Concepts and Principles of Rainfed Agriculture and Watershed Management 9391383653, 9789391383657

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PRINCIPLES OF

ISBN 939138365-3

9 789391 383657

Concepts and Principles of Rainfed Agriculture & Watershed Management

NIPA GENX ELECTRONIC RESOURCES & SOLUTIONS P. LTD. New Delhi-110 034

Concepts and Principles of Rainfed Agriculture & Watershed Management

Dr. Mahendra Singh Pal

Ph.D., Post Doc. (P R China), ISA Fellow

Professor Department of Agronomy G B Pant University of Agriculture & Technology Pantnagar-263145, Uttarakhand

NIPA GENX ELECTRONIC RESOURCES & SOLUTIONS P. LTD. New Delhi-110 034

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Dedicated to My parents

Preface Agriculture is the backbone of Indian economy as nearly 60% rural population is engaged in agricultural activities. Though the contribution of agriculture in national GDP is declining mainly due to increasing contribution of other activities, it is still the main occupation of our rural masses and its significance is related to food and nutritional security of our country. It is again true that the income of farmers is not increasing as compared to other industrial sectors, so the government has recently launched many farmer’s friendly programs for increasing farmer’s income. Besides, the Central Government of India has renewed interest in agriculture and related sectors so that it may contribute not only in national GDP but also improve the living standards of our rural India. The Government has also opined that the subject agriculture should be included in new curricula of all secondary and higher secondary education so that the interest of younger generation may be increased in agriculture. Number of agricultural universities and institutes of Indian Council of Agricultural Research are imparting different master and Ph D degrees but the syllabus differ among the universities/institutes, so to maintain the similar course content and teaching quality of undergraduate and post graduate program in agriculture, ICAR is playing a pivotal role and constituting Dean’s Committees time to time to look after the syllabus and content of different courses. In this continuous process, the recommendation of 5th Dean Committee has been implemented in all undergraduate (B Sc Agriculture) degree programs in the country. The course, 'Rainfed Agriculture & Watershed Management' is one of the important courses of B Sc Agriculture degree program. Therefore the book is written covering all aspects of syllabus as proposed by Dean’s Committee. I do believe that the book is written precisely covering the concept and principles of rainfed agriculture and watershed management. The book certainly caters the need of both student and faculty.

Mahendra Singh Pal

Contents Preface�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� vii Abbreviation....................................................................................................xi Glossary of Selected Terms.......................................................................... xiii

1. Rainfed Agriculture: Principles and Scope................................................1 2. History of Dryland Agriculture................................................................45 3. Indian Climate..........................................................................................77 4. Soils of Rainfed/Dryland Areas..............................................................161 5. Aberrant Weather Situations and Contingency Crop Planning..............189 6. Soil and Water Conservation..................................................................217 7. Water Harvesting Structures...................................................................261 8 Crop Adaptation and Mitigation Mechanism to Drought.......................291 9 Sustainable Crop Production in Rainfed Areas......................................353 10 Principles of Watershed Management....................................................405 11 Water Management for Sustainable Agriculture....................................445 12 Mulching and Its Impact on Agricultural Production.............................507 Annexure: Important ICAR Institutes and Agricultural Universities (India).................................................................................533 Index.......................................................................................................545

