Contemporary Israeli Music: Its Sources and Stylistic Development 9652260116

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TEL AVIV UNIVERSITY SONIA A D MARCO

ADLER INSTITUTE OF ARCHAEOLOGY

MONOGRAPH SERIES NUMBER 17

Executive Editor: EditoriaL Board:

Jak Yakar

Israel Finkelstein Avi Gopher Ze'ev Herzog David Ussishkin Manuscript &Production Editor: Shirley Gassner

ETHNOARCHAEOLOGY OF ANATOLIA RURAL SOCIO-ECONOMY IN THE BRONZE AND IRON AGES

JAK YAKAR

EMERY AND CLAIRE YASS PUBLICATIONS IN ARCHAEOLOGY

Under the auspices of the Friends of the Institute of Archaeology ofTel Aviv University

Published by the Emery and Claire Yass Publications in Archaeology (Bequeathed by the Yass Estate, Sydney, Australia)

of the Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University

ISBN 965-226-0 ll-6

@

Copyright2000 All rights reserved

Printed in Israel by Graphit Press, Jerusalem

CONTENTS

List ofMaps and Figures

X

Introduction Chapter I

Chapter 2

Chapter 3

THE ANA TOLl AN LANDSCAPE GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY THE NORTHERN FOLDED ZONE THE CENTRAL MASSIF ZONE THE SOUTHERN FOLDED ZONE THE ARABIAN PLATFORM PALAEOCLIMATE AND VEGETATION COVER ANA TOLl AN SOCIETY THROUGH THE AGES EARLY BRONZE AGE THE ASSYRJAN COLONY PERlOD: ANATOLIAN PRlNCJPAUTIES THE HlTTITE STATE 11 IE ETHNIC COMPOSITION OF HATII STATE ADMINISTRATION THE FIEF SYSTEM SOCIAL STRUCTURE SOCIO-ECONOMJCS IN THE MILITARY ESTABLISHMENT EFFECTS OF WAR ON THE ECONOMY THE HITTITE HOUSEHOLD THE MARRIAGE INSTITUTION AND ITS ECONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE THE LEGAL STATUS OF FAMILY PROPERTY IN THE AFTERMATH OF THE HITTITE KINGDOM THE ACHAEMENID SATRAPY SYSTEM THE SELEUCIDS AND OTHER HELLENlSTIC STATES THE INV ASTON OF THE CELTS THE ROMAN PERlOD THE BYZANTINE PERlOD THE SELJUK (SELCUK) STATE Ti lE LCGAL STATUS OF LAND THE OTTOMAN STATE SOCIAL ORGANIZATION RURAL SOCIO-ECONOMIC ORGANIZATION VILLAGE HOUSEHOLDS THELEGALSTATUSOFLAND LAND GRANTS AND SUBSISTENCE ALLOTMENTS TAXATION DECLINING GOVERNMENT AUTHORiTY ETHNIC DIVERSITY OF ANATOLIA TURKS

5

5 7

9 14

15 IS 19 19

22 26 27 30

34 35 40 43 45 46 50

50 54 56 58 61

65 66 70 71

73 73 75 76 77

79 81

83 85 v

T0RKMEN (TURKMANfrURKOMAN) SUNNI TORKMEN ALEVI TORKMEN TORKMEN AFFILlATED GROUPS TAHTACI ABOAL THE IRAN-BASED YOMUT YOROK (YORUK) TATARS TURKTSTANI GROUPS CAUCASIAN AND TRANSCAUCASIAN GROUPS Tl!E CHECHEN AND RELATED COMMUNITIES CIRCASSIANS AND ABKRAZIANS GEORGIANS AZERiTURKS KURDS (KURT) YEZJDi KURDS ZAZA LAZ HEM$fNLi ARABS ARAMEANS GYPSIES ARMENIANS

