from Babylon and to flee from Chaldea. Coming very near the end of chapter 48, after which we have already noted that there is a significant literary break in the book, this is clearly a climactic statement. The appellation “servant” with Jacob is familiar from other passages (44:1, 2; 45:4), and equally Jacob is elsewhere the object of God’s redemption (44:23; redemption also occurs in close proximity at 41:14; 43:1). In a context where the individual elements are familiar, we may thus deduce that the use of Jacob on its own without any parallel is a deliberately surprising element to help create the climax at this point.10 At 41:8 we have the interesting case where, for the only time in these chapters, Israel stands before Jacob in the parallelism. Closer inspection reveals that there is probably a reason for this and that it is not a question of simple and perhaps unconscious variation. Although the verse is part of an entirely regular introduction to an oracle of salvation, it is unusual in being a line of three stichs, the third one referring to Abraham: “But you, Israel my servant, Jacob, whom I have chosen, the offspring [seed] of Abraham, my friend …” This addition indicates that there is a greater consciousness than usual in these chapters of the names of the patriarchs as individuals. That does not fully explain the change of order, though it is of interest to note that in terms of the Genesis narratives they move from latest to earliest,11 thus leading to a minor emphasis on Abraham. However, it is important that we acknowledge that this verse is exceptional in the order adopted and that there is an additional unparalleled feature in the verse which may help explain it. Isaiah 48:1 might be associated with 41:8 in some respects. While in this case there is an element of parallelism, it is not as direct as in the usual cases summarized above. Moreover it refers to the house of Jacob, which is rare (see on 46:3 above). Most interestingly, however, it resembles 41:8 in also having three stichs with the third referring to another patriarchal figure as an ancestor of the later generations: “Hear this, O house of Jacob, who are called by the name of Israel, and who come forth from the loins [waters] of Judah.” This strengthens the force of the observation that there are usually explanatory factors in the case of occurrences of Jacob which do not fit the regular pattern of the majority of instances. Isaiah 45:19 seems to fall into this same pattern. Here, unusually, Jacob ap-

10 Hans-Ju¨rgen Hermisson, Deuterojesaja: 45,8–49,13 (BKAT 11; Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener, 2003), 301, has a more mechanical explanation, suggesting that the line was copied from 44:23 but without the second line that mentions Israel. Given that Jacob was here given the added title “his servant,” however, it is difficult to see why the author should have stopped short with Jacob had there been no good literary reason. 11 Berges, Jesaja 40–48, 190, calls this order “im AT vo¨llig singula¨r.”

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pears without any parallel name,12 but we should note once again that it does not refer to the community as Jacob tout court but that the reference is to the “seed” of Jacob, with use of the same noun as was previously associated with the descendants of Abraham at 41:8: “I did not speak in secret, in a land of darkness; I did not say to the offspring [seed] of Jacob, ‘seek me in chaos.’ I the Lord speak the truth, I declare what is right.” Finally, and for the sake of completeness, account should be taken of 44:5. Here we have Jacob and Israel in parallel and in the usual order, but the sentences are rather longer than in the main group and also the point is to adopt these names as a sign of inclusion in the community rather than the names being the addressees of the oracle or its speaker. While these differences have their own points of interest, they do not amount to much for our present purposes, and once account is taken of the different way in which the names are being used, the verse effectively fits closely into the pattern of the majority : “This one will say, ‘I am the Lord’s,’ another will be called by the name of Jacob, yet another will write on the hand, ‘The Lord’s,’ and adopt the name of Israel.”13 I may now summarize the results of this quick survey of the twenty-two occurrences of the name Jacob in Isaiah 40 – 49. Twice it is used as part of a divine title; therefore these stand rather apart from the others. Thirteen times the name is followed in an uncomplicated manner by Israel in parallel, and three others (44:2, 5; and 46:3) belong with these, for although there are slight differences, we have concluded that they are not significant in terms of the current analysis. Of the remaining four, no less than three are associated by the fact that they seem to refer to Jacob more as the patriarch, of whom the ones addressed are the descendants, rather than Jacob referring itself to the present community. In the fourth, 48:20, Jacob stands without a parallel but in a context which I have suggested makes this unusual move in order to reinforce a literary climax. The other question raised above was why, unusually, the use of Jacob bridges the divide at the end of Isaiah 48 but then stops abruptly with three occurrences in chapter 49 and none following. As already mentioned above, the occurrence of Jacob in 49:26 relates to a divine name rather than directly to the human community so that it is unrelated to our major concern. We need not, therefore, discuss it further here. 12 It may be noted that there is a distant parallel, however, in that at 45:25 following, we find (again without a parallel) the expression “seed of Israel” to match the “seed of Jacob” in 45:19. 13 I am aware of several small textual issues that affect this verse and the commentaries may be consulted for fuller discussion, together with Dominique Barthe´lemy, Critique textuelle de l’Ancien Testament, Vol. 2: Isaı¨e, Je´re´mie, Lamentations (OBO 50/2; Fribourg, Suisse: Editions universitaires/Go¨ttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1986), 324–25. The nrsv rendering supplied above seems to me to adopt the most plausible solution.