Abbreviation AICRPDA

: All India Coordinated Research Project on Dryland Agriculture, Hyderabad

AISSLUP

: All India Soil Survey and Land Use Planning, New Delhi

CADA

: Command Area Development Authority

CAZRI

: Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur

CRIDA

: Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, Hyderabad

CSWCRTI

: Central Soil & Water Conservation Research & Training Institute, Dehradun

DDP

: Desert Development Programme

DPAP

: Drought Prone Area Programme

ICARDA

: International Centre for Agriculture Research on Dry Areas, Aleppo, Syria

ICRAF

: International Centre for Research on Agroforestry, Nairobi, Kenya

ICRISAT

: International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, Hyderabad

IFOAM

: International Federation for Organic Agricultural Movements

IGFRI

: Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi

IPCC

: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

IREP

: Integrated Rural Energy Programme

IWDP

: Integrated Wasteland Development Project

LCC

: Land Capability Class

NBSS & LUP

: National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning, Nagpur

NRCAF

: National Research Centre for Agroforestry, Jhansi

NRSA

: National Remote Sensing Agency, Hyderabad

NWDB

: National Wasteland Development Board, New Delhi

NWDPRA

: National Watershed Development Programme for Rainfed Areas

RADAS

: Reclamation & Development of Alkali and Acid Soil

RVP & FPR

: River Valley Project & Flood Prone River

UNCCD

: UN Convention to Combat Desertification

UNCED

: United Nations Conference on Environment and Development

WALAMTARI : Water and Land Management Training Research Institute, Hyderabad WDF

: Watershed Development Fund

WDPSCA

: Watershed Development Project for Shifting Cultivation Area

Glossary of Selected Terms Aberrant weather: It refers to the deviation from normal weather conditions like early and late arrival as well as retreating of monsoon, long dry spells, flood and snow etc. that affect the crop cultivation adversely. Accelerated erosion: Erosion much more rapid than normal, natural geological erosion, primarily caused by activities of man or in some cases of animals. So it causes removal of the surface soil from any area and denudes its natural protective cover as a result of human and animal interference. It involves higher rate of soil removal than soil formation. Therefore it is quite serious erosion type that makes soil unproductive and even barren if not controlled timely. Acid soils: Soils having a pH value of less than 5.5 for most of the year. They are associated with a number of toxicities (Aluminum) as well as deficiencies (Molybdenum) and other plant restricting conditions. Actual Crop Evapotranspiration (ETcrop): It refers to the rate of ET of a particular crop or plant in a specific period under prevailing soil and atmosphere conditions. In other words, it is rate of ET or total ET of a plant or crop in prevailing field conditions, therefore it varies with crop, soil, season and place (ET crop = Kc x ET0). Afforestation: Planting of forest trees on bare land or planting of a forest crops on land that has not previously or not recently carried a forest crop. Agricultural drought : Agricultural drought refers to the conditions that result in adverse plant responses, which can range from reduced crop and forage yields to total crop or forage failure. Agro-Ecological Cell (AEC: It is defined by a unique combination of land form, soil and climatic characteristics. Agro-Ecological Zone: It is a land resource mapping unit, having a unique combination of land form, soil and climatic characteristics and/or land cover having a specific range of potentials and constraints for land use (FAO, 1996). Agro-Ecological Zoning (AEZ): It refers to the division of an area of land into smaller units which have similar characteristics related to land suitability, potential production and environmental impact. Agro-forestry: Growing of crops and forest trees and shrubs together on the same field and same time. The main objective of Agroforestry is to maximize the utilization of natural resources.

