Complex Social Systems in Dynamic Environments: Advanced Theories, Innovative Methods, and Interdisciplinary Research Results 3031238559, 9783031238550

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Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 365

Svetlana G. Maximova   Editor

Complex Social Systems in Dynamic Environments Advanced Theories, Innovative Methods, and Interdisciplinary Research Results

Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems Volume 365

Series Editor Janusz Kacprzyk, Systems Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland Advisory Editors Fernando Gomide, Department of Computer Engineering and Automation—DCA, School of Electrical and Computer Engineering—FEEC, University of Campinas—UNICAMP, São Paulo, Brazil Okyay Kaynak, Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Bogazici University, Istanbul, Turkey Derong Liu, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, USA Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Witold Pedrycz, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Alberta, Alberta, Canada Systems Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland Marios M. Polycarpou, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, KIOS Research Center for Intelligent Systems and Networks, University of Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus Imre J. Rudas, Óbuda University, Budapest, Hungary Jun Wang, Department of Computer Science, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong

The series “Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems” publishes the latest developments in Networks and Systems—quickly, informally and with high quality. Original research reported in proceedings and post-proceedings represents the core of LNNS. Volumes published in LNNS embrace all aspects and subfields of, as well as new challenges in, Networks and Systems. The series contains proceedings and edited volumes in systems and networks, spanning the areas of Cyber-Physical Systems, Autonomous Systems, Sensor Networks, Control Systems, Energy Systems, Automotive Systems, Biological Systems, Vehicular Networking and Connected Vehicles, Aerospace Systems, Automation, Manufacturing, Smart Grids, Nonlinear Systems, Power Systems, Robotics, Social Systems, Economic Systems and other. Of particular value to both the contributors and the readership are the short publication timeframe and the world-wide distribution and exposure which enable both a wide and rapid dissemination of research output. The series covers the theory, applications, and perspectives on the state of the art and future developments relevant to systems and networks, decision making, control, complex processes and related areas, as embedded in the fields of interdisciplinary and applied sciences, engineering, computer science, physics, economics, social, and life sciences, as well as the paradigms and methodologies behind them. Indexed by SCOPUS, INSPEC, WTI Frankfurt eG, zbMATH, SCImago. All books published in the series are submitted for consideration in Web of Science. For proposals from Asia please contact Aninda Bose ([email protected]).

Svetlana G. Maximova Editor

Complex Social Systems in Dynamic Environments Advanced Theories, Innovative Methods, and Interdisciplinary Research Results

Editor Svetlana G. Maximova Altai State University Barnaul, Russia

ISSN 2367-3370 ISSN 2367-3389 (electronic) Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems ISBN 978-3-031-23855-0 ISBN 978-3-031-23856-7 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23856-7 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Preface: Research on Complex Social Systems in Dynamic Environments

The study of social systems is the key to understanding all significant changes in social processes. Being both a single integral organism and a set of multidirectional structural elements united by a common goal, social systems are hard to lend to universal concepts and management algorithms. Social systems are in continuous dynamic development, marked with multi-scale dependencies and complex relationships between internal processes and external factors. This edited volume considers social systems as self-organizing structures that reproduce new structural elements endowed with certain functional connections. The authors analyze innovative processes in social systems, leading to the sustainable convergence of knowledge and the emergence of technologies that improve the level of material well-being in society. Continuous research on the parameters of complex social systems should serve as a kind of conveyor, the authors argue, through which achieving a balance of joint progress of productive forces and production relations becomes possible, eventually creating lasting social change. The book highlights the formation of new types of complex social relations, their current state and development dynamics, introduction of scientific and technological achievements, as well as deepening complications in social reality, accompanied by the expanding array of real data about the world around and emerging computational capacity for social systems modeling. The contributing chapters develop new methodological approaches for the study of intra-systemic relations within social systems and their subcomponents. The results of interdisciplinary developments highlighted in the volume are placed in a real-word context, with numerous real cases and insights. An interdisciplinary understanding of the essence of complex social systems is presented by leading scholars, contributing to the growth of scientific knowledge and the integration of ideas into a single theoretical shell, eventually creating the possibility of developing new strategies and their adaptation to specific ontological phenomena. Sustainable development of social systems is among the most important tasks facing the contemporary world. The contributed volume highlights challenges to the sustainability of social systems, draws socio-technical images of the future world order generated by the rapid development of intellectual technologies, v

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and critically analyzes promising concepts for more sustainable social future. Among the discussed topics in the volume are social governance, digital economy, technological landscapes, social systems modeling and simulation, cyber-social systems, knowledge-based innovation systems, complex processes in social systems, institutional arrangements, and other advancing research areas. The adoption of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) in 2015 introduced a new era in the global agenda for the development of inclusive socio-economic systems in contrast to the Millennium Development Goals, which is focused on ensuring human success based on environmental protection. Whether people act independently or as part of a group, all their activities aim to achieve the goal. The goal can be expressed both in given terminology and in assumed properties based on the corresponding initial properties of the object. A cause is required to achieve such a change called result, which is generated by the purposeful action of a group of objects called a “system.” Thus, the proposed change in properties generates an appropriate system—an approach that differs from the generally accepted view; it characterizes the relevance and scientific significance of research on the sustainable development of socio-economic systems in the conditions of growing instability and uncertainty challenges. In 2022, 7 years after the adoption of the SDG, it became necessary to summarize the progress achieved against the background of strong actions to create sustainable socio-economic systems until 2030. These actions became more urgent considering the COVID-19 pandemic impact, which has reset the global economy and increased the intensity of extreme weather activities worldwide. Currently, there is an urgent need for new research on the sustainable development of socio-economic systems in conditions of growing instability and uncertainty challenges. It is important for two reasons. First, financial crises reflect the challenges facing economic and social policy. Monetary policy must deal with volatile and fragile financial markets where economic policy failed to establish a sustainable regulatory framework. Financial changes certainly are the most visible crisis and serve only as an example of assessing the sustainability of socio-economic systems during instability. The economic costs of the financial crisis have not yet been eliminated when new political developments, such as BREXIT and protectionism calls, cause further (and not just economic) uncertainty. Since political events cause instability, market imperfections also cause uncertainty. In other words, (economic) policymakers must increasingly operate in conditions of imperfect knowledge and uncertainty than, let us say, before the financial crisis. Second, the global crisis caused by COVID-19 has severely damaged the global economy, exacerbating poverty, causing difficulties, and compromising livelihoods. Together, these impacts can negatively affect the implementation of sustainable development and the UN SDG. The potential and expected impacts need to be better understood and quantified to provide a basis for future recovery efforts. As climate change has become one of the biggest threats to achieving the SDG, there is growing concern about its impact on biodiversity loss and extinction of some species. In some regions of the world (particularly in Asia and Africa), there are also concerns

Preface: Research on Complex Social Systems in Dynamic Environments

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about increased food security at the household level. With the growing demand for climate change measures, there are also growing calls for major carbon emitters to drastically reduce their emissions and invest in clean energy to save the planet by following development paths, making emissions below 1.5 °C of temperature rise. Third, the restriction caused by COVID-19 also has a major impact on education and research, mainly (but not only) on issues related to sustainability. The research analysis on this issue showed that the development of the subject’s educational activity in case of uncertainty is not only an internal state. It is also the transformation of interaction conditions with information sources—primarily with (1) teachers who mediate interaction with the material and (2) students on the distance learning. A qualitatively new social and information space creates under these conditions. Such a space allows realizing (1) goals of educational activities that anticipate possible externally-objective results in online learning and (2) changes that occur in the subject and go beyond existing situations. In other words, the acceptance of the expected future as an uncertain situation and, simultaneously, as a wished and purposeful desire to realize its opening opportunities is a significant factor in establishing experts and their activity. The contemporary society is at the epicenter of the expanding digital economy. The volume summarizes research results in the field of digitalization and reveals deep connections with social problems. The ability of socio-economic systems to maintain their functional abilities and structural identity, being exposed to constant and targeted external factors, remains the critical challenge to effective governance. The volume presents the whole array of innovative research on social systems management and the application of knowledge and intelligence to the solution of social problems. In addition, the contributing scholars and practitioners reflect on various types of social systems and assess the influence of disruptive factors from natural and coupled human-natural environments, discussing possible mechanisms for their neutralization. The operation of socio-economic systems in the conditions of growing instability and uncertainty challenges can also lead to technological, environmental, and social risks and human and agrotechnical problems. Risks can be reduced, and problems alleviated if the consequences of human and technical activities can be foreseen. It may also open new opportunities (e.g., less traveling—more online learning) that should be explored further, primarily in the case of future pandemics—a scenario that cannot be excluded. In the digital finance, human capital is becoming the most important factor in the social well-being, economic growth, and financial security of the country. The creation of integration mechanisms, the development of partnerships, the introduction of educational and production clusters, and the development of integration automated production lead to a change in the content and conditions of professional activity: (1) development of cooperation and labor division, which occupy a dominant position; (2) increase of labor intellectualization; (3) greater integration of labor functions; (4) formation of integrated professions. These contribute to the restructuring of personnel training for an innovative economy. In response to the negative impacts of COVID-19, there is an urgent need to support digital transformation plans at all levels of online educational activities. It is also fundamental

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to support new inclusive digital pedagogical methods and skills for the sustainable free introduction of digital tools for teachers (digital integrated learning, advanced multimedia, new hybrid and interactive methodologies, 3D, VR, holographic tools, etc.). It should be effectively used by students, including participants with limited digital technologies. The book presents expert research on the sustainable development of socioeconomic systems in the conditions of growing instability and uncertainty challenges. The authors focus on global change and sustainable development in countries. It covers broader topics such as economics and business (e.g., economic theory, national and international income distribution, macroeconomic policy, economic sectors, productivity growth, financial market, business management, bank financing), development and sustainability (e.g., development process, development policy, public policy, sustainable growth, sustainable development instruments, sustainable livelihoods, sustainable tourism, green growth), and resources and global change (e.g., human resources, natural resources, climate change, globalization, global challenges). The monograph sections include the latest research on managing changes in socio-economic systems under instability and uncertainty conditions. The book will equally be interesting to economists, sociologists, mathematicians, statisticians, philosophers, and, more generally, scientists and specialists in related fields. This edited volume can help decision-makers reconsider their ideas about the expected risks associated with the development of complex social systems. Barnaul, Russia

Svetlana G. Maximova

Contents

Methods and Tools for Complex Research in Social Systems Rediscovering the Future of the Humankind: The Formation of Alternative Social, Digital, and Natural Realities of the Future . . . . . Sergey A. Kravchenko

3

Data Vice Body: Transformation of Corporeality in the Axiological Aspect of Transhumanist Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Liliya Seredinskaya and Inna V. Cherdanceva

15

The Value of Knowledge in Transhumanist Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Liliya Seredinskaya, Inna V. Cherdanceva, and Anastasia A. Tuzova Phenomenological Approach to Inclusive Society Construction: Theoretical and Conceptual Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vitaly V. Popov, Oksana A. Muzika, and Oksana A. Kholina Imprinting and Impression Concepts in Contemporary Knowledge: Problems of Correlation and Interdisciplinary Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Elena V. Viktorova Correlation of Social Trust and Personal Ties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Anastasya S. Spirina Digital Technologies Adaptation in Russia: Insights from Generations Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lyudmila G. Akhmaeva, Dmitry V. Dolgopolov, and Anastasia I. Eremeeva Performance Measurement of Regional Strategy Sustainable Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Anatolij O. Akulov, Aleksej Ju. Nesterov, and Anna V. Muhachjova

23

29

39 49

57

65

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Contents

Building a Hierarchy of the Subjects of the Federation in Siberia by Groups of Forty Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Peter M. Mazurkin Regional Social Protests: Essence, Causes, and Sociological Research Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Victor V. Nagaytsev, Angelina N. Shrayber, and Valentina A. Artjukhina Social Environment of a Modern University: Theory and Methodology of Diagnostics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dina K. Tanatova, Tatyana N. Yudina, and Ivan V. Korolev Studying Permitting Systems in Russia: Theory Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . Sergey B. Anikin, Yuri N. Milshin, and Petr P. Sergun Media and Experts Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Demographic Policy: Research Design and Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Natalia P. Goncharova, Alexey A. Eremin, and Elena V. Tarasova

79

99

107 117

125

Social Networks and Human Communications in Diverse Environments Information Relations at a New Stage of Social Development: Critical Features and Essence of Structural Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Petr P. Sergun, Artem M. Bobrov, and Vitaly D. Sattarov

135

Emotional Involvement in Social-Network Communication: Reference Group and Gender Bias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Liliya R. Komalova

143

Homo Digitalis in Media Convergence Processes: A Sociological Portrait . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Liudmila A. Vasilenko and Olga I. Molchanova

155

Means of Speech Manipulation in Russian Internet-Mediated Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Olga Yu. Gukosyants

165

Online Harmful Content: A Study on Violent Fan Communities on Social Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Yuliya O. Mundriyevskaya, Valeria V. Matsuta, Galina N. Serbina, and Anastasia G. Peshkovskaya

175

Media Literacy as a Factor in Countering Manipulation in Personal Communications: Generational Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vladimir F. Oleshko, Evgeniy V. Oleshko, and Olga S. Mukhina

183

Bilingual Polymodal Personality in the Aspect of Intercultural Interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Elvina A. Salikhova, Nailya G. Iskuzhina, and Ilshat S. Nasipov

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Contents

Intercultural Communication Competence as a Basic Condition for the Successful Adaptation of Young Foreign Students to Russian Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Elena V. Susimenko and Elena I. Litvinenko Exploring Bilingualism: Tackling Working Memory in Meaning-Making Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Elena Stakanova Cross-Cultural Communication as a Key Competence in Potential Development of Decision Makers and Managers . . . . . . . . . . Margarita V. Ryazantseva, Elena S. Yakushova, and Irina V. Chernyaeva

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211

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Relevant Challenges of Intercultural Interaction in the Field of Contemporary Advertising . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Alina A. Minaeva and Elena I. Madinyan

247

Political Communication Strategies of Young Technocrats in Russian Regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Denis A. Kulikov

255

Capturing Social Networks: Influence of Soft Power on the Spread of Protest Political Moods of Russian Urban Youth in a Digital Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Valeria A. Frants Communication of Government Representatives with the Population: Methodological Approaches to Study “Reactive” Social and Political Interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Evgeniy V. Golovatskiy, Natalia V. Nyatina, and Tatyana N. Protasova The Architecture of Community Centers: Experience of Israel . . . . . . . . Raisa P. Musat, Sergey F. Yamaletdinov, and Alena V. Babenkova

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285 297

Social Dynamics, Migration, and Human Capital “New” Actors in Regional Social and Political Interactions: Insights from Reactive Relations Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Elena A. Kranzeeva, Anna V. Orlova, and Anna L. Burmakina

311

Analysis of Demographic Processes in Europe: Demographic Transition or Depopulation? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ekaterina K. Rudakova, Sergey V. Ustinkin, and Maria P. Samoylova

323

Formation and Employment of the Retirement Age Workforce in Post-Soviet Georgia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mzia Shelia and Mirian Tukhashvili

333

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Contents

Intellectual Potential of the Urban Population Living in the Border Regions of Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Olga V. Surtaeva and Svetlana G. Maximova

347

Social Trust and Corruption: An Empirical Assessment of the Relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Anastasya S. Spirina and Svetlana G. Maximova

357

Human Capital in the Russian Borderland: Evaluation in the Context of Migration Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Svetlana G. Maximova, Daria A. Omelchenko, and Oksana E. Noyanzina Interdependency Between State Migration Policy and Return Migrations in the Context of Human Capital Formation in Russia: A Conceptual Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Svetlana G. Maximova, Oksana E. Noyanzina, and Daria A. Omelchenko Human Capital and Problems of Russian Human Ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . Maria I. Cherepanova, Svetlana G. Maximova, and Syldysmaa A. Saryglar

365

385

405

Migration Processes in the Multi-ethnic Region of the Republic of Mordovia in the Context of the Educational Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lydmila I. Nikonova and Albina I. Minakova

413

Migration Activity of Foreign Migrants in the Border Regions of Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Syldysmaa A. Saryglar and Svetlana G. Maximova

427

Returning Migrants in Russian Border Regions: Results of a Sociological Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Svetlana G. Maximova and Ekaterina V. Shahova

433

Social Attitudes as a Migration Factor in Russian Border Regions . . . . Anastasya S. Spirina, Svetlana G. Maximova, and Syldysmaa A. Saryglar Acculturation Strategies of Migrants in Russian Border Regions: Integration, Assimilation, Marginalization or Separation? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Svetlana G. Maximova, Oksana E. Noyanzina, and Daria A. Omelchenko Russian Regional Borderland Societies in the System of Secure Relations Between Migrants and Locals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Svetlana G. Maximova, Oksana E. Noyanzina, and Daria A. Omelchenko

445

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Contents

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Human Systems Governance: Justice, Law, and Order The Rule of Law in Social Systems as the Manifestation of Humanistic Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Venir K. Samigullin, Marat S. Shaikhullin, and Sergey V. Aleshin

487

Resolution of Disputes in Russia, England, and France: Comparative Analysis of Legal Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Elena P. Ermakova and Vladimir A. Artemov

501

Legal Design as a Means to Achieve Accessibility of the Text of a Contract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Marina Yu. Kozlova, Marina L. Davydova, and Maria V. Kozlova

515

Experiment in Judicial Expert Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Denis A. Ryzhikov, Yuri V. Sinyutin, and Alexey G. Saibel

525

Smart Contract as a New Legal Phenomenon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Natalya A. Pronina and Alexey V. Buyanov

539

Smart Change Governance in Social Systems: Diagnostics of Transformation Needs and Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tatiana Yu. Krotenko, Margarita I. Kanunikova, and Yulia V. Malkova Critical Problems of Digital Public Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Anton A. Vasiliev and Yulia V. Pechatnova Electronic Government Services in Russia: Legal and Organizational Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dinara B. Minnigulova and Alfiia I. Musina

551 559

569

Security Approaches for Sustainable Social Systems Social Engineering as a Way of Committing Computer Crimes: Detection, Suppression, and Prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kirill V. Kamchatov

585

Accessibility and Efficiency of the Judicial System as a Guarantee of Russian Social Sustainable Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nina A. Dudko

593

Security as a Value in a Regional Conflict Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Musa M. Yusupov

605

Social Protection of Persons of the Elder Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Irina V. Shesteryakova, Oksana V. Galkina, and Yulia S. Sergeenko

619

The Basis for Social Security: Focusing on Human Capital of the Altai Territory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Maria I. Cherepanova, Svetlana G. Maximova, and Syldysmaa A. Saryglar

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Contents

A Child in the Information Society: Risks, Threats, and Security . . . . . . Oleg Yu. Rybakov and Olga S. Rybakova

641

Cybersecurity: Young People’s Awareness and Risk Management . . . . . Anastasia V. Larionova, Olesya Yu. Gorchakova, and Aleksandra P. Fakhretdinova

649

Social Development and Economic Sustainability in Complex Environments From the Realities of Extensive Economy to the Biosphere Economy Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oleg V. Tolstoguzov

661

Environmental Safety in Urban Areas: Improving Efficiency for Sustainable Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Elena N. Abanina, Elena A. Sukhova, and Alexander I. Permykov

675

The Impact of Epidemiological Situations on the Economy and Society: A Comparative Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Yury A. Bekishev

685

Socio-economic Characteristics of Restrictive Measures in Retrospective Relationships and Current Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Irina V. Kucheruk and Elena A. Terentieva

699

The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on the Sustainability of Courts System in Germany and Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Maxim A. Khokhryakov and Tatyana U. Vilkova

705

Dynamic Efficiency as a Tool for Strategic Planning for Development of Regions of the Siberian Federal District: DEA Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Natalia O. Chistyakova and Alexander A. Mikhalchuk

719

Problems and Prospects of Sustainable Development of the Republic of Mari El . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Veronika V. Chernykh, Olga N. Sutyrina, and Svetlana A. Domracheva

743

Rural Area Access to the Road Network as a Factor in Socio-economic Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Natalia V. Volkova

753

Mechanisms to Support the Development of High-Tech Industries in the Regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Varvara V. Borodkina, Zoya A. Vasilyeva, and Tatiana P. Likhacheva

769

Cost Management and Financial Performance of Small Enterprises in the Kaizen Concept Format: Challenges to Sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Yury O. Pesotskiy and Olga V. Grigoreva

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Contents

A Logistics System for a More Sustainable Enterprise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Anastasia A. Kuznetsova, Natalia V. Repetskaya, and Tatiana E. Timashkova

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Human Identity, Perceptions of Social Reality, and Socialization Strategies in Complex Environments Cyborg as a Legal Phenomenon of Digital Civilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Natalya A. Usoltseva and Yuri M. Usoltsev

811

Studying Behavioral Changes in the Digital World: A Comprehensive Literature Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Margarita A. Zhuravleva and Alexey N. Inyushkin

821

Young People’s Readiness for Professional Future in a Digital Economy: An International Aspect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Alla V. Zinich, Yuliya N. Revyakina, and Wei Feng

831

A Socio-cyberphysical System to Monitor and Block Destructive Contents on the Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Anastasiya O. Iskhakova, Rinat R. Galin, and Mark V. Mamchenko

841

Anti-corruption Legal Awareness in the Field of Rulemaking: Insights from Complex Systems Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Artem M. Tsirin, Yuri V. Truntsevsky, and Vyacheslav V. Sevalnev

853

Precautions Against Antisocial Behavior Among Teenagers . . . . . . . . . . . Viktor G. Bondarev, Anna I. Sinina, and Ekaterina P. Tsyplakova Guiding Adaptive Behavior in Modern Teenagers: Psychological and Psychophysiological Features in the Context of Social Systems Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Valentina G. Kamenskaya, Leonid V. Tomanov, and Amina O. Afaunova

867

877

Formation of Personal Moral Values in Complex Social Systems . . . . . . Aigerim B. Manakbayeva

887

Current Digital Socialization of Physically Disabled People . . . . . . . . . . . Lyubovy A. Nagornaya and Nikolay N. Nagornyi

901

Self-actualization of Children in Difficult Life Situations . . . . . . . . . . . . . Irina N. Popova

909

Death Attitudes and Life Goals of Adolescents Interested in Death Content on Social Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tatiana A. Gavrilova, Tatyana A. Popova, and Tatiana V. Slinkova

919

Information Interactions of Subjects in the System of Preventing Neglect and Juvenile Delinquency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ekaterina V. Ilgova, Svetlana N. Zaikova, and Olga S. Mrasteva

927

xvi

Contents

Peculiarities of Adolescent Subjectivity with Different Expressions of Behavioral Addiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nadezhda Z. Kaygorodova, Tatyana G. Volkova, and Mikhail V. Yatsenko Socio-Pedagogical Prevention of Unauthorized Departures from Boarding Institutions for Adolescent Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tatiana V. Gudina, Olga A. Denisova, Olga L. Lekhanova, and Irina A. Bukina

935

943

Features of Personal Helplessness and Independence in Young Migrants from Neighboring Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Evgenia A. Evstafeeva, Marina O. Klimova, and Irina V. Ponomareva

951

Ethnic Behavioral Patterns of Altaians or Altai-Kizhi in the Contemporary Cultural System of the Altai Republic . . . . . . . . . . Natalia S. Grebennikova and Ekaterina A. Tozyyakova

957

University Identity: Corporate Culture Evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tatiana V. Fanenshtil and Elena V. Chibir

967

Advances in Cognitive and Behavioral Sciences for Social Research Play as a Means for Developing Socially Acceptable Behavioral Patterns in Preschool Twins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ekaterina S. Praizendorf, Olga M. Lubimova, and Anna S. Kuzmina

981

Deviant Behavior in Students: An Empirical Study of Adolescents in the Capital of the Mari El Republic, Russia . . . . . . . . . Larisa V. Lezhnina, Vera G. Pirkina, and Olga V. Pchelina

991

Digital Technologies in the Psychosis Treatment with Psychological Interventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Olga A. Sagalakova, Dmitry V. Truevtsev, and Olga V. Zhirnova

999

Diagnostics of the Emotional Significance of Unconscious Visual Stimuli by Human Physiological Reactions: Theory and Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1007 Felix K. Svobodny and Alexey P. Detkov Effects of Computer and Video Games on the Psychological State of Kazakhstani Students: Strategies for Pedagogical Interventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1013 Anya A. Symonenko, Eldar Zh. Zhaparov, and Olga B. Tapalova Digital Innovations in Developing Self-Regulation of Children with Severe Speech Pathologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1021 Svetlana A. Belousova, Elena A. Shumilova, and Nadezhda I. Roslyakova

Contents

xvii

Research of Joint Attention Deficit in the Preschool Age: Insights for Pedagogical Interventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1031 Yana K. Smirnova Specifics of the Emotional-Personal Sphere Among Preschool Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1043 Svetlana V. Velieva, Oleg I. Grigoriev, and Olga S. Pinyaeva A Mental Model of Preschool Children with Cognitive Development Disorders and Socialization Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1053 Yana K. Smirnova Comparative Analysis of Fears in Twin and Single-Born Preschoolers: Building a Better Understanding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1067 Anna S. Kuzmina and Aleksandra A. Pugacheva Response and Initiation Skills of Joint Attention in Children with Different Forms of Atypical Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1075 Yana K. Smirnova Learning Difficulties Associated with Joint Attention Deficit in Children with Hearing Disorders: Perspectives for Education System in Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1087 Yana K. Smirnova, Olga M. Lyubimova, Anna A. Makashova, and Alexander A. Mudruk A Software and Hardware Complex for Diagnostics and Operational Control of Functional Psychophysiological States and Behavior in Humans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1095 Svetlana A. Belousova, Vitaliy A. Vasilyev, and Elena A. Shumilova Neural Network Models for Psychodiagnostics: Analysis of Cross-Functional Relationships for Understanding Human Interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1103 Elena V. Slavutskaya, Il’dar M. Yusupov, and Leonid A. Slavutskii A Physical Self-Image of the Middle-Aged Women Engaged in Soft Fitness Techniques: Implications for Understanding Behavioral Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1113 Olga I. Chernyshova, Natalia A. Luzhbina, and Irina A. Ralnikova Personal Meanings of the Generation Z in a Pandemic: Risk Diagnostics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1121 Larisa V. Zanina, Alexander V. Miroshnichenko, and Olesya A. Radchenko

xviii

Contents

Social Determinants of Human Health and Well-Being: Quantitative and Qualitative Studies Evaluating the Alertness Level of the Health Care System in Altai Krai (Russia) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1135 Svetlana I. Tokmakova, Olga V. Bondarenko, and Yulia V. Lunitsyna The System of Health Care Facilities: Problems of Consolidation in the Penal Legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1143 Alexey P. Detkov, Andrey P. Skiba, and Tatiana S. Tunchik Medical and Sociological Support of Regional Prevention Programs in Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1149 Natalia S. Timchenko, Irina V. Osipova, Tatiana V. Repkina, and Margarita V. Starchikova Socio-medical Aspects of Labor Longevity of the Rural Population . . . . 1157 Galina A. Bezrukova, Tamara A. Novikova, and Veronica S. Novikova Autonomy and Control in the System of Occupational Risk Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1169 Alexey D. Trubetskov and Ekaterina I. Pashinina Analyzing the Effect of Living in Rural and Industrial Urban Areas on the Life Quality of Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1191 Diana A. Tsiring, Irina V. Ponomareva, and Yana N. Pakhomova Indicators of the Relationship Between Psychological Health and Personal Characteristics of University Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1199 Akmaral B.-P. Daniyarova, Nadezhda B. Zhiyenbaeva, and Olga B. Tapalova Critical Life Events as a Threat to Human Psychological Health . . . . . . 1207 Irina A. Ralnikova, Natalia G. Yanova, and Natalia A. Luzhbina Emotional States of the Unemployed People on Their Life Prospects: Social Determinants in Focus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1215 Svetlana S. Darenskikh, Olga S. Gurova, and Irina A. Ralnikova Psychological and Economic Well-Being of Those Involved in the Credit Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1223 Natalia G. Yanova Psychological Health of Adolescents in Diverse Families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1237 Anna A. Kislykh and Marina V. Shamardina Socio-psychological Determinants of Pregnant Women’s Health . . . . . . . 1245 Svetlana A. Burilkina, Nelli G. Suprun, and Inna V. Guryanova Psychological Well-Being of Mothers During Counseling . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1255 Irina I. Cheremiskina and Aleksander K. Samoylichenko

Contributors

Elena N. Abanina Saratov State Law Academy, Saratov, Russia Amina O. Afaunova Bunin Yelets State University, Yelets, Russia Lyudmila G. Akhmaeva State University of Management, Moscow, Russia Anatolij O. Akulov Kemerovo State University, Kemerovo, Russia Sergey V. Aleshin Academy of Management of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia, Moscow, Russia Sergey B. Anikin Saratov State Law Academy, Saratov, Russia Vladimir A. Artemov Peoples’ Friendship, University of Russia, RUDN University, Moscow, Russia Valentina A. Artjukhina Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia Alena V. Babenkova Siberian Federal University, Krasnoyarsk, Russia Yury A. Bekishev Saint Petersburg State University, Saint Petersburg, Russia Svetlana A. Belousova Chelyabinsk State University, Chelyabinsk, Russia Galina A. Bezrukova Saratov Hygiene Medical Research Center, Federal Scientific Center for Medical and Preventive Health Risk Management Technologies, Saratov, Russia Artem M. Bobrov Perm Institute of the Federal Penal Service, Perm, Russia Olga V. Bondarenko Altai State Medical University of the Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Barnaul, Russia Viktor G. Bondarev The Russian State University of Justice, Saint-Petersburg, Russia Varvara V. Borodkina Siberian Federal University, Krasnoyarsk, Russia Irina A. Bukina Cherepovets State University, Cherepovets, Russia xix

xx

Contributors

Svetlana A. Burilkina Nosov Magnitogorsk State Technical University, Magnitogorsk, Russia Anna L. Burmakina Kemerovo State University, Kemerovo, Russia Alexey V. Buyanov Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia Inna V. Cherdanceva Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia Irina I. Cheremiskina Vladivostok State University of Economics and Service, Vladivostok, Russia Maria I. Cherepanova Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia Irina V. Chernyaeva Financial University Under the Government of the Russian Federation, Moscow, Russia Veronika V. Chernykh Volga State University of Technology, Yoshkar-Ola, Russia Olga I. Chernyshova Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia Elena V. Chibir Siberian State Medical Univesity, Tomsk, Russia Natalia O. Chistyakova Tomsk Polytechnic University, Tomsk, Russia Akmaral B.-P. Daniyarova Abai Kazakh National Pedagogical University, Almaty, Kazakhstan Svetlana S. Darenskikh Moscow State University of Humanities and Economics, Dolgoprudny, Russia Marina L. Davydova Volgograd State University, Volgograd, Russia Olga A. Denisova Cherepovets State University, Cherepovets, Russia Alexey P. Detkov Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia Dmitry V. Dolgopolov State University of Management, Moscow, Russia Svetlana A. Domracheva Mari State University, Yoshkar-Ola, Russia Nina A. Dudko Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia Anastasia I. Eremeeva State University of Management, Moscow, Russia Alexey A. Eremin Altai Branch of the Russian Academy of National Economy and Public Administration, Barnaul, Russia; Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia Elena P. Ermakova Peoples’ Friendship, University of Russia, RUDN University, Moscow, Russia Evgenia A. Evstafeeva Tomsk State University, Tomsk, Russia Aleksandra P. Fakhretdinova Tomsk State University, Tomsk, Russia Tatiana V. Fanenshtil Tomsk State University, Tomsk, Russia

Contributors

xxi

Wei Feng Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, China Valeria A. Frants Ural Federal University Named After the First President of Russia B.N. Yeltsin, Yekaterinburg, Russia Rinat R. Galin V.A. Trapeznikov Institute of Control Sciences of Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia Oksana V. Galkina Saratov State Law Academy, Saratov, Russia Tatiana A. Gavrilova Far East Federal University, Vladivostok, Russia Evgeniy V. Golovatskiy Kemerovo State University, Kemerovo, Russia Natalia P. Goncharova Altai Branch of the Russian Academy of National Economy and Public Administration, Barnaul, Russia Olesya Yu. Gorchakova Tomsk State University, Tomsk, Russia Natalia S. Grebennikova Gorno-Altaisk State University, Gorno-Altaisk, Russia Olga V. Grigoreva Bauman Moscow State Technical University, Moscow, Russia Oleg I. Grigoriev I. Yakovlev Chuvash State Pedagogical University, Cheboksary, Russia Tatiana V. Gudina Cherepovets State University, Cherepovets, Russia Olga Yu. Gukosyants Pyatigorsk State University, Pyatigorsk, Russia Olga S. Gurova Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia Inna V. Guryanova Nosov Magnitogorsk State Technical University, Magnitogorsk, Russia Ekaterina V. Ilgova Saratov State Law Academy, Sarartov, Russia Alexey N. Inyushkin Samara University, Samara, Russia Anastasiya O. Iskhakova V.A. Trapeznikov Institute of Control Sciences of Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia Nailya G. Iskuzhina Institute of Education Development of the Republic of Bashkortostan, Ufa, Bashkortostan, Russia Kirill V. Kamchatov University of the Prosecutor’s Office of the Russian Federation, Moscow, Russia Valentina G. Kamenskaya Bunin Yelets State University, Yelets, Russia Margarita I. Kanunikova Moscow State Linguistic University, Moscow, Russia Nadezhda Z. Kaygorodova Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia Maxim A. Khokhryakov Kutafin Moscow State Law University (MSAL), Moscow, Russia

xxii

Contributors

Oksana A. Kholina A. P. Chekhov Taganrog Institute (branch) of the Rostov State University of Economics (RINH), Taganrog, Russia Anna A. Kislykh Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia Marina O. Klimova Tomsk State University, Tomsk, Russia Liliya R. Komalova Institute of Scientific Information for Social Sciences of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia; Moscow State Linguistic University, Moscow, Russia Ivan V. Korolev Russian State Social University, Moscow, Russia Maria V. Kozlova The Moscow School of Social & Economic Sciences, Moscow, Russia Marina Yu. Kozlova Volgograd State University, Volgograd, Russia Elena A. Kranzeeva Kemerovo State University, Kemerovo, Russia Sergey A. Kravchenko MGIMO-University, Moscow, Russia Tatiana Yu. Krotenko State University of Management, Moscow, Russia Irina V. Kucheruk Institute of World Economy and Finance, Astrakhan, Russia; Astrakhan State University, Astrakhan, Russia Denis A. Kulikov Saint Petersburg State University, Saint Petersburg, Russia Anna S. Kuzmina Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia Anastasia A. Kuznetsova National Obninsk, Kaluga Region, Russia

Research

Nuclear

University

MEPHI,

Anastasia V. Larionova Tomsk State University, Tomsk, Russia Olga L. Lekhanova Cherepovets State University, Cherepovets, Russia Larisa V. Lezhnina Mari State University, Yoshkar-Ola, Russia Tatiana P. Likhacheva Siberian Federal University, Krasnoyarsk, Russia Elena I. Litvinenko Platov South-Russian State Polytechnic University (NPI), Novocherkassk, Russia Olga M. Lubimova Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia Yulia V. Lunitsyna Altai State Medical University of the Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Barnaul, Russia Natalia A. Luzhbina Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia Olga M. Lyubimova Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia Elena I. Madinyan RUDN University, Moscow, Russia

Contributors

xxiii

Anna A. Makashova Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia Yulia V. Malkova Moscow State Linguistic University, Moscow, Russia Mark V. Mamchenko V.A. Trapeznikov Institute of Control Sciences of Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia Aigerim B. Manakbayeva Academy of Public Administration Under the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan, Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan Valeria V. Matsuta Tomsk State University, Tomsk, Russia Svetlana G. Maximova Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia Peter M. Mazurkin Volga State University of Technology, Yoshkar-Ola, Russia Alexander A. Mikhalchuk Tomsk Polytechnic University, Tomsk, Russia Yuri N. Milshin Saratov State Law Academy, Saratov, Russia Alina A. Minaeva RUDN University, Moscow, Russia Albina I. Minakova Research Institute of the Humanities by the Government of the Republic of Mordovia, Saransk, Russia; Moscow State Technical University, Moscow, Russia Dinara B. Minnigulova University of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia, Saint-Petersburg, Russia Alexander V. Miroshnichenko Southern Federal University, Rostov-on-Don, Russia Olga I. Molchanova Saint Petersburg State University of Economics, SaintPetersburg, Russia Olga S. Mrasteva Saratov State Law Academy, Sarartov, Russia Alexander A. Mudruk Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia Anna V. Muhachjova Kemerovo State University, Kemerovo, Russia Olga S. Mukhina Ural Federal University, Yekaterinburg, Russia Yuliya O. Mundriyevskaya Tomsk State University, Tomsk, Russia Raisa P. Musat Siberian Federal University, Krasnoyarsk, Russia Alfiia I. Musina Ufa, Russia Oksana A. Muzika A. P. Chekhov Taganrog Institute (branch) of the Rostov State University of Economics (RINH), Taganrog, Russia Victor V. Nagaytsev Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia Lyubovy A. Nagornaya Siberian Federal University, Krasnoyarsk, Russia

xxiv

Contributors

Nikolay N. Nagornyi Siberian Law Institute of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Russian Federation, Krasnoyarsk, Russia Ilshat S. Nasipov Bashkir State Pedagogical University Named After M.Akmulla, Ufa, Bashkortostan, Russia Aleksej Ju. Nesterov Kemerovo State University, Kemerovo, Russia Lydmila I. Nikonova Research Institute of the Humanities by the Government of the Republic of Mordovia, Saransk, Russia Tamara A. Novikova Saratov Hygiene Medical Research Center, Federal Scientific Center for Medical and Preventive Health Risk Management Technologies, Saratov, Russia Veronica S. Novikova Moscow State Institute of International Relations (MGIMO University), Moscow, Russia Oksana E. Noyanzina Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia Natalia V. Nyatina Kemerovo State University, Kemerovo, Russia Evgeniy V. Oleshko Ural Federal University, Yekaterinburg, Russia Vladimir F. Oleshko Ural Federal University, Yekaterinburg, Russia Daria A. Omelchenko Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia Anna V. Orlova Kemerovo State University, Kemerovo, Russia Irina V. Osipova Altai State Medical University, Barnaul, Russia Yana N. Pakhomova Tomsk State University, Tomsk, Russia; Chelyabinsk State University, Chelyabinsk, Russia Ekaterina I. Pashinina Yuri Gagarin Saratov State Technical University, Saratov, Russia Olga V. Pchelina Volga State University of Technology, Yoshkar-Ola, Russia Yulia V. Pechatnova Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia Alexander I. Permykov Saratov State Law Academy, Saratov, Russia Anastasia G. Peshkovskaya Mental Health Research Institute, Tomsk National Research Medical Center, Russian Academy of Sciences, Tomsk, Russia Yury O. Pesotskiy Bauman Moscow State Technical University, Moscow, Russia Olga S. Pinyaeva I. Yakovlev Chuvash State Pedagogical University, Cheboksary, Russia Vera G. Pirkina Mari State University, Yoshkar-Ola, Russia Irina V. Ponomareva Tomsk State University, Tomsk, Russia; Chelyabinsk State University, Chelyabinsk, Russia

Contributors

xxv

Vitaly V. Popov A. P. Chekhov Taganrog Institute (branch) of the Rostov State University of Economics (RINH), Taganrog, Russia Irina N. Popova Federal Institute for Education Development RANEPA, Moscow, Russia Tatyana A. Popova Psychological Institute of the Russian Academy of Education, Moscow, Russia Ekaterina S. Praizendorf Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia Natalya A. Pronina Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia Tatyana N. Protasova Kemerovo State University, Kemerovo, Russia Aleksandra A. Pugacheva Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia Olesya A. Radchenko Southern Federal University, Rostov-on-Don, Russia Irina A. Ralnikova Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia Natalia V. Repetskaya National Research Nuclear University MEPHI, Obninsk, Kaluga Region, Russia Tatiana V. Repkina Regional Center for Medical Prevention, Barnaul, Russia Yuliya N. Revyakina Omsk State Agrarian University Named After P.A. Stolypin, Omsk, Russia Nadezhda I. Roslyakova Kuban State University, Krasnodar, Russia Ekaterina K. Rudakova Nizhny Novgorod Dobrolyubov State Linguistic University, Nizhny Novgorod, Russia Margarita V. Ryazantseva Financial University Under the Government of the Russian Federation, Moscow, Russia Oleg Yu. Rybakov Kutafin Moscow State Law University (MSAL), Moscow, Russia Olga S. Rybakova Kutafin Moscow State Law University (MSAL), Moscow, Russia Denis A. Ryzhikov Management Academy of the Ministry of the Interior of the Russian Federation, Moscow, Russia Olga A. Sagalakova Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia Alexey G. Saibel CJSC «Regional Scientific Research Expert Centre», SaintPetersburg, Russia Elvina A. Salikhova Ufa State Aviation Technical University, Ufa, Bashkortostan, Russia

xxvi

Contributors

Venir K. Samigullin Ufa Law Institute of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia, Ufa, Russia Aleksander K. Samoylichenko Vladivostok State University of Economics and Service, Vladivostok, Russia Maria P. Samoylova Nizhny Novgorod Dobrolyubov State Linguistic University, Nizhny Novgorod, Russia Syldysmaa A. Saryglar Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia Vitaly D. Sattarov Perm Institute of the Federal Penal Service, Perm, Russia Galina N. Serbina Tomsk State University, Tomsk, Russia Liliya Seredinskaya Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia Yulia S. Sergeenko Saratov State Law Academy, Saratov, Russia Petr P. Sergun Saratov State Law Academy, Saratov, Russia Vyacheslav V. Sevalnev The Institute of Legislation and Comparative Law Under the Government of the Russian Federation, Moscow, Russia Ekaterina V. Shahova Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia Marat S. Shaikhullin VEGU Academy, Ufa, Russia Marina V. Shamardina Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia Mzia Shelia Institute of Demography and Sociology, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Irina V. Shesteryakova Kutafin Moscow State Law University (MSAL), Moscow, Russia Angelina N. Shrayber Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia Elena A. Shumilova Kuban State University, Krasnodar, Russia; Chechen State University, Grozny, Russia Anna I. Sinina The Russian State University of Justice, Saint-Petersburg, Russia Yuri V. Sinyutin Federal Government Institution Scientific and Production Association Special Equipment and Telecoms of the Ministry of the Internal Affairs of the Russian Federation, Moscow, Russia Andrey P. Skiba Academy of Law and Administration, Federal Penitentiary Service of Russia, Ryazan, Russia Elena V. Slavutskaya Chuvash State Pedagogical University, Cheboksary, Russia Leonid A. Slavutskii Chuvash State University, Cheboksary, Russia Tatiana V. Slinkova FEFU Branch in Ussuriysk, Ussuriysk, Russia

Contributors

xxvii

Yana K. Smirnova Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia Anastasya S. Spirina Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia Elena Stakanova Southern Federal University, Rostov-on-Don, Russia Margarita V. Starchikova Regional Center for Medical Prevention, Barnaul, Russia Elena A. Sukhova Saratov State Law Academy, Saratov, Russia Nelli G. Suprun Nosov Magnitogorsk State Technical University, Magnitogorsk, Russia Olga V. Surtaeva Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia Elena V. Susimenko Platov South-Russian State Polytechnic University (NPI), Novocherkassk, Russia Olga N. Sutyrina Volga State University of Technology, Yoshkar-Ola, Russia Felix K. Svobodny Moscow Academy of the Investigative Committee of the Russian Federation Moscow, Moscow, Russia Anya A. Symonenko Moscow University of Finance and Industry Synergy, Moscow, Russia Dina K. Tanatova Russian State Social University, Moscow, Russia Olga B. Tapalova Abai Kazakh National Pedagogical University, Almaty, Kazakhstan Elena V. Tarasova Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia Elena A. Terentieva Institute of World Economy and Finance, Astrakhan, Russia Tatiana E. Timashkova National Research Nuclear University MEPHI, Obninsk, Kaluga Region, Russia Natalia S. Timchenko Altai State Medical University, Barnaul, Russia Svetlana I. Tokmakova Altai State Medical University of the Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Barnaul, Russia Oleg V. Tolstoguzov Petrozavodsk State University, Petrozavodsk, Russia; Institute of Economics, Karelian Research Centre of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Petrozavodsk, Russia Leonid V. Tomanov Bunin Yelets State University, Yelets, Russia Ekaterina A. Tozyyakova Gorno-Altaisk State University, Gorno-Altaisk, Russia Alexey D. Trubetskov Saratov Hygiene Medical Research Center of the Federal Budget Scientific Institution, Federal Scientific Center for Medical and Preventive Health Risk Management Technologies, Saratov, Russia

xxviii

Contributors

Dmitry V. Truevtsev Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia Yuri V. Truntsevsky The Institute of Legislation and Comparative Law Under the Government of the Russian Federation, Moscow, Russia; Ugra State University, Khanty-Mansiysk, Russia Artem M. Tsirin The Institute of Legislation and Comparative Law Under the Government of the Russian Federation, Moscow, Russia; National Research University Higher School of Economics, Moscow, Russia Diana A. Tsiring Tomsk State University, Tomsk, Russia Ekaterina P. Tsyplakova The Russian State University of Justice, SaintPetersburg, Russia Mirian Tukhashvili Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Tatiana S. Tunchik Saint Petersburg Juridical Academy, Saint-Petersburg, Russia Anastasia A. Tuzova Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia Yuri M. Usoltsev Surgut State University, Surgut, Russia Natalya A. Usoltseva Surgut State University, Surgut, Russia Sergey V. Ustinkin Nizhny Novgorod Dobrolyubov State Linguistic University, Nizhny Novgorod, Russia Liudmila A. Vasilenko The Russian Presidential Academy of National Economy and Public Administration, Moscow, Russia Anton A. Vasiliev Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia Vitaliy A. Vasilyev South Ural State University, Chelyabinsk, Russia Zoya A. Vasilyeva Siberian Federal University, Krasnoyarsk, Russia Svetlana V. Velieva I. Yakovlev Chuvash State Pedagogical University, Cheboksary, Russia Elena V. Viktorova Penza State University, Penza, Russia Tatyana U. Vilkova Kutafin Moscow State Law University (MSAL), Moscow, Russia Natalia V. Volkova Biysk Technological Institute—A Branch of the Polzunov Altai State Technical University, Biysk, Russia Tatyana G. Volkova Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia Elena S. Yakushova Financial University Under the Government of the Russian Federation, Moscow, Russia Sergey F. Yamaletdinov Siberian Federal University, Krasnoyarsk, Russia Natalia G. Yanova Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia

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Mikhail V. Yatsenko Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia Tatyana N. Yudina Institute for Demographic Research of the Federal Center of Theoretical and Applied Sociology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia Il’dar M. Yusupov Kazan Innovative University Named After V.G. Timiryasov, Kazan, Russia Musa M. Yusupov Chechen State University, Grozny, Russia Svetlana N. Zaikova Saratov State Law Academy, Sarartov, Russia Larisa V. Zanina Southern Federal University, Rostov-on-Don, Russia Eldar Zh. Zhaparov Abai Kazakh National Pedagogical University, Almaty, Kazakhstan Olga V. Zhirnova Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia Nadezhda B. Zhiyenbaeva Abai Kazakh National Pedagogical University, Almaty, Kazakhstan Margarita A. Zhuravleva Samara University, Samara, Russia Alla V. Zinich Omsk State Agrarian University Named After P.A. Stolypin, Omsk, Russia

Methods and Tools for Complex Research in Social Systems

Rediscovering the Future of the Humankind: The Formation of Alternative Social, Digital, and Natural Realities of the Future Sergey A. Kravchenko

Abstract The paper focuses on the impact of the effects of the accelerating and increasingly complex dynamics of the social world, technology, and nature, which determines the permanent rediscovery of the future of humankind. The author notes that there were four significant rediscoveries of the future in the history of human civilization. The author especially analyzes the factors of the current rediscovery of the future. The following factors determine the future: (1) human actors and nonhuman digital actants; (2) changing nature of people developing digital corporeality; (3) global humanitarian crisis; (4) normal chaos of society and the formation of normal anomie and normal trauma; (5) effect of potential catastrophes spreading in space and time under the influence of COVID-19; (6) rethinking of Good and Evil, and the existing principles of humanism; and (7) ongoing metamorphosis of the world manifesting itself as a positive side effect of the bad. The author concludes that as intelligent actors, people can give complex social, digital, and natural hybrids developing in a pragmatic trend a humanistic vector of development, thereby ensuring their existential security in the future. Initiatives of scientists and politicians on the formation of social and digital consciousness based on non-linear humanistic principles adequate to Einstein’s picture of the world can become a roadmap to this future. Keywords Rediscovering the future · Digitalization · Social, digital, and natural realities · Non-linearity · Global complexity · Normal trauma · Humanism

1 Introduction In the context of relatively linear development and Newtonian worldview, sociologists believe that social laws predetermine the single future of humankind. Its concrete implementation in life depends on scientific and technological achievements, the S. A. Kravchenko (B) MGIMO-University, Moscow, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova (ed.), Complex Social Systems in Dynamic Environments, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 365, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23856-7_1

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practices of previous generations, and the efforts of the masses of people striving for great material and spiritual benefits. At the stage of the transition from industrial to reflexive modernity, ideas about the elusive world arose [17], and a rethinking of the future occurred, which began to be presented in the form of alternative future societies [20]. Today, a radical rediscovery of the future occurs under the influence of the factors, such as digitalization and the COVID-19 pandemic, and in the context of Einstein’s picture of the world. Particularly, this is the formation of complex social, digital, and natural realities non-linearly developing and affecting the nature of the future. In this regard, the paper aims to substantiate the contours of the concept of the formation of alternative social, digital, and natural realities of the future. Therefore, the following tasks are being solved: . To show the dynamics of the emergence of significant social, technical, and natural factors (the rediscovery of the future was historically performed under their influence, beginning from the destruction of traditional society and up to the present day); . To analyze the influence of the formation of global complex hybrids and the transition to the dominance of a non-linear type of development; . To consider the impact of the complex vulnerabilities emerging currently; . To propose a new interpretation of the social and digital nature of the human of the future; . To substantiate the demand for the transition to humanism adequate to the realities of global complexity and non-linear development.

2 Materials and Methods Valid diagnosis of the future of humankind demands research materials devoted to studying the formation of global complexity [1, 5, 16, 37, 39]. According to Urry [37], global complexity goes beyond organized society and acquires a fundamentally new vector of development determined by global flows, bifurcations, attractors, and emergence. Complex hybrid formations emerge, spread, and develop non-linearly. The sociologist argues that complex socio-material hybrids already represent the modern world. Systems cannot be reduced to one of these elements. They are sociomaterial. It is also important that complex systems form networks. Simultaneously, the systems are preserved due to dependence on the track, whereby the future is not understood as emptiness [39]. Individual components of complex hybrids cannot function independently of each other. Based on this methodological approach, it follows that the nature of the hybrid future is determined by the following factors: . Human actors; . Non-human actants operating based on digital technologies and artificial intelligence; . Nature predisposed to self-development; . Climate with its inherent specific reflexivity and turbulence.

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The author uses the postulate of arrows of time of I. R. Prigozhin as a methodological basis to interpret the formation of increasingly complex social, digital, and natural realities. According to this postulate, self-development of matter, namely, accelerating and, most importantly, increasingly complex dynamics of matter, occurs, which applies to the inorganic and organic worlds. Human communities, especially in our time, have their significantly shorter time scales. With an increase in dynamic complexity (from stone to human society), the role of the arrow of time, evolutionary rhythms, increases [33]. This implies the demand for a new dialogue between human and nature and their common future.

3 Results A constant rediscovery of the past, obsolete future accompanies the history of human civilization. Today, there is a radical rediscovery of the present future conceived as a social one. Society itself is metamorphosed into complex social, digital, and natural realities expressing the quintessence of the future. The author has shown that the future of humankind goes beyond the limits of society. In fact, there are no pure societies and authentic nature, but the formation of non-linearly developing hybrids occurs nowadays. They will form alternative futures. Human actors and non-human actants, predisposed to self-reflectiveness, participate in this process. The digitalization factor radically changes the nature of people of the future by forming a digital body for them, which allows going beyond the fixed space and time and gaining digital immortality. Accordingly, ideas have arisen to rediscover the humanistic realities of the future and determine whether the future is human, posthuman, or transhuman. The author of the paper stands for the preservation of the human spirit proper in the future, which is possible under the following conditions: . Formation of a new type of humanism adequate to the realities of global complexity and non-linear development; . Consideration of the natural production of normal traumas of society and nature and adoption of measures to minimize them; . Turn of rigidity, which presupposes the preservation of currently functional institutions, values, and norms for maintaining ontological security; . Spread of the effect of normal accidents on the macro- and microcosm due to the manifestations of the COVID-19 pandemic since their mutual influence forms the nature of the future; . Transition to a non-linear type of management of positive side effects of the bad [5], which will allow forming a social catharsis to humanize the social, digital, and natural realities of the future.

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4 Discussion In traditional society, it was believed that external forces predetermined the future. More than that, the future resulted from the opposition of God’s providence and the machinations of the Devil. The lifestyles of tens of generations practically did not differ from each other. The destruction of the rigidly stable traditional social order and the emergence of uncertainty began to occur only at the end of the Middle Ages when the question about the possibility of a different future arose for the first time. Thomas More made the first rediscovery of the future in his book Utopia written more than five centuries ago (1516). The author of the book proposed a local project of a predictable, fair, and secure future for the inhabitants of the island, which included the following aspects: (1) six-hour working day for all with an emphasis on creating useful things in sufficient quantities, without counting on their sale; (2) common meal and clothing of the same type, excluding excesses; (3) property which lost the meaning of accumulation and inheritance due to the supposed rotation of housing every ten years, etc. The utopian future is often presented as the fruit of absurd fantasies or the sick imagination of the author. However, as K. Mannheim has shown, utopias are conditioned by a particular stage of social development of people’s lives and can become a reality in the future [29]. M. Castells argues that a different economy and a different way of life, which yesterday seemed only utopias, are possible today. Some economic practices that embody the following alternative values have emerged across Europe and the United States: (1) value of life over the value of money; (2) effectiveness of cooperation in the fight against corruption; and (3) corporate social responsibility and responsible government regulation of short-term financial strategies. Co-consumption of cars, equipment, and clothing has become popular, which indicates an increase in the utility function that gives preference to affordable consumption by raising it above the logic of capital accumulation [9]. Industrial modernity that laid the foundation for the institutionalization of scientific knowledge was the main factor in the second rediscovery of the future. According to E. Durkheim, the movement towards the future based on social happiness is associated with the deepening of the labor division, which is a necessary condition for the material and intellectual development of society [12]. Marx saw the future in the positive abolition of private property and the return to a human, that is, social being [30]. Weber associated the future with the fact that modern capitalism could perform rational regulation of people’s life [41]. On the contrary, G. Simmel believed that rationalization inevitably led to a future tragedy of culture manifested in an increase in total value and a decrease in the value of individual parts [35]. Despite certain differences, these approaches to the future have common grounds: . Objective laws of social development and general trends in the rationalization of science, labor activity, and culture determine a single optimistic future for all humankind; . Establishment of social happiness requires great efforts of the masses of people who consciously create the future by using scientific, technical, and managerial innovations;

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. Nature of the future is determined exclusively by transformations in the socioeconomic and cultural spheres that lead to an unlimited increase in material and spiritual benefits and meeting the ever-increasing needs of people regardless of the capabilities of nature and its resources; . Principle Man is the measure of all things, formed in the Enlightenment era, was a universal, enduring personification of humanism, goodness, and progress. This vision of the future lasted two centuries but did not stand the test of time. It was based on a linear picture of the world and a vision of development from lower to higher and did not consider the factors of human destructiveness [13]. The third rediscovery is caused by the increasingly complex realities of the formation of reflexive modernity. In the context of the global humanitarian crisis, there was a transition from a vision of a common future to alternative futures, which was stated at the Third Forum of the International Sociological Association. When opening the plenary session, the President of the World Sociological Association, M. Abraham, substantiated the choice of the topic of the forum in the context of the global humanitarian crisis, to which, in his words, politicians react only fragmentarily. The crisis is caused by a combination of reasons inherent in global processes and generated by wars, conflicts, deprivation, and delocalization of people who are forced to make extreme mobility by land and sea in search of security and a possibly better future [1]. Sciences affirm a non-linear vision of the world, the functionality of which is based on the complex causality that endows realities with a new property, namely, the ability to self-determination and self-reflexivity [28]. Breaks and traumas of society, as well as back-and-forth tendencies, become the norm. Simultaneously, bifurcation points become more widespread. Insignificant events transfer society into a state of instability with the possibility of various unpredictable development options. Social acceleration entails a permanent change in values and ideas about humanism, good, and evil [19]. Significantly, side effects in the activities of people become increasingly apparent. Researchers identify the following factors affecting the nature of the future ambivalently and especially note the emerging vulnerabilities for society and nature. . The functionality of modern society is due to the interdependence of complex systems and manifests itself in the Titanic effect. Failures in one of the systems give rise to cascades of problems in others. E. Giddens reasonably asserts that the future of Europe and the world can be prosperous if it is possible to achieve cofunctional interdependence within the EU countries and between the EU and the USA [16]. When considering the functional vulnerability of modern societies, the author believes that a secure future implies the need to extend this principle to the world community. . Openness brings benefits and vulnerabilities for the future. At the end of the twentieth century, the open society was seen as a universal ideal for the future of all humankind [32]. Today, this vision of the future is subject to justified criticism. S. Lessenich, a German sociologist, notes the emerging contradictions of the open society in the form of complex global inequalities. In fact, Western countries enjoy the advantages of openness [27]. Urry asserts the same by emphasizing the

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latent aspects of offshore. The author notes that offshore promotes developing new borders and new secrets by the limitless world. Its quintessence is in the movement of resources, practices, people, and money from one national territory to another, being completely or partially hidden from the view of the public and public authorities [38]. . The nature of the future depends on natural resources and climate. The collateral damage of progress appeared due to the depletion of non-renewable resources and technological innovations that clearly and indirectly affect climate turbulence. In fact, a new type of flowing disaster emerged [26]. Sassen, an American sociologist, notes the resource conditionality of the future [34]. . The vulnerability increases due to the side effects of the functioning of collective and individual actors. Their reflexive activity has intentional and unintended consequences, suggesting discontinuity in social development and an alternative future. At the same time, it is not so many political parties that act as a catalyst for collective actions and social movements, but the network communications of individual actors, to which the American researcher J. Wright drew attention [43]. Not the masses but individual actors can significantly influence the future of countries and the world. . The emergences of rhizomatic communities, possessing qualities that have no roots in the past, manifest themselves [10]. As a result, fundamentally new vulnerabilities for the future have emerged under the influence of the realities of reflexive modernity. In essence, in the spirit of Orwell’s dystopia, an environment has been formed that is aggressive for humans and nature, in which it is very problematic to establish a single way of life and form a vision of an optimistic future. In the context of the increasingly complex dynamics of modern realities, innovative approaches are permanently in demand [22]. Nowadays, the vision of alternative future societies is critically examined by considering the emergence of new significant factors. The fourth rediscovery of the future, which brings hopes and anxiety, occurs under their influence. The author highlights the following features as especially important ones. . It was always about a new vision of the society of the future. Nowadays, a separate society, a clean society, does not exist since the components of complex hybrids cannot function independently. It follows that the future is determined not only by human actors and non-human actants operating based on digital technologies and artificial intelligence, which are predisposed to self-development and the manifestation of their will but also nature and climate with their inherent specific reflexivity. A variety of hybrid formations, which form an alternative future already now, follows from the very nature of complex social, digital, and natural realities and their non-linear development in different countries. . Digitalization prompts to re-interpret the nature of people of the future and the role of humanism in it. For example, Musk, a well-known entrepreneur, has made a sensational statement: the Neuralink company has chipped the brain of a pig

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and is ready to conduct similar experiments on the human brain [15]. If the functionality of existing chips is limited by the internal reflexivity of people (e.g., those who decide to manipulate money), the new chip is controlled from the outside with the help of a computer. According to him, the chip can fix everything that is wrong with the brain (e.g., restore lost sight or hearing due to its damage). Moreover, the computer will be able to download thoughts to people in the future. It is assumed that the technology of neural lace will be used for medicinal purposes. However, what future awaits people if certain forces want to use this technology in their political and economic interests? Today, it is a utopia, which can be realized hypothetically tomorrow. The very possibility of this kind of practical work is evidence that the formation of a digital body has begun. Deleuze and Guattari [11] used the concept of the body without organs to denote an environment or structure functioning in a virtual way of organizing integrity. In their opinion, real bodies (the institutional body of a social structure or the biological body of an individual) have a set of certain essential features that are very rigid. However, in an increasingly complex society, real bodies acquire the potential to self-organize. They significantly transform themselves and sometimes form their second corporeality, which goes beyond the local space. The authors write that capital is a body without organs of capitalism or rather of capitalist being, and a body without organs reproduces itself, buds, and stretches to the boundaries of the universe [11]. . The same applies to the bodies of people. In the words of G. Deleuze, making oneself a body without organs means forming another individual. Digitalization, which makes it possible to form bodies without organs in the form of digital bodies in social networks, creates opportunities for almost every person to become a deterritorialized and timeless self, thereby giving their essence a digital being and even digital immortality in the future. The side effects of this process are that the basic principles of humanism and the human spirit are supplanted. As a result, according to Vanderburg, a social group can develop a feeling that society is not for them at all. Modern mass societies have created niches of technical human resources that produce enormous amounts of fear and depression [40]. Fuller also critically analyzes the humanistic aspects of the future: whether the future is human, posthuman, or transhuman [14]. This is about the creation of the so-called transitional man as the first step towards overcoming biosocial human nature and subsequent evolution into a posthuman with superpowers (asexual reproduction, the transition from a bio-body to a digital body, etc.). R. Braidotti notes that the crisis of humanism in Europe has led to the establishment of pan-humanism expressed in a global sense of the interdependence of all people and the human and non-human environment. This new pan-humanism is paradoxical in two senses. First, these interdependencies are, to a large extent, negative and based on a shared sense of vulnerability to fear of impending disasters. Second, this new global closeness does not always generate tolerance and peaceful coexistence. On the contrary, forms of xenophobia, denial of otherness, and increased armed violence are essential features of our time. Many of the new robots are for military purposes. They have made it technologically possible to circumvent human decisions at

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the operational and moral levels. The negative realities have arisen and become a factor in the rediscovery of universal ethical values. The postulate Man is the measure of all things is called into question. The ethics of posthumans, suggesting an increasing sense of interdependence between their self and others (including inhuman and earthly otherness), is asserted [8]. These problems are essential for comprehending the future of humanity. A critical analysis of the bioethical problems of improving human corporeality through the use of digital and nanotechnology is especially necessary. A number of researchers rightly believe that new biotechnologies, spreading globally and dealing with the problems of human genetic modification and atypical practices of childbirth that go beyond traditional bioethics, are unacceptable for the countries of the non-Western world [31]. . Pragmatically oriented digitalization exacerbates the current global humanitarian crisis, thereby affecting the nature of the future. The non-linear development of social, digital, and natural realities causes this crisis. Therefore, producing normal traumas of society and nature becomes natural [25]. The author believes that modern epidemics, which very quickly develop into pandemics due to global openness and flows of mobility, should be classified as normal traumas [37]. Cloud games also normally traumatize people’s consciousness as they latently provoke a new culturally conditioned syndrome in the form of digital gambling addiction added to the list of games dangerous to human health. Researchers have begun to develop innovative approaches to new challenges in the context of rediscovering the future. A set of proposals, designated as a turn of rigidity, which presupposes the preservation of currently functional institutions, values, and norms to ensure ontological security that preserves a sense of stability in the external world, is among them [18]. However, this raises the question: which values one should strengthen and which new values one should move towards. Liberal values of formal rationality, pragmatism, and mercantilism, as well as universal Western interpretations of human rights and freedoms, in essence, have now lost their historical significance and contribute to the dysfunctionality of complex systems. In the post-coronavirus future, human rights must be adapted to new and increasingly complex realities, including rights to quality treatment, healthy lifestyles, and a friendly ecological environment. The order of international cooperation emerged after the Second World War under the influence of the interference of crises, to which the crisis of cosmopolitanization caused by the risks of COVID-19 was added [24], was seriously traumatized because of the emergence of gaps in the previous interaction between countries. Significant dysfunctions have appeared within the international division of labor from which the countries of the golden billion traditionally derived fabulous profits using the cheap labor of the peoples of developing countries. As a result of the sudden event of COVID-19, the countries of the North have found themselves in existential dependence on the countries of the South, where the main production of protective consumables and disinfection materials was previously exported. The order of access to treatment, medicines, and means of protection against infections has also suffered. Moreover, at the beginning of the 21st century, new

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enclaves, inhabited by people who lost their place on Earth and acquired the status of untouchable, inconceivable, or non-image ones [2], began to form under the influence of traumas of society and statehood, especially in the Middle East countries. The pandemic has increased their scale by several times. At the same time, their new (sometimes exotic) varieties have appeared (e. g., quarantine isolation and self-isolation, forced elite rest on cruise ships, and wandering of fishers in search for a berth resulting from border closures). Deregulation of hybrid wars, the formation of virtually stateless territories, and uncontrolled migration contribute to the mass production of infected people not tested for diseases. Today, they are invisible and inconceivable but represent deferred risks to the future world order. . Kravchenko [23] notes the normal chaos of society and the formation of normal anomie. According to Z. Bauman, the future is life with strangers at our door. He writes that massive migration is a new phenomenon. What has recently happened represents a significant jump in the number of refugees and asylum seekers to the total volume of migrants knocking on the doors of Europe. This leap was caused by the increasing number of falling or already fallen states and—despite the intentions and goals—the emergence of territories, in which there is no statehood or law, endless wars waged between tribes and sects, massacres, seizure of everything that is possible, and round-the-clock banditry. The researcher essentially proposes to form a new culture of interaction with people. He says that people should look for opportunities to enter closer and more intimate contact with them, hoping that the result will be a merging of horizons [3]. In addition to the normal chaos of love [6] and the problems of love at a distance, the trauma of the ambivalence of emancipation has been added: women in the West gain more freedom by exploiting women who have migrated from the East [7]. Besides, the unresolved contradiction between the recommendations of health experts called upon to perform medical supervision and the pragmatic interests of business against the background of the non-linear development of the epidemiological situation essentially leads to a permanent trauma to the openness of the global community regarding the functioning of world tourism and beaches, pubs, sports, and concert events. Consequently, business is injured, and the incomes of economic actors fluctuate. Those people who have created local social networks by reorienting their activities to national interests and areas, such as food, health care, pharmaceuticals, and hygiene, become the beneficiaries. However, humanism principles were traumatized most of all when doctors had to decide which of the patients to save by connecting them to a ventilator that got free. . COVID-19 has revealed the importance of another factor influencing the nature of the future, namely, the microcosm in the form of bacteria and viruses. Now, it becomes more complicated due to the combined influence of actors and digital actants, which has ambivalent results. On the one hand, people create vaccines that can effectively resist viruses, but on the other hand, the invasion of digital technologies into the microcosm also has collateral damage in the form of provoking natural and artificial mutations of viruses. The author believes that the effect of

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normal accidents (Ch. Perrow) should be extended to the macro and the microcosm, which is a complex system and a part of the social, digital, and natural realities prone to reflection. In this regard, new potential threats to human life are possible in the foreseeable future. . The current problems of humanism in the future are interpreted in a new way. M. Wieviorka notes that good and evil are not acts of God or nature, but parts of the everyday reality of collective life [42]. Bauman and L. Donskis believe that the current evil, expressed in temptation, instability, and inconstancy, has become a reality [4]. These new phenomena, which can be defined as the turbulence of humanism and ethics, will undoubtedly influence the nature of the future. They must be considered in the development of approaches to preserving proper human relations in the future. . At the same time, complex realities, developing non-linearly, create unexpected prerequisites for transforming challenges and troubles into potential benefits for the future. W. Beck has proposed the concept of world metamorphosis. Its essence is in the emergence of positive side effects of global risks through the violation of sacred values and norms that cause an anthropological shock leading to the emergence of a new normative horizon in the form of a global frame of justice. It follows that global complexity and non-linear development can become factors of anthropological shock, social catharsis [5], and the subsequent transition to a new trajectory of social development.