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This means that the two relevant occurrences occur in the very first section of the chapter, usually identified as the second servant song (49:1 – 6). I have dealt with this passage elsewhere at greater length than can be attempted here14 and so must merely summarize my principal conclusions as they relate to our particular question. The most important point is that at this turning point in the book we find a passage which in fact relates to a turning point in the ministry of the figure depicted. It seems as though the literary transition is matched by a narrative transition. Evidently the servant has become discouraged because his ministry to Jacob-Israel has not been fruitful. God’s response is to declare that he will no longer be restricted to the “light” task of dealing with them but will have also added the more extended role of acting as a light to the nations. This summary hides some serious exegetical difficulties, however. In the previous chapters there were clear indications that the servant was Jacob-Israel (e. g. 41:8 – 10; 44:1, 2, 21; 45:4; 48:20), so that it is not immediately apparent what is happening in our passage, where a division seems to be being opened up. My own solution to this problem, also favoured by some others, it to regard the controversial verse 3 (“And he said to me, ‘You are my servant, Israel,15 in whom I will be glorified’”) not merely as a description of the servant but rather as a designation of a new figure, presumably the prophet himself or the prophet together with his own support group, as the one who will henceforth be the servant, the Israel through whom God’s purposes will be realized. The words “You are my servant” effectively mean “I now designate you as my servant.” The hopes that Jacob-Israel might fulfil that role, including being a light to the gentiles (cf. 42:6), have not been realized, so now God indicates that he is moving on to a character or group whom he hopes will be more successful. The shift in the use of closely similar language from 41:9 to 49:3 is telling.

14 Hugh G.M. Williamson, Variations on a Theme: King, Messiah and Servant in the Book of Isaiah (Carlisle: Paternoster, 1998), 147–55; see previously my essay “The Concept of Israel in Transition,” in The World of Ancient Israel: Sociological, Anthropological and Political Perspectives (ed. Ronald E. Clements; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 141– 61. Note, too, the similar position advanced by Wilcox and Paton-Williams, “The Servant Songs,” part of the strength of whose case is that they link their interpretation of the songs closely with the movement between the two halves of Deutero-Isaiah, not least with regard to the shift from Jacob-Israel to Zion-Jerusalem. 15 Against the suggestion that the word Israel should be deleted as a textually secondary addition, see especially Norbert Lohfink, “‘Israel’ in Jes. 49, 3,” in Wort, Lied und Gottesspruch: Beitra¨ge zu Psalmen und Propheten. Festschrift fu¨r Joseph Ziegler (2 vols.; ed. Josef Schreiner ; FzB 2; Wu¨rzburg: Echter/Katholisches Bibelwerk, 1972), 2:217–29. For the fragile nature of any case based upon the unique omission of “Israel” from the Hebrew manuscript known as Kennicott 96, see Anthony Gelston, “Isaiah 52:13-53:12: An Eclectic Text and a Supplementary Note on the Hebrew Manuscript Kennicott 96,” JSS 35 (1990): 187–211.