xiv  Concepts and Principles of Rainfed Agriculture & Watershed Management

Agroforestry system: Growing of crops and forest trees together, so it is a landuse system in which woody perennials (trees, shrubs, palms, bamboos) are deliberately used on the same land management unit as agricultural crops (woody or not), animals or both, either in some form of spatial arrangement or temporal sequence. In Agro-forestry systems, there are both ecological and economic interactions between the different components. Agrostology: It refers to study of grasses. Ahar Pynes: It is a traditional water conservation technique of South Bihar. Ahar is a catchment basin from which flood water flow in form of rivulet and Pynes are artificial channel through which rivulet water is directed to field for irrigation. Alfisols: Also known as red soils. Alfisols form in semi-arid to humid areas, typically under a hardwood forest cover. They have a clay-enriched subsoil and relatively high native fertility. Alley cropping/ hedge row intercropping: An agro-forestry intercropping system in which crops are grown in alleys (space) of widely spaced shrubs/forest trees. Altitude: Altitude, like elevation, is the distance above sea level. Anemometer- Instrument to measure wind speed. Anicut: An anicut is a masonry check dam that is constructed across a stream to impound water for maintaining and regulating irrigation. The water stored behind an anicut can be used for irrigation of crops or drinking water for humans and livestock. Apparent drought: The climatic condition of low to medium rainfall mismatching of the cropping pattern in relation to rainfall and moisture availability for crop production. Aquaporins: Aquaporins, intrinsic membrane proteins, are synthesized in roots and leaves. They are abundantly found in plasma membrane and vascular membrane. They provide resistance to crop plants to water stress condition. Aquifer: A saturated, permeable layer of sediment or rock that can transmit significant quantities of water under normal pressure conditions. Arable land: Land that is capable of being cultivated and supporting agricultural production. Arboriculture: A general term for the cultivation of trees. Arid (desert) region: The region having E/PET ratio in range of 0.05-0.20 and rainfall Sikkim>Telangana>AP UK-70%, UP-86,7%, Lowest in Jharkhand-5% only 2 Jowar 90.1 9.9 Haryana>WB>AP>Guj>Telangana (UK- NA, UP-3.5%) 3 Bajra 90.5 9.5 Punjab>Telangana>WB>HP>Haryana (UK- NA, UP-12.4%) 4 Maize 73.4 26.6 Punjab>AP>Bihar>TN>UP (UK-45.3%, UP-43.4%) 5 Wheat 5.8 94.2 Meghalay/TN/Orissa/Tripura (100%) >Rajasthan >Haryana> Telangana>UP. (UK-98.8%, UP98.7%) 6 Barley 19.7 80.3 Rajasthan>Punjab>Haryana>AP>UP (UK-77.3%, UP-NA) 7 Total 39.9 60.1 Punjab>Haryana>AP>UP>Meghalya Cereals (UK-87.0%, UP-49.7%) 8 Gram 61.4 38.6 Tripura>Punjab>UK>MP>Rajasthan (UK-80.5%, UP-19.7%) 9 Tur 96.0 4.0 Punjab>Haryana>HP>TN>UP (UK-1.3%, UP12.4%) 10 Total 80.1 19.9 Goa>Mizoram>Punjab>MP pulses (UK-7.9%, UP-27.4%) 46.9 53.1 Punjab>Haryana>UP>Kerala>Meghalya (UK11 Total Food grains 44.8%, UP-80.4%) 12 Sugarcane 9.8 90.2 Goa/Haryana/Orissa/TN/Telangana(100%)>Kerala/ MP(99.9%)> Karnataka>Chhattisgarh>UK (UK98.7%, UP-95.4%) 13 Groundnut 73.3 26.7 Haryana>Telangana>Rajasthan>Goa>Tripura (UK-3.2%, Up-5.3%) 14 Rape & 23.4 76.6 Telangana>Gujarat>Punjab>Rajasthan>WB Mustard (UK-45.4%, UP-82.0 %) 15 Soybean 99.3 0.7 TN>AP>HP>Telangana>Karnataka (UK-2.2%, UP-0.2%) 16 Sunflower 99.9 0.1 Haryana/ Punjab(100%)>Chattisgarh>Bihar>Telangana > UP (UK-0.0%, UP-70.5%) 17 Total 72.6 27.4 Punjab>Haryana>WB>J&K>TN (UK-25.0%, Oilseeds UP-42.5%) 18 Cotton 66.3 33.7 Jharkhand(150%)>Punjab/(27.4%) HP(100%)> Haryana>UP(97.41)>Rajasthan

Rainfed Agriculture: Principles and Scope  7

S.N Crops 19

Tobacco

20

All Crops

Area (%) Rainfed Irrigated 41.2 58.8 51.4

48.6

Leading States in Irrigated area TN/Gujarat/Haryana/UP/ UK(100%)>WB>Chhattisgarh>Rajasthan >Bihar (UK-100%, UP-100%) Punjab>Haryana>UP>Bihar>WB (UK-49.5%, UP-80.2%)