5 Conclusion Humanity has faced global challenges of forming alternative social, digital, and natural realities of the future, the answer to which is in the rediscovery of trends in social development. It is necessary to search for fundamentally new approaches to the production of good, the humanization of human relations, relying on the shoulders of the giants of the sociology of humanism, such as Sorokin [36] and Kovalevskiy [21], Fromm [13], and Bauman [2], and considering the realities of non-linearity. Precisely people have created complex social, digital, and natural hybrids that came forever. It is impossible to return to the past future, in which there was no digitalization or natural and humanistic turbulence. Nevertheless, as intelligent actors, people can give complex hybrids a humanistic vector of development, ensuring their existential safety in the future. The author believes that humanity needs to move towards forming a social and digital consciousness based on humanistic principles that are adequate to Einstein’s picture of the world. This type of consciousness can reflect a reality evolving nonlinearly and presuppose the interpenetration of heuristic human activity, culture, and inhuman functionality of actants.

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29. Mannheim K (1994) Diagnosis of our time. Yurist, Moscow 30. Marx K (2000) Economic and philosophical manuscripts of 1844. In: Filippov AF (eds) Sociology. KANON, Moscow, pp 41–174 31. Obasogie OK, Darnovsky M (2018) Beyond bioethics: toward a new biopolitics. University of California Press, Los Angeles 32. Popper K (1992) Open society and its enemies. Phoenix, Moscow 33. Prigozhin I, Stengers I (1986) Order out of chaos: a new dialogue between man and nature. Progress, Moscow 34. Sassen S (2016) Relocalizing the national and horizontolizing the global. In: The third ISA forum of sociology. The futures we want: global sociology and the struggles for a better world. Vienna, 10−14 July 2016 35. Simmel G (1978) The philosophy of money. Routledge and Kegan Paul, London 36. Sorokin PA (1994) Publicly available textbook of sociology: papers of different years. Nauka, Moscow 37. Urry J (2003) Global complexity. Polity Press, Cambridge 38. Urry J (2016) Offshoring. Polity Press, Cambridge 39. Urry J (2016) What is the future? Polity Press, Cambridge 40. Vanderburg WH (2016) Our battle for the human spirit. University of Toronto Press, Toronto 41. Weber M (1990) Selected works. Progress, Moscow 42. Wieviorka M (2012) Evil. Polity Press, Cambridge 43. Wright J (2016) E-movements and e-mobilizations: a twitter analysis of two companions of the anonymous hacktivist’s movement. In: The third ISA forum of sociology. The futures we want: global sociology and the struggles for a better world. Vienna, 10−14 July 2016

Data Vice Body: Transformation of Corporeality in the Axiological Aspect of Transhumanist Concepts Liliya Seredinskaya

and Inna V. Cherdanceva

Abstract The study dwells on the analysis of the transhumanistic concept of consciousness digitalization and body rejection in favor of pure digital consciousness. In addition, the study analyzes the concept of the anthropological machine as a process of idealization of a human being due to body rejection. From this perspective, the study of digital formation or the process of digitalization of a person is one of the attempts to marginalize the biological nature of a person and turn the humanity or animality of a person (paradoxically close to some concepts of medieval Christian philosophy) into the body concept. Finally, in the last paragraph of this study, we attempted to apply the conclusions to the current global COVID-19 pandemic. Keywords Transhumanism · Digitalization · Pandemic · COVID-19

1 Introduction Given the recent technological developments in the neurobiology of consciousness, the highly criticized transhumanistic concept of “mind loading,” including the associated idea of digital immortality, is no longer seen as utopian. The project Neuralink [7] by Elon Musk presented new results of the brain-computer neuro interface technology, the SyNAPSE program [9], and many other developments in this field indicate that human society made another step towards digitalization. The current situation actualizes several issues, corresponding to the modern transhumanistic, ethical, and axiological positions concerning corporeality: (1) the elimination of the body problem due to the possibility of digitizing the personality, (2) consciousness as information, (3) the immortality of a transhuman being, and (4) overcoming the concepts of suicide and death. Many of these aspects are related to recent philosophical debates about transhumanism. However, there are scientific L. Seredinskaya (B) · I. V. Cherdanceva Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova (ed.), Complex Social Systems in Dynamic Environments, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 365, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23856-7_2

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studies concerning the possibility of creating a virtual superintelligence, digital intelligence networks, and studying the brain-computer interface [2], aimed at overcoming the axiological boundaries of a person. The background of transhumanistic philosophical concepts primarily relies on the idea that human does not have natural continuity due to an anthropological basis, from which one can deduce the final definition of a human. However, according to this position, the evolutionary purpose of the body as a form of human life is the technical and cultural manipulation of its physical components to receive greater chances of survival and better evolutionary prospects. Thus, we can find a detailed description of the process described above in various charters of transhumanist societies, spreading the international transhumanism principles. Therefore, one can distinguish the concept of human digitizing in greater detail. The focus on body rejection in favor of the computerization of the brain may indeed look like a futuristic concept that has nothing in common with avant-garde scientific and technical research. Nevertheless, for philosophy in modern society, it is a significant criticism symptom of classical axiological concepts of corporeality, linking the body (or organism) exclusively with negative connotations: defects, illness, vulnerability, suffering, dirt, sin, and other features. Thus, negative aspects of corporeality for centuries were associated with the animal component and considered mainly through the opposition to intellectual or spiritual capabilities. The will to know the limits of the human body, the idea of the superiority of thought over the matter, and the comparison of the body with an obstacle, barrier, or tomb are certainly not new, since reflection on them lasts two and a half thousand years of the history of Western thought, from Plato to Heidegger. The traditional issue of corporeality remains invariably relevant even in the era of new digital research. Thus, it is crucial to realize what remains of a human being when their corporeal, animal component disappears. Moreover, this is primarily a social issue rather than biological since human nature is not something given once and for all and is not directly related to the original biological confirmation. On the contrary, it is determined by historical and cultural processes that involve new mechanisms for turning on or turning off what is considered, in each particular case, animal and human, inside or outside a human [1]. Thus, the digital revolution cannot be conceived and implemented in isolation from philosophical reflection on the axiological status of corporeality, particularly in the future, when the body would be determined as a waste, something outdated, must be overcome, transformed and, where it is possible, erased, get rid of it [3].

2 Materials and Methods The philosophical concepts of Nick Bostrom and Giorgio Agamben were taken as methodological guidelines in this study. According to these concepts, the interaction between a human and their body is based on the correlation between animality and humanity.

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3 Results 3.1 Homo Sacer or Homo Data? The position of devaluing human corporeality for the benefit of digitalization of pure consciousness is attributed to the philosophy of transhumanism. Furthermore, the human desire to transcend the limits of corporeality and, at least, get rid of the body, and moreover, will reveal the prerequisites known even in the concept of Manichaeism, since it reconstructs the preference for existence in a hyper-technological paradise, in which corporeality is manifested not in its animal aspect, but the aspect of the sacred body, allowing existence in the mode of eternal contemplative digital life [8]. In the study “Homo sacer. Sovereign Power and Bare Life” [1], Giorgio Agamben discusses medieval Christian theological debates about the loss of human animality as a rejection of carnal life, including the concept of the sacred body in the afterlife. Agamben explores the interaction between the human and the animal that affects the human body’s idea. The study raises the inevitable problem of “ethical and political status” corporal life and the idea, leading to new ways of understanding the human body. While not wishing to delve into the issue of constructing a new political ontology of corporeality after Agamben, being limited within the study, we want to determine the unexpected analogy Agamben drew between the decomposition of the body during the paradise life and its disintegration in the digital era. However, the hypothesis is that the integration of these concepts expresses the possibility of suppressing or rejecting the existence of the body in the aspect of animality. Thus, the security issue regarding the humanity of human and their animality is as follows: “In our culture, man has always been thought of as the articulation and conjunction of a body and a soul, of a living thing and a logos, of a natural (or animal) element and a supernatural or social or divine element.” Medieval theologians are unapologetically adverse to issues of corporeality related to the concept of resurrection, including axiological and reproductive aspects. Therefore, we must pay attention to the fact that axiological problems in these teachings affect only the sacred sphere. However, the values issue is completely excluded from the sphere of the corporeal. Therefore, there will be no place for any aspect of corporeality in the Kingdom of Heaven: “blessed life is in no case an animal life.” Thus, the body of Homo sacer is a body reborn in the image and likeness of a pure disembodied spirit; a vessel of the soul without admixture of flesh, hunger, thirst, fatigue, desire, and, obviously, immune to deprivation, pain, and disease. A body free from all obstacles. Thus, the resurrection, presented from this position, provides the eternal perfection of the ideal humanity, inherent in the contemplative life, excluding the earthly and animal-human life. As Agamben adds in his study “Homo sacer,” the contemplative life of the blessed can be interpreted or compared with a life free from physical labor. However, by this definition, Agamben does not indicate an existence doomed to inaction. On the contrary, they critically analyze the position of medieval scholastics

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regarding the forms of existence that involve the unnatural (unembodied, unborn) body and new ways of experiencing and interacting with it. However, in this sense, the blessed live without a body, as if in eternal life, their bodies were annulled by all their contents. Furthermore, the bodies of the blessed are not empty vessels. Although such an image can help understand the body’s inertia, since the body and organs in paradise cannot serve for anything, it turns out to be inaccurate. Thus, if rebirth meant simply being reborn on a new higher level, it would be unthinkable to start eternal life again without any parts of oneself. Nevertheless, resurrection, in correlation with the medieval theological paradigm involves a rebirth in absolute perfection, accompanied by an existing body, included in complete and absolute uselessness. Therefore, even the organs that make it up are still presented, but not as tools focused on a specific biological goal since they cannot be used. However, some organs remain in place to preserve the incorruptible image and the shape of the blessed one. According to Agamben, “the sacred body is not another body, more flexible and gorgeous, brighter and spiritual: it is one and the same body, inactive, freed from the temptation of the flesh and inclusive to possible new use.” In the author’s opinion, the blessed ones can serve as an example for the idea of a new use of the body, in which animal life and human life do not intersect for the first time, since animal life is included in the sacred life through its exclusion. In fact, the body is included as an eidos in the contemplative-divine life, which becomes conceivable and achievable only through the disappearance of human animality. However, being deprived of the axiological status, existing as pure inactive power, the body in eternal life can emphasize a power that lacks an action (including the necessity of the action). Thus, this lack of action should not be considered a disadvantage, but, on the contrary, the reflection of the true human essence, related to the spirit of the Christian theological anthropological concept.

3.2 Body as a Border “The line between a human and an animal passes primarily within a person” [1]. At this constantly changing borderline between what is considered a human and what is excluded from human characteristics, a person’s self-image is a primary feature. However, the body mentioned above is a battlefield for this human world. Furthermore, Agamben explains this process through the concept of an anthropological machine, functioning as a mechanism that delimits and excludes the animalistic features in the human body and incidentally delimitates the human feature. Therefore, this process can never be completed because “human-animal and animal-human are two sides of the same phenomenon, which cannot be completely identified with one side of it or with another” [1]. Moreover, the functioning of the anthropological machine is not a neutral and non-historical concept, which is determined by ideological and political factors. In addition, examples in this regard involve various racist concepts, including modern concepts of “ultra-coma” and brain death [1].

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This concept also extends beyond the religious concept of corporeality to differentiate the animal and spiritual features of the human being within the secular society and cultural concepts. Thus, we can identify that the mechanism of isolation of an animal in corporeality, including the “moral” cancellation of particular functions of the organism, well known from Christian religious taboos on corporeality, has never ceased its activity in European culture [1]. The work of the anthropological machine, completely described by Agamben, including various peculiarities and transformations, regardless of the historical period, does not change: “you can function only by creating an indifference zone in your center, in which you must always be absent as something definite, because your real essence is already presented as an articulation between human and animal, human and non-human, speaking and alive” [1]. However, the neutral zone, in which the human is constantly separated from the animal, always remains in the body. Nevertheless, in our rational thinking, the body is interrelated with purely biological functions and the perception and comprehension sphere regarding the senses. Some of these senses are directly related to the morality and communication spheres. Thus, various studies in the humanities underline empathy, which is essential for interaction with others. Consequently, the development of such concepts as justice, injustice, solidarity, and sociability are considered significant features in this context. Feelings of belonging to a family and a group are also considered superstructures associated with the emotional and sensory basis of a human being. In addition, all these functions, which are useful for the development and cohesion of the human race, can be jeopardized by the prospect of the mind and personality digitalization since it separates the pure mind embodied in the binary code and the corporeality as a place of thinking, flesh, the cradle of feelings from each other [6]. However, corporeality can be erased and sacralized, while the mind must be immortal, including information and memory. An anthropological machine functioning in a digital context, in fact, in a Manichaean method, should function as a human being since it has functions similar to the sacred body described in medieval theological treatises, including an atheistic level, where the only conceivable transcendence is the transcendence of the virtual [4]. Eventually, the true humanity of a person ultimately lies in the trans-human, in the digitization of the body, conceived as its overcoming.

3.3 Value of Corporeality in Quarantine The actualization of the antagonism between thinking and the body, the relevance of expanding the boundaries of corporeality involving digital devices can be illustrated by the current situation of the COVID-19 pandemic, which has affected the whole world since January 2020. The violation of our historical way of life can be in a sense associated with the experiment of digitizing social practices related to corporeality, illustrated above. The opportunity to become a digital personality during quarantine has become an everyday reality for many people, and not just a philosophical and futuristic concept within a dystopian series. The widespread “smart life” practice

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(this includes smart-working during “non-working days,” distance learning, digital social practice programs, and others), which immediately replaced our everyday bodily practices, achieved a complete virtual impact on a person. In the form of immersion in images, the general transition to the digital presence mode, uncontrolled interference in the sphere of personal information, and the collective intellectual field of common emotions and thoughts in the webspace coincide with the uselessness and even inaccessibility of the body and its animal parts. Thus, one can observe a situation surprisingly similar to the situation of the sacredly useless body of the blessed. Nowadays, one of the aspects of corporeality that exists is the body in general, in a double, mutually directed movement of immunization and alienation. However, this is the same device of the anthropological machine, which, on the one hand, tries to separate a person from their biological component, shared with other animals and is considered infected; and on the other hand, reduces the body to risky and deadly contamination of the vehicle. Moreover, quarantine restores the concept of responsibility for the body as a source of danger, an absolute symbol of vulnerability for a person, and infection for society. In addition, it should be noted that there is a widespread feeling of anxiety, discomfort, and even criticism in every person in relation to the body, which should not be manifested in any way in the public space during this period. Thus, one can feel guilty that they occupy a particular physical space (their body occupies this space further than 100 m from the house, or in places with a potentially increased population, or any other locations prohibited by the authorities or by oneself).

4 Discussion Mandatory measures of suppression and isolation restore biopolitical devices designed to control, manage, and discipline the body within the public and private space, including apolitical instances [5]. Significant changes in digital biopolitics enable to exclude the body from the physical space, including its functioning in the virtual space. However, it is challenging to return humanity to the sphere of human thinking and joint activity, which must be protected at all costs and before any other aspect of human life. The same concepts of digital human improvement, designed to protect and improve human abilities, assume no place for the body in digital life. Human existence in a digital body is a fundamental issue in philosophy, politics, and economics. Furthermore, we suppose that the prospect of digital development understood as the re-construction of the physical body in digital modeling can be one of the possible ways to solve this problem.

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5 Conclusion To sum up, we identified that the risk of being addictive to life, regulated by algorithms, can lead to the disappearance, along with the social space, of the incorporated sociality. The community based on social alienation, mentioned by Agamben, can be the first experiment of a virtual community of disembodied subjectivities. Moreover, the information community is the only data. Thus, the transformation of the research methods of existence during the pandemic can become an exercise in the new use of bodies, regarding the disappearance of the animal component in the human body, including their embodiment in a digital system. The features described above explain how it has been possible to accept imprisonment, restriction of personal freedoms, deprivation of what we considered human fundamental rights. Consequently, we made it possible due to virtuality. We concluded that one could easily be domesticated and controlled, as long as people continue to live in the virtual world.

References 1. Agamben G (2011) Homo sacer: sovereign power and bare life. Evropa, Moscow 2. Bostrom N (2009) The wisdom of nature: an evolutionary heuristicfor human enhancement. Oxford University Press, Oxford 3. Bostrom N (2020) FAQ on transhumanism. http://www.alt-future.narod.ru/Future/trans.htm#upl oading 4. Burden D, Savin-Baden M (2019) Virtual humans. Taylor and Francis, Boca Raton 5. Foucault M (1999) Discipline and punish: the birth of the prison. Ad Marginem, Moscow 6. Kim J (2001) Phenomenology of digital-being. Human Studies, Berlin 7. Neuralink (2020) Neuralink progress update. https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue= 10&v=DVvmgjBL74w&feature=emb_logo&ab_channel=Neuralink 8. Steinhart EC (2014) Your digital afterlives. Palgrave MacMillan, Hampshire 9. Systems of Neuromorphic Adaptive Plastic Scalable Electronics (2020) The SyNAPSE Project. https://www.darpa.mil/program/systems-of-neuromorphic-adaptive-plastic-scalableelectronics

The Value of Knowledge in Transhumanist Concepts Liliya Seredinskaya , Inna V. Cherdanceva , and Anastasia A. Tuzova

Abstract The paper explicates and analyzes the value of knowledge as the core value declared by the philosophy of transhumanism based on the program works and discussions of the leaders of this direction. In addition, we considered the arguments of criticism of transhumanist values. Keywords Transhumanism · Transhumanist values · Cognition · Axiology

1 Introduction According to the transhumanist agenda, to change the human condition radically, one must develop appropriate technologies. This measure is necessary to increase the benefits for future (post) humanity and reduce the existential risks threatening life. Thus, technological progress is undoubtedly one of the primary conditions of transhumanism; it is vital for implementing a “proactive approach to technology policy” [2, 3]. This approach involves protecting the rights of scientists to free scientific research and publications and investing in basic science and philosophy, which is currently lacking in both these fields. Sometimes the call to support science takes radical forms. For example, John Harris argued that there is a moral imperative to fund and conduct scientific research and a “clear moral obligation to participate” in some form of medical research for the benefit of humanity. This commitment, he asserted, “is not limited to purely therapeutic research,” but also includes “human improvement research.” [8].

L. Seredinskaya (B) · I. V. Cherdanceva · A. A. Tuzova Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova (ed.), Complex Social Systems in Dynamic Environments, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 365, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23856-7_3

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2 Materials and Methods The concept that is crucial for regarding cognition as a value lies at the intersection of ontology and epistemology: this is the concept of material-discursive practices (apparatuses). The methodological basis of this paper is the work of the transhumanist philosopher Karen Barad, who studied the value of knowledge from the perspective of Michel Foucault’s concept of discursive practices and Niels Bohr’s concept of the cognitive apparatus, coming to their own post-humanistic and agential realistic definition of discursive practices (apparatuses).

3 Results Karen Barad [1] considered discourse in the Foucauldian aspect as something that “defines or allows what can be said” and what is ultimately interpreted (and exists) as a meaningful statement. According to Michel Foucault [6], discursive practices are “local socio-historical material conditions that allow the practice of disciplinary power-knowledge. In this case, the conditions are recognized as immanent, relevant, and ‘historically established.’” Such an understanding of socio-historical conditions appears as a contrast between Kantian transcendental and the universal. Moreover, the subjects and objects of cognition practice are formed through these historical, immanent conditions. In addition, Karen Barad indicated the points in which Michel Foucault brought the description of discursive practices closer to Bohr’s concept of apparatuses, under which he understood the following: Private, physical schemas that give meaning to certain concepts by excluding others; local physical conditions that allow and restrict the application of knowledge, such as conceptualization and measurement; they are the producers (and part) of the phenomena produced; they take a local cross-section that produces the objects of “private knowledge” [1].

Nevertheless, when interpreting the concepts of Foucault and Bohr through each other, Barad draws attention to their shortcomings. Such an approach seeks to redefine the concepts of discursive practices and apparatuses to free them from the anthropocentric burden. One can find Bohr’s propositions quite revolutionary. First, the apparatus (previously regarded only as a measuring device) plays a more active role in experimental practices. Second, the concepts are materialized by being part of the apparatus. Indeed, Bohr’s ideas explain how science ultimately works in a new way. However, Barad specifies how their point of view can (or even should) be expanded further to avoid failure. Although Bohr seeks to deepen and expand scientific practices, he ultimately misses their dynamic nature. Namely, Bohr perceived the apparatus as something permanent, unchangeable, without any deviations or changes, fixed and limited. For example, Bohr “mistakes the device for a simple laboratory setup.” Furthermore, according to the scientist, a person is involved in the

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conditions of definability and measurability. Thus, Bohr’s position remains entangled in the liberal-humanist theory of the subject. That is why Barad emphasized the need for a posthumanist view of the apparatus, the role of human beings and the world, and the relationships that emerge between them. As a result, this concept offers several options for developing Bohr’s idea of apparatuses. These apparatuses appear as specific material-discursive and borderline practices that form matter and meaning: “material configurations or dynamic reconfiguration of the world.” In other words, apparatuses are always dynamic, generated by meaning, subject, and object (which are co-consultative); they have no internal boundaries; they are not “in” the world but “from” the world. Analyzing Foucault’s ideas, Karen Barad also marked the humanistic, anthropocentric entanglement of apparatuses. Despite emphasizing the production of meaning and bodies through specific (discursive practices), apparatuses remain concerned only with the production of human bodies, an agency only in the human sphere. In other words, the “nature–culture” binary is preserved. In addition, the devices cannot provide a report on technoscientific practices and the impact they have on the production of human bodies; these are power relations. However, considering the meaning of Bohr, Foucault, Butler, and some other theorists, one through the other, Barad reformulated the concept. Thus, discursive practices (which are understood as non-specifically human (trans-human) adjustment of the world, through which boundaries, properties, and meanings are perfected, or “current agential causal intra-actions of the world”) are also inherent in the apparatuses. Also, these practices are defined as borderline practices or “material conditions of the possibility and impossibility of the existence of matter.” In other words, with the help of apparatuses, both entities (matter) and meanings (to matter = to meaning) are produced. Speaking about agential intra-actions, Barad mentioned “causality,” because due to the “agentive cut,” a structure arises within phenomena, where some components act as effects and others—as causes. Additionally, Barad emphasized the constant dynamics and movement of discursive practices (apparatuses). Besides, Barad did not establish a boundary between the human and the non-human: apparatuses arise from phenomena through material-discursive practices, being simple products, and not substrates or reference points “parts of the world in its infinite becoming.” We want to pass on to one of the most interesting features of the transhumanist performative concept: the explanation of intelligibility and the nature of cognition. In the traditional philosophical sense, “intelligence” and “intelligibility” have always been defined as purely human characteristics. Nevertheless, according to Karen Barad, in agentive realism, intelligibility is recognized as “an ontological representation of the world in its continuous division,” its differential becoming. Therefore, intelligibility is not a specific human trait. Furthermore, from this perspective, cognition is “a matter of intra-action”; it entails “particular practices through which the world is differentially articulated and accounted for,” as well as “differentiated response and accountability as part of a network of representations.” Thus, the transhumanist proposition made by Karen Barad goes beyond other transhumanist and anti-humanist challenges to humanism because cognition is no longer an act from the outside performed by a particular subject (no matter how deconstructive or

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“enhanced”). In addition, Karen Barad gave examples of non-humanoids who appear as beings “engaged in active participation in the practices of cognition.” In other words, “the ‘knower’ is no longer external, being outside of the world they are trying to comprehend, and they are also not in a particular place in the world. People are part of the world, with its continuous changes, reconfigurations, dynamics, production of meaning, and entelechies (in “its continuous intra-activity”), of the body space in its dynamic structuring.” According to Barad, the practices of knowing and being are interconnected, not isolated from each other: “we know because we are of the world. We are part of the world in its differential becoming.” Taking all these facts into account, Barad asserted that the separation of epistemology from the ontology is just the inheritance of traditional metaphysics, which cuts off human from the non-human, subject from object, mind from body (a kind of “ontological hygiene”). Instead, Barad suggested “studying the practices of knowing in being”: onto-epistemology. The production of meanings is inextricably linked to the production of material boundaries (or bodies). However, Barad also stressed the need for an adequate trans-and post-humanistic ethics (since there is not enough generally accepted humanistic ethics), which means responsibility for all relationships in which one (and not only human beings) is involved and of which one is a part. Acting responsibly as part of the world means considering the complex, intricate phenomena inherent in the world’s life force and responding to opportunities that could help people and the world thrive. Meeting every moment with vital awareness of the possibilities of becoming is an ethical call and an invitation inherent in the essence of all beings and becoming. Accordingly, Barad recognized values as an integral part of the nature of knowing and being. The objectivity associated with accountability is presented as an epistemological, ontological, and axiological issue. Since “everything belongs to the universe,” there is neither “inside” nor “outside.” There is only an intra-actor,” acting from within and as part of the world in its becoming.” Thus, following Barad, we come to a transhumanist ethic-ontological theory, which appears as relevant teaching about the dynamic production of matter (becoming, associated with ontology) and meaning (associated with epistemology). These aspects are embedded in the issues of responsibility for the relationship in its ongoing reconfiguration. Although we have focused on the posthumanist project of Karen Barad, this scholar is not the only one who suggested considering the inextricable link between the material and the discursive, as well as the ethics integrated into these practices. We can find similar thoughts in the works of Donna Haraway [7], who is known for the concepts of transhumanist epistemology and the “material-semiotic.” The latter means that bodies as objects of cognition are not directly present (that is, they do not pre-exist); they are active, agential, meaning-forming, and their boundaries materialize in social interactions. Moreover, these boundaries are not fixed; they can “shift from the inside.” Accordingly, Haraway used the term available knowledge to refer to “embodied objectivity” with its specific, particular location, and partial perspective. Only such a partial embodied perspective can assume full responsibility and accountability to the object of the transhumanist collective, which is treated as “an actor and agent, not as a screen or a ground or a resource, never finally as slave

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to the master that closes off the dialectic in his unique agency and his authorship of ‘objective’ knowledge.’” [9]. In her latest book, “When Species Meet,” Donna Haraway appealed to the concepts of interference, performativity (specific to Karen Barad), multiplicity, and material heterogeneity when explaining the co-formation of species and the mutual complexity of their co-constitutivity. In these nodes of joint formation, “responses of mutual respect,” accountability, and their responsibility for each other are crucial. In addition, partners do not determine the relationship between them (their “constitutive internal action”). In general, both the project of Donna Haraway and the agential realism of Karen Barad, in terms of the value of knowledge, resonate with each other. In both cases, ontology is inextricably linked with epistemology and ethics, and both approaches emphasize the interwoven agential nature of matter and the importance of material-discursive (material-semiotic) practices: apparatuses of bodily production. We can also find a similar topic in Gilles Deleuze’s passage about a monistic and unambiguous ontology characterized by “the unity of a thing and a concept.” Together with Guattari, Deleuze, in “What is Philosophy?” claimed that the question of philosophy is “the only point where the concept and creation are connected with each other” [5]. The works of these scholars also reveal the idea of the connection and interweaving of ontology and epistemology, although it is considered in a very specific way. Karen Barad, one of the prominent theorists of the new materialism, implicitly refers to Butler’s book “The Psychic Life of Power: Theories in Subjection” [4], stating the following: “Language matters. Discourse matters. Culture matters. There is an important sense in which the only thing that does not seem to matter anymore is matter.” [1]. The new materialism does not distinguish between language and matter: biology is culturally mediated as much as culture is materialistically constructed.

4 Discussion The experience of generalizing the main axiological principles of transhumanism can be presented as follows. The main axiological principle of transhumanism is protecting physical life from the idea that the essence of a person is their body. Transhumanists see the body as a simple substratum of human intelligence, in which they can concretize their aspirations for material perfection, represented in the acquisition of absolute beauty, eternal youth, as well as genetic, emotional, mental, and sexual dominance. Thus, the body is the object of a person’s desire, which can be transformed at will. This ability to “deconstruct and reconstruct the body” leads to the fact that even being tied to material life, a person wants to transfer human consciousness to other biological (human clones) or artificial carriers (robotic androids or virtual reality software) that allow to reproduce, improve, and perpetuate the characteristics of a particular person. To achieve this goal, transhumanists support the absolute appropriation of the human body as the source of the supposed liberation of a person. The same principle is supported by both radical feminism and current gender theory.

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Ontological personalism, which points to the essential integrity of a person, states that a person does not have full power over their body, which they control but do not fully dispose of it. The claim to absolute mastery over one’s physicality to overcome biological limitations leads to a disregard for the physical life of a person.

5 Conclusion In addition to the contribution to the well-being and fulfillment of human potential, transhumanism strives for the material transcendence of a person through the absolute freedom to interfere with the body, using all natural and artificial means at its disposal. This fact is fraught with a risk for self-identification since the way of presenting oneself as an individual and relational being varies considerably in different dimensions of transhumanism and raises significant ethical objections.

References 1. Barad K (2012) Agentieller realismus: Über die bedeutung materiell-diskursiver praktiken. Zurkampf, Berlin 2. Bostrom N (2003) Transhumanist values. In: Ethical issues for the 21st century. Oxford University Press, Oxford 3. Bostrom N (2009) The wisdom of nature: an evolutionary heuristic for human enhancement. Oxford University Press, Oxford 4. Butler J (1997) The psychic life of power: theories in subjection. Stanford University Press, Stanford 5. Deleuze J, Guattari F (1998) What is philosophy? (trans: Zenkin SN). Aleteia, Saint Petersburg 6. Foucault M (1999) Discipline and punish: the birth of the prison (trans: Naumov V). Ad Marginem, Moscow 7. Haraway D (2000) A cyborg manifesto: science, technology, and socialist-feminism in the late twentieth century. Routledge, London 8. Harris JK (2018) How we became posthuman: Virtual bodies in cybernetics, literature, and informatics. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago 9. Wikireading (2016) Transhumanist FAQ. https://fil.wikireading.ru/62449

Phenomenological Approach to Inclusive Society Construction: Theoretical and Conceptual Aspects Vitaly V. Popov , Oksana A. Muzika , and Oksana A. Kholina

Abstract The paper studies various Russian and foreign approaches to search the adequate categorical and conceptual semantic apparatus for construction, interpretation, and specific understanding of inclusive society. Phenomenology and social constructivism are considered as the methodological basis of the research. The paper shows that phenomenological temporality construction and intersubjectivity as the main methodological properties lead to a metempiric community as a particular community congruent and optimizing temporality and intersubjectivity in the interaction of individuals. The research posits that temporality reflects the features of the individual’s experience of the intentionality of their own subjectivity within the inclusive society. It is pointed out that intentional temporality correlates with the process of experience of the person with the limited needs of their existence in society. The parameters of the internal temporality of the person appear to correlate with the ongoing changes in the inclusive society structure, which is associated with its instability. The research states that the phenomenon of temporal subjectivity is understood as essentially individual parameters of the dialectic of the individual and social in the minds of individuals with limited needs. Intersubjectivity is presented as an instrumental phenomenological category that is significant in considering various aspects of social communication and which initiates the research interest in the study of dialogical moments of purposeful human subjectivity. Intersubjectivity is related to the existence and functioning of a community of different subjects; this community is a synthesis of their individual characteristics with an output to the universal parameters of a social group. The research demonstrates that the phenomenological position postulates intersubjectivity as the conditionality of local social realities by the mechanisms of intentionality inherent in human consciousness. Keywords Phenomenology · Inclusion · Concept · Inclusive · Society · Individual · Temporality · Intersubjectivity · Intentionality · Purposeful rational activity · Subjectivity · Special needs V. V. Popov (B) · O. A. Muzika · O. A. Kholina A. P. Chekhov Taganrog Institute (branch) of the Rostov State University of Economics (RINH), Taganrog, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova (ed.), Complex Social Systems in Dynamic Environments, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 365, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23856-7_4

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1 Introduction The current stage of the transforming society in Russia initiates the modernization and revision of the strategy of government policy concerning the effective representation of the system and levels of education. One of the priorities is the introduction and implementation of the inclusive education concept. Individuals with special needs are socialized within it (e.g., people with special health needs and limited educational opportunities, disabled people, etc.). Inclusive education that promotes efficiency, success, and equal access to educational norms and values for such individuals, is considered as ensuring equal access to education for all students, considering the diversity of special educational needs and individual opportunities [12]. At the same time, the active development of the substantive and project-oriented practical aspects of the inclusion concept is actually ahead of the development of theoretical and methodological foundations and the construction of the inclusive education methodology. Especially relevant is the search for the categorical and conceptualsemantic apparatus of modern philosophical trends that can become a correct and adequate basis for the inclusion concept. The inclusion concept postulates the inclusive society functioning, which is characterized by specific multi-level communication of subjects with special needs [SN], as well as multi-dimensional interaction characterized by the passage of the person through three stages of socialization: from subjective disengagement to the recognition of uniqueness (intellectual, psychological, etc.) of individual existence and further, to the postulation of the values of individual life and self-values. From the perspective of current philosophy, we will consider the specifics of the inclusive society. What is more, the relevance of the research topic is closely related to the application of a constructive-phenomenological approach using the concepts of temporality and intersubjectivity to the polysubjective value-rational interaction of people with SN in a society. Thus, the research aims to demonstrate the theoretical and expressive possibilities of the phenomenological approach in constructing and interpreting inclusive society. This is an underexplored problem significant for enriching the conceptual apparatus of the inclusion theory.

2 Materials and Methods The methodological basis of the research was formed by the theoretical sources and the output of basic Russian and foreign historic-philosophical research of inclusion sensemaking, especially within phenomenology and social constructivism. The methodology is based on historical, philosophical, and interdisciplinary complexes based on the postulates of complementarity and relevance. They help to identify the structural, functional, and dynamic aspects of an inclusive society [15]. The methods of transcendental-phenomenological reduction, phenomenological attitude, evidence and contemplation, introspection, comparative analysis, content analysis,

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method of expert assessment, methods of classification and structuring of information, interpretive methods, statistical and reference data were used to properly determine the priority directions and trends in the development and improvement of the inclusive society from the point of the phenomenological approach. The general philosophical methods and principles of research, such as consistency, historicism, comprehensiveness, logical and historical, particular, and abstract unity in scientific knowledge, played a significant role in the study. We carried out the research of the inclusion concept in postgraduate education. The assessment of the effectiveness of the implementation of inclusive practices was conducted through expert assessments and comparative analysis. We also considered the government programs of the country aimed at the development and improvement of the system of additional education. The research aim is a constructional-phenomenological demonstration of the specifics of inclusive society mechanisms, making it a contribution to the enrichment of the ontology of current social philosophy. The novelty of the research lies in the analysis of the polysubjective value-rational interaction of subjects with limited needs in the inclusive society. The conclusions are of practical importance in solving philosophical, socio-cultural, economic, and political problems of a methodological nature. They initiate various aspects of the construction and modeling of valueoriented and goal-oriented activities of subjects with limited needs in the context of social transitology with access to the construction of pragmatic and multi-level logical-semantic models.

3 Results The phenomenological approach is a theoretical basis of the inclusion concept that defines the relevant conceptual framework for modeling the operation features of an inclusive society. The following concepts of temporality and intersubjectivity are methodologically significant in their theoretical and expressive capabilities: 1. In philosophy of inclusion, temporality reflects the specifics of how the individual goes through the intentionality of their own subjectivity within an inclusive society. In the process of discovering and understanding by a person with special needs their own qualities and intentions, temporality acts as a universal characteristic of the specific perception of the ongoing social transformations. Intentional temporality correlates with the process of understanding by a person with special needs for their own existence in society; 2. Temporal subjectivity phenomenon is understood as an essential-individual parameter in correlation with the public consciousness of people with special needs. Temporality involves the use of situational-biographical, psychological, and social time, which represented the stage of socialization of individuals with special needs in an inclusive society;

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3. Intersubjectivity is instrumental phenomenological category as the theoretical construct. Such a category is useful when considering different aspects of social communication. Intersubjectivity initiates research interest to study on dialogue aspects of purposeful-rational and value-based human subjectivity. Integral representations of intersubjectivity are based on studying individual and psychological characteristics of human activity in an inclusive society.

4 Discussion The main characteristic of consideration of the inclusion concept is the representation from the position of an inclusive society and inclusive practices, but special integral study of inclusive society continues to be marginalized. From the position of diversity and multifunctionality, the following scientific approaches to inclusion and inclusive society were highlighted: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

Acme-synergistic; Differentiated; Integrative-complex; Motivational; Scientific and conceptual; Organizational; Psychophysiological; Program-targeted; System-pedagogical; Statistical; Strategic-economical.

Similar position is defended, for example, by Baharev [1], Egorov [2], Penin [10], Popov [11], and Muzika [8]. In keeping with a discussion on theoretical aspects of inclusion, the following constructive positions emerged. Thus, Pautova [9] offers an acme-synergistic approach to the concept of inclusion. The main category is “success”, related to the self-identification of individual; special emphasis is placed on the self-esteem. The use of a synergistic approach in inclusion presupposes a strategy for achieving success, which is formed with positive communication of subjects with special needs (SN). Such a social communication gives a synergetic effect in the process of socialization for individuals with SN. It should be noted that L. E. Pautovas’ views have yet to become systematic, and conceptual social synergetic apparatus remained unused. Quite an adequate idea of multilevel interaction of subjects in inclusive space did not lead to the allocation of structural and substantial features of the inclusive society. Vachkov [13] presented a poly-subject approach to an inclusive society. Methodological aspects of the scientific approach to the substantiation of the poly-subject behavior in subjects in an inclusive environment were correctly shown. Interesting correlations in subject-subject and poly-subject communication with an accent on

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value-based aspects were also shown. The subject-object segment of communication between individuals was considered, which makes it possible to reach the problem of a collective subject. This is an important moment in the concept of inclusion. However, at that point, attention should be focused on consideration of the collective existence of people with SN, moving forward to the dialectic of objective and subjective in life of individuals in an inclusive society. Integrated study of theoretical and practical aspects of inclusion was presented by Shemanov [13]. In his opinion, inclusive society development is implemented through awareness and reflection by people with SN of the values, meanings, and significance of the variety of interactions and relationships between them. Implementation of the inclusive ideology initiates the need for transformation of society and main social institutes creating an enabling environment to include an individual with SN into society and special social group simultaneously. Shemanov analyses different correlation vectors between the normalization concept and integral social behavior patterns of people with SN. The social-constructivist approach to the concept of inclusion is well represented, same as the correlation of the social and individual model of an inclusive society. Structural and substantive characteristics of that society, spiritual atmosphere, and phenomenology of the quite specific community require a systematic consideration [3, 6]. Among foreign authors, we would like to highlight the articles by Hickey-Moody [5] and Slee [14] on various theoretical and practical problems of inclusion. HickeyMoody regards inclusion theory as a dependent on “egalitarianism, the concept of which is based on the idea of equality, understood as the same initial opportunities for different individuals.” For the normal functioning, inclusive society should stay beyond norms of binary oppositions in spheres of human activity. It means that we should eliminate the use of such terms as “incapable”—“capable,” “disabled”— “ordinary person.” Norms of binary opposition distort the inclusive society project and the whole essence of human life. To justify the structure of inclusive society, Hickey-Moody uses the socio-structural approach to social interaction, which gives an opportunity to open the problem of designing social constraints for people with disabilities. The author comprehensively solves local issues of inclusive practice, makes interesting conclusions regarding the functioning of social groups of individuals with SN. However, substantive and value-objective aspects need further development. The Social Action Theory formed the basis of the inclusion conception by R. Slee. Correct social pattern demonstrates the individual’s identification with organizational behavior (OB) without any discriminatory aspects. “Disability” and “violation” are key notions of this pattern. Moreover, the first notion forms the social basis, and the second one reflects an individual’s negative psychological or physiological markers. The inclusive society does not imply a conflict between such terms. In this direction, the research of the individual being specificity in the inclusive society was held, but the main features of such a human being have not been discussed, thus complicating the discourse according to the aspects of personality values and senses (axiological) of individual “entry” into the special social group. The problem of correlation between integrated and inclusive society was widely disseminated in

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foreign literature. The integrated society is perceived as a result of social assimilation and communication distinguishing the dominant culture. The research in this field does not expand the cognitive sphere in inclusive society as much as it established its spiritual borders [4, 7, 16]. The phenomenological approach to the integral research of inclusive society based on such fundamental characteristics as temporality and intersubjectivity; in turn, these features allow to illustrate individual existence peculiarities of the subject with special needs in a proper and efficient way, as well as its entry mechanisms in such kind of society. Growing interest towards various aspects of the phenomenology of time appeared in social philosophical and locally oriented scientific research. Besides, priority is given to the issue of a temporality role inside the system of the real transforming society with the opportunity to find the correct interpretations and understanding of the specificity of inclusive society functioning. The building element for such kind of society is a temporality factor; consequently, it is methodologically significant, and it requiring further clarification and development. One should be notice that the temporality phenomenology represents an integrated interpretation by the subjects with limited requirements of their individual being. The temporality reflects individual experience peculiarities connected with the intentionality of their subjectivity within an inclusive society. The temporality serves as a universal characteristic in the process of real understanding and reflection by the subject with SN of inner qualities and intensions, the singularity of transformations perception in the society. The discourse is connected with an individual’s experience of being in a particular social group. Moreover, individuals gain their existence experience within a social group, showing their attitudinal sensitivities of social reality. One should notice that structural segments of human conscience presuppose the coexistence of individually-mental temporality with the intentional temporality sphere. The intentional temporality correlates with the process of the subject’s experience with limited needs in the society. The mental temporality selection is primarily connected with the consideration of the unique individual form of the sensual-shaped transfer of experience complex of available eventivity into the consciousness segments of the subject with the special needs. Therefore, temporality can be transformed into the mental time, which shows the internal experience and mental images of the subject as stages of social complex events reflected in human consciousness. In cases when subject with SN perceives such complexes of events, they experience and live through the temporality of the transforming society. The internal temporality options of the subject correlate with nowadays changes inside the inclusive society structure owing to its variability. Such kind of variability activates the mental and projective activities of individuals. This purposeful rational activity initiates the real opportunities identification to upgrade the conditions of coexistence and human activity of individuals with the special needs in a social group. Besides, the mechanism of human accommodation with the process of the society interactions and interconnections is implemented. The temporal subjectivity phenomenon is understood as essential-individual characteristic and correlates with the special needs of the subject in public perception. The temporality also includes the usage of situational biographic, psychological, and

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social time reflecting the socialization stages of the individual with limited needs in the inclusive society. It is worth mentioning that subjective aspects of the social time imply the existence of the subject’s multidimensional time passing models and reflect sensory images design process in segments of their consciousness. The time subjectivity characteristic shows a complex of events in the mental images of human experience in a special existence form. Such complex of events is usually regulated by temporality structures. Moreover, the interval and moment structures of the time are distinguished. These structures both are temporal referents, acting as human experience complex of events regulators. It should be postulated that sensory images of the directly-subjective reality representation correlate with the moment indexes, as well as the individual’s experience process of these events correlates with the temporal interval index. Therefore, the individual’s personal time acts as a sensory form of existent being in the complex of events creating the content of the individual experience. This content is supposed to be regulated by the mental time which can be characterized as antisymmetric, durable, intentional, irreflective, and continual. The usage of these characteristics demonstrates that the mental time is a backbone basis of the human consciousness affecting substantial parameters and subjectivity content. The time mentality has become the main component of the sensory images system, individual values, and collective consciousness sense of subjects with the SN. Social group formation variants, including individuals with the SN are extremely variable. Nonetheless, the intensity of such a formation increases in the intervals of social changes and transformations. In this context, subjects with the SN move to a new level of the social and individual being, which is reflected in the dialectic of the objective and subjective experience of the human being’s inner temporality. In the socio-philosophical literature, there is an active discussion concerning intersubjectivity in the phenomenological sense. It has practical, and design uses in inclusion theory. It is the theory of intersubjectivity that is often studied in the context of complex problems of social communication. Everyday life seems to be important for considering the specifics of life in an inclusive society (it is customary to distinguish special social groups within it). Intersubjectivity as a phenomenological phenomenon is associated with the stages of forming a person’s subjective experience. The need to use intersubjectivity appears when we analyze the social group of subjects with SN. It accumulates their individual characteristics and parameters to determine the universal features of the social group of people with SN. The importance of intersubjectivity lies in demonstrating the dialectic of the individual and the social in the understanding of “Self.” Sometimes intersubjectivity manifests itself in self-construction and construction of individual experience in the “Self—the Other—Self” triad from the point of intentionality associated with a person’s living and experiencing various spheres of existence and functioning in an inclusive society of social groups of various modalities. We emphasize that intersubjectivity in an inclusive society is associated with a long process of getting the individual into the collective social space of a social group. People with SN have a rather difficult perception of the everyday world of an inclusive society. This is especially true of the acceptance of stereotypes and rules

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of behavior. The initial attitudes of individuals with SN reflect the basic stereotypes of a person’s spiritual life in transforming society, for which the achieved degree of human freedom is indicative. In the inclusive society, the internal dialogue of self-reflection “Self—the Other” is conducted through the awareness of the individual with SN of the new specifics of their individual being in social existence. Such an individual does not actually perceive the mechanisms of action of socially oriented regulators of a transforming society since their own life activity in a particular social group is initially determined by a set of rules and norms of the real existence and functioning of an inclusive society. Postulating intersubjectivity as a local structure of human consciousness allows an individual with SN to present mental images and individual experience as a synthesis of individual values and imperatives that are significant in a transforming society. The obtained results of such a synthesis in an inclusion society correlate with a set of its basic stereotypes. Therefore, we state that the consciousness of an individual with SN “goes” beyond the boundaries of internal experience, and imagination allows one to present self-reflection as a dialogue “Self—the Other,” considering individual existence from the position of its simultaneous presence in an inclusive and current transforming society. The philosophy of inclusion links intersubjectivity with comprehension, interpretation, and understanding of individual existence, simulating the main scenarios of the transition from a transforming society to an inclusive one. The mechanism of this process concerns the desobjectivation of the sphere of the world spirituality of everyday life of the inclusive society. An individual with SN within the “Self—the Other” self-reflection recognizes and accepts the value-evaluative factors of the social group that has accepted them. Such a perception is realized through the individual’s gradually getting used to the spiritual atmosphere and the world of the acquired social group. Such habituation is associated with a situation when an individual with SN correlates the world of values and meanings of the current transforming society with the values of an inclusive society. The obtained results of local analogies in practice lead to an insignificant intentional transformation of the values of a transforming society into norms and stereotypes characteristic of the realization of intersubjectivity in an inclusive society.

5 Conclusion The phenomenological construction of temporality and intersubjectivity as the main methodological characteristics leads to the formation of a transcendental society as a community that harmonizes and optimizes temporality and intersubjectivity in the interaction of individuals. During the dialogization of intersubjectivity, it is legitimate to talk about the constructed social reality with access to local communities representing various social groups. As a result of social transformation, there is a transition from considering the society to considering social groups in an inclusive

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society. The transcendental understanding of the dialogue synthesis in the “Self— the Other” pair initiates the construction of sociality, determined by mental images of communication in the structure of human consciousness. The current research is of scientific interest due to the theoretical foundations of the inclusion concept. It is connected not only with the appeal to phenomenology (although research in this direction is promising). The priority for the further development of inclusion theory should be the research dialogue of phenomenology, existentialism, and social constructivism. This will raise the integral consideration of the inclusive society to a new level. Acknowledgements The study was funded by the Russian Science Foundation grant No. 22-2800515, https://rscf.ru/project/22-28-00515/ at Rostov State University of Economics as part of the research project “Subjective time of individuals with disabilities in an inclusive society” (Head: Professor V.V. Popov).

References 1. Baharev AV (2014) Developing an inclusive education model: International experience. Knowled Understand Skill 2:330–335 2. Egorov PR (2012) Theoretical approaches to inclusive education for people with special educational needs. Theory Practice Soc Develop 3:107–112 3. Greene S (2011) The nature of immobility in Russian society. Pro et Contra 2(1):6–19 4. Hall JP (2002) Narrowing the breach: Can disability culture and full educational inclusion be reconciled? J Disability Policy Stud 13(3):144–152 5. Hickey-Moody A (2003) ‘Turning away’ from intellectual disability: Methods of practice, methods of thought. Critical Stud Educ 44(1):1–22 6. Husserl E (2009) Ideas toward a pure phenomenology and phenomenological philosophy. Akademicheskiy proekt, Moscow 7. Jenkinson J (1999) Who shall decide? The relevance of theory and research to decision-making by people with an intellectual disability. Disabil Handicap Soc 8(4):361–375 8. Muzika OA (2020) Interpretative possibilities of the system approach in understanding inclusion in modern society. Sociology 2:362–366 9. Pautova LE (2019) Acme-Synergetic Approach to the Positioning of Success in Inclusive Education. In: Alekhina SV (ed) Inclusive education: integrity and continuity, pp 321−328. Moscow State University of Psychology and Education, Moscow 10. Penin GN (2010) Inclusive education as a new paradigm of state policy. Bull Herzen Univ 9(83):41–47 11. Popov VV (2020) Psychological time in the context of the interpretation of “inclusive” society: the phenomenological aspect. Sociology 2:376–380 12. Russian Federation (2012) Federal Law on Education in the Russian Federation, No. 273 29 December 2012, Moscow 13. Shemanov AYu et al (2013) Psychological and pedagogical foundations of inclusive education. Buki Vedi, Moscow 14. Slee R (2008) Beyond special and regular schooling? an inclusive education reform agenda. Int Stud Sociol Educ 18(2):99–116 15. Turchin P (2003) Historical dynamics. Princeton University Press, Princeton 16. Ytterstad G (2011) Inclusion—what does this concept mean and what problems does the norwegian school face when transforming it into life? Psychol Sci Educ 16(3):41–49

Imprinting and Impression Concepts in Contemporary Knowledge: Problems of Correlation and Interdisciplinary Applications Elena V. Viktorova

Abstract The application of the concept of “imprinting” in current scientific knowledge about humans is characterized by ambiguity caused by interdisciplinary research of the phenomenon it denotes. The interdisciplinary nature of imprinting has proved to be very productive but has also led to its multidimensional interpretation. The systematization of notions about imprinting as an interdisciplinary phenomenon and the relation with a newer concept of “impressing” is devoted to the presented paper. The term “imprinting,” which appeared in ethology, simultaneously goes beyond one meaning and ethology itself already by the middle of the twentieth century. The recognition of imprinting in mammals has encouraged the study of human behavior based on the achievements of ethology. It has since led to a broad application of the concept in the humanities. Entering the humanitarian knowledge, the concept of “imprinting” acquires synonymous variations, one of which is “impressing.” The author considered the aspects of applying these concepts in social and humanitarian disciplines and ambiguous aspects of their relationships. The paper presented the author’s opinion on the application of concepts “imprinting” and “impressing.” It showed why and in which aspect the concept of “impressing” is preferred. Keywords Interdisciplinary concepts · Imprinting · Impressions · Learning forms · Influences · Environment · Values · Behavioral attitudes

1 Introduction Since the mid-twentieth century, current scientific knowledge of the human being is sustainably characterized by integrative processes. It admits and implies the interdisciplinary phenomenon, consideration of which is productive when using the methodology and terminology of various scientific disciplines. Imprinting and impressing are prime examples of such phenomena. Imprinting, as a phenomenon, is known to many E. V. Viktorova (B) Penza State University, Penza, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova (ed.), Complex Social Systems in Dynamic Environments, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 365, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23856-7_5

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current branches of knowledge, including humanities. However, there is a severe terminological ambiguity in its meaning, stemming from the fact that imprinting origins are not found in the humanities but in science.

2 Materials and Methods The interdisciplinary nature of imprinting, which was introduced from natural science disciplines into humanitarian in the second half of the twentieth century, and productivity has led to a diversity of interpretations caused by the multidimensional application of the concept. One aspect of its application led to the appearance of the related term “impressing,” which made their scientific turnover even more problematic and requiring systematization. This makes the current research relevant and theoretically meaningful. The main objectives of the research are the following: (1) identify the specifics of the scientific application of the “imprinting”; (2) describe the history of its interdisciplinary extrapolation; (3) describe the relationship between the “imprinting” and “impression,” their terminological differentiation in the structure of interdisciplinary knowledge about human, primarily in its social and humanitarian segment. The solution of problems connected with the study of the specificity of interdisciplinary application of notions “imprinting” and “impressing” is impossible without considering those phenomena that these notions represent. Thus, the analysis and synthesis will be subjected to a set of works containing theoretical and empirical data on imprinting and impressing as complex bio-sociocultural phenomena. The “imprinting” concept (from English imprint—to leave a trace, to capture, to mark) is included in the framework of ethology, the preconditions of which are found at the edge of 19–20 centuries [13, 37] and intensive development occurred in the 1930s twentieth century. According to Panov, its prominent representatives Lorenz and Tinbergen could contribute to the application of individual principles of ethology to the study of human behavior with their generalizations of a broad philosophical plan [26]. This was the beginning of the interdisciplinary application of “imprinting.”

3 Results 3.1 Concept of “Imprinting” in Ethology and Zoopsychology In the middle of the twentieth century, the term “imprinting” goes beyond one meaning in ethology and, at the same time, the boundaries of ethology itself. The scientific understanding of imprinting associated with representations of Lorenz remains undisputed. Lorentz describes the imprint that he found in chicks attached to a moving object during the first minutes and hours of life [19]. According to

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this interpretation, imprinting is a process of rapid development of calves’ social attachment to their mothers. The meaning of the term has expanded with both empirical and theoretical knowledge of imprinting as a phenomenon. The emergence of broader interpretations is primarily because not all researchers are limited to the first hours after birth—the period up to puberty may be considered critical for imprinting [43]. However, the following main features of imprinting in ethology and zoopsychology are generally accepted: . Social attachments are directed to objects for which young animals are given appropriate experience at the appropriate time; the object of imprinting determines the type of imprinting: (1) social, (2) environmental, (3) food, and (4) instrumental; . Once imprinted, the stimulus lasts for a long time, and it even may last forever. Some reactions to the stimulus may occur over a long period and even only at the end of life; . External reinforcement is not required, but painful stimuli reinforce imprinting [32].

3.2 Human Imprinting: A Phenomenon and Concept. Impressing The acceptance of imprinting in mammals remains controversial. However, one should note that it is not considered appropriate to automatically transfer the idea of imprinting animals with a critical period of a few minutes-hours from birth to an imprinting a person and justify such transfer by the key role of genetic programs in shaping human behavior [7, 24, 38]. Currently, this view is no longer shared by most researchers, both within and outside ethology [1, 2, 16, 17, 21, 22, 29, 31, 42]. Imprinting in its strict understanding is not recognized in humans; however, Maynardi notes that it is clear that some close analogy with this phenomenon still exists in our species [21]. Imprinting, which combines genetic prerequisites and environmental stimuli, is seen as a transitional evolutionary form from complete genetic conditioning to learning. Thus, according to McFarland, imprinting is, on the one hand, the narrowing of upcoming preferences, and, on the other—it is the learning of the organism in a certain way to react to the imprinted situation [22]. The weaker the instincts, the greater the role of imprinting. The transition from instinct to cognition is called imprinting by Maynardi, starting from the idea that imprinting functions are the acquisition of sustainable skills and the acquisition and solidification of environmental information [21]. In a very general sense, human imprinting is understood as a form of rapid learning during critical (sensitive, sentimental) periods of ontogenesis with time-stable results. Most researchers recognized the list of placements including close relatives, future

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sexual partners, food objects, characteristics of residence, and such vital or potentially hazardous things, like heat, cold, hypoxia, etc. However, researchers’ arguments about human imprinting often continue to grow from animal imprinting comparisons [10]. This way, Ponugaeva, based on the experience of studying imprinting phenomena in foreign and internal zoology and psychology and on empirical data from studying ultra-early imprinting in mammals, considers it an example of one-time learning [29]. Based on data from experimental work, Hess, an American psychologist, concluded that the strength of a caption depended on the effort made to reach the imprinted object [14]. Bateson, the ethologist, discovered and justified sensitive periods in teaching birds to sing and humans to language [1]. Efroimson, soviet geneticist and teacher, building on the achievements of ethology, studied early experiences in hereditary giftedness development. According to the scientist, impressions received in infancy, early childhood, and adolescence can determine in the future both the level of intellect of the person and its values and “emotional essence” [11]. Noting the significant differences between human imprinting and animal imprinting, Efroimson finds it more correct to call what happens to a person, not a caption but an impression, and introduces a new term “impressing” (from English impress—to leave a trail). In contrast to imprinting, impressing has more certain consequences: in the favorable environment, impressions received in childhood and adolescence lead to significant achievements of the person in a certain area [11]. A characteristic feature of imprinting, such as staining with strong emotions, has also been identified from animal behavior observations. Emotional arousal is generally regarded as an essential part of the primary social relationships in highly developed animals and humans [14]. The idea of linking imprinting to expressions of the emotional sphere has proved very productive in analyzing human imprinting [9, 11, 14, 21]. This way, Dolgin emphasizes that the hardness of sealing depends on the combination of “penetrating to the heart” emotion and “willingness of the psyche to respond to the stimulus” [9]. The emphasis on the role of emotions and feelings in the appearance of imprinting or impressing will determine their further interdisciplinary treatment. In the words of Panov, the contact of ethology with the maximum possible number of disciplines traditionally related to the topic of individual and social in human society, with time become increasingly productive [26]. As seen from the presented interpretations, contacts with psychology have proved the most fruitful. The term “imprinting” is actively used by psychologists [3, 8, 12, 14, 18]. Influenced by the ideas of primarily American psychologists, the concept of imprinting is considered within social learning theory. The combination of psychoanalysis and ethology is widely represented. The basis for studying the mechanism and role of imprinting in children was the idea of Freud on the importance of early experience in developing personality in certain critical periods, and the theory of Lorentz on the formation of primary social relations in animals also during certain critical periods. Fundamental work in neurophysiology is major theoretical support in human imprinting research [16]. Horn, a neurophysiologist and psychoanalyst, uses the imprinting mechanism

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to examine the structural and physiological foundations of memory and learning. Based on the experiment results, Horn determines the brain region responsible for imprinting [16]. One of the key concepts of “imprinting” is in the attachment of Bowlbys’ theory. In the 1950s, a psychologist examined the effect on developing a child’s personality of their separation from mother in early childhood, finding that such separation had negative consequences. The imprinting design makes the child have an acute need to stay close to the mother. Bowlby advanced and argued that the mechanism by which such attachment to a parent and the serious consequences of being separated from a parent at an early age are created is imprinting. Based on the description of specific cases, the researcher draws attention to the fact that periods of sentiment for imprinting in person are not limited to the first hours of life, but also the first year—with the widening of the range of perception of child changes and situations of imprinting [3]. Based on this idea, he distinguished certain age phases of attachment through imprinting, stressing that no form of behavior is more intensely colored than attachment [3]. These feelings persist in later age periods, determining relationships with other people and in adulthood. In interpreting the imprinting of a person, researchers often emphasize an emotionally charged unconscious formation of a specific impression. Therefore, the experience obtained through it is not subject to conscious control in adulthood [21]. Grof considers imprinting a system of condensed experience. After imprinting has occurred, later related experiences are added and lead to the formation of a specific dynamic clump of memories. Based on this experience, a particular way of perceiving the environment is formed in the individual [12]. Dilts [8] notes that the experience (imprint) formed by imprinting can be both positive and negative. Leary understood imprinting as the mechanism by which a person’s consciousness is adjusted to optimal survival in the physical world. According to Leary, two main factors influence the formation of a positive or negative imprint. First, critical or sentimental periods, and second—a particular state of mind is an imprinted vulnerability in which the brain is particularly susceptible to specific environmental impacts [18]. This reasoning is firmly based on the idea of a biochemical imprinting mechanism arising from the works of K. Lashley, K. Lorenz, K. Pribram, R. Simone, and others. T. Leary insisted that the human nervous system successively goes through several development stages, each taking a new impression (imprint), leading to fundamental mental (including behavioral) changes. In many ways, the work of T. Leary inspired the idea of re-imprinting— recoding negative imprints—and broadening the understanding of imprinting (with the concomitant appearance of new names). There are arguments about intrauterine imprinting and its impact on a person’s social life [25], about imprinting in the perinatal period, and methods of forming positive imprinting of birth [20]. The imprinting concept is applied to the mental development of children with various pathologies [28].

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3.3 Functioning of “Imprinting” and “Impressing” Concepts in Social-Humanitarian Knowledge An even greater variety of imprinting interpretations—generalizing and specifying— are found in the social and human branches of knowledge. An example of a generalized interpretation is the treatment of Shmerlina. In her opinion, imprinting is a special process of ontogenesis, the essence of which is stable imprinting of vital for the individual information [35]. Okonskaya emphasizes the complexity and paradoxicality of imprinting: it represents, on the one hand, the property to remember external influences; on the other—the property to forget or to “seal” information [25]. Concrete interpretations arise from attempts to describe the nature of imprinting, such as social imprinting, cultural-aesthetic, intellectual, moral, etc., and patterns of behavior. Such diversity is linked to attempts to discover the imprinting nature in the interiorization of various socio-cultural values, norms, and behavior patterns are becoming more frequent. Among them are moral beliefs, political preferences, religious beliefs, artistic tastes, national customs, and multiple rituals. There are versions of imprinting mechanisms of public opinion formation, the spread of fashion, marketing moves, advertising influence, etc. [5, 23, 25, 30, 33]. Based on studies of T. Leary and M. Stewart have become increasingly aware of imprinting as an effective tool for mind manipulation. It has been suggested that social institutions generally function, including through imprinting. This way, Dolgin considers imprinting to be the most critical mechanism for modern economics: it uses it (and for the author, it is obvious) because motives and desires are the basis of human consumerism [9]. According to Moren [23], human culture and spiritual development are inextricably linked through cultural imprinting. An attempt to identify the role of imprinting in the social–historical process was made by Okonskaya since the social program mediates practically all mechanisms of biological life. The researcher sees the possibility of analyzing imprinting in the system “social heredity—social variability— social selection” and considers that imprinting can be subjected to any external influences because it captures in-memory information coming both from culture and from genetic codes [25]. M. Perelman and M. Amusiya see an imprinting basis in the intergenerational relationship. They use the concept of “impressing”. In the opinion of M. Perelman, the events experienced by people during the impressing period (military actions, political upheavals, inter-ethnic conflicts, terrorist acts, etc.) and their outcomes are reflected in the behavior of citizens. Growing up, they subconsciously seek to repeat conflict situations, avoid them, disbelief in their resolution, etc. M. Perelman refers the impressing period to a specific age of 13—and considers it possible to predict an increase in conflict situations every 10–15 years after the experience of a generation of similar adolescents’ events [27].