Chapter 4

ETHNOGRAPHY IN THE ANATOLIAN COUNTRYSIDE TRADITIONAL VILLAGE COMMUNTT£ES THE TRADITIONAL ANATOLIAN VILLAGE (KOY) THE VILLAGE HOUSEHOLD THE IMPORTANCE OF LINEAGE LOCALLY DEVELOPED SOCIO-ECONOMIC FRAMEWORKS f-ARM (9iFTLlK)) FARMSTEAD (MEZRAA) RANCH (KOM) DISPERSED SETTLEMENT (DiVAN)) SEASONAL VILLAGE/CAMPSITE (YAYLA) OF SEDENTARY RURAL COMMUNITIES VILLAGE ARCHITECTURE REGIONAL VARIATIONS IN RURAL ARCHITECTURE Topography Climate Economy Social Factors Ethno-cultural Factors TRADlTIONAL HOUSE FORMS Al'fO SPATLI\L ORGANIZATION TRADITIONAL VILLAGE ECONOMY AGRICULTURE Fallow Systems

vi

87 88 89

90 90 91

91

92 96 97 97 98 98 98 IOO

100 106

106 109 109 1II 111 112 112 119 119 119 126

128 129 129 129 132 132 132

136 143

143 143 143 145

147 153 165 165 167

Threshing Productivity Cereal Processing and Consumption Seasonal Food-gathering ANIMAL !IUSBANDRY

Variants of Animal Husbandry in Sedentary Communities Household animal husbandry in enclosures Household stock-breeding with free grazing Transhumance

NOMADIC AND SEMl-NOMADlC COMMUNlTIES

177 186 191

191 191 192 199 199

TJ LE HOUSEHOLD

201 201 209

ETHNTC!TY OF TENT TYPES

Black Tent (kara r;adirlgon) Central Asian Tent (yurt) Barrel-vaulted Tent (ala~:ik) Bower (r;ardak) NOMADIC AND SEMl-NOMADlC PASTORALISM

CENTRAL ANATOLlA: THE LAND OF HATTJ GEOGRAPHY AND DISTRIBUTION OF ANCIENT SITES TRADITIONAL SETILEMENT PATTERN AND LANDUSE BRONZE AND TRON AGE SETTLEMENT PATTERN NORTH CENTRAL PLATEAU SOUTH-CENTRAL PLATEAU EXPLOIT ATLON OF CROWN LAND

The King's Share Temple Estates Large Fiefs

226 226 231 237 238

259 259 261

262 264

THE HITTITE VILLAGE

ADMlNTSTRATION OF THE RURAL SECTOR

Tax and Service Liabilities State Bureaucrats Vi llage Councils FARMING IN HA TTl

265 266 266 268 269

271 273

AGRlCULTVRE

Wage Structure for Agricultural Workers Vineyards, Olive Groves ami

209 215 216 217 217

250

THE ORGAN1ZATION OF THE COUNTRYSIDE

Or~,;lla1dS

Pastures The Hittite Agricultural Calendar ANTMAL IIUSBAi'®RY

Chapter 6

176

TRlBAL STRUCTURE CAMPSITES

Chapter 5

171 172

THE BLACK SEA REGION: THE LANDS OF TUMMANNA-PALA-KASKA GEOGRAPHY AND DISTRIBUTION OF ANCIENT SETTLEMENTS TRADITIONAL SETTLEMENT PATTERN AND LANDUSE BRONZE AND IRON AGE SETTLEMENT PATTERN ORGANIZATION OF THE COUNTRYSIDE IN THE HITTITE PERIOD

275 276

276 277

278

283 283 286 295 301

vii

Chapter 7

Chapter 8

Chapter 9

THE MARMARA REGION: THE KINGDON OF WILUSA AND THE TRIBAL

303

LANDSOFTHRACE GEOGRAPHY AND DISTRIBUTION OF ANCIENT SETTLEMENTS TRADITIONAL SETTLEMENT PAITERN AND LANDUSE BRONZE AND IRON AGE SETTLEMENT PATTERN BRONZE AND IRON AGE ORGANIZATION OF THE COUNTRYSIDE