‘Dryland farming’ and ‘dry farming’ encompass specific agricultural techniques for the non-irrigated cultivation of crops. Dry farming refers growing of short duration drought escaping crops on conserved soil moisture regimes. The rainfall is scanty and requires adoption of soil moisture conservation measures for successful farming and these conditions are common in arid region, while dryland farming is associated with areas characterized by a cool wet season (which charges the soil with virtually all the moisture that the crops will receive prior to harvest) followed by a warm dry season. It is associated with semi arid region where water conservation and water harvesting are adopted for life saving irrigation if required. Further dryland agriculture is a special case of rainfed agriculture practiced in arid and semiarid regions in which annual precipitation is about 20–35% of potential evapotranspiration, conditions of moderate to severe moisture stress occur during a substantial part of the year, greatly limiting yield potential and in which farming emphasizes water conservation in all practices throughout the year. Drylands generally receive < 750mm annual ranfall in arid and semi arid regions and both terms dry farming and dryland farming are used synonymously to indicate almost similar farming situations. ‘Rainfed agriculture’ specifies the conditions that farming is based on rainfall and region receives sufficient rainfall for good harvest but require safe disposal of runoff water and adoption of soil and water conservation measures to protect fertile upper soil layers. The crop yield can be maximized with high inputs and these conditions normally occur in dry sub humid to humid regions. There are three components of successful dryland agriculture; i. To retain or store precipitation on the land, ii. To Reduce or minimize evaporation from the soil surface and increase transpiration, and iii. To grow drought tolerance crops and fit to the precipitation patterns.

Definition Some of the important definitions proposed for dryland agriculture are given below for better understanding; A. Formal definitions 1. ‘The profitable production of useful crops without irrigation on lands that receive low annual rainfall of 20” or less and it may be extended to 30”

8  Concepts and Principles of Rainfed Agriculture & Watershed Management

with unfavorable distribution of rainfall.’ (Dr. John A. Widetsoe in his book, ‘Dry Farming for Sustainable Agriculture' 1911), 2. The areas with ratio of precipitation (P) and potential evapotranspiration (ETP) (P/ETP) between 0.03-0.02 are arid and areas with P/ETP ratio 0.20.5 are semi arid. The dry farming is perfomed in arid and semi arid areas (Steiner et al., 1988). 3. Growing period or growing degree days concept was taken to define dry farming or dryland farming. The growing period or growing degree days is the number of days in a year or season in which precipitation exceeds half of the potential evapotranspiration, plus a period to use an assumed 100mm of water from excess precipitation (or less if not available) stored in the soil profile. According to the growing period concept, dryland agriculture is performed in arid and semi arid areas with 01-74 and 75-119 days growing period, respectively (FAO). 4. ‘Dryland farming is adopting the techniques under the conditions of inadequate rainfall using artificial irrigation’ (Kutsch). 5. ‘Dry farming is using techniques which conserve water for the crop without irrigation’ (Geographical Dictionary). 6. ‘A type of farming practiced in arid areas without irrigation by planning, drought resistant crops and maintaining a fine surface tilth or mulch that protects the natural moisture of the soil from evaporation. Strategies include mulching, frequent fallowing, working the soil to a fine tilth, and frequent weeding’ (Geographical Dictionary). 7. ‘Dry farming and Dry land farming have been used synonymously to indicate similar farming situations and strategies including mulching, frequent fallowing, working the soil to a fine tilth and frequent weeding were included’ (Free Dictionary). 8. ‘Dry farming is farming without irrigation in areas where the moisture supplies is the main limitation to crop production. Efficient dry farming consists of making the best use of a limited water supply by storing in soil as much as the rainfall is possible and by growing suitable crop plants. Usually crops adopted to dry farming are smaller in stature and quicker in maturity than-those grown under more humid conditions’ (Encyclopedia Britannica, 1768). 9. ‘Dry farming is that system of soil and crop management which is carried out without the help of irrigation in regions of low and uncertain rainfall’ (Khan, A.R., 1968). 10. ‘Dry farming refers to the type of agricultural operation which involves deep cultivation of the soil to form a sufficient survival for the moisture as

