Concerning the Nations: Essays on the Oracles against the Nations in Isaiah, Jeremiah and Ezekiel 9780567669773, 9780567660060, 9780567660077

Citation preview

LIBRARY OF HEBREW BIBLE/ OLD TESTAMENT STUDIES

612 Formerly Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplement Series

Editors Claudia V. Camp, Texas Christian University Andrew Mein, Westcott House, Cambridge

Founding Editors David J. A. Clines, Philip R. Davies and David M. Gunn

Editorial Board Alan Cooper, John Goldingay, Robert P. Gordon, Norman K. Gottwald, James E. Harding, John Jarick, Carol Meyers, Carolyn J. Sharp, Daniel L. Smith-Christopher, Francesca Stavrakopoulou, James W. Watts

CONCERNING THE NATIONS

Essays on the Oracles against the Nations in Isaiah, Jeremiah and Ezekiel

Edited by Else K. Holt, Hyun Chul Paul Kim, and Andrew Mein

Bloomsbury T&T Clark An imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc

Bloomsbury T&T Clark An imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc Imprint previously known as T&T Clark 50 Bedford Square London WC1B 3DP UK

1385 Broadway New York NY 10018 USA

www.bloomsbury.com BLOOMSBURY, T&T CLARK and the Diana logo are trademarks of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc First published 2015 Paperback edition first published 2016 © Else K. Holt, Hyun Chul Paul Kim and Andrew Mein, 2015 Else K. Holt, Hyun Chul Paul Kim and Andrew Mein have asserted their rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, to be identified as Authors of this work. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publishers. No responsibility for loss caused to any individual or organization acting on or refraining from action as a result of the material in this publication can be accepted by Bloomsbury or the author. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN: HB: 978-0-56766-006-0 PB: 978-0-56766-918-6 ePDF: 978-0-56766-007-7 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. Series: Library of Hebrew Bible / Old Testament Studies, volume 612 Typeset by Forthcoming Publications Ltd (www.forthpub.com) Printed and bound in Great Britain

CONTENTS Abbreviations List of Contributors

vii xi

Preface

xiii

FOREWORD: THE ORACLES CONCERNING THE NATIONS IN THE PROPHETIC LITERATURE Marvin A. Sweeney

xvii

Part I ISAIAH ISAIAH 22: A CRUX OR A CLUE IN ISAIAH 13–23? Hyun Chul Paul Kim

3

EVOKING AND EVADING: THE POETIC PRESENTATION OF THE MOABITE CATASTROPHE IN ISAIAH 15–16 J. Blake Couey

19

ISAIAH 19:18: A TEXTUAL VARIANT IN LIGHT OF THE TEMPLE OF ONIAS IN EGYPT J. Todd Hibbard

32

COMMON AND DIFFERENT PHRASES FOR BABYLON’S FALL AND ITS AFTERMATH IN ISAIAH 13–14 AND JEREMIAH 50–51 Willem A. M. Beuken

53

Part II JEREMIAH BABYLON AS JUDAH’S DOPPELGÄNGER: THE IDENTITY OF OPPOSITES IN THE BOOK OF JEREMIAH (MT) Rannfrid Thelle

77

vi

Contents

EMBODYING MOAB: THE FIGURING OF MOAB IN JEREMIAH 48 AS REINSCRIPTION OF THE JUDEAN BODY Carolyn J. Sharp

95

“AS SHE DID, DO TO HER!”: JEREMIAH’S OAN AS REVENGE FANTASIES Amy Kalmanofsky

109

JEREMIAH, SADE, AND REPETITION AS COUNTERPLEASURE IN THE ORACLE AGAINST EDOM Rhiannon Graybill

128

POSTCOLONIALISM AND PROPAGANDA IN JEREMIAH’S ORACLES AGAINST THE NATIONS Hugh S. Pyper

145 Part III EZEKIEL

YHWH AND THE KINGS OF MIDDLE EARTH: ROYAL POLEMIC IN EZEKIEL’S ORACLES AGAINST THE NATIONS Madhavi Nevader

161

IN DEFENSE OF THE GREAT KING: EZEKIEL’S ORACLES AGAINST TYRE John T. Strong

179

A SERPENT IN THE NILE: EGYPT IN THE BOOK OF EZEKIEL Corrine L. Carvalho

195

Part IV RESPONSE AFTER THE NATION: READING ORACLES AGAINST THE NATIONS AMIDST THE FRAGMENTING OF THE NATION-STATE Steed Vernyl Davidson