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There is a wide variety of works, which addresses various aspects of imprinting [4–6, 25, 35, 36] and impressing [15, 34, 39] as one of the mechanisms or tools of socialization and formation of personality. It is in reasoning about the role of imprinting in personal and especially in spiritual (intellectual-moral) development that the situation of synonymous application of the concepts “imprinting” and “impressing” arises. The author notes that interpretations of imprinting not as capturing but impression are also found in relation to other aspects of its functioning in the works of T. Leary and D. Maynardi. V. N. Sagatovsky applies the concept of “impressing” and attributes the phenomenon to a critical role in shaping the individual’s meaningful values. The situation of the emergence of impressing, according to Sagatovsky, is a resonance of the “state of mind” with an emerging need, accompanied by experience but is objective [34]. Cheshev [5], speaking about the same phenomenon and its fundamental role in forming new values and personal meanings, uses it to determine “imprinting.” Shmerlina, while expressing her opinion on the phenomenon in question, also refers to it as imprinting. According to the researcher, since imprinting as a neurophysiological process occurs outside the sphere of conscious regulation, it is incorrect to consider it a mechanism of forming personal values [35]. Shmerlina recognizes the vital role of imprinting in the socialization of the individual. Holodnaya speaks of impressing and associates with it the acquisition of intellectual experience, particularly the formation of intellectual intentions—special subjective states of the direction of mind [15]. Uzilevsky also speaks about impressing and understands it as self-expression of semantic code, consisting in the formation of interests of the person. The same way as Efroimson, the researcher considers impressionism as one of the social factors of the expression and development of hereditary beginnings of personality, leading to its desire for creative self-realization [39]. Cultural imprinting and its role in developing creative abilities, including artistic ones, are discussed by Glazkov, Rusnak et al. [33]. The concept of “impressing” appears where it is necessary to emphasize the special (peculiar to the person) consequences of the imprinting mechanism: the formation of meaning values, stable aspirations, hobbies, and the direction of creative activity. Thus, the analysis of the interdisciplinary functioning of the concept “imprinting” allows tracing its ambiguity and, at the same time, not vanishing the relevance and scientific interest in the phenomenon it refers to. J. Bowlby described a phenomenon to which K. Lorentz had drawn scientific attention as “astonishing,” and the term itself as “precise” and necessary to science [3]. The question of the relation between the concepts “imprinting” and “impressing” is not definitively solved, although the scope of each of them is becoming increasingly defined. The terminological status of the concept “impressing” is still ambiguous, but its application is becoming more frequent and precise. Today, applying the “imprinting” concept (and the “impressing” close to it) as a term, researchers refer to it as a phenomenon, the essence of which is the following: . It is a recording of the obtained information in memory as a result of external influences occurring during critical (sensational) periods of life;

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. Its significant factor is the emotional vulnerability of the individual at the moment of exposure; . Fixation occurs very quickly, once; repetition of the impact amplifies it but is not essential; . It determines the perception, thinking, and behavior of a person by the content of the information received and the experience associated with it; . Fixation results are stable over time and may be irreversible.

4 Discussion This analysis served as the basis for the author’s own position on the concept of the studied phenomenon—the effect of the socio-cultural environment on the individual during the critical periods of ontogenesis, leading to the formation of the aspiration of the individual to certain types of activity, stable and fruitful interest in it [40]. To denote such effects after B. P. Efroimson, the author has chosen the concept of “impressing.” Together with V. P. Efroimson, the author notes that the introduction of a term other than “imprinting” to denote the rapid formation of stable traces in the psyche due to the influence of the environment on the person is not only more correct but necessary because the phenomena in question in animals and humans are quite different. As can be seen from the above discussion of the history of the concepts and the phenomenon behind them, these differences are related to the formal characteristics—the number and duration of the periods of sensitivity of the psyche to the effects—but the aspects of the content. Since these critical or sensual periods are longer in humans, the effects of the individual’s environment will be substantially different depending on the specific age period of development. Besides, the nature of the influence of the median will also depend on the individual’s identity, which will become more pronounced with each subsequent age period, and the meaningful diversity of such impacts will also be richer. In turn, the cumulative nature of the formation of a person’s life experience will also determine the specificity of his or her response, including emotional, to external influences. However, in the authors’ view, the results of such impacts (the formation of values) are very mixed. They can be divided into two groups. In the first case, the information can be imprinted (or, in the words of N. B. Okonskaya, “sealed”) and lead to the formation of values related to various spheres of human activity behavior, attitude to the objects associated with influencing and phenomena. However, it does not activate the human attributes that lead to the development of abilities. It can be about imprinting - social, cultural, aesthetic, moral, etc., depending on the sphere of origin. “Impressing” is better to refer to the effects of the second group. For critical periods, the key factors will be like imprinting. Still, the result will be the activation of personal deposits, which, under favorable socio-cultural conditions, will develop in the ability to work and can lead in this way to significant achievements [41].

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5 Conclusion The application of the concept “imprinting” is interdisciplinary in a broad sense: it is used both in natural science disciplines and in humanitarian fields. However, the concept is prevalent in the humanities and no longer gives rise to intense scientific debate. “Imprinting,” although considered as an interdisciplinary concept, is regarded as a terminological one and, in the strict sense, denotes one of the forms of learning in limited periods of ontogenesis with the formation of behavioral attitudes of different spectrum. Highlighting types of imprinting (social, cultural, etc.) is rooted in social and humanitarian knowledge and the scientific perspective of its application. The concept of “impressing” appears, first, in the disciplines of humanities. The concept is positioned as applicable only to a person and is not considered a full synonym “imprinting.” They refer to a phenomenon with a broader framework of sensual periods than in the case of imprinting, but with a strictly defined consequence—activation of personal deposits leading to the development of abilities. Acknowledgements The publication was prepared with the financial support of the RFBR in the framework of the scientific project “Information Impact on the Individual in the Context of Digitalization of Culture and Education as Impressing: Risks and Potential,” No. 19-29-14014.

References 1. Bateson PPG (1966) The characteristics and context of imprinting. Biol Rev 41:177–220 2. Blurton-Jones NG (1976) Growing points in human ethology: Another link between ethology and social sciences? In: Bateson PP, Hinde RA (eds) Growing points in ethology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 427–450 3. Bowlby J (1999) Attachment. Basic Books, New York 4. Bushuev VS (1999) Social imprinting (patterns of formation and development of personality). https://studfile.net/preview/9955119/ 5. Cheshev VV (1999) Man as a thinking being or an excuse for a reason. Tomsk State University of Architecture and Construction, Tomsk 6. Denisov SF (1995) The human and the animal in man. OmSPU, Omsk 7. Dick-Reed G (2004) Giving birth without fear. Azbooka, Moscow 8. Dilts RB (1996) Changing belief systems with NLP. Dilts Strategy Group, Santa Cruz 9. Dolgin AB (2010) The manifesto of the new economy: the second invisible arm of the market. AST, Moscow 10. Dolnik VR (2009) Naughty child of the biosphere. Talk about human behavior in the company of birds, animals, and children. Petroglif, Saint Petersburg 11. Efroimson BP (2000) Pedagogical genetics. Biology 31:5–11 12. Grof S (1975) Realms of human unconscious: observations from LSD research. The Viking Press, New York 13. Heinrot O (1947) Aus dem leben der vogel. Von Dr. Oskar heinroth. State Publishing House of Foreign Literature, Moscow 14. Hess EH (1964) Imprinting in birds. Science 146:1128–1139 15. Holodnaya MA (2002) Psychology of intelligence: paradoxes of research. Peter, Saint Petersburg

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16. Horn G (1985) Memory, imprinting, and the brain: an inquiry into mechanisms. Clarendon Press, Oxford 17. Kiselev RA (2015) Mhealth: from high-end technologies in clinical practice. The Clinician 9(4):10–12 18. Leary T (2014) Chaos and cyber culture. Ronin Publishing, Berkeley 19. Lorenz K (1982) Das jahr der graugans. Taschenbuch Verl, München 20. Marcher L et al (2003) Birth trauma: the method of its resolution. Psychological Library, Moscow 21. Maynardi D (1980) Dog and fox. A true story of a free journey through the realm of ethology. Mir, Moscow 22. McFarland D (1993) Animal behavior: psychobiology, ethology and evolution. Longman Scientific and Technical, Essex 23. Moren IE (1988) Spirit and brain. In: Modern science: human knowledge. Nauka, Moscow 24. Oden M (2017) Reborn births. Nazarov Publishing House, Moscow 25. Okonskaya NB (2001) Imprinting as a systemic mechanism of evolution of society. Philos Sci 1:114–124 26. Panov EN (1989) Human ethology: history and perspective. In: Panov EN (ed) Animal and human behavior: similarities and differences. Institute of Evolutionary Morphology and Ecology of Animals, Pushchino, pp 28−62 27. Perelman M (2010) Psychological attitudes in the development of individuals and in the history of peoples. Seven Arts 7(8). http://www.7iskusstv.com/2010/Nomer7/Perelman1.php 28. Plastunova LG (2003) Features of mental development of children of the first year of life with visual impairments. Dissertation, St-Petersburg University 29. Ponugaeva AG (1973) Imprinting (Capturing). Nauka, Leningrad 30. Redozubov AD (1971) The logic of emotions. St-Petersburg University, Saint-Petersburg 31. Reznikova ZhI (2014) Do animals have a culture? The distributed social learning hypothesis. https://polit.ru/article/2014/03/16/lecture_reznikova/ 32. Riopelle A (2006). Imprinting. In: Corsini VR, Auerbach A (eds) Psychological encyclopedia. Piter, Saint Petersburg, pp 239−240 33. Rusnak NA (2003) Socio-cultural markers and features of the transformation of the image and sign in the art world. Dissertation, Stavropol State University 34. Sagatovsky VN (1999) A philosophy of evolving harmony. Petropolis LLC, Saint Petersburg 35. Schmerlina IA (2013) The biological frontiers of socialism. Essays on the natural prerequisites of human social behavior. Librokom, Moscow 36. Smirnov MY, Trofimov MY (2017) Imprinting as a mechanism for the formation of moral behavior of a person. Psychol Psychotech 2:33−44 37. Spalding DB (1985) Combustion and mass. Mashinostroenie, Moscow 38. Tsaregradskaya ZhV (2004) Practical guide to newborn care. Akademia materinstva, Moscow 39. Uzilevsky GY (2000) About ultra-early education, classical principles of upbringing and education from the perspective of anthropological semiotics. Educ Soc 5:57–64 40. Viktorova EV (2016) A sociocultural approach to the analysis of the nature of impressing. Knowl Underst Skill 1:253–262 41. Viktorova EV (2020) The programming function of culture in a digital society: Selected tools. In: DETP 2020 The international scientific conference “digitalization of education: history, trends and prospects.” Atlantis Press SARL, Yekaterinburg, 23–24 Apr 2020 42. Viljunas VK (1986) Psychological mechanisms of biological motivation. Moscow University Publishing House, Moscow 43. Voronin LG (1979) The physiology of higher nervous activity. Vyshaya shkola, Moscow

Correlation of Social Trust and Personal Ties Anastasya S. Spirina

Abstract Social trust is an indicator of the sustainability of the existing sociocultural environment. On the one hand, social trust can assess the totality of social relations existing in society. On the other hand, it can serve as the basis for creating stable and reliable relations. The paper examined the relationship between social trust and social ties within the concept of social capital. The analysis was based on the data of a sociological study of the Altai Krai population. The main methods of analysis are data frequency analysis and correlation analysis. We revealed the relationship between the socio-demographic indicators of the population (gender, age, and education) and the method of solving personal problems (official and non-official). Correlation analysis allowed us to determine the relationship between low, medium, and high levels of generalized (institutional) trust and the use of personal connections (official appeals) by the population in solving their problems and loved ones. The relationship between institutional mistrust and the use of personal connections (official) appeals by the population was determined. Keywords Social trust · Personal ties · Social capital · Institutional trust

1 Introduction The sociological spectrum of the study of trust is wide. Each researcher who has contributed to the development of this area analyzes trust as a particular social problem where it is the central category. Until now, a unified view of the types of trust has not been formed. This can be explained by the difference in the grounds for classifying this category. When classifying the types of trust, P. Shtompka [3] relied on the typology of addressees of trust and identified such types of trust as: 1. Personal; 2. Positional; A. S. Spirina (B) Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova (ed.), Complex Social Systems in Dynamic Environments, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 365, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23856-7_6

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3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

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Group; Institutional; Technological; Consumer Systemic; Generalized (anonymous).

These types of trust are based on the primary form of trust in people and their actions. Within this classification, one type of trust can move into another, contribute to an increase or decrease in other types. In some cases, trust can change the level, moving from a higher level to a lower one and vice versa. Trust is viewed as one of the components of social capital in a society consisting of many networks which center is an individual, with their connections and acquaintances. Trust responds to the perceived benefits of continuing a relationship rather than short-term gains from apostasy or opportunism [10]. Personal connections (trust-based or non-trust) can also represent “positive” or “negative” social capital. The characteristic of the first is that the formed connections help to establish communication and interaction between various social communities. However, it also has some negative consequences that are manifested in the fact that strong social ties that arise between members of the same family and ethnic group can be used for selfish group goals while infringing on the interests of other people. As a result, the formed strong ties between community members become an advantage over other participants and, therefore, are already a manifestation of negative social capital. In such conditions, social groups and their social capital may become isolated from each other, and society will face problems associated with poverty, conflict, and corruption [4–6]. Besides, there are differences between formally emerging communities, groups, and informal associations. Officially established associations represent formal, nonindividualized social capital. At the same time, the association of individuals into small groups based on personal acquaintance or family ties can produce informal social capital. In the second case, the formed connections and trust may have negative specificity. The normative regulation of public life organizes a certain social order. But informal connections, based on principles of virtue, can be used to circumvent formal procedures and rules. In this case, social capital can be regarded as a factor in strengthening personal positions and obtaining individual advantages. The use of family ties and reliance only on a circle of acquaintances and friends to access limited resources and power reduces the ability to use these resources for other individuals. It also can contribute to the violation of their rights. As opposed to the law, the use of personal connections manifests itself in such forms of support as nepotism, protectionism, favoritism, and nepotism, which are now considered corrupt activities. However, informal social capital does not need always to be negative. Family, relatives, friends, and others can become informal but positive social capital sources, provided they act legally [2]. Undoubtedly, the formed personal connections and relationships, as well as social trust, play an important role for the individual, society, and social level. In this regard, it is relevant to study the relationship of various types

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and levels of social trust with the choice of the population when solving personal problems between the use of personal ties, agreements, or appeals to government agencies.

2 Materials and Methods The research empirical base was the 2019 data of a sociological survey of the urban and rural population of the Altai Krai aged 18–90 (n = 621). The social trust analysis in the Altai Krai included the study of institutional, interpersonal, and generalized trust. Institutional trust is represented by such institutions as the media, Russian Orthodox Church, religious and national associations, nationalcultural organizations, the President and the government of the Russian Federation, local authorities, the court, the army, and the police. The assessment of interpersonal and generalized trust was carried out using a 10-point scale. To assess institutional trust were used four categories: 1. 2. 3. 4.

“I don’t trust at all”; “I don’t really trust”; “I rather trust”; “I completely trust.”

Quantitative data were processed using the SPSS Statistics 23.0—statistical data processing software. To confirm the logic of statistical inferences, we carried out a frequency analysis of the data and correlation analysis. These methods allowed us to determine the presence or absence of a statistically significant relationship between the level, types of social trust, and population preferences to use official and non-official methods of solving personal problems.

3 Results The population was offered two ways to solve personal problems: use personal connections or contact government agencies. In case of personal problems or problems with their loved ones, more than half of the population (52.2%) prefer to use the official way of solving the problem—turning to the appropriate authorities to resolve their issues. Correlation analysis revealed differences in the choice of the solution to the ways to solve personal problems depending on the socio-demographic characteristics of the population: age (χ2 = 0.168, p < 0.01), gender (χ2 = 0.106, p < 0.01), and education (χ2 = 0.129, p < 0.01). We found that women prefer the formal way of solving problems as opposed to men, who tend to resort to personal connections when problems arise. Also, the official way of solving problems is chosen by the population with primary and secondary vocational education in contrast to the population with higher and general education who use informal connections. Among age

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groups, it was revealed that young people (age groups 18–24 and 25–34 years old) and the population of retirement age (65 years old and older) prefer to solve their problems informally using personal connections and agreements. The population of the middle age and pre-retirement age categories officially solve their problems through the passage of formal procedures. The official way of solving problems involves the appeal of the population to state authorities, public organizations, and social institutions. We also studied the relationship between institutional, generalized, and interpersonal trust levels with the choice of a way to solve problems. The analysis revealed a statistically significant relationship between the level of generalized trust with the use of personal connections of the population to solve their problems (χ2 = 0.157, p < 0.001). The official way of solving personal problems is adhered to by the population with a low and high level of generalized trust. The population with an average level of generalized trust uses personal connections to resolve the issue. Assessment of the relationship between the level of interpersonal trust using personal connections of the population to solve their problems did not show statistically significant differences. We also analyzed the relationship between the level of institutional trust using personal connections of the population to solve their problems. The level of institutional trust was represented by low, medium, and high levels of trust and the category of distrust. The first group of institutional trust is represented by the Russian Orthodox Church institution, media, and national-cultural associations (ethnic diasporas and religious associations). Population with low and medium level of trust to the media (χ2 = 0.151, p < 0.05) and religious organizations (χ2 = 0.155, p < 0.05) uses the official way of solving the problem. It is also used by the population, which does not trust these social institutions. Informal contacts are used by the population with a high level of trust in the media. Besides, populations with a high level of trust in religious organizations use both official and non-official channels (χ2 = 0.155, p < 0.05). Assessment of the level of trust in ethnic and cultural associations showed that the population with an average level of trust in this group and those who do not trust would use the official method of solving the problem. Informal contacts are used by the population with a high level of trust in national and cultural associations with a low level of trust in national-cultural associations; the population uses official and non-official channels to solve their problems (χ2 = 0.199, p < 0.001). The second group of institutional trust includes trust in the President, Government, and local authorities. With a low level of trust in the President (χ2 = 0.232, p < 0.001) and the government (χ2 = 0.200, p < 0.001), the population is ready to use both official and non-official ways to solve the problem. Populations with a medium and high level of trust will prefer an official solution, as well as those who do not trust. A slightly different situation is observed among the trust in local authorities (χ2 = 0.213, p < 0.001). With a high level of trust in local self-government bodies, the population resorts to the use of non-official contacts. The official way of solving the problem is chosen by the population with an average level of trust in local selfgovernment bodies and the distrustful population. With a low level of trust in local

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self-government bodies, the population uses possible channels for solving personal problems at the same level. The third group of institutions includes the court, the police, and the army. The official way of solving the problem is used by the population with an average level of trust in the court and distrustful population. With a low and high level of trust in the court, the population resorts to official appeals and uses personal connections (χ2 = 0.203, p < 0.001). In situations of trust or distrust of the army (χ2 = 0.265, p < 0.001) and the police (χ2 = 0.146, p < 0.05), we revealed that the population with a low level of trust in these social institutions resort to personal connections. The population with a medium and high level of trust in the army and the police, as well as the distrustful population, resolve issues through official appeals.

4 Discussion Discussing the obtained results, we, above all, pay attention to the relationship of institutional trust with the use of personal connections. Despite the differences in the level of trust in various institutions, we distinguished several common points: first, when solving its problems, the distrustful population will use official methods. Second, the population with low and high levels of institutional trust can solve problems both through informal contacts and official appeals. People with a high level of trust in the media and national-cultural associations are more inclined to use informal connections. The use of both methods with a low level of trust is manifested to a greater extent when assessing the institutional trust of the second group (institutions of power). Third, among the trusting population, the official way to solve their problem will be a population with an average level of trust [1, 11]. The choice of an official way to solve the problem among the distrustful population can be explained by the fact that in this case, the activities of state authorities or representatives of a state institution are regulated and will have official confirmation [1, 8, 11]. Special attention should be paid to differences in the use of personal (formal) ties depending on the type of trust: generalized and institutional. In generalized trust, personal connections to solve the problem are observed among the population with an average level of trust. In a situation with institutional trust, the situation is exactly the opposite: the population with an average level of institutional trust uses the official way of solving problems. The obtained data allow us to note that the study of the role of various types of social trust should be carried out considering the levels of their manifestation. In our case, the use of personal connections is at a micro level, while generalized trust is at a macro level, and institutional trust is at a meso level. We assume that to build relationships for each type of social trust harmoniously, it requires its own appropriate level of trust, which does not necessarily correspond to high indicators [7, 9].

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5 Conclusion Social trust is a significant social resource of society. It contributes to the formation of favorable conditions for human life, considered a factor of successful social interaction. It is also assigned the role of a prerequisite for social order and its foundation. Due to the norms and values supported by social networks, certain patterns of interaction are established in society, and personal connections can act as one of the parts of the social capital of an individual. The current research identified possible positive and negative manifestations of the use of personal connections. The analysis of empirical data is based on frequency data analysis and correlation analysis. Based on empirical data, we revealed differences in the use of personal connections of the population to solve their problems depending on socio-demographic characteristics. It also revealed the relationship of various types and levels of social trust using personal connections, agreements or appeals to government agencies provided that personal problems arise. Differences were obtained in the relationship between the use of personal or official means of solving problems between the indicators of generalized and institutional trust. We also identified the features of institutional trust in the context of some social institutions and communities. Acknowledgements The reported study was funded by RFBR, project number 19-311-90040: “Social trust and corruption: problems of interdependence and transformation in contemporary conditions of regional society” (2019–2021).

References 1. Chuprov VI, Mikheeva VV (2015) Trust in society as a factor in overcoming the crisis. Social Humanitarian Knowl 4:237–251 2. Fedotov LN (2012) Deformation of social capital as a factor in the emergence of corruption. Knowl. Underst. Skill 3:138–145 3. Freik NV (2002) Petr Shtompka. Trust: a sociological theory. Sociol Rev 2(3):30−41 4. Glushko IV (2013) Social practices as a space of social trust: problems, paradoxes and antinomies. Philos Law 5(60):73–76 5. Glushko IV (2014) Social trust in the context of interpersonal relationships. Hist Soc Educ Idea 2:213–216 6. Justwan F (2017) Measuring social trust and trusting measure. Soc Sci J 52(2):1–11 7. Kozlova ON (2015) Cultures of trust: the experience of sociological analysis. Proceedings of the St. Petersburg State Institute of Culture 208:157−167 8. Kozyreva PM, Smirnov AI (2019) Trust in an unstable Russian society. Policy. Polit Stud 5(28):134–147

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9. Krivopuskov VV (2013) Conceptualizing trust as a sociological phenomenon. Bulletin of the Adyghe State University. Series 1: Regional studies: Philosophy, history, sociology, jurisprudence, political science, cultural studies 1(113):112−117 10. Nugent PD, Abolafia MY (2006) The creation of trust through interaction and exchange. Group Org Manag 31(6):628–650 11. Reutov EV (2018) Factors of the formation of social trust and distrust in Russian society. Central Russ Bull Soc Sci 13(1):12–20

Digital Technologies Adaptation in Russia: Insights from Generations Theory Lyudmila G. Akhmaeva , Dmitry V. Dolgopolov , and Anastasia I. Eremeeva

Abstract The paper analyzes the adaptation specifics of four generations to digital technologies in the Moscow region. Utilizing the social research methods (such as question polls and in-depth interviews), we conclude that the adaptation to digital technologies drastically differs. Keywords Digital technologies · Generation theory · Digital environment · Social studies · Social network

1 Introduction Current technology development covers more and more aspects of the global society. For the time being, social networks have become significant marketing and advertising platform. Major marketing and advertising agencies prefer social networks with an established system of user interaction: 94% of advertisers use Facebook, and 76% use Instagram for promoting their products and services [7]. Russia is gradually joining the processes of digitalizing and using social media as a driver for the advertising market. However, the penetration level for active social network usage is still a worldwide average, according to the international statistics, which puts Russia on par with the countries of Northern Africa and Central Europe [6]. Moreover, it must be noted that the gradual digitalization of everyday life predominantly encompasses certain demographics and is far less widespread among senior citizens. The classical theory of W. Strauss and N. Howe, developed in 1991, was chosen as a methodological basis for the demographic division of respondents from different generations [8]. Considering the repeated criticism of the theory regarding the abstractness of age division [2] and the generalization of characteristics that may differ among members of the same generation due to differences in culture, social status, education, and other factors [3], we also considered the division associated L. G. Akhmaeva · D. V. Dolgopolov (B) · A. I. Eremeeva State University of Management, Moscow, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova (ed.), Complex Social Systems in Dynamic Environments, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 365, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23856-7_7

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with the transitional transformation of Russian society in the 80–90 of twentieth century, which is a specific factor for Russian reality [1]. In this regard, we considered the following division into four currently living generations in Russia: 1 “Baby boomers” (born in 1944–1963). The era of ascent. This generation lived most of their lives under socialism in the USSR. They witnessed the period of restoration of the country from the ruins after the Great Patriotic War, the Cold War, the launch of the first Earth satellite, and the first human space flight— significant events in the history of the country and the world. The country set great goals for itself and its people, so children were brought up to be helpful, hardworking, responsible, and strive to be the best in their work. They have the so-called “winning mindset.” Such people feel like an integral part of their generation and their country; they are patriotic and value the stability of their place of residence and workplace; 2 “Generation X” (born in 1964–1984). The era of stability. This generation was formed during the great political and economic turmoil and the country’s collapse in Russia. Continuing “cold war” with the countries of the West, the war in Afghanistan, perestroika, fall of the Berlin Wall, access to drugs, the advent of personal computers—all this could not but affect its further destiny. This generation faced the most serious problem of personal and professional development, as their period of graduation or the first years of work fell upon the end of the 1980s and early 90 s, when in the conditions of the collapse of the country’s economy and most of the industry, it was difficult to acquire labor skills. They found themselves in the most disadvantaged position professionally compared to both older and younger generations. Also, right in the middle of their active social life, this generation found itself in a situation where technology began to develop exponentially. During the maturation period of this generation, society, for the first time, began to be concerned with environmental and ecological problems on a large scale; 3 “Generation Y” (born in 1985–2003). The era of decline. This is a generation formed during an international financial crisis, high inflation, rising housing costs countrywide, and rising unemployment. The period fell upon the collapse of the USSR, terrorist attacks, military conflicts, and the SARS epidemic. It was influenced by the development of technologies in general and especially by the development of digital technology, the emergence of cell phones, and the Internet. Generation Y was formed during a global revolution in traditional means of communication: the ubiquitous penetration of the Internet. One of the most important features of this generation is multitasking in the use of communication tools: they can simultaneously read the information on a website, chat with several people, post photos, follow updates on social networks, and listen to music. There are tens of times fewer users of traditional communication channels for Generation X, such as television and radio, among them. 4 “Generation Z” (born in 2004–2024). The era of crisis. This is the first generation to be born entirely in the era of globalization and digitalization. All spheres of their lives are permeated by the Internet, social networks, smartphones, and mass

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consumption products. They are the first to witness the global economic crisis related to the COVID-19 pandemic, which changed the familiar world order, influenced the activities of government and businesses around the world. For them, digital services and technologies are an integral part of everyday life. With this division in mind, we have formulated three hypotheses: . The older generation (baby boomers) is poorly adapted to modern digital communications; . Generations X and Y are well adapted to modern digital communications and feel the social discomfort without gadgets; . Generations Y and Z are dependent on social networks and the Internet.

2 Materials and Methods The respondents filled out questionnaires comprised of 15 questions, followed by in-depth interviews, where they were asked to justify some of the answers related to digital engagement. The research was conducted both in the form of a personal interview and correspondence on the Internet. To prove or disprove the formulated hypotheses, we surveyed representatives of four generations. Among the respondents, there were (1) so-called “baby boomers”— 57 years and older, (2) generation X—36 to 56 years, (3) generation Y or “millennials”—17 to 35 years, and (4) generation Z or “zoomers”—under 17 years old. The total number of respondents was 1,120, of which the majority (655 respondents) belonged to Generation Y, Generation X—275, baby boomers, and Generation Z—95 each. To determine the degree of adaptation to digital communications, we asked the respondents to fill out a questionnaire consisting of 15 questions about what gadgets they use in everyday life, how they register to see a doctor, and how they pay for fines and utility services. In-depth interviews were also conducted to understand better the situation and causes of high or low adaptation of generations to digital communications. The data was processed and analyzed to identify the involvement of people from different demographic backgrounds in the process of digitalization of everyday life.

3 Results According to our survey, half of the older generation respondents pay their utility bills at Sberbank and other banks’ branches because they do not trust online payment services. While 98% of respondents of generations X and Y use the Sberbank Online and other banks’ mobile applications for that purpose or pay for utilities using online payment services. More than half (68%) of “baby boomers” are registered to a doctor

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through terminals in the clinic. The remaining 32% call the clinic directly or use the universal phone registering service available in Russia. It is important to note that members of the younger generation usually register to see a doctor using a mobile application or a web portal. The older generation primarily uses tablets and GPS navigators in their everyday lives. Moreover, when we asked, “Would you be able to give up the gadgets that you use in everyday life?” They answered that they would be able to do it without any problems. Most of the respondents also believe that they can easily find something to do without access to the Internet (Fig. 1). The results obtained allow us to conclude that the older generation is poorly adapted to modern digital communications. Thus, it confirms our first hypothesis. Representatives of generations X and Y actively use the Internet, use a variety of online services. They claim that it makes their lives easier and saves much time. Most of the respondents use the Internet not only for work and study but also for entertainment: watching movies, TV series, communicating with friends and relatives, as well as to find the necessary information. Also, 80% of the respondents could not abandon the gadgets they use in the current life. The remaining 20% could, but with great difficulty. We concluded that generations X and Y are well adapted to modern digital communications and feel social discomfort when they are deprived of their use. The next question pool in the questionnaire was dedicated to social networks. Most of the older respondents answered that when they wake up, they do exercises and have breakfast. While 86% of younger respondents admitted that the first thing in the morning they do is to flip through the feed in social networks, and after that, they have breakfast (Fig. 2).

Fig. 1 Answers to “Would you be able to abandon the gadgets?” grouped by the age criterion of respondents. Source Compiled by the authors

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Fig. 2 Answers to “The first thing you do in the morning when you wake up?”, grouped according to the age criteria of respondents. Source Compiled by the authors

All Generation Y and Z respondents have had accounts in Instagram and Vkontakte social networks for over a year. However, only 40% of Generation Z have accounts on Facebook, while half of Generation X and 70% of Generation Y representatives are registered in this social network. This distribution is due to the specifics of the Russian segment of electronic social networks—Vkontakte has been developing more actively in Russia than Facebook, and the resemblance of these services has eventually turned Facebook in the eyes of Russian consumers into a “corporate” social network, more suitable for business correspondence than for communication with friends. As expected, 70% of representatives of Generation X are registered in Odnoklassniki social network. Interestingly, half of the respondents of Group Z are also registered in this social network. Half of the younger generation Y and Z respondents are registered in the Tik-Tok social network. Only 1% of respondents from the older generation are registered in Odnoklassniki social network. The rest use the Internet to find the necessary information or use it for work. It is important to note that “baby boomers” access the Internet from a computer or tablet, while representatives of other generations use the phone. The majority of respondents (97%) visit social networks several times during the day. Generation Y and Generation Z post photos, keep personal blogs, view friend feeds, and communicate with friends and acquaintances. Generation X uses social networks to browse news and communicate in themed communities. More than half of the respondents (65%) of generations Y and Z admitted that they will feel anxious if there is no access to the Internet for one day. The remaining 35% replied that they will find a way to connect to Wi-Fi.

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The results allow us to conclude that Generations Y and Z are dependent on social networks and the Internet, confirming our third hypothesis.

4 Discussion The interpretation of the given sociological study results can be considered in basic similarities and differences from the rest of the world. As mentioned above, Russia has several distinctive features associated both with the formation of the sociodemographic landscape (the collapse of the USSR and the transition to a market economy in the 80–90) and with the specifics of the social networks spreading (e.g., Russian usage of VKontakte and Odnoklassniki, that are not common in the rest of the world). Nevertheless, we can observe the dependence on gadgets in connection with the spread of social networks among modern Russian teenagers, which corresponds to the global trend [4]. The development of social networks as a separate platform associated with the active pastime of generations Y and Z. It allows us to conclude that it is necessary to form a separate advertising paradigm for this type of media, as older generations are excluded from this digital space, so the transfer of communication messages from the classical media (television, radio) to the platforms of social networks will not have high efficiency. This postulate can be tested in a separate study, considering the effect of nostalgia (in the Russian advertising space, this effect is associated with memories of the Soviet times of the older generation, which is reflected in advertising integrations), and changes in communication messages for consumers of different generations. Also, the development of social networks and the dependence of generation Z on Internet communication can be considered a way of developing online commerce [5], which follows the trend of integrating different online platforms within one gadget in the rest of the world.

5 Conclusion It should be noted that the current paper is the basis for further analytical conclusions in the dynamics of the adaptation of generations to digital communications, namely, (1) the interaction with the digital interface, (2) the technology-determined behavior, and (3) the use of technologies for interaction with each other. From the three confirmed hypotheses, we draw the following conclusion: each generation has not only similar values, tastes, lifestyles, formed under the influence of historical, economic, and social realities, but also a certain level of adaptation to digital communications, which, in our opinion, depends on when, how, and in what conditions a representative of a particular generation first came across the gadgets, the Internet, and it is approximately the same for all members of a particular generation. In this regard, it is necessary to consider each generation’s specifics when developing

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and implementing marketing campaigns in the digital environment. The promoted product or service can most often be “tied” to a particular generation, to which it will be most interesting and comprehensible. When developing a promotion strategy and specific marketing activities, one should consider the specifics of interaction between this generation and the digital environment.

References 1. Astashova YV (2014) The generations theory in marketing. Bulletin of the South Ural State University. Series Economics and Management 8(1):108−114 2. Giancola F (2006) The generation gap: more myth than reality. Hum Resour Plan 29(4):32–37 3. Hart A (2018) Against generational politics. https://jacobinmag.com/2018/02/generational-the ory-millennials-boomers-age-history 4. Noë B, Turner L, Linden D et al (2019) Identifying indicators of smartphone addiction through user-app interaction. Comput Hum Behav 99:56–65 5. Priporas C, Stylos N, Fotiadis A (2017) Generation Z consumers’ expectations of interactions in smart retailing: a future agenda. Comput Hum Behav 77:374–381 6. Statista (2020) Active social network penetration in selected countries as of January 2020. https://www.statista.com/statistics/282846/regular-social-networking-usage-penetrationworldwide-by-country/ 7. Statista (2020) Leading social media platforms used by marketers worldwide as of January 2020. https://www.statista.com/statistics/259379/social-media-platforms-used-by-mar keters-worldwide/ 8. Strauss W et al (1991) Generations: the history of America’s future, 1584 to 2069. William Morrow and Company, New York

Performance Measurement of Regional Strategy Sustainable Development Anatolij O. Akulov , Aleksej Ju. Nesterov , and Anna V. Muhachjova

Abstract The essential component of the regional strategic management is the result assessment of the strategy implementation. The existing methodological approaches to assessing the implementation of the strategy are simplified and do not sufficiently consider the degree of sustainability of development. In addition, information redundancy is inherent in many strategic indicators. The research utilizes the balanced scorecard of R. Kaplan and D. Norton and statistical methods of dimensionality reduction in a situation of information redundancy. As a result, the authors develop an approach to assess the implementation results of the regional development strategy. Moreover, the authors identify the prospects for sustainable development and exclude the least informative indicators for each of them. Applying the mentioned approach to the Kemerovo Region–Kuzbass—makes it possible to identify four prospects of sustainable development: “infrastructure,” “economy,” “quality of life,” and “ecology.” The “economy” and “quality of life” prospects in strategic planning documents are redundant in the context of information. Therefore, many strategic indicators are excluded. Comparing the actual indicators of the strategic development of the Kemerovo Region (Kuzbass) for 2019 with the target indicators within the inertial, target, and optimistic scenarios makes it possible to assess the results of the first year of the strategy implementation. The Infrastructure outlook indicators are in the green zone and in line with the target scenario, which indicates the orderly creation of conditions for economic growth. Most of the Economics perspective indicators are in the red or yellow zones, mainly due to the unfavorable situation in the coal industry in 2019. As a result, it is impossible to entirely achieve the goals related to the quality of life, especially demographic and income goals. Keywords Strategy · Region · Sustainable development · Balanced scorecard · Assessment methodology · Strategy balance

A. O. Akulov (B) · A. Ju. Nesterov · A. V. Muhachjova Kemerovo State University, Kemerovo, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova (ed.), Complex Social Systems in Dynamic Environments, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 365, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23856-7_8

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1 Introduction The presence in Russia of many strategic planning documents at the regional level determines the managerial problem of assessing the level of their implementation. The lack of the practice of periodically assessing the implementation of strategic goals renders attempts at the strategic management of social and economic development meaningless. Insufficient attention to the analysis and assessment of the implementation of strategic planning documents after their adoption is one of the primary reasons for the failure to implement strategies and programs for the socioeconomic development of regions. Since a standard regional strategy usually contains 30–50 indicators, it is implicitly assumed that, with a frequency corresponding to the planning horizon set in this document, the indicative (target) values can be compared with the achieved ones. Nevertheless, such actions are never actually carried out by the authorities on a practical level. There are only scattered assessments of individual authors in the scientific literature. However, most importantly, such an analysis may not be helpful. One should note that in five to ten years from the moment of adoption of the strategy, there will be discrepancies. Usually, they are significant, but there is no clear idea of how to interpret these discrepancies, whether they are considered significant or insignificant, and what is the range of acceptable values depending on the type of indicator. Therefore, there is a scientific and practical need to modernize approaches to assessing the success of implementing strategic planning documents at the regional level. Modern concepts of regional strategies involve utilizing the sustainable development concept. Therefore, 6416 territorial authorities in 113 developed and developing countries employ the Local Agenda 21 (LA21)—an approach that meets the definition of a collaborative regional sustainable development strategy [1]. Consequently, in most cases, at the level of strategic goals and priorities, one records a simultaneous focus on socio-economic development and environmental conservation. For example, in the current strategic planning system of the UK, regional planning guidelines and regional economic strategies must be complemented by strategic environmental assessments [2]. Also, in the European Union, it is mandatory to monitor the implementation of regional strategies [3]. Simultaneously, the assessment of strategy implementation usually centers around a simple comparison of target and actual values of indicators (plan-fact analysis). It is not always correct [4, 5]. In the academic literature, specific methodological approaches to measuring the results of strategy implementation are somewhat limited, especially in the context of sustainability. The assessment of the implementation of regional strategic plans is one of the weakest links since it has not been sufficiently studied theoretically. Besides, it is not methodologically substantiated and is only partially implemented on a practical level [6]. At the same time, one should comprehend that due to the specifics of the institutional organization of science in countries with a mature market economy, applied developments in the interests of

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public authorities and local self-government are transferred to the customer and do not imply wide publication. In many cases, the publication review shows the effectiveness assessment of implementing the strategy based on qualitative data and expert assessments [7]. It can be extraordinary for current public administration practices, which are increasingly focusing on strict quantitative indicators. Many European Territories prepare quantitative and qualitative reviews or reports to assess the implementation of the strategy. For example, in Glasgow City Region (UK), such a report is called The Regional Strategic Assessment. The mentioned document covers such strategic perspectives as economic development, labor market and quality of life, and the attractiveness of Glasgow among other cities. One pays considerable attention to indicators of the number and quality of jobs, the resident qualifications, public transport operation, and the fair distribution of benefits from economic growth [8]. One can find it peculiar that all indicators are compared with 16 competing regions. In British Columbia (Canada), to monitor the success of the strategy implementation, from one to three indicators have been identified on ten strategic topics: land, economy, water, health, food, housing, climate, ecosystem, transport, and government. In this case, the indicators are differentiated by the timing of the assessment. For example, on the topic “housing,” every two or three years, the indicators “sShare of modern housing,” “rent compared to the national average” are determined. Every five years—“the share of households that spend more than 30% of their income on housing” [9]. One can be impressed both by a rather clearly expressed focus on the quality of life and the high quality of methodological study of specific indicators. Among the few summarizing positive studies, there is an analysis of approaches to assessing the strategy implementation in 16 regions of Chile [10]. They, in particular, show that sustainable development, declared by all areas as the most important strategic priority, is to varying degrees represented in the systems of indicators of strategy execution. For example, in the province of Aisén, the corresponding figures appear only after one of the most significant socio-ecological conflicts in the history of Chile over the HidroAysén megaproject. The paper emphasizes significant attention to the environmental aspect as one of the strategic priorities for developing and implementing the strategy. In general, in the process of monitoring the implementation of territorial strategies abroad, one pays particular attention to the aspect of balance [11, 12]. In the Netherlands, one assumes that a strategy will be successful if it leads to the simultaneous growth of three capitals: environmental, sociocultural, and economical. In each of the provinces in these areas, its own indicators are developed, considering regional specifics. Thus, in four provinces (North Brabant, Zeeland, Limburg, Utrecht), there are a total of 79 indicators. However, only 23 of them are adopted in each of them [13]. Among Russian research work, one can single out the study by T. V. Uskova and a group of scholars, who suggest using the method of dynamic standards. It centers around the fact that when ranking many key socio-economic indicators by growth rates, one can obtain a characteristic of the reference model of controlled system functioning [14]. There are also developments on monitoring the implementation of

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the regional strategy based on an additive convolution of deviations of actual results from target indicators [15]. In this case, there is a simple summation of deviations, which is fraught with the effect of sub-optimization. Moreover, one can observe that the final indicator of the sum of deviations is not particularly informative for management purposes. As the literature analysis reveals, the existing approaches to assessing the results of the implementation of the strategy require further development. They can be unnecessarily cumbersome and limit the ability to highlight the primary essence (in the case of comparative analysis across the entire range of indicators). Besides, they can suggest complex tools, the prospects of which are questionable in practice, or they lead to excessive aggregation of diverse information in one or several indicators. Attempts to select the most representative indicators are peculiar. However, they rarely have meaningful mathematical or economic justification. Simultaneously, the existing approaches do not consider the strategy sustainability idea from the standpoint of the quality of life. Therefore, the research goal is to develop and test methodological tools for assessing the results of the implementation of strategies for the socio-economic development of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation. The mentioned processes should be based on reducing the dimension of data and considering the sustainability of regional development.

2 Materials and Methods The proposed methodological toolkit is based on two provisions. First of all, to assess the results of the implementation of the strategy, one should correctly divide the indicators into groups, reflecting economic, social, and environmental results. In order to provide this aspect, the authors propose to use the balanced scorecard methodology, considering the differences between the region as an object of management and the firm and the need for prospects that reflect the sustainability of development. In principle, one can use the experience of the Netherlands mentioned above, which consists in highlighting economic indicators, environmental situation, and quality of life in the appropriate prospects. Nevertheless, depending on the approach adopted in the region to setting strategic goals, the selection of indicators may be supplemented with such prospects as infrastructure, security, etc. From the authors’ perspective, when “reformatting” sets of strategic indicators consider the balance, one should also consider the specific content and logic of regional strategies. One should also take into consideration that indicators related to the standard and quality of life will be an overlying perspective concerning economic development since the primary goal of most strategies usually consists in improving the quality of life. Second, to select the most representative indicators from their entire set, the authors proposed using a combination of traditional dimensionality reduction tools— correlation and factor analysis. The research builds a matrix of paired correlation coefficients for each perspective of the indicators presented in the strategic planning documents. Some of the indicators that have correlation dependence can be excluded.

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In the event that the correlation makes economic sense, for substantive reasons, indicators that are less informative and valuable for the management system are excluded. If the correlation has no economic explanation, one carries out the factor analysis in order to exclude indicators that are more closely related to the leading factor (close indicators). According to the authors, the mentioned approach reduces information redundancy in different groups (prospects) of indicators.

3 Results Analyzing the content and interrelationships of the strategic indicators of the Kemerovo Region (Kuzbass), the authors reveal that the priorities, goals, objectives, corresponding tasks, and objective achievement indicators laid down in the strategic planning documents can be presented in the logic of sustainable development (Table 1). In particular, the authors propose to highlight four prospects: . “Infrastructure,” which deals with the creation of starting conditions for attracting investment, economic growth, and improving the quality of life; . “Economy,” which characterizes the actual economic growth and development of the region; . “Quality of life”—the immediate positive effects on people’s lives; . “Ecology,” reflecting the improvement of the ecological situation in the region. Within the framework of this logic, infrastructural and institutional conditions for economic and social progress are initially created. Then economic development is accelerated, which, in turn, allows one to improve the quality of life and the environmental situation. Table 1 data demonstrates that the indicators of the implementation of the Kemerovo Region (Kuzbass) strategy reflect all four development prospects but to an unequal extent. While third and fourth indicators are presented for the “Infrastructure” and “Ecology” prospects, the “Economy” prospect is characterized by 15 indicators and “Quality of life”—16 indicators. It indicates a particular information redundancy and imbalance in the indicators of strategy implementation in the context of different perspectives. Many indicators are correlated and redundant in the context of information for assessing the strategy implementation. Therefore, according to the perspectives of “Economy” and “Quality of life,” one provides the advice to reduce the dimension. The authors obtain matrices of paired correlation coefficients of the corresponding indicators (according to the data for 2010–2018). Tables 2 and 3 present the mentioned data. The analysis excludes specific indicators for which there are no retrospective data (the share of organizations implementing technological innovations, the share of small and medium-sized businesses in the GRP, and the level of satisfaction with the quality of the provision of state and municipal services in the field of culture). Since

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Table 1 Separation of indicators of socio-economic development of the Kemerovo Region up to 2035 for four years Infrastructure The length of roads with an improved surface (LRIS), the share of roads that meet regulatory requirements (SRMRR), the share of new areas of training in secondary vocational and higher education (SNATSVHE), the level of gasification of civil and industrial construction facilities (LGCICF) Economy

Gross Regional Product (GRP), GRP per capita (GRPC), industrial production index (IPI), coal extraction (CE), coal processing (CP), GRP energy intensity (GRPEI), agricultural production (AP); share of organizations, engaged in technological innovations (SOETI); labor productivity index (LPI), the share of non-resource non-energy exports (SNRNEE), investment in fixed assets (IFA), investments in fixed assets per capita (IFAPC), the share of investments in fixed assets in GRP (SIFAGRP), the number of people employed in the field of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), the share of small and medium-sized enterprises in the GRP (SMEGRP)

Quality of life Population size (PS), fertility (F), mortality (M), total fertility rate (TFR), life expectancy (LE), share of citizens who regularly engage in physical culture and sports (SCREPCS), average per capita money income (APCMI), real disposable monetary income of the population (RDMIP), average monthly nominal gross wages per worker (AMNGWPW), crime rate (CR), housing provision (HP), excess of the levels of potential hazards caused by emergencies and fires in comparison with the acceptable level (ELPHCBEFICWAL), unemployment according to the methodology of the International Labor Organization (UATMOILO), the proportion of the population with money incomes below the subsistence minimum (BSM), the level of satisfaction with the quality of the provision of state and municipal services in the field of culture (SQC), expenditures on culture and art per capita (ECAPC) Ecology

The number of harmful substances escaping from all stationary sources of emission (HS), the proportion of trapped and neutralized hazardous substances (TNHS), the proportion of contaminated wastewater (CWW)

Source Compiled by the authors

the observation period covers nine years, the number of degrees of freedom is seven, and the critical value of the correlation coefficient at α = 0.05 should be more than 0.67. Given the significant correlation of several indicators, there can be advisability of excluding some of them in many cases. Therefore, according to the “Economics” prospect, one can observe a significantly high level of correlation coefficients (more than 0.90, almost a direct functional relationship). In particular, it occurs in such pairs of indicators as “GRP per capita— GRP,” “coal extraction—GRP,” “GRP per capita—coal extraction,” and “investments in fixed assets—investments in fixed assets per capita.” The high level of correlation of these indicators is straightforward. In contrast to the GRP and the volume of investments, the population size usually changes monotonously and reasonably slowly. Therefore, the dynamics of the corresponding gross and specific indicators have a reasonably high level of connection. The relationship between coal extraction and GRP is explained by the high degree of single-industry dependence of the region. Based on the mentioned factors, the

1

GRP

1

1.00

GRPC

Source Compiled by the authors

SIFAGRP

IFAPC

IFA

SNRNEE

LPI

SOETI

AP

GRPEI

CP

CE

IPI

GRPC

GRP

0.46 −0.26

0.77 −0.10 −0.67

−0.87 −0.06

−0.04 1

1

0.02

0.14 0.49

1

−0.91 0.61

1

−0.47

0.45

1 1

0.30

−0.09

0.22

0.37

0.10

0.32

0.31

LPI

0.34

0.38

0.01

0.35

0.34

SOETI

0.95

0.60

AP

−0.22

−0.91

GRPEI

−0.05

1

0.15

0.94

−0.05

CP

CE

IPI

0.22 0.89

0.49 1

1

1

0.26

0.53

0.99

−0.43 −0.48

−0.44 −0.16

−0.51

1

−0.15

−0.17

−0.61

0.81

−0.26

−0.68

−0.31

−0.74

−0.74

SIFAGRP

0.18

−0.06

−0.10

0.82

−0.19

−0.59

−0.12

−0.62

−0.62

IFAPC

0.16

−0.05

−0.03

0.35

−0.14

0.38

0.38

IFA

0.00

−0.03

0.30

−0.13

0.34

0.34

SNRNEE

Table 2 Matrix of paired correlation coefficients of the strategy indicators of the Kemerovo region (Kuzbass) for the “Economy” prospect

Performance Measurement of Regional Strategy Sustainable Development 71

PS

1

M

TFR

LE

1

0.92

1 1

0.98

0.92

1

−0.92

0.05

0.31

0.36

−0.98 0.69

0.97 −0.90

−0.50 −0.96 −0.77

0.72

−0.99

−0.34

1 1

0.96 0.96

−0.32

0.96

−0.50 −0.48

−0.85 0.12

0.61

−0.82

−0.76

0.04

0.42

−0.94 0.97

1

0.80

1

1

0.85

−0.94 -0.85

−0.95 0.98

−0.43 -0.25

0.69

0.86

0.76

-0.15

−0.88 -0.61 0.17

−0.86 0.96 0.22

-0.80

−0.11

0.81

0.85

0.79

0.52

−0.15 1

1

1

0.42

−0.29 −0.62

0.69

0.86

0.77

−0.48

0.93 −0.63 −0.88

0.69

−0.80 −0.12

0.81

0.72

0.83

0.58

−0.86 −0.64

−0.45 −0.81

−0.76 0.88

SQC

0.49

−0.57

0.16

−0.55

−0.33

−0.56

−0.23

0.64

0.17

0.53

ELPHCBEFICWAL UATMOILO BSM

−0.83 -0.86

0.99

HP

−0.89 0.98

0.02

0.75

0.84

0.93

SCREPCS APCMI RDMIP AMNGWPW CR

1

0.51 0.38

0.80 0.89 −0.20 0.980

1

Source Compiled by the authors

SQC

BSM

UATMOILO

ELPHCBEFICWAL

HP

CR

AMNGWPW

RDMIP

APCMI

SCREPCS

LE

TFR

M

F

PS F

Table 3 Matrix of paired correlation coefficients of indicators of the strategy of the Kemerovo region (Kuzbass) for the “Quality of life” prospect

72 A. O. Akulov et al.

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authors believe that to assess the implementation of the indicators of the “Economy” strategic prospect. It is inappropriate to use both absolute and per capita indicators of GRP and investments. It is more rational to focus on GRP per capita and investments in fixed assets (it will also facilitate interregional comparisons). In addition, the authors recommend excluding coal extraction from the system of indicators for the assessment, which is motivated by the following considerations. First, even with a successful economic diversification (which, however, never had occurred in the Kemerovo Region), the correlation between GRP and coal extraction is likely to remain. Second, the strategic indicators also include the coal processing indicator, which more accurately reflects the development of the coal industry, where it is necessary to focus on the enrichment of all extracted raw materials. Furthermore, the indicator “the number of people employed in the field of small and medium-sized enterprises” should be considered excessive. Although there are no retrospective data on the contribution of this sector to GRP in the region, one can observe that the indicator “share of small and medium-sized enterprises in GRP” will more adequately reflect the corresponding strategic goal. Furthermore, employment in small and medium-sized businesses has a negative correlation with GRP. This aspect indicates the absorption of a part of the unemployed during a recession in standard industries by small and medium-sized businesses with low labor productivity and wages. Therefore, this goal can hardly be considered a strategic goal of regional development. Without loss of information content, the indicator “share of investments in fixed assets in GRP” can also be excluded. Although formally, the correlation between investment and GRP is somewhat lower than the level of statistical significance, it is more important that when the target values of GRP and investment in fixed assets are achieved, the corresponding proportions of accumulation and consumption will add up automatically. Commenting on the GRP energy intensity indicator system situation, it can be noted that, judging by the data in Table 2, energy consumption decreases with an increase in the nominal GRP. Nevertheless, the authors consider it expedient to leave the GRP energy intensity as part of the assessment indicators since the stability of such a ratio is not guaranteed. Also, at first observation, the absence of statistical links between the index of industrial production and GRP per capita (−0.05) and the index of labor productivity and GRP per capita (0.35) is paradoxical. From the perspective of traditional views, labor productivity is the most crucial factor of economic growth (even considering the possible time lag between changes in output and macroeconomic indicators). Industrial production in the Kemerovo region is one of the primary components of the GRP. From the authors’ perspective, such a paradox is methodological since the authors propose to measure the GRP indicator in absolute nominal terms, while the indices of industrial production and labor productivity are of a relative nature. According to the indicators of the quality of life prospect, more correlations and dependencies are found. The most evident in this group is the high correlation of demographic indicators—population size, fertility, mortality, and life expectancy (from 0.72 to 0.98). The substantive relationship of these indicators is also reasonably logical. Therefore, it is reasonably sufficient to dwell on the population size and the

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total fertility rate in order to fully assess the demographic aspects of the quality of life in the region. In the group of indicators of income and wages, attention is drawn to the expected dependence of average per capita money incomes and wages (0.96), while there is no connection between disposable and real incomes and real incomes and wages. The reason for these relationships also lies in the simultaneous use of nominal and deflated indicators. In this situation, the indicator of average per capita money income is redundant in the context of information. In addition, for a general assessment of the results of the implementation of the strategy, the authors propose to exclude the indicator of real disposable monetary income of the population, since it has a strong relationship with the indicator “the proportion of the population with money incomes below the subsistence minimum” (−0.80), and the latter is a more important characteristic of achieving the strategic goals to combat poverty. Another less representative indicator that creates information redundancy, in the authors’ opinion, is “expenditures on culture and art per capita.” They are closely related to the population size (0.88). The decline in the population of the region causes an automatic increase in the per capita indicator. In addition, it is the level of satisfaction of the population that seems to be more critical, rather than the resources spent. The rest of the indicators of the quality of life prospect should be used for a generalized assessment of the results of the strategy implementation since many correlations are statistical artifacts. For example, the inverse relationship (−0.99) between the population and nominal wages is explained by the monotonous decrease in the first indicator against the background of inflationary processes. The authors propose to directly assess the results of the implementation of the regional strategy by comparing the current and target indicators, given that in the Kemerovo Region, like most other regions, three scenarios have been identified— conservative, target, and optimistic. Based on this factor, the authors single out zones for each indicator according to the often used principle of “traffic lights.” It implies that the red zone indicates a critical situation and the need to take urgent measures. The yellow zone indicates severe issues, and the green zone indicates the achievement of the required result: . Red zone—the actual value of the indicator is worse than assumed by the conservative scenario; . Yellow zone—the actual value of the indicator is in the interval between the conservative and target scenarios; . Green zone—the actual value of the indicator is better than it was assumed by the target scenario. Table 4 presents the results of assessing the implementation of the Kemerovo Region strategy in 2019. The presented data provide practical testing of the methodological tools that the authors propose in the paper.

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Table 4 Results of assessing the implementation of the strategy of the Kemerovo region in 2019 Conservative

Target

Optimistic

Fact

Assessment

Infrastructure LRIS

10.0

11.2

11.5

14.3

Green

SRMRR

37.7

38.6

38.7

39.6

Green

SNATSVHE

22.5

25.0

30.0

25.0

Green

LGCICF

2.3

3.0

3.1

2.3

Yellow

GRPPC

451.3

461.3

478.2

375.2

Red

IPI

108.5

112.4

116.4

102.4

Red

CP

70.0

71.0

72.0

33.2

Red

GRPEI

370

360

350

No data

–

AP

100.4

101.3

102.5

98.1

Red

SOETI

103.5

104.8

105

No data

–

SNRNEE

23.0

25.0

25.3

31.0

Green

IFAPC

98.0

115.3

120.0

111.7

Yellow

SIFAGRP

11.0

11.2

11.5

12.0

Green

Economy

Quality of life PS

2,670.6

2,710.0

2,715.0

2,666.1

Red

TFR

1.550

1.571

1.600

1.492

Red

SFS

45.0

47.0

50.0

43.0

Red

AMNGWPW

38.6

43.6

43.8

41.7

Yellow

CR

1,629

1,474

1,390

2,017

Red

HS

25.1

25.2

25.5

25.0

Red

ELPHCBEFICWAL

3

2

2

3

Yellow

UATMOILO

5.8

5.1

5.0

5.5

Yellow

BSM

15.2

12.5

12.3

13.9

Yellow

ECAPC

88.7

89.0

89.3

No data

–

HS

1,410

1,385

1,380

1,548

Red

TNHS

81.0

82.0

83.0

No data

CWW

31.0

30.0

25.0

19.7

Ecology

Green

Source Compiled by the authors

4 Discussion Table 4 data allow the authors to assess the results of the first year of implementing the strategy of socio-economic development of the region. Although ten indicators are in the red zone, another six are in the yellow, and only six are in the green, it

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should be noted that in the “Infrastructure” prospect, most of the indicators have been successfully achieved. This aspect indicates that conditions are systematically formed in the region to accelerate economic development and improve people’s quality of life. First of all, it concerns road construction and the introduction of new educational spheres in educational organizations. The results of economic development in 2019 were much worse than expected due to external factors, the dependence of the region on which objectively could not be eliminated in a short time. As is commonly known, in 2019, prices and demand for coal dropped significantly, which had the most adverse impact on the economic development of the Kemerovo Region (Kuzbass). As a result, indicators of GRP per capita, industrial production, and coal processing fell into the red zone. Most likely, the labor productivity index will also show negative dynamics. At the same time, a somewhat more favorable situation has developed in the field of investments, which inspires optimism. One should note that in a situation of general recession, indicators of non-resource non-energy exports and the share of small and medium-sized businesses in GRP have fallen into the green zone. These factors are not due to the accelerated development of the small business as such and the creation of new export industries. Instead, they occur due to the drop in the share of the primary sectors of the economy (coal and metallurgy) in the overall structure of output and export. Consequently, from a methodological point of view, the representativeness of the selected indicators for a comprehensive result assessment of the implementation of the strategy as a whole is confirmed. As for the quality of life prospect, the level of implementation of strategic goals is relatively low. Primarily, it concerns demographic indicators that indicate a continuing decline in the population of the region. It was not possible to reverse the negative demographic trends. Therefore, the targets set for 2019 were unreasonably optimistic. The unfavorable situation in the sphere of employment and income also did not allow one to reach the target values of housing provision. Additionally, crime rate targets were not entirely justified in opposition to the 2018–2019 ones. In the region, more than 53 thousand crimes were steadily registered. Therefore, unfavorable economic trends did not provide to change the social situation for the better significantly. It is rather difficult to assess the results of the strategy implementation within the framework of the “Ecology” prospect at this stage. It is due to the fact that the significant formal increase in pollutant emissions into the atmospheric air from stationary sources is caused by a change in the accounting methodology and recalculation of the corresponding data for 2017–2019, simultaneously, undertaken in 2018–2019. Nevertheless, efforts have already led to a significant reduction in the proportion of wastewater discharged without treatment, which will positively affect the environmental situation in the Kemerovo Region.

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5 Conclusion There is a situation of a significant variety of specific indicators of achieving the strategic planning goals in different country regions. Besides, there is a particular information redundancy for assessing the results of the implementation of the strategy. Therefore, one should select the most informative indicators and exclude the indicators that have correlations with others. It will ensure a complete comparative analysis of actual and planned data, eliminating information redundancy. More than that, one should divide the indicators of achieving strategic goals based on the concept of sustainable development, highlighting such prospects as the “Economy,” “Quality of life,” and the “Ecology.” Implementing this methodological approach on the materials of the Kemerovo Region has led to the demand to identify four prospects in causal relationships. Therefore, the “Infrastructure” prospect is associated with creating the initial conditions for economic and social development. The “Economy” prospect characterizes the rates and quality of economic growth. The mentioned prospect is the basis for achieving the targets for the “Quality of Life” and “Ecology” prospects. When assessing the implementation results of the strategy in 2019, the authors conclude that the starting conditions for the economic and social development of the Kemerovo Region are being formed actively. The corresponding indicators are in the green zone. Simultaneously, the coal market crisis has caused the failure to meet most of the indicators related to the “Economy” prospect. In turn, this aspect has affected the insufficient level of goal achievement in “Quality of life.” Acknowledgements The paper was written based on the results of research work, funded by the Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Education “Kemerovo State University” on the topic “The System of Indicators for Assessing the Socio-Rconomic State of the Tegion and the Implementation of the Strategy of its Development (on the Example of the Kemerovo Region).”

References 1. Clarke A (2011) Key structural features for collaborative strategy implementation: a study of sustainable development/local agenda 21 collaborations. Manag Avenir 50(10):153–171 2. Smith S, Sheate W (2001) Sustainability appraisal of English regional plans: incorporating the requirements of the EU strategic environmental assessment directive. Impact Assess Project Appraisal 19(4):263–276 3. Kleibrink A, Gianelle C, Doussineau M (2016) Monitoring innovation and territorial development in Europe: emergent strategic management. Eur Plan Stud 24(8):1438–1458 4. The World Bank (2016) Available via DIALOG. http://www.esponontheroad.eu/dane/web_ espon_library_files/674/zl_best_practice_guidelines_for_regional_development_strategies_g rids.pdf ˇ 5. Terem P, Cajka P, Rýsová L (2015) Europe 2020 strategy: evaluation, implementation, and prognoses for the Slovak republic. Econ Sociol 8(2):154–171

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6. Stefanovi´c N, Josimovi´c B et al (2018) Models of implementation of spatial plans: theoretical approach and case studies for spatial plans for the special purpose area. In: Ergen Y (ed) An overview of urban and regional planning. Intech Open, London, pp 59–81 7. Grooten L, Fabbricotti I, Devroey D et al (2020) Assessment of the implementation fidelity of a strategy to scale up integrated care in five european regions: a multimethod study. BMJ Open 10(3). https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2019-035002 8. Regional strategic assessment. Glasgow City Region (2018) Official website http://www.gla sgowcityregion.co.uk/RSA 9. Regional District of Central Okanagan (2016) Regional growth strategy monitoring program. Our home. Our future. Available via DIALOG. https://www.regionaldistrict.com/media/275 808/RGS_Monitoring_Program.pdf 10. Franchi-Arzola I, Martin-Vide J, Henríquez C, (2018) Sustainability assessment in development planning in sub-national territories: Regional development strategies in Chile. Sustainability 10(5):1−30 11. Dawley S, Pike A, Tomaney J (2010) Towards the resilient region. Local Econ 25(8):650–667 12. Masik G, Grabkowska M (2020) Practical dimension of urban and regional resilience concepts: a proposal of resilience strategy model. Miscellanea Geographica 24(1):30–34 13. Hermans F, Haarmann W, Dagevos J (2011) Evaluation of stakeholder participation in monitoring regional sustainable development. Reg Environ Change 11(3):805–815 14. Uskova TV, Selimenkov RYu, Asanovich VYa (2015) Assessment of the regional development strategy implementation. Econ Soc Changes: Facts, Trends, Forecast 37(1):30−42 15. Solomatin AN, Khachaturov VR (2015) Monitoring methods of regional development strategy implementation. Control Sci 13(6):53–61

Building a Hierarchy of the Subjects of the Federation in Siberia by Groups of Forty Factors Peter M. Mazurkin

Abstract The author has proposed a method for the synthesis of hierarchies in terms of 40 specific and relative parameters on the example of 14 constituent entities of the Federation situated on the territory of the Ural and Siberian Federal Districts. The parameters are divided into nine groups: (1) coordinates of the centers of the capitals of the constituent entities of the Federation; (2) climate for 1961–1990; (3) weather for January and July 2018; (4) share of land and their complexes in relation to the land area; (5) specific water consumption, as well as discharge and emission of pollution; (6) population; (7) demography; (8) farm indicators; and (9) economy. First of all, the author has ordered the parameter values according to the pre-ordering vector of preference the better the worse by ranks. As a result, positive and negative parameters have appeared. The author has ranked each parameter to eliminate the dimension. After that, the author has summed up the ranks of all parameters of the groups and the entire set and formed a rating of the elements of the system of the constituent entities of the Federation. The element with the lowest sum of ranks is the best. The method is possible without using mathematics. Of particular interest is the inclusion in the system of parameters of the coordinates of the centers of the capitals of the constituent entities of the Federation. Urbanization in Russia has reached a high level, and almost two-thirds of the population now lives in cities. However, most of the industrial potential is also located in the capitals. Therefore, all activities of the population are concentrated in the capitals of regions. The author has obtained the patterns in the form of trends with a correlation coefficient of more than 0.9. In addition to the trends, wave equations in the form of asymmetric wavelets can be identified for all parameters. The author has performed a full wavelet analysis for three coordinates of the centers of the capitals of the constituent entities of the Federation. Keywords Subjects of the federation · Parameter groups · Ordering · Ranking · Rank sums · Ratings · Patterns P. M. Mazurkin (B) Volga State University of Technology, Yoshkar-Ola, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova (ed.), Complex Social Systems in Dynamic Environments, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 365, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23856-7_9

79

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1 Introduction Changes in the main climatic indicators are usually studied in cities for the purposes of human habitation [16]. Researchers pay attention to the increase in summer air temperature. Biometeorological assessments of climate and air quality are performed for urban and landscape planning [17]. The microclimate in the urban environment is formed mainly by trees, which growing season will last until the end of the twentyfirst century [10]. Urbanization has a significant impact on climate and meteorological conditions. The data have been collected at 15 levels at a 325-m meteorological tower in Beijing during 1991–2011. Annual and seasonal (spring, summer, autumn, and winter) average wind speed at 15 levels tends to decrease. A kink phenomenon is noticeable in the wind profile, and the average kink height has increased from about 40 m to almost 80 m [15]. The expansion of terrestrial plants along with the ocean provided habitability for the planet. The use of fossil fuels by the middle of the twenty-first century will yield as much carbon dioxide as in the early Eocene (50 million years ago). If the concentration of carbon dioxide continues to increase even in the twenty-third century, the Earth will react as it did 1.5 billion years ago [7]. Therefore, it can be argued that the future of carbon dioxide containment lies in increasing the area, primarily forests [3, 5]. A system of groups of parameters is composed with respect to the territory— population—economy geotriad [20]. When considering the correlation of ethnic formations with the territory where they are located, L. N. Gumilyov emphasizes that each ethnic group is an original form of human adaptation in the biocenosis of the landscape and calls such a landscape as a landscape accommodating people and feeding them [1]. Geography is a space or rather the differences in it, as well as the search for patterns of these differences. Any territory has development factors. They can be divided into internal and external. The former include natural resources, economic potential, and population [8]. Ecological assessment [14] means identifying the levels of favorableness of the natural landscape conditions of the territory for human habitation. In addition to the list of factors, the author proposes to apply statistical data by consolidating them from different arrays. At the same time, the differences should have the most significant variability in terms of the list of factors considered and their values. According to V. Vernadsky, before searching for the laws of motion, one should have an accurate scientific description of the system [13]. However, one and the same system can be described twice when the state (structure) is analyzed in addition to the dynamics (function).