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What has been Israel’s mission is now given to the prophet. These verses describe the re-commissioning of the prophet, to do what Israel was called to do. Up to this point it is Israel who has been called “servant of the Lord”; after this point that identification is not made. Up to this point it is Israel who has had a mission to the nations; after this point that responsibility is given to the prophet.16

I conclude from this that the two final occurrences within Deutero-Isaiah of Jacob-Israel in 49:5 and 6 in fact offer an explanation of why they do not appear thereafter. However the history of composition of these chapters is to be understood, it must take into account this mark of careful arrangement whereby the transition from 40 – 48 to 49 – 55 is itself marked at the very point at which the identification of the main protagonists is developed.17 As is well known, the focus of attention in chapters 49 – 55 shifts to ZionJerusalem, a topic that has received more scholarly attention than the use of Jacob-Israel and for which Tiemeyer therefore gives a helpful history of research before her own analysis of the relevant passages.18 It is not necessary for my present purpose to work through all this material, but we may be content with noting that there are many areas of overlap in terms of what is said to and about Jacob-Israel and Zion-Jerusalem, but that they are patently not completely identical. Against this background we may therefore now proceed to examine the use of the name of Jacob in Isaiah 56 – 66. The name Jacob appears five times in these chapters. I shall briefly discuss each in turn before drawing some wider conclusions of relevance to questions of composition history and the relationship with chapters 40 – 55. In Isa 58:1 we find a reference to the house of Jacob standing in the second position to the parallel “my people”: “Announce to my people their rebellion, to the house of Jacob their sins.” This is clearly distinctive from anything we have seen in the earlier part of the book. Jacob is nowhere else parallel with “people” in 40 – 55, and furthermore where “the house of Jacob” occurs there it is either followed by a parallel “house of Israel” (46:3) or it is used in a distinctive manner by reference not only to Israel but also to Judah as a patriarchal ancestor. Only at 2:6 do we find a possible analogy in that there “your people” is glossed as a sort of parallel by “house of Jacob.” Furthermore, the context there is introductory to a castigation of unfaithfulness, rather as in chapter 58 (“For you have abandoned your people, the house of Jacob, because …”19). In 40 – 55, by way of contrast, the 16 Wilcox and Paton-Williams, “The Servant Songs,” 92. 17 For an important recent contribution to this wider question, see Katie M. Heffelfinger, I Am Large, I Contain Multitudes: Lyric Cohesion in Second Isaiah (BIS 105; Leiden: Brill, 2011). 18 Tiemeyer, For the Comfort of Zion, 252–65. Her discussion of the topic as a whole encompasses pp. 251–310. 19 There are several uncertainties about the correct translation of this line which I have discussed fully in Isaiah 1–5, 190. The issue has little bearing on our present concerns, however.

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large majority of uses are in contexts that seek to support or encourage Jacob in some way. The only exceptions to this rule are 42:24 and 43:28, where there is an explanation that it was God who brought the judgment upon his people, and 43:22, where there is indeed a word of reproof (“Yet you did not call upon me, O Jacob; but you have been weary of me, O Israel!”) but with regard to past history rather than present behaviour, as is the case in chapter 58. I conclude, therefore, that the usage of Jacob in 58:1 owes little, if anything, to the use in 40 – 55 and that the only remote possibility of literary influence is from 2:6, although this too is weak. In fact, most commentators rather find a reflection of the book of Micah (1:5; 3:8, 9);20 there is even talk by some of a citation.21 This may well be the case in some respects, though specifically we should note that even here “house of Jacob” does not have a parallel reference to “people”; for that we need to look rather to Deut 32:9. It looks as though in this particular regard the author of 58:1 has ploughed his own furrow. In the last verse of this same chapter, Isa 58:14, we find another distinctive use. The context is a promise of future blessing, “then you shall take delight in the Lord, and I will make you ride upon the heights of the earth,” and this is then amplified with the following two lines: “I will feed you with the heritage of your ancestor Jacob, for the mouth of the Lord has spoken.” We note at once that there is no parallel for Jacob here, nor elsewhere in Isaiah is he ever stated to be “your ancestor [father].”22 It is certainly possible that Jacob is the intended referent of “your first father” in Isa 43:27, though this is not universally agreed, but that is not adequate to explain our present author’s choice of phrasing. The closest point of contact is with those verses where we found something of an emphasis on Jacob as a patriarchal ancestor, but again there does not seem to be any direct verbal influence. Nor does the expression occur in chapters 1 – 39. In fact, the most likely source of inspiration for this verse is Deut 32:13 and 9, though again even here we do not find Jacob explicitly described as “your father.” As Lau observes, however, in Deut 32:7 there is a plain reference to “your father,” and he suggests that this may have been linked with Jacob in v. 9 “als musivstilistisches Zitat.”23 There is thus possible influence from Deuteronomy 32 on both the first 20 Cf. Wolfgang Lau, Schriftgelehrte Prophetie in Jes 56–66: Eine Untersuchung zu den literarischen Bezu¨gen in den letzten elf Kapiteln des Jesajabuches (BZAW 225; Berlin/New York: de Gruyter, 1994), 242–43, with abundant references to previous discussions. 21 E.g., Walter Zimmerli, “Zur Sprache Tritojesajas,” in Gottes Offenbarung: Gesammelte Aufsa¨tze zum Alten Testament (TB 19; Munich: Kaiser, 1963), 217-33 (233 n. 25); Joseph Blenkinsopp comments that “the injunction in 58:1 is simply the Micah text restated”; Isaiah 56–66: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary (AB 19B; New York, NY: Doubleday, 2003), 177. 22 In fact I have not been able to find any immediate qualification of Jacob as “(your) father” outside the Jacob narratives in the book of Genesis. 23 Lau, Schriftgelehrte Prophetie, 258–59.