Rainfed Agriculture: Principles and Scope  9

it falls surface cultivation to prevent or reduce, evaporation, selection of drought resistant crops’ (Chhatwal Gurdeep, 1989). 11. ‘Dry farming areas are those which receive an annual rainfall ranging from 375mm to 1125mm and with very limited irrigation facility’ (Planning Commission-4th FYP document-1969-74). 12. Thornthwaite (1955) formula was used for estimating moistures deficiency index (MDI) for defining dryland regions by ICAR for establishing dryland centres in the country in 1970. MDI is the ratio of (P-PE/PE) x 100. P stands for precipitation and PE potential evaporation. According to MDI values, the dryland agriculture is adopted in semi arid region where MDI values ranges from -33.3 to -66.7 (semi arid areas) (ICAR, 1970). 13. ‘Dry farming areas are those areas which receive between 40cm and 100cm of annual rainfall and have less than 25 percent of the total sown area under irrigation. They constitute nearly 47 million acres or about 36 percent of the net shown area in the country and account for less than 20 percent of the total food grain production’ (Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, 1971). 14. ‘Dry farming consists of making the best use of limited water supply by storing in the soil as much as of the rainfall is possible and by growing suitable crop plants by methods that make the best use of this moisture’.

B. Functional (Operational) definitions The functional definitions account the availability of natural resources of the area and its better utilization for maximizing the agricultural production and income of the farming communities under specified conditions of dryland areas. Therefore following definitions may be referred as functional or operational as listed below; a) The term dry farming is applied to farming with seasonal irrigation or without irrigation, under an average rainfall 528.5mm, it is uncertain and unpredictable that creates an atmosphere of high risk and insecurity where farmers tempt not to use costly inputs. b) The system of dry farming must consider the established facts of science for the better utilization of limited rainfall for better plant growth and development. The knowledge of soil texture and structure being indispensable in relation to water holding capacity of the soil must be utilized for crop production. c) Dry farming relates to the adoption of package of practice like contour bunding, deep ploughing, surface tillage, bulky organic manures, low seed rate and wider spacing, inter culturing, crop rotations etc. to store soil

10  Concepts and Principles of Rainfed Agriculture & Watershed Management

moisture for improving agricultural production (Bombay Dry Farming System). d) Dry farming considers protective irrigation for local and hybrid seeds, fertilizer application and plant protection measures, water conservation programs such practices obtain high and sustained productivity in dry land agriculture. e) Dry farming refers to the diversified farming system including crop production, livestock, poultry, piggery, sericulture, beekeeping, mushroom cultivation and all other possible agro-based entrepreneurs to safeguard the interest of farming communities in dryland areas. Finally, three words i.e. ‘dry farming’, ‘dryland farming’ and ‘rainfed farming’ or ‘dry agriculture’, ‘dryland agriculture’ and ‘rainfed agriculture’ are used synonymously in the sense that all farm practices or farming is based on natural rainfall only and there is no irrigation facility. It is not true to use these words interchangeably because the amount of precipitation (P) received and potential evapotranspiration (PET) or its ratio (P/PET) are important to divide area in to arid, semi arid and humid regions. Most of the workers have taken different indicators like annual precipitation, growing period, potential evapotranspiration or ratio of P/PET, soil moisture stress, soil and water conservation measures, disposal of runoff water etc. for defining terms related to dryland agriculture. Following terminologies are important to understand dryland farming as given below; 1. Dry farming: It is applied to farming without irrigation under an annual precipitation of 25-30 inches or 635-762mm. 2. Dry land: The land or area which receives an annual rainfall of 750 mm or less and there is no irrigation facility for raising crops. 3. Dry land Agriculture: Basically it refers to scientific management of soil and crops under dry lands without irrigation. 4. Dry land crops: It refers to all such crops which are drought resistant and can complete their life cycle without irrigation in areas receiving an annual rainfall less than 750 mm. 5. Drought: It is a condition of insufficient moisture supply to the plants under which they fail to develop and nurture properly. If may be caused by soil, atmosphere or both. 6. Dry farming: Dry farming is an improved system of cultivation in which maximum amount of moisture is conserved in low and untimely rainfall for

Rainfed Agriculture: Principles and Scope  11

the production of optimum quantities of crop an economic and sustainable basis.