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Rostom [26] provides ways of measuring the level of human development in Russia. In the past, it was customary to measure the level of development in terms of gross regional product. The author proposes to move to more humanized indexes. However, they are derived factors, and the author uses indicators only with physical dimensions. The paper aims (1) to synthesize hierarchies by nine groups of 40 parameters (specific and relative indicators) on the example of the constituent entities of the Federation in Siberia that are located on the territory of the Ural and Siberian Federal Districts, (2) compile ratings by the sum of ranks, and (3) identify stable patterns of rank distribution of all parameters as a sum of trends and wave equations.

2 Materials and Methods 2.1 Ecological Consolidation of Land In computer science, consolidation is a complex of methods and procedures aimed to extract data from various sources, ensure the required level of content and quality of information, and convert it into a single format for loading into storage or analytical system. In the agro-industrial complex, consolidation is used in land use design [12]. Land consolidation has a long history. The first work was performed in Denmark in the middle of the thirteenth century. In Sweden, a law on land consolidation was passed in 1757. In Russia, land consolidation (unification) began after the implementation of the Stolypin reform of 1906. Among the measures, there was the elimination of the communal form of land use, the formation of farms, and the allocation of land plots in one place instead of numerous striped plots scattered at a considerable distance from each other [22]. This type of consolidation is territorial. Ecological consolidation implies the consolidation of vegetation land [24]. It is necessary to identify a rational correspondence [23] between vegetation and anthropogenic lands, that is, human-modified territories. These ratios become environmental factors as coefficients. N. F. Reimers notes that ecological balance is a continuously changing ratio [23]. The author has proposed to identify the hierarchy of the constituent entities of the Federation in terms of the ecological possibilities of consolidation of the vegetation cover according to the UN classification, namely, by the three classes of soil cover on the land territory (grass + shrub + trees) [6], through the ranking of environmental factors. The environmental factors are calculated by dividing the share of vegetation in general and by soil cover class by the total share of anthropogenic lands. The socalled forest agricultural coefficient, being the ratio of forest area to the arable land area, is especially considered.

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The first class of UN soil cover [6] is grass cover and includes hayfields, pastures, and bogs out of 13 types of land in Russia, the second class is a shrub (fallow and perennial plantations), and the third one includes forest lands and plantations outside the forest fund.

2.2 Initial Data The author has compiled integrated data on (1) the geodetic coordinates of the centers of the capitals of the constituent entities of the Federation, (2) types of land from the land registry, and (3) environmental and socio-economic indicators [18]. According to these data, the author has obtained ratings and patterns that allow demonstrating the features and differences of each constituent entity of the Federation. Table 1 shows a fragment of consolidated data on 14 constituent entities of the Federation located in the Ural and Siberian Federal Districts according to data from the official website of Rosstat, particularly from the statistical collection (data extracted on August 7, 2020) [25]. The author has also used data on the coordinates of the capitals of the constituent entities of the Federation and their climate from the following web pages: Coordinates of the cities of Russia [4] and Average monthly climatic data for cities in Russia for 1961–1990 [2]. Specific and relative parameters compiled by groups are as follows: • Coordinates of the centers of the capitals of the constituent entities of the Federation (01—northern latitude, α := α − 50; 02—east longitude, β := β − 60; 03—altitude above the Baltic Sea level, m); • Climatic average monthly parameters for 1961–1990 (04—the average night temperature, ° C; 05—the average daytime temperature, ° C; 06—the average amount of precipitation, mm; 07—the average number of days with precipitation > 0.1 mm); • Weather parameters for 2018 (08—the average temperature in January, ° C; 09— the average temperature in July, ° C; 10—the amount of precipitation in January, mm; 11—the amount of precipitation in July, mm); • Share (%) of lands and their complexes in relation to the total land area without water bodies (12—farmland; 13—forest; 14—arable land; 15—vegetation cover (grass + shrub + trees); 16—human-modified land; 17—general environmental factor); • Specific water consumption, as well as discharge and emission of pollution (18—water intake, m3 / person; 19—water use, m3 / person; 20—pollution discharge, m3 / person; 21—atmospheric emission, kg/person; 22—emission capture, kg/person); • Population parameters (23—density, persons / km2 ; life expectancy, years: 24—all people; 25—men; 26—women);

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83

Table 1 Fragment of initial data for 40 parameters for ranking Constituent entities of the Federation in Siberia

Capital of the constituent entity

01

45

Kurgan region

Kurgan

5.45

5.3333

66

Sverdlovsk region

Yekaterinburg

6.8519

0.6122

72

Tyumen region

Tyumen

7.1522

5.5272

74

Chelyabinsk region

Chelyabinsk

5.154

1.4291

4

Altai Republic

Gorno-Altaysk

1.9606

25.9189

17a

Tyva Republic

Kyzyl

1.7147

19a

Republic of Khakassia

Abakan

3.7156

Code

Coordinates 02

03

…

40

75

…

262.2

255

…

251.9

81

…

174.1

218

…

251.0

285

…

222.3

34.4534

624

…

378.1

31.4292

247

…

249.9

22

Altai Krai

Barnaul

3.3606

23.7636

189

…

260.1

24a

Krasnoyarsk region

Krasnoyarsk

6.0184

32.8672

139

…

262.1

38a

Irkutsk region

Irkutsk

2.2978

44.296

427

…

320.1

42

Kemerovo region (Kuzbass)

Kemerovo

5.3333

26.0833

104

…

342.8

54

Novosibirsk region

Novosibirsk

5.0415

22.9346

164

…

232.1

55

Omsk region

Omsk

4.9924

13.3686

90

…

220.3

70

Tomsk region

Tomsk

6.4977

24.9744

117

…

201.3

Notea

The constituent entities of the Federation situated in the Angara-Yenisei macroregion are highlighted. Source Compiled by the authors

• Demographic parameters of the population (27—total fertility rate; 28—infant mortality per 1,000 live births; 29—migration growth rate per 104 population; 30—natural growth per 1,000 population); • Parameters of the entire economy (31—employment rate, %; 32—unemployment rate, %; 33—share of population below the subsistence level, %; 34—share of urban population, %; 35—share of rural population, %); • Economic parameters of production (36—GRP per capita for 2018, thousand rubles/person; 37—average per capita income of the population, rubles/month; the number of deaths in working age per 105 population: 38—both sexes; 39—men aged 16–59; 40—women aged 16–54). The author has distributed all 40 factors among nine groups. As in the World Bank, the number of factors can be increased to 1,600 [29].

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2.3 Method of Identifying Patterns Oscillations (wavelet signals) are written by a wave formula of the form. yi = Ai cos(π x/ pi − a8i ), Ai = a1i x a2i exp(−a3i x a4i ), pi = a5i + a6i x a7i ,

(1)

where; y i x a1 ...a8 Ai pi

the indicator (dependent factor); the number of the component (1); explanatory variable (influencing factor); the parameters of the model (1); amplitude (half) of the wavelet; the half-period of the oscillation.

The amplitude y = A at a2 = 0 and a4 = 1 turns into Laplace’s y = a1 exp(−a3 x) (in mathematics), Mandelbrot’s (in physics), Zipf-Perl’s (in biology), and Pareto’s (in econometrics) laws. As a result, each component (1) becomes a fractal. B. N. Yakimov and a group of scholars [30] propose to weaken the requirement of self-similarity. However, the author has strengthened the requirement. Therefore, the author describes the arbitrary self-similarity by Mandelbrot’s law, after modification by introducing the third parameter of the model and obtaining a formula y = a exp(−bx c ) under the condition c /= 1. Time series Eq. (1) can have more than 200 components. Predicting human and animal populations, which uses past dynamics to predict future conditions, has many real-world applications [11]. In forecasting, the author proposes to use those of the many asymmetric wavelets identified by the identification method that continue in the dynamics of time into the future. The retrospective is considered similarly. The trend is formed when the period of fluctuation a5i tends to infinity. Most often, a trend is formed from two terms of formula (1). All models of rank distributions (and binary relations) have been identified in the special case when a2 = 0, according to the two-term formula ) ) ( ( y = aex p −bx c + d x e exp − f x g ,

(2)

where: y the indicator (dependent factor); x the influencing variable; a − g the parameters of the model (2) of the two-term trend, identified in the CurveExpert-1.40 software environment [9]. The method for identifying the general Eq. (1) of the wavelet (solitary wave) from measured statistical data [19] will allow specialists to supplement and refine

Building a Hierarchy of the Subjects of the Federation in Siberia …

85

the climate mitigation scenarios up to 2100 outlined in the publication by R. J. Millar and some other researchers [21]. Another condition will be the identification of the very scenarios of human behavior by their reliability of quantitative data. Only those scenarios where high adequacy wave equations are obtained will be valid. The author excludes the 0.05% significance measure [28] and evaluates the adequacy of the formulas using the correlation coefficient automatically generated by the CurveExpert-1.40 software environment.

2.4 Synthesis of Hierarchies Hierarchy is a kind of abstraction of the structure of a system, designed to study the functional interactions of its components and their effects on the system as a whole [27]. The hierarchy analysis method has become widespread. In this case, the system (14 constituent entities of the Federation in Siberia) is known, and for it, the author has determined 40 quantitative parameters. Qualitative parameters can be measured through codes placed along the vector of consecutive deterioration of non-quantitative values. Next, there is the problem of synthesizing the hierarchy in the system as of a certain moment in time. The author does not consider time series in this paper. The synthesis of the hierarchy is possible in two ways for a known or specially composed system of parameters: • The ordering of the parameter values occurs according to the pre-order vector of preference the better the worse by ranks R = 0, 1, 2, ..., then the ranks of the entire list of system parameters are summed. As a result, a rating of system elements is formed, and the best will be the element with the lowest sum of ranks. • As in the method of analyzing Saaty’s hierarchies, a pairwise comparison of all parameters of the system is performed without ranking them, the identification method is used to identify the patterns of binary relations between all parameters, then the summation of the correlation coefficients by rows and columns occurs, and the ratings of the parameters as influencing variables and dependent indicators are identified [27]. In this paper, the author will further consider the first method, which is possible without using mathematics. According to the second method, the correlation coefficients of the rank distributions are located in the correlation matrix along the diagonal cells, which show the quality factor of the system.

86

P. M. Mazurkin

3 Results 3.1 Ordering the Parameter Values of the Constituent Entities of the Federation It will likely be possible to counterbalance the further increase in ecological losses by technical progress if highly moral relations with other biological species on Earth are achieved. Many scientists and practitioners believe that the level of development of technology must exceed a certain threshold of progress, above which the natural environment will remain longer [20]. With such an optimistic approach, for any parameter of a complex system (complexity is determined by human participation), the ranking vector becomes the direction the better the worse according to the ecological principle. Then, predominantly natural objects receive the direction the more the better, and human-modified natural objects—the less the better. Parameters related to nature, population, and humans can be easily divided into positive and negative. The negative tendencies include an increase in anthropogenic impact on natural objects leading to their destruction, for example, an increase in arable land due to a decrease in vegetation cover. Therefore, attempts to plow everything will lead to irrational land use.

3.2 Ranking the Values of the Parameters of the Constituent Entities All 40 parameters of the system from 14 constituent entities of the Federation are assumed to be the same in terms of weight coefficients equal to 1. Weight coefficient 1 is also adopted for the values of these parameters. The author gives both parts of the system of factors (Table 2). Rank 0—the more the better (or sign ↑): X04–X11, X13, X15, X17, X24–X27, X29–X31, and X35– X37. Rank 1—the less the better (or sign ↓): X01–X03, X12, X14, X16, X18– X23, X28, X32–X34, and X38–X40. In the Excel environment, there are two types of ranking in the RANK program: • 0—ranking in descending order; • 1—ranking in ascending order. Code 0 is used for positively directed factors the more the better, and code 1 is used for negative parameters the less the better. In the function = RANK (C2; C$2: C$16; 1), the following conventions are adopted for the Excel software environment: • C—the identifier of the ranked column; • C2, C$2—the first line;

Building a Hierarchy of the Subjects of the Federation in Siberia …

87

Table 2 Fragment of the ranking of parameters of the constituent entities of the federation in Siberia Code Coordinates

Climate 03

Rating Σ

04 05 06 07 … 39 40 I

Model (3) R ε

Δ, %

01

02

45

9

2

0

3

2 11 10 … 10 10 12

300

66

12

0

10

0

4

2

4 …

7

7

3

220

4.66642

2.12

72

13

3

1

5

6

4

5 …

0

0

1

171

6.15217

3.60

74

7

1

8

2

1

7

8 …

4

6

9

289

5.41382

1.87

4

1

8

11

10

8

1

0 …

6

3

4

222

1.0128

0.46

17

0

12

13

12 11 12 13 … 11 13 11

297

19

4

10

9

13 13 13 12 …

22

3

6

7

24

10

11

38

2

13

42

8

9

3

54

6

5

55

5

4

70

11

7

9

5

8

279

−7.87644 −2.63

−4.03939 −1.36 6.2439

2.24

4

0

8

6 …

7

8 13

312

−1.56

5

7

9

3

3 …

5

9

6

243

−3.10485 −1.28

12

11

7

4 11 … 12 11 10

292

−0.97374 −0.33

9 10

6

2 … 13 12 14

324

6

1

3

9

7 …

2

4

5

224

2

6

5 10

8 …

3

2

7

266

4

8 12

1 …

1

1

2

190

0

5.84706 −7.1391 5.67882

−0.50

1.80 −3.19 2.13

−9.95284 −5.24a

Notea The maximum relative error is 5.24%. Source Compiled by the authors

• C$16—the last line; • 0 ∨ 1—ranking in descending (0) or ascending (1) order. The ranking gives place I , and the rank is equal R = I − 1. Table 2 shows that the constituent entity of the Federation with the code, namely, the Tyumen region (the capital is Tyumen), takes first place with the sum of the ranks of Σ 171. The comparison shows that the best theoretical first place will be obtained if R = 0. The Tyumen region has reserves for increasing the efficiency of its activities. The Tomsk region (Tomsk) is in second place with a total of 190 ranks. The Sverdlovsk region (Yekaterinburg) is in third place with an amount of 220. Σ Further, the author takes places I as an explanatory variable and the sum of ranks R from Table 2 as an indicator. After identification of formula (2), the author has obtained a stable regularity (Fig. 1): Σ

R = 45.41003 exp(−0.0078094I 3.77316 ), +

+ 119.85170I 0.41181 exp(−0.00042280I 2.10880 ), where:

(3)

88

P. M. Mazurkin S = 7.89923823 r = 0.99256225

.3 0 3 39 .7 3 08 2 78

7 .8 4

0

1 .3

.1 0

6

.6 2 8

.5 0

85 -1 .

.9 0

09 -5 .

.3 0 1 86

33 -8 .

2 47 2 16

.7 0 1 55 0.1

2.6

5.2

7.7

10.2

Formula graph (3)

12.8

57

15.3 -1 1. 0.1

2.6

5.2

Residuals

7.7

10.2

12.8

15.3

from the model (3)

Fig. 1 Graphs of the change in the sum of ranks from the place in the rating (in the upper right corner: S—standard deviation; r —correlation coefficient). Source Compiled by the authors

Σ

R the sum of ranks for all 40 parameters of the constituent entities of the Federation in Siberia; I the place in the rating;

The residuals ε are obtained by subtracting the sum of ranks of the calculated values according to model (3) from the actual values y f . Then the relative error of the simulation error is Δ = 100ε/y f , %. The correlation coefficient is a measure of the adequacy of formula (3). It is equal to 0.9926 and above the level of 0.95—super-strong factor relationship. The dot plot in Fig. 1 shows that the values of the parameters (ordinate) change along the abscissa axis (places or ranks) in a wave-like manner. For the level of measurement error up to 5%, the author assumes that identification of the wavelet signal (1) is required only when the simulation error exceeds 5%. However, for all 40 parameters, two-term trends (2) can be supplemented with several wave Eq. (1).

3.3 Wavelet Analysis of Northern Latitude of Capitals Of particular interest is the inclusion of the three coordinates of the capitals of the constituent entities of the Federation into the system of parameters. Urbanization in Russia has reached a high level, and almost two-thirds of the population live in cities. However, most of the industrial potential is also located in the capitals. As a result, all activities of the population are concentrated in the capitals of regions. For the northern latitude α := α − 50, a condition is accepted: the further south the capitals of regions of Russia and Siberia are located, the better the climate is. Then, with increasing latitude, code 1 is set in the RANK program. According to trend (2), the maximum relative error obtained is |Δmax | = 8.33%. This is Abakan, the capital of Khakassia. Only two points have an error of more than 5%. Geodetic coordinates have a lower level of measurement error. Therefore, the identification of the model is performed (1). Graphs and parameters (1) are given in Fig. 2 and Table 3, respectively.

Building a Hierarchy of the Subjects of the Federation in Siberia …

89 S = 0.18230987 r = 0.56231147

S = 0.23569331 r = 0.99535228

7.7

0

0 .3

3

6.6

1

0 .2

2

2 5.5

0 0 .1

4.4

3

2 -0 .0

3.3

5

3 -0 .1

2.2

6

1.1

7

5 -0 .2 0.0

2.4

4.8

7.2

9.5

11.9

.37 14.3 -0 0.0

Two-term trend

2.4

4.8

7.2

9.5

0

0 .2

7

6 .6

1

0 .1

8

5 .5

2

0 .0

8

4 .4

3

1 -0 .0

3 .3

5

1 -0 .1

6 2 .2

0 -0 .2 2.4

4.8

7.2

9.5

14.3

S = 0.00575996 r = 0.99954153

S = 0.46598904 r = 0.99740730

7 .7

7 1 .1 0.0

11.9

First oscillation in the model

11.9

0 14.3 -0 .3 0.0

2.4

Trend and one swing in the pattern

4.8

7.2

9.5

11.9

14.3

Second oscillation

Fig. 2 Northern latitude versus rank graphs. Source Compiled by the authors

The maximum relative error of northern latitude decreases to |Δmax | = 0.25% for the city of Kyzyl, which is the capital of the Tyva Republic.

3.4 Wavelet Analysis of East Longitude The further west the regional capital is located in longitude β := β − 60, the better the climate is (Table 3, Fig. 3). Code 1 is put in the RANK program. The maximum relative error is |Δmax | = 0.72%. This is the longitude of the city of Yekaterinburg. Table 3 shows that all members of the model (1) have a correlation coefficient of more than 0.9. That is, a strong relationship is observed.

3.5 Wavelet Analysis of the Rank Distribution of Height With an increase in altitude above the level of the Baltic Sea, living conditions for people deteriorate. For ranking, code 1 is used (Table 3, Fig. 4). The maximum relative trend error is |Δmax | = 35.77%. This is the city of Kurgan, the capital of the Kurgan region. The modeling error is more than 5%. For this parameter, the trend contains only one component in the form of the law of exponential growth. Then four vibrations appear.

0.57786

24.86442

3.93313

0

0.010323

10.07419

2.94508

−0.05607

1.91336

0.0030079

0.35743

2.10578

−3.77755

1

3.09054

1

0.45827

1

2.38088

0.67599

0.46620

1.10874

2.06069

0.98692

0.87987

0

0

0.89411

92.12102

0

0

3.47988

5

Source Compiled by the authors

0

14.05188

8.94444

4.29896e-6

11.88306

3

4

0

0

74.88229

−1.09956

1

2

1.20576

1 1

2.22844

0.32859

1.27095

2.65029

21.92848

−0.19132

−0.083913

4.09031

1.01539

2.42095

108.17622

0

Rank distribution of the height of the centers of regional capitals at sea level

0

0.66132

5

1.76679

4.99330

0.00043509

−1.46359

3

4

0

3.18925

4.34465e-21

8.74845

1

2

Rank distribution of east longitude of regional capitals

−0.19595

1.87826

0.00027984

2

3

4

1.71905

1

a4i

a5i

a3i

a1i

a2i

Half-cycle

Amplitude (half) oscillation

Wavelet yi = a1i x a2i exp(−a3i x a4i ) cos(π x/(a5i + a6i x a7i ) − a8i )

Rank distribution of northern latitude of regional capitals

No i

Table 3 Model parameters (1) of the distribution of three coordinates of the capitals

0

1.49930 1

−0.017978 −0.0019601 0

0.087843

0

0

2.34460

1

0

0

2.07207

0

0

0

a7i

−82.55048

0

0

0.00054931

0.12537

0

0

0.0017838

0

0

0

a6i

0.9281 0.8106

−1.43614

0.9407

1.0000

0.9985

0.9667

0.9988

0.9995

0.9992

Correl. coeff. r

4.61096

2.15369

−1.24733

0

0.40501

−2.65407

1.23096

0

0

1.72504

−1.35516

0

0

a8i

Shift

90 P. M. Mazurkin

Building a Hierarchy of the Subjects of the Federation in Siberia …

91

S = 3.80421778 r = 0.97550123

S = 2.18791887 r = 0.81806217

6 4 8.6

6 .7

0

6 4 0.5

4 .7

0

6 3 2.4

2 .7

0

6 2 4.3

0 .6

9

6 1 6.2

1 -1 .3

8 .1

6

6 0 .0 0.0

2 -3 .3 2.4

4.8

7.2

9.5

2 14.3 -5 .3 0.0

11.9

Two-term trend

2.4

4.8

7.2

9.5

11.9

S = 1.20399687 r = 0.99878732

S = 0.25098848 r = 0.96668457

6 4 8.6

1 .2

1

6 4 0.5

0 .7

2

6 3 2.4

0 .2

2

6 2 4.3

7 -0 .2

6 1 6.2

7 -0 .7

8 .1

6

6 0 .0 0.0

6 -1 .2 2.4

4.8

7.2

9.5

5 14.3 -1 .7 0.0

11.9

2.4

Trend and one swing in the pattern 8

0 .5

5

0 .4

2

0 .3

0

9.5

11.9

14.3

0 .0

2

0 .0

2

0 .0

1

11.9

14.3

1 -0 .0 1 -0 .0

4

8 -0 .0 0.0

7.2

0 0 .0

7 0 .1 0 .0

4.8

Second oscillation

S = 0.01025601 r = 0.99848891

0 .6

14.3

First oscillation in the model

2.4

4.8

7.2

9.5

Third oscillation

11.9

2

0 .0 0.0 14.3 -

2.4

4.8

7.2

9.5

Residuals after five members of the model (1)

Fig. 3 Graphs of changes in east longitude from rank. Source Compiled by the authors

3.6 Rank Distributions of Climate and Weather Parameters Table 4 shows the comparison of climate and weather parameters. The temperature and precipitation for July 2018 are the best in terms of rank distributions of constituent entities. The weather has a decisive influence.

3.7 Lands, Water Consumption, Discharge, and Emission of Pollution Table 5 shows the comparison of parameters for the two groups of distributions. The vegetation cover with a maximum relative error of 3.24% has the best rank distributions, and forests with an error of 13.11% are in second place. The rest parameters have strong wave disturbances.

92

P. M. Mazurkin S = 8.16245158 r = 0.97577650

S = 29.76628772 r = 0.98383469

6 78 5 69

.9 0

0 4 3.9

.1 0

8 2 5.5

.3 4 59

0

7 .2

.5 3 49

0

.0 7 -1 1

.7 0

.3 9 -2 9

2 39 1 29

.9 0

0 2 0.1 0.0

6

.7 1 -4 7 2.4

4.8

7.2

9.5

11.9

.0 4 14.3 -6 6 0.0

Two-term trend

2.4

4.8

7.2

9.5

3 .2

7

.1 0

2 .3

0

0

1 .3

2

.5 0

0 .3

4

.7 0

3 -0 .6

.9 0 1 29

1 -1 .6

5 69

.3 4 59 3 49 2 39

0 2 0.1 0.0

2.4

4.8

7.2

9.5

11.9

8 -2 .5 0.0

14.3

2.4

Trend and one swing in the pattern

4.8

7.2

9.5

14.3

S = 0.11839363 r = 0.81062453

S = 0.22619689 r = 0.92811041

4

0 .5

4

0 .7

7

0 .4

0

.3 9

0 .2

6

2 0 .0

2 0 .1

5 -0 .3

2 -0 .0 5 -0 .1

3 -0 .7 0 -1 .1 0.0

11.9

Second oscillation

1 .1

0

14.3

S = 0.70191189 r = 0.94066068

S = 2.06841087 r = 0.99995777

0

.9 6 78

11.9

First oscillation in the model

2.4

4.8

7.2

9.5

11.9

.29 14.3 -0 0.0

2.4

Third oscillation

4.8

7.2

9.5

11.9

14.3

Fourth oscillation

Fig. 4 Graphs of the change in altitude from rank. Source Compiled by the authors Table 4 Statistical indicators of distributions of climate and weather parameters Climate for 1961–1990 (average)

Weather for 2018 (average)

Code

Parameter

r

|Δmax |

Code

Parameter

r

X04

Temperature at night

0.9899

11.49

X08

Temperature (January)

0.9987

1.44

X05

Day temperature

0.9946

9.26

X09

Temperature (July)

0.9943

3.61

X06

Precipitation

0.9836

14.38

X10

Precipitation (January)

0.9954

18.25

X07

Days > 0.1 mm

0.9837

20.01

X11

Precipitation (July)

0.9994

2.73

Source Compiled by the authors

|Δmax |

Building a Hierarchy of the Subjects of the Federation in Siberia …

93

Table 5 Statistical indicators of rank distributions of parameters Specific values

Share of land types Code

Parameter

r

|Δmax |

Code

Parameter

r

|Δmax |

X12

Farmland

0.9903

63.26

X18

Water intake

0.9971

92.13

X13

Woodlands

0.9900

13.11

X19

Water consumption

0.9895

135.30

X14

Arable land

0.9984

100.00

X20

Discharge of pollution

0.9952

45.00

X15

Vegetation

0.9955

3.24

X21

Emissions

0.9914

100.00

X16

Modified land

0.9968

51.48

X22

Emission capture

0.9941

100.00

X17

Environmental coefficient

0.9850

153.55

Source Compiled by the authors

4 Discussion Parameters of the population and other groups X23–X40 are debatable and require further substantiation.

4.1 Rank Distributions of Parameters of the Population and Other Groups Because of the brevity of the paper, the author considers these groups of parameters together. Table 6 shows the comparison of positive and negative parameters. The most chaotic is the rank distribution of the coefficient of migration growth per 104 population with a correlation coefficient of 0.9488 and a maximum relative error of 1,129.5%. Such a high relative error most often indicates technical or other errors in official data. Figure 5 shows distribution plots with an error of less than 5%. Of the five high-fidelity distributions, four are positive parameters. According to the graphs, the worst subject of the Federation will be determined by the last point in the distributions. The Republic of Tuva has the lowest life expectancy of the population, the highest total fertility rate, but the highest infant mortality. However, the subject has the highest natural population growth.

94

P. M. Mazurkin

Table 6 Statistical indicators of rank distributions of parameters Negatively directed parameters

Positively directed parameters Code

Parameter

r

X24

Life expectancy

0.9904

X25

Life expectancy (men)

X26

|Δmax |

|Δmax |

Code

Parameter

r

0.90

X37

Average income per capita

0.9933

7.11

0.9914

0.65

X23

Population density

0.9988

29.50

Life expectancy (women)

0.9959

0.53

X28

Infant mortality

0.9902

6.51

X27

Total fertility rate

0.9957

3.76

X32

Unemployment rate

0.9966

7.09

X29

Migration growth

0.9488

X33

Share of people below the subsistence level

0.9940

16.81

X30

Natural growth

0.9760

154.60

X34

Share of urban population

0.9926

5.04

X31

Employment rate 0.9630

3.98

X38

Death in working 0.9720 age

6.44

X35

Share of rural population

0.9921

15.00

X39

Death in working 0.9908 age (men)

4.19

X36

GRP per capita

0.9962

24.59

X40

Death in working 0.9870 age (women)

8.08

1,129.5

Source Compiled by the authors

4.2 Rank Distributions of the Constituent Entities in the Angara-Yenisei Region This macroregion includes four constituent entities of the Federation, which received the following places in the overall rating out of 40 parameters: • • • •

Tyva Republic (Kyzyl)—eleventh place with a total of 297 ranks; Republic of Khakassia (Abakan)—eighth place with a total of 279 ranks; Krasnoyarsk Krai (Krasnoyarsk)—sixth place with a total of 243 ranks; Irkutsk region (Irkutsk)—tenth place with a total of 292 ranks.

The best place to live is Krasnoyarsk Krai. The Tyumen region takes first place in Siberia with a total of 171 places, while Krasnoyarsk Krai takes only sixth place.

Building a Hierarchy of the Subjects of the Federation in Siberia …

95

S = 0.17604325 r = 0.99593028

S = 0.28090734 r = 0.99138328

6 7 8.8

3 6 9.1

2 7 7.5

3 6 7.7

8 7 6.1

2 6 6.3

4 7 4.8

2 6 4.9

1 7 3.5

1 6 3.5

7 7 2.1

0 6 2.1

3 7 0.8 0.0

2.4

4.8

7.2

9.5

11.9

0 14.3 6 0.7 0.0

Life expectancy of women (0.53%)

2.4

4.8

7.2

9.5

2

3 .1

1 7 2.7

2 .8

1

2 7 1.3

2 .4

9

3 6 9.9

2 .1

8

5 6 8.5

1

6 6 7.1

.8 6

1 .5

2.4

4.8

7.2

9.5

11.9

5

.2 3 14.3 1 0.0

Life expectancy of all people (0.90%)

2.4

4.8

7.2

9.5

1 03

3 3.1 .8 7

8 6 4.3

9 53

4 6 1.3

8 74

0 5 8.3

.3 7 95

5

6 5 5.2

.0 7 16

9

2 5 2.2

.8 6 36

3

4.8

7.2

9.5

Employment rate (3.98%)

11.9

14.3

S = 22.80170622 r = 0.98081089

S = 1.18693188 r = 0.96301838

2.4

11.9

Total fertility rate (3.76%)

2 6 7.4

8 4 9.1 0.0

14.3

S = 0.04505092 r = 0.99671403

S = 0.28196932 r = 0.99043926

9 7 4.0

8 6 5.7 0.0

11.9

Life expectancy of men (0.65%)

14.3

5 57

.6 1

.5 7 0.0

2.4

4.8

7.2

9.5

11.9

14.3

Death in working age among men (4.19%)

Fig. 5 High-precision rank distribution plots. Source Compiled by the authors

4.3 Rank Distributions of the Standard of Living of the Population of Siberia For comparison, the author takes four parameters from Table 6 (Fig. 6). After adding the ranks of the X32, X33, X37, and X38 parameters, the author has received the sum of ranks and identified the places of the rating in the RANK program by its values. The Tomsk region takes the first place in terms of living standards, the Sverdlovsk region takes the second, and the four constituent entities of the Federation (Tyumen, Novosibirsk, and Omsk regions, and Altai Krai) take the third. This example shows that if one and the same system of parameters is divided into groups, it is possible to perform ranking by groups according to the sum of ranks and then compose the sum of ranks for all groups according to the entire system of indicators. This technique for one list of objects (subjects) allows combining different ratings, thereby significantly increasing the number of factors.

96

P. M. Mazurkin S = 0.76967816 r = 0.99398665

S = 1072.24392649 r = 0.99333766

77 5 18

.0 0

9 3 6.8

0

1 3 1.9

0 81 .0 3 89

3 2 6.9

0 33 .0 3 25

5 2 1.9

85 .0 2 60

0

7 1 6.9

37 .0 1 96

0

9 1 1.9

4 54

29 .0

0 89 .0 0.0 1 31

2.4

4.8

7.2

9.5

11.9

14.3

1 7 .0 0.0

2.4

4.8

7.2

9.5

11.9

Х37 – Average income per capita

S = 20.05108884 r = 0.97197982

S = 0.29179552 r = 0.99656110

7 1 5.9

.5 7 08

3 1 3.6

6 51

9 1 1.2

5 95

.9 0

.7 0

5

5 38 4 82

7 4 .2

.5 4 25

3 1 .9 0.0

2.4

4.8

7.2

9.5

Х32 – Unemployment rate

11.9

0

.3 0

1 6 .6

8 .9

14.3

Х33 – Share of people below the subsistence level

.1 0 0

.9 0 14.3 3 68 0.0

2.4

4.8

7.2

9.5

11.9

14.3

Х38 – Death in working age

Fig. 6 Graphs of parameters determining the standard of living of the population. Source Compiled by the authors

5 Conclusion A method for the synthesis of hierarchies according to a variety of groups of specific and relative parameters is proposed on the example of the constituent entities of the Federation in Siberia situated on the territory of the Ural and Siberian Federal Districts. The paper examines the territory—population—economy system for the territories of 14 constituent entities of the Federation in terms of the following groups of 40 parameters: (1) coordinates of the centers of the capitals of the constituent entities of the Federation; (2) climate for 1961–1990; (3) average weather for January and July 2018; (4) shares of land and their complexes (vegetation cover and humanmodified land) to the land area; (5) specific water consumption, as well as discharge and emission of pollution; (6) population parameters (density and life expectancy); (7) demography; (8) farm indicators; and (9) economic indicators. In the paper, the synthesis of the hierarchy is shown in the following way. The ordering of the parameter values occurs according to the pre-order vector of preference the better the worse by ranks, then the ranks of the entire list of system parameters are summed, and as a result, a rating of the system elements is formed. The best element is the one with the lowest sum of ranks. This method is possible without the use of mathematics. Mostly natural objects receive the direction the more the better, and the natural anthropogenic objects strongly modified by people receive the direction the less the better.

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Of particular interest is the inclusion of the three coordinates of the capitals of the constituent entities of the Federation into the system of parameters. Urbanization in Russia has reached a high level, and almost two-thirds of the population live in cities. However, most of the industrial potential is also located in the capitals. As a result, all activities of the population are concentrated in the capitals of regions. The hierarchy of objects (subjects) can be obtained across the entire system from 40 or more parameters and by ranking the parameters by groups. Then, it is necessary to add the sum of the ranks by groups of parameters and determine the overall rating by ranking. This technique for one list of objects (subjects) allows combining different ratings, thereby increasing the number of factors considered. Acknowledgements The study was funded by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research, the Government of Krasnoyarsk Krai, and the Krasnoyarsk Regional Fund of Science, within the research project “Predictions of the Ecological and Economic Potential for Possible “Climatic” Migrations in the Angara-Yenisei Macroregion in a Changing Climate of the 21st Century.”

References 1. Antipova AV (2006) The enclosing landscape (geographical meaning and ecological and resource content). History and Modernity 2:3–23 3. Büntgen U, Wacker L, Galván JD et al (2018) Tree rings reveal globally coherent signature of cosmogenic radiocarbon events in 774 and 993 CE. Nat Commun 9(1):7 5. Crowther TW, Glick HB, Covey K et al (2015) Mapping tree density at a global scale. Nature 525:201–205 6. Fischer G, Velthuizen H et al (2002) Global agro-ecological assessment for agriculture in the 21st century: methodology and results. International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis. IIASA, Laxenburg 7. Foster GL, Royer DL, Lunt DJ (2017) Future climate forcing potentially without precedent in the last 420 million years. Nat Commun 8:1484 8. Gladkevich GI (2006) Creation of geographical images of the territory. http://geo.1september. ru/article.php?ID=200601204 9. Hyams Development (n d) Official website. https://www.curveexpert.net/ 10. He M, Yang B, Shishov V et al (2018) Projections for the changes in growing season length of tree-ring formation on the Tibetan Plateau based on CMIP5 model simulations. Int J Biometeorol 62:631–641 11. Humphries GRW, Che-Castaldo C, Bull PJ et al (2018) Predicting the future is hard and other lessons from a population time series data science competition. Eco Inform 48:1–11 12. Ivanov NI, Sorogin AS (2020) Approaches to improving the methodology of land use design in the system of the agro-industrial complex based on land consolidation. Earth Sci 1:100–105 13. Khunagov RD, Kochurov BI, Varshanina TP (2008) Some aspects of the technology of geographic diagnostics of the territory. https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/nekotorye-aspekty-teh nologii-geograficheskoy-diagnostiki-territorii 14. Kochurov BI (2003) Ecodiagnostics and balanced development. Magenta, Smolensk 15. Liu J, Gao Z, Wang L et al (2018) The impact of urbanization on wind speed and surface aerodynamic characteristics in Beijing during 1991–2011. Meteorol Atmos Phys 130:311–324 16. Malkova IL, Sarancha MA, Belova AA et al (2014) Assessment of the bioclimatic potential of the territory of the Udmurt Republic. Bull Udmurt Univ 2:142–150 17. Mayer H (1993) Urban bioclimatology. Article in Experientia 49:957–963

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18. Mazurkin PM (2020) Land plots of the Siberian Federal District of Russia. Success of Modern Nat Sci 6:75–82 19. Mazurkin PM, Kudryashova AI (2019) Quantum meteorology. In: SGEM: international multidisciplinary scientific geoconference surveying geology and mining ecology management. https://doi.org/10.5593/sgem2019/5.1/S20.077 20. Mazurkin PM, Mikhailova SI (2010) Territorial ecological balance. Novosibirsk State Technical University, Novosibirsk 2. MeteoInfo (n d) Average monthly climatic data for cities in Russia for 1961–1990. https://met eoinfo.ru/?option=com_content&view=article&id=1715 21. Millar RJ Fuglestvedt JS Friedlingstein P et al (2017). Emission budgets and pathways consistent with limiting warming to 1.5 °C. Nature Geosci 10. https://doi.org/10.1038/NGEO3031. ngeo3031 22. Myachina MR, Cherkashin KI (2013) Consolidation of agricultural lands in Russia: History and modernity. Modern Probl Sci Educ 1. http://science-education.ru/ru/article/view?id=8428 23. Reimers NF (1990) Nature management. Mysl, Moscow 24. Rostat (2019). Distribution of lands of the Russian Federation by category in the context of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation (January 1, 2019). Moscow 25. Rosstat (2019) Official website. https://rosstat.gov.ru/ 26. Rostom GR (2011) An alternative approach to measure human development in Russia. Geogr, Environ, Sustain 4(4):4–9 27. Saaty T (1993) Making decisions: hierarchy analysis method. Radio i Svyaz, Moscow 29. The World Bank (n d) World development indicators (tables). http://wdi.worldbank.org/tables 4. Time-in (n d) Coordinates of the cities of Russia. https://time-in.ru/coordinates 28. Wasserstein LR, Schirm AL, Lazar NA (2019) Moving to a world beyond “p < 0.05.” The American Statistician 73(1):1−19 30. Yakimov BN, Gelashvili DB, Zhang Yu et al (2018) Quantification of non-power-law diversity scaling with local multifractal analysis. Ecol Inform 48:48−59

Regional Social Protests: Essence, Causes, and Sociological Research Methodology Victor V. Nagaytsev , Angelina N. Shrayber , and Valentina A. Artjukhina

Abstract The paper focuses on the phenomenon of social protest in Altai Krai and presents the data of a sociological study on this issue, conducted by us in 2018–2020. Also, we analyzed various components of social protest in the region, such as (1) the actual and potential level; (2) the causes; and (3) the forms of manifestation. The study uncovered that social protest actions in the regional society are non-recurrent, situational, preventable, and amenable to regulation. As a result, we can conclude that the lack of effective mechanisms for managing the protest behavior of social actors in a regional society can lead to adverse social consequences, namely, (1) increased conflict of different-level subjects, (2) increased tension, (3) aggravation of social problems, and other crisis phenomena in society. The paper delves into the problems associated with various scientific interpretations of the concept of social protest and traditional and non-classical methodological approaches to determining its essence and content. The study sketches the social nature of protest based on contradictions in various social groups of the regional society. Under protest behavior, we understand the individual or collective actions of subjects who demonstrate dissatisfaction with the current situation in society. The significance of the study lies in consideration of social protest as a form of conflict. In this paper, the functions of protests, the constructive orientation of some protests of civil activists, and the extent to which the protest behavior of the population affects the life of the regional society are propelled to the fore. As the primary method of empirical research, we surveyed the population in various territories of the region, which allowed us to identify the actual and potential levels of citizen protest activity. Keywords Region · Social phenomena and processes · Conflicts in society · Social protest · Methodology of sociological research of protest · Local society · Causes of protest behavior of the population

V. V. Nagaytsev · A. N. Shrayber · V. A. Artjukhina (B) Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova (ed.), Complex Social Systems in Dynamic Environments, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 365, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23856-7_10

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1 Introduction The term “protest” comes from the Latin word “protestari”—“openly declare something,” which means an explicit or implicit disagreement on a particular situation. There are many opportunities for expressing protest: from simple disagreement with something to mass actions of large social groups. Protests of the population are one of the phenomena by which the general social situation in society is assessed. Therefore, the necessity and importance of analyzing protest moods and the actual actions of social actors in society are beyond doubt. The research relevance is due to the growth of socio-economic problems and contradictions in the regional societies of Russia, the intensification of negative forms of interaction of social actors, and, consequently, the growth of tension and numerous conflicts between different social groups in current conditions. To the greatest extent, these contradictions are manifested in the actions of social protest of the population. The research significance lies in determining the conflict component of the protest actions of the subjects and the influence of various social factors on the protest behavior of the population. The study aims to explain the formation and development of protest as a particular form of social conflict by studying the influence of a set of factors on the formation of protest moods and the actual protest behavior of the population. As of today, the prevailing approaches for analyzing the protest behavior of the population were socio-psychological and political science approaches. Nevertheless, in Russian sociological science, little research has been conducted on the phenomenon of social protest. In sociology, previous studies have thoroughly considered social protest in two main research directions. The first direction deals with the concept of relative deprivation, whose representatives (S. Stauffer, V. Ruinsiman, J. Davis, T. Garr) identified the factors that influence the formation of protest. The second direction (J. McCarthy, M. Zald, R. Ash, M. Asim, K. Wilson, V. Gemson, C. Tilly, etc.) explained the development of protest actions of subjects by the presence of specific resources. According to scholars, a protest can be successful only if the resources of its participants (physical, financial, informational, etc.) are mobilized for the protest. Modern researchers view social protest as an inevitable phenomenon in local societies [1; 2; 8]. Sociological science has a classic explanation for the emergence of social protest in local society as a result of the long-term maturation of discontent of certain subjects with the current social situation [3, 10]. The American sociologists J. Ekman and E. Amna defined social protest as “the negative attitude of some subjects to the current situation in society” [9]. At first, various social groups have an intense dissatisfaction with the situation in the local society, and then their collective protest actions begin. As a rule, the protest aims to change the situation and solve a specific problem in the life of society. At the same time, the peculiarity of the protest is the different level of opposing actors in the structure of the local community. This methodological approach corresponds to the position of many modern sociologists, according to which the protest is “actions aimed at changing the power or policy”

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[5, 8]. The protest is considered the process of “exerting pressure on the authorities to make the necessary decisions for the protesters” [4]. The American sociologist John Davies gave a slightly different explanation of the protest behavior of the population in his concept of “relative disadvantage (deprivation) of subjects in society” [6]. According to J. Davies, social protest is a consequence of the end of a sufficiently long period of socio-economic well-being of the population, when their needs and usual way of life ceased to correspond to the new socio-economic situation in society. As a result, there is a mass discontent of the population, which gradually turns into open forms of social protest [7]. Within this concept, Ted Gurr discussed the causes of dissatisfaction of social actors arising from their ideas about social justice and the fact that they deserve much more, which irritates these subjects leading to protest actions [12]. At the beginning of the twentyfirst century, Ronald Inglehart and Pippa Norris developed the sociological concept of a “silent revolution” in the modern world, which states that protesting social actors have new demands—rapid changes in society (from gender equality to the transformation of social institutions) [13]. In Russia, the sociology of conflict as an independent branch of knowledge is still in its infancy. However, its methodology is most suitable for analyzing the phenomenon of social protest; it fully corresponds to the current realities of Russian society, when conflicts in the form of protest behavior of citizens do help various subjects to reach a consensus and lead to positive changes in society and the solution of many social problems [11, 14]. Among Russian researchers, we should highlight the works of V. V. Kostyushev, G. V. Baranova, Yu. E. Rastov, L. N. Tsoi, V. A. Semenov, and V. A. Svetlov.

2 Materials and Methods The level of protest mood and actual protest behavior of the population in the regional society was assessed according to our sociological study “Development and promotion of measures to reduce the level of social tension and conflict among the population in Altai Krai in 2018–2020.” The project involved a large-scale sociological study of the parameters of social protest in regional society and a comparison of its results with the conclusions of prior research of Russian sociologists. Using the method of standardized interviewing of the population of Altai Krai, we interviewed 1220 respondents (in 2018) and 600 respondents (in 2019). Besides, we conducted four focus groups with representatives of different social groups and an expert survey (in the form of an in-depth interview). Along with the traditional procedures of sociological measurement of protest moods necessary for testing the system of hypotheses, we employed innovative methods. In general, the study results accurately diagnose the situation in the region and can serve as a basis for the scientific justification of the regulation of protest behavior of the population in the Russian regions. Thus, we administered a comprehensive approach to analyzing the protest behavior of the regional population, combining traditional

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and innovative sociological methods. Also, we developed the tools and conducted surveys of residents of Altai Krai and experts. Next, we analyzed the trends related to the protest activity of the population, reflected in the materials of the regional mass media. The prevailing methods of collecting information were (1) analysis of specific events, (2) mass survey of the population, (3) expert interviews, (4) focus groups, as well as (5) traditional and content analysis of media on the research topic.

3 Results The conflict potential, which is always present in society, periodically generates the actual protest behavior of different social groups of the population. We were primarily interested in the citizens’ experience of participating in the protests that have already taken place. Table 1 illustrates that the vast majority of respondents (89%) had never participated in social protests. Only 11% of the respondents admitted that they had taken part in protests. Thus, we can state that the level of actual protest behavior of the population of Altai Krai is relatively low. Table 2 determines that most respondents (30%) claimed to make personal appeals to the state authorities. At the same time, 28% of respondents said they had once participated in rallies, marches, and other actions. Additionally, 18% of respondents claimed that they had participated in strikes. Furthermore, 13% of respondents conducted protest activity on the internet (publications with a hashtag, reposts, and comments of publications of opposition bloggers). Only 7% of respondents had already used modern forms of social protest (flash mobs, protest performances). According to Table 3, most respondents (60%) claimed that they had participated in the protests because they were dissatisfied with the situation in the country and the region. At the same time, 18% of respondents said they had participated in social protest actions together with their friends. Another 8% of respondents admitted that they had been paid. Other answers included (1) “for the sake of communicating with people”; (2) “tired of everything”; (3) “out of desperation,” and others. Table 4 indicates that most respondents (40%) believed that protest actions were relatively ineffective in defending their interests. Another 27% viewed social protest actions as a rather effective way to defend their interests. At the same time, 13% of respondents said that social protest actions were definitely an ineffective way to Table 1 Distribution of responses to the question: “Have you ever participated in social protests?” (as a percentage of the number of respondents)

Response alternatives Yes, I have participated in them No, I have not participated in them Total: Source Compiled by the authors

% 11 89 100

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Table 2 “What social protests did you participate in?” (as a percentage of the number of respondents) Response alternatives

%

Rallies, demonstrations, pickets, marches

28

Strikes

18

Appeals to state authorities

30 7

Modern forms of social protest (flash mobs, protest performances)

13

Protest activity on the internet

4

Other Source Compiled by the authors

Table 3 “Why did you participate in a social protest?” (as a percentage of the number of respondents)

%

Response alternatives I am dissatisfied with the situation in the country and the region

60

I came together with my friends

18

I was paid to participate

8

Other

3

I find it difficult to answer

11

Total:

100

Source Compiled by the authors

defend their interests, and 11% of respondents considered them to be definitely an effective way. Table 5 shows that most respondents (49%) stated that they did not intend to personally participate in social protests in the near future, as the protest would not improve their lives. At the same time, 12% of respondents believed that they did not intend to participate in social protest actions in the near future, as their living conditions have not deteriorated. Another 10% of respondents said they intended to participate in social protests in the near future. Simultaneously, 29% of respondents found it difficult to answer or refused to answer this question. The readiness to Table 4 “Do you consider protesting an effective way to defend your interests?” (as a percentage of the number of respondents)

Response alternatives Definitely yes

% 11

Rather yes than no

27

Rather no than yes

40

Definitely not

13

I find it difficult to answer Total: Source Compiled by the authors

9 100

104 Table 5 “Do you intend to personally participate in social protests in the near future?” (as a percentage of the number of respondents)

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%

No, because my living conditions have not deteriorated

12

No, because protest will not improve my life

49

Yes, I do

10

I do not know, I refuse to answer this question Total:

29 100

Source Compiled by the authors

participate in protest actions in the near future is 10%, which is the maximum value in the modern period of development of the region.

4 Discussion In our opinion, to effectively study the phenomenon of protest, one must develop a new sociological approach to its analysis, according to which social protest appears as a form of unfolding social conflict. The essence and content of the protest are inextricably linked with the actual contradictions in the interests of subjects of different levels of the social system. Any protest behavior is a particular conflict action directed against another social subject. In the case of a protest, there is a conflict between the subjects arisen due to the contradictions in their interests and positions. The sociology of conflict defines several essential elements of any conflict: two parties (subjects) and their confrontation. The presence of two opposing actors allows us to recognize protest as a form of social conflict. Protest is a system of interaction between different social actors with a certain sequence of their actions. In some cases, the social subject against which the protest actions of the regional population are directed is not apparent. Only mass protests of the population have a clear opponent: the culprit of citizens’ discontent. However, protest actions are often diffuse and latent; at first glance, they are devoid of any opponent. Nevertheless, protest as a form of conflict always presupposes a second subject against which it is directed. As a rule, the protest is a consequence of the previous actions (or inaction) of the second subject. In other words, in a protest, one side of the conflict is the subject against which it is directed (e.g., authorities, large enterprises, private companies, etc.), and the other side is the subjects who are dissatisfied with the actions of the former. In certain situations, the protest is part of a larger conflict of actors. We adhere to the methodological approach, according to which social conflict is a generic concept concerning the phenomenon of protest. Understanding protest as a form of conflict allows one to explore various forms of protest behavior of the population: from letters to the newspaper to mass actions. Also, the sociology of conflict provides new heuristics for analyzing the phenomenon of protest. A protest action occurs as a result of the interaction of many factors and objective and subjective

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reasons. Some researchers see the causes of the protest in the difficult economic situation of the social subjects of society. Others indicate the political nature of the actions of the protesters, who are dissatisfied with the authorities. Still, others explain this phenomenon by socio-psychological factors. It is crucial to distinguish between the causes and occasions for protests. Most of the confrontations of social actors begin with a specific event (trigger), which serves as an occasion for the beginning of open counteractions of opponents. Thus, it would be wrong to call the results of the elections to the authorities the cause of the protests. The results of the vote are just an occasion for the social protest of the population. The fact that we distinguish the cause from the occasion for the conflict contradicts the main methodological provisions of the classical concepts of the analysis of the phenomenon of protest. The representatives of such a concept are convinced that individuals who indicate the cause of their participation in the protest are always telling the truth. This fact makes it difficult to understand the actual nature of the protest. When conducting surveys of the population, we asked the respondents the question, “Why did you participate in a social protest?” For us, analyzing the responses was only the first step towards identifying the true causes of the protest. To determine the causes of this phenomenon, one should also use qualitative research methods (e.g., focus groups, in-depth interviews, etc.) and complex mathematical and statistical analysis of the information obtained.

5 Conclusion The paper addresses the phenomenon of protest in the regional society. Protest as a phenomenon that manifests itself in specific forms of counteraction of multi-level social actors is now clearly present in the regional society of Altai Krai. We analyzed various components of protest behavior of the population, such as (1) its actual and potential level; (2) the forms of its manifestation, and (3) its causes. We define protest as the individual or collective actions of subjects demonstrating their dissatisfaction with the existing social situation. Protest as a form of social conflict is characterized by two opposing sides. The first side is represented by the “culprit” of the situation declared by the protesters (e.g., social groups, large organizations, authorities, current political regime, etc.). The second side is displayed by the protesting actors themselves with general requirements and behavioral strategies. The emergence of contradictions in the interests of different social groups is at the heart of any social protest. As a result, the dissatisfaction of the population with the actions of the current government and their living conditions is growing, forming a social basis for protest. Therefore, the cause of the protest is the rejection of the current social situation by certain subjects and dissatisfaction with various aspects of their lives. Our research revealed that protests in the regional society are nonrecurrent, situational, and amenable to regulation. The lack of effective mechanisms

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for managing the protest behavior of social actors can lead to adverse social consequences, namely, increased conflict and tension of subjects, aggravation of social problems of the population, and other crisis phenomena.

References 1. Adler R, Goggin J (2005) What do we mean by “Civic engagement”? J Transform Educ 3(3):236–253 2. Arnold M (2007) The concept of community and the character of networks. The J Commun Inform 3(2):327–355 3. Boulding KE (1962) Conflict and defense: a general theory. Harper & Brothers Publishers, New York 4. Beck U (2000) The brave new world. Polity Press, Cambridge 5. Collins R (2004) Interaction ritual chains. Princeton University Press, Princeton 6. Davies J (1959) A formal interpretation of the theory of relative deprivation. Sociometry 22(4):280–296 7. Davies J (1970) When men revolt and why. The Free Press, New York 8. Ehrlich T (2000) Civic responsibility. Rowman & Little-field, New York 9. Ekman J, Amna E (2012) Political participation and civic engagement. Hum Aff 22:283–300 10. Goffman I (1957) Status consistency and preference for change in power distribution. Am Sociol Rev 22(3):275–281 11. Gurney P, Tierney K (1982) Relative deprivation and social movements: a critical look at twenty years of theory and research. Sociol Q 23(1):33–47 12. Gurr TR (1970) Why men rebel. Princeton University Press, Princeton 13. Inglehart R, Norris P (2004) Sacred and secular: Religion and politics worldwide. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 14. Nagaytsev VV (2019) Conflictness in society: definition and causes. In: 21st Century: fundamental science and technology, CreateSpace, Morrisville, pp 129−132

Social Environment of a Modern University: Theory and Methodology of Diagnostics Dina K. Tanatova , Tatyana N. Yudina , and Ivan V. Korolev

Abstract The social environment ensures the quality of education, its attractiveness for applicants, partners, and reputation capital. Diagnostics of the social environment allow one to identify its qualitative growth or decline, stress points, and development factors and risks. Diagnostic procedures require continuous improvement of methods and approaches. The paper is part of a research paper on the topic “Development of a methodology for monitoring the satisfaction of employees, students, and partners with the quality of the social environment and its implementation.” The goal of the mentioned research paper is to develop a monitoring methodology to identify the level of satisfaction of employees, students, and partners of a university with the quality of the social environment. The paper utilizes (1) analysis of scientific data on the research problem, (2) methods of comparative and system analysis, and (3) interpretation and personal work experience of the authors in the higher school system. The research results include justification of theoretical approaches to the diagnosis of the quality of the social environment of a university. They also include the authorly theoretical interpretation of the category “satisfaction with the quality of the social environment of a university.” The results include the development of indicators and criteria for assessing the satisfaction of employees, students, and partners with the quality of the social environment. The paper also comprises justification of the methods of the primary stages of the implementation of the diagnosis of the quality of the social environment, namely, monitoring and the method of expert assessments in the technique of in-depth interviews. The authors consider the possibilities of further improvement of the system of diagnostics of the quality of the social environment of

D. K. Tanatova · I. V. Korolev Russian State Social University, Moscow, Russia e-mail: [email protected] I. V. Korolev e-mail: [email protected] T. N. Yudina (B) Institute for Demographic Research of the Federal Center of Theoretical and Applied Sociology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova (ed.), Complex Social Systems in Dynamic Environments, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 365, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23856-7_11

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a university. There are arguments on the need for further improvement of diagnostic tools. Keywords Social environment of a university · Quality of the social environment of a university · Satisfaction · Monitoring · Online survey · Expert assessment in the technique of the in-depth interview

1 Introduction Diagnostics of the quality of the social environment of a university has become an integral tool for the activities of a successful university. The social environment is an essential component of the quality of education, the quality of work of teachers, employees, and partners of a university. Furthermore, it ensures its stable position in a university pool. Therefore, issues of the quality of the social environment of Russian universities are in the field of constant attention of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Russian Federation and public institutions. Thus, the criterion “quality of the social environment” is one of the criteria of the Ministry of Science of the Russian Federation when evaluating the effectiveness of Russian universities [13] and the national university ranking [7]. Diagnostics of the quality of the social environment of a university allows the authors to identify significant factors in determining the prospects for its development. Therefore, the issues of the quality of the social environment are an integral part of the programs of strategic development of universities. Much work has already been done in this direction. An external system for assessing the quality of education has been developed, which is carried out for Russian universities by government institutions of licensing, certification, and accreditation of educational institutions and certification. Public accreditation institutions are being formed based on various scientific, pedagogical, and scientific associations. In addition, a university has introduced the internal quality assessment system based on ISO 900 international standards [5, 16]. In current conditions, the interest in the category of “social environment” has grown significantly. The concept of the social environment has long been developed by various sciences, in particular, sociology. Nevertheless, scientists differ in its content interpretation and offer many methodological approaches to the content of this category. Therefore, currently, there is a demand for its conceptual understanding, highlighting its most significant and versatile features concerning educational institutions of higher education. The procedure for diagnosing the quality of the social environment itself is presented in a plethora of ways. Some of its aspects are covered quite fully and have long been used in the education system. Nevertheless, particular aspects are poorly represented in methodological developments, recommendations, and other materials for assessing the quality of the social environment. They include indicators, criteria, methods, and forms of diagnosis. Therefore, it is crucial to justify the

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methods of the diagnostic complex and their systemic relationship with each other. In the future, the methods of the diagnostic complex can be extrapolated to the activities of modern universities. The social environment of a university, which can perform such complex tasks, does not arise spontaneously. It is the result of a purposeful influence, the source of which is university management. The necessity to manage the social environment makes it an urgent scientific task to study the potential of the social environment of a university by sociological means. However, to date, there are no well-tested scientifically-based methods for designing, forecasting, and managing the social environment of a higher education institution based on the system diagnostics of the social environment of a university. The research goal is to theoretically and empirically conceptualize the category “quality of the social environment of a university” and justify the methods for diagnosing the quality of the social environment of a university.

2 Materials and Methods Primary research methods include (1) analysis of the literature on the research problem, (2) methods of comparative and system analysis, (3) induction and deduction, and (3) interpretation and personal experience of the authors in the higher school system. The information base contains foreign and national scientific publications and monographs on the problems of diagnosing the quality of the social environment of organizations, including higher educational institutions. It also includes materials of scientific and practical conferences, legislative acts and regulatory documents of the Government of the Russian Federation and the Ministry of Science of Russia, and international ISO standards.

3 Results 3.1 Theoretical Interpretation of the Categories “Social Environment of a University” and “Quality of the Social Environment of the University” In the interpretation of the social environment, the authors agree with T. P. Veys, who defines the social environment of a university as a set of values and principles, social structures, people, and technologies that create a particular space that interacts with the individual. It forms their professional and ideological culture. This interaction is the interaction of subjects with a specific cultural experience that takes place in the

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conditions of an educational institution and is supported by a set of organizational, methodological, and sociological measures [22]. The authors depict the social environment of a university as a complex system of interrelated components. Each component affects its quality–the ability of the social environment to meet the economic, material, spiritual, and social needs of employees, students, and partners of a university. From this position, it is concluded that the quality of the social environment of a university is a set of qualitative characteristics of its components. It is determined by the satisfaction of subjects immersed in the social environment of a university. Components of the social environment of a university: . . . . .

Social infrastructure of a university; Working or studying conditions; Social protection of employees and social support of students; Socio-psychological climate in a group; Material remuneration for work.

By satisfaction with the quality of the social environment of a university, the authors mean that said quality meets the expectations and demands of the employees, students, and partners. Therefore, a person is satisfied with the social environment if the state of material objects, the conditions created in the university for work, study, and recreation (including the amount of salary), the actions of the university to ensure social protection of employees and students, the fairness of the distribution of remuneration for work, the state of the socio-psychological climate in the university group meets or exceeds their expectations and requirements. In addition, the satisfaction with the quality of the social environment of a university is also affected by its image in the external environment.

3.2 Approaches to the Development of Indicators for Diagnosing the Quality of the Social Environment of a University The authors examine the components of the social environment of a university and indicators that determine its quality. 1. The social infrastructure of a university consists of infrastructure facilities related to such areas as (1) health care, (2) housing and household activities, (3) physical culture and sports, (4) public catering, (5) culture, and (6) leisure and recreation. In addition, the social infrastructure of a university includes an accessible environment for people with disabilities or health limitations. Accordingly, the indicators of the quality of the social infrastructure of a university include (1) medical care for employees, students, and partners; (2) the conditions of their residence in university dormitories; (3) the state of sports infrastructure and access to it; (4) catering at the university; (5) the state of cultural facilities and access to them;

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2.

3.

4.

5.

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(6) the state of the recreational infrastructure of the university and the ability of employees, students, and partners to relax in university recreation centers and boarding houses; (7) the adaptability of the social infrastructure of the university to the needs of people with disabilities or health limitations. The material and technical base that ensures the educational process and the conduct of scientific research, and the safety and security of work and study represent the conditions for working and studying. Quality indicators include the ability to organize the educational and research process (1) at the current software-technological level, (2) in the premises designed for this purpose, (3) meeting sanitary and hygienic requirements and safety requirements, and (4) in compliance with the legislation regulating labor and educational processes. Social protection of employees and social support of students is determined by the social policy of the university concerning these groups, including measures of social protection of employees and students with disabilities or health limitations. Indicators of the quality of social protection and social support are the social guarantees of a university to its employees and students. They also include the measures implemented by the university to provide social assistance to socially vulnerable employees and students, ensure the good physical and mental health of employees and students, and involve them in socially beneficial activities. Additionally, an indicator of the quality of social protection and social support is the activity of public associations established at the university (e.g., a trade union). The socio-psychological climate in the group is determined by the microenvironment of the university and the state of interpersonal relations of the members of a university group. Indicators of the quality of the sociopsychological climate are (1) the positive mood of the group members, (2) their readiness for collaborative work and extra-work activities, (3) the level of interpersonal relations, (4) the state of tolerance in the group, (4) mutual understanding and trust, and (5) the ideas about the university that have developed in public opinion (the image of the university). Material remuneration (salary) for work is a reflection of the financial-distribution policy of a university. Therefore, indicators of the quality of the mentioned component of the social environment imply the amount of material remuneration for work, its relationship with the labor contribution of the employees, the mechanisms used for bonuses, stimulation, etc.

3.3 Justification of Methods for Diagnosing the Quality of the Social Environment of a University The authors propose to diagnose the quality of the social environment of a university by measuring the level of satisfaction of employees and students of with its quality. The diagnostic method is a survey. More than that, the authors propose to use the

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in-depth interview method to assess the satisfaction with the quality of the social environment of the university partners. Conducting diagnostics of the quality of the social environment of a university by the survey method requires specific sociological tools (questionnaires) containing issues-indicators of the state of the components of the social environment. For example, issues-indicators of the quality of the social infrastructure of the university for the indicator “Quality of medical care” can serve as issues concerning the qualifications of medical workers. Besides, they include (1) technical equipment of the medical institution, (2) the number of services provided, (3) the number of professionals who carry out the reception, (4) politeness of employees, (5) convenience of the work schedule of the medical institution for patients, (6) reception waiting time, (7) cleanliness and sanitary condition of the medical institution and its individual premises, and (8) transport accessibility of the medical institution. The indicator”Quality of living conditions in dormitories” may include issues related to the condition of rooms and public areas, the equipment of the hostel with necessary furniture and facilities. They also include (1) the condition of furniture and facilities, (2) the ability to use shower rooms and WCs, (3) the ability to cook food, (4) cleanliness in public areas, (5) transport accessibility of dormitories, (6) politeness of the hostel staff, (7) temperature in the rooms in the winter season, (8) cleanliness of the surrounding area, (9) the condition of elevators, (10) the availability of a room for practicing sports, and (11) the conditions for washing and drying clothes. Similarly, each indicator of the quality of the social environment of the university is diagnosed using its own issue-indicator. Qualimetric methods assess satisfaction with the quality of the social environment of the university. A satisfaction scale accompanies each issue-indicator of the quality of the social environment of the university. In order to obtain an undistorted assessment for all issues, the same type of scales is used, containing the same number of response options (e.g., the five point Likert scale). The assessment of satisfaction with the quality of a particular component of the social environment (Si) is the difference between the sum of ratings (Grade) given by all respondents in the issue-indicators related to the quality indicators of this component and the total number of such ratings (omissions of questions from the analysis are excluded and do not affect the overall rating). Σ Si =

Gri , ni

(1)

where: Gri = indicator assessment of a respondent’s satisfaction with the quality of the social environment component of the university; ni = total number of ratings related to the quality indicators of the social environment component. The integral assessment of satisfaction with the quality of the social environment of university employees and students (Sq) is the difference between the sum of grades (Grade) given by all respondents for all asked questions and the total number of given

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grades (omissions of questions are excluded from the analysis and do not affect the overall rating). Σ Sq =

Grsi +

Σ

Grwc +

Σ

Grsp + NGr

Σ

Grsp +

Σ

Grmr

,

(2)

where: Grsi = respondent’s indicator assessment of the social infrastructure of the university quality indicators; Grwc = respondent’s indicator assessment of the quality of working conditions; Grsp = indicator assessment of the respondent’s indicators of the quality of social protection of employees and social support of students; Grsp = indicator assessment of the respondent’s indicators of the quality of the socio-psychological climate in the group; Grmr = indicator assessment of the respondent’s indicators of material remuneration for work; NGr = total number of responses. Utilizing this method of calculating the satisfaction of employees and students with the quality of the social environment of the university allows one to obtain a quantitative assessment. Therefore, the monitoring study aims to track the change in satisfaction over time and identify the complex components of the social environment of the university. The assessment of the state of the social environment of the university, the determination of the factors of development is carried out in the technique of in-depth interviews with experts representing the partner organizations of the university. The selection of experts for in-depth interviews is carried out among the employees of organizations with extensive experience of interaction with the university staff. There are no restrictions on gender, age, or other socio-demographic characteristics. Experts should have a wide range of competencies in the studied field and have experience of immersion in the social environment of the university under study. Interviews with each expert are conducted separately. Finally, the obtained results are generalized and subjected to sociological analysis. The correlation of quantitative and qualitative results will allow one to accurately diagnose the quality of the social environment of the university. Quantitative results make it possible to assess the social environment from the perspective of internal actors (employees and students). On the other hand, the results obtained by the expert method of research will allow one to observe the social environment of the university from the outside.