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and last verses of Isaiah 58, though, if so, it shows an element of independent phrasing as well. Isaiah 59:20 provides another distinctive reading: “And he will come to Zion as Redeemer, to those in Jacob who turn from transgression, says the Lord.”24 Here we note first the otherwise unattested parallelism between Zion and (those in) Jacob (who turn from transgression).25 At 46:13 there is an isolated example of Zion in parallel with Israel. Strong grounds have been advanced in recent years for regarding 46:12 – 13 as a later addition to their present context,26 however, not least (though not only) because the theology they espouse seems to be very close to the second layer in Trito-Isaiah (to which chapter 59 belongs) in that the delay in the arrival of the promised deliverance is explained as due to the people’s stubbornness of heart. If that view is correct, then we should see the two occurrences as coming together from more or less the same period rather than of any possible dependence of one upon the other. In this connection I have not seen any comment relating specifically to the relationship of Zion with either Israel or Jacob, but it would seem to me to be of relevance. Our analysis of 40 – 55 above showed that there is a marked and conscious shift after 49:6 from address to Jacob-Israel to Zion-Jerusalem. What both 46:13 and 59:20 show is a conflation of this careful separation in the earlier material, suggestive of a synchronic reading of the text by a later author who did not fully appreciate the “narrative” of his predecessor.27 This seems a more likely explanation of the situation than comparison with inexact parallels in a passage like Lam 1:17. A second distinctive element in 59:20 is the use of Jacob as an almost geographical term rather than a community identifier in itself. This is unusual altogether, though there are one or two comparable uses in the Psalms (e. g. 99:4) and Lamentations (e. g. 2:3). This too strengthens the view which we have seen emerging that the author(s) of these chapters of Isaiah worked in an independent manner so far as the use of the name of Jacob is concerned. The occurrence at Isa 60:16 need not detain us long. The second line is more or less the same as 49:26: “and you shall know that I, the Lord, am your saviour 24 There is, of course, a close association in other respects between this verse and 1:27; this is most likely due to composition of the latter passage (whether by the same author as chapter 59 or by somebody close to him is immaterial) as part of a major redactional shaping of the book as a whole; see my Isaiah 1–5, 151–56; Jacob Stromberg, Isaiah After Exile: The Author of Third Isaiah as Reader and Redactor of the Book (OTM; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), 147–60. 25 Zion stands as the first element in a parallelism with Jacob in Ps 87:2. 26 Cf. Hermisson, Deuterojesaja, 125–30, 136–39; Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40–55, 274. 27 It is also worth observing that when Zion and Jerusalem occur in parallel, it is usually Zion that stands first, just as Jacob usually does with Israel. The author(s) of 46:13 and 59:20 have clearly been influenced by the second half of Deutero-Isaiah, therefore, in relegating Jacob to the second position. We saw that the same order was reflected in 58:1.