223

Bibliography Index of References Index of Authors

239 264 275

ABBREVIATIONS AB ABD ABRL ABS AGJU AOAT AOTC ArBib ASOR ATD BA BASOR BEATAJ BETL Bib BibOr BIS BKAT BMes BMW BN BSOAS BTB BWA(N)T BZAW BZNW CBQ CBQMS CC ConBOT COS CurBS

Anchor Bible The Anchor Bible Dictionary. Edited by D. N. Freedman. 6 vols. New York, 1992 Anchor Bible Reference Library Archaeology and Biblical Studies Arbeiten zur Geschichte des antiken Judentums und des Urchristentums Alter Orient und Altes Testament Abingdon Old Testament Commentaries The Aramaic Bible American Schools of Oriental Research Das Alte Testament Deutsch Biblical Archaeologist Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research Beiträge zur Erforschung des Alten Testaments und des Antiken Judentums Bibliotheca ephemeridum theologicarum lovaniensium Biblica Biblica et orientalia Biblical Interpretation Series Biblischer Kommentar Altes Testament Bibliotheca mesopotamica The Bible in the Modern World Biblische Notizen Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies Biblical Theology Bulletin Beiträge zur Wissenschaft vom Alten (und Neuen) Testament Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft Catholic Biblical Quarterly Catholic Biblical Quarterly Monograph Series Continental Commentaries Coniectanea biblica: Old Testament Series The Context of Scripture. Edited by W. W. Hallo and K. L. Younger, Jr. 3 vols. Leiden, 2003 Currents in Research: Biblical Studies

viii DJD EdF EuroJTh FAT FB FOTL FRLANT HAT HBC HBT HDR HSAO HSM HSS HThKAT HTR IBC IDBSup ICC IEJ IRT ITC JANES JAOS JBL JCS JEA JJS JNES JQR JSJ JSJSup JSOT JSOTSup JTS KHCAT LÄ LCL LHBOTS NCB 1

Abbreviations Discoveries in the Judaean Desert Erträge der Forschung European Journal of Theology Forschungen zum Alten Testament Forschung zur Bibel Forms of the Old Testament Literature Forschungen zur Religion und Literatur des Alten und Neuen Testaments Handbuch zum Alten Testament Harper’s Bible Commentary Horizons in Biblical Theology Harvard Dissertations in Religion Heidelberger Studien zum alten Orient Harvard Semitic Monographs Harvard Semitic Studies Herders Theologischer Kommentar zum Alten Testament Harvard Theological Review Interpretation: A Bible Commentary for Teaching and Preaching The Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible: Supplementary Volume. Edited by K. Crim. Nashville, 1976 International Critical Commentary Israel Exploration Journal Issues in Religion and Theology International Theological Commentary Journal of the Ancient Near Eastern Society Journal of the American Oriental Society Journal of Biblical Literature Journal of Cuneiform Studies Journal of Egyptian Archaeology Journal of Jewish Studies Journal of Near Eastern Studies Jewish Quarterly Review Journal for the Study of Judaism in the Persian, Hellenistic, and Roman Periods Journal for the Study of Judaism in the Persian, Hellenistic, and Roman Periods: Supplement Series Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Journal for the Study of the Old Testament: Supplement Series Journal of Theological Studies Kurzer Hand-Commentar zum Alten Testament Lexikon der Ägyptologie. Edited by W. Helck, E. Otto, and W. Westendorf. Wiesbaden, 1972 Loeb Classical Library Library of Hebrew Bible/Old Testament Studies New Century Bible