4 Discussion One needs to clarify the categorical apparatus, including such concepts as “environment,” “social environment,” and “quality of the social environment” in order to

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develop a diagnosis of the quality of the social environment of the university. The evolution of the concept of the environment has predetermined the current understanding of the environment in general and the social environment in particular. The initial social theories emphasized that, “The environment includes the whole set of factors that determine the nature of the individuals acting in it and society as a whole.” The nineteenth century fixed the determinative role of the environment [6]. The mentioned aspect gave rise to the formation of two primary approaches to the current understanding of the environment. The first approach bases on the understanding of the environment as a macro-environment in which socially determined factors and mechanisms operate [18]. The second approach defines the environment as a sphere that directly affects the individual in which they work and communicate. This view can be interpreted as more narrow. The sociological position concerning the concept of “environment” is based on the theoretical and methodological prerequisites of the system approach and considers it as a system of material and spiritual conditions in which individuality is formed and realized [12]. Thus, the environment as an integral socio-cultural system that promotes the spread of new values, stimulates group interests, and activates interaction is considered in the works of Yu. G. Volkov and V. S. Polikarpov [23]. Some sociologists consider the environment as a way of transforming external relations into an internal environment [2, 15] while others – as a factor of action [25]. There is also a belief that the environment is the basis for forming attitudes to fundamental values, the assimilation of social experience, and the acquisition of new qualities necessary for a human to live [4]. Sociologists also pay attention to the issues of employee interaction with the environment [21, 24]. The management approach has become increasingly considered in the current environmental studies. As N. S. Semikova rightly states, “A distinctive feature of this approach is a clear orientation of theoretical-applied research which aims to identify the directions of environmental influences on the activities of the organization and an individual employee, determine the technological moments in the use of environmental factors as resources to achieve the strategic goals of an organization” [17]. The scholars highlight the factors influencing the social environment of an organization [9, 11, 19]. These factors are used by managers of organizations, including educational ones, for the so-called “scanning” of the external environment in strategic planning or as one of the aspects of the overall assessment of the organization. The current research also bases itself on works dedicated to the operationalization of the concepts of “social environment” and “social environment of the university” [14]. It also bases on diagnostic approaches to assessing the quality of the social environment, including monitoring [1, 3, 8, 10, 19, 20].

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5 Conclusion The practical significance of the research results lies mainly in the possibility of applying methods of monitoring the social environment for similar studies in modern universities. Therefore, the authors have theoretically and empirically conceptualized the concept of the social environment of the university, developed a system for diagnosing the social environment of the university, including sociological tools in the format of monitoring the social environment of the university. These factors are based on the developed indicators and criteria for assessing the satisfaction of employees, students, and partners with the quality of the social environment and the method of expert assessments in the technique of in-depth interviews. Acknowledgements The authors express their gratitude to Natalia Pochinok, the Rector of the Russian State Social University, for the increased attention to the development and improvement of the social environment, the indicators of which are included in the Development Strategy of the University Until 2025, and the financial support of the authors’ research.

References 1. Bazhenova NN, Lutsenko EL (2015) Environmental monitoring of the university as one of the components of the internal quality assessment system. High Educ Russ 3:106–113 2. Bocharova VG (2002) Social pedagogy and social policy: match lines. Soc Work J 1:13–17 3. Borzov EV, Koryagina II, Votyakova OI et al (2016) Education quality management based on monitoring studies. Educ Sci J 6(135):42–58 4. Bueva LP (1989) A person in the mirror of culture and education. B. I, Moscow 5. Educational organizations – Management systems for educational organizations – Requirements with guidance for use (2020) ISO 21001:2018 22 September 2020, International Organization for Standardization, Geneva 6. Filatova MA (2012) Designing the socio-cultural environment of the university in the context of a competency-based approach to education. Dissertation, Russian State Social University 7. Interfax (2020) National ranking of universities. Available via DIALOG. https://academia.int erfax.ru/ru/ratings/?page=1&rating=1&year=2020 8. Khilchenko LN, Bazhenov RI, Kirillova DA (2015) Monitoring of the higher professional education’s quality: issues and prospects Russian. J Educ Psychol 9(53):757–773 9. Kolodey K (2007) Mobbing. Psychoterror in the workplace and methods of overcoming it. Publishing House of the Humanitarian Center, Kharkiv 10. Kryukova E, Starostenkov N, Krapotkina S et al (2016) Socio-economic problems of today’s high school students in the context of reforming the educational system of the Russian Federation. J Adv Res Law Econ 7(2):285–291 11. Makeeva KD (2017) Analysis of factors of the internal and external environment of an enterprise. Econ Dev Res J 7:80–86 12. Markova YuG (2011) The educational environment as the basis for the formation of human capital in modern Russian society. In: The 14th International conference of young scientists human in the world. The world in human: Relevant issues of philosophy, sociology, political science, and psychology. Perm State National Research University, Perm

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13. Ministry of Education and Science of Russian Federation (2018) Order of the ministry of education and science of the russian federation on approval of performance indicators of federal budgetary and autonomous educational institutions of higher education and the work of their managers under the jurisdiction of the ministry of education and science of the russian federation, No 41 23 January 2018, Moscow 14. Moskalets LE (2015) The concept and functions of the social environment of the university. Innov Nauk 12:238–242 15. Mudrik AV (2006) Socialization of a person. Akademiya, Moscow 16. Quality management – Quality of an organization – Guidance to achieve sustained success (2020) ISO 9004:2018 22 September 2020 International Organization for Standardization, Geneva 17. Semikova NS (2007) Methods of studying the social environment of the organization. Top Personal 6. Available via DIALOG. https://www.top-personal.ru/issue.html?1067 18. Semyonovskikh TV (2015) Psychological-pedagogical work of a teacher with parents. TSU, Tyumen 19. Tanatova DK (2009) Assessment of the quality of education: international experience. Sotsialnaya Politika i Sotsiologiya 4(46):156–167 20. Tanatova DK, Korolev IV et al (2019) Contemporary trends in the system of higher education in Russia and in the other countries of the world: comparative analysis. In: Vinogradova MV, Tankovic AC, Goran P (eds) Economic and social development. Russian State Social University, Moscow, Book of proceedings, pp 1010–1020 21. Tikhonina SA (2005) Professional environment of the state civil service: Theoretical, methodological, and methodical aspects of sociological analysis. Publishing House of the Volga-Vyatka Academy of Public Administration, Nizhny Novgorod 22. Veys TP (2016) The social environment of universities: Problems and prospects. Bulletin of the Mid-Russian University Educational Consortium. Series: Economics and Management 8:85−87 23. Volkov YuG, Polikarpov VS (1993) Human as a cosmoplanetary phenomenon. Rostov University Press, Rostov-on-Don 24. Yudina T (2006) Quality management system: Innovative technologies. Higher Education in Russia 8:49–51 25. Yusov BP (2004) The relationship of cultural factors in the formation of modern artistic thinking of the teacher of the educational field Art. Sputnik, Moscow

Studying Permitting Systems in Russia: Theory Questions Sergey B. Anikin , Yuri N. Milshin , and Petr P. Sergun

Abstract The paper dwells on the aspects of the permitting system in modern society based on the law theory development and law enforcement of the Russian Federation. It is emphasized that, until this moment, there is an open discussion about the place and the role of the permitting system within government measures, primarily oriented to the state public interests. Various author’s opinions from the theoretical research are cited to confirm this agreement. The research aims to consider theoretical issues concerning the permitting system and offer suggestions to improve legal, organizational, and permitting principles in the Russian Federation. The research novelty focuses on highlighting the permitting system issues in the theory of legal science. We also reflected the situational moments under unexpected circumstances that affect the division of government and federal authorities. Analytical, logical, structure-functional, and comparative-legal scientific methods were used to present the material. As a result, we revealed several gaps in law theory and law enforcement, which are due to the unjustified restriction of the rights of individuals and legal entities. The key research conclusion is intended to accept the development concept of the permitting system and improve federal and local normative principles. Consequently, the balance of interest between the government and the society within the permitting system will be optimal. Furthermore, this balance will comply with the requirements of modern development. Keywords Permitting system · Modern society · Permitting system concept · Permitting law system · Public administration · Administrative discretion · Permitting mode · Permission · License-permitting system

S. B. Anikin (B) · Y. N. Milshin · P. P. Sergun Saratov State Law Academy, Saratov, Russia e-mail: [email protected] Y. N. Milshin e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova (ed.), Complex Social Systems in Dynamic Environments, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 365, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23856-7_12

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1 Introduction It is a view that the permitting system in the Russian Federation is a complex legal institution focused on public interest protection. The permitting order control implies prohibition and grants legal rights to individuals and legal entities in accommodation to a particular behavior regime. The permitting system is based on an imperative method. Only executive authorities can establish the types of activities under the permitting mode. Thuswise, the order and conditions of the permitted activity are under government control. Nowadays, the improvement and development of the law regulating the permitting activity of the state became more relevant; precisely when restrictions have been imposed by federal and local authorities of the Russian Federation due to various circumstances, for example, the COVID-19 pandemic. As of September 5. 2020, the number of infected people in the world was 26.797,056 people, and 885.039 people died [3]. In 2020, due to the pandemic, the list of automatically renewable permits and licenses has been expanded in Russia. Retail energy sales activities are allowed without licenses until July 2021. The permitting system is an important regulator of public relations. This system ensures the security of individuals, society, and government in various areas. In addition, it thoroughly selects the potential economic activity subjects, preventing unfair economic entities from entering the economic sphere. Many entities acquire a special status within the permitting activities. This status enables them to perform various activities, observing the requirements and conditions established by the authorities. Thus, permission is a vital state instrument aimed at implementing the potential rights of individuals and legal entities. Moreover, permission, as a function of the government, balances the private and the public interest. In this regard, the government should determine a vector of legislation development that will balance the interests of all subjects of the permitting system. In recent years, the scientists from various law branches are very anxious about studying the issues of the permitting activity of the state. According to K. S Belsky, the permitting system should be considered as a legal institution in the administrative law and as a system of methods in state activity [2]. L. K. Tereshchenko and N. A. Ignatius believed that the permitting system is formed by authorized bodies, who received permission, and applicants [9]. Permissive legal relationships are complex. They are governed by various law regulations (for example, administrative law, civil and business law).

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2 Materials and Methods Primarily, we used theoretical works reflecting the ideas that allowed us to characterize the formation and development of the permitting system in Russia. Besides, we attached all the necessary references to the papers. The main research questions included the following: 1. Considering the general theoretical material about the permitting system; 2. Identifying the main theoretical and practical issues of the permitting system; 3. Reviewing the permitting system conditions within the modern development of the state and society; 4. Suggesting possible options for eliminating permitting system problems by improving the legislation. Using the research methods, we characterized the permitting system as a complex legal institution. The main issues of the permitting system were identified with the analytical method. In particular, we focused on the correlation of these methods, their aspects and difficulties connected with the functioning of this institution. Due to its versatility, the analytical and logic methods allowed us to examine the general questions of permitting system theory and identify its problems. The idea of the permitting system concept was formed using structural–functional and comparative-legal methods. Additionally, these methods helped us to outline directions for improving the regulatory framework, including conceptual definitions and their consolidation. In addition, we studied the opinions of various scholars to identify the aspects of the permitting system and emphasize the significance of the permitting system for current social and public partnerships.

3 Results One can distinguish the permitting system as a complex legal institution through scientific methods and the main research questions. Besides, one can get the answers to some relevant questions of the permitting system through the theoretical developments of scientists. These issues require further conceptual research, legislation improvement, and the formation of an efficient foundation for law-enforcement practice. Also, it is necessary to outline the aspects regarding the public authorities that should be examined. The condition of the permitting system affects various issues, such as the security of state, society, and individuals, as well as the formation of factors improving the mechanisms of their interrelation in the upcoming digital era. Primarily, these aspects correlate with the subject’s rights, guarantees, and their limitation within the permitting system.

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4 Discussion The research issues of the permitting system were reflected in various theoretical sources. Thus, according to D. N Bakhrakh, the permitting system contains the following elements: (1) relative prohibition on the implementation of a particular activity type; (2) provision of permits by the executive to individuals and legal entities that are not subordinate to them; (3) control over the compliance of licensees and other entities with permission with rules and conditions of the relevant activities; and (4) the use of coercive measures to stop violation of rules and conditions of permitted activities and bring the perpetrators to legal responsibility [1]. Thus, the internal activity can rather be a part of the permitting system. This argument is questionable since many types of permissions are issued by higher administrative authorities that further control and monitor the organizations with issued permissions. According to D. V. Osintsev, the permitting system is “a special type of administrative activity aimed at confirming the qualifications and professional qualities of individual entities by the government, which provides them with special legal statuses (specific legal capacity or certain rights). Such a status permits an activity (performing actions), which requires a high professional level and qualifications of the implementing entity. Furthermore, this activity can be regarded as an exception compared to the general requirements of the administrative and legal regime.” [7]. Such concepts as “permitting system” and “license-permitting system” should be differentiated. The permitting system includes many forms of activity with an enhanced level of legal regulation [8]. The main idea of the first concept is permission. The second concept emphasizes license. Moreover, permission is a generic term in relation to the license; it determines the generic nature of the latter one [5]. The permitting activity of executive authorities is essential for the state policy, which ensures the security of various activities. In turn, this feature contributes to the balanced development of economic and social activities. The executive authorities determine the procedure and conditions for certain activities, their control and monitoring, as well as introduce enforcement measures to the relevant entities. People who received permission acquire an additional status. Due to special rights and duties, they are responsible for the inappropriate activities within the permitting mode. Nowadays, the absence of definite criteria for the permitting activity of public authorities is the “Achilles’ heel.” Due to this fact, it is impossible to systematize legislation in the research field. When making managerial decisions, one can face unlimited administrative discretion. The practice shows that blurred boundaries of administrative discretion give rise to corruption in the activities of the permitting authorities. In this regard, the legislative consolidation of the mechanisms of permitting regimes can reduce the limits of administrative discretion and terminate the authorities’ and officials’ discretion when issuing permissions [4]. Thus, during the COVID-19 pandemic, the constituent entities of the Russian Federation possess broad powers to impose restrictions and prohibitions on the

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citizen’s location in particular public places (parks, squares, and sports grounds). Such restrictions frequently do not so much protect citizens as negatively contribute to their crowding in places that are allowed to visit. For example, during quarantine, the citizens of Saratov were forbidden to walk along the lower and middle parts of the embankment, which contributed to crowding on the upper tier. Any restrictions imposed by executive authorities must have an explicit legal basis and benefit the public interest. The core of the state permitting activity is permission under various administrative acts: a license, special permission, certificate, visa, access, and other documents concerning the activities of the permitting mode. Legal permissive relations are primarily individual’s and entities’ initiatives, who apply to the permitting authorities in the prescribed form with a particular set of documents, providing preliminary control over the participants of the permitting activity. Permitting authorities qualify and confirm the quality of the applicants’ professional skills to carry out certain types of activities. Moreover, in a case of violations, the authorities have the right to suspend, revoke, or cancel the permission [6]. Thus, currently permission is more associated with admission instead of prohibitions since they allow acquiring a special status and eventually implementing constitutional rights and freedoms in various life spheres of the society. Indeed, the permissive method identified in regulatory legal acts includes an indefinite number of persons. Thus, the activity of such persons is multiple and has no time limits. The permitting mode covers a considerable number of entities, affecting the rights and interests of both persons involved in permitting activities and consumers using the relevant services. Therefore, all legal mechanisms of permissive regimes must be open and accessible to potential participants in permissive activities ad maximum. It is acknowledged that the development of a permitting system began with the “police permits,” related to the entry and exit system regulation, citizens’ and foreigners’ movement on the state territory, and weapon circulation. Indeed, historically the permitting activity of Russia and Western European countries began with police permits, and later on, permits for various types of commercial activities [2]. Generally, the evident core of the permitting system was a set of rules, establishing the weapon circulation, ammunition, explosives, and hunting rules in the Soviet period. In addition, the notorious citizen registration was a part of the permitting activity. In European countries, legal regulation of public relations is based on general legal freedom principles of an individual or the so-called natural rights. State authorities, and officials are empowered to undertake only activities and measures prescribed by the law. Thus, the goal of the European Union [EU] is not to achieve any social results but protect the society from possible socially dangerous consequences. The subject of regulation of public relations in the European countries is primarily related to healthcare and natural resources. For example, in Germany, the registration of individual entrepreneurs and legal entities is administered by the district courts. The entrepreneur is responsible for the reliability of the documents submitted for registration. The permitting system of England is associated with prohibition and confirmation of highly qualified persons of certain occupations. Weak state and EU

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control entails insufficient regulation of the permitting method in the legislation of the EU countries. Consequently, the legislation in Great Britain neither contains the concept of the “permitting system” nor the classification of its types. However, the EU legislation admits administrative power, establishing legislative health and public safety regulations, that is, the authority of the constitutional law subject. In the EU countries, the permitting system is regarded as a form of agreement in legal sources. Such a system implies the autonomy of the states that are members of this agreement. In Russia, the permitting system is governed by laws passed by the State Duma of the Federal Assembly. However, the common grounds of the two systems are humanism and natural human rights enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights supported by the Russian Federation.

5 Conclusion As a result, we analyzed the theoretical materials, as well as legislative and law enforcement practice conditions, the international experience of the permitting system development, and its practice in the Russian Federation. Therefore, we can conclude that it is necessary to establish the permitting system concept development for further formation of the conceptual questions defining the foundations of a systematic approach of the current model of the permitting system as one of the most important tools of public administration, systematization, and definition of the legal regulation principles and implementation of control. Furthermore, to increase the efficiency of permitting activities in Russia, one should consolidate the following items: (1) the permitting system concept; (2) the principles and content of the permitting activities; (3) the implementation conditions of the permitting activities; (4) the determination of the permitting document status with the administrative act characteristics, confirming the right of an individual or legal entity to perform activities and use the objects of the permitting system legislatively. To sum up, through the updated regulatory framework formation, one can systematize and unify the permissive terminology and answer the questions about the usage of such concepts as permitting system, permitting activities, and permitting mode. The legislation should emphasize the development vector of the permitting system to prevent the unacceptable risks or harm to the life and health of citizens and the environment, restrict competition, eliminate the unequal access to limited resources, and stop the violations of individuals rights and state security.

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References 1. Bakhrakh D (2000) Administrative law of Russia. Yurist, Moscow 2. Belsky KS (2004) Police law. Business and Service, Moscow 3. Coronavirus (COVID-19) (2020) Detailed coronavirus statistics in Russia and in the world. https://coronavirus-monitor.ru/statistika/ 4. Milshin YN (2014) Administrative discretion in the implementation of the permissive method of legal regulation. Adm Law Process 3:57–58 5. Milshin YuN, Yurieva YuS (2007) Permission and license in Russian legislation: Theoreticallegal aspect. Bull Eurasian Acad Adm Sci 1:108–114 6. Nozdrachev AF (ed) (2015) Permitting system in the Russian Federation: Scientific and practical guide. INFRA-M, Moscow 7. Osintsev D (1999) Licensing system in the Russian Federation. Academia, Ekaterinburg 8. Savostin AA (2005) Licensing and accreditation: Antagonism or collaboration. Modern Law 11:6 9. Tereshchenko LK, Ignatyuk NA (2007) To the entrepreneur about licensing procedures. Justicinform, Moscow

Media and Experts Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Demographic Policy: Research Design and Testing Natalia P. Goncharova , Alexey A. Eremin , and Elena V. Tarasova

Abstract The paper considers the issues of Russian demographic development and the effectiveness of its targeted regulation. The analysis of expert approaches to measuring the level of effectiveness of demographic policy is presented. Based on the study of expert opinions and media materials, an attempt was made to assess the intermediate results of implementing this direction of state management. The content analysis of the media showed the degree of reflection in the information space of the current demographic situation in Russia, the assessment of the effectiveness of state and regional demographic policy, the frequency of discussion of the measures taken to manage demographic processes. The expert survey results allowed structuring the approaches to assessing the effectiveness of the demographic policy, identify the factors that determine it, and define the directions for improving the legal and institutional support for implementing demographic policy. Experts’ assessments of the current policy vary from its correct orientation and significant effectiveness to insufficient resource provision, lack of clear goal-setting, and long-term positive effects. Specialists expressed their opinion on possible ways to increase the effectiveness of demographic policy in the Russian Federation, including (1) the correct setting of goals and improving the mechanisms for their implementation, (2) leveling off barriers in the implementation of demographic policy, (3) wider use of research data on the determination of demographic behavior, (4) refusal to conduct fictitious reporting, etc. Keywords Demographic policy · Expert evaluation · Effectiveness N. P. Goncharova · A. A. Eremin (B) Altai Branch of the Russian Academy of National Economy and Public Administration, Barnaul, Russia e-mail: [email protected] N. P. Goncharova e-mail: [email protected] A. A. Eremin · E. V. Tarasova Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova (ed.), Complex Social Systems in Dynamic Environments, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 365, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23856-7_13

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1 Introduction In the last 10–15 years, the problem of the efficiency and the effectiveness of demographic policy in Russia has occupied not only the minds of scientists who professionally study demographic development [1, 2, 4–6, 9, 10] but also public figures and politicians making obvious attempts to respond to emerging demographic challenges. It is evidenced by the fact that the issues of demographic development have been reflected in the annual Presidential Addresses Federation to the Federal Assembly, reports of the Government of the Russian Federation to the State Duma, for several years in a row. Until recently, scientific publications and media materials were focused mainly on the assessment of individual measures of demographic policy (in relation to fertility, mortality, morbidity, migration, etc.), the conditions for its formation, the features of regional demographic policy programs, the need to monitor demographic processes. With the adoption and implementation of the concept of the demographic policy of the Russian Federation for the period up to 2025, designed to build a conceptual framework and systematize the ongoing measures to influence population reproduction, the expert community has become increasingly interested in assessing the degree of controllability of demographic processes, the effectiveness of the impact of certain public policy measures on the demographic situation. The Executive Order on National goals and strategic objectives of the Russian Federation through to 2024, issued in May 2018 [7], and its updated version of July 2020–the Executive order on Russia’s national development goals through 2030 [8] actualized this interest.

2 Materials and Methods The paper aims to study expert approaches to measuring the level of effectiveness of the demographic policy. We tried to assess the intermediate results of implementing this direction of state regulation based on the analysis of experts and media materials’ opinions, determine the criteria for the effectiveness of the demographic policy, and identify the factors that determine it. The sources of empirical information were the results of content analysis of materials from all-Russian and regional media and Internet resources and data from an expert survey on topical problems of implementing demographic policy, conducted by the authors in 2018–2019. We studied media materials based on the Internet portal “Demoscope Weekly” [3]. It accumulates and regularly publishes many news and information messages on demographic topics in the mass media. Our expert survey involved 50 practitioners and researchers associated with demography from 11 regions of Russia and four foreign countries. Among the experts, there were Russian and foreign scientists, government officials at various levels involved in implementing demographic policy, and public figures.

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3 Results The content analysis of the media made it possible to reveal the features of the reflection of the current Russian demographic situation and the assessments of the effectiveness of state and regional demographic policy in the present information space. All major federal and leading regional media pay attention to the coverage of demographic topics, both in terms of characterizing the current and future state of reproduction of the country and regions and discussing ongoing measures to manage demographic development. Such materials are of three types: news reports, expert opinions, and analytical journalistic works. Analysis of media materials showed that in 2018–2019, in the context of demographic issues, the new “May decrees” of the President and the development of new national projects, the main topics of discussion were (1) the updated Concept of State Migration Policy in the Russian Federation, (2) demographic aspects of raising the retirement age, (3) the fight against mortality from the main causes (cardiovascular diseases, cancer, external causes of death), (4) maternity capital and other measures to help families with children, (5) and a re-emerging and growing trend of the natural decline in the population of the country and most of its regions. When analyzing publications, we found out that the assessment of the results of demographic policy is significantly differentiated depending on the subject of this assessment. In most cases, it is carried out without the use of statistical calculations and methodological schemes. Thus, the publications prepared by the authorities contain a predominantly positive assessment of individual measures in this area and demographic policy as a whole. On the other hand, many experts in the field of science or representing the interests of certain groups of citizens and types of families tend to assess the effectiveness of public policy negatively. We should note that various groups within the scientific and expert community characterize the effectiveness of demographic policy with significant differences, which are manifested in publications in the media. Some research teams, expert groups, and individual scientists give a moderately positive assessment of the policy being pursued, noting its generally correct orientation, significant effectiveness, but, for example, insufficient resource provision. In contrast, others express a skeptical position regarding the goal-setting, and the basic principles of the implemented politicians deny it any large-scale and long-term positive effects. However, almost all experts agree that the greatest analytical difficulty is separating the results of the demographic policy itself from the impact of other factors (sex and age structure, activities of other policy areas, actions of non-state actors, etc.). The primary statistical processing of the author’s expert survey data showed that the effectiveness of the demographic policy of the Russian Federation, implemented since the mid-2000s, in most cases is assessed as medium (58.6%) or low (24.1%). This opinion of experts can most likely be explained by the fact that many of them share the idea that demographic processes are predominantly unmanageable rather than manageable (62.1%).

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At the same time, single opinions were expressed that “there are many areas in demographic policy, the assessment of the effectiveness of each of the areas may differ.” Another expert, assessing the effectiveness of the demographic policy of the Russian Federation, implemented since the mid-2000s, noted that the effectiveness “in fertility is average, in mortality–average, in migration–average. But there are noticeable successes everywhere.” This opinion is also confirmed by the dynamics of the state demographic policy’s effectiveness compared to the period of the 1990s–early 2000s. The majority of the interviewed experts (65.5%) believe that the demographic policy in the Russian Federation has become more effective. In addition, some experts note that social policy, on the whole, has become better funded. When determining the factors affecting the effectiveness of the demographic policy, the majority of the respondents prioritize the economic situation in the country or region and the government’s social policy. Almost all survey participants share this opinion. On average, half of the respondents spoke in favor of the importance of such factors as the population’s standard of living, the quality of planning of demographic policy measures, housing, medical care availability, and individuals’ values and value orientations. However, only a third of experts believe that the social well-being of the population influences the effectiveness of the demographic policy. Positive changes in demographic processes and structures, changes in the demographic behavior of the population (vital, marital, reproductive, migration), and the satisfaction of recipients of state support measures were named as criteria for the effectiveness of the demographic policy. Almost all survey participants share this opinion. About half of the respondents consider the achievement of planned results in accordance with programs, action plans, roadmaps, and a positive assessment of the measures taken by the society as significant criteria. We also asked the experts the following question: “Which of the mechanisms for regulating the demographic situation in the country do you consider the most effective?” Half of the respondents are inclined towards the priority of financial mechanisms. Less than half consider the ideological mechanisms of the regulation (social advertising, propaganda) effective. A small number of survey participants recognized the importance of organizational and legislative measures. In addition, some experts noted that an effective policy includes all these mechanisms.

4 Discussion The issue of barriers in the implementation of the current demographic policy was of particular importance for the study. Two-thirds of experts believe that the most significant obstacles are the inconsistency of certain areas of state socio-economic policy with the tasks of demographic development and insufficient resource provision. Half of the experts also pointed to the following barriers:

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. Wrong choice of priorities among the directions of the demographic policy implementation; . Underestimation of the relationship between demographic processes and population structure; . Lack of clarity in the formulation of expected results and criteria for their assessment in program documents; . Multidirectional contradictory actions of the subjects of demographic policy; . Imperfection of models for monitoring and evaluating the implementation of certain areas of demographic policy; . Underdeveloped practice of adjusting planned activities in case of deviation of intermediate results from the set values. One of the experts said that one cannot set coefficients as efficiency indicators, especially at the regional level. Demographic processes are very inertial, and it takes much money to reject them just a little. The main part of their fluctuations occurs without the influence of politics or any other authorities’ actions. Societies, norms, and the economy are changing. Therefore, it makes no sense to set KPIs in terms of concrete coefficients. One should to strive to increase the long-term level of the cohort fertility and the growth of life expectancy. However, one should not make the financing of regions or officials depending on this. This fact inevitably gives rise to falsifications and unpredictable actions of the demographic policy when opportunistic indicators can be pulled out. Nevertheless, in the long term, it would eventually fall. Therefore, the very logic of thinking in the way of formal “efficiency” should be abandoned. Authorities must pursue a policy that ought to be done in principle and never count on any specific result. The survey participants also expressed their opinion on possible measures to improve the effectiveness of demographic policy in the Russian Federation. They mentioned (1) the correct setting of goals and the improvement of the mechanisms for their implementation, (2) the leveling off the mentioned barriers in the performance of the demographic policy, (3) the wider use of research data on the determination of demographic behavior, (4) the refusal to conduct fictitious reporting, and (5) the personal responsibility of officials for the results of demographic policy in the regions of Russia. The experts also suggested strengthening measures to support certain socio-demographic categories of citizens: improving support for families with children, expanding benefits for families with many children, solving the problems of providing housing for the population of reproductive age, and more actively attracting compatriots living outside the country to move to Russia. Experts also proposed to recognize parenting as work along with professional activity, to make records of the results of parental activity in the pension system of the Russian Federation. In addition, they noted the great importance of improving the quality of life of the population (a significant increase in the minimum wage), an increase in funding for the health care system, an increase in the quality and availability of medical services. The experts paid considerable attention to the need to change social values and attitudes to develop the priorities of family values of medium and large-sized

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families. For this, according to the respondents, it is necessary to change priorities in the media and use modern methods of influencing public opinion. According to experts, currently, in conditions of limited available resources, priority should be given to such areas of demographic policy as reducing mortality and improving health, increasing fertility, regulating the distribution of the population, and internal migration. One expert stated that family policy will give more financial return, because more than 95% of population reproduction now depends on the fertility.

5 Conclusion Currently, one cannot speak either of the existence in Russia of a multi-scale model for the implementation and monitoring of demographic policy by subjects of government at all levels, nor of a formed unified system for assessing the effectiveness of this policy area. The authors’ expert survey results helped to structure approaches to assessing the effectiveness of the demographic policy to identify directions for improving the legislative and institutional support for its implementation. Acknowledgements The reported study was funded by RFBR according to the research project No. 17-03-00350 entitled “Evaluation methodology of the demographic policy performance.”

References 1. Arkhangelsky VN (2015) Assistance to families with children in Russia: an assessment of demographic effectiveness. Sotsiologicheskie Issled 371(3):56–64 2. Arkhangelsky VN, Ivanova AE et al (2016) Effectiveness of the demographic policy of Russia. Econ-Inform, Moscow 3. Demoscope Weekly (2020) Archive of demoscope weekly headings. http://www.demoscope. ru/weekly/archives.php 4. Elizarov VV, Dzhanayeva NG (2020) Maternity (family) capital as a support program for families with children: implementation results and development prospects (part one). Living Stand Popul RegNs Russ 16(3):38–48 5. Melnikova TA (2015) Performance indicators of the Russian Federation demographic policy measures. Public Adm 93(1):84–87 6. Popova LA (2014) Evaluation of the efficiency of the public demographic initiatives. Econ Soc Chang: Facts, Trends, Forecast 31(1):101–111 7. Presidential Executive Office (2018) Executive order on national goals and strategic objectives of the russian federation through to 2024, 7 May 2018, Moscow

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8. Presidential Executive Office (2020) Executive order on russia’s national development goals through 2030, 21 July 2020, Moscow 9. Rybakovsky OL (2020) Russian population reproduction: challenges, trends, factors and possible results by 2024. Narodonaseleniye 23(1):53–66 10. Tretyakova E, Khasanova R (2018) Demographic policy measures: their efficiency and preferences of individuals. Russ Econ Dev 25(4):81–84

Social Networks and Human Communications in Diverse Environments

Information Relations at a New Stage of Social Development: Critical Features and Essence of Structural Elements Petr P. Sergun , Artem M. Bobrov , and Vitaly D. Sattarov

Abstract This paper studies the main features of the elements of the structure of information relations. We determined the results of the analysis of the philosophical and legal foundations of the topic. Moreover, we studied the dynamics of changes in scientific theories regarding the legal nature of information as a remarkable phenomenon and a specific part of objective reality. Based on this, we described the content, subjects, and object of this type of social relations. The paper presents and justifies the conclusions about the nature of information as an object of regulation, describing it as an abstract element of legal reality reflecting people’s knowledge about the world around them, serving as a means, a tool of communication between subjects. The latter should include any participants in public relations if they have their own interests in the information sphere or act to protect the rights and freedoms of other persons. In combination with responsibilities, rights, freedoms, and interests in the field of information form the main content of information relations. In the absence of a systematic and consistent concept of information in the Russian theory of law, the described features of the structure of information relations can serve as a basis for further scientific research in this area of public life. Keywords Information relations · Nature of information · Structure of information relations

1 Introduction Currently, human life is deeply connected with information. This unique resource can directly impact all spheres of society, equally mediating the activity and the social aspect of an individual’s existence. P. P. Sergun Saratov State Law Academy, Saratov, Russia A. M. Bobrov · V. D. Sattarov (B) Perm Institute of the Federal Penal Service, Perm, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova (ed.), Complex Social Systems in Dynamic Environments, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 365, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23856-7_14

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The needs caused by the necessity for permanent satisfaction of the information hunger changed the existing ideas about human nature. Thus, in the scientific community, the idea spread, declaring the completion of the evolution of Homo sapiens into a more perfect, better adapted to the conditions of current reality, a new biological species, Homo informaticus [11]. A distinctive feature of this type is the fact that Homo informaticus experiences pronounced discomfort in the long absence of information flow. The ability to freely search, generate, share, or use information is as essential to them as satisfying hunger or thirst. While experiencing these negative effects, Homo informaticus also has certain benefits. In particular, representatives of this species can learn and analyze new information faster and with less effort. This fact is especially noticeable in childhood and adolescence. Under these conditions, it seems natural and inevitable that in the 21st century, no member of society will be able to avoid regular participation in information relations (in such social interactions, the object of which is information, regardless of the form of their expression). Given the widespread of this type of social relations and the high value of information as a resource [1], it seems significant that scholars have not yet come to a common position on the essence, specific properties, and features of its structural elements, such as an object, subject, and content. We believe that filling in this gap can facilitate further research on information relations and reduce the number of difficulties arising in the application of information legislation.

2 Materials and Methods This study involves the use of various methods of cognition, including comparative legal, formal legal methods, and a number of general scientific methods. In the research, we used the comparative method to compare scientific theories and concepts that reveal different views on the essence of information as an object of the studied relations. In addition, we compared theoretical constructions of information relations. The formal-legal method allowed the authors to study the doctrinal aspects of the paper’s topic and develop and justify a logical, consistent conceptual framework. This method also allowed describing the main categories and definitions of the work in detail. The key method of this research was a thorough analysis of the philosophical and legal basis of information relations, including the dynamics of the development of the main theories that explain the phenomenon of information. Due to the interdisciplinary nature of this paper, we used the synthesis of scientific knowledge of several branches of law, including the theory of law, administrative and constitutional law.

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3 Results In the general theory of law, in the branch of legal sciences, such as administrative law [15], it is recognized that the structure of public relations consists of a set of three elements, including object, subject, and content. Considering the fact that information relations are a type of such relations, they have similar properties. At the same time, each structural element of the relations under consideration is distinguished by essential features and unique specifics that affect the course and result of legal regulation. The paper aims to thoroughly analyze all parts of this system, including resolving the contradictions that exist in relation to the categorical apparatus of the topic. To begin with, we will present a brief description of the concept of “object,” which has a fundamental meaning not only for law, but also for many other sciences. For instance, in philosophy, this category has been studied since antiquity, that is, for more than two thousand years. Plato is one of the first scholars who theoretically comprehended this concept and pointed out its essential features. According to him, they should include such immutable properties of an object that are inherent in many objects of a similar class. For example, if we describe a chair, then a significant property is its ability to be a support for sitting. At the same time, the number of legs, their color, or shape are insignificant [3]. The presented approach to understanding the object is one of the most common, even in modern science, but it is far from the only one. Modern philosophy, as well as law, is characterized by the absence of a single interpretation of the category “object.” The above circumstance is caused by the fact that it is the most general concept. For instance, the German philosopher E. Tugendhat considered it permissible to compare an object with the Aristotelian concept of being. He interpreted it as a particular term usually used in a figurative sense, not to refer to a specific thing, event, or fact but to indicate something that does not have a specific expression [16]. In this sense, the concept under study can mean an abstract part of objective reality. This meaning is generally similar to the definitions widely presented in encyclopedias and legal literature on the topic. In addition, V. A. Kochev says that in constitutional law, the object of legal relations is phenomena related to the material or spiritual world, in respect of which participants in public relations enter into legal relations [4]. We believe that the part of the objective reality that should be attributed to the object of information relations is the information itself, which is a particular and specific phenomenon. Understanding the nature of information itself is a very complex, multi-faceted issue that does not have a straightforward, simple, clear solution. At the same time, the disclosure of the essential aspects of data as part of reality seems objectively necessary since it is necessary to reflect the main thing without which the phenomenon cannot exist [9]. One of the first works that raised the question of understanding information, revealing its essence, is the teaching of the ancient philosopher Plato about ideal forms.

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The close connection between information and the ideal form can be traced in the attempts of the scientist to find a special term for the general, essential that is inherent in homogeneous objects, which allows them to embody their abstract form. In Plato’s philosophy, such a term became eidos, which allows us to designate the type of directly contemplated datum and to transfer knowledge about the object [7]. Despite Plato’s significant contribution to the creation of the theoretical foundations of information relations, the greatest progress in this field was achieved only by researchers of the early modern period. It was at this moment that the qualitative evolution of the system of transmission and storage of information took place, which was reflected in the scientific works of this period. The key idea of the 20th century is the analysis of information in the context of communication theory, which proceeds from the understanding of information as a quantity that reflects the quantitative measure of the message, the differences in the entropy of the system before and after receiving the signal. We should note that the development of this approach is the merit of the American mathematician C. Shannon, who first proposed to understand information as something that allows one to remove uncertainty [10]. Hence, the expression “grass is green” is not information. This circumstance is caused by the fact that it does not carry anything new for the receiving entity. With the development of technology, information begins to be interpreted differently based on other grounds. N. Wiener drew the attention of scientists to the generality of any information, their nature. Moreover, he enunciated a well-known aphorism in which he contrasted matter and energy with the category under consideration [17]. Considering information alongside with the specified objects, N. Wiener found it necessary to understand it as a set of content received by people from the outside world in the course of adaptation to it. In this context, information is necessary for a person to survive, explaining the need to protect access to it and freedom in its exchange. The above leads to the conclusion that data is an essential means, a communication tool subject to special regulation by the state. Information is a multi-faceted phenomenon that has an essential impact on various aspects of human life and activity. It causes polysemy, ambiguity of this concept, and leads to the impossibility of its exhaustive interpretation within the framework of only one science. Thus, according to A. B. Ektumaev, this is since information “acts as a primary concept” [2]. Difficulties in explaining the phenomenon under consideration cause the emergence and spread of extreme, even radical positions. For example, proponents of the “nihilistic” theory often completely deny the existence of information since they perceive it as a system of symbols for phenomena not recorded by the human senses or special equipment [18]. On the contrary, many other scientists, including K. K. Kolin, tend to identify information with absolutely everything and see the information aspect in any, without exception, material object [5]. For example, based on the above approach, a person can be perceived only as a set of genetic information without other components.

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We believe that the most accurate disclosure of the analyzed object’s essence is necessary to avoid the given extreme positions. This is because they cannot reflect the essential properties of the information. Both informational “nihilism” and an overly broad interpretation of the phenomenon under consideration” lead to erroneous conclusions. Thus, the latter became the cause of paninformism, in other words, the continuous informatization of the Universe in the works of individual scientists. Paninformism is currently subjected to well-deserved, active criticism from many reputable scientists. In particular, A. V. Sokolov called on the scientific community to refrain from interpreting information since the communicative approach is more perfect [13]. According to him, supporters of paninformism tend to deify information. They characterize it in the positions of pantheism, as an omnipresent, primary substance that is at the heart of nature and society [12, 14]. Sharing a critical attitude to the excessive informatization of the Universe, we believe that the object of the analyzed relations is information as a unique phenomenon, a part of objective reality that reflects a person’s knowledge of the surrounding world. This part serves as a means of communication and needs special legal regulation and protection. The subject and content of information relations are presented as simpler elements that can be described in less detail but reflecting the most significant, essential aspects of these categories. Hence, the subject is traditionally understood as a thinking being who carries out the object’s cognition and exerts any influence on it based on their own interests. This interpretation of the subject can be derived from the works of the classics of philosophy, including such famous scholars as R. Descartes (1994), I. Kant (1964), and others. Based on the norms of law (primarily on Article 29 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation), any person, regardless of the presence or absence of citizenship of any country, is considered an active-minded being. Therefore, foreigners and stateless people, people with dual citizenship, and others can take an active part in information relations. Collective subjects, including different governments, their bodies, local selfgovernment bodies, public and commercial organizations, although they are not thinking beings in the literal sense of the word, have certain common aspirations in the field of information. This fact allows us to refer them to the subjects under study. Moreover, the share of participation of these entities in information relations is extremely large. Intensive activity in the field of information relations is typical for many international organizations and associations. Moreover, the protection of information rights and freedoms is the main task and goal of many foundations, unions, etc. Based on the above facts, we can conclude that the subjects of information relations are any participants (collective or individual) if they have independent interests in the area under consideration or act to protect the rights and freedoms of others. The stated position reflects the essential features of the subjects of information relations. In addition, it also successfully agrees with the definition of the subject of

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law, which R. A. Romashov proposed. Thus, according to him, this subject is an individual (collective) participating in a relationship regulated by law norms, realizing their legally significant interests in this respect, fulfilling the relevant obligations, and bearing legal responsibility for the negative consequences of their behavior [8]. The scope of rights and freedoms of different participants in the type of public relations understudy may differ significantly depending on the characteristics of a particular person’s individual information and legal status. In particular, if people have access to state secrets, their rights will be much broader than those of ordinary citizens. The totality of all rights, freedoms, obligations, and interests in relation to the information as a particular object is the content of the considered type of public relations. The right to information is crucial for resolving the issue of determining the specific content of information relations. This law, which the vast majority of developed countries of the world recognizes as fundamental, characterizes the legal capabilities of participants in public relations and forms their legal status. The primary duty of the participants in the relations under consideration should include the need to refrain from disclosing or any other form of violation of state, official, personal secrets, and other types of secrets. Although these elements do not reflect the full content of information relations, they form their basis, which needs legislative improvement.

4 Discussion In the previous section of this paper, we have already described in detail some of the scientific disputes that are being conducted about the understanding of the essence, features of individual elements of the structure of information relations. In particular, attention was drawn to the various approaches to information found in the works of supporters of paninformism, nihilism, communicative, and other approaches. Despite this, we will consider some of the most general, theoretical aspects of the analyzed topic, which have a significant degree of discussion, are important for the progress of science and practice of legal regulation of information as a specific object. Thus, among the many approaches to the structure of information relations, which differ in both individual details and essential points, we should draw special attention to the position of D. A. Lovtsov. He believed that social communities, such as people, nations, and labor collectives, should be included in the subjects of information relations [6]. We believe that this thesis should be questioned. Earlier, we said that the subjects of the studied type of relations could be collective associations. These certainly include social communities. However, unlike public authorities and public commercial organizations, they do not have management bodies that can direct the association of people to implement and achieve any interest in the field of information.

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Under these conditions, social communities do not correspond to the main feature of the subjects of information relations. That is, they do not have common interests that have a real expression in the outside world. The only exception is that the expression of the will of the people to disclose and publish certain information can be public legal entities, public, human rights organizations. However, even in this case, the direct subject of information relations will be the organizations themselves but not the social communities. The latter’s interests can only be expressed indirectly through other types and forms of collective formations. This circumstance makes it meaningless to single out social groups as independent subjects of information interaction. The position of D. A. Lovtsov regarding the object of the studied relations is also interesting, since he considers information activity to be such, not information. By such the author understands the form of expedient change (transformation) of the information content of the surrounding world in favor of the interests of people, society, or government [6]. At the same time, the goals and results of this activity, including spiritual and material goods, information products and services, the results of creativity or intellectual property, are always information in essence, which more accurately reflects the properties of the object under study. In general, the above discussion is based on the relative uncertainty of the legal nature of the phenomenon of information. If the current situation persists, characterized by the absence of a systematic, theoretical and legal concept of information as an object of legislative regulation, this category will remain the cause of significant problems and difficulties in theory and practice. The approach to the structure of information relations, described in this paper, is based on the results of the philosophical and legal analysis of information and considers the dynamics of the development of scientific views concerning the category under study. Thus, it contributes to the development of this theoretical basis. In general, we believe that we can apply the results of this analysis in the course of further scientific research in the field of information relations and their legal regulation.

5 Conclusion Based on the totality of the material presented, it should be concluded that the structural elements of information relations make up the content, object, subject. This structure is classical, similar to any other type of public relations. At the same time, each of these elements has unique features that can significantly impact the legal regulation in the field of information.

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When developing and improving legislation, it is necessary to consider that the object of information relations is information itself as an essential means, communication tool, an abstract part of objective reality, the totality of humanity’s knowledge about the world around it. The subjects of information relations should include individual and collective participants who have independent interests in the field of information or act in defense of other people. The combination of all the rights, freedoms, obligations, and legitimate interests of the subjects of information relations makes up their content. Hence, this content significantly depends on the specifics of the individual legal status of the participants.

References 1. Asmus F, Gulyga AV et al (1964) Kant, I. Essays in six volumes, vol 3. Myisl, Moscow 2. Ektumaev AB (2012) Freedom of speech in the Russian federation (constitutional and legal research. Dissertation, Tyumen State University 3. Fedotov AM (2014) Dictionary-reference book on computer science (computer science ontology). http://www.nsc.ru/win/elbib/data/show_page.dhtml ?77+1432+35 4. Kochev VA (ed) (2017) Constitutional law: A textbook in 3 volumes, vol 2. Perm State National Research University, Perm 5. Kolin KK (2013) Mastering information: A strategic problem of the development of civilization in the 21st century. Mezhotraslevaya Infromatsionnaya Sluz 2:5–15 6. Lovtsov DA (2011) Information law: Textbook. Russian Academy of Justice, Moscow 7. Mochalova IN (2008) Idea. Ancient philosophy: encyclopedic dictionary. Progress-Traditsiya, Moscow 8. Romashov RA (2007) Subject of law: Definition and social-legal nature of the concept. Yuridicheskaya Mysl 3(41):72–77 9. Sergun PP, Bobrov AM (2018) The public-governmental nature of administrative-legal relations. Pravovaya Kultura 3(34):52–59 10. Shannon C (1963) The mathematical theory of communication. In: Dobrushin RL, Lupanov OB (eds) Proceedings on information theory and cybernetics. Foreign Languages Publishing House, Moscow, pp 243–332 11. Slyadneva NA (2011) Homoinformaticus, or human evolution in the information society. Mosc State Inst Cult 3:164–171 12. Sokolov AV (2010) Informationology as a surreal gigatheory. Sci Tech Libr 4:5–17 13. Sokolov AV (2014) The philosophy of information on the pages of the Herald of the Chelyabinsk state academy of culture and arts. Chelyabinsk State Acad Cult Arts 2:175–182 14. Sokolova VV (ed) (1994) Descartes, R. Proceedings in 2 vols.: Translated from Latin and French, vol 2. Myisl, Moscow 15. Telegin AS (ed) (2016) Administrative law. Part 1: Textbook. Perm Institute, Perm 16. Tugendhat E (2016) Traditional and analytical philosophy: Lectures on the philosophy of language. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 17. Wiener N (1983) Cybernetics: or control and communication in the animal and the machine. Nauka, Moscow 18. Voinikanis EA, Yakushev MV (2004) Information. Property. Internet: Tradition and novelties in current law. Wolters Kluwer, Moscow

Emotional Involvement in Social-Network Communication: Reference Group and Gender Bias Liliya R. Komalova

Abstract The paper provides empirical evidence on the potential links between different types of verbal reactions to initial texts and comments on them. Besides, it includes the agreement with the positions of initial text authors and people commenting on initial texts within the framework of social network sites. The experimental design includes three sessions and involves a homogeneous group of subjects who should imagine themselves as participants of Internet discussion and comment on the initial text and comments following it. The primary research issue is how people verbally react to any social network message and whether reference group factor affects them when social interaction happens within Internet-communication. A self-evaluation questionnaire precedes the experimental study. Analysis of the data obtained during experimental research is gender-sensitive. The primary findings argue that subjects’ reactions to the content of the stimuli prevail over reactions to the form of stimuli presentation. There are almost no reactions revealing the subjects’ intentions. The research results support the gender bias hypothesis confirming that females are more likely to encourage people even if they do not share their point of view. Females also feel freer to express their reaction to the form of the stimulus message. Nonetheless, males, in general, react verbally more often than females. Keywords Verbalization · Perception · Social network site · Communication · Agreement · Perspective

L. R. Komalova (B) Institute of Scientific Information for Social Sciences of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia e-mail: [email protected] Moscow State Linguistic University, Moscow, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova (ed.), Complex Social Systems in Dynamic Environments, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 365, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23856-7_15

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1 Introduction 1.1 Literature Review A reference group implies actual or imaginary institutions, individuals, or groups perceived to have significant relevance to an individual’s evaluations, aspirations, or behavior [13]. A group is considered a reference group when individuals rely on their system of norms and values when necessary to take alternative and responsible decisions [8]. When making decisions, individuals often follow a reference group that supplies information. Some results confirm that people who identify themselves with reference groups tend to conform more to the norms of such groups [17]. For example, Terry D. J. and Hogg M. A. [16] demonstrated that university students who were highly identified with their groups of peers had a stronger intention to follow group norms regarding sun protection behavior and exercise than students who did not feel connected to such groups. Likewise, Jetten J., Spears R., and Manstead A. S. R. [5] conducted a study that showed that university students who are strongly identified with their peer groups follow an intergroup discrimination norm more than low identifiers do. Chelisheva Yu. V. [2], searching for instruments to cope with antisocial behavior, came to the idea that a positive orientation reference group allows one to increase adolescents’ level of social competence. It include the ability to adequately navigate in a social situation and choose adequate ways of communication and behavior. Xie J., Wang J. and Yang L. [19] infer that the inner mechanism of reference groups’ influence on herd behavior lies in individual investors forming in-group favoritism and out-group prejudice through three steps: individual identification, social identification, and self-categorization, and psychologization of group preferences. Therefore, individual social cognition and behaviors connect with the groups that form attitudes and a willingness to follow others’ behavior when making stock investment decisions. The decision-making is influenced both by social comparison and the number of people making up the social reference group [18]. Horn S. S. [4] believes that both participants’ and the targets’ social reference group statuses are related to adolescents’ judgments about participation in school activities.

1.2 Research Issue and Goal The research goal is to contribute to the Pragmalinguistics [11] and Digital Communication Studies [15] fields. Additionally, the research aims to provide empirical evidence on the potential links between different types of verbal reactions to initial texts and comments to them and the agreement with the positions of initial text authors and people commenting on initial texts within the framework of social network sites. The research relevance consists in the possibility to analyze social network discourse relying on its typological character. The author does not dissect the

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meaning of verbalized messages (initial texts, comments of Internet users) or comments that subjects leave as reactions to stimulus material. The author’s current concern is how people verbally react to any social network site’s message and whether reference group factor affects them when social interaction happens within Internet-communication. Namely, the author is interested in whether the presence of reference group influences (1) subjects’ agreement with the position of the initial text author, (2) subjects’ agreement with the position of initial texts commentators, and (3) the nature of subjects’ verbalized reactions (reactions to the content of the message / the form of message presentation / the intention of the message poster) to initial texts and comments on them.

2 Materials and Methods 2.1 Stimuli Construction The stimulus material is composed of four initial texts published on social network sites of the Russian Internet sector and comments on them by actual Internet users who participated in the discussions of these texts. Table 1 presents the characteristics of the initial texts. Initial texts are written in the form of a statement of a personal opinion concerning the theme/topic of the statement. The author classifies initial texts as citizen journalism (written in quasi-journalistic style) because the posters are more empowered to assess the situation without appeal to rational arguments and proven sources than to a rigorous statement of facts. Simultaneously, these texts are characterized by compositional completeness and structured presentation of information. They are written in the Russian language in a journalistic style. However, there are cases of violation of spelling, syntax, stylistics, and punctuation norms.

2.2 Experiment Procedure A self-evaluation questionnaire precedes the experimental study. The subjects (see Sect. 2.3 of this paper) were asked to answer several questions, allowing one to form an idea of how stimuli (initial texts and comments on them) are of interest to the subjects. It also includes how much the communicative situation simulated in the experiment is familiar to subjects. Tables 3–6 present the self-evaluation results. The primary task of the experimental part of the research was to imagine a situation in which subjects examined their news feed on one of the existing social network websites. One of the so-called social network friends (regardless of whether they are offline friends) posted the following message (initial text) on their social network

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Table 1 Parameters of the stimuli Initial text

Themes

Text volume (number of graphemes)

Publication date

Illustrations

Number of comments

1

Syrian–Turkish conflict

2103

November 2015

0

14

2

Western 2881 sanctions against Russia

September 2015

1

6

3

Russia–USA union

1979

February 2016

2

5

4

Death penalty in 3933 Japan

February 2013

4

31

Source Compiled by the authors

account’s page. It was necessary to read this message in full and comment on it as if the subjects did that in actual Internet social network communication. The experimental procedure consisted of three sessions: . In the first session, the subjects were obliged to read and comment on four initial texts; . The subjects read the same initial texts and comments left after them by actual Internet users (non-reference group) in the second session. The task was to comment on each initial text taking into consideration the comments of the non-reference group, and to comment on each actual Internet-user comment; . In the third session, the author used the same initial texts and the comments provided by the subjects (reference group) in the second session as stimuli. The task was to comment on each of the reference group’s comments. From the author’s perspective, a sufficient time gap was maintained between the sessions. The author believes that a break out of more than one and a half months is enough to level out the recognition factor of the presented stimulus material (initial texts and comments on them). The time gap between the first and second sessions was 80 days and between the second and third sessions–49 days. The results of the experimental part of the research are presented in Sect. 3.2 of the paper.

2.3 Participant Recruitment The group of subjects who participated in the experiment was homogeneous in terms of age, status (all of them were students), linguaculture (native speakers of the Russian language), geographical parameters (residents of the Russian Federation), and gender-sensitive (three females and three males). Furthermore, all subjects

Emotional Involvement in Social-Network Communication: Reference … Table 2 Demographic data on the subjects participated in experimental research

147

Subjects

Year of birth

Place of birth

Native language

Male 1

1995

Moscow

Russian

Female 1

1996

Tambov

Russian

Female 2

1995

Murmansk

Russian

Female 3

1995

Moscow Region

Russian

Male 2

1996

Novosibirsk

Russian

Male 3

1995

Moscow Region

Russian

Source Compiled by the authors

Table 3 Subjects’ sphere of interests Subjects

Does the topic of messages fall within the scope of your interests? Text 1

Text 2

Text 3

Text 4

Male 1

No

No

No

No

Female 1

No

Yes

No

No

Female 2

No

No

Yes

No

Female 3

No

No

Yes

No

Male 2

No

No

No

Yes

Male 3

No

No

No

No

Source Compiled by the authors

agreed to participate in the research and at any time could leave it at will. Table 2 presents the demographic information on the group of subjects. The group of subjects was designated as a reference group for its members because the subjects knew each other and had been working together for almost two years (the experiment was conducted in the second semester of the second year of the master’s course) in a small social group and operated as a united functional unit. Comments of reference group members were presented anonymously, without indicating the name and gender of the subjects. Nonetheless, the subjects knew that they worked with comments provided by their reference group peers in the third session.

3 Results 3.1 Results of Evaluations by Subjects Analysis of the data obtained during experimental research is gender-sensitive. According to the data presented in Table 3, the content of the initial texts appears to be unrelated to the subjects’ sphere of interest. On the mentioned basis, the author

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assumes that the subjects do not have a pre-formed representation and personal perspective regarding the theme/topic of discussion. Table 4 indicates that all subjects made a choice in favor of long-distance communication with the poster of the Initial Text 1 and Text 2. Namely, the subjects pointed out the lack of an actual acquaintance with the poster of those texts. Female subjects put themselves closer to the Initial Text 3 poster than male subjects. The tendency toward an agreement with the poster prevails in evaluations of Text 4. According to Table 5, the subjects do not share the posters’ opinions expressed in Text 1 and Text 2. Female subjects share the poster’s position presented in Text 3 and Text 4. Table 6 illustrates that the majority (66.66%) of subjects verbally react to the content of initial texts. The subjects provided fewer reactions to the form of the message. Male subjects provided more reactions to the content (45.85%) and female subjects–to the form of the initial texts (29.17%). None of the subjects in their reactions to any of the initial text indicated its intentional component (for example, for what reason it was created; was the poster eager to start a discussion of the Table 4 Categorization of the subjects’ social network friends Subjects

In your opinion, what category of social network friends can be attributed to the poster of each text? Text 1

Text 2

Text 3

Text 4

Male 1

c

c

c

c

Female 1

c

c

a

b

Female 2

c

c

b

b

Female 3

c

c

b

a

Male 2

c

c

c

a

Male 3

c

c

c

c

Notes (a) The person could be my offline friend; (b) I do not know this person offline; I follow their news feed; (c) I do not know this person offline; this is someone from my offline friends’ friend list. Source Compiled by the authors

Table 5 Subjects’ agreement with the position of the initial text poster Subjects

Do you share the position of the poster of each text? Text 1

Text 2

Text 3

Text 4

Male 1

No

No

No

No

Female 1

Rather yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Female 2

No

No

Rather yes

Rather yes

Female 3

No

No

Rather yes

Yes

Male 2

No

Rather no

Yes

Rather no

Male 3

No

No

No

Rather no

Source Compiled by the authors

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Table 6 Subjects’ verbalized reactions to initial texts (first session, self-evaluation) Subjects

What message in each text did you respond to in your comment? Subjects’ verbalized reactions to: Content

Form

Total

Intention

Total

16 (66.66%)

8 (33.34%)

0 (0%)

24 (100%)

Males

11 (45.85%)

1 (4.17%)

0 (0%)

12 (50%)

Females

5 (20.83%)

7 (29.17%)

0 (0%)

12 (50%)

Source Compiled by the authors

issue/provoke a debate /establish their opinion/collect opinions of commentators etc.). Examples of verbalized reactions to the content of the initial text: . Just a peculiar information, I want to speculate on this topic (female 3); . Human Rights Bodies are white and cultural people (male 3). Reactions to the form of the message include an indication of the grammatical and punctuation errors in the initial texts, attention to the illustrations accompanying the texts, and the length of the text. They also include an indication of the subjectivity of the information stated in the text. For example: . Visual line (female 2); . Grammatical errors (female 1).

3.2 Results of Subjects’ Reaction Evaluation According to the data presented in Table 7, in general, subjects are more likely to react to the content of the stimulus message (initial text) to a greater extent than to the form of the stimulus material presentation. The intentional component of the stimulus message is not reflected by the subjects (only one of 67 verbal exchanges). The presence of comments (from the non-reference group) on the initial text in the second session reduces the number of the subjects’ verbalized reactions to the initial texts. Compared with female subjects, male subjects externalize their verbalized reactions more accurately, as evidenced by the exact coincidence of the results of selfevaluation and evaluation after the first session. Female subjects express their reactions to the form of stimulus material more readily than male subjects. Female subjects overestimate their reactions to the form and underestimate their reactions to the content of the stimuli. Examples of verbalized reactions to the content of the initial text:

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Table 7 Comparison of the average values of self-evaluation after the first session and evaluating the subjects’ verbalized reactions to the initial texts after the first and after the second sessions Sessions

Subjects

Subjects’ verbalized reactions to: Content

Form

Intention

1: Self-evaluation

Males

0.917

0.083

0

1: Expert evaluation

Males

0.917

0.083

0

2: Expert evaluation

Males

0.833

0

0.083

1: Self-evaluation

Females

0.417

0.583

0

1: Expert evaluation

Females

0.667

0.5

0

2: Expert evaluation

Females

0.5

0

0

Source Compiled by the authors

. The poster clearly draws too many conclusions based on what they know. Patriotism is patriotism, and perhaps they are right in some ways, knowing the inadequacy of the Turkish government, but one can not seem smarter than you is (male 2, first session, expert evaluation); . It would be interesting to read the opinions of the English-speaking media about the meeting and further relations between the USA and Russia (female 2, first session, expert evaluation). Examples of verbalized reactions to the form of presentation of the initial text: . And why there is such a picture? To be honest, it spoils the whole impression of the article:( Not a meme, at least, thanks for that (female 3, first session, expert evaluation); . Addressing a stranger using a pronoun “you” (male 3, second session, expert evaluation). Example of verbalized reaction to the commentator’s intention: . I personally do not quite understand why to leave a comment on, say, the objective news on foreign policy. Not even news, but an article expressing the author’s point of view? Me – and my friends – comment on more personal topics (male 3, second session, expert evaluation). Table 8 demonstrates that, in general, within the subjects, there is a tendency not to share the perspective expressed by members of the non-reference group in comments on the initial texts. Compared with female subjects, male subjects have a more pronounced tendency. Female subjects are more likely to support commentators than male subjects. According to Table 9, the subjects are much more likely to react to the content of the stimulus material than to the form of its presentation. In response to non-reference group members’ comments, the subjects occasionally manifested reactions to the author’s intention of the comments. In comparison with the number of reactions to non-reference group members’ comments (second session), there is a decrease in

Emotional Involvement in Social-Network Communication: Reference … Table 8 Comparison of the average values of the subjects’ reactions to the comments provided by the members of the non-reference group (after the second session) and members of the reference group (after the third session) - share effect

Sessions

Subjects

151 Do you share the perspective of people commenting on initial texts? Yes

No

2: Non-reference group

Males

0.643

5.036

3: Reference group

Males

2.5

1.25

2: Non-reference group

Females

1.857

2.429

3: Reference group

Females

2.75

1.167

Source Compiled by the authors

Table 9 Comparison of the average values of the subjects’ reactions to the comments provided by the members of the non-reference group (after the second session) and members of the reference group (after the third session) - verbalized reactions Sessions

Subjects

Subjects verbalized reactions to: Content

Form

Intention

2: Non-reference group

Males

1.75

0.5

0.036

3: Reference group

Males

1.167

0

0

2: Non-reference group

Females

1.464

0.214

0.143

3: Reference group

Females

1

0

0

Source Compiled by the authors

subjects’ response activity to comments provided by the reference group members (third session). Compared with female subjects, male subjects are more likely to verbally react to the content and form of non-reference group members’ comments and the content of reference group members’ comments. Examples of verbalized reactions to the content of comments on the initial text: . In general, I find it interesting to read recent foreign media. It’s like we live in different worlds (female 2, third session); . It’s a pretty informative story. I don’t know how historically accurate it is (male 2, second session). Examples of verbalized reactions to the form of presentation comments on the initial text: . Memes are everywhere:( (male 2, third session); . Excuse moi? (male 2, second session). Example of verbalized reaction to the commentator’s intention: . He expressed his demands (male 3, second session).

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4 Discussion The research results allow one to verify the research issues presented at the beginning of this paper. The data demonstrate that the presence of a reference group influences subjects’ agreement with the position of initial text commentators. Additionally, the data reveal the nature of subjects’ verbalized reactions (reactions to the content of the message / to the form of message presentation / to the intention of the poster of the message) to initial texts and comments on them. Particular psychosocial forces can explain a person’s tendency to value and rely on the opinions of members of reference groups or close communities (e.g., family, friends, and colleagues) [17]. First of all, there is normative influence–a person’s desire to avoid rejection by a group that is affectively important to them [3]. Second, there is group identification–the strength of an individual’s connection with a group [10]. General findings of current research indicate that, despite the fact that the content of the stimulus initial texts and comments on them are out of subjects’ interest, they actively react to them. Reactions to the content of the stimuli prevail over reactions to the form of stimuli presentation. Almost no reactions are revealing the subjects’ intentions. These results correlate with the author’s previous findings [6, 7]. Besides, they support the idea of dividing the textual message into three essential structural components (content, form, and intention). They predict the further direction of discussion–whether it will be substantive (content) or slide down to the level of showdown (form) or indicate how deep the interlocutors’ awareness is of what drives them (intention).

5 Conclusion The research results support the gender bias hypothesis confirming that females are more likely to encourage people even if they do not share their point of view. In addition, females also feel freer to express their reaction to the form of the stimulus message. Nonetheless, males, in general, react verbally more often than females. Gender differences in reactions to the content and form of social network messages can partially be explained by male preferences to consume more content. For instance, studies confirm that male newspaper consumption has become more intense than female newspaper consumption [1, 9, 12, 14]. Besides, females are known to be more likely to sympathize with other people’s feelings. Acknowledgements The research is carried out within the framework of the state assignment of the Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Education “Moscow State Linguistic University” (project No. FSFU-2020-0020).