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and your redeemer, the Mighty One of Jacob.” Such “citations” are relatively familiar in Trito-Isaiah, and in this case it refers to one of the uses of Jacob in a divine title rather than with reference to the people. That the borrowing is by Trito-Isaiah rather than the other way round seems to be guaranteed by the fact that the first half of the verse borrows from (but interprets in a somewhat absurd manner) 49:23.28 The last occurrence of Jacob in Trito-Isaiah comes at 65:9: “I will bring forth descendants [seed] from Jacob, and from Judah inheritors of my mountains.” The use of Jacob in parallel with Judah reminds us of 48:1, where we had the triplet of house of Jacob, Israel and Judah. And with regard to Judah there, the reference was in fact to those “who come forth from the loins [waters] of Judah.” I drew a somewhat loose parallel above with 41:8 and 45:19, in the former of which we had another triplet, namely Israel, Jacob and the offspring/seed of Abraham, and in the latter of which we found a reference to the offspring/seed of Jacob. These three passages in Deutero-Isaiah were grouped as appearing to be somewhat apart from the commonest uses, but there need be little doubt that with regard to the use of Jacob for the community 65:9 comes closest to those passages. There does not appear to be any citation in the narrow sense, but equally the verse is not quite as distinctive as the others we have examined. This quick survey of the use of Jacob in Isaiah 40 – 66 (a topic never previously addressed, so far as I am aware) may appear to have addressed a subject of narrow detail, but nevertheless the results seem to be of some interest for the wider topic of the present volume. I draw the following major conclusions. (1) Within Isaiah 40 – 55 the use appears to be mostly quite stereotypical but its distribution shows that there is also a conscious shift at 49:1 – 6 from Jacob to Zion. This is so stark that it cannot be explained as a matter of chance. It is one small element, to which others could of course be added, in favour of the conclusion that these chapters of the book have been consciously shaped. Quite how that may have come about would require much further discussion, but the idea that this is a random or mechanical collection of oracles should be abandoned. (2) I do not see that the data we have collected can contribute much to the controversial question of whether there are multiple redactional layers within Isaiah 40 – 55. Within 40 – 48 the standard Jacob-Israel pairing comes equally in passages that nearly all scholars would attribute to the basic composition and also to passages which many would regard as later additions, such as 42:18 – 25. It is not surprising, given the subject matter, that it does not appear in any of the anti-idol satires. The only point I would raise for discussion in this connection is that if there is such a marked difference with regard to Jacob between 40 – 55 and 56 – 66, it would be strange if there were redactors who followed the early pattern 28 See Whybray, Isaiah 40–66, 236; Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56–66, 215–16.

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faithfully when working on 40 – 48 but departed from it when working on 56 – 66. And indeed, I have suggested that the unusual pairing of Zion and Israel in 46:12 – 13 may be a further pointer to those verses being secondary. But such a modest conclusion is a long way from some of the more radical redactioncritical theories that are current. (3) Jacob does not appear as a name for the community in Isaiah 60 – 62, three chapters which many scholars now regard as the earliest core of Trito-Isaiah and in some respects closest to Deutero-Isaiah.29 The occurrence as part of a divine name at 60:16, clearly cited from 49:26, does not upset this conclusion but if anything reinforces it. We cannot tell, of course, whether the author of these chapters was conscious of the “narrative” of 40 – 55, but his abstinence in our matter is fully compatible with that conclusion. (4) The uses in chapters 58 and 59 are distinctive. Direct influence from Deutero-Isaiah’s usage of Jacob is out of the question and indeed we have seen some features which suggest that the author understood the earlier text differently, as requiring a synchronic rather than a narrative reading. We also noted evidence for strong influence from elsewhere in the Hebrew Bible (Deuteronomy, Micah, Lamentations etc.). It would be difficult, in my opinion, to ascribe these chapters to Deutero-Isaiah (however that designation be understood) as a few still favour.30 It looks rather as though the author of the material that surrounds 60 – 62 was already treating the earlier parts of the book, along with other biblical books, as revered texts to be plundered for inspiration in the work of reinterpretation for a later generation. These may seem to be more comprehensive conclusions than the limited subject of analysis can support. I fully accept that on its own one could not mount a case without a considerable amount of further evidence. But in fact I take comfort from the fact that these conclusions seem to be fully in line with other moderate opinion regarding the composition of this part of the book. They may thus be seen as contributing some modest fresh evidence to further support a well-established point of view.