303 306 306 316

THE AEGEAN REGION: ARZAWA AND ARZAWAN STATES- MINOAN AND MYCENAEAN COLONIES GEOGRAPHY AND DISTRIBUTION OF ANCIENT SETTLEMENTS TRADITIONAL SETTLEMENT PATTERN AND LANDUSE BRONZE AND IRON AGE SETTLEMENT PATTERN MINOANS IN THE AEGEAN LITTORAL OF ANATOLIA ARZA WA AND THE ARZA WAN STATES MYCENAEANS JN TilE AEGEAN LITTORAL OF ANATOLl A SOCIO-ECONOMIC ORGANIZATION OF THE COUNTRYSIDE IN THE BRONZE AGE ECONOMIC ORGANIZATION OF THE RURAL SECTOR IN THE IRON AGE THE MEDITERRANEAN REGION: LUKKA-TARHUNTASSAKlZZUW ATNA-MUKlS GEOGRAPHY AND DISTRIBUTION OF ANCIENT SETTLEMENTS LYC!A AND PAMPHYLIA CILICIA THE AMUQ PLAIN AND THE ANTI-TAURUS REGION TRADITIONA.L SETTLEMENT PATTERN AND LANDUSE LYCIA AND PAMPHYLIA CIL!ClA THE AMUQ PLAIN AND THE ANTI-TAURUS REGION BRONZE AND IRON AGE SETILEMENT PATTERN LYCIA AND PAMPHYLIA PISIDIA CILlCIA THE AMUQ PLAIN AND THE ANTI-TAURUS REGION SOClO-ECONOMlC ORGANIZATION IN THE HITTITE AND POST-HITTITE PERIODS LUKKA THE MEDITERRANEAN LITTORAL OFTARHUNTASSA KlZZUWATNA MUKIS

Chapter 10

viii

EASTERN ANA TOLIA: THE HIGHLAND NEIGHBOURS OF THE HITTITES GEOGRAPHY AND DISTRIBUTION OF ANCIENT SETTLEMENTS THE PLAINS OF ELAZIG, MALATYA AND ELBISTAN THE HIGHLANDS OF KARS, ERZURUM, ERZINCAN, TUNCELJ AND BINGOL THE VAN BASIN AND THE HIGHLANDS OF AGRI, HAKKARl, MU~ AND BITLIS TRADITIONAL SETTLEMENT PATTERN AND LANDUSE THE PLAINS OF ELAZIG, MALATV A AND ELBISTAN THE HIGHLANDS OF KARS, ERZURUM, ERZINCAN, TUNCELI AND BINGOL THE VAN BASIN AND THE HIGHLANDS OF AGRI, HAKKARI, MU$ AND BITLIS

317 3l7 320 327 330 331 333 336 339 343 343 344 344 345 346 347 350 358 359 359 363 364 367 369 369 371 372 375 381 381 383 385 385 388 388 392 399

BRONZE AND IRON AGE.SETTLEMENT PATTERN THE HIGHLANDS OF KARS, ERZURUM, ERZINCAN, TUNCELI AND BlNGOL THE VAN BASIN AND THE HIGHLANDS OF AGRl, HAKKARI, MU$ AND BITLIS THE PLAINS OF ELAZIG, MALATYA AND ELBlSTAN HISTORY AND ORGANIZATION OF THE COUNTRYSIDE IN THE HITTITE PER.LOD ISUWA ARMATANA AND TEGARAMA THE LAND OF AZZI-HA YASA TRJBAL POLITIES OF THE LATE BRONZE - EARLY IRON AGE CONTINUITY OF TRIBAL FRAMEWORKS THE EMERGENCE OF THE URARTIAN KINGDOM BACK TO TRIBAL POLITIES