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References 1. Brites MJ (2010) Jovens (15–18 Anos) e informação noticiosa: a importância dos capitais cultural e tecnológico. Estudos em Co municação 8:169–192 2. Chelisheva YuV (2015) Reference group and value orientations in teenagers with asocial behavior. Syst Psychol Sociol 4(16):23–29 3. Garcia Marques L (2000) O inferno são os outros: O estudo da influência social (Hell is the others: The study of social influence). In: Monteiro MB (ed) Vala J. Social Psychology, Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, Lisboa p, pp 227–292 4. Horn SS (2006) Group status, group bias, and adolescents’ reasoning about treatment of others in school contexts. Int J Behav Dev 30(3):208–218 5. Jetten J, Spears R, Manstead ASR (1996) Intergroup norms and intergroup discrimination: Distinctive self-categorization and social identity effects. J Pers Soc Psychol 71:1222–1233 6. Komalova LR (2016) Interpersonal communication: From conflict to consensus. INION RAN, Moscow 7. Komalova LR (2018) Social network sites as digital heterotopias: textual content and speech behavior perception. In: Alexandrov D, Boukhanovsky A, Chugunov A et al (eds) Digital transformation and global society. DTGS 2018, Communications in Computer and Information Science, vol 859. Springer, Cham, pp 43−54 8. Kuzmin ES, Semenov VE (eds) (1987) Team, personality, communication. Dictionary of sociopsychological concepts. Lenizdat, Leningrad 9. Lauf E (2001) Research note: The vanishing young reader. Sociodemographic determinants of newspaper use as a source of political information in Europe, 1980–1998. Eur J Commun 16(2):233−243 10. Leach CW, van Zomeren M, Zebel S et al (2008) Group-level self-definition and selfinvestment: a hierarchical (multicomponent) model of in-group identification. J Pers Soc Psychol 95:144–165 11. Matveeva GG, Samarina IV, Seliverstova LN (2009) The two directions in modern pragmalinguistics. Vestn St Petersburg University Ser 12 1(2):50−57 12. Navarro LF (2003) Los hábitos de consumo en medios de comunicación en los jóvenes cordobeses. Comunicar 21:167–171 13. Park CW, Lessig VP (1997) Students and housewives: differences in susceptibility to reference group influence. J Consum Res 4:102–110 14. Raeymaeckers K (2004) Newspapers editors in search of young readers: content and layout strategies to win new readers. J Stud 5(2):221–232 15. Scolari CA (2009) Mapping conversations about new media: The theoretical field of digital communication. New Media Soc 11(6):943–964 16. Terry DJ, Hogg MA (1996) Group norms and the attitude-behavior relationship: a Role for group identification. Pers Soc Psychol Bull 22:776–793 17. Wachelke J, Natividade J, Wolter R (2015) The subjective perception of social objects: an exploratory inquiry based on the importance of the opinions of reference groups. Psykhe 24(1):1–9 18. Wang D, Zhu L, Maguire PH et al. (2016) The influence of social comparison and peer group size on risky decision-making. Front Psychol 7:1232 19. Xie J, Wang J, Yang L (2018) Reference group perspective on individual investors’ herd behavior: the effects of self-esteem and trait anxiety. Psychologia 61:1–25

Homo Digitalis in Media Convergence Processes: A Sociological Portrait Liudmila A. Vasilenko

and Olga I. Molchanova

Abstract The paper aims to present a sociological portrait of Homo Digitalis based on the example of a modern journalist. The research methods include text analysis of Russian-speaking media, including social media using the Medialogia information system (February 2015–February 2020) and in-depth interviewing of the heads of mass media editorial offices (2016–2018, N = 57) and others. The authors find that Homo Digitalis are real and virtual subjects that use digital technologies in work and everyday life. They have soft skills: the ability to self-organize, digital mobility, and IT literacy. Furthermore, they are active and creative, do not always specify the place of residence, age, marital status, and can act contradictory, taking on various social roles. Homo Digitalis has a low development level of a “geo-information security culture,” a low level of responsibility for actions aimed to saturate and distribute information content. In addition, they oppose complying with laws on intellectual property and personal data. Homo Digitalis as a modern journalist possesses hard skills such as (1) technological versatility, (2) hypertextuality, (3) PR expertise in the media environment, (3) ability to effectively communicate with the target audience in various formats, (4) ability to erase the boundaries between producer’s and consumer’s social roles regarding information product consumption. The author concludes that for building a full-fledged digital civilization, it is necessary to form digital social institutions such as (1) norms, (2) statuses, (3) roles and standards of behavior, (4) the culture of the interaction of Homo Digitalis in virtual reality, and (5) the acceptance of values and principles of integral collective intelligence. Keywords Homo digitalis · Digital sociology · Digital society · Digitalization · Social network · Media convergence · Geo-information security culture L. A. Vasilenko (B) The Russian Presidential Academy of National Economy and Public Administration, Moscow, Russia e-mail: [email protected] O. I. Molchanova Saint Petersburg State University of Economics, Saint-Petersburg, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova (ed.), Complex Social Systems in Dynamic Environments, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 365, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23856-7_16

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1 Introduction The sociological portrait of Homo Digitalis is the first attempt at a unified description of the essential social, value-oriented, spiritual, cultural, and other personal qualities that can characterize a person of the advanced digital civilization. Digital technology does not just inspire innovation in manufacturing, research, and livelihoods. It also forces one to make a humanistic digital turn [1] and rethink science fundamentals. Currently, theoretical areas such as Digital Society, Digital Economy, Digital Labor Market, Digital Education, Digital Humanities, Digital Sociology, and Big Data are developing. They employ digital technologies and achievements at the intersection of the humanities and computer sciences. The term e-lance economy has emerged [2]. The most crucial characteristic of the modern digital society is integrating the communication environment and combination of many types of technical communication devices, technologies, software systems, information resources, and related services. According to a global study on the Internet, 40% of users spend 6.7 h online daily. It is almost a full working day. Additionally, more than 50% of children aged 18–34 and 30% of the global adult population use Facebook. In 2020, 67% of the global population (5.19 billion people) became social network users [3]. People use closely interconnected mobile phones and gadgets, tablets, and personal computers. Starting communication on one device, they can freely continue interaction using a different communication device without additional readjustments. The mentioned fact testifies to the new nature of interactions and the growth of mobility which change people’s lives, social relations, and the temporality of processes in a digital society. The studies conducted over the past ten years give grounds to distinguish the Homo Digitalis phenomenon.

2 Materials and Methods The complexity of the modern social system and its dynamic variability require an interdisciplinary research approach. Simultaneously, the “interdisciplinary scientific dialogue” and relevant research cannot be conducted based on the simple addition of various methodologies. These methodologies are created to solely take away their research field from other disciplines [4]. Lyudmila Kolesnikova argues that one cannot connect by simple addition or merging what stands on fundamentally different fundamental principles. However, she also argues that it is possible to transform the system of fundamental principles into a new quality system that allows one to rethink decisions and revise the system of actions. It is necessary to synthesize the initial fundamental paradigms, which suggest a method of cross-disciplinary analysis and synthesis in research involving various subject areas [5].

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Methods According to many researchers, the traditional survey research methods developed for industrial society are no longer reliable [6]. In a digital society, it is necessary to apply new digital methods of sociological research [7–11]. The specificity of sociological methods in digital sociology is manifested in a variety of new concepts that distinguish them from traditional prototypes: Storytelling [12], Webometric [13], Social Network Analysis [14], Contactless Sociology [15], Netnography [16], Cultural Analytics [17], etc. A set of methods of digital sociology is applied: Social Network Analysis, Contactless Sociology, etc. Flexible, supra-professional, “social” competencies (soft skills) are identified based on the following materials: ● “Analysis of Russian-speaking media including social media,” 168 analyzed texts (UNIAN, TASS, Interfax, RBC-Ukraine, IA “Ukrinform,” korrespondent.net, “Parliamentary Newspaper,” IA Reporter, IA Sputnik, zn.ua, IA Ukrainian News, MIA Russia Today, IA Most-Dnepr, Rossiyskaya Gazeta, Izvestia, Deutsche Welle gazeta.ua, znak.com, Komsomolskaya Pravda, Kommersant), containing the phrase “public administration” for the period from February 13, 2015, to February 13, 2020, using the Medialogia information system; ● The comprehensive sociological research “Models of Dialogue Between the Authorities and Society In Internet Communications” (2013–2015) [18]; ● GLOBAL DIGITAL OVERVIEW. 2020 (DIGITAL 2020); ● All Internet statistics for 2020 – Figures and trends in the world and in Russia (2020); ● Mass sociological polls of the population by VCIOM (2019–2020), Levada Center (2019–2020). The analysis of Homo Digitalis representatives’ hard skills is considered on the example of essential professional skills of modern journalists working in conditions of media convergence and the necessity to adapt to new circumstances. The authors base their conclusions on the following: ● The in-depth semi-formalized interviews “The impact of media convergence on management activities” (2016–2018). The respondents are experienced employees working in media converged editions for more than three years, who have expert knowledge in managing the organization of the following media editions: Road Power, Peter-Online, Hair Cult, Osporte.online, Customs News St. Petersburg and Moscow. N = 57 [19]; ● Baranova has conducted expert interviews from 2009 to 2018 (83 respondents from 29 media companies) [20].

3 Results Summing up the analysis of the texts of the media and social media, as well as the results of other studies, the authors highlight the following important aspects:

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● A contemporary person gradually acquires the properties of Homo Digitalis and becomes a part of the “digital society”—the element of the digital information universe; ● The Fourth Industrial Revolution creates a demand for “flexible,” supraprofessional, “social” competencies (soft skills) that contribute to the personal success (the ability for self-advancement and self-organization, emotional intelligence and poise, willpower) and personal growth (responsible diligence, punctuality, initiative, creativity, sociability, and ability to work in a team) [21]. The trend of demand for creativity and the growth of cognitive abilities due to the expansion of extra-logical methods of cognition, including the transition from linear fixed text to hypertext multilayer structures, “mobile” figurative forms of presentation and consumption of meanings on the screen, when both brain hemispheres are involved; ● Homo Digitalis has digital mobility, in other words, high speed and variety of exchange of various products of their activity, both physically real and virtual; ● The mobility of Homo Digitalis is a result of the trend of expanding the “profession” concept into a cloud of professionally related skills and competencies. A virtual cloud replaces the “personnel as a collective of workers” concept since the kind of team can be discussed in a virtual social space; ● Homo Digitalis can act simultaneously in the virtual space in several roles: (1) information producer, (2) information consumer, (3) information owner, (4) digital actor, (5) digital communicator, (6) digital integrator, (7) vertical or horizontal coordinator, and (8) subject and object of digital control; ● Homo Digitalis are less connected with the territory, production premises, and production team. They are more inclined towards virtual formats of the digital labor market and convergent processes—digital nomadism, remote work, and digital journalism; Problematic areas in the development of Homo Digitalis are as follows: ● The inconsistency of the digital society value foundations shows that, on the one hand, there is a tendency to return to traditional patriarchal family values, and on the other hand, there is an influence of the e-lance economy [2] and remote work. Globalization and digitalization expand social space through the virtual, opening up almost limitless opportunities to form new cultural patterns and entail the dissemination of modernized values in society [22]; ● The digital privacy paradox and compliance with intellectual property and personal data laws. The contradictory situation is associated, on the one hand, with the fact that 60% of Russian users from 16 to 64 years old are worried about maintaining confidentiality. Nevertheless, there are objective processes with the participation of representatives of Homo Digitalis to create and distribute Internet of Things products requiring the collection of not always justified, excessively detailed personal information, to develop intelligent systems for processing Big Data. Tens of millions of people have deliberately decided to spend an average of $550 per year on devices that actively track people’s home activities. Nearly 50% of 16- to 64-year-old users are forced to protect themselves from intrusive

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advertising constantly. More than 55% of people surveyed by the Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism study at the age of eighteen years of age are concerned about the reliability of the information on the Internet [23]; ● Weaknesses of Homo Digitalis include underdevelopment of “geo-information culture of the security” [24] and a low degree of responsibility for consumption, creation, distribution, and saturation of information content (in social space). A modern journalist works in a media-converged information environment and undoubtedly represents Homo Digitalis. The paper considers basic professional skills (hard skills), which completes the holistic image of Homo Digitalis. Therefore, respondents in in-depth interviews note that: ● “Transformation in the media sphere leads to the emergence of new specialties, for example, Data Journalism, which is based on the competence of collecting and processing data by’ computer methods;’” ● “A modern journalist a priori must be able to quickly determine the required format for publication, quickly create a text for a specific audience in accordance with its information requests;” ● “A journalist, as a marketer and event manager in one person, must understand where the money comes from and how it is distributed;” ● “A modern journalist should participate in webinars, interactive forms of communication with the audience, and be able to work in a team when organizing an event;” ● “A modern journalist must navigate all media resources, create and process photographic materials, use computer programs, record and upload audio and video podcasts to the Internet, write concise news materials for various media platforms, create multimedia texts, write and send news texts in the form SMS messages; regularly maintain professional blogs, video blogs; follow the news in the blogosphere” [19]. Professional convergence (integration of PR, advertising, and journalism) in a modern journalist’s activities is noted by 75% of respondents. Other respondents have been skeptical about this statement. Attitudes towards new forms of interaction with the target audience and updating user-generated content (UGC) are positively assessed by 92% of respondents. Nearly all of them confirmed that interactive forms of communication help better understand consumer preferences. There is a growing tendency to use various formats of interacting with a target audience, producers, and consumers of an information product which changes their social roles. “At first, our site published only program announcements and radio station news but in recent years broadcasts have appeared on the site in the form of audio and video transcripts of programs, which influenced the expansion of the audience. Listeners share their opinions, participate in interactive projects and competitions. A listener can try himself as a poet or author of a play, find and try out the best cycling routes in Moscow, fish with our hosts, or just tell a couple of stories from his life” [25].

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Along with the advantages, these tendencies have arisen the issue of information reliability identification: ● “There are issues concerning user content—comment-bots, comment bullies, periodic influx of letters from persons who are unwell. As for reliability, it is worth noting that we use common sense in readers’ texts evaluation. We always give reference to them (for example, in social networks) or seek for balanced opinions;” ● “The problem area of a modern journalist is the competence of a social psychologist, in order, for example, to cope with rudeness and bots. According to the respondents, a highly qualified journalist working with bloggers should have patience, tolerance, should differentiate promising bloggers from meaningless, possess fine editing skills and good organizational skills, and comprehend the essence of online journalism and skills of working in social networks.” The processes of media convergence also generate the second issue. In the pursuit of an innovative form, the creation of meanings fades into the background. Professor Ya. Dugin believes that generating meaning and stimulating demand for meaning among various audience groups can become the leading media activity function. “Generating meaning and stimulating meaningful activity may turn out to be a promising vector of modern research in journalism and mass communication in the context of media digitalization” [26]. The results of the expert interview are indicative. The question “Do you consider the main function of media activity to form critical thinking of your audience and stimulate their semantic activity?” has the positive answer of 81% of respondents. Although, it is evident that the mentioned factor depends on the personality of a journalist. “To become a part of the new global system, a journalist as a person must cultivate the following qualities: they must have a high level of personal selforganization, constant engagement in self-education, and be aware of their socially significant role in society” [27]. In this regard, a creative individual in journalism appears as an integral system in the diversity of thoughts, feelings, manifestations of will, motives, desires, needs, habits, interests, inclinations, intelligence, etc. The set, containing a specific combination of competencies mentioned above, forms a unique structure of a journalist’s personality, determining the effectiveness of their activities and the level of impact on the audience. [28]. Thus, the linear process of journalistic activity involves information collection, processing, and presentation. It is a past concept, and it transforms into an extensive process of ongoing information circulation. Professional convergence merges journalistic, advertising, and PR activities into a single activity in the media sphere. It implies that new forms of interaction with the audience appear and multiply, and the communication aspect comes to the fore. Convergence leads to the demand for a professional in integrated communications. Therefore, the set of necessary competencies presented to them is expanding.

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4 Discussion Currently, a new paradigm of digital civilization forms in society. The role and place of a person are changing; they acquire new qualities in a digital society. The ability of Homo Digitalis to act as carriers of the managerial influence subjectivity within the framework of organizational behavior [29] testifies to their ability to (1) realize their interests, (2) define and adjust goals, (3) make decisions, (4) make plans for achieving them, and (4) identify their social roles and statuses. The primary feature of the subject is the ability to transform the surrounding world with their practical actions. Nevertheless, the world is becoming increasingly digital. A significant share of modern journalists notes the degradation factors of both consumers of their information product and the journalists themselves. Without relinquishing responsibility for this, many journalists consider the formation of critical thinking of their audience and stimulation of their semantic activity to be the leading function of media activity. Based on this, the question of whether the actors of the social space can participate constructively and solicitously in smart management arises [30]. Subjectivity in a digital society has become fundamentally different due to the expansion of interactive communications and significant changes in society. It is stimulating for one to identify the qualitative characteristics of the subjectivity of Homo Digitalis in a digital society. One should analyze processes of the formation of digital social institutions, adopting general principles that regulate the norms and standards for Homo Digitalis in virtual reality. These institutions should not restrict creativity, openness to development and social change, the availability of pooled resources and technologies. They should perform regulatory functions. In connection with the dynamics of social changes, many respondents observe an issue regarding professional training. In particular, they note the need for experienced practitioners to participate in the educational process. Consequently, the Institute of Education faces the task of not only eliminating the digital divide [31] but also focusing on developing cognitive abilities, skills in searching, creating, processing, and managing informational multimedia content, and mastering the competencies of effective communication [32] in a media converged environment. The global civil society must master a new type of culture—“geo-information security culture” [24], which implies the following: ● Awareness of the “rules of barring;” ● Respect for the “rules of barring” in order to ensure the integrity of the social system; ● Awareness of the global information space trends; ● Periodic updating of the “rules of behavior” in the global information space; ● Necessity for timely correction of the “rules of barring” in relevance to the dynamics of social change considering the cultural diversity of people; ● Human ability to consolidate in the global social space in order to defend the new “rules of barring” using legal methods.

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Studying “geo-information culture of the security” as a concept does not concern science. This fact demonstrates the theoretical and methodological lag of scientific knowledge on the practical necessity. Such studies should be conducted on a global scale [24]. They include the formation of digital social institutions, the adoption of general principles that regulate the norms and standards for Homo Digitalis in virtual reality. These institutions should not restrict creativity, openness to development and social change, the availability of pooled resources and technologies.

5 Conclusion The authors build the presented Homo Digital characteristics on the generalization of various sociological data. Simultaneously, the authors argue that a holistic sociological portrait of a modern representative of a digital civilization requires extensive discussion by the scientific community and specific research. Acknowledgements The research is partially supported by grants: Russian Foundation for Basic Research, grant 20-011-00694 Public Administration as Configuring of Relational Networks in the Public Space of a Digital Society.

References 1. Kravchenko SA (2019) Sociology on the move: the demand for the humanistic digital turn. RUDN J Sociol 19(3):397–405 2. Agrawal A, Horton J et al (2015) Digitization and the contract labor market: a research agenda. In: Goldfarb A, Greenstein S, Tucker C (eds) Economic analysis of the digital economy. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp 219–250 3. WebCanape (2020a) All Internet statistics for 2020—Figures and trends in the world and in Russia. https://www.web-canape.ru/business/internet-2020-globalnaya-statistika-i-trendy/ 4. Vasilenko L (2019) Fractal-synergetic approach to the research of entrepreneurship in the non-profit organizations. Wisdom 12(1):62–72 5. Kolesnikova LA, Vasilenko LA, Mityassova EA (2017) Fine-tuning coordination vs hybrid hegemony: A factor of spirituality in relations of territories from the viewpoint of fractal crossdisciplinary synthesis. In: Vasilenko LA (ed) Socio-cultural aspect of Eurasian integration. Eurasian civic alliance. Belgorod, Belgorod, p 395−420 6. Meshcheryakova NN (2020) Methodology for cognition of digital society. Digit Sociol 3(2):17– 26 7. Burroughs R, Savage M (2016) After the crisis? Big data and methodological challenges of empirical sociology. Sociol Res 3:28–35 8. Lupton D (2015) Digital sociology. Routledge, London 9. Marres N (2017) Digital sociology. Polity Press, Cambridge, The reinvention of social research 10. Rogers R (2009) The end of the virtual: digital methods. Amsterdam University Press, Amsterdam, Media 11. Wynn J (2009) Digital sociology: emergent technologies in the field and the classroom. Sociol Forum 24(2):448–456

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12. Panarina MA, Kulikova OA (2019) Social media and biographical method. Digit Sociol 2(4):11–16 13. Kibakin M (2020) Webometric as diagnostic tools of digital sociology: contents, purpose, usage experience. Digit Sociol 3(1):12–18 14. Rykov Yu, Nagornyy O (2017) Internet studies in social sciences. Russ Sociol Rev 16(3):366−394 15. Kryshtanovskaya O (2018) Contactless sociology: new forms of research in the digital age. Digit Sociol: Res Dir 1(2):4–8 16. Kozinets RV (2006) Click to connect: netnography and tribal advertising. J Advert Res 46(3):279–288 17. Manovich L (2007) Cultural analytics: analysis and visualization of large cultural data sets. Software studies initiative. https://ru.scribd.com/doc/35611628/Cultural-Analytics-Lev-Man ovich-articulo 18. Vasilenko VI, Vasilenko LA, Kazantseva OA et al (2015) Models of dialogue between the authorities and society in Internet communications. Prospect, Moscow 19. Molchanova OI (2018) Modification of a journalist’s activities in the context of media convergence. Sib J Sci 3(30):125–135 20. Baranova EA (2019) Media convergence as a system-forming factor of transformation of the media Institute. Dissertation. RUDN University 21. Schwab K (2016) The fourth industrial revolution (trans: Merkuryeva A). Eksmo, Moscow 22. Kashina MA, Vasilenko LA (2019) Fractality of gender relations and the use of gender resource of the public policy and administration in modern Russia. Woman Russ Soc 2:17–31 23. WebCanape. (2020b) Digital around the world in 2020. DIALOG. https://www.web-canape. ru/files/352/global-digital-overview-j.png 24. Vasilenko VI, Kornilovich VA (2020) The safety culture as the basis of the digital society. In: The 23rd International conference culture, personality, society in the conditions of digitalization: methodology and experience of empirical research named after professor L. N. Kogan. Ural Federal University, Yekaterinburg 25. Baranova EA (2015) Development features of Russian talk radio stations’ websites. Mediascope 2:16 26. Dugin EYa (2018) Methodology of media research in the “Era of digital civilization.” Eur J Philos Res 5(1):3−18 27. Kopylov O (2013) Features of the creative activity of a journalist in the context of media convergence. Dissertation. Ural Federal University 28. Molchanova OI (2012) Creative individuality in journalism. Bull ENGECON 4(55):182−186 29. Bahmarova VN (2012) Social actor in M. Crozier’s conception of management. Theory and practice of social development 1:85–88 30. Tikhonov AV, Bogdanov VS (2020) From “Smart Regulation” to “Smart Management:” Social Issue of Feedback Digitalization. Sociol Stud 1:74–81 31. Bustillos J (2017) The digital divide. Neoliberal imperatives and education. In: Isaacs S (ed) European social problems. Routledge, London, pp 149–165 32. Zotov VV, Zotova OM (2020) Information and communication competence: the relationship of concepts. In: 23rd International conference culture, personality, society in the conditions of digitalization: methodology and experience of empirical research named after professor L. N. Kogan. Ural Federal University, Yekaterinburg

Means of Speech Manipulation in Russian Internet-Mediated Communication Olga Yu. Gukosyants

Abstract The paper is devoted to the linguistic features of language manipulation and the methods of manipulation of the audience’s consciousness in Internetmediated communication. We indicate the research material by the continuous sampling method. Besides, we used contextual analysis and interpretation of the obtained data to determine the language units concerning the text content and structure that manipulate the recipient. The descriptive method and correlation analysis allow us to establish the relationship between the selected linguistic means and their functional load. The study confirms the importance of creating a certain emotional mood in the recipient during speech manipulation. This effect is achieved through the use of one of the three most popular manipulation strategies: (1) persuasion strategy, (2) discrediting strategy, and (3) forcing strategy. The means of manipulation are (1) evaluative vocabulary, (2) phraseological units, (3) synonyms, (4) neologisms, (5) aphorisms, (6) precedent texts, (7) personalization of speech (personal pronouns “I,” “we”), (8) modal constructions, (9) imperatives, (10) rhetorical questions, (11) metaphors, (12) metonyms, (13) oxymoron, (14) demonstration of the friend-foe opposition. Also, for the manipulation, the individuals can use (1) text highlighting, (2) syntactic parallelism of constructions, (3) slogans, (4) categorical statements, (5) repetitions of different levels, and (6) appeals to fundamental values. In general, manipulative means in the virtual space are caused by the need to determine the manipulative nature of the text in virtual communication and to identify situations where the author has manipulative intentions. Keywords Speech persuasion · Manipulative strategy · Internet-mediated communication · Linguistic means of manipulation

O. Yu. Gukosyants (B) Pyatigorsk State University, Pyatigorsk, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova (ed.), Complex Social Systems in Dynamic Environments, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 365, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23856-7_17

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1 Introduction Communication is a complex, multi-faceted process necessary to meet the needs of a person or a group of people. Due to the faster pace of life and the lack of time, human communication is increasingly drifting away from live and real communication to the World Wide Web. The internet is multifunctional and easy to use. Due to these features, the internet has become an environment that is popular as a communication field for the transmission of messages and the exchange of information. However, it has also become an environment for the implementation of self-serving goals against users. Threats specific to the virtual network include (1) fraud, (2) the spread of harmful content, (3) propaganda of illegal actions, and (3) covert manipulation of the recipient’s consciousness. Such threats that lie in wait for users are mainly possible due to the anonymous communication, interactivity, and the global nature of the internet as a communication medium. These goals are achieved, as a rule, due to covert manipulation, which is not recognized by the recipient. Many psychological and sociological studies of Russian and foreign scientists focus on the problem of manipulation as a covert influence [1–9]. Significant number of linguistic works, including dissertations, also address this issue [10–19]. A language is a powerful tool for influencing human consciousness and “programming human behavior” [6]. Speech (language) manipulation is a type of speech influence used for the covert insertion into the recipients’ minds of goals, desires, intentions, relationships, or attitudes that do not coincide with those that they have at the moment [20]. Using specific language resources in communication, a person can influence the recipient’s perception of objects and situations of the outside world and impose a positive or negative assessment on them [21]. The presence of explicit and implicit levels of influence is the essential characteristic of manipulation, according to Dotsenko. The explicit level serves as a myth that disguises the manipulator’s true intentions. At the implicit level, both the fact of the impact and its purpose are carefully hidden from the recipient. Simultaneously, the recipient’s intentions are never disclosed, since secrecy is a condition for successful speech manipulation [5]. Schiller, revealing the “myth of neutrality,” emphasizes the importance of observing the “remain invisible” condition for a successful manipulation, “The success of manipulation is guaranteed when the manipulated person believes that everything that happens is natural and inevitable. To put it briefly, manipulation requires a false reality in which its presence will not be felt” [22]. Analyzing the issues of communication theory, the German researcher Maletzke offers a “scheme of the fields of mass communication,” which takes into account the “pressure” or “compulsion” existing between the intermediary and the recipient. Maletzke shows the importance of psychological characteristics of the individual in perception and notes that people with low self-esteem are most vulnerable to persuasion [23]. The success of manipulative influence depends on (1) the features of the environment in which virtual communication is implemented, (2) trust in the image of the

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communicator, (3) the formed image of the recipient, and the selection of appropriate linguistic means. The paper presents a linguistic analysis of the texts of the LiveJournal and publications on Twitter. The analysis aims to explicate language manipulation. The reflective perception of language units concerning the transmitted content and text structure allows us to identify the means characteristic of speech manipulation on the internet.

2 Materials and Methods The research material contains 310 fragments of Russian texts of the LiveJournal and publications on Twitter during the COVID-19 pandemic. We selected the examples using the continuous sampling method. The main research methods are methods of contextual analysis and interpretation of the obtained data. The descriptive method and correlation analysis allowed us to establish the relationship between the selected linguistic means and their functional load.

3 Results Virtuality, interactivity, globality, and anonymity are essential features of the internet as a communication environment. They have a significant impact on (1) the nature of communication; (2) the language through which this communication becomes possible; and (3) the methods of speech persuasion and language means used for manipulation. At the same time, the degree of influence depends on such factors as (1) visibility, (2) accessibility, (3) imagery, and (4) conciseness of information. The effect is enhanced if the suggestion coincides with the needs and interests of the recipient. The communicator, building a message, always relies on a particular image of the recipient, which generates communicative behavior, guarantees the predictability of communication, and the ability to manage it [24]. In the absence of conceptual interaction (“mutual activation of the corresponding knowledge structures between the communicator and the recipient”) [25], the recipient’s communicative tasks become unattainable. To implement the correct (assumed by the author) pragmatic content of a speech utterance in internet-mediated communication, it is necessary to take into account the linguistic consciousness of society, “to find a common language with the mass audience” [26]. Finding a common language means succeeding in making a language selection for the utterance that indicates the speaker’s ability to actualize skills that are equal (or similar) to the listener’s, in accordance with the latter’s expectations [26].

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This rule is also relevant for speech manipulation in virtual communication, which requires selecting means that are effective for achieving specific goals in a mass online audience. The image of communicators is also essential, and, consequently, the level of trust they arouse in the recipient. The level of trust is determined by the correspondence of the communicator to a certain image, which is most approved by the audience [27– 29]. The more trust a communicator receives, the better their message is perceived. The primary condition for successful communication is the correct social orientation to the audience. In virtual communication, the anonymity of the audience significantly reduces the effectiveness of the impact of the transmitted message. The communicator can solve this problem by studying the audience and forming an image of the recipient. One of the key factors contributing to the formation of the recipient’s image, and a positive or negative attitude towards the recipient, is the style of communication and speech behavior of the latter [24]. Writing about the ways of speech persuasion, Rosenfeld and Sternin lists eight main ways of speech persuasion: (1) proof, (2) persuasion, urging, begging, suggesting, ordering, asking, and forcing [17]. Emphasizing the complex nature of speech manipulation and the role of language tools to perform a manipulative function in political discourse, Nikitina argues that “none of the language tools are designed exclusively for manipulation, but almost any of them can be used for this purpose” [30]. Parshin, who believes that “for the purposes of speech influence, almost any aspect of the language structure can be utilized,” reflects a similar view. At the same time, the scholar says that there is only one tool of speech persuasion—“the use of significant variation in language structures” [31]. The factor of “significance” of the selection of language tools for implementing the communicator’s intention is also relevant for virtual communication; it manifests itself at different levels of the language.

4 Discussion Creating a certain emotional mood in the recipient is one of the most critical tasks in speech manipulation. Evaluative vocabulary, phraseological units, synonyms, and neologisms create a striking statement, producing a specific emotional background. This technique of language manipulation is quite popular on the internet. LiveJournal published an article with the title “COVIDarity: How ordinary Russians help the country cope with the epidemic” [32]. The neologism COVIDarity (the name of the project created by volunteers to help citizens who are quarantined in the current sanitary and epidemiological situation) is supported by the antithesis (opposition) of “ordinary Russians” and “the entire country.” Therefore, the author asserts the importance of every citizen in the fight against a dangerous virus and calls on everyone to provide all possible assistance to the country. The essence of the help described in the article is given below:

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1. This infection has attacked our country, and we must stand together against it. As Aesop said, united we stand, divided we fall. Of course, the doctors are now on the front line. But anyone can help their fellow citizens, at least in some way [32]. The message, supplemented by argumentation; quoting the legendary aphorism; and the proposal expressed to demonstrate the use of a specific manipulative strategy by the author are the manifestations of the persuasion strategy. The call to action, supported by personal pronouns, used as a demonstration of unity; and modal constructions (“can” and “must”) with the meaning of obligation emphasize the inevitability of joint actions. The use of neologism can create a particular emotional mood. Let us look at the title of another article of the same author. 2. Do not be a covidiot! [33]. The individual neologism “covidiot,” created by the author, is formed by the method of blending: the transliterated abbreviation “COVID” (“covid”) + “idiot,” which is a swear word of reproach. The offensive load, the tone of angry accusations implied by the neologism, is a powerful means of communicative influence. The motivating function is supported by the imperative, which is also a manifestation of the suggestive influence on the recipient; 3. Well, I guess you ate some shish kebabs? Here is the result—the number of cases of coronavirus in Moscow is growing, and if one does not calm down the lovers of loitering, then the ambulances will stretch for kilometers. That is why the authorities introduce the passes [33]. The article published under the considered title is a sample of speech manipulation based on the discrediting strategy. An appealing question at the beginning of the text, continuing insults, accusations, and a vulgar description of a social problem convey the blame imposed by the author on the “covidiots” due to the increase in the number of infected people and the measures introduced—the introduction of electronic passes. Precedent phenomena, symbols, and images convey certain cultural information to the recipient have an undeniable manipulative effect. The creation of an intricate image using a precedent phenomenon is interpreted in the recipient’s mind in the manipulator’s direction; 4. Saakashvili at the head of Ukraine: Adventure of the Lezginka in the country of combat hopak [34]. The inherent cultural component, the metonymic transfer of the type of dance to a specific person, creates a particular satirical effect, enhanced by the title of the fairy tale Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland reflected in the reader’s mind. 5. That is why the first visit of the Lezginka to the center of the Ukrainian hopak ended in nothing [34].

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6. And now the rhythms of the fierce Georgian Lezginka are once again breaking into the sweeping movements of the Ukrainian political hopak [34]. The author of the article uses metonymy as a figurative representation of the facts of reality, gives clarity to the description, conveys the subjective and evaluative attitude to the mentioned events, imposing a certain point of view on the reader. One of the articles by the author of LiveJournal, who positions herself as a “career consultant,” has the following title: ● What is your expiration date? [35]. Specific authentic oxymoron as an offending element is a way of intentional speech influence, which helps to impose on the reader the impression of the situation intended by the manipulator. Further in the text, the author continues to implement the discrediting strategy. ● For any recruiter, people are a commodity. We are selling you out [35]. Later, the author gives several tips and recommendations and indicates the signs telling the reader, “Your expiration date has not expired yet” and “You are at the top.” Such a “demonstration of expert opinion” is based more on the impact, an appeal to the recipient’s emotions. The author aims to inspire the reader with uncertainty, anxiety, and fear, which serve as a good background for presenting herself as an expert in the field under consideration, who enjoys great success with clients and can help. ● You can ask me any questions via the website. There you can also sign up for a personal consultation, but it is not that easy. If you want, rush right now for the consult and packaging. There are about ten slots, no more. No discounts. No second faster queue for friends and acquaintances. Well, that is it. Sorry, I deserve it [35]. The theatricality of the speech aimed at inspiring readers is observed in the following published letter: ● I am neither an economist nor a doctor. Not a politician or a military person. I do not know how to mobilize internal resources, heal, rescue, and support people better than those who do it professionally daily. I do not waste words… I know for sure that if each of us can and wants to mobilize ourselves for the next couple of months, < … > , then we will come out of this crisis as a completely different country [36]. ● During this time, we will help the older adults… Then, somewhere in the summer, we will look into each other’s eyes, smile, and know that in a difficult hour, we are the primary resource of support and mutual help. A large and strong country which is rich in people. Right now, it is in our power to do everything to make it happen that way [36].

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The strategy of persuasion, based on giving the speech emphatically private nature, is manifested through the abundant use of the personal pronoun “I” to show sincerity and honesty with the reader; repetitions of different levels, parallel syntactic constructions. The article is quite inspiring, in a sense patriotic, agitating to unite to find a way out of the current difficult situation and to jointly fight against common difficulties (the use of the personal pronoun “we” at the end of the letter, evaluative adjectives, the theatricality of speech). A strong emotional influence can be seen on the following post on Twitter: ● I am with HIM! I do not betray those who saved the COUNTRY from downfall! I will not take the side of our enemies < … > who want to arrange the collapse of the country with the help of the internal enemies of Russia…I am with HIM! [37]. The author uses the abundance of the personal pronoun “I,” text highlighting, repetitions, and friend-foe opposition to strengthen the influence. Phrases, designed in the form of slogans, categorical statements, contain both semantic and energy loads, act as a tool of ideological influence, which makes this tweet an example of the forcing strategy. The author implies the attitude to the country, the desire to preserve and preserve the homeland, which is approved by every citizen. “The collapse of the country” appeals to the ideology, to the recipient’s emotions, because all Russians who entered the conscious age before the 1990s remember the difficulties they faced after the USSR collapse. In addition to transmitting relevant information, the author conveys a message that is processed in the reader’s mind in the direction necessary for the manipulator. Expert reviews of reputable bloggers are gaining popularity on the internet. Such publications, photos, or videos with product demonstrations are among the most effective ways of advertising in the virtual space. Undoubtedly, they manipulate the recipients. ● Taking care of yourself while traveling is challenging. Active lifestyle hinders proper care; there is no time to use makeup. Do not leave the house without sunscreen used for all exposed parts of the body! My choice: SOME BY MI, TRUCICA MINERAL 100 CALMING SUNCREAM, SPF 50+ PA++++ [38]. The article begins with an explanation of the problem that is relevant to the readers of this blog. The solution follows, the author expresses an expert opinion on the problem raised and propose a specific product. The manipulative effect is provided by the author’s image of an expert in a particular field and, as a result, a high degree of trust on the part of readers.

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5 Conclusion Based on the results of the study of language material, we conclude that in Internetmediated communication, the communicators carry out speech manipulation by appealing to the emotions of the recipients. The analysis of the sample revealed the three most popular manipulation strategies in the virtual space: (1) persuasion strategy, (2) discrediting strategy, and (3) forcing strategy. The means of manipulation determined by the results of the work include the following language tools: (1) evaluative vocabulary, (2) phraseological units, (3) synonyms, (4) neologisms, (5) aphorisms, (6) precedent texts, (7) personalization of speech (personal pronouns “I,” “we”), (8) modal constructions, (9) imperatives, (10) rhetorical questions, (11) metaphor, (12) metonymy, (13) oxymoron. The distinctive features that have a manipulative effect should also include (1) the demonstration of the friend-foe opposition, (2) typeface separation, (3) syntactic parallelism of constructions, (4) slogans, (5) categorical statements, (6) repetition of different levels, (7) appeals to fundamental values. The choice of language means, the general tone of speech, provocation, the formation of a specific image by the communicator, and the level of trust on the part of the recipients allows one to manipulate the consciousness of the audience in internet-mediated communication. Acknowledgements The paper was done within the framework of the project MK-1675.2022.2 (A comprehensive pragmatic-linguistic study of the mechanisms for provoking and preventing the emergence and development of conflict situations in virtual environment in pandemic conditions) with a grant from the President of the Russian Federation.

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11. Fedorova LL (1991) Typology of speech persuasion and its role in the structure of communication. Top Study Lang 6:46–50 12. Issers OS (2009) Speech impact. Nauka, Moscow 13. Kopnina GA (2017) Speech manipulation. Flinta, Moscow 14. Kucherenko KV (2013) Speech manipulative persuasion in political communication. Dissertation, Military University of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation 15. Parasutskaya MI (2011) The manipulation and the manipulative discourse in linguistics: the principles of investigations. Bulletin of Udmurt University. Series: History and Philology 2:124−129 16. Reznikova SS (2003) Means and mechanisms of manipulation in the political discourse of media. In: Reznikova SS (ed) Promising directions of modern linguistics. Herzen State Pedagogical University of Russia, Saint Petersburg, pp 489–492 17. Rosenfeld MYa, Sternin IA (2018) Speech persuasion. RHYTHM Publishing House, Voronezh 18. Shelestyuk EV (1990) Speech persuasion in the field of mass communication. Nauka, Moscow 19. Zheltukhina MR (2004) The specifics of the speech persuasion of tropes in the language of mass media. Dissertation. Institute of Linguistics of the Russian Academy of Sciences 20. Ivanov LYu, Skovorodnikov AP et al (eds) (2003) Culture of Russian speech: an encyclopedic dictionary-handbook. Nauka, Moscow 21. Koltysheva EYu (2008) Manipulative impact in the modern advertising text (based on the material of English glossy magazines for women). Dissertation, Yaroslavl State Pedagogical University named after K. D. Ushinsky 22. Schiller G (1980) Manipulators of consciousness. Mysl, Moscow 23. Maletzke G (1963) Psychologie der Massen-Kommunikation. Verlag Hans-Bredow-Institut, Hamburg, Theorie und Systematik 24. Gukosiants OYu (2016) The speech aspect of disguising gender identity in English internetmediated communication. Dissertation, Pyatigorsk State Linguistic University 25. Boldyrev NN (2011) The interpretive function of language. Chelyabinsk State University Bulletin. Philology 33(248):11–16 26. Vinokur TG (2007) The speaker and the listener: variants of speech behavior, 3rd edn. LKI, Moscow 27. Montgomery M, Rennie E et al (2002) Communication, cultural and media studies: the key concepts. Routledge, London 28. Sereno KK, Mortensen CD (1970) Foundations of communication theory. Harper and Row, New York 29. Van Ruler B, Verˇciˇc D (2004) Public relations and communication management in Europe: a nation-by-nation introduction to public relations theory and practice. De Gruyter Mouton, New York 30. Nikitina KV (2006) Speech manipulation as a subject of linguistic research Bulletin of Bashkir University. Philology 11(4):104–106 31. Parshin PB (n d) Speech persuasion. Encyclopedia krugosvet. https://www.krugosvet.ru/enc/ gumanitarnye_nauki/lingvistika/RECHEVOE_VOZDESTVIE.html 32. Radulova N (2020) Covidarity: how ordinary Russians help the country cope with the epidemic. https://radulova.livejournal.com/3988748.html 33. Radulova N (2020) Do not be a covidiot! https://radulova.livejournal.com/3987119.html 34. Ganzha A (2020) Saakashvili at the head of Ukraine: the adventure of Lezginka in the country of combat hopak. https://regnum.ru/news/polit/2929060.html 35. Vladimirskaya A (2020) What is your expiration date? https://alenavl.livejournal.com/386365. html?media&utm_source=recommended 36. Kandelaki T (2020) My public letter [Tweet]. https://twitter.com/tina_kandelaki 37. Eroshik E (2020) I am with HIM! [Tweet]. https://twitter.com/080859eea/status/957499230 008086528 38. Livejournal (2020) Tips for skin care during the journey. https://annacheft.livejournal.com/383 835.html

Online Harmful Content: A Study on Violent Fan Communities on Social Media Yuliya O. Mundriyevskaya , Valeria V. Matsuta , Galina N. Serbina , and Anastasia G. Peshkovskaya

Abstract People use social media globally. Currently, social media has become increasingly responsible for growing rates of deviant behavior, violence, and hatred. The authors analyze online social network communities of individuals who admire and glorify aggression, violence, and school shootings. The mentioned fan communities employ a wide range of strategies to survive, including creating “mirror communities” on social networks. Therefore, machine search methods based on linguistic markers aimed to identify communities containing harmful content do not always work. The paper aims to present an alternative methodology for identifying violent fan communities on social media. Keywords Harmful content · Social network · Social media · Violence · Aggression · School shooting · Online social networking sites · Fan communities · Deviant behavior · Suicidal behavior

1 Introduction A human, as a “social animal,” aims to be a part of a social group [1–3]. Currently, these social groups include online communities on social media and networking websites. Scholars widely discuss their benefits and threats [4–6]. Along with the strengthening of social connections and faster rates of information dissemination, there is a topical issue of social media influence on violence rates, as well as spreading Y. O. Mundriyevskaya (B) · V. V. Matsuta · G. N. Serbina Tomsk State University, Tomsk, Russia e-mail: [email protected] V. V. Matsuta e-mail: [email protected] A. G. Peshkovskaya Mental Health Research Institute, Tomsk National Research Medical Center, Russian Academy of Sciences, Tomsk, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova (ed.), Complex Social Systems in Dynamic Environments, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 365, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23856-7_18

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dangerous ideology in violent, suicidal, or school-shooting online communities [7, 8]. VK social network registers approximately five online communities with harmful content daily. These communities unite young people. “Death groups” (as the mass media call them) that glorify suicide and teenage killers are currently familiar to everybody. Administrators of such groups gradually build their environment—a community of young people who find destructive behavior acceptable. Furthermore, the government fights the deviant behavior by banning the mentioned groups and prosecuting their most active participants. Nevertheless, there are several issues complicating control over such communities. First of all, they tend to create “mirror communities” (banned communities are immediately replaced similar), or their administrators create backup pages in advance. Second, destructive communities are private in access, which makes it impossible to see the content. In such cases, the machine search methods based on the so-called “linguistic markers” typically fail. Therefore, the research goal is to describe the methodology of identifying such communities. The authors consider identifying deviant communities by focusing on school shootings. The authors have chosen the mentioned topic because this relatively new (for Russia) deviant subculture of school shooters has recently scaled up its activities. The Internet plays a unique role in establishing this subculture after the Columbine School tragedy in the US in 1999. The school shooters are inspired by the preceding shooting episodes and their media portrayals [9, 10]. In Russia, a sensational incident of a teenager attacking his teacher happened in 2014. After the incident, the media started to report school shooting incidents more frequently. In 2018, two school shooting incidents happened within one week. Another sadly remembered case of an armed attack happened in 2018 in the Polytechnic College in the city of Kerch, Russia. Vladislav Roslyakov, a school shooter, killed 21 people, injured 67, and committed suicide. On November 14, 2019, Daniil Zasorin, a college student from Blagoveshchensk, attacked his schoolmates. Those and some other incidents immediately caught the interest of many teenagers. The so-called “support communities” started to materialize in social networks, including VK, the Russian social network. The primary issue in investigating school shooters in online communities is to detect the markers to identify communities disseminating destructive content instigating mass shootings in schools. This factor is related to two circumstances. One should distinguish destructive communities from entertaining ones—those instigating school shooting from those only informing on this topic and discussing it. Peter Langman investigates the group of signals evidencing the possible socially dangerous behavior of a potential school shooter—information leakage, school assignments, warning signs at home, and impulsive purchase of firearms. Additionally, he mentions “warning online signs,” which, according to him, include texts, photos, or videos posted by future shooters “foreshadowing future attacks” [11]. For example, Finnish shooters Pekka-Eric Auvinen and Matti Saari published online videos. In those videos, they were flaunting and shooting, while one of the shooters

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even openly announced his intention to attack a definite school (he published it in the morning of the day he committed the rampage) (Ibid.). Cohen’s research [12] is the closest to the current investigation subject. It uses linguistic markers to search for potential “lone wolf” terrorists (school shooters, particularly) on social media. The research distinguishes three types of warning signs in the behavior: ● Information leakage implies intentional or unintentional communication to a third party about planning a terrorist attack to cause damage; ● Fixation implies specific behavior expressing pathological preoccupation with a person or a group, who is or are thought to be responsible for the subject’s grievance; ● Identification means the desire of a potential “lone wolf” terrorist to identify oneself with “pseudo-commando,” previous attackers (infamous school shooters), and assassins [12]. Machine learning is utilized to determine the identification mechanisms for suicidal behavior in Twitter [13]. They distinguish suicidal thoughts from suicidal behavior (self-harm and suicide attempts), focusing on the first. As the first step, the authors compile the initial vocabulary of suicidal thoughts consisting of 16 expressions. Next, the authors collect tweets with phrases, photos, and the profile name. The vocabulary includes such expressions as “suicidal, suicide, kill myself, don’t want to be here,” etc. At the next stage, they use the human coding attributing the degree of manifestation of suicidal thoughts to the sample according to the scale “Extremely concerning—Somewhat concerning—Safe to ignore.” One of the identification issues of suicidal expressions is understanding to what degree ironic or joking texts with the term “suicide” should be included in the list of the proper ones and whether they should be included in such a list. The researchers include such texts into the first category (“Extremely concerning”). At the third stage, the researchers apply automatic machine learning classifying the whole collection of texts according to the three criteria mentioned above. First of all, the investigation results demonstrate that the computer classifier has identified 80% of the “Extremely concerning” tweets correctly and accurately demonstrated the rapid growth. Second, the results confirm that Twitter is used to express the users’ suicidal thoughts and that such posts are concerning and require further investigation. Several scholars study the connections and communication of the users expressing suicidal thoughts in Twitter applying network methods [14]. To build graphs of social networks, the researchers start with collecting tweets annotated by the users, the lists of their subscribers and friends, and those users who retweet the suicidal content. Then, the authors use the classifier consisting of 62 expressions. Two methods can solve the issue of identifying deviant communities. First of all, one can employ the method of the mass survey to construct the sampling frame. The respondents included as observation units are asked about their interests and membership in the deviant communities. An evident drawback of this method is the lack of honesty and openness in the responses. Second, one can identify by analyzing

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the “digital track” of the deviant communities and their members. An advantage of this method is that it covers all observation units. Therefore, the authors analyze the “digital trace” as the methodological framework. To detect deviant communities, the authors use public expressions on the Internet as “digital traces.” To record such expressions, the authors apply natural language processing—a set of computer linguistic methods used to solve the information search tasks and retrieve information, analyze expressions, determine their tonality, and synthesize speech. It is evident that all these markers describe the behavior of shooters, including their communications with the other users of social media, forums, and other websites. Therefore, to analyze the communities of shooters in social media, one has to develop a list of markers to distinguish the communities focused on this topic from the ones which are not their fans or are communities with a related but different focus.

2 Materials and Methods As a research subject, the authors use open data from VK, the largest Russian social network regarding the user number. To identify the deviant school shooting online communities, the authors have developed the methodology combining the classical method of keyword search based on the natural language analysis with the network analysis improving the accuracy of the search for communities and accounts.

2.1 Proposed Methodology Description To search for deviant school shooting online communities, the authors have developed the vocabulary of linguistic markers. The authors include particular terms and word combinations used by members of such communities to communicate with each other within a community. Additionally, the authors include words, word combinations, abbreviations, and numeric symbols related to school shootings and massacres and those reflecting actual events. Examples include: ● ● ● ●

Zasorin, (Danil | Daniil) and Zasorin; College and shooting; (Blagoveshchensk | Blagoveshchensk) and college; (Blagoveshchensk | Blagoveshchensk) and (shooter | shooting).

Further search includes more specific language markers of the communities, like its “natural language.” ● Yarovaya; ● Mass shooting;

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● Slaughter oneself; ● Slaughter; ● Calambers. The authors use Kribrum to perform the automatic search by linguistic markers. The goal is to search for the initial communities and users for the investigation and perform further searches utilizing the snowball method. Consequently, from November 14, 2019, to November 19, 2019 (six days), the authors identified 662 posts with the mentioned markers. Due to the specific character of language (using the same speech patterns in various situations), only 2% of posts are significant for the research. These posts contain discussions about users or lead to the groups or communities focusing on a school shooting. The remaining posts are “junk” from the research perspective, even though they contain some linguistic markers. For example, some “junk” posts include news. Though the share of the detected “valuable” posts is low, they help the authors identify the several initial school shooting communities to further search and analyze. Furthermore, the authors use the automatic cleaning algorithm and the manual selection to clean them. Manual cleaning has been performed by the visualization of posts downloaded from Kribrum and selecting the significant ones. Therefore, the initial post sampling has identified the relevant groups. Next, it has been possible to apply the snowball method and reach the other communities and active users. Within the current research, the authors have started searching for information from analyzing active users of the community “Daniil Zasorin//A shooter from Blagoveshchensk” via Gephi 0.9.2, as well as from the manual search among the subscribers. Furthermore, the authors have been following and analyzing active users of the community dedicated to the events in Blagoveshchensk, identifying eight other school shooting communities. Therefore, the authors apply the so-called “snowball method.” This method is based on the identification of well-known, stable, and numerous extremist organizations and groups. Besides, it is based on detecting the related smaller and lesser-known organizations and groups via the “friendly links.” Then, the authors apply the same search procedure to the identified communities and groups until the obtained “snowball” absorbs the maximum number of the available organizations comprising the target research audience. Nevertheless, the classical method of keyword identification is not always efficient because the applied queries are relevant for classical fan communities as well. Therefore, errors are possible. Individuals who are not deviant can be identified as such. Besides, the existing censorship and banning mechanisms are reasonably fast. In some situations, the communities identified by the markers are already banned. Consequently, the authors have to develop an alternative algorithm overlapping with the snowball method and based on the network analysis. The primary goal of this method is to find people related to the banned accounts of these communities’ members and analyze them. The authors proceed from the following assumption. One only needs to know that some banned users are members of this community to acknowledge that the community is deviant. However, not all members are deviant, but only those who are closely related to the banned users and

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are members of the same community. The authors apply the network analysis method in several steps: 1. Collection of “friendly links” of members of the identified deviant communities in VK, as well as statuses of the users’ accounts (active, banned, or removed); 2. Construction of the connection network of members. A user’s status is taken into consideration as an attribute of each digital trace; 3. Network clusterization. These aspects are required in order to identify the network elements with the most significant number of connections. Additionally, it implies observing the correlation between different users—it is more probable that those connected with such elements tend to demonstrate destructive actions, as well; 4. A sampling of active accounts closely related to the banned ones and search for the underlying connection. In addition, the authors have collected and analyzed their standard subscriptions. By this method, the authors have identified one more community (Vlad’s Memory Group, Vladislav Roslyakov, Incident in Kerch).

3 Results and Discussion The authors test the methodology on open data arrays of the Russian-speaking VK segment with over 80 million active users. Moreover, the authors have been working on the data analysis for two months identifying nine deviant communities dedicated to school shootings with a total number of 1626 users. The smallest community has only 29 members (Daniil Zasorin//A shooter from Blagoveshchensk), while the largest has 958 members (Daniil Zasorin/A shooter from Blagoveshchensk). Table 1 presents the list of the identified and analyzed communities and the number of their members.

3.1 Evaluation of the Accuracy of the Developed Methodology The accuracy of the developed methodology is confirmed by banning the identified communities. Within two months, three out of nine communities have been banned because of the “possible violation of the website policy.” These are the following communities: Daniil Zasorin / A shooter from Blagoveshchensk (958 members), Columbine (138 members), and Vlad’s Memory Group (66 members). Apparently, these communities have been banned after posting or discussing information, which, according to the VK rules or the government censorship regulations, is considered extremist. More than that, particular users related to the ones banned earlier (identified at the second step of our methodology) have also been banned due to the “suspicious actions of accounts” or “possible violation of the website policy.”

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Table 1 List of the identified and analyzed communities and the number of their members Community namea

Number of members as of January 13, 2020

Daniil Zasorin//A shooter from Blagoveshchenskb

958

God is dead 2.0

140

Columbineb

138

I love Irina Yarovaya

122

Vlad’s Memory Groupb

66

Natural selection

60

God is dead bl*** (god iz d∍d bl*** [***—censored strong language])

59

Columbine as the meaning of life/WRATH

54

Daniil Zasorin//A shooter from Blagoveshchensk

29

*** — censored strong language a The authors do not provide the links to the communities. However, the authors are ready to provide them upon request. b These groups have been banned in the process of the analysis Source Compiled by the authors

4 Conclusion In conclusion, to solve the issue of identifying deviant school shooting communities, the authors have developed the methodology combining the classical method of keyword search based on the natural language analysis combined with the network analysis. The mentioned aspects have improved the search accuracy. However, the developed methodology has its restrictions. For example, one needs to identify linguistic markers specific to each case. Furthermore, initially, the search is performed in open communities only. Nonetheless, the further search by the snowball method allows one to discover even closed communities. This methodology can be applied to identify communities and users from different areas like suicide, nationalism, self-harm, and other destructive communities. Acknowledgements The research was funded by the Russian Science Foundation, Project 19-7810122 “Development of an Algorithm for Identifying Risk Factors for the Safety of Social Network Users Based on an Analysis of the Content and Psychological Characteristics of its Consumers.”

References 1. Ellemers N, Spears R, Doosje B (1997) Sticking together or falling apart: in-group identification as a psychological determinant of group commitment versus individual mobility. J Pers Soc Psychol 72(3):617–626

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2. Peshkovskaya A, Babkina T, Myagkov M (2019) Gender effects and cooperation in collective action: a laboratory experiment. Ration Soc 31(3):337–353 3. Peshkovskaya A, Babkina T, Myagkov M (2018) Social context reveals gender differences in cooperative behavior. Biocon 20:213–225 4. Caiani C, Wagemann C (2009) Online networks of the Italian and German extreme right. Inf Commun Soc 12(1):66–109 5. Feshchenko A, Matsuta V, Mundrievskaya J et al (2020). Psychological safety on social networks: a search for dangerous content and its consumers. https://doi.org/10.21125/edulearn. 2020.1370 6. Matsuta VV, Mundrievskaya YuO, Serbina GN et al (2020) Analysis of the text content of deviant online communities (on the example of learning communities). HumItarian Sci Bull 3:90–101 7. Adler PA, Adler P (2008) The cyber worlds of self-injurers: deviant communities, relationships, and selves. Symb Interact 31(1):33–56 8. Peshkovskaya A, Mundrievskaya Y, Serbina G et al (2021) Followers of school shooting online communities in Russia: asge, gender, anonymity, and regulations. Adv Intell Syst Comput 1252:713–716 9. Bondü R, Scheithauer H (2012) Media consumption in German school shooters. Stud Media Commun 7:69–89 10. Kiilakoski T, Oksanen A (2011) Soundtrack of the school shootings, cultural script, music, and male rage. Young 19:247–269 11. Langman L (1992) A guide to silent westerns. Greenwood Publishing Group, Westport 12. Cohen AK (1955) Delinquent boys. Free Press, New York 13. O’Dea B, Wan S, Batterham PJ et al (2015) Detecting suicidality on twitter. Internet Interv 2:183−188 14. Colombo GB, Burnap P, Hodorog A et al (2016) Analyzing the connectivity and communication of suicidal users on Twitter. Comput Commun 73:291–300

Media Literacy as a Factor in Countering Manipulation in Personal Communications: Generational Aspects Vladimir F. Oleshko , Evgeniy V. Oleshko , and Olga S. Mukhina

Abstract The paper analyzes the media preferences of representatives of various audience groups based on an expert survey of respondents. Strauss–Howe generational theory is used as the dominant explanation for differentiation. This theory is widespread among researchers in various scientific fields. However, such an approach is poorly investigated in the context of media practices. Following the research objectives, we described the examples of the target audience’s needs through the subjects of information activities and cases of publishing texts with clearly manipulative content, using the factor of digital generational gaps. Texts on the topic of “conspiracy theories” and the coronavirus pandemic are cited as examples of the current media agenda. Several specific structural and content elements of such publications indicate the need for systematic media education of representatives of both “analog” and “digital” generations. The paper proves that implementing this concept can help solve the daily problems of social management and develop the communicative and cultural memory of the Russian nation. Keywords Theory of generations · Communicative and cultural memory · Media consumption · Manipulation · Media literacy

1 Introduction Media have always been an essential tool for influencing the audience. At the same time, in the context of permanent social and technological transformations, media do V. F. Oleshko · E. V. Oleshko · O. S. Mukhina (B) Ural Federal University, Yekaterinburg, Russia e-mail: [email protected] V. F. Oleshko e-mail: [email protected] E. V. Oleshko e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova (ed.), Complex Social Systems in Dynamic Environments, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 365, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23856-7_19

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not just reflect current events. News presentation often depends on the media format and internal policy, thereby distorting the objective image of the world. Besides, since the internet has become a crucial element of everyday life for most people, and journalism has become convergent, the sphere of influence of multimedia texts on individuals and mass audiences has significantly expanded. As a result, the topic of manipulation and disinformation in the media (especially in digital media) is becoming increasingly actual and attracts more research [13]. These and many other factors and contradictions of the information world determine the effectiveness of communication within different social groups and the entire society and actively influence the formation and development of communicative and cultural memory. Communicative memory covers the content of an individual’s memory, which is constantly changing in daily communication within social groups, including when interacting with the mass media. Likewise, ideas transmitted through media texts are updated through cultural memory. As a result, this interaction determines many behavioral reactions of people. This fact is especially evident when analyzing differences in the consumption and internalization of the content of information products by representatives of the so-called “analog” and “digital” generations. As we know, fakes (deliberately created false information) play an increasingly critical role in the modern information space [7]. The active use of this term in the secondary literature is primarily related to the emergence of social networks and messengers, as well as the increase in the number of bloggers. According to the researchers, social networks are actively used as platforms for manipulation and propaganda [14]. Many people, especially young and inexperienced consumers of the “analog” generation, consider such texts unbiased and objective: they feel that these channels do not belong to anyone and broadcast more truthful information than traditional media. Nevertheless, the practice shows that this is wrong. Any source of information has an owner (which can be either an individual or a company), its interests, format, sponsors, advertisers, news broadcast policy, and worldview. Unfortunately, online manipulation is more effective because “automation, scalability and anonymity offer computational propaganda not only a speed and scope of influence but also a level of persistence and persuasiveness that distinguishes it from attempts to manipulate and mislead through leaflet drops, radio announcements and televised media” [3]. The scientific literature corpus contains many examples of the manipulation of public consciousness through the media [1]. However, given the recent social and technological transformations, we assert that it is vital for media practice to identify differences in the perception of information by people of different ages, dividing them into generations. The generation theory was formulated by American researchers Neil Howe and William Strauss in their book “Generations. The History of America’s Future, 1584 to 2069” in 1991 [12]. The scholars divided the people who lived at that time into four generations: ● “G.I.” elders, born in 1901–1924 (aged 66–89 at the time of the book’s release); the main participants in World War II;

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● “SILENT” midlifers, born in 1925–1942, aged 48–65; ● “BOOMER” rising adults, born in 1943–1960, aged 30–47; ● “13ER” youths, born in 1961–1981, aged 9–29. They are called the 13th generation because it was the 13th generation since the founding of the American nation. The birth years were changed later by different researchers [2, 5, 15] because time has passed, and it was necessary to update the birth years of generations. We should also note that the generational theory of generations is universal; it is used to analyze various issues: social, economic, cultural, or even wine consumption by different generations [20]. The research aims to test the effectiveness of using the methodology of the theory of generations in studying the perception of mass media information and the possibility of manipulating consumers of different ages, based on the following division into generations (according to the Ural School of Journalism): ● ● ● ●

Generation A, born in 1942–1962; Generation X, born in 1963–1982; Generation Y, born in 1983–2003; Generation Z, born in 2004 and later.

These age groups are not randomly generated. Instead, we selected definite generations of media communicators formed due to technological and other factors [19]. Representatives of these generations use different platforms for information consumption, expect various forms of news presentation, specific content, and react differently to changes in the media. These facts will be proved below with specific examples obtained as a result of the research. Besides, technological and political (and then economic and cultural) changes have influenced the formation of media generations in modern Russia. Thus, the issue is not about the age difference but the different values interiorized by individuals.

2 Materials and Methods In October–December 2019, we surveyed 94 people to analyze generational differences in information perception. In most cases, the survey was conducted via internet technologies. Several online media and social network groups helped us to spread the information that we searched for respondents. The survey sample was as broad as possible because the research object is the main characteristics of respondents: the systematic consumption of media products. Furthermore, we were interested in representatives of all generations mentioned above. Respondents were asked the following questions: ● What media (newspapers, magazines, TV, radio, online media, Telegram channels, etc.) do you read, listen to, watch, and why? ● What do you like and dislike about this media product?

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● What do you lack in modern mass media publications? (Topics, genres, styles, design, and other features?); ● Can you name authors (journalists, bloggers, or just people who actively write on their pages) whose work is close to you? Why is it close to you? ● What can you suggest to improve the media sphere in general? ● Do you have difficulty accessing any media resources? What are these difficulties (if any), and how do you overcome them? What should the authorities or some social institutions do about it? A separate questionnaire was created for Generation Z representatives in a simpler language corresponding to the age of the respondents. We also chose publications on the most relevant topic of coronavirus as examples of audience manipulation. As everyone knows, in the spring of 2020, coronavirus topics covered all feeds, newspaper pages, and broadcasts. People with no such personal experience, locked in their homes and had to navigate through a lot of contradictory news. Additionally, we analyzed different media publications, focusing on their methods of manipulation of representatives of different generations.