Abbreviations NIB NIBCOT NICOT NIDB NSK-AT OBO OIS OJA OLA OTE OTL OTM OtSt PIBA PRSt PTMS QD RB RevExp SAAS SAT SBLAcB SBLDS SBLRBS SBLSBL SBLSP SBLSymS SBS SDSS SHBC SJOT SOTSMS StPB SSN ST TDOT

THAT

TQ TRu TSAJ

ix

The New Interpreter’s Bible New International Biblical Commentary on the Old Testament New International Commentary on the Old Testament The New Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible. Edited by K. D. Sakenfeld. 5 vols. Nashville, 2006–2009 Neuer Stuttgarter Kommentar Altes Testament Orbis biblicus et orientalis University of Chicago Oriental Institute Seminars Oxford Journal of Archaeology Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta Old Testament Essays Old Testament Library Oxford Theological Monographs Oudtestamentische Studiën Proceedings of the Irish Biblical Association Perspectives in Religious Studies Pittsburgh Theological Monograph Series Quaestiones disputatae Revue biblique Review and Expositor State Archives of Assyria Studies Schriften des Alten Testaments in Auswahl Academia Biblica SBL Dissertation Series Society of Biblical Literature Resources for Biblical Study Society of Biblical Literature Sources for Biblical Study Society of Biblical Literature Seminar Papers Society of Biblical Literature Symposium Series Stuttgarter Bibelstudien Studies in the Dead Sea Scrolls and Related Literature Smyth & Helwys Bible Commentary Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament Society for Old Testament Studies Monograph Series Studia post-biblica Studia semitica neerlandica Studia theologica Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament. Edited by G. J. Botterweck, H.-J. Fabry, and H. Ringgren. Translated by J. T. Willis et al. 15 vols. Grand Rapids, 1974– Theologisches Handwörterbuch zum Alten Testament. Edited by E. Jenni, with assistance from C. Westermann. 2 vols., Stuttgart, 1971–76 Theologische Quartalschrift Theologische Rundschau Texte und Studien zum Antiken Judentum

x TynBul TZ VT VTSup WBC WUNT ZAW ZBK ZDPV

1

Abbreviations Tyndale Bulletin Theologische Zeitschrift Vetus Testamentum Vetus Testamentum Supplements Word Biblical Commentary Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft Zürcher Bibelkommentare Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS W. A. M. Beuken is Professor Emeritus of Old Testament at KU Leuven, Belgium. Corrine L. Carvalho is Professor in the Theology Department of the University of St. Thomas, Minnesota. J. Blake Couey is Assistant Professor in the Department of Religion, Gustavus Adolphus College, Saint Peter, Minnesota. Steed Vernyl Davidson is Associate Professor of Old Testament, Paci¿c Lutheran Theological Seminary, Berkeley, California. Rhiannon Graybill is Assistant Professor in the Department of Religious Studies, Rhodes College, Memphis, Tennessee. J. Todd Hibbard is Assistant Professor of Religious Studies, University of Detroit Mercy, Detroit, Michigan. Else Kragelund Holt is Associate Professor of Old Testament Studies, Aarhus University, Denmark. Amy Kalmanofsky is Assistant Professor of Bible at the Jewish Theological Seminary, New York. Hyun Chul Paul Kim is Professor of Hebrew Bible, Methodist Theological School in Ohio, Delaware, Ohio. Andrew Mein is Senior Research Fellow in Biblical Studies, Westcott House, Cambridge, England. Madhavi Nevader is Lecturer in the Faculty of Divinity, University of St Andrews, Scotland.

xii

Contributors

Hugh S. Pyper is Professor of Biblical Interpretation, University of Shef¿eld, England. Carolyn J. Sharp is Professor of Hebrew Scriptures, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut. John T. Strong is Associate Professor of Religious Studies in the Department of Religious Studies at Missouri State University, Spring¿eld, Missouri. Marvin A. Sweeney is Professor of Hebrew Bible at Claremont School of Theology, Professor of Religion at Claremont Graduate University, and Professor of Bible at the Academy for Jewish Religion California, Los Angeles, California. Rannfrid Thelle is an independent scholar working in Wichita, Kansas.