Concept of rainfed farming Poverty, hunger, water stress and malnutrition are strongly correlated and by chance these factors are dominating in rainfed agriculture where water constitutes a limiting factor to crop growth. The UN Millennium Development Project has identified the ‘hot spot’ countries located in the semi-arid and dry sub-humid hydro-climates in the world where 850 million undernourished people live in poor, developing countries which predominantly are in tropical regions. The productivity is low in tropical and sub tropical areas including parts of sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia mainly due to degraded soils, high levels of evaporation, droughts, floods and lack of effective water management. International Water Management Institute noted a close correlation between hunger, poverty, and water. However, it concluded that there was much opportunity to raise the productivity of rainfed farming. Managing rainwater and soil moisture more effectively and using supplemental and small-scale irrigation is believed to hold the key to helping the greatest number of poor people. The semi arid tropics (SAT) is the home to 38% of the developing countries’ poor, 75% of whom live in rural areas. Over 45% of the world’s hungry and more than 70% of its malnourished children live in the SAT (Raju et al., 2013). The Comprehensive Assessment (ICRISAT) concluded that the crop yield in rainfed areas are two-to five fold lower than achievable potential yields and that current rainwater use efficiency is only 35–45% in most rainfed areas. Water used for food production in rainfed areas is almost three fold higher than that used in irrigated systems. Long-term experiments as well as yield gap analysis using crop simulation models and researchers’ managed trials on farmers’ fields have demonstrated that crop yields in rainfed areas can go up as high as 5 t/ha under semi-arid tropical Indian conditions. Large yield gaps exist in a number of rainfed crops such as maize, sorghum, pigeonpea, groundnut, soybean, pearl millet, chickpea, wheat and paddy in different countries of Asia and Africa. On the basis of research findings, it was concluded that yields could easily be doubled in rainfed areas of Asia and quadrupled in Africa with adoption of suitable soil, water and crop management options on farmers’ fields. Therefore, the concept of rainfed farming stands for best form of farming in rainfed areas with adoption of all innovative technologies including soil and water conservation and its optimum use for reducing poverty, hunger inequality, unemployment and malnutrition in the region.

12  Concepts and Principles of Rainfed Agriculture & Watershed Management

Goal of rainfed farming ‘The goal of rainfed farming relies on improving the resilience of rainfed and dryland cropping systems through the identification, evaluation, and communication of innovations in production practices as well as soil and water management’. Principles of rainfed agriculture The main objective of rainfed agriculture is to adopt suitable site specific technology for maximizing crop and livestock production in the rainfed areas. Therefore the main principles of rainfed agriculture based on efficient utilization of precipitation and soil moisture conservation measures are listed below; 1. Selection of suitable drought resistant crop and varieties, 2. Planning for aberrant weather conditions like drought, early and late arrival of monsoon, mid and terminal drought etc., 3. Optimizing seed and sowing of crops, 4. ‘In situ’ conservation of rain water, 5. Adopting site specific soil and water conservation measures, 6. Optimizing evapotranpiration (ET) losses, 7. Application of optimum crop plant nutrition, 8. Reducing evaporation losses, 9. Water harvesting for supplemental life saving irrigation, 10. Safe disposal of excess runoff under heavy rainfall conditions in humid and sub humid regions, 11. Suitable mechanization for tillage, seeding, harvesting, threshing etc. in the region, 12. Maximizing water productivity, 13. Exploring possibility of alternate land use systems like agroforestry, pasture, silviculture, silvi-pasture etc. for higher benefits, 14. Developing market infrastructure as per the need of dryland regions, 15. Selection of livestock and its breeds suitable to arid, semi arid and hilly regions, 16. Adopting suitable information and communication technology for technology transfer,

Rainfed Agriculture: Principles and Scope  13

17. Adopting watershed approach for development , and 18. Improving socio-economic status of the farming communities.

Classification of dryland areas The important classification of dryland areas is given below; 1. FAO (1993) classification: Dryland were divided into 3 groups based on rainfall as given below;

i. Arid (Desert) : 1125 mm rainfall

2. UNEP (1992) classification World Atlas of Desertification (UNEP, 1992) defined dryland area with