Chapter 11

Chapter 12

410 4 13 420 428 428 430 431 432 434 438

443

SOUTHEASTERN TURKEY: HURRIAN/MIT ANNIAN DOMINATED TERRITORIES

445

GEOGRAPHY AND DISTRJBUTION OF ANCIENT SETTLEMENTS TRADITIONAL SETTLEMENT PATTERN AND LANDUSE BRONZE AND IRON AGE SETTLEMENT PATTERN LOWER EUPHRATES BASIN DIY ARBAKIR PROVINCE THE EMERGENCE OF STATE SOCIETIES EARLY BRONZE AGE URBAN COMMUNITIES MIDDLE BRONZE AGE POLITIES THE COUNTRYSIDE UNDER THE KINGDOM OF MITANNI THE MIDDLE ASSYRIAN PERIOD THE COUNTRYSIDE IN THE IRON AGE

445 449

INHERENT ELEMENTS IN ANATOLIAN SOCIETY: A DISCUSSION REFLECTIONS OF ETHNICITY THE VILLAGE THE EVOLUTION OF CITIES CONCEPTS OF SOVEREIGNTY THE SOCIAL PYRAMID LAND MANAGEMENT NOMADS AND THE STATE WHEN LAW AND ORDER BREAK DOWN

References

410

453 453

461 462 463

466 469 475 477 481

482 483 484 485

487 488 489 490

493

ix

LIST OF MAPS AND FlGURES Map 1: Map 2: Map 3: Map4: Map5: Fig. 1: Fig. 2: Fig. 3: Fig. 4: Fig. 5: Fig. 6: Fig. 7: Fig. 8: Fig. 9: Fig. 10: Fig. II: Fig. 12: Fig. 13: Fig. 14: Fig. 15: fig. 16: Fig. 17: Fig. 18: Fig. 19: Fig. 20: Fig. 21: Fig. 22: Fig. 23: Fig. 24: Fig. 25: Fig. 26: Fig. 27: Fig. 28: Fig. 29: Fig. 30: Fig. 31: Fig. 32: fig. 33: Fig. 34: fig. 35: Fig. 36:

Phystcal geography of Turkey. Geographic division ofTurkey according to climatic regions. Key Bronze and Iron Age sites in Turkey. The Land of Hatti and its neighbours. Geographic division of Classical Anatolia. Scenes on the lnandik vase. An extended family ofTiirkrnen farmers in a village in the Lake District. Above) A nomadic Sunni family. Below) A settled Alevi Yorilk family. Circassians living in Turkey. Members of an extended Azeri family. Highland Kurds. Nomadic mountain Kurds. Young Kurdish shepherd. A group ofSunni Zaza nomadic pastoralists. An A1cvi Zaza fam ily of sharecroppers. llemsinli women in the Kackar yay/a. La~ villagers in a Black Sea market town. A gypsy camp in central Anatolia. A group of gypsies on the move. A Roman period Jewish rock-carved burial chamber at Yumrutcpc (C), Bcykoy-Afyon. Above) A central Anatolian village. Below) A farn1ing village in southeastern Turkey. Winter village of a semi-nomadic cornmunityy. A village in the mountains of eastern Anatolia. A village ward overlooking the main village. Farms can be of various sizes. Agricultural workers on a large farm. A kom in the Kars province. A yay/a in the Kackar mountains. Wooden house in the yay/a \vith the cowshed built from stone. Yay/a settlements: Top) !\ear Ardahan; Centre) Abant; Boflom) Central Black Sea mountains. Mudbrick architecture. A new mudbrick house under construction. Stone-built village houses. Log houses. Above) Mountains west of Ardahan. Below) in Phrygia. Variations in wooden architecture. Above) Kackar mountains. Below) Savsal. Two-storeyed log-house with terrace (hayat). Hinlis construction. Filled frameworks can differ locally from laths and mud to mud-plastered wicker work. A tradit ional village house constructed of wood with mud-plastered wicker work. Old stone Greek houses between Fo9a and Yeni Fo9a on the northern Aegean littoral. Tower houses on the Aegean coast.