1

PREFACE The three musketeers of the prophetic literature—Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel—share much in common. Besides their bulky volume (for which they have been conventionally labeled the so-called major prophets), these three books address the pivotal times and topics associated with the last stages of the monarchical history of Israel, and with the development of new forms of communal and religious life through exile and beyond. A wealth of key themes provide common ground between the books, such as the prophetic call, the divine indictment against callous leaders, the admonition to uphold the Torah, prophetic involvement in religiopolitical power struggles, the proclamation of repentance, the legacy of the prophet’s persona, and the visionary announcement of a new era. Even if the individual treatments of these themes differ substantially from book to book, it seems no accident that they stand next to one another in the canon. One important structural component of all three books is a substantial section which concerns itself with a range of foreign nations, commonly called the “Oracles against the Nations” (OAN), and these oracles form the focus of our volume. Whether “Oracles against the Nations” is really the most helpful designation has been discussed from time to time, since these oracles are not uniformly negative about the fate of the nations, even if the typical tone is one of judgment. English struggles to make such useful compound words as Fremdvölkerwort or Fremdvölkerspruch, and we are left in need of a preposition: “against” works much of the time, but might helpfully be replaced (or joined) by the more neutral “about” or “concerning” (cf. Marvin Sweeney’s foreword to our volume). The title of our book thus represents something of a compromise. The volume itself presents twelve essays on this oft-neglected but signi¿cant area in the study of the prophetic literature, and in collecting this work into one place we have two main goals. First and foremost, we hope to present the uniqueness of the diverse contents of each prophetic book. In fact, it will become evident that both the topics investigated and the interpretive approaches are multifaceted. We can be attuned to the particular sounds of Isaiah, Jeremiah (MT and LXX), and Ezekiel, and

xiv

Preface

readers will discover how each prophetic book displays its own unique issues and thereby invites diverse methods to address them. Secondly, amid the evident differences, these three books share common themes, and we believe that the OAN sections are a good place to begin the work of tracing similarities. By focusing on these unique yet common sections, we hope that range of interrelated themes and issues of both content and method may become noticeable: for example, though not exhaustively, pattern, structure, language, comparative history, archaeology, sociology, politics, literature, imagery, theme, theology, and hermeneutical issues related to today’s context. It has not been the main intent of this volume to present studies that cross the borders of the individual prophetic books of Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel. Aside from Wim Beuken’s explicitly comparative essay, the theologies and features of the three books and the impact of the OAN in them are presented for the most part on their own. Thus, the comparative work has to be done by our readers. It is the wish of the editors, though, that the material presented in these articles will encourage further interprophetic readings in the years to come. The ‘Foreword’ by Marvin Sweeney and Steed Vernyl Davidson’s concluding response take the ¿rst steps toward correlating the diverse issues in the volume, and offer new and inviting perspectives on the themes of the essays. This project was originally inspired by the joint sessions of the Isaiah and Jeremiah groups at the Society of Biblical Literature Annual Meeting in 2010. With the presence of a comparable OAN section in Ezekiel, we felt convinced that the volume would be more complete and enriching with the addition of work from the Ezekiel group. While we might also have ¿lled out the prophetic picture yet further by adding perspectives from the Book of the Twelve, we believe that the particular common ground between the major prophets makes bringing Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel into conversation with one another worthwhile in its own right. We are grateful to all the co-chairs of these three sections for their leadership, collaboration, and support, as well as to Claudia V. Camp, the series editor of LHBOTS, and Dominic Mattos from Bloomsbury T&T Clark. Above all, we are thankful to the contributing authors, who graciously offered their work to this publication, and to our respondents Marvin Sweeney and Steed Davidson for the care and attention with which they have shared their critical insights. Like the harmonious tunes of a violin, a cello, and a piano in a chamber ensemble—or a double bass, a saxophone, and drums in a jazz trio—both in assonance and 1