29 See, for instance, Paul A. Smith, Rhetoric and Redaction in Trito-Isaiah: The Structure, Growth and Authorship of Isaiah 56-66 (VTSup 62; Leiden: Brill, 1995), and most recently, with abundant bibliography, Stromberg, Isaiah After Exile, 11–13. 30 See most recently Benjamin D. Sommer, A Prophet Reads Scripture: Allusion in Isaiah 40–66 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1998), and Shalom M. Paul, Isaiah 40–66: Introduction and Commentary (Hebrew; A Bible Commentary for Israel; Tel Aviv/Jerusalem: Magnes, 2008).

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Abbreviations

AAA AAR AB ABG ABL

Annals of Archaeology and Anthropology The American Academy of Religion The Anchor Bible Arbeiten Zur Bibel Und Ihrer Geschichte Assyrian and Babylonian Letters belonging to the Kouyunjik Collections of the British Museum. Edited by Robert Francis Harper. 14 vols. Chicago, 1892 – 1914. ACEBTS Amsterdamse cahiers voor exegese van de Bijbel en zijn tradities: Supplement series ADPV Abhandlungen des Deutschen Pala¨stina-Vereins AfO Archiv fu¨r Orientforschung AfOB Archiv fu¨r Orientforschung: Beihefte AHw Akkadisches Handwo¨rterbuch. W. von Soden. 3 vols. Wiesbaden, 1965 – 81. ALASP Abhandlungen zur Literatur Alt-Syrien-Pala¨stinas und Mesopotamiens AnBib Analecta biblica ANEM Ancient Near Eastern Monographs ANET Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament. Edited by J. B. Pritchard. 3rd ed. Princeton, 1969. AnOr Analecta Orientalia ANZATS Australian and New Zealand Association of Theological Schools AOAT Alter Orient und Altes Testament AOS American Oriental Series ARAB Ancient Records of Assyria and Babylonia. Daniel David Luckenbill. 2 vols. Chicago, 1926 – 27. ARM Archives royales de Mari ASOR American Schools of Oriental Research ASTI Annual of the Swedish Theological Institute

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Abbreviations

AThANT ATD ATDan ATM

Abhandlungen zur Theologie des Alten und Neuen Testaments Das Alte Testament Deutsch Acta theologica danica Altes Testament und Moderne

BASOR BAT BBB BBET BDB

BZAW

Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research Die Botschaft des Alten Testaments Bonner biblische Beitra¨ge Beitra¨ge zur biblischen Exegese und Theologie A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament. Edited by Francis Brown, S.R. Driver, and Charles A. Briggs. Oxford, 1907/1953. Biblische Enzyklopa¨die Beitra¨ge zur Erforschung des Alten Testaments und des antiken Judentums Bibliotheca ephemeridum theologicarum lovaniensium Beitra¨ge zur evangelischen Theologie Baghdader Forschungen Biblia Hebraica Quinta Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia Beitra¨ge zur historischen Theologie Biblica Biblical Interpretation Biblica et Orientalia Biblical interpretation series Brown Judaic Studies Biblischer Kommentar, Altes Testament Biblische Notizen Bibliotheca orientalis Biblisch-theologische Studien Berliner Theologische Zeitschrift Beitra¨ge zur Wissenschaft vom Alten und Neuen Testament Biblische Zeitschrift Beihefte zur Zeitschrift fu¨r altorientalische und biblische Rechtsgeschichte Beihefte zur Zeitschrift fu¨r die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft

CBQ CBQM CC ConBOT Conc

Catholic Biblical Quarterly Catholic Biblical Quarterly. Monograph Series Continental Commentaries Coniectanea Biblica: Old Testament Series Concilium

BE BEATAJ BETL BEvT BF BHQ BHS BHT Bib BibInt BibOr BIS BJS BKAT BN BO BThS BTZ BWANT BZ BZAR

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Abbreviations

DJD

Discoveries in the Judean Desert

EBib EJL EstBib EvTh

Etudes bibliques Early Judaism and its Literature Estudios bı´blicos Evangelische Theologie