Fig. 37:

Late Ottoman architecture.

Fig. 38: Fig. 39: Fig. 40: Fig.4l:

Houses built by Greeks in the late 19th century. Left) A stone house in Cappadocia. Right) Three-storeyed wooden house in lncbolu. Houses in Cunda and Safranbolu built by Greeks and modified by repatriated Turks. Ortahisar, Cappadocia. Beehive-shaped village houses of Arab residents in Harran. Village houses. Wooden houses in mountainous regions have similar functional partitioning. Large houses of extended families of farn1ers north of Bey~chir. Courtyards are used at all times of the day, weather pem1iuing. A large village house. The addition of a third house for an expanding family.

Fig.42: Fig. 43: Fig.44: Fig. 45: Fig.46: Fig.47: Fig. 48:

X

6

8 20

28

60 35

88 93

99 99 !OJ 102 102 107

108 11 0 11 0 113

114 116 121

123

124 124 130

131 132 133 134 135

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141 142 143 144

145 146 148

149 149 ISO 150

151 152 152

154 155

156 157

!58 159

Fig. 49: Fig. 50: Fig. 51: Fig. 52: Fig. 53: Fig. 54: fig. 55: Fig. 56: Fig. 57: Fig. 58: Fig. 59: Fig. 60: Fig. 61: Fig. 62: Fig. 63: Fig. 64: Fig. 65: Fig. 66: Fig. 67: Fig. 68: Fig. 69: Fig. 70: Fig. 71: Fig. 72: Fig. 73: Fig. 74: Fig. 75: Fig. 76: Fig. 77: Fig. 78: Fig. 79: Fig. 80: Fig. 81: Fig. 82: Fig. 83: Fig. 84: Fig. 85: Fig. 86: Fig. 87: Fig. 88: Fig. 89: Fig. 90: Fig. 91: Fig. 92: Fig. 93: Fig. 94: Fig. 95: Fig. 96: Fig. 97· Fig. 98: Fig. 99: Fig. 100: Fig. 101 : Fig. 102: Fig. 103:

A house may be extended lo accommodate an expanding family. I.Cf.(l) A hall (sofa). Right ) Crockery is arranged on shelves. Food staples arc stored in the kitchen. Niches in the thick mudbrick walls hold household utensils. The hall or antechamber (sofa) plays a central role in the rural houses of Anatolia. Ovens like these are found in almost every village house. Tent architecture reflected in the houses of former YorUk nomads. A bore) Women piling dung cakes for winter fuel. Below) Young girls fetching water. Cultivated fields are surrounded by fences to keep animals out. Traditional agricultural implements are made of wood. Harvesting and threshing are activities carried out by the entire household. Various types of horse-drawn waggons and ox-carts are used to transport chaff. Traditional ox-cart. In mountainous terrain in eastern Anatolia ox-drawn wooden sledge carts are sometimes preferred. Mother and daughter cleaning and sieving the crushed wheat. A settled YorUk family of six washing and drying wheat. A mill in a village house. Processing wheat to prepare bulgur. Preparing bread. Shearing is followed by spinning and weaving. Cappadocian potter producing standardized vessels. A YOrUk village of potters (Sorkun village north ofMihalicik). A sheepfold and shepherd's qardak in a protected mountain valley pasture in the Taurus. In some highland provinces stone-walled compounds for animals are constructed in lhe pastures. Sedentary pastoralists of eastern Anatolia keep large numbers of cattle. Barn, pen and chicken coop with separate entrances. Summer camps on the Erciyes Dag. Different transhumant groups choose various locations to spend the summer. Yay/a compounds on the slopes ofKaradag. Yay/a houses are flimsily constructed. Summer houses in the Cilician Taurus. A yay/a house is small and the one room is used for sleeping, eating and preparing food. Campsites of nomadic pastoralists. Summer campsites of pastoralists in the yay/a between Sariz and Pinarbasi. In the Taurus and Hakkari mountains stone-built subterranean structures shelter the herds. Winter house of a semi-nomadic pastoralist family in a ki.rfak. Semi-nomadic pastoralists in the vicinity of Bucak north of Antalya. In the Taurus mountains campsites are very small sometimes comprising only a single tent. The Black Tent varies in size. Kil im bags store the possessions of a nomadic fami ly. Nomadic women using different types of churn to make dairy products. Weaving. The household utensils in a nomad tent. The Turkish-Mongolian yurt-type tent. A ymt.