Preface

xv

dissonance, we present these collected essays on the three prophetic books both as samples of cutting-edge scholarship to compare and contrast, and as invitational voices toward ongoing discussions and debates. So, let the dialogue, or the concert, begin! Else Holt, Paul Kim, and Andrew Mein October 2014

FOREWORD: THE ORACLES CONCERNING THE NATIONS IN THE PROPHETIC LITERATURE Marvin A. Sweeney

The present volume constitutes a welcome attempt at stimulating research on the Oracles concerning the Nations in the Prophetic literature. Research on the Oracles concerning the Nations has unfortunately received less attention in the study of the prophetic literature, particularly in relation to work on the prophetic oracles of punishment, the prophetic oracles of restoration, and narrative literature concerning the prophets.1 The reasons for such neglect appear to lie in two major factors. The ¿rst was the dif¿culty in correlating the contents of the Oracles concerning the Nations with known historical events during the lifetimes of the prophets in question. The second was a lack of interest in studying the condemnation of the nations when Protestant theologians were especially interested in the pre-exilic condemnation of Israel as a prelude to expanding the covenant to include the nations at large during the exilic period and beyond. Consequently, the Oracles concerning the Nations were frequently read in twentieth-century research on the prophets as eschatologically oriented later insertions in the prophetic books that would anticipate world judgment as the last chapter in the history of divine interaction with humanity prior to the ¿nal eschatological revelation of the kingdom of G-d in the world. But such a construct is quite obviously the product of a Christian theological worldview that has little to do with the selfunderstanding of prophecy in the ancient Near East or in Israel and Judah. As the papers in this volume indicate, modern scholarship has begun to revisit the study of the Oracles concerning the Nations, both from the standpoint of ancient Near Eastern Prophecy and from the standpoint of the prophetic books of the Hebrew Bible. 1. For a brief overview of the oracles concerning the nations, see my Isaiah 1–39, with an Introduction to Prophetic Literature (FOTL 16; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1996), 528–29.

xviii

Concerning the Nations

Research on the Oracles concerning the Nations during the latter part of the twentieth century focused especially on the historical backgrounds and functions of these prophetic oracles. Many scholars postulated that such oracles originated in ritualized attempts to curse an enemy prior to battle and thereby to ensure victory (see Deut 20:1–4; cf. Balaam’s attempts to curse Israel in Num 22–24 and the threats against the nations in Amos 1–2).2 According to D. L. Christensen, such attempts appeared originally in the context of the holy war traditions in ancient Israelite society, but the war oracles were transformed to serve other functions as well, i.e., Amos employed the form as a means to curse Israel, and Jeremiah employed the form as a means to project restoration for Israel and Zion following the punishment of the nations who oppressed them.3 In some cases, scholars employed redaction-critical tools to demonstrate how and why an oracle may originally have been composed and how and why it was reworked to serve another function. B. Erlandsson’s classic study of Isaiah’s oracle concerning Babylon in Isa 13–14, for example, demonstrates that Isa 14 was originally written to portray the death of the Assyrian King Sargon II in battle in 705 B.C.E., but that the oracle was reworked with the addition of Isa 13 to produce an oracle directed against Babylon in the sixth century B.C.E. to condemn it for its role in the destruction of Jerusalem.4 Others turned to the literary and intertextual study of the Oracles concerning the Nations in an effort to elucidate their functions. J. Hill, for example, examined the metaphors employed in Jeremiah’s oracle against Babylon in Jer 50–51 in an effort to de¿ne the role of Babylon as enemy of YHWH and Judah in the Masoretic form of the book.5 And still others began to focus on the theological function of the Oracles concerning the Nations in relation to the book in which they appear. P. R. Raabe, for example, examines the Oracles concerning the Nations in Ezek 25–32 in an effort to demonstrate the revelatory signi¿cance of the oracles, viz., the Oracles concerning the Nations target the nations in an effort to reveal YHWH to the nations as well as to Israel. In this respect, the repeated recognition formula throughout the book, “so that they will know that I am YHWH,” 2. See A. Bentzen, “The Ritual Background of Amos I 2–ii 16,” OtSt 8 (1950): 85–99. 3. D. L. Christensen, Prophecy and War in Ancient Israel: Studies in the Oracles against the Nations in Old Testament Prophecy (Bibal Monograph Series 3; Berkeley: BIBAL, 1989). 4. B. Erlandsson, The Burden of Babylon: A Study of Isaiah 13:2–14:23 (ConBOT 4; Lund: Gleerup, 1970). 5. J. Hill, Friend or Foe? The Figure of Babylon in the Book of Jeremiah MT (BIS 40; Leiden: Brill, 1999).