FAT Forschungen zum Alten Testament FOTL Forms of Old Testament Literature FRLANT Forschungen zur Religion und Literatur des Alten und Neuen Testaments FzB Forschung zur Bibel GAT

Grundrisse zum Alten Testament

HBM HBS HCOT HKAT HThKAT HTR IB IBC ICC

Hebrew Bible Monographs Herders biblische Studien Historical Commentary on the Old Testament Handkommentar zum Alten Testament Herders theologischer Kommentar zum Alten Testament Harvard Theological Review Interpreter’s Bible Interpretation: A Bible Commentary for Teaching and Preaching International Critical Commentary

JBL JCS JEA JSJSup

Journal of Biblical Literature Journal of Cuneiform Studies Journal of Egyptian Archaeology Journal for the Study of Judaism in the Persian, Hellenistic, and Roman Periods: Supplement Series JSOT Journal for the Study of the Old Testament JSOTSup Journal for the Study of the Old Testament: Supplement Series JSS Journal of Semitic Studies JSSM Journal of Semitic Studies Monographs JTS Journal of Theological Studies KAT KD KHC

Kommentar zum Alten Testament Kerygma und Dogma Kurzer Hand-Commentar zum Alten Testament

LCBI

Literary Currents in Biblical Interpretation

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Abbreviations

LD LHBOTS LSTS LXX

Lectio Divina Library of Hebrew Bible/Old Testament Studies Library of Second Temple Studies The Septuagint

MT

The Masoretic Text

NCB NEchtB NIB NICOT NIV NJPS NRSV NRTh NTT

New Century Bible Commentary Neue Echter Bibel New Interpreter’s Bible New International Commentary on the Old Testament New International Version The New Jewish Publication Society of America Tanakh New Revised Standard Version La nouvelle revue the´ologique Norsk Teologisk Tidsskrift

OBO OBT OLA OLP OLZ OTG OTL OTM OtSt

Orbis biblicus et orientalis Overtures to Biblical Theology Orientalia lovaniensia analecta Orientalia lovaniensia periodica Orientalistische Literaturzeitung Old Testament Guides Old Testament Library Oxford Theological Monographs Oudtestamentische studie¨n

PBA PIBA

Proceedings of the British Academy Proceedings of the Irish Biblical Association

RA RB REB RevQ RGG RlA

Revue d’assyriologie et d’arche´ologie orientale Revue biblique Revised English Bible Revue de Qumran Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart Reallexikon der Assyriologie. Berlin, 1928–

SBL SBLABib SBLDS SBLEJL

Society of Biblical Literature Society of Biblical Literature: Academia Biblica Series Society of Biblical Literature: Dissertation Series Society of Biblical Literature: Early Judaism and Its Literature

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235

Abbreviations

SBLSBL SBLSCS SBS SBT ˚ SEA

Society of Biblical Literature: Studies in Biblical Literature Society of Biblical Literature: Septuagint and Cognate Studies Stuttgarter Bibelstudien Studies in Biblical Theology Svensk exegetisk a˚rsbok Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament Symbolae Osloenses Fasc. Supplet Studia theologica Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah Studia post-biblica

TB TDOT

Theologische Bu¨cherei Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament. English translation of ThWAT. Translated by John T. Willis, Geoffrey Willis Bromiley, and David E. Green. Grand Rapids, MI. 15 vols. 1974 – 2006. Theologisches Handwo¨rterbuch zum Alten Testament. Edited by Ernst Jenni and Claus Westermann. Stuttgart, 1971 – 76. Theologische Realenzyklopa¨die. Edited by Gerhard Krause and Gerhard Mu¨ller. Berlin, 1977 – 2004. Tyndale Bulletin

SJOT SOFS ST STDJ StPB

THAT TRE TynBul VT VTSup

Vetus Testamentum Supplements to Vetus Testamentum/Vetus Testamentum Supplements

WBC Word Biblical Commentary WMANT Wissenschaftliche Monographien zum Alten und Neuen Testament WUNT Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament ZAW