3 Results The Russian Generation A includes people of the Soviet era: at the time of the collapse of the Soviet Union, their worldview was fully formed, and a significant part of their life was spent in the USSR. These people got used to the traditional news format and miss it. They do not like the harmful content of modern media texts; they want to see more positive publications, broadcasts about ordinary people, honest workers, nature, and animals. They do not like the obscenities in broadcasts, the abundance of vulgarity, and the emphasis on the primitive drives of people. Besides, they are mainly consumers of traditional media (newspapers, magazines, radio, and TV). To attract this audience, Russian journalists should follow the traditions of Soviet classics: positive and friendly information, literate speech, moral and ethical standards of the mid-twentieth century. Moreover, there is only one way to reach one’s audience: through the media that your consumers use, that is, newspapers, magazines, radio, and TV. However, the previous perception patterns are also used in some international media as a successful means of manipulation. For example, it is evident that the “Putin—KGB” pattern primarily impacts the older generation. That is why one of the oldest American newspapers, The New York Times, was chosen for such an impact. At the beginning of the coronavirus era, The New York Times accused V. Putin of purposefully destroying the United States healthcare system by applying information wars (known since his days in the KGB) in order “to discredit the West and destroy his enemies from within” [4]. According to our results, Generation X is the most demanding in terms of the quality of information and its presentation. First of all, this group consists of adults

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who are socially accomplished and at the same time active. The representatives of this generation pay attention to the essence, and manipulation affects them much less than other generations. They need a competent presentation of information, objective analysis, deep disclosure of the topic, and educational programs. Representatives of this generation offered, for example, to introduce the specialization of journalists, additional payment for obtaining other professions, and even licensing (for protection from “scribblers” under the principle “less quantity, but of higher quality”). More rarely than Generation A, but still, many Generation X representatives noted the decline in morality and required introducing some ethical restrictions. In addition, the media generation X includes relatively young modern people who actively read, listen, and watch all existing media. They quickly use the internet but do not “live” in it. Thus, when creating media for this generation, journalists need the following rules: ● Duplicate published texts on all possible platforms, in all formats; ● Hire only competent specialists, create high-quality media; ● Establish narrowly specialized media (narrow subject matter will be covered in a deep and versatile way); ● Produce extensive, deep, and well-grounded materials; ● Impose no restrictions on the subject, but carefully choose the topics (e. g., it is normal to write about sex and murder, but debauchery and close-up demonstration of injuries and blood are unacceptable). Given this demanded quality and meticulous approach to analyzing the information provided, it is difficult to manipulate this generation. Therefore, most manipulators focus on other generations. For instance, on Generation Y: here we can find many examples. Unlike the previous generations, Generation Y actively seeks entertainment in media content, but they will be disappointed if it gets too superficial or presents information one-sidedly. Having grown up in the era of promoting the idea of tolerance, these people most often use the word “objectivity” (and sometimes the term “tolerance”) in their responses. They want an independent assessment, different opinions. They generally crave variety (e. g., this generation listed a vast number of genres and formats of information that they lack, recalling both outdated pamphlets, feuilletons, and modern memes). This generation also represents people who want to see the “picture” first. We are talking not only about photos and videos but also about the use of the reportage genre (the respondents often noted its lack). Another popular word was “independence.” Many representatives of Generation Y talk about censorship, want complete freedom, and the inadmissibility of any interference by the authorities in the work of the mass media. This generation has grown up in the digital age and has pronounced preferences in this matter. Therefore, to attract this audience, journalists resort to the following methods, often quite manipulative:

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● Oppositional media is the best media for Generation Y: even supporting the government, journalists of such media try to oppose themselves to the authorities and at least scold them for something; ● Each publication should provide different opinions, and preferably the opposite: the consumer of information should feel that they can choose which side they are on; ● This media can be published in various forms (if finances allow), but the main format is an online publication designed primarily for smartphones; it is also necessary to duplicate posts in social media and messengers (VK, Instagram, Twitter, Facebook, YouTube, and Telegram); ● This media needs a bright design, a significant amount of visual components, a variety of genres (consumers should be constantly surprised, journalists should come up with new things for them); ● It is necessary to allow the customer to read both a short and an extended version (the ideal option is an announcement with a bright title and a link to a detailed material with a menu with subheadings-links); ● It is crucial to broadcast on spiritual, moral, and global topics in a simple language while entertaining the consumer: this generation likes to reflect on important things but does not want to strain itself (at least not when consuming information). Thus, there are many ways to influence this generation. As an example of blatant manipulation (as a consequence of the lack of media literacy of the mass audience and the willingness of Generation Y to fight for freedom with any enemy), we can recall some popular news from the category of “conspiracy theories.” Some Russian bloggers accused the United States of creating the coronavirus [8], citing, among other things, the so-called “Event 201. A global pandemic exercise” [24] as an argument. In October 2019 (two months before China announced information about the outbreak in Wuhan), the wealthiest representatives of the United States (The Johns Hopkins Center for Health Security, World Economic Forum, and Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation) organized a tabletop exercise that simulated the world’s readiness for a coronavirus pandemic. When viewing the short version of this event, the viewers noticed many coincidences with the real pandemic, which undoubtedly impressed the audience. The exact name of the virus is announced, the symptoms (known to everyone today) are listed, and then the figures are given about the exponentially growing number of cases (not perceived by the ear, and indeed the average person is not able to compare them with real ones from memory instantly). To fully evaluate the coincidences, we compiled a table where everything is divided into points. The data was taken from the official World Health Organization [WHO] website [22] (Table 1). Thus, the organizers and participants of “Event 201” predicted only one thing: the name of the virus. The growing financial crisis and the stream of misinformation are obvious consequences that can be predicted not only by economists or journalists when a pandemic occurs. As for the symptoms, when choosing this disease, they are also obvious: coronaviruses have been known for a long time, they are a large family of viruses and cause respiratory infections ranging from the common cold to

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Table 1 Comparative analysis of “Event 201” and real data “Event 201” data Name of the virus

Coronavirus

Place of origin of the disease

South America

Suspected source of the virus Pigs

Real data Wuhan, China Bats and snakes

Symptoms in humans

All symptoms of respiratory diseases from mild flu to severe pneumonia

Number of cases

35,000 cases at the beginning of drawing attention to the problem In a month: 450,000 cases, 26,000 deaths In 3 months: 10 million cases, 660,000 deaths

31-Dec-2019: China reported the disease 3-Jan-2020: first information about the number of cases (44 people) In a month (3-Feb-2020): 17,391 cases, 362 deaths In 3 months (3-Apr-2020): 972,303 cases, 50,321 deaths

Rating of affected countries 35,000cases: (number of cases indicated in – Brazil (20,541) parentheses) – Ecuador (7,563) – Chile (4,329) – Argentina (1,303) – Portugal (550) – Colombia (492) – USA (174) – China (61)

February 8, 2020, when the number of cases reached a comparable level (34,886 cases): – China (34,598) – cruise ship (64) – Singapore (33) – Thailand (32) – Japan (25) – Republic of Korea (24) – Australia (15) – Malaysia (15) – Germany (14) – Vietnam (13) – USA (12), etc

Solution

Joining efforts of all countries. A single source for distributing aid to affected countries. Governments should introduce emergencies. It is advised not to visit countries affected by the virus, but people move around the planet despite the prohibitions

States close their borders. Self-isolation of people in most countries. Penalties for violation of the regime of self-isolation

Result in the economy

Growing global financial crisis

Result in the media

Misinformation flow on the internet. Some countries are turning off the internet to stop the panic. Instead, authorities and international organizations are trying to fill the media with credible information

Misinformation flow on the internet. Attempts to control the media. The blocking of websites and videos, the penalties for fakes. Dissemination of official information from authorities and international organizations (continued)

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Table 1 (continued) Epilogue

“Event 201” data

Real data

65,000,000 people died in 18 months

Unfortunately, the data is still not final

Source [24, 22]

pneumonia [21]. However, the average person, whose vocabulary includes the word “coronavirus” only since the beginning of 2020, and who associates this term only with the developing pandemic, is shocked by the “prediction” (or “testing,” according to the conspiracy theory). Another episode with the same manipulators is Bill Gates’ speech in 2010 [23]. The speech was devoted to the possibility of reducing CO2 emissions into the atmosphere to zero, if possible. The formula presented by the speaker had the following components: CO2 = P * S * E * C (P—people, S—services per person, E—energy per service, C—CO2 per unit energy). However, almost the entire report was devoted to the last point: B. Gates proposed to reduce it to zero with the help of new technologies. At the beginning of the speech, talking about the impossibility of significantly reducing the first component (people), the lecturer made a careless remark: “The world today has 6.8 billion people. That is headed up to about 9 billion. Now, if we do a really great job on new vaccines, health care, and reproductive health services, we could lower that by, perhaps 10 or 15%.” At this point, the conspiracy theory activists cut the record (without listening, of course, about the other points of the formula) and make angry conclusions: with the help of vaccines distributed worldwide, B. Gates wants to reduce the number of people on the planet, that is, killing them. However, the lecturer spoke of a decrease in population growth (not in the existing population) and had in mind the following: in developing countries, where the death rate (especially child mortality) is high, people give birth to many children. Nevertheless, as soon as the health system is successful and the death rate falls, the number of children in families decreases, as evidenced many times. Thus, B. Gates believes that, paradoxically, by saving lives, we can reduce population growth [9]. It is easy to find these sources, but 11,000 likes and more than 1,000 supportive comments under the video of representatives of the conspiracy theory indicate that the mass of people will not do this. The analysis of Generation Z is a little more complex because they are, in fact, still children, and their worldview has not yet been formed. However, surprisingly, unlike their parents from Generation Y, they talk much less about the entertainment function of media, focusing more on the educational one. They lack high-quality design, clear explanations, interesting and exciting stories; they are mainly hindered by advertising and propaganda. Predictably, born in the age of new technologies, representatives of Generation Z most often use online publications and social media. When creating media for Generation Z, journalists should take into account the following characteristics:

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● Creating only a network media (the basic version should be smartphone-oriented), duplicating posts in social media and messengers; ● Applying the language used by people of this age, understanding its psychological features; ● Using the high-quality design, professional photographers, artists, and web designers; ● Establishing mass media for children at the expense of non-profit or educational organizations (for ethical reasons); Creating media for other generations (for commercial reasons). Of course, this does not imply that it is ethical to manipulate others, but manipulating children means practically putting an end to the entire future of critically thinking humanity. The emotions of Generation Z, due to their age, are more open to influence, and it is easier to present non-credible information to this audience. For instance, one of the fake international news of the beginning of the coronavirus era, designed for the younger generation, said that Vladimir Putin released 800 tigers and 500 lions on Russian streets to force people to stay at home [10]. Publications that revealed this fake noted that the attached photo (with a lion walking along the avenue) was made in South Africa. We agree with the author of the disclosure: if Putin made such a decision, bears would be much more relevant in Russian reality than lions [18]. Other researchers came to similar conclusions about all four generations. For example, Gladchenko, in her paper, presents tables with information sources used by different generations and methods of influencing these people in the media. We agree with the author’s conclusions about the requirements for each type of media: traditional media for Generation A (the researcher called it “baby boomers”), equal use of all platforms by Generation X, the priority of the internet for Generation Y, and emphasis on smartphones (apps, messengers) for Generation Z. Likewise, the author noted the exactingness of Generation X (they are very difficult to influence; they must “reach” some idea themselves before realizing it, they will not believe the word). The advice for publications for Generation Y is to use more music, videos, and colors, namely, to surprise the audience and present a diverse picture, as we noted above. The author also highlighted the impact of authorities on the opinion of the older generation and the possibility of direct influence on the emotions of the younger one [11].

4 Discussion When filling out the questionnaire, the respondents suggested many exciting ideas that can improve the situation in the media world. The main was the need to abolish censorship; establish actual, effective freedom of speech; and prohibit interference by the authorities in the work of the media. Some individual comments were difficult to consider because they relate to the lives of specific respondents (one lacks

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tolerance, but it already “seems unbearable” to another, and so on). However, several requirements seemed unconventional and noteworthy: ● Ensuring more self-censorship, moral adjustments, and a focus on promoting universal values (love for people, mutual assistance, family, friendship, etc.); ● Providing the specialization of journalists, additional payment for having other professions, licensing; ● Giving practical tasks in forums for young journalists, not just “chatter”; ● Using competent written language so that journalists do not rely on proofreaders; ● Paying more attention to the genre of reportage and deep analysis; ● Not chasing ratings in search engines (we would like to add that the idea is correct, but to do this, we need to change the search engine system because the media cannot ignore this rating on their own); ● Presenting more photos, videos, infographics, and links; ● Verifying information more thoroughly; ● Introducing media education in schools. However, according to current practice, the best way to resist influence and neutralize its negative consequences is to implement the concept of mass media education of representatives of all social groups in Russia, not in words but deeds. For instance, the professor of the High School of Economics, Alexander Sharikov, “proposed a four-component digital literacy model which significantly affected the interpretation of the concept. The model is based on two binary oppositions: “capabilities–threats” and “technical–technological–socio-humanitarian.” Thus, four quadrants are formed at the intersection of these two axes: (1) semantic-communication capabilities, (2) technical–technological capabilities, (3) socio-psychological threats, and (4) technical–technological threats” [6]. Moreover, it is crucial to teach media literacy to both the older generation [16] and the younger one, for whom it should become part of school and university curricula. The creation of children’s media studios and school media would also be helpful. It is vital to teach the younger generation (which, figuratively speaking, “almost learns to walk with an iPad in their hands”) to navigate the internet correctly. Researchers from Volgograd University make the following conclusion based on their survey results: “The young generation is aware of the potential negative media impact on the consciousness of the perceiving audience, but they do not know much how to combat media manipulation.” Therefore, these skills should be taught; young people should be able “to use various sources to obtain information, to analyze and interpret the information according to the tasks, to make decisions, to filter information provided by the media not to become addictive on the news, to develop own point of view about events discussed by media to avoid capture and so on” [17]. However, an overly critical view should not lead to the other extreme in the form of complete denial of information since it is difficult to assess its source and reliability.

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5 Conclusion As a result of the research, we found that age and other characteristics (primarily socio-demographic ones) are dominant in the formation of mass media audience groups, which is often used by sociological media services in traditional approaches. Furthermore, we established that technological, political, economic, and cultural factors form specific subgroups of participants in communication. Simultaneously, age is not always as important as individuals’ media education and technological skills or differences in their values and worldview dominants. Consequently, when classifying mass media audience groups in the digital age, one should take into account the personality of people included in these groups based on specific characteristics. However, in general, the typological approach in media theory is far from being exhausted because traditional media, online media, and even new media cannot broadcast news, texts of different topics and genres for a single, unique consumer. Therefore, media should group people to choose their target audience. Based on an expert survey, the nature of which we define as “intelligence work,” we tried to prove that the generational approach allows the most fruitful formation of media content. Nonetheless, there are both positive aspects and negative ones. Unfortunately, people who lack basic media literacy tend to easily fall prey to manipulators, losing money, time, energy, and possibly their lives, as shown by the coronavirus pandemic. This situation is especially evident in the context of the misinformation flow that has emerged since the beginning of 2020. The overwhelming majority cannot determine where the truth is, where the disputed information is, and where the superficially created fake is. Even blocking the site and video content is ineffective because almost any technically enlightened schooler can use a VPN; thus, views of any prohibited publication, on the contrary, increase. Only one method is effective against manipulation: being aware of it. Acknowledgements The reported study was funded by Russian Science Foundation according to research project No.19-18-00264 entitled “Digitalization of communicative-cultural memory and problems of its intergenerational transmission.”

References 1. Antropova V et al (2019) Technologies of manipulation with ethic concepts in military discourse of mass media. In: PMMIS 2019: 3rd Conference on post mass media in the modern informational society—journalistic text in a new technological environment—achievements and problems. Future Academia, Chelyabinsk, 28–29 March 2019 2. Arkhipov SV, Vanchikova EN, Zolotareva NA et al (2019) Research into motivational factors of work done by university teachers from the perspective of the theory of generations. Technol Educ Manag Inform 8(4):1477–1483 3. Bienvenue E (2020) Computational propaganda: political parties, politicians, and political manipulation on social media. In: Woolley SC, Howard PN (eds) International affairs. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 525–527

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4. Broad WJ (2020) Putin’s long war against American science. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/ 04/13/science/putin-russia-disinformation-health-coronavirus.html 5. Caballero M, Baigorri A (2019) Glocalising the theory of generations: the case of Spain. Time Soc 28(1):333–357 6. Davydov S (2020) Digital literacy: Russia’s path. https://www.ridl.io/en/digital-literacy-russias-path/ 7. Deb A et al (2019) Perils and challenges of social media and election manipulation analysis: The 2018 US Midterms. In: WWW’19: the 2019 world wide web conference. Association for Computing Machinery, San Francisco, 13 May 2019 8. Freedom V (2020) Coronavirus, the red pill of truth. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uqK B4yILOqs&feature=youtu.be 9. Gates B (2018) Does save more lives lead to overpopulation? https://www.youtube.com/watch? v=obRG-2jurz0&feature=youtu.be 10. Ghana News (2020) Russian president, Vladimir Putin releases 800 tigers and 500 lions to enforce “no gathering” rule in the country. https://www.ghanamma.com/2020/03/22/russianpresident-vladimir-putin-releases-800-tigers-and-500-lions-to-enforce-no-gathering-rule-inthe-country/ 11. Gladchenko TN (2019) Strategies for countering information wars based on the theory of generations. In: Bespalova SV (ed) Proceedings of current issues of information warfare in the modern world: challenges and threats to Russia and the Russian world. Donetsk National University, Donetsk 12. Howe N, Strauss W (1991) Generations: the history of America’s future, 1584 to 2069. William Morrow and Company, New York 13. Krafft PM, Donovan J (2020) Disinformation by design: the use of evidence collages and platform filtering in a media manipulation campaign. Polit Commun 37(2):194–214 14. Leber A, Abrahams A (2019) A storm of tweets: social media manipulation during the gulf crisis. Rev Middle East Stud 53(2):241–258 15. Persson K (2019) Confident millennials: differences in consumer confidence across five generations. Econ Sociol 12(4):257–277 16. Rasi P, Vuojarvi H, Rivinen S (2020) Promoting media literacy among older people: a systematic review. Adult Educ Q 71(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/0741713620923755 17. Semikina Y, Demushina O (2019) Ways and methods of media manipulation: a survey among Volgograd students. Dilemas Contemporaneos-Educacion Politica y Valores 7(1). https://doi. org/10.46377/dilemas.v28i1.1651 18. Shevchenko N (2020) Putin unleashes lions all over Russia to force people to stay indoors. Except it didn’t happen. https://www.rbth.com/lifestyle/331881-putin-lions-coronavirus-russia 19. Simons G, Mukhin M, Oleshko V et al (2019) Digitalization of communicative and cultural memory and the problems of its intergenerational transmission: method of interdisciplinary research. Commun Stud 6(4):920–939 20. Thach L, Riewe S, Camillo A (2020) Generational cohort theory and wine: analyzing how gen Z differs from other American wine consuming generations. Int J Wine Bus Res. https://doi. org/10.1108/IJWBR-12-2019-0061 21. World Health Organization (n d) Q&A on coronaviruses (COVID-19). https://www.who.int/ emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/question-and-answers-hub/q-a-detail/q-a-cor onaviruses 22. World Health Organization (n d) Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) weekly epidemiological update and weekly operational update. https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-cor onavirus-2019/situation-reports/ 23. YouTube (2010) Bill Gates about energy: innovating to zero! https://www.youtube.com/watch? v=JaF-fq2Zn7I&feature=youtu.be 24. YouTube (2019) Event 201 pandemic exercise: highlights reel. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=AoLw-Q8X174&feature=youtu.be

Bilingual Polymodal Personality in the Aspect of Intercultural Interactions Elvina A. Salikhova , Nailya G. Iskuzhina , and Ilshat S. Nasipov

Abstract A significant increase in interest in the interdisciplinary aspect of language learning is another evidence, one way or another related to the specifics of the possession and active use of languages in a mono- and multilingual communicative situation. “Polyvalent communicative personality” is a pivotal concept that has become a trigger for a scientific discussion of the problems of linguistics concerning the incidence of two or more languages. In linguistics, several approaches to its study are proposed: (1) indicating the sources of this phenomenon, (2) discussion of the concepts adjacent to the phenomenon under consideration, (3) taking into account the abilities of the emerging polyvalent communicative personality in the educational space; (4) describing its place and role in the process of intercultural verbal and non-verbal interaction. Keywords Bilingual · Communicative personality · Intercultural communication · Polyvalent personality · Code switching · Speech personality · Language mixing · Type · Linguistic personality

1 Introduction Our appeal to the speech phenomenon of a polyvalent communicative personality (hereinafter referred to as the PCP) is due to the peculiarities of verbal interaction in a multilingual linguistic environment and is justified by the stated goals, namely: socioand psycholinguistic characteristics of mono- and bilinguals, as well as ethnic groups E. A. Salikhova (B) Ufa State Aviation Technical University, Ufa, Bashkortostan, Russia e-mail: [email protected] N. G. Iskuzhina Institute of Education Development of the Republic of Bashkortostan, Ufa, Bashkortostan, Russia I. S. Nasipov Bashkir State Pedagogical University Named After M.Akmulla, Ufa, Bashkortostan, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova (ed.), Complex Social Systems in Dynamic Environments, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 365, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23856-7_20

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in the historically established conditions of functioning of several languages and cultures [1]. According to the sociological model, PCP is, as a rule, a bearer of two or more languages (linguistic subsystems—dialect carrier, diglossic person), adequately perceiving, mentally and verbally representing multilingual reality at the level of speech and capable of cognitive operations. We agree with the opinion of sociologists that we find such a type in any linguistic culture [2, 3]. Nevertheless, free orientation in the appropriate use of speech means in a heterogeneous linguistic environment, the arbitrariness of speech behavior do not occur instantly and in their entirety. In order to objectively describe that specific environment created by a set of verbal means, methods and situations of communication that consistently accompany the manifestation of PCP, let us turn to the socio- and psycholinguistic issues associated with it. So, let us agree that the PCP is the type to which the majority of members of the multilingual society belong. Let us take out of the discussion here the question of which part of the linguistic community actualizes the features of the manifestation of PCP in society. The concept of PCP that we are developing could in a certain way explain the differences in the types of speech cultures in mono- and multilingual societies, as well as within linguo-ethnic groups, and make adjustments to the modern educational model of learning in the aspect of the communication ecology. If we proceed from the theoretical setting that there are several types of communicative personalities in a heterogeneous linguistic environment, then we can assume that PCP is a combination (not equal to simple addition!) of abilities actively manifested by members of the language community of different ages with the coexistence of several homo- (Baskir and Tatar) and heterogeneous (Bashkir and Russian, Tatar and Russian) language systems. The nature and structure of PCP are considered by us as a complex of speech-and-age and speech-and-behavioral characteristics that are inherent in members of the microcommunity. At the same time, it is important to pay attention to the peculiarities of the distribution of various personality types in it. The sociopsycholinguistic components of PCP in everyday speech practice are manifested in various combinations, while the variability in the choice of speech means directly correlates with the social components of the native speaker and with a specific communicative situation. Considering the multilingualism of Bashkiria as a unique environment for the coexistence of mono- and polylinguals, one can talk about the “characteristics” of this linguistic group as a collective, and not about the individual PCPs that make up this collective. It is quite appropriate to describe such a microcommunity as a configuration of sociopsycholinguistic types [4] that have a common base. Questions considering the origin of the latter, the specifics of the distribution of “polyvalent linguistic personalities” within society, the presence or absence of any functional yield in it remain open [5]. The sociopsycholinguistic interpretation of the PCP phenomenon is based on the theoretical objective that all or many in a linguistic society have an identical personality structure. The portrait of PCP as a sociopsycholinguistic type of bilingual/trilingual consists of elements reflecting its communicative experience, borrowed from another linguistic (sub) system as a result of close interlanguage

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and intercultural interaction. In this regard, it is possible to introduce the concept of “monovalent linguistic personality”, and to consider, in comparison with PCP, various ways of positioning them in speech situations [6]. In a disengaged form, the sociopsycholinguistic type of PCP is a mental entity constructed according to verbal and non-verbal characteristics inherent in a specific individual personality. Sociopsycholinguistic type of PCP is (1) a mental entity constructed according to the individual’s inherent verbal and non-verbal characteristics; (2) the LP invariant, with consideration of the central role of the conceptual component functioning in the speech process in conjunction with associative images and evaluative judgments in the space of polycoding communicative interaction [7]. Based on the traditional definitions in the theory of speech interaction, we have established and visualized the relationship between PCP and related concepts (see Fig. 1): speech personality (SP)—actively realizes themself in intercultural communication, using certain pragmalinguistic means (strategies and tactics) of communication; language personality (LP—manifests themself in speech activity, while possessing a certain set of linguistic knowledge and ideas necessary for the successful implementation of intercultural competence in a multilingual space, incl. its educational sector; a vocabulary personality (“ethnosemantic”) (VP), otherwise referred to as a “semantic sketch”, is constructed on the basis of value priorities in the linguocultural community, which determine speech-behavioral reactions; discursive personality (DP), or textual,—actualizes themself in the conditions of speech generation; a communicative personality (CP), being a participant in a communicative act, acts in the process of real or virtual (Internet) communication; and, finally, its highest manifestation in thought-and-speech activity—Homo Loquens—the “Speaking Man” [8]. PCP in its ideal embodiment is considered by us first of all as Homo Loquens, and as CP in the aspect of the characteristics of language as a “living” dynamic process,

Fig. 1 Correlation of the phenomenon Polyvalent personality with related concepts. Source Compiled by the authors

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and as SP in that aspect in which language is assessed as an ability, and as SP in the aspect of analysis of the language as a subject, and as an VP according to the fixation in the lexical system of the national-cultural prototype of the native speaker. The sociopsycholinguistic approach to the analysis of the problem of polyvalence of the CP allows a complex presentation of interrelated elements in the relationship “personality-society-culture-education”.

2 Materials and Methods The methodological basis of the undertaken scientific research was the systemfunctional and comparative and collectable approaches to the problem of regulating the sphere of intercultural interaction, which requires the ecology of speech communication, as well as understanding the value of the identity of cultures and languages and the priority of the formation of national identity based on respect for linguistic and cultural diversity [9]. The tasks set led to the appeal to methods of comparison, systematization and generalization; to quantitative-statistical method, which allows you to find objective grounds for a comparative description of the phenomena under study; to the sociolinguistic method in order to determine the essence of speech phenomena, as well as to indicate the prospects for research; to the inductive method for formulating conclusions while studying various speech situations of the choice of languages by an individual, the influence of intra- and extralinguistic factors on this choice; modeling for theoretical substantiation of options for the development of communicative scenarios; observation (including overt observation) in order to determine the influence for a set of reasons and criteria that can reflect trends (including possible ones) in intercultural contact of speakers of different languages. The indicated approach is due to its relevance and is implemented from the point of view of the continuity of dialectics in diachrony and synchrony, which confirms its novelty. The expedience of the sociopsycholinguistic analysis of the problem is determined by real and potential changes in the ratio of the components of the sociocommunicative system as a model of the polylingual space. Establishing the components of the latter is extremely important for stating the interdependence of the object under study on extralinguistic factors, under the influence of which the PCP is transformed. The micro- and macroenvironment influencing the PCP are also significant, depending on demographic, sociocultural, educational and political and legal factors. The variant of the formation of PCP under the influence of value systems in a multilingual society with one (as a rule, state or prestigious for native speakers, often not coinciding with their ethno-linguistic identification) functionally dominant language is very difficult. In such a situation, the factors of differentiating the functions of these languages, the ratio of the number of those using different languages, the representation of languages by spheres of communication to identify the communicative weight of each of them, such as bilingualism and linguistic interference, become relevant.

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3 Results From the introductory theoretical paradigms and the description of the research methodology, we will move on to the actual description of real linguistic situations that determine the appearance of the PCP. The ethnolinguistic space of Bashkiria, a subject of the Volga Federal District of the Russian Federation, is a multifaceted formation characterized by ambiguous interpretations of language contacts [8, 10]. The opinion of Supruna [11] that the intensity of interference as a natural consequence of such linguistic contacts is directly proportional to the genetic proximity of languages is topical. We will try to further illustrate the origins of this relationship. The reasons for the latter, in our opinion, are of a psychological nature, since when speaking related languages, speakers are less aware of their differences than when using unrelated language systems. Our observation of bilingual communication (Russian and one of the Turkic—Bashkir and/or Tatar) is interesting: each of the contacting languages tends to become different from the language that functions in a monolingual environment. The formation of the PCP does not always take place in the conditions of harmonious Turkic-Russian bilingualism. Mixed speech (MS) is recognized as one of the objective signs of multilingualism, perceived by its subjects (a) primarily as a type of speech strategy, which presupposes almost complete proficiency in both languages and a sufficiently high level of competence when switching from one language to another within an utterance, while foreign languages inclusions can function as ethnic or social identifiers; (b) as a heterogeneous speech activity combining elements of two different linguistic systems from the point of view of the individual; (c) as “an unmotivated transition of a bilingual in the process of verbal communication from one language to another, and the border of codes can run even within a closely related phrase” [12]. It is this property that distinguishes it from speech activity based on the use of borrowings and based on the use of code switching (CS). We qualify CS as a transition from one language or form of its existence to another code, which is due to a change in role relations between speakers in the process of verbal communication (Ibid.), contextualization of a fragment: [–We went to a meeting, we will attract clients, expand the company’s service network. Such prospects are opening up! There will be new vacancies (seeing an elderly man) Khaumysygyz, utegez, ultyrygyz!] (Transcribed from bashk. Good health to you, come in and sit down!) (Addressing a colleague) Ultyrgys, bir ele! (Give me a chair) (from the conversation of colleagues at the official reception). The variability of units in the illustrated context is used by a native speaker quite consciously, although there are enough examples of the transition from one linguistic form to another, more or less involuntarily. Such a common model of speech behavior takes place when an individual studied a second language at a national school, then in the system of higher professional education, and also constantly communicated in a natural linguistic environment. In this case, the degree of proficiency in a second language is higher than that characteristic only of their knowledge acquired at school. The long-term empirical study of the TurkicRussian bilingualism makes it possible to assert the insignificant influence of the

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national school on the knowledge of the second (Russian) language. Bilinguals who are free from regular communication with Russian peers and who studied the second (interethnic) language only at school, unfortunately, speak it worse than those who combine such study with the use of Russian in natural communication situations [13]. While studying the phenomena of Russian-Turkic bilingualism, we note the following points of no small importance for this publication. For the majority of preschoolers and primary school students (mainly in urban environments), the first language in which they learn to speak and think, to communicate with others is Russian. At the same time, children quite early become familiar with the Bashkir/Tatar language, perceiving it from the environment, as well as from the media, from adults, and now in separate classes or during the day in a kindergarten, depending on its speech regime. The speech development of such children is receptive and, to a certain extent, reproductive. For the majority of Turkic-speaking children, the Bashkir or Tatar language is recognized in society as their native, or first language, on the basis of which their national and cultural socialization is carried out [14]. However, many modern children lack a full-fledged Turkic-speaking environment: it is enough to cite as one of the many examples of communicative situations in which bilinguals use Russian, or the second most important language for them, when addressing them in Bashkir or Tatar, because they know that they will be understood. In other words, in such speech situations outside of educational institutions, children do not feel an urgent need to use one of the mentioned Turkic languages. The spontaneous mastery of the Bashkir/Tatar language, in which bilingual children can freely switch from their native language to Russian in different communication situations, contributes to the mixing of Russian and Turkic speech of children. The mechanism of switching from native to Russian and vice versa is distinguished by the fact that the components of the linguistic systems involved in this process do not fill lexical and grammatical lacunae in the first or second language (as in the case of code-mixing), but form the socio-linguistic situation [15]. The psycholinguistic aspect of CS assumes the described ability of bilinguals to see an indicator of their degree of proficiency in languages and their subsystems, as well as a person’s speech culture [16]. A specific feature of the processes under consideration is the fact that when codes are mixed, the grammatical structure of one language obeys the grammatical structure of another language, the speaker uses phrases and words of a foreign language. With CS, the speaker moves from one language subsystem to another subsystem. Cases of variability in the choice of stylistic elements of the language are mainly associated with the different ideas of native speakers about the expressive-stylistic markers of linguistic units. A typical deviation from the norms of the language in the Russian speech of Bashkir/Tatar speakers is noted in everyday speech: [–Hey matur heiley, yamle!] (How beautifully he speaks, sensually!) (Addressing the grandson) [–He speaks soulfully, not that you speak today!] (from a conversation between grandfather and granddaughter). Microtext consists of two parts, both in form and in content: the first part conveys admiration for the narrator’s rhetorical skill, it is marked stylistically and internationally; the second fulfills an edifying function, therefore,

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the CS is used to express a contrasting attitude towards the narrator and the speech preferences of young people. At the lexical and semantic level, there is a mixture of units of different languages, caused by the bilingual’s ignorance of cultural and historical information and the originality of the Russian linguistic worldview. Experts associate the reasons for such phenomena with the communicative and stylistically unjustified use of the corresponding words and structures: for example, in neutral speech, speakers often use colored lexemes or, on the contrary, neutral units—in stylistic reduced speech. The result is a mix of styles. CS is referred to such linguistic phenomena in which two mutually complementary language systems in unity form the social and communicative system of the PCP. The choice of speech code is tightly regulated by language correlates [17]. As the analysis of family and everyday speech situations shows [18], in the presence of peers/older family members—factors that can change the language of communication, bilingual speech behavior is formed. In situations of choice between two— native and Russian—languages, older people prefer the first, since in such a speech scenario, the success of the communication is obvious. The observations of sociolinguists regarding language choice in various speech situations are quite interesting: for example, in stressful or conflict situations, speech behavior is actualized in different linguistic forms, and the solidarity of communicants is expressed in an appeal to the means of one linguistic system: [–Kupme eiterge kerek? Kher konde ber uk! (bashk. How much you speak! Every day the same thing!) [–What, are you deliberately pushing me! Min arynym usken kyzga agnatyrga!] (–I’m tired of explaining this to an adult girl!) (mother reprimands her daughter). Changing languages in a given speech segment is a means of emphatically highlighting utterances-references. The transition from a native language to another language register acquires special emotional strength, since it expresses indignation and dismay. In Russian, a statement acquires the property of being opinionated. Instability in the speech behavior of the communicant is promoted by the psychological state, the change of languages enhances the expression. The function of the Russian language is somewhat different in fragments imbued with affection and approval: in them it is used to enhance the expression of an utterance in the native language: [–Akyllym minem, altynym! You need to always help your mother like that!] (bashk. My good girl, my darling!). In heterogeneous speech groups, there is a regular switch from language to language with uncontrolled interference: for example, Let’s go/aida (inde) ashat’ (from tat.asharga—eat, have a meal; aida—let’s go, inde—already (e)); I don’t know what to do at all—a complete aptyragan (from the tat. aptyrarga—to get confused); Alla birsa (from Bashk., Tat. “(If) God willing”). If we talk about the nature of the relationship of contacting ethnic groups in a multilingual space, then such an intercultural and interlingual situation, as in Bashkiria, can be for the sake of our discussion described in the form of a «”ladder” of ascent to intercultural ingrowth» [19] (see Table 1), or integration ethnic groups and PCP, while at each step of the ladder of socio-linguistic and intercultural interaction, assessments of its tonality, tempo, rhythm, scale, etc. change.

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Table 1 “Ladder” of the ascent to harmonious intercultural interaction in the plane of types of perception by contacting ethnogroups Key positions Denial of cultural differences

Defending one’s own cultural superiority

Minimization of differences

Ethnocentric types of perception

Existence of intercultural differences

Adaptation to a Both to the new culture native and to the new culture

Ethnorelative types of perception

Direction of progressive position development

−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→ Ways of perceiving differences between cultures

Source [18]

The newfound and emerging relations of ethnic groups based on supported cooperation, tolerance, neutrality, confrontation, assimilation and other social forms of interaction can be described according to the parameters listed above. Let us emphasize that linguistic assimilation does not lead to ethnic assimilation (Russification). Due to a number of interdependent factors in the Republic of Bashkortostan as a whole, ethnocultural Russification is practically impossible in the foreseeable future: according to (National composition of the population of the Republic of Bashkortostan according to the VPN-2010 …, 2012), the majority of representatives of fifteen compactly residing ethnic groups, who actually switched to the Russian language of communication, still consider the language of their nationality as their native language [20]. The proposed above classification of the stages of the development of interethnic communication, cultural contacts and ongoing or possible transformations in society has an undoubted research potential in the aspect of considering the dynamics of social multilingual communication, which would be characterized by mutual understanding of culture bearers, corporate speech behavior. Ikonnikova identifies six types of reaction to another culture and its representatives from the point of view of improving the skills of human behavior in a situation of contact between cultures [19], in each of which the formation of models of behavior and perception occurs both in interpersonal communication and through social institutions. The considered “ladder” does not reflect some meaningful parameters that determine and in a special way affect sociolingual communication. The polyethnic environment in the holographic (depending on the scale and emphasis) approximation can act as both heterogeneous and homogeterogeneous (polyparametric, panoramic) formation. An analysis of our own long-term observations of the speech of urban and rural bilinguals/trilinguals in a multinational environment revealed and showed its dependence on the urbanization index, the rate of introduction of the metropolitan language, the prevalence of interethnic marriages, etc. [21]. In addition, there is a difficult-to-enucleate correlation between the native language of communication in the family and the language that people prefer to speak in public places and at work, incl. facts of varying degrees of variability of the means of the Russian language in

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different groups of speakers in terms of education, profession, as well as age and gender [17]. The central place and active role of polylingualism in the field of sociolingual interaction define it as one of the prominent manifestations of speech behavior. Multilingualism appears as an important factor that determines the frequency and density, tempo and rhythm, scale and tonality, modulation of interlingual, interpersonal and intercultural contacts [6]. There are all objective grounds to recognize it as one of the sociopsycholinguistic objects, the description and interpretation of which make it possible with a certain amount of optimism to predict and build optimal models for the development of a multilingual society.

4 Discussion Under the prevailing conditions of multilingualism in Bashkiria, which have determined the common way of life of many ethnic groups living on its territory, the activation of the linguo-ethnic identity of the PCP presupposes the idea of national identity through the idea of the value of the native language. Indeed, the native language for many has actually become a functionally second language, as evidenced by the data of the last census in the republic. The statistical data provide facts that the number of Tatar/Bashkir and Russian speakers in relation to the total population of Bashkiria (demographic power) is asymmetric: the former are about 4 times lower than the latter (for more details see: National composition of the population of the Republic of Bashkortostan according to the VPN-2010 …, 2012). The communicative power of languages (the number of communicative spheres served by each of the languages in relation to the total number of such spheres) is also different [10]: for example, according to data for 2010–2012, teaching in the Bashkir language was carried out in more than 750 schools, Tatar—in more than 350 schools. It is also noteworthy that out of 234 periodicals, 154 newspapers and 13 magazines are published in Russian. These data indicate not the assimilation of non-Russian peoples on the basis of “language”, but about the redistribution of the functions of languages in different spheres of human life. Mixed speech as a speech phenomenon, being a natural result of heterogeneous speech activity during intercultural interaction, is formed under the influence of a set of factors, among which the predominant factor is the multilingual society—a specific sociolinguistic, intercultural, socio-historical value. It is the one that contributes to the intensification of mixed speech, determines the communicative conditions of its functioning, determines the nature of the distribution of native speakers by types, which are concretized according to sociodemographic and sociopsycholinguistic parameters. The use of MS by native speakers occurs in different ways, that is, a multilingual society determines the algorithm for interlingual speech structuring. The bilingual PCP explicates its social and ethnic dimensions, manifests its individuality, builds speech in accordance with the laws of spontaneous speech production. Methods of

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interlingual structuring of speech are determined, as a rule, by the types of languages in contact in society, since under their influence the optimal variant of combining and/or generalizing elements of different linguistic systems is spontaneously developed. This property of MS, which predetermines its specific linguistic parameters, is designated by us as linguo-variative. We can talk about the so-called mixed lect (a term introduced into scientific use by David Pineda), or a switched code—about a fairly stable version of MS, in which foreign language elements are equivalent to borrowings, including regionalisms. In this “lect” definitely modifying statements of the category of words, such as conjunctions (and, but, so that), discursive indicators (here, that’s it) and some adverbs (also, then, especially, of course, perhaps, like, only, after all, that’s all (in the meaning of “the end”), (which means, probably, already, it seems, okay, although), come from the same language. At this point, it becomes important to pay attention to the scope of functions of the contacting languages and the areas of their use. Taking into account such a psycholinguistic factor as the initiative of verbal communication, it is possible to identify methods and techniques for correcting the verbal behavior of communication participants, depending on who initiates the contact. As the researchers note, the change of languages when combining several parameters is connected with the associative perception of topics (or dominants) discussed in a particular language: for example, the Russian language evokes stable associations with topics related to study, work, etc.—events taking place outside the home, in the Russian-speaking environment [22]. The dominant of speech behavior, as is commonly known, is exactly the element that the speaker considers important in the process of verbal interaction and which he attaches special importance to in the process of switching to another language. In this case, the dominant can be found not only in the content of what is being said, but also depend on the speaker, for whom either the content aspect of the process is preferable, or the traditions, images of the recipient’s culture. Without taking into account the latter, a “linguocultural dissonance” arises, which, in our opinion, is due to the inability to follow the pragmatic norm of communication. Based on the results of sociolinguistic studies in the format of face-to-face questionnaires and surveys in different cities and regions of the Republic of Bashkortostan [1], it became clear that the majority of informants actively use Russian in everyday speech practice, although more than half of the bilinguals were the first to learn their native (non-Russian) language. In family and everyday communications, about a third of the respondents use their native language. Let us note that the transition to the native (Turkic) language for urban students and rural students is different: the former use it mainly in family and everyday communication. It is this situation that demonstrates the manifestation of the subject-thematic function of the native language. Young people from country or rural periphery studying in the city actively use both Russian and their native languages, regardless of the spheres of their use, while not undergoing psychological discomfort during the transition from one language system to another (Ibid.). This means that the polyvalence of a bilingual personality can be explained primarily by both the verbal “mobility” of its environment, the availability of the media, and the period of its active development: the time and duration of studying,

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leisure activities, etc. Young people and middle-aged people, as the most active part of society, easily master and use Russian is the main means of communication. The following statistics are indicative: a high level (up to 90%) of Russian language proficiency is retained by parents and grandparents—those representatives of the older generation who live in multiethnic settlements. The degree of Russian language proficiency among those living in a monolingual environment does not exceed 10%. According to the majority of parents in our post-questionnaire conversations, they prefer the interethnic (Russian) language in teaching their children. Thus, according to representatives of the older generation, the process of socialization of the younger generation is facilitated. This is due to the fact that more than 70% of respondents in family and everyday communication use Russian, as well as think, read and write in it. Representatives of the younger generation (for example, informants from 15 to 35 years old in one of the major cities of the republic—the city of Neftekamsk) speak to a certain extent their native (national) language. According to the data presented in [23], 1/3 of the interviewed informants speak the Tatar language, slightly more than a third—the Mari language, ¼—the Bashkir language. For comparison: almost half of the respondents of the older generation (50–80 years old) speak their native languages [6]. The reluctance of a native Russian speaker to master the Bashkir language determines their monovalence. The need to study the linguistic consciousness of a bilingual PCP in the sociopsycholinguistic aspect forces researchers to clearly distinguish between the study of language and speech in Russian. Otherwise, we can only state the signs of the Russian language, but not its origins. The structuring and description of the specificity of the linguistic consciousness of the bilingual PCP in the sociopsycholinguistic aspect naturally leads researchers to a clear distinction between language and speech in Russian. Otherwise, we can only state the signs of the Russian language, but not its origins. The experience of describing the variants of manifestation, forms of existence of the Russian language in a multilingual region, which has become established in the scientific literature, often contributes to the spread of the so-called “sociolinguistic ostensibilities” (the term introduced into scientific use by Saina [15]. For the purpose of illustration, let us refer to the results of a sociological survey of Bashkirs conducted in the Republic of Bashkortostan, according to which they indicated fluency in Bashkir, Tatar and Russian [24]. The interesting facts here are that the Russians living there answered in the same sequence. We believe that on the basis of the statistics obtained alone, one should not categorically assert that the Russian language exists only in the form of a non-native language, and Bashkir/Tatar is the native language for the majority of the population of the republic. When it comes to the native language, the attention of a psycholinguist is focused on the linguistic consciousness of the PCP. In other words, their “ethno-linguistic selfconsciousness” is defined. However, their linguistic consciousness includes both relations with their languages and attitude to their languages. So, according to the 2010 census, there are more than 103.6 thousand people among the Bashkirs who noted Russian as a native language, which is 2.6 times more compared to the 1989 census (National composition of the population of the Republic of Bashkortostan according to the VPN-2010 …, 2012). Alongside this, there is an increase in the number and

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proportion of those who speak Russian. In this case, the appeal of the linguistic consciousness of bilinguals to the Russian language is obvious: the socialeme of Russian-speaking tends to identify it through the designation “native/non-native” or “necessary/unnecessary”. Census statistics show the frequent qualification of Russian as a non-native language by bilinguals. We are sure that this is not an entirely accurate representation of linguistic realities. Of course, the models of linguistic identification of speakers of two or more languages, well-known in sociolinguistics and sociology of language, explain and describe in detail the reasons for linguistic choice in various communicative situations. Unfortunately, this ignores the subjectivation of the bilingual. For example, with the Turkic-speaking self-identification, the informant asserts that “the Bashkir language is my one and only native language … It is my carefree childhood, and my connection with my parents, that is, my genetic roots, and love … It is the heroes of my people… in short, part of my whole life.” We see that Bashkir as a native language is determined both by a person’s belonging to the Bashkir ethnos, and on the basis of his figurative ideas about language as a part of conscious life. Such signs of the native language as the degree of proficiency and frequency of use, primacy and some others are neutralized [25]. The identification of such identification “barriers” forces us to admit the following: in the linguistic consciousness of the PCP, the attitude towards the Russian language is “measured” in other categories. We consider it important to pay attention to the systems of identification signs of this or that hypostasis of the Russian language existing in the bilingual consciousness. As we noted above, the Russian-language identification of PCP is cemented by the distribution of complexes of figurative representations between languages. The individual attitude towards the Russian language depends more on the range of meanings associated with the speaker. Almost stereotypical is the fact that only the first native language is characterized in terms of kinship, that is, it is correlated with (great) parents (in the Turkic-speaking culture, as a rule, along the father’s line). The second native language is usually closely coupled with the representations of language (as a mental entity) realized in such figurative systems as memory, knowledge and experience, which have temporal characteristics that are significantly different from the spatial attributes of the first native language.

5 Conclusion A consequence of the influence of the above-considered intra- and extralinguistic factors on the speech behavior of bilingual PCPs is that in the Turkic languages of Bashkiria (we note also characteristic of the languages of the Uralic (Mari, Mordovian and Udmurt) group) there was a redistribution of the significance of their functions. The communicative function of the Bashkir, Tatar, Chuvash languages represented in the republic began to give way to the symbolic function hierarchy. The function

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of maintaining identity is also becoming secondary, while the function of ethnic solidarity is actively actualizing. The regularities of the functioning of the Russian language on the territory of the republic clearly represent its variability depending on the national composition of the native speakers of languages using it, their social characteristics, on the area of distribution (city-village), etc. Sociolinguistic designation of such a phenomenon as “regional variation” usually refers to the functioning of a language in a foreign language environment. For the terminological consolidation of the variability of the language in the territory of its original distribution, “local variation” has become acceptable. This term is used in the study of the dialectal diversity of a national language, locally colored variants of literary standards, the processes of forming “intermediate” languages such as interdialects, mixed speech, diglossic phenomena, etc. This variability is undoubtedly determined by many extralinguistic factors. We tend to adhere to the point of view that adaptation and integration into another culture is based not so much on knowledge of language and customs as on a personal interest in understanding its values and attitudes, in emotional contact with its representatives. In the conditions of our republic, this is most easily achieved by actively participating in public life or by being brought up from childhood in a multicultural and multilingual environment. It is important to note that interlanguage and intercultural differences do not appear equally in formal settings and at home. An international business style eliminates the differences between cultures and languages. On the contrary, the flaunting features fit into familiar patterns. The study of the peculiarities of intergenerational communicative interaction showed that young people have difficulties in how to build communication with older representatives of a different speech culture and ethnic culture. In the context of the reasoning, let us designate one more important aspect of the problem under consideration. It is generally accepted that the majority of modern residents of the Republic of Bashkortostan are bilingual and diglossic. The linguomethodological basis on which the teaching of a foreign language is conducted in the secondary general education, secondary specialized and higher educational institutions is knowledge of the national and Russian languages, their varieties. Thus, subordinate triglossia develops—it is a kind of individual and group trilingualism, functioning according to such a model: the second language is perceived by the speaker, as a rule, through the native language, and the third is perceived through the second or first language, regardless of their differences. It has been established that the common types of multilingualism in the republic are triglossia and bilingualism. Having status differences, typologically differing and communicatively ranging, languages continue to function, to be used in different spheres of life, intensively interacting with each other and defining, structuring the polyvalence of a communicative personality. Depending on the structure of the macro- and microenvironment, communicating bilinguals determine the choice of means of communication, which in some way affects the functioning of languages. As a result, a multilingual community is formed, which determines the characteristics and regulates the speech behavior of its members. Embodying the character traits and psycholinguistic characteristics of

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representatives of a particular ethnic group, PCP appears in different valencies in conditions of multilingualism. For the bilingual PCPs with a nonlinguo-oriented culture and less pronounced identity, language is not a differentiating feature, and its loss will not entail a loss of ethno-identity, although the psychological role of the native language in their linguistic consciousness is high. The “language-culture” relation for such PCP is expressed through the language of the dominant group. The cultural component of ethnic identity turns out to be more stable than the linguistic one. In other words, they do not have a direct and unequivocal relationship between the degree of knowledge of the ethnic language and cultural competence. For this reason, marginal types also appear among the emerging varieties, with a not firmly formed system of social and ethno-linguistic identities and value orientations. The proposed concept of PCP is a synthesis of the provisions of sociolinguistic and psycholinguistic knowledge about the uniqueness of bi- or trilingual (di- or triglossic person). The postulates of the sociopsycholinguistic theory of LP mainly serve to build a generalized image of the PCP of a native speaker as an object of interlingual interaction.

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Intercultural Communication Competence as a Basic Condition for the Successful Adaptation of Young Foreign Students to Russian Culture Elena V. Susimenko

and Elena I. Litvinenko

Abstract The authors analyze the relevance of international students’ intercultural competence for their successful adaptation to Russian culture, in general, and for adaptation to the educational environment of the university, in particular. The topicality of the issue represents several factors, the most essential of them being the increase in the number of international students in Russian universities. It correlates with the strategic tasks set before the institution of higher education in Russia. In order to comprehend the levels of intercultural communication competence of international students, the authors utilize the self-assessment test of individual intercultural competence, developed by L. A. Arasaratnam and successfully applied in various foreign universities. The authors allow themselves to expand this test by including questions directly related to the educational environment of the university. Students from China, Gabon, South Africa, Congo, Iraq, and Egypt participate in the testing. The authors deliberately exclude the students from neighboring countries from the survey since continuous contacts between Commonwealth of Independent States countries create favorable conditions for forming intercultural communication competence in this student group. The analysis of the obtained results demonstrates that despite the similar training programs and methods of applied educational work, the level of intercultural competence differs among the students. Therefore, the authors conclude that it is necessary to develop unique programs for those groups of students whose level of intercultural competence is not high enough. Keywords Intercultural communication competence · International students · Higher education

E. V. Susimenko (B) · E. I. Litvinenko Platov South-Russian State Polytechnic University (NPI), Novocherkassk, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova (ed.), Complex Social Systems in Dynamic Environments, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 365, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23856-7_21

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1 Introduction Currently, in the field of education, there is a steady and constantly developing trend of expanding the internationalization of education, expressed, first of all, in the desire of developed countries to increase the number of international students, which is one of the indicators of leadership in the education system at the global level. According to the UNESCO Institute for Statistics, the number of people receiving higher education outside their home country has increased by almost 30% over the past ten years. Russia is one of the six countries with the most significant number of international students. Since 2004, their number has more than tripled. According to the Russian Academic Excellence Project 5-100, the number of international students should reach 710,000 people by 2025. In 2018, the income from training international students in Russian educational institutions amounted to 96 million rubles [1]. However, the merits of teaching international students are not limited to economic and financial benefits only. One of the strategic tasks is forming an intellectual elite, who might act in the future as partners of Russia in various types of human activities and have a proper understanding of the sociocultural characteristics of Russia and the desire to build a mutually beneficial partnership. In accordance with the “Concept of the Russian government policy in the field of training personnel for foreign countries in Russian educational institutions”, approved by the President of the Russian Federation V. V. Putin, educating the intellectual elite for foreign countries allows Russia, on the one hand, to actualize its geopolitical and socio-economic interests at the macro level. On the other hand, at the micro-level of universities, it allows increasing their funding and promoting their educational institution as a competitive one on the global education market to educate future professionals for a particular field. The importance of educating international students also stems from the fact that in 2012 the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation has included the proportion of international students in the criteria for assessing the practical work of universities in terms of international activities, which has made all universities intensify their efforts to attract foreign citizens. The number of international students has increased in the universities of metropolitan areas and large regional institutions. Therefore, for example, the number of international students at the Platov South-Russian State Polytechnic University (NPI) has increased from 142 in 2010 to 752 people in 2019. In terms of international activities, universities have faced numerous organizational challenges and sociocultural ones since universities admit applicants with already formed identities who are carriers of their national cultures and languages. They often have insufficient knowledge of the sociocultural characteristics of Russia as a whole and the specifics of the educational environment in particular. In such a situation, the issue of intercultural communication becomes more urgent, its adequacy being ensured by the availability of intercultural competence, which makes it easier for international students to enter the Russian culture. With the adequate education of international students in Russia, the level of their professional development largely depends on the formation of intercultural competence.

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One should note that even under the most favorable conditions for intercultural communication when entering a new culture, a person usually faces various issues. Quite often, representatives of different cultures know very little about each other; they are guided by stereotypes, have inaccurate information about another culture, and experience a prejudice towards “others,” which is reflected in the process of entering a new sociocultural environment. All mentioned factors also update the problem of intercultural competence formation.

2 Materials and Methods Only relatively recently have researchers started studying issues related to intercultural communication. One can state that the sort of message for intercultural communication research is the famous book by E. T. Hall entitled “The Silent Language”, in which he uses the term “intercultural communication”. Unlike his predecessors, he puts forward the idea of a comparative study of cultures [2]. The idea has continued in the works of F. Boas, credited with introducing the cultural relativism term, the essence of which is that any culture is an adaptation to and a unique product of a unique set of historical, social, and environmental conditions. As these conditions vary, cultures vary accordingly; therefore, there is no correct culture [3]. Based on the fundamental works of Hall and Boas, finding themselves in the conditions of ever-expanding international relations between various countries and having faced difficulties in establishing a productive intercultural dialogue, many foreign scientists put forward the idea of the need to form intercultural competence. They define it as the degree to which one effectively adapts verbal and nonverbal messages to the appropriate cultural context [4, 5]. After analyzing a substantial number of works on the formation of intercultural competence, James W. Neuliep has concluded that it includes several components. It includes the Knowledge Component based on how much one knows about the culture of the person (country, social group, etc.) with whom one is interacting; the Affective Component that is the degree to which one approaches or avoids intercultural communication (one’s level of motivation to interact with others from different cultures); Intercultural willingness to communicate; Psychomotor Component, which consists of a verbal and nonverbal performance and a role enactment; Situational features, which include environmental context, status differential, previous contacts, and third-party interventions [6]. Contemporary Russian scientists pay attention to issues related to the development of the international educational space. They also include issues of international educational cooperation with various countries and regions, teaching international students in Russian universities, and forming intercultural competence [7–10]. As has been noted earlier, the increase in the number of international students, especially from non-CIS countries, has pushed into the foreground issues related to the formation of intercultural competence of international students. In order to determine the level of international students’ intercultural competence and whether it has an impact on their academic performance, an empirical study has been conducted

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among students from six countries. They include China (37 people), Congo (17 people), Gabon (22 people), South Africa (15 people), Iraq (25 people), and Egypt (35 people). The degree of intercultural competence formation is assessed by means of L. Arasarantnam’s Self-Assessment Test entitled “The Intercultural Communication Competence Scale”, which has been successfully tested in various foreign countries [11]. The self-assessment test includes the following statements: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

I often find it difficult to differentiate between similar cultures (e.g., Asians, Europeans, Africans, etc.). I feel a sense of belonging to a group based on relationships (i.e., family, friends) instead of cultural identity (i.e., people from other cultures). I find it easier to categorize people based on their cultural identity than their personality. I often notice similarities in personality between people who belong to entirely different cultures. If I were to put people in groups, I would group them by their culture rather than by their personality. I feel that people from other cultures have many valuable things to teach me. I feel more comfortable with people from my own culture than with people from other cultures. I feel closer to people with whom I have a good relationship, regardless of whether they belong to my culture or not. I usually feel closer to people who are from my own culture because I can relate to them better. I feel more comfortable with people who are open to people from other cultures than with people who are not. Most of my close friends are from other cultures. I usually change the way I communicate depending on whom I am communicating with. When I interact with someone from a different culture, I usually try to adopt some of their behavior patterns. Most of my friends are from my own culture. I usually look for opportunities to interact with people from other cultures.

The authors have expanded the test in order to represent the intercultural competence of international students in the educational environment of the university more fully. Therefore, the authors have added the following statements to the test: 1. I like to participate in class activities with students from different cultures. 2. I feel uncomfortable in classes with students from other cultures. 3. I am enthusiastic about taking part in student festivals where you can present your culture and learn more about Russian culture. 4. I try to participate in all activities that allow me to learn more about Russian culture. 5. I prefer to study, and I am not interested in anything else.

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For each of the listed points, students have been tasked to put numbers from 5 to 1. 5—strongly agree; 4—agree; 3—neutral; 2—disagree; 1—strongly disagree with the statement. The students have been informed that there are no right or wrong responses and that it would be best to record their initial response and not to overthink it. The results of foreign student self-assessment are calculated as follows: higher scores (above 60) indicate more intercultural communication competence; lower scores (below 35) indicate less intercultural communication competence. The authors also have received a sample of international students’ academic performance in the summer semester of 2020, for which the authors employ the student rating data posted on the university website [12].

3 Results and Discussion The students have assessed how competent they are interculturally as follows (Table 1). As one can observe from the provided given, students from China and Congo have demonstrated the highest level of intercultural competence. They are followed by the students from Gabon, Iraq, and South Africa. Students from Egypt possess the lowest level of intercultural competence and academic performance in the summer semester. Considering the fact that the maximum score of academic performance according to the modular rating system developed at Platov SRSPU (NPI) is 60 points, higher scores are shown by international students from Gabon and China, which correlates with their level of intercultural competence. One should also note that a high level of intercultural competence is facilitated by the situational component, including previous contacts. According to Y. Kim, the creator of the theory of adaptation to a new culture, the mentioned aspect results in the Table 1 Self-assessment of the level of international students’ intercultural communication competence Country

Total number of students at the university

High level (number of students)

Low level (number of students)

Average academic performance rating per semester (in points)

China

37

37

–

48

Gabon

22

20

2

46

Congo

17

17

–

50

South-Africa

15

9

6

44

Iraq

25

20

5

42

Egypt

35

17

18

34

Source Compiled by the authors

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fact that an individual from another culture adapts more quickly to the realities of the host culture if they have had previous contacts with its representatives [13]. The more contact one can have with the people of different cultures; the more likely one will be to learn about them (knowledge) and feel comfortable (effective) interacting with them, thus enabling one to master verbal and non-verbal skills (psychomotor) [6]. The students from China exemplify this aspect, most of whom deliberately have chosen a particular Russian university for study (SRSPU (NPI) has long-term partnership relations with Changchun Institute of Technology, Jilin, China; Lanzhou University of Technology, Gansu Province, China). They took a course in the Russian language in China before their trip to Russia, which was partially taught by Russian teachers from Platov SRSPU (NPI), which undoubtedly contributed to the formation of a high level of intercultural communication competence. In addition, the high motivation of Chinese students to study the Russian language, master the Russian culture and acquire professional knowledge in Russian is also explained by the current political course of the People’s Republic of China toward rapprochement with the Russian Federation. The situational component is evident in the high level of intercultural competence of the students from Gabon and Congo. According to the obtained data, eight representatives of Congo and ten students from Gabon have either relatives or significant adults—representatives of the older generation—who have studied and graduated from Soviet and Russian educational institutions. Therefore, young people are motivated to acquire an education in Russia, and, as a rule, they already have some idea of the sociocultural characteristics of the country and are ready for cultural engagement.

4 Conclusion Leaving one’s native country for education abroad, a person receives an invaluable experience of interaction with other cultures. However, almost every time, they face the issue caused by entering another cultural environment. The formed intercultural communication competence contributes to the harmonious process of enculturation of international students when studying in an alien culture. It allows them to feel comfortable and function effectively in both cultural environments. As a result of the formation of intercultural communication competence, a person expands their social ties, overcoming ethno-cultural limitations, thus contributing to a positive correlation of their identity with the cultural patterns of the host culture. For the efficiency of the process of enculturation of international students, intercultural communication competence is an essential component of the formation of commitment to the university and the host culture, which also contributes to successful academic progress. Modern institutions of higher education in Russia are interested in promoting their services on the international educational market. To achieve this goal, they employ both a content component (the mission of the university, the concept of educational

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work with international students) and a structural component (an Institute for International Education as a structural subdivision of the university, the functioning of language clubs). A procedural component is of great importance, as well. It involves the arrangement of living conditions, teaching Russian as a foreign language at the Preparatory Department, and in the curricula for degree programs. Extracurricular work with international students aims at engaging them in various student festivals, flash mobs, Olympiads, etc., organizing and holding special social and cultural events to help them overcome the symptoms of culture shock. It is actualized through acquaintance with the values, traditions of the Russian culture in general and with regional cultural characteristics in particular, with the values and traditions of the university. Simultaneously, one should pay attention to the fact that international students have different levels of intercultural communication competence. Therefore, an emphasis should be put on the procedural component by considering the level of intercultural competence formed and developing special programs of extracurricular work for international students with a low level of intercultural communication competence. Acknowledgements This paper was supported under the NSH-2582.2020.6 grant of the President of the Russian Federation for the government support of leading scientific schools “Government Policy in the Field of Higher Education and the Development of Innovative Potential of Youth: Economic and Non-Economic Determinants and Mechanisms in the Context of Regionalization of Social Space and the Formation of Industry 4.0”.

References 1. Ministry of Science and Higher Education of Russian Federation. Russian academic excellence project, pp 5–100. https://www.5top100.ru/news/93717/ 2. Hall ET (1959) The silent language. Fawcett Publications, Greenwich 3. Boas F (1967) Introduction to the handbook of American Indian languages. In: Hayden DE, Alworth, EP, Tate G (eds) Classics in linguistics. Philosophical Library, New York, pp 155−234 4. Gudykunst WB, Kim YY (1997) Communication with strangers: an approach to intercultural communication. McGraw-Hill, New York 5. Spitzberg BH (2009) A model of intercultural communication competence. In: Samovar LA, Porter RE, McDaniel ER (eds) Intercultural communication: a reader. Cengage, Boston, pp 381–393 6. Neuliep JW (2015) Intercultural communication. A contextual approach. SAGE, Thousand Oaks 7. Khasanova MM (2017) On the formation of intercultural competence of students. Molodoy Ucheny 15(149):210–212 8. Khinzeeva NP (2014) Formation of intercultural competence and social status of foreign students. Bull Buryat State Univ 5:104–108 9. Passov EI (2010) Communicativeness: past, present, future. Russ Lang Abroad 5:26–34 10. Ter-Minasova SG (2008) Language and intercultural communication. Slovo, Moscow

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11. Arasarantnam LA (2009) The development of a new instrument of intercultural communication competence. J Intercult Commun 20. http://www.immi.se/intercultural/nr20/arasaratnam.htm 12. Academic Performance Statistics. Results of the session on the university. https://dec.srspu. ru/statved/StatVed.aspx?year=20202021&sem=2&f=0&k=0&lvl=0&form=0&course=0& mode=FacKurs 13. Kim YY (2005) Adapting to a new culture: an integrative communication theory. In: Gudykunst WB (ed) Theorizing about intercultural communication. Sage, Thousand Oaks, pp 375–400

Exploring Bilingualism: Tackling Working Memory in Meaning-Making Instruction Elena Stakanova

Abstract The paper features the merits of bi- and multilinguals that vary from monolinguals based on the benchmark of second language acquisition and meaningmaking strategies. The study aims to explore the impact of bilingualism on the cognitive aspects of human development in meaning-making instruction. The experiment was designed to reveal the respondents’ dominant language in the tested psychological domains and prove that languages are better studied in the meaning-making context. The survey involved 120 students (60 male and 60 female respondents). They were divided into 4 groups: (1) monolingual Russian control group (n = 30), who were taught using traditional methods of teaching English; (2) monolingual Russian experimental sample (n = 30) using meaning-making educational techniques; (3) bilingual control group (n = 30) applying ordinary English as a Foreign Language instruction; (4) bilingual experimental group (both international and Russian subjects, n = 30) employing engaging tasks. All respondents participated in metacognitive tasks and language training. The study arouses divergent psychological peculiarities of bilinguals that depend on the target language fluency, code-switching, and meaning-making factors. The target language is in the limelight of metacognitive spheres, signifying that bilinguals can use a foreign language to perform cognitive tasks, notwithstanding using their mother tongue in experiencing emotions. The cutting-edge investigation proved the advantage of bilingual experimental group priming meaning-making strategies. The research results make it possible to employ bilinguals’ unusual abilities and talents and create educational programs enabling students to learn a foreign language without any psychological and linguistic barriers. As a result, I proved that language acquisition should have meaning-making value to become socially and psychologically effective individuals. Keywords Bilingualism · Metacognition · Bilingual executive advantage · Code-switching · Language predominance · Meaning-making instruction

E. Stakanova (B) Southern Federal University, Rostov-on-Don, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova (ed.), Complex Social Systems in Dynamic Environments, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 365, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23856-7_22

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1 Introduction Learning a second language, people can neglect their mother tongue words while activating a target language. As a speaker reaches bilingual proficiency, L1 (first language) suppression becomes less vital. The problem of multilingualism gains new insights into international communication, globalism in a knowledge-based society. There is an increasing need for knowledge of not one but two or three foreign languages, declared, demanded, and expected. Within the suggested approach, I thoroughly analyzed the idea of bilingualism and psycholinguistics. The findings unravel the association of influential constructs of bilingualism and cognition. I conducted multiple studies to identify and examine how language learning in the meaningmaking instruction affects such cognitive domain as working memory in bilinguals. I performed different language and memory tests for four samples of respondents before proceeding to practical meaning-making strategies, such as critical thinking tasks, debates, projects, and thought-provoking activities. The advantages of engaging activities produce specific outcomes [1]. Research results proved that both monolinguals and bilinguals increased their cognitive and linguistic assets in the meaning-making context. Besides, verbal memory increased in the bilingual control sample (27.33%), bilingual experiment participants (63.58%), and monolingual experiment students (56.82%). The same holds true for the visuospatial memory in monolingual experiment sample (55.10%) and bilingual experiment subjects (57.71%). The present experimental study is evaluated as reliable, reflecting bilingual executive advantages in attention and working memory as perspective-taking aspects. The attention activities in the current study (N-back) tested the ability to sort information and concentrate on task-meaningful stimuli (selective attention) and the ability to inhibit interference (interference suppression). Bilingual experiment subjects (60.36%) did not concede in the N-back testing compared to monolingual experiment students (57.04%), justifying the effectiveness of implementing meaning-making activities in boosting language awareness and cognition. Some bilinguals showed different results in each of their languages depending on the language proficiency. Monolinguals have minimal proficiency, and bilinguals should be as fluent as possible in a novel language to shift a language freely. I have come to find that the bilinguals switched to the second language randomly, not in a systematic mode. Moreover, bilinguals were supposed to change their personality traits and attitudes when they shift a language. This fact also holds true to monolinguals: they may change their opinions and feelings with different people notwithstanding the same language. Mental juggling is a natural phenomenon of bilingualism. This approach can be theoretically challenged to find the dual-language effect since most multilinguals master one language better than the other. This study revealed that L2 (second language) lexis and grammar influence the dominant language. Bilingual learners were found to achieve not only L2 fluency but also cognitive skills that allow them to juggle two languages effectively. The cross-linguistic activity reinforces the preoccupation of bilingual advantages.