SWEENEY Foreword

xix

underlies the various scenarios of judgment and restoration that appear throughout the book of Ezekiel.6 And even others note that the function and interpretation of Oracles concerning the Nations can shift with translation and reformulation. A. van der Kooij, for example, demonstrates that the oracle concerning Tyre in Isa 23 has very different interpretations depending upon whether one reads in the Greek text of the Septuagint as opposed to the Hebrew of the Masoretic text.7 Indeed, interpreters must pay close attention to the function of the Oracles concerning the Nations in the respective biblical books in which they appear. Contrary to the many assertions that the Oracles concerning the Nations portend worldwide judgment prior to the eschaton, interpreters must note that none of the collections concerning the oracles against the nations in the major prophetic books includes all the nations of the world.8 Isaiah includes oracles against Babylon (Isa 13:1–14:27); Philistia (Isa 14:28–32); Moab (Isa 15–16); Damascus, Israel, and Egypt (Isa 17:1–18:7); Egypt (Isa 19–20); the Wilderness of the Sea (Babylon; Isa 21:1–10); Dumah (Isa 21:11–12); Arabia (Isa 21:13–17); the Valley of Vision (Jerusalem; Isa 22); and Tyre (Isa 23). Persia, one of the major super-powers of the day that exerted substantial inÀuence in the composition of the book of Isaiah, is absent. Jeremiah includes oracles against Egypt (Jer 46); Philistia (Jer 47); Moab (Jer 48); Ammon (Jer 49:1–6); Edom (Jer 49:7–22); Damascus (Jer 49:23–27); Kedar and Hazor (Jer 49:28–33); Elam (Jer 49:34–39); and Babylon (Jer 50–51). Again, Persia is absent, although Elam ultimately formed a part of Persia. And Ezekiel includes oracles against Ammon (Ezek 25:1–7); Moab (Ezek 25:8–11); Edom (Ezek 25:12–14); Philistia (Ezek 25:15– 17); Tyre (Ezek 26:1–28:19); Sidon (Ezek 28:20–23); Israel (Ezek 28:24–26); and Egypt (Ezek 29–32). This time, it is Babylon that is missing. Such a survey suggests that the Oracles concerning the Nations in each of the major prophetic books are designed to make an important point. In Isaiah and Jeremiah, the absence of Persia in the list indicates that YHWH is identi¿ed with Persia, i.e., YHWH directs the Persian Empire to carry out the punishment on YHWH behalf. In Ezekiel, which is earlier than the other two books, YHWH is identi¿ed with Babylon for 6. P. R. Raabe, “Transforming the International status quo: Ezekiel’s Oracles against the Nations,” in Transforming Visions: Transformations of Text, Tradition, and Theology in Ezekiel (ed. W. A. Tooman and M. A. Lyons; Princeton Theological Monograph Series 127; Eugene, Ore.: Pickwick, 2010), 187–207. 7. A. van der Kooij, The Oracle of Tyre: The Septuagint of Isaiah 23 as Version and Vision (VTSup 71; Leiden: Brill, 1998). 8. Sweeney, Isaiah 1–39, 212–17.