Barrel-vaulted tent. A huv in the Lake District. Flat-roofed arbor (r;ardak). Variations in central Antolian village houses. Variations in central Anatolian village houses. Models of the Palace and the Great Temple compounds at Hattusa. Reconstructed Alacahoytik EBA Ill princely graves and Hittite Temple-Palace complex.. Gordian. Hittite water basin at Yalburt and water reservoir at Eflatunpinar The KoyiUtolu Hittite Dan1. KUltepe (Kanis).

160

161 162 163 164 164 166 169 170

171 173 174 175 178 179

J80 181 182 183 184 185 187

188 189 190

193 194 195 196 197 198

203 205 206 207

208 208

210 21 I 2 12

213 213 214

216 217

218 219 232 233 242 243 247 251

252 254

xi

Fig. 104: Fig. 105: Fig. 106: Fig. 107: Fig. 108: Fig. 109: Fig. 110: Fig. II J: fig. 112: Fig. 113: Fig. 114: Fig. 115: Fig. 116: Fig. 117: Fig. 118: Fig. 119: Fig. 120: Fig. 12 1: Fig. 122: Fig. 123: Fig. 124: Fig. 125 : Fig. 126: Fig. 127: Fig. 128: Fig. 129: Fig. 130: Fig. 13 1: Fig. 132: Fig. 133: Fig. 134: Fig. 135: Fig. 136: Fig. 137: Fig. 138: Fig. 139: Fig. 140: Fig. 141: Fig. 142: Fig. 143: Pig. 144: Fig. 145: Fig. 146: Fig. 147: Pig. 148: Fig. 149: Fig. 150: Fig. 151 : Fig. 152: Fig. 153: Fig. 154:

xii

One of the tower temples at KUitepe. Middle Bronze Age palace and houses at Acemh~yUk. Golltidag. Pem1anent villages in eastern Black Sea mountains. In the western Black Sea region corn is the principle food crop. Log houses with stone foundations in the vicinity of Ulubey south of Ordu. Local variations of rural architecture in the B lack Sea region. An eastern Black Sea house. The village architecture in the Bayburt plain is somewhat s imilar to the eastern Anatolian highlands. lkiztepe. TheTroad. Thracian models of huts with reed-thatched roofs and mud-plastered wickerswork-walls. Traditional village architecture in the interiors of Turkish Thrace. Thracian architecture. Village architecture in the Marmara region and Thrace. Troy. Olive growing in the Aegean littoral. Limantepe. Baklatepe. lasos. Sardis. A stone farm-house in the LycianTaurus. Yortik nomads in the Taurus. Small mountain villages in the T~eli Plateau (Cilicia Tracheia). A large mountain village on the Anamas mountain. Small formerly yay/a villages south of Akseki. A seasonally occupied stone house in the Bolkar mountains. Stone-lined pits in the small plateau areas of west-central Taurus collect water for the cattle herds. The Hittite settlement at Ki lise Tepe. The best locations for permanent settlement in the eastern highlands are the broad mountain valleys. Villages in the eastern highlands. A mudbrick house with an enclosed central courtyard. A small fertile niche in the Kars province. A permanent village spread along the bank of the Aras river. Wooden houses in a seasonal yay/a habitation. A seasonally occupied yay/a village near Ardahan. Stone houses near Lake