Zeitschrift fu¨r die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft

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Contributors

Hans M. Barstad is Professor Emeritus of Hebrew Bible and Old Testament Studies at the University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland, UK. Ulrich Berges is Professor of Old Testament Exegesis at the Faculty of Catholic Theology at the University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany. Joseph Blenkinsopp is John A. O’Brien Professor Emeritus of Biblical Studies at the University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana, USA. Elizabeth R. Hayes is Affiliate Professor of Old Testament at Fuller Theological Seminary, Fuller Northwest, Seattle, Washington, USA. Corinna Ko¨rting is Professor of Old Testament Studies and History of Ancient Near Eastern Religion at the University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany. Øystein Lund is Associate Professor of Old Testament at the Norwegian School of Theology, Oslo, Norway Joachim Schaper is Professor and Chair of Hebrew and Semitic Languages at the University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, Scotland, UK. Blazˇenka Scheuer is Senior Lecturer of Old Testament Studies at Lund University, Lund, Sweden. Konrad Schmid is Professor of Hebrew Bible and Ancient Judaism at the University of Zu¨rich, Zu¨rich, Switzerland. Jacob Stromberg is Visiting Lecturer of Hebrew Bible at Duke University, the Divinity School, Durham, North Carolina, USA.

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Contributors

Lena-Sofia Tiemeyer is Senior Lecturer of Hebrew Bible at the University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, Scotland, UK. H.G.M. Williamson is Regius Professor of Hebrew at the University of Oxford, England, UK.

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Bibliography

Achtemeier, Elizabeth. The Community and Message of Isaiah 56 – 66: A Theological Commentary. Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg, 1982. Adam, Klaus-Peter. Der ko¨nigliche Held: Die Entsprechung von ka¨mpfendem Gott und ka¨mpfendem Ko¨nig in Psalm 18. WMANT 91. Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener, 2001. Aejmelaeus, Anneli. “Der Prophet als Klageliedsa¨nger : Zur Funktion des Psalms Jes 63,7 – 64,11 in Tritojesaja.” ZAW 107 (1995): 31 – 50. Albertz, Rainer. Religionsgeschichte Israels in alttestamentlicher Zeit. GAT 8/1. Go¨ttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1992. —. A History of Israelite Religion in the Old Testament Period. Vol. 2. From the Exile to the Maccabees. OTL. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, 1994. —. Die Exilszeit. 6. Jahrhundert v. Chr. BE 7. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 2001. —. Israel in Exile: The History and Literature of the Sixth Century B.C.E. Translated by D. Green. SBLSBL 3. Atlanta, GA: SBL, 2003. —. “Darius in Place of Cyrus: The First Edition of Deutero-Isaiah (Isaiah 40.1 – 52.12) in 521 bce.” JSOT 27 (2003): 371 – 83. Anderson, Arnold A. The Book of Psalms. 2 vols. NCB. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1972. Applegate, John. “Jeremiah and the Seventy Years in the Hebrew Bible: Inner-Biblical Reflections on the Prophet and His Prophecy.” Pages 91 – 110 in The Book of Jeremiah and Its Reception. Edited by Adrian H.W. Curtis and Thomas Ro¨mer. BETL 128. Leuven: Leuven University Press, 1997. Arneth, Martin. “Sonne der Gerechtigkeit”: Studien zur Solarisierung der Jahwe-Religion im Lichte von Psalm 72. BZAR 1. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2000. Aune, David. Prophecy in Early Christianity and the Ancient Mediterranean World. Grand Rapids, MI; Eerdmans, 1983. Awabdy, Mark A. “Yhwh Exegetes Torah: How Ezekiel 44:7 – 9 Bars Foreigners from the Sanctuary.” JBL 131 (2012): 685 – 703. Balentine, Samuel E. Prayer in the Hebrew Bible: The Drama of Divine–Human Dialogue. OBT. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress, 1993. Baltzer, Klaus. Deutero-Isaiah: A Commentary on Isaiah 40 – 55. Hermeneia. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress, 2001. Barstad, Hans M. “Lebte Deuterojesaja in Juda¨a?” Pages 77 – 87 in Veterotestamentica. Donum natalicium Aruido S. Kapelrud. Edited by Svein Aage Christoffersen and Hans M. Barstad. NTT 83/2. Oslo: Universitetsforlaget, 1982.

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