xx

Concerning the Nations

the same reason.9 YHWH is the master of creation and the master of human events, and YHWH exercises sovereignty in the world by directing nations to carry out the divine will. Such a portrayal does not portend eschatological disaster or ful¿llment; it simply portends YHWH’s active involvement in human events, at least according to these prophetic books. And yet this brings us to the moral question posed by the prophetic Oracles concerning the Nations in the Bible. In a post-Shoah world, can we truly say that YHWH employs nations to bring punishment against Israel—or anyone else, for that matter? Indeed, the deliberate murder of some six million Jews, including a million and half Jewish children, together with six million others, such as Slavs, Gays and Lesbians, Africans, Asians, and others whom the Nazis and their supporters deemed as unacceptable, points to the moral impossibility of such an assertion. One of our theological problems today is that we expect G-d to be all powerful, universal, and moral, all at the same time, and yet our experience in the world challenges such a view of the divine. Christians expect G-d to be an expression of love as de¿ned in the New Testament, and yet we must recognize that the Gospel portrayals of Jesus are based on the premise that Jerusalem and its Jewish population will be destroyed and exiled. Jews look to G-d for mercy, justice, and deliverance, and yet even in the Bible, the hidden face of G-d is a tragic and yet very real possibility in times of crisis.10 Perhaps it is time to rethink our understandings of G-d, and to recognize that evil as well as good informs the divine, much as Lurianic Kabbalah postulated in the Middle Ages and beyond. The question then becomes not one of waiting for G-d to manifest divine love or deliverance, but to ask what are we human beings, whether as Jews or as Christians, to do to bring divine love, justice, and deliverance about.11 When we learn the correct answer to that question, we will be at least one step closer to the true recognition of G-d within ourselves and within the world in which we live, whether as nations or as individuals.

9. M. A. Sweeney, Reading Ezekiel: A Literary and Theological Commentary (Reading the Old Testament; Macon, Ga.: Smyth & Helwys, 2013). 10. Z. Braiterman, (G-d) After Auschwitz: Tradition and Change in PostHolocaust Jewish Thought (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998); C. M. Williamson, A Guest in the House of Israel: Post-Holocaust Church Theology (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1993). 11. M. A. Sweeney, Reading the Hebrew Bible after the Shoah: Engaging Holocaust Theology (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2008).

Part I

ISAIAH

ISAIAH 22: A CRUX OR A CLUE IN ISAIAH 13–23?* Hyun Chul Paul Kim

1. Introduction Isaiah 13–23—commonly called the “Oracles against/about the Nations” (OAN)—contain numerous puzzling features, such as the abrupt introduction of Babylon, the seemingly unsystematic order of the nations, the complexity in reconstructing the redactional layers, and the place of this section in the larger composition. In particular, the identity and function of ch. 22 concerning the “valley of vision” adds to the dif¿culty in understanding the meanings and implications of the OAN. It is unclear whether ch. 22 is indeed a crux or a clue for understanding the OAN section. The present study proposes that Isa 22 is a clue, especially with regard to its place and function within the OAN. To do so, in light of the intertextual comparison with other OAN sections, we will examine the various patterns and motifs of the OAN of Isaiah: (1) the polemic against Assyria and Egypt in Isa 14:24–27; 18–20 (in connection with Isa 10:5– 19; 11:11–16); (2) the polemic against Babylon in Isa 13:1–14:23; 21:1– 10 (in connection with Jer 50–51); (3) the polemic against Jerusalem/ Judah in Isa 22 (in connection with Amos 1–2); and (4) the polemic against Tyre in Isa 23 (in connection with Ezek 29–32). In doing so, we will also explore the overall function and implication of the OAN in their larger literary scope. 1. Comparison with Other OAN Sections Concerning the delimitation of the section, it seems more reasonable to consider Isa 13–23 as a unit, compiled by the unique and distinct