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Working memory skills are linked to many essential aspects of everyday life, ranging from language learning and academic achievement to mental health [2]. In this study, multiple meaning-making tasks came to reflect attention and working memory. The group comparison of monolingual and bilingual respondents before and after the experiment revealed a statistically significant effect for the N-back and working memory composites. Thus, bilinguals outperform monolinguals in the meaningmaking instruction due to retentive memory. In line with this reasoning, the experiment unravels that this approach has been reacknowledged with the awakening of psycholinguistics, metacognitive skills, and meaning-making instruction. Additionally, I examined binary correlations of the four groups. Thus, the most striking differences were found for “Odd One Out, dynamic/progress” in the bilingual experimental group relative to Monolingual Control group (by 2.6 dynamics/progress; P < 0,0001); “N-back, dynamics/progress” in “Bilingual experiment” as opposed to “Monolingual control” (by 2.5 dynamics/progress; P < 0.0001); “Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test, dynamics/progress” in “Bilingual experiment” versus “Monolingual control” (by 2.4 dynamics/progress; P < 0.0001). As for working memory performance, the recognition memory of bilinguals slightly differs from that of monolinguals after the experiment. To flatten the curve of monolinguals and bilinguals and decrease the disparity in language acquisition, one can introduce the sense-creative assignments in the classroom. Distilling thoughts into the actionable direction, the study proved a great recognition in bilinguals doing verbal working memory sense-creative assignments in their L1 rather than L2. Foreign words are less associated with the meaningful concepts they represent compared to native words. The present findings support the cross-language interactivity idea of bilingual advantage because they manage multiple languages and continuously monitor the appropriate language for each communicative interaction [3]. Most bilinguals use the novel language in various situations, with all its complexity and richness. Therefore, they do not need to be fluent in all languages. The level of L2 fluency can depend on the meaning attached to the specific domain. Thus, the intermingling of languages in adult learners is normal. Nobody ever doubted the power of the English language as lingua franca (a language of international communication) and its ubiquity, length, and breadth of the area. Given its growing importance in the modern world, J. Edwards [4] claimed, “one is multilingual as soon as one is able to produce complete and meaningful utterances in a second language”. These people outnumber monolingual counterparts in the world’s population. However, the scholars are not monolithic in their theoretical stances. Bilingualism is a multifaceted phenomenon with no agreed definition [5]. This way to treat this term entails its further interpretation. There is no single definition of bilingualism since it can be interpreted from many angles. For example, A. Pavlenko [6] moots that bilingualism deals with a “similar level of proficiency in two languages learnt from birth”. At the same time, Z. Proshina [7] subscribes to the belief that “bilingualism is the use of two or more languages in everyday practice, which may take place at various levels of proficiency, at different ages, and in different contexts”. The European Commission [8] defines multilingualism as

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“the ability of societies, institution, groups and individuals to engage, on a regular basis, with more than one language in their day-to-day lives”. While W. Li [9] holds the position that a multilingual is “anyone who can communicate in more than one language, be it active (through speaking and writing) or passive (through listening and reading)”. Based on a broad array of studies, J. Cenoz [10] makes essential strides towards understanding and demarcating the concept of multilingualism into the following dimensions: 1. Proficiency versus Use Dimension The idea holds true to balanced and unbalanced bilingualism (Table 1). According to J. Cenoz [10], “balanced bilingualism is equally fluent in two or more languages while unbalanced bilingualism has different levels of proficiency in the different languages”. In this very dichotomy, F. Grosjean [11] highlighted language as the main characteristic. Individuals practicing two languages can easily switch from one language to the other without any problems. The speakers with good bilingual capacity were described as balanced bilinguals [4]. 2. Receptive versus Productive Dimension Many psychologists focus on another source of pertinent observations and constraints on how I conceptualize language proficiency in bilingualism. Receptive (or passive) and productive (or active) multilingualism contest the view characteristic of contemporary researchers. Receptive multilingualism refers to the “constellation in which interlocutors use their respective mother tongues while speaking to each other” [12]. Receptive skill means understanding a language (spoken or written). Productive multilingualism is the ability to produce a language (speaking and writing). Interpreting the data in Table 1, I can surmise that the only similar parameter for both monolinguals and bilinguals is emotions. As for the emotive variable, the bilinguals stated that speaking different languages influences their demeanor. Language may activate recollection of emotional memories experienced in the same language, evoking the associations most consistent with those experiences [13]. The predominant language used in the emotions of both monolinguals and bilinguals is L1. In language awareness, monolingual interlocutors have receptive skills and Table 1 Language predominance in cognition

Dimensions

Monolinguals

Bilinguals

Degree of fluency

Minimal proficiency

Maximum proficiency

Language awareness

Receptive skills

Productive skills

Unbalanced Code-switching Memory and attention Dominant L1

Balanced

Emotions

L1

L1

Source Compiled by the authors

L2

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predominantly use L1 in interaction, while the bilingual sample uses productive skills in its versatility. The multitude and complexity of factors affecting bilingual development offers new potential for addressing this problem [14]. In practice, an individual with a good command of L2/L3 lives in a favorable communication environment. By and large, most bilingual immigrants speak their native language at home and are unlikely to use L2. At the same time, A. Stavans and V. Swisher [15] argued that there are three types of bilinguals: (1) infant bilinguals who possess L2 in early childhood; (2) formal English as Second Language learners who study L2 at school; (3) informal bilinguals who immigrate and have to learn L2 due to necessity and circumstances. Bilingual experience depends on the age of L2 acquisition, language proficiency, and juggling languages in the relevant and meaning-making realms for the learner. Life experience of juggling two languages seems to create an experience in resolving cognitive conflict [16]. Based on the fundamental studies, this cutting-edge research introduces new perspectives that parlay the experience and understanding of the pressing and enduring problem: interplay between bilingualism and cognition. The role of language in cognition cannot be underestimated due to its absolute dependence on thought [17]. The substantial body of data that rests on research demonstrates the pivotal role that the second language plays in working memory. Researchers, educators, and linguists believe that a target language is an interference that hinders academic and intellectual development. Against the backdrops of the research, it was found out that an idiosyncratic feature of bilingual subjects is their retentive memory. The central grounding factor of this phenomenon is that bilinguals have to memorize a bulk of new foreign words. Furthermore, regarding bilingualism, a possible enhancement of memory could stem from the constant “juggling” of two languages in mind [18], which calls for working memory resources and their efficient allocation [19]. According to A. Thorn and S. Gathercole [19], bilinguals’ lifelong practice of managing two languages could enhance working memory capacity or efficiency [19]. Research showed that performance on working memory tasks is strongly related to attention, specifically to attentional control [20, 21] and focus [22]. However, attention and working memory are not isomorphic; they are best represented by correlated but distinct factors [23]. Meaning-making techniques in English as a foreign language [EFL] are teaching methods increasing the motivation of learning English through incremental tenets of L2 as an individual value. A foreign language should be personally significant for setting goals and choosing language improvement strategies [24]. All in all, meaning-making techniques in learning English are some engaging methods, such as (1) projects, (2) debates, (3) role-plays, (4) creative writings or essays, (5) academic controversy, (6) thought-provoking assignments, and (7) language portfolio [24]. All these activities boost motivation. Z. Dörnyei [25] stated that motivation constantly interacts with cognitive and emotional issues.

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2 Materials and Methods The current research tackles the problem of bilingualism and cognitive elaboration in learners leveraging meaning-making instruction. The study analyzes the interplay of learning a foreign language and metacognition in the meaning-centered context, implying projects, gamification, and critical thinking tasks. In the empirical research, all subjects were contrasted according to the following principles: (1) monolingual Russian sample (n = 30) before implementing meaningmaking instruction (Monolingual Control); (2) monolingual (Russian) counterparts (n = 30) after the experiment (Monolingual Experiment); (3) Bilingual students (n = 30) learning English in the traditional learning-centered classroom (Bilingual Control); (4) Bilingual tertiary respondents (n = 30) studying in the meaningmaking context (Bilingual Experiment). The pool included 120 students of different majors (economics, management, psychology, and law) of Southern Federal University. Overall, the experimental group comprised 60 overseas multilingual students studying in Russia (Chinese–English–Russian speakers, Spanish–English–Russian speakers; Nigerian–English speakers), Russian–English speakers, and the control group consisted of 60 monolingual Russian counterparts. Quantitative data were analyzed employing the Mann–Whitney test for twogroup variables. The comparison of three and more groups was conducted using the nonparametric method of Kruskal–Wallis. To describe the quantitative scales, I applied the mean and standard deviation as M ± S. The analysis of the dynamics of the indicators was carried out based on the nonparametric Wilcoxon test. The statistical significance of different values for binary and nominal indicators was determined using the Pearson Chi-squared test. Correlation analysis was performed by Spearman’s nonparametric rank correlation. The verification of statistical significance was fixed at the error probability level of 0.05 (if P > 0.05, then the distribution is deemed to correspond to a normal distribution; if P ≤ 0.05, then the distribution is considered inconsistent with the normal distribution). Statistical data processing was completed using Statistica 10 and SAS JMP. At the starting point of the experiment, all subjects were to complete the questionnaire “Bilingualism and Emotions” [26]. Then the respondents were given the questionnaire “Beliefs About Language Learning Inventory” [BALLI] by E. Horwitz [27]. Further on, the subjects were asked to fill the questionnaire “Sense-creative strategies in learning a foreign language” [28]. At the second stage of the study, I drew particular attention to working memory tasks (verbal and visuospatial). I measured the receptive vocabulary bank with the help of the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test [PPVT] III. While running the experimental research, the bilinguals were asked to label pictures in their mother tongue or their novel language. Then I compared the reaction time in the picture-naming task across two languages. Experimental research makes it feasible to control variables (the language of the task) and provides greater control over behavioral and cognitive processes to all intents and purposes.

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Another quintessential test was the N-back test, a continuous performance task directed at attention, working memory, and logic. The essence of the task is that the subject is presented with a sequence of letters or digits. Then the participant is supposed to indicate the letters or digits three steps back. In the same vein, the students took part in the test “Odd One Out [OOO],” where they had to pick the wrong word in the sequence. Finally, to examine the emotional content, I interviewed the bilingual or multilingual subjects about the salient childhood event (e.g., a memorable birthday, a vacation trip, etc.) in each of the two languages they speak. The seminal principle of the experiment was whether the bilingual speakers switch to another language during the narrative when it comes to any emotional outburst; and if the code-switching appears randomly or in a systematic mode.

3 Results Table 2 summarizes the progeny of the present study. Based on Table 2, I can conclude that the coefficient of variation varies in the range from 8 to 58%, which indicates a high level of heterogeneity of some of the studied indicators. The most homogeneous indicators were “Age, years,” “Verbal, Before”, and “PPVT, Before”. In the second part of the experiment, the most diverse constructs were “Visuospatial, dynamics/progress, Before–After”, “Verbal, dynamics/progress, Before–After”, and “N-back, dynamics/progress, Before–After”. Judging by Table 3, I can assume that all scores vary in the four groups tested. The most significant differences were found for the “Verbal” indicator in the “Bilingual experiment” group in relation to the “Monolingual control” group (by 1.1; P < 0.0001); “Odd One Out” in the group “Bilingual experiment” in relation to the group “Monolingual control” (by 1.3; P < 0.0001); “PPVT” in the group “Bilingual control” in relation to the group “Monolingual experiment” (by 1.6; P < 0.0001); “Monolingual control” (by 1.3; P < 0.0001); “PPVT” in the group “Bilingual control” compared to the group “Monolingual experiment” (by 1.6; P < 0.0001). All variables of cognitive factors of the four language groups in the ordinary meaning-making instruction “After” are diverse (Table 4). The most substantial differences were found for the “Odd One Out” in the “Bilingual experiment” group concerning the “Monolingual control” group (by 3.9; p < 0.0001); “N-back” in the group “Bilingual experiment” in relation to the group “Monolingual control” (by 3.4; p < 0.0001); PPVT in the Bilingual experiment group concerning the Monolingual control group (by 3.5; p < 0.0001). Finally, I summarized the total performance in all tasks before and after the experiment and elicited the dynamics in which the methods were implemented (Table 5). According to Table 5, all indicators change significantly. The most critical changes were found for the “Odd one out” variable (by 0.8; P < 0.0001); “N-back” (by 0.9; P < 0.0001); “PPVT” (by 0.9; P < 0.0001).

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Table 2 Summary of indicators of threshold values in the four groups before and after the experiment Variable

N (%)

M±S

V (%)

Me [LQ;U]

(Min; Max)

Age, years

120 (100%)

21.71 ± 1.72

8

22 [20;23]

(19; 24)

24

5 [4;6]

(2; 8)

Scores 120 (100%)

PPVT, before

4.85 ± 1.16

N-back, before

120 (100%)

5.28 ± 1.58

30

5 [4;6]

(1; 9)

OOO, before

120 (100%)

4.58 ± 1.19

26

5 [4;5]

(2; 7)

Verbal, before

120 (100%)

4.86 ± 1.10

23

5 [4;6]

(2; 7)

Visuospatial, before

120 (100%)

5.42 ± 1.44

26

5 [4;6]

(2; 9)

PPVT, after

120 (100%)

6.90 ± 1.64

24

7 [6;8]

(4; 10)

N-back, after

120 (100%)

7.43 ± 1.99

27

8 [6;9]

(2; 10)

OOO, after

120 (100%)

6.68 ± 1.82

27

7 [5;8]

(2; 10)

Verbal, after

120 (100%)

6.94 ± 1.71

25

7 [6;8]

(2; 10)

Visuospatial, after

120 (100%)

7.55 ± 1.86

25

8 [6;9]

(3; 10)

PPVT, dynamics, before/after

120 (100%)

2.05 ± 1.06

52

2 [1;3]

(0; 4)

N-back, dynamics, before/after

120 (100%)

2.15 ± 1.16

54

2 [1;3]

(0; 4)

OOO, dynamics, before/after

120 (100%)

2.09 ± 1.14

54

2 [1;3]

(0; 4)

Verbal, dynamics, before/after

120 (100%)

2.08 ± 1.17

56

2 [1 3]

(0; 4)

Visuospatial, dynamics, before/after

120 (100%)

2.12 ± 1.23

58

2 [1;3]

(0; 6)

Source Compiled by the authors Table 3 Comparison of cognitive factors of the four language groups in the ordinary learnercentered instruction “Before” (mean ± standard deviations) Variable

Group Monolingual control (N = 30)

P-value Monolingual experiment (N = 30)

Bilingual control (N = 30)

Bilingual experiment (N = 30)

PPVT

4.30 ± 0.60

4.03 ± 1.00

5.63 ± 1.16

5.43 ± 0.4

9% the company’s stock for more than 85 days/inventory * 100%

Scale for a criterion falling into the green range

2–8%

10% profit (alternative) profit by volume caused during the by a shortage of reporting period stock materials * (price per 1 piece of goods—cost per 1 piece of goods)

0

Up to 9.9% of profit during the reporting period

Profitability of a potential transaction

Opportunity profit/revenue of potential transaction * 100%

0.8, except the Neutral Acceptance (0.68) and Approach Acceptance scales (0.72). The “Goals in life” subscale (5 points) from the Life-Meaning Orientation Test [18], being a Russian-language adaptation of the Purpose-in-Life Test [19], was used to estimate the life goal. The answers were given according to a 5-point scale: “very much like me,” “that feels like me,” “sometimes it feels like me, sometimes it does not,” “it does not feel like me,” “it does not feel like me at all.”

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One question was asked to estimate the topics of interest in the control sample: “What content on social networks would be interesting for you (choose not less than three topics)” and five topics were offered: (1) how to make money; (2) love and friendship; (3) life and death; (4) humor; and (5) how to become famous. For the research purpose under item (3) life and death.” The samples were divided into those interested and those who were not interested in death content on social networks. The remaining items were not used for analysis. Respondents were also suggested to indicate their gender and age. The questionnaire was posted on two web pages of a personal account using the online service Google Forms. Students from the offline sample passed the test on mobile phones at school in the presence of a teacher. However, participation in the test was voluntary. The Student’s T-criterion was used for two independent samples to estimate the differences between the “Death Attitude Profile” and “Goal in Life.” Multiple linear regression analysis was used to estimate the influence of death attitudes and goals in life on the choice of the topic of interesting content on social networks. P-points below 0.05 were considered statistically significant. The calculations were made using the statistical software package (SPSS vs. 19).

3 Results The survey results (Tables 1 and 2) demonstrated that the mean score of the Goal in Life and Death Avoidance were lower, and mean scores of the Neutral Acceptance and Escape Acceptance were higher in adolescent users (the main sample) than in adolescents from the control and contrast samples. This difference was statistically significant (p = 0.000). Linear regression analysis by Entering method (R = 0.376; R2 = 0.141; F = 8.406; p < 0.001) revealed a significant negative contribution of Death Avoidance (p = 0.000) and a positive contribution of Escape Acceptance (p = 0.007) to the choice of death content (Table 3). Table 1 Comparison of mean of the death attitudes profile and goal in life in adolescents users of groups with the death content on the social network VKontakte; the main sample and control sample Main sample (N = 204)

Control sample (N = 309)

t

p

Goal in life

2.80 (0.91)

3.50 (0.75)

−9.54

0.000

Fear of death

2.93 (1.08)

2.88 (1.04)

0.59

0.556

Death avoidance

2.68 (1.04)

3.39 (1.05)

−7.60

0.000

Neutral acceptance

4.36 (0.76)

3.99 (0.93)

4.77

0.000

Approach acceptance

2.54 (1.02)

2.46 (0.97)

0.86

0.388

Escape acceptance

3.19 (1.23)

2.45 (1.10)

7.15

0.000

Source Compiled by the authors

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Table 2 Comparison of mean of the death attitudes profile and goal in life by death content subscribers on social networks (main sample) and contrast group Main sample (N = 204)

Contrast sample (N = 229)

t

p

Goal in life

2.80 (0.91)

3.56 (0.74)

−9.67

0.000

Fear of death

2.93 (1.08)

2.88 (1.03)

0.49

0.625

Death avoidance

2.68 (1.04)

3.56 (0.97)

−9.13

0.000

Neutral acceptance

4.36 (0.76)

3.94 (0.94)

5.15

0.000

Approach acceptance

2.54 (1.02)

2.35 (0.92)

1.99

0.047

Escape acceptance

3.19 (1.23)

2.24 (0.99)

8.87

0.000

Source Compiled by the authors

Table 3 Influence of the death attitudes and goal in life on the choice of death content on the social network VKontakte (control sample, N = 309) Predictors

B

S. E

β

t

p

(Constant)

0.12

0.20

0.008

0.59

0.557

Goal in Life

0.01

0.04

0.008

0.14

0.890

Fear of death

0.02

0.02

0.041

0.73

0.468

−0.10

0.03

−0.228

−3.85

0.000

Neutral acceptance

0.02

0.03

0.052

0.96

0.337

Approach acceptance

0.05

0.03

0.109

1.86

0.064

Escape acceptance

0.07

0.03

0.184

2.73

0.007

Death avoidance

Source Compiled by the authors

4 Discussion This research was devoted to the study of the Death Attitudes and Goal in Life characteristics of adolescents interested in death content on the social network VKontakte. First, we compiled a sample contacting directly with teenage users subscribed to pages with death content through administrators of the social network “VKontakte.” Therefore, we interviewed them using psychometrically based methods to obtain reliable results. Furthermore, we interviewed adolescents from secondary schools in Primorsky Krai and the Moscow Region, included in a control group. The obtained results allowed us to conclude that adolescents interested in the death content on the VKontakte network differ from those who are out of this content. Teenage users involved in the death content have lower indicators of meaningfulness of the future and lower estimations of goals in life. In addition, the data of various studies on the negative correlation between the lack of a purpose in life and suicidality were implemented [15, 16]. However, we can assume that the interest in death content on social networks, related to low indicators of meaningfulness of the future, is a predictor of suicidal potency among adolescent users.

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Subsequently, we discovered that only three death attitudes among adolescents differ: they are less susceptible to avoid the topic of death in their lives (Death Avoidance) and more susceptible to perceive death as a natural event (Neutral Acceptance) and a way to escape from the suffering and troubles in life (Escape Acceptance). At the same time, only the Death Avoidance and Escape Acceptance are predictors of choosing death content on the VKontakte network. Moreover, the Death Avoidance is predictable for subscribers of the death content, who are insusceptible to the death topic. However, a significant feature of the research is the growing tendency among adolescents, subscribed to pages with death content to perceive death as an escape (Escape Acceptance). Currently, in terms of escape, suicide is a dominant theory [20]. Nonetheless, one can discover that adolescents with multiple suicide attempts having higher rates of perception of death as an escape are distinct from the ordinary ones [12]. Thus, this result of the research, indicating the interest in the death content on social networks, can predict suicidal potency among adolescent users. Moreover, the obtained data is useful for “risk group” criteria clarifying the corresponding adolescents’ accounts on social networks. Evidently, this study implies death content in summary, excluding a detailed division into aestheticizing, humorous, frightening, and other aspects. This fact creates certain limitations in the obtained data interpretation and provides further research prospects. The inclusion of a wide range of socio-economic, demographic, and psychological characteristics of death content users on social networks also ensures data reliability.

5 Conclusion The research results showed that the absence of goals in life and death attitudes is a way to avoid pain and suffering. Accordingly, adolescents subscribed on pages with death content on the social network VKontakte have higher suicidal results than those that are not interested in the topic of life and death. Furthermore, the available publications claim that the lack of purpose in life and death attitudes as a way to escape from reality correlates with suicidality. Finally, we can conclude that adolescents’ interest in death content on social networks can be considered a predictor of their suicidal potential. Acknowledgements The reported study was funded by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research according to research project No. 19-013-00700 entitled “Psychological characteristics of adolescents interested in prosuicidal content on social networks.”

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References 1. Best P, Manktelow R, Taylor B (2014) Online communication, social media and adolescent well-being: a systematic narrative review. Child Youth Serv Rev 41:27–36 2. Keles B, McCrae N, Grealish A (2020) A systematic review: the influence of social media on depression, anxiety, and psychological distress in adolescents. Int J Adolesc Youth 25(1):79–93 3. Kim H (2017) The impact of online social networking on adolescent psychological wellbeing (WB): A population-level analysis of Korean school-aged children. Int J Adolesc Youth 22(3):364–376 4. Pantic I (2014) Online social networking and mental health. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 17:652–657 5. Biddle L, Derges J, Goldsmith C et al (2018) Using the internet for suicide-related purposes: Contrasting findings from young people in the community and self-harm patients admitted to hospital. PLoS ONE 13(5):e0197712 6. Chandler V (2018) Google and suicides: what can we learn about the use of the internet to prevent suicides? Public Health 154:144–150 7. Arora VS, Stuckler D, McKee M (2016) Tracking search engine queries for suicide in the United Kingdom. Public Health 137:147–153 8. Frost M, Casey L (2016) Who seeks help online for self-injury? Arch Suicide Res 20:69–79 9. Bridge JA, Goldstein TR, Brent DA (2006) Adolescent suicide and suicidal behavior. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 47(3–4):372–394 10. Horesh N, Orbach I, Gothelf D et al (2003) Comparison of the suicidal behavior of adolescent inpatients with borderline personality disorder and major depression. J Nerv Ment Dis 191(9):582–588 11. Crumley FE (1981) Adolescent suicide attempts and borderline personality disorder: clinical features. South Med J 74(5):546–549 12. Chistopolskaya K, Enikolopov S (2013) Defenses against the fear of death in postsuicide. Procedia Soc Behav Sci 86:64–69 13. Wong PTP, Reker G, Gesser G (1994) Death attitude profile—revised: a multidimensional measure of attitudes toward death. In: Neimeyer R (ed) Death anxiety handbook. Taylor and Francis, Philadelphia, pp 121–148 14. Kleiman EM, Beaver JK (2013) A meaningful life is worth living: meaning in life as a suicide resiliency factor. J Psychiatr Res 210:934–939 15. Costanza A, Baertschi M, Richard-Lepouriel H et al (2020) The presence and the search constructs of meaning in life in suicidal patients attending a psychiatric emergency department. Front Psychiatry 11(327). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00327 16. Costanza A, Prelati M, Pompili M (2019) The meaning of life in suicidal patients: the presence and search for constructs. A systematic review. Medicine (Kaunas, Lithuania) 55(8). https:// doi.org/10.3390/medicina55080465 17. Gavrilova TA (2011) The adaptation of the questionnaire death attitude profile—revised (DAPR), developed by P. T. P. Wong, G. T. Reker, and G. Gesser. Theor Exp Psychol 4(1):46–57 18. Leontiev DA (1992) Life-meaning orientation test. Smysl, Moscow 19. Crumbaugh JC, Maholick LT (1969) Manual of instructions for the purpose-in-life test. Psychometric Affiliates, Munster 20. Baumeister RF (1990) Suicide as escape from self. Psychol Rev 97(1):90–113

Information Interactions of Subjects in the System of Preventing Neglect and Juvenile Delinquency Ekaterina V. Ilgova , Svetlana N. Zaikova , and Olga S. Mrasteva

Abstract The paper analyzes the current situation in Russia in the field of preventing neglect and juvenile delinquency in terms of interdepartmental information interaction between state bodies and institutions engaged in this activity. We believe that one of the most significant features of this interdepartmental interaction is the lack of a single information platform for the exchange of information between the authorities and institutions of the system mentioned above and the legal basis for the operation of such a platform. The research aims to develop a model of a legal mechanism that ensures data circulation in the activities of the bodies and institutions of the given system by developing and putting into operation a unified federal state information system. In addition to general scientific methods, we used formal-legal and comparative-legal approaches, which allowed us to develop the declared model of the legal mechanism. The designed model considers the requirements of Russian federal laws; it can serve as a basis for developing the law “On the federal state information system for the prevention of neglect and juvenile delinquency.” We also considered the most critical socio-economic, legal, and other consequences of implementing the developed legal model of data circulation in the activities of bodies and institutions of the system for preventing neglect and juvenile delinquency. Keywords System of preventing child neglect and juvenile delinquency · Interdepartmental interaction · Automated information systems

1 Introduction Currently, combating crime is one of the most acute problems. International and public organizations, as well as ordinary citizens, are concerned about these issues. As dominant trends in this area, we can note the increasing criminal activity of E. V. Ilgova · S. N. Zaikova (B) · O. S. Mrasteva Saratov State Law Academy, Sarartov, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova (ed.), Complex Social Systems in Dynamic Environments, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 365, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23856-7_80

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adolescents and young adults. These age groups are the future of any country; the fate of society and the nation depends on their behavior, lifestyle, and personal traits. In this regard, government agencies pay utmost attention to the prevention of juvenile delinquency and improve existing approaches and develop new ones in this area. In this context, the key role is assigned to the well-organized interaction of various government and social structures aimed at preventing the illegal behavior of young people, which is impossible without the effective use of rapidly developing information technologies. There are several technologically different ways to organize information interaction for data processing and transmission. In public administration, the most popular method is the unified information interaction of automated information systems. Today, the rapid and effective interaction of authorities and public organizations involved in the prevention of juvenile delinquency is carried out through information systems, the implementation and operation of which is impossible without appropriate legal support. In Russia, Federal Law “On the fundamentals of the system for the prevention of neglect and juvenile delinquency” (June 24, 1999, No. 120-FZ) [1] serves as the legal basis for the prevention of neglect and juvenile delinquency. The most critical feature of the established system for preventing neglect and juvenile delinquency (hereinafter—the Prevention System) is that it includes some bodies and institutions that operate at the federal, regional, and territorial (municipal) levels. The coordinating function is assigned to the commissions for the affairs of minors and the protection of their rights (hereinafter—the Commissions). Once again, this circumstance emphasizes the importance of organizing interdepartmental information interaction between bodies and institutions of the Prevention System as a necessary condition for effective activity.

2 Materials and Methods There are relatively few studies of interdepartmental interaction between bodies and institutions of the Prevention System in Russia. For example, the difficulties of implementing interdepartmental interaction between bodies and institutions of the Prevention System were studied by Lugovskaya and Borisenko [2]. Also, the regional experience of interdepartmental interaction of bodies and institutions of the Prevention System was considered by Sidorenko [3]. Finally, the peculiarities of the interaction of individual bodies and institutions of the Prevention System were investigated by Chaban [4]. Bezhentsev [5–8] analyzed the goals and objectives of using information systems [IS] in the activities of bodies and institutions of the Prevention System, studied the problems of secure data exchange within IS, and gave recommendations for improving individual IS blocks. The secondary literature in English pays much more attention to interdepartmental interaction between the bodies and institutions of the Prevention System. For

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instance, in the United States, experts have been studying the interaction of custody and guardianship authorities, health care institutions, and juvenile justice institutions for several decades [9–19]. However, due to the interethnic differences in the organization and legal support of the activities of the bodies and institutions of the Prevention System in different countries, the provisions and findings of international studies can only be partially applied in Russian conditions. In 2020, the Saratov State Law Academy, with the assistance of the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation, conducted an online survey of representatives of the Commissions on the use of automated information systems [AIS]. The survey involved representatives of the Commissions of 59 subjects of the Russian Federation; 1304 questionnaires were analyzed. One of the results of this survey was the conclusion that there is currently no single information platform in the Russian Federation in which the bodies and institutions of the Prevention System could interact in an organized manner. We believe that this problem can be effectively overcome by introducing a unified federal state information system [FSIS] for bodies and institutions of the Prevention System, which implies the development of technical solutions and legal regulations. This study represents an attempt to develop a model of a legal mechanism that ensures the data circulation in the Prevention System (hereinafter referred to as the AIS Legal Model), taking into account the requirements of Russian federal laws, namely, the Federal Law “On the federal state information system for preventing neglect and juvenile delinquency.” In addition to general scientific methods, we used formal-legal and comparativelegal approaches, which allowed us to develop the stated model of the legal mechanism.

3 Results and Discussion Using these forms and requirements, we managed to develop the AIS Legal Model, which determines the following factors: ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

Principles of creation, operation, and modernization of the system; System requirements; Types of information posted in the system; Rights and duties of information interaction participants; Procedure for placing information in the system; Legal regime of information; Interaction of the system with other information systems.

The main idea of creating the AIS Legal Model is to increase the efficiency of implementing the legally established functions by automating the data circulation by the bodies and institutions of the Prevention System. Therefore, the primary purpose of the AIS Legal Model is to determine the AIS structure and substantiate

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the indicators that ensure the solution of the tasks of managing and coordinating the activities of the bodies and institutions of the Prevention System. The subject of regulation of the AIS Legal Model is the legal relations arising between the bodies and institutions of the Prevention System (internal interaction), bodies and institutions of the Prevention System, and citizens, state authorities, local authorities, courts, and other organizations (external interaction). The list of persons covered by the AIS Legal Model includes (a) bodies and institutions of the Prevention System; (b) state authorities of Russia; (c) state authorities of the subjects of the Russian Federation; (d) local authorities; (e) organizations, their officials, and citizens; (f) foreign citizens; (g) stateless persons; and (h) minors. The norms of the Federal Law of the Russian Federation No. 120-FZ set the following provisions for regulating information flow in the prevention of neglect and juvenile delinquency: ● Respect for the confidentiality of the information received (Paragraph 2, Article 2); ● Right of the subjects of the Prevention System to request, collect, and summarize information (Item 5, Paragraph 2, Article 21); ● Reception and provision of information is a guaranteed right of a minor (Paragraph 2 Article 8). ● Information flows in the Prevention System arise in different groups of legal relations: 1. Between the Commission of the subject of the Russian Federation and other subjects of the Prevention System; 2. Between territorial (municipal) commissions and other subjects of the Prevention System; ● Information exchange is also carried out within the commission system itself; ● Information flows are formed between the subjects of the Prevention System and federal state authorities, state authorities of the subjects of the federation, local authorities, and organizations that are not included in the Prevention System; ● Information interaction is conducted between the subjects of the Prevention System and the mass media. One of the key tasks in developing the AIS Legal Model is the choice of its implementation options. The analysis of legislation and law enforcement practice allowed us to choose an optimal form (FGIS), which has many advantages over regional AIS: ● Ensures the interaction of various federal and regional state authorities in various industries; ● Provides an opportunity to exchange information between the subjects of the Prevention System of various subjects of the federation; ● Involves online monitoring of the state of the Prevention System; ● Allows one to unify the forms of documents of the subjects of the Prevention System;

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● Enables interaction with other federal information systems. It is also proposed to ensure the interaction of FSIS with other IS. In the latter case, if the information that should be contained in the FSIS is already presented in other state or municipal IS and is necessarily included in other state or municipal IS, such information should be placed in the FSIS in an automated mode from the IS data. We believe that the legal regulation of relations arising during the creation, operation, and modernization of FSIS should be implemented in the form of the adoption of the Federal Law “On the federal state information system of subjects of the prevention system.” This form will allow for the interaction of many federal, regional, and municipal government bodies. The federal law proposes to fix the following concepts and terms: ● FSIS is a unified federal centralized system operating based on software, hardware, and information technologies that ensure the collection, processing, storage, provision, placement, and use of information in the field of preventing neglect and juvenile delinquency; ● FSIS operator is a legal entity that operates FSIS activities, for example, the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation. This step will allow the ministry to ensure the implementation of the state policy in the field of education, custody, and guardianship of minors, social support, and social protection of students, as well as to implement the functions of coordinating activities for the prevention of neglect and juvenile delinquency (Paragraph 4.3.14 of the Regulations on the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation, approved by the Decree of the government of the Russian Federation (June 7, 2018 No. 884); ● Subjects posting information in FSIS are bodies and institutions of the Prevention System, state authorities, local authorities, and other persons who are required to post information in FSIS; ● Information users are state authorities, local authorities, legal entities, and individuals who use the information published in FSIS.

4 Conclusion We are convinced that implementing the developed AIS Legal Model can lead to favorable socio-economic and legal consequences. First of all, this model will ensure the information exchange between the subjects of the Prevention System within the internal and external interdepartmental interaction, without being limited to the territory of a single subject of the federation. Second, the AIS model will systematize the ongoing accounting by accounting bodies and indicators (indicators of preventive activity). Third, the model will increase the level of protection of the processed personal data of minors and their parents (legal representatives). Fourth, it will provide conditions for high-quality

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automatic reporting of subjects of the Prevention System and the development and practical use of standard maps (protocols) for working “with the case.” In addition, this model will form a single map (history) of minors and their family by all subjects of the Prevention System, reflecting the contribution of each subject of the Prevention System and other factors. Finally, the AIS Legal Model will allow subjects to share their experience in typical situations. Therefore, FSIS has a significant potential for improving the effectiveness of the activities of the bodies and institutions of the Prevention System by integrating, systematizing, and standardizing numerous information flows related to the prevention of neglect and juvenile delinquency. The proposed AIS Legal Model, which meets the requirements of Russian federal laws, can become the basis for developing the Federal Law “On the federal state information system for the prevention of neglect and juvenile delinquency.” Adopting this law will also allow one to harmonize the interdepartmental interaction of bodies and institutions of the Prevention System. Acknowledgements The study was conducted with the financial support of the Russian Foundation for Basic Research within the project No. 20-011-00656.

References 1. Russian Federation (1999) Federal Law On the fundamentals of the system for the prevention of neglect and juvenile delinquency. No 120-FZ 24 June 1999. Moscow 2. Lugovskaya AA, Borisenko OS (2017) The issue of implementing the interaction of the bodies of the system for the prevention of neglect and juvenile delinquency. Sci Notes PNU 8(3):249– 254 3. Sidorenko MV (2014) Implementation of interdepartmental interaction between bodies and institutions of the system of prevention of neglect, homelessness, and juvenile delinquency in Blagoveshchensk. Sci Vector Togliatti State Univ 1:151–154 4. Chaban MN (2017) Effectiveness of interdepartmental interaction between the school and the subjects of the prevention system for the prevention of neglect, crimes, and offenses among minors. Pravo Ekonomika Bezopasnost 3:137–139 5. Bezhentsev AA (2010) On the need to introduce advanced information technologies in the activities of subjects of prevention of juvenile delinquency. In: RI’2010: regional Informatics XII St. Petersburg international conference. UNESKO, Saint-Petersburg. 20−22 Oct 2010 6. Bezhentsev AA (2014) On the application of the information system “Automation of the activities of commissions for the affairs of minors and the protection of their rights. In: RI’2010: regional informatics, XII St. Petersburg international conference. UNESKO, Saint-Petersburg. 20−22 Oct 2010 7. Bezhentsev AA (2016) Data banks on the protection of the rights of minors and prevention of their crimes: problems of effective use. Topical issues of the organization and legal regulation of the activities of operational units of the ministry of internal affairs of the Russian Federation (Dedicated to the Memory of Professor D. V. Rivman), vol 1, pp 44–48 8. Bezhentsev AA (2017) Innovatization of law enforcement administrative activity of linear divisions for minors of internal affairs bodies in transport. Administrative and Legal Regulation of Law Enforcement Activity: theory and practice 1:69–72 9. Ahlin EM, Gibbs JC, Kavanaugh PR et al (2017) Support for restorative justice in a sample of US university students. Int J Offender Ther Comp Criminol 61(2):229–245

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10. Greenbaum J, Crawford-Jakubiak JE (2015) Child sex trafficking and commercial sexual exploitation: health care needs of victims. Pediatrics 135(3):566–574 11. Harvell S, Warnberg C et al (2020) Closing youth prisons: lessons from agency administrators. Urban Institute, Washington 12. Hoeben EM, Meldrum RC, Walker D et al (2016) The role of peer delinquency and unstructured socializing in explaining delinquency and substance use: a state-of-the-art review. J Crim Just 47:108–122 13. Javdani S (2019) Critical issues for youth involved in the juvenile justice system: innovations in prevention, intervention, and policy. J Prev Interv Community 47(2):67–75 14. Lane J (2018) Addressing juvenile crime: what have we learned, and how should we proceed? Criminol Public Policy 17(2):283–307 15. Liu L, Miller SL (2020) Protective factors against juvenile delinquency: exploring gender with a nationally representative sample of youth. Soc Sci Res 86:102376 16. Owen MC, Wallace SB (2020) Advocacy and collaborative health care for justice-involved youth. Pediatrics 146(1) 17. Peck JH (2016) Contemporary issues of race/ethnicity, offending behavior, and justice responses. Taylor and Francis, London 18. Puzzanchera C, Hockenberry S (2017) The national juvenile court data archive includes data on his panic youth in 2014. https://ojjdp.ojp.gov/sites/g/files/xyckuh176/files/pubs/251107.pdf 19. Vinnichenko EO (2013) Problems of informational provision on the prevention of juvenile delinquency. Bull Tyumen State Univ 3:98–104

Peculiarities of Adolescent Subjectivity with Different Expressions of Behavioral Addiction Nadezhda Z. Kaygorodova , Tatyana G. Volkova , and Mikhail V. Yatsenko

Abstract The paper aims to assess the features of the subjectivity of teenage schoolchildren with different propensities to computer addiction, sports, and musical fanaticism. From the standpoint of cultural-historical theory, we considered subjectivity a stable integral personality characteristic consisting of five key interrelated components: responsibility, freedom, general reflection, choice reflection, and control reflection. We determined the propensity for dependent behavior using the method by V. D. Mendelevich. In addition, we used the method by Isakov to study the level of subjectivity and its components. We tested a total of 160 pupils of 7–10 grades. Furthermore, we divided them into three groups: (1) with a low level (tendency) of addictive behavior, (2) with a pronounced tendency, and (3) with a high probability of addictive behavior. The study suggests that the level of development of subjectivity and its components is correlated with the propensity for non-chemical addiction of different genesis. At the same time, the lower the level of subjectivity development, the more pronounced is the propensity to addict behavior in adolescence. Moreover, we revealed differences in the development of general subjectivity, personal autonomy, and choice reflection in the groups compared. For the first time, the study compared subjectivity and its components in groups of teenagers who differed in the propensity for different types of non-chemical dependence. Keywords Addictive or dependent behavior · Subjectivity components · Control · General reflection · Responsibility · Choice reflection · Freedom (personal autonomy) · Subjectivity

N. Z. Kaygorodova · T. G. Volkova (B) · M. V. Yatsenko Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova (ed.), Complex Social Systems in Dynamic Environments, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 365, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23856-7_81

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1 Introduction The current state of Russian society is characterized by an increasing number of children and adolescents with different types of addictive behavior. The literature analysis has revealed that many factors that can be divided into groups determine the propensity for addictive behavior and the specifics of its development: biological, social, psychological, and age. In addition, there are different opinions on psychological risk factors of addictive behavior and ways to prevent them [1, 6, 7, 10, 15, 16]. Currently, the subjectivity of adolescents is actively studied. Currently, there are several methodological approaches to understanding subjectivity and its structure. They highlight the acmeological, evolutionary, integral, and system-subjective approaches [12, 13]. In this research, we considered subjectivity from the perspective of cultural-historical theory. In line with the theory, Vygotsky put the problem of subjectivity in the context of personal development, conscious mastering of one’s behavior through the interiorization of cultural signs [15]. Developing the ideas of Vygotsky, Kravtsov and Isakov define subjectivity as a stable integral personality characteristic consisting of five key interrelated components: (1) responsibility, (2) freedom (personal autonomy), (3) general reflection, (4) choice reflection, and (5) control [4, 8]. The formation of subjectivity determines personal development as a teenager learns the components of subjectivity in educational and other activities [14]. Despite the variety of studies on psychological risk factors of dependent behavior, the level of subjectivity development and propensity for the dependence of different genesis are less studied. The paper focuses on evaluating features of the subjectivity of teenage schoolchildren with different propensities to computer addiction, sports, and music fans.

2 Materials and Methods The propensity to addict behavior was determined with the help of Mendelevich’s method “The propensity to addict behavior” [10]. To study the level of subjectivity and its components, Isakov [4] used the subjectivity method. This method allows one to evaluate such subjectivity components as responsibility, freedom or personal autonomy, general reflection, choice reflection, control, and general subjectivity index. We performed statistical data processing using the SPSS Statistics 22 package: single factor dispersion analysis and correlation analysis (according to Pearson). Using the method by Mendelevich, we tested 160 pupils of 7–10 grades. When processing the results, firstly, we calculated the data for each scale of the method. After that, we assessed the total propensity level for the dependent behavior of each respondent by summing up the points reflecting the severity of propensity for

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dependent behavior. All respondents were divided into three groups. The first group consisted of 59 students with low addiction propensity (tendency). The second group included 78 students with strong addiction tendencies of one or more types. Finally, the third group consisted of 25 students with a high probability of addictive behavior.

3 Results Between the selected groups of schoolchildren with different propensity degrees for dependent behavior, we determined the reliable differences in the development of general subjectivity (F = 3.873, p ≤ 0.02) and its components—freedom (personal autonomy) (F = 6.288, p ≤ 0.02) and choice reflection (F = 5.043, p ≤ 0.008) (Figs. 1, 2 and 3). Groups of students with different degrees of the propensity for dependent behavior significantly differ from each other in the development of general subjectivity (Fig. 1). The overall subjectivity of students with a high probability of addictive behavior (group 3) is significantly lower than that of students with a tendency to addict behavior (group 1 and group 2): group 1 and group 3 (t = 2.98, p ≤ 0.005), and group 2 and group 3 (t = 2.45, p ≤ 0.01). The probability of developing a tendency to dependent behavior is significant for the following reasons: (1) if students have irresponsible attitudes to life, their plans, and easily change them due to challenges; (2) if they do not admit their mistakes but blame others for their failures; (3) if their behavior depends on the opinions of others, and the choice of activities is not based on their

Fig. 1 General subjectivity of students with different addiction tendencies. Source Compiled by the authors

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Fig. 2 Features of personal autonomy of students with different inclinations to dependent behavior. Source Compiled by the authors

Fig. 3 Features of choice reflection in students with different propensities to dependent behavior. Source Compiled by the authors

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own beliefs and values but the external factors; (4) if teenagers do not think about the direction of their life, they are not active in their lives and do not want to influence the destiny. On the scale of “freedom” (personal autonomy), there are reliable differences between the 1st and 3rd groups (t = 2.75, p ≤ 0.01), 2nd group and 3rd group (t = 3.14, p ≤ 0.04). We found higher rates of this subjectivity component in the group with a tendency to develop dependence than the group with a high probability of dependent behavior. This fact suggests that students in the 1st group are more selfconfident, independent in making decisions and their own behavior. Group 3 students are more dependent on other people, situations, and external circumstances for their actions and decisions (Fig. 2). Moreover, we determined the reliable differences between students with different degrees of addictive behavioral propensity in showing activity in a situation of choice (scale of choice reflection: group 1 and group 3 (t = 3.41, p ≤ 0.02), group 2 and group 3 (t = 2.15, p ≤ 0.03) (Fig. 3). Thus, students with a high probability of dependent behavior show significantly less activity in a situation of choice. Often, such students make choices randomly or impulsively without thinking about the consequences. Furthermore, we used a single-factor dispersion analysis to identify the features of subjectivity in adolescents with different levels of addiction. The analysis revealed the reliable differences between the three selected groups on all scales of V. D. Mendelevichs’ method “Addiction propensity,” which indicates the correctness of group acquisition, namely: • Propensity to addiction F = 49.683, p ≤ 0.001: group 1 and group 3 (t = −10.03, p ≤ 0.001), group 1 and group 2(t = -7.68, p ≤ 0.001), group 2 and group 3 (t = −3.77, p ≤ 0.001); • Propensity to alcohol dependency F = 137.153, p ≤ 0.001, group 1 and group 3 (t = −15.68, p ≤ 0.001), group 1 and group 2(t = −10.94, p ≤ 0.001), group 2 and group 3 (t = −8.22, p ≤ 0.001); • Propensity to sports and musical fanaticism F = 81.236, p ≤ 0.001, group 1 and group 3 (t = −12.59, p ≤ 0.001), group 1 and group 2 (t = −8.44, p ≤ 0.001), group 2 and group 3 (t = −6.49, p ≤ 0.001); • Computer addiction tendency F = 30,481, p ≤ 0,001, group 1 and group 3 (t = − 6.92, p ≤ 0.001), group 1 and group 2 (t = −5.20, p ≤ 0.001), group 2 and group 3 (t = −3.64, p ≤ 0.001). To identify the propensity of students in grades 7–11 (who differ in the level of development of subjectivity to various types of dependent behavior), we used a single-factor dispersion analysis (Figs. 4 and 5). The propensity to sports and musical fanaticism in all three contrasts of subjectivity development F = 9,484, p ≤ 0,001 (group 1 and group 3) is reliably different (t = 5.17, p ≤ 0.001) (group 1 and group 2 (t = 3.91, p ≤ 0.001); group 2 and group 3 (t = 2.59, p ≤ 0.01)). The higher the students’ general subjectivity level, the lower their propensity for sports and musical fanaticism (Fig. 4). There is a reliable difference in the severity of the propensity to computer dependence on the two contrasts of subjectivity development F = 3.929, p ≤ 0.02 (group 1

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Fig. 4 Features of propensity to sports and musical fanaticism in students with different subjectivity levels. Source Compiled by the authors

Fig. 5 Computer addiction in students with different levels of subjectivity. Source Compiled by the authors

Peculiarities of Adolescent Subjectivity with Different Expressions … Table 1 Significant correlations between dependent behavior and subjectivity and its components in the group of students with a tendency to dependent behavior, N = 78

941

N = 78

Sport or music fanaticism

Computer addiction

Responsibility

−0.332**

−0.265*

Freedom

−0.282*

−0.251*

Choice reflection

−0.359**

−0.465**

Control

–

−0.250*

Subjectivity

−0.361**

−0.348**

Note ** p = 0.01, * p = 0.05 Source Compiled by the authors

and group 3 (t = 2.29, p ≤ 0.02); group 1 and group 2 (t = 2.17, p ≤ 0.04)) (Fig. 5). Thus, the higher the total subjectivity of students is, the less pronounced is their propensity for computer addiction. The study of the relationship between the level of subjectivity and the degree of expressiveness of non-chemical dependence showed that regardless of the type of addiction, there are significant negative relationships with such components as responsibility, freedom (personal autonomy), choice reflection, and general subjectivity indicator. In addition, the level of computer dependence was reliably associated with a negative connection to the subjectivity “control” scale (Table 1).

4 Discussion Most researchers recognize the particular importance of adolescence to personal development and, in particular, to subjectivity, which may not correspond to the age characteristics of adolescents [2, 4]. This age is both a period of intense subjectivity development and a risk factor for forming dependent behavior [3, 5, 9–11]. In this regard, the problem of studying the subjectivity of modern schoolchildren prone to addictive behavior becomes relevant. The obtained results show that the more responsible teenagers are for their life, their plans, the more developed is their personal autonomy, the more active schoolchildren are in the situation of choice, i.e., the higher is their subjectivity, the lower is the probability of deviant behavior regardless of the type of addiction. Evidently, it is necessary to consider this aspect when organizing the educational process in educational institutions.

5 Conclusions The results obtained in the study show that the level of development of subjectivity and its components are interconnected with the tendency to non-chemical types of

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addictions of different genesis. At the same time, the lower the level of subjectivity development, the more pronounced is the propensity for addictive behavior in adolescence. If teenagers’ attitude to family, friends, and their lives, in general, is responsible, then they can understand and accept their advantages and disadvantages. In addition, the more carefully teenagers plan and adapt their lives to their preferences and subjective values, the better they control their behavior, which means that the tendency to addictive behavior will be less pronounced. Identified differences in the development of general subjectivity, personal autonomy, and choice reflection in students with different degrees of dependent behaviors suggest that the development of these components of subjectivity in family education and educational settings will contribute to the prevention of dependent behaviors.

References 1. Chambers AR, Warren KB, Potenza MN (2007) Scale-free systems theory of motivation and addiction. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 7:1017–1045 2. Frolova YuI, Zubova IN, Kaygorodova NZ (2011) Peculiarities of the subjectivity of rural and urban adolescents with a propensity for alcohol addiction. Altai State Univ J Psychol Pedagog 1(2):9–21 3. Grishina AV, Volkova EN (2018) Structure of subjectivity of teenagers with different level of game computer dependence. https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/struktura-subektnosti-podros tkov-s-raznym-urovnem-igrovoy-kompyuternoy-zavisimosti 4. Isakov MV (2008) Properties of the subject and their life cycle. In: Volovikova MI (ed) Brushlinsky AV. Psychology of individual and group subject PER-SE, Moscow, pp 310–328 5. Kaminer Y (2010) Problematic use of energy drinks by adolescents. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin 3:643–650 6. Koneva IA, Soldatova YuA (2017) Psychosocial characteristics of adolescents’ selfconsciousness as a factor predisposing to addictive behavior. Sci Rev Pedagog Sci 5:91–93 7. Korolenko CP, Dmitrieva NV (2001) Psychosocial addictology Novosibirsk. Publishing house Olsib, Novosibirsk 8. Kravtsov GG (2006) The problem of personality in cultural-historical psychology. Cult-Hist Psychol 1:18–25 9. Lisetsky KS (2008) Subjectivity as a psychological basis for the prevention of drug dependence of the individual. Vestn Samara State Univ 60:320–329 10. Mendelevich VD (2016) Psychology of deviant behavior. Gorodets, Moscow 11. Pilyugin AE (2010) Dependence on video games as a consequence of the subjectivity deficit experienced by a teenager. Vestn Tula State Lev Tolstoy Pedagog Univ 5:115–118 12. Sergiyenko EA (2010) Subjects and subjectivity in psychology. Psychology of the subject and the psychology of human existence. Kuban State University, Krasnodar 13. Suvorova OV (2011) The structure of subjectivity in early ontogenesis. Izv Samara Sci Cent Russ Acad Sci 2:1416–1421 14. Volkova TG., Veresov NN (2019) The image of the physical self of students in the context of psychological health. Hum Health Theory Methods Phys Cult Sports 4(15):70–78 15. Vygotsky LS (2005) Psychology of human development. Smysl, Moscow 16. Yuryeva LN, Bolbot TYu (2006) Computer dependence: formation, diagnostics, correction, and prevention. Porogi, Dnepropetrovsk

Socio-Pedagogical Prevention of Unauthorized Departures from Boarding Institutions for Adolescent Children Tatiana V. Gudina , Olga A. Denisova , Olga L. Lekhanova , and Irina A. Bukina

Abstract The paper is devoted to the socio-pedagogical prevention of children’s deviant behavior, including the description and testing of diagnostic tools for studying the level of commitment to unauthorized leave of adolescents from residential institutions. Lack of communication skills and interaction with others, desire to look older, diffidence, learning challenges, various addictions, and psychophysical development deviations are the reasons for the socially critical behavior of adolescents. The considered form of deviant behavior is a particular social challenge and a response to the difficulties arising in the adolescent’s life with the desire for “thrills.” The proposed socio-pedagogical preventive work is aimed at children of the “risk group,” including their social environment, contributing to stabilize their emotional state and improve social behavior and constructive interaction with counterparts and adults. The experimental study was conducted in three directions: the study of (1) cognitive, (2) behavioral, and (3) value-motivational components. We developed evaluative criteria and qualitative characteristics of the commitment levels of adolescents to unauthorized leave from a residential institution. The ideas and concepts of the study, including the described experience, are focused on improving social and pedagogical work with children of this category. Keywords Socio-pedagogical work · Prevention · Unauthorized leave of adolescent children from residential institutions

T. V. Gudina (B) · O. A. Denisova · O. L. Lekhanova · I. A. Bukina · I. A. Bukina Cherepovets State University, Cherepovets, Russia e-mail: [email protected] O. A. Denisova e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova (ed.), Complex Social Systems in Dynamic Environments, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 365, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23856-7_82

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1 Introduction Over the past decades, the problem of deviant behavior of adolescents involving various types of addictions is a socially dangerous situation for modern society. Moreover, it has a negative impact on the moral development of children. However, socially significant behavior and adaptation to accepted norms as individual living standards are the foundations of adolescence. The lack of normative behavior and ways to respond to various non-standard situations can lead to the consolidation of non-constructive interaction with others, adversely affecting the psychoemotional well-being of the adolescent. Furthermore, psychophysical problems do not exclude negative changes at the individual level, subsequently leading to such types of protest as an escape. However, life in a residential institution is significantly different from life in a parent’s home. Thus, the difficulties of adaptation and frequent escapes of adolescents can be explained by taking this difference into account. Therefore, relying on the analysis of the scientific literature, we identified that Kostyunina [4] and Slutsky [6] dealt with the reasons for vagrancy and escape from residential institutions of children and adolescents. The studies of Belousov and Ovsyannikov [1], Gilinsky [2], Zmanovskaya [8], and Kleiberg [3] are devoted to the non-normative behavior of children as a research subject in deviantology. However, aggressive and deviant behavior is interpreted as a social phenomenon in the theoretical studies of Zhuravlev [7], Pozdnyakova, and Salagaeva [5]. Thus, in residential institutions, we determined adolescents with a “rich” negative experience of social life, which they acquired before entering the residential institution. Therefore, such adolescents should be involved in individual and group correctional preventive work of various specialists. Well-established family ties are more familiar to children. Furthermore, their trust in biological parents is higher than in employees of the residential institution. In this regard, teachers, psychologists, social workers, and educators working with the considered contingent need new methods and technologies to prevent unauthorized leave from residential institutions, including attempts and relapses of inappropriate adolescents’ behavior.

2 Materials and Methods Taking into account the relevant research issues, we identified the purpose and objectives of the study: specifying the content of social and pedagogical work on the prevention of unauthorized leave of adolescent children from the residential institution and determining the commitment levels for such behavior. The study involved school-aged children (12–15 years old). The experimental group consisted of 20 people who previously committed an unauthorized leave from a residential institution. The control group consisted of 20 children with the absence of deviant behavior staying in a residential institution. In addition, teachers, an inspector

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of the Commission on Juvenile Rights and Affairs, a psychologist, and social teachers of “Sozvezdie” Cherepovets Support Center for children left without parental care were among the study participants. The ascertaining experiment included three stages: preparatory, primary, and final. Methods of collecting information from the psychological medical and pedagogical commission documents, general information about the experimental and control groups, including monitoring, projective, and diagnostic methods, were employed. Quantitative and qualitative analysis of the results was carried out by the mathematical processing of the obtained data (Spearman rank correlation coefficient). Criteria, indicators, components, and methods allowed us to determine the level of commitment to unauthorized leave of adolescents from residential institutions (see Table 1). We proposed the following characteristics of the levels of commitment to unauthorized leave of adolescents from residential institutions, based on the presented criteria. High level (249–374 points): extremely anxious adolescents with low selfesteem. Children with deviant behavior are aggressive and stubborn; it is difficult for them to communicate with others, their beliefs and viewpoints do not reflect reality. Moreover, we determined high tensions with pronounced maladaptation of coping mechanisms in them, including social, delinquent, dependent, aggressive, and autoaggressive behavior. Table 1 Criteria, components, and indicators of the level of commitment to unauthorized leave of adolescent children from residential institutions Component

Indicator

Criteria

Methods

Cognitive

(1) Determination of the children’s mental states level

Anxiety; frustration; aggression; rigidity

Method 1 test “Self-assessment of mental states.”

Behavioral

(1) Identification of coping mechanisms; (2) Ability to deal with extraordinary situations (3) Coping strategy

Confrontation; Distancing; Self-control; Accepting responsibility; Escape-avoidance; Planning a solution to a problem

Method 2 Coping-test “Ways of Coping Questionnaire” by Lazarus

Value-motivational

(1) Assessment of maladaptive behavior

Dependent, self-harming, aggressive, delinquent, social behavior

Method 3 “TDB methodology of the SDB (social distractive behavior) test by Leus (tendency to deviant behavior)”

Source Compiled by the authors

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Average level (124–248 points): adolescents with an average level of anxiety can express frustration and aggressive behavior with the rigidity of the acceptable average level. The individual adaptive potential is in a borderline state. We identified an orientation to social behavior, a situational predisposition to delinquent, dependent, aggressive, and autoagressive behavior. Low level (0–123 points): communicative, not anxious adolescents with low self-esteem, who are not afraid of difficulties and sustained. We did not identify tendencies toward social behavior, including delinquent, dependent, aggressive, and auto-aggressive features of behavior.

3 Results We studied the proposed methods at the ascertaining stage and identified the level of commitment to leave a residential institution in adolescents without permission (see Table 2). We determined a significant difference in the indicators of EG and CG based on Table 2, regarding the level of commitment to unauthorized leave of adolescents from residential institutions: the low level of 100% prevails in CG; the EG, on the contrary, shows an average 60% and high 40% level of commitment. Mathematical data processing (Spearman rank correlation coefficient) of the presented groups did not indicate statistically significant differences between the groups (r = 0.83; p ≤ 0.05). Therefore, it is necessary to provide social and pedagogical work on the prevention of unauthorized leaves from residential institutions. The conducted ascertaining experiment and the analysis of the scientific research literature allowed us to determine the direction of formative work focused on the prevention of unauthorized leaves of adolescents from a residential institution and conduct a series of classes under the general title “My feelings,” for six weeks. Table 2 The level of commitment to unauthorized leave of adolescents from a residential institution (an ascertaining experiment) Levels of commitment to unauthorized leave from a residential institution

The average number of respondents (%) The experimental group (EG)

Control group (CG)

High

40

0

Average

60

0

Low

0

100

Total

100

Statistical significance Source Compiled by the authors

100 r = 0.83, ρ ≤ 0.05

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Social and pedagogical work aims to organize extracurricular activities aimed at elaborating social behavior in various situations and improve communication skills, eliminating self-doubt. There are the following tasks of social and pedagogical work: 1. Pedagogical • ’ an appropriate self-image, including the perception of other people; • Instilling spiritual and moral qualities; • Learning how to analyze and act in extraordinary situations according to social behavior. 2. Developing • Teaching children to respond appropriately to other people’s feelings; • Improving the skills of socially adaptive behavior necessary for constructive interaction with counterparts and adults. 3. Educational • Teaching techniques for internal management of emotions; • Teaching children to control their emotional reactions (e.g., fear, aggression, and anxiety) Social and pedagogical work was carried out in accordance with the following directions: • Work with children (e.g., conversations, discussions, mini-lectures, training, roleplaying games, brainstorming, group and art therapy exercises, autogenic training, and exercises with elements of relaxation); • Work with teachers of residential institutions (e.g., consultations, mini-lectures, practicums, making memos, conversations). The leading role in the organization of social and pedagogical work on the prevention of unauthorized leave of adolescents from the residential institution belonged to the educators, the inspector of the Commission on Juvenile Rights and Affairs, the psychologist, and the social worker of the residential institution. The complex interaction of involved participants within the preventive work contributed to the rapid exchange of information and pedagogical experience, including timely adjustment of influence measures towards a child. The primary directions of social and pedagogical work are reflected in the plan, presented in Table 3. At the pre-established social and pedagogical work stage, one can emphasize some constraint, uncertainty, swagger behavior, and indiscipline in adolescents. Some children could refuse to complete the proposed tasks. However, most of the adolescents were interested in the classes. At the final stage of the preventive work, we identified changes in adolescents’ selfattitude and their team colleagues. Thus, children were gradually involved in group work, distinguished by more stable and confident behavior, applying the acquired

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Table 3 Plan of social and pedagogical work on the prevention of unauthorized leave of adolescent children from residential institutions Stage

Period

Activity content at this stage

Pre-established

1 week

1. To develop a strategy of social and pedagogical work on the prevention of unauthorized leave of adolescents from residential institutions; 2. To develop a set of social and preventive measures; 3. To provide consultations with teachers and educators on the organization of social and pedagogical activities on the prevention of unauthorized leave of adolescents from residential institutions; 4. To acquaint teachers and educators with the results of the ascertaining experiment diagnostics; 5. To form groups for conducting classes; 6. To develop strategies for social and pedagogical work on preventing unauthorized leave of adolescents from residential institutions; 7. To develop a series of socio-pedagogical classes on the prevention of unauthorized leaves of adolescents from residential institutions; 8. To introduce the methods of work on the prevention of unauthorized leave in the first and second half of the day with the subsequent consultation of teachers

Preventive

2–5 week

Primary areas of work: 1. Social and pedagogical work with children to prevent unauthorized leave from residential institutions; 1.1. Creation of comfortable conditions during regime moments and free role-play activities for children to form an appropriate self-attitude, attitude to emotions, and internal states; 1.2. Conducting group and individual socio-pedagogical classes aimed at: (a) establishing contact with students, team building, forming the ability to create joint solutions; (b) developing self-regulation skills; (c) students’ understanding of life goals and attitudes for the future; (d) formation of appropriate socio-adaptive behavior 2. Work with teachers: 2.1. To introduce the peculiarities of children’s behavior of the “risk group,” including addictions; 2.2. To consult teachers on the socio-pedagogical methods and work forms with adolescents; 2.3. To monitor and coordinate the work of participants in social and pedagogical work

Evaluative

6 week

Re-diagnosis of the work results: 1. Evaluation of the efficiency of the social and pedagogical work on the prevention of unauthorized leave of adolescents from residential institutions; 2. Presentation of the preventive work results to the participants

Source Compiled by the authors

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Table 4 The level of commitment to unauthorized leave of adolescents from a residential institution (an ascertaining and control-evaluation experiment) Levels of commitment to unauthorized leave from a residential institution

The average number of respondents (%) EG (an ascertaining experiment)

High

40

Average

EG (control-evaluation experiment) 0

60

20

Low

0

80

Total

100

Statistical significance

100 r = 0.9; ρ ≤ 0.05

Source Compiled by the authors

knowledge, skills, and abilities in subsequent classes, during collective discussion and personal communication. However, during the social and pedagogical work, we conducted individual and group consultations for teachers, practicums, mini-lectures, and compiling memos of teachers’ actions, taking into account their requests and difficulties in preventive work on the following issues: (1) “Organization of free time and work activities of adolescents,” (2) “Favorable microclimate in the team,” (3) “Algorithm of teacher’s actions in case of unauthorized leave of the child from the residential institution,” (4) “Children’s vacation with recreational activities,” (5) “Map of children’s employment, including classes in institutions of additional education,” and others. We presented comparative data from two experiments based on the results of the formative work (see Table 4). We indicated that after preventive social and pedagogical work, the low level of unauthorized leave from the residential institution prevailed in EG adolescents, corresponding to 80%. Due to the joint activities of a social worker, educator, and inspector of the Commission on Juvenile Rights and Affairs, we determined positive dynamics. The number of children with an average level of the presented parameter decreased from 60 to 20%, excluding the high level in the control stage. Mathematical processing of children’s data (Spearman rank correlation coefficient) identified a significant rank correlation, confirming the preventive social and pedagogical work efficiency.

4 Conclusion Summing up the results of the research, we identified that the applied preventive measures are mostly focused on the legal consequences of violations (e.g., individual psychological characteristics of minors, character accentuations, “bursting” adolescent crisis, the negative impact of voluntary group communication, school maladaptation), and unauthorized leaves are insufficiently taken into account. Thus,

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measures to prevent unauthorized leaves are often conducted formally. However, we came to the conclusion that mentally unstable students or students with deviations in behavior are prone to aggression, leading to inappropriate behavior and offenses. The suggested socio-pedagogical work “My feelings,” implemented during the formative experiment, allowed us to conduct primary prevention, contributed to reducing the level of commitment of adolescents to escape, forming socially adaptive behavior, and appropriate response to challenging situations, including the normalization of psychological comfort in a team, increasing the level of self-esteem of students.

References 1. Belousov ZI, Ovsyannikova VV (1998) Socio-psychological problems of deviant behavior in children and adolescents. Zaporizhzhia National University, Zaporozhe 2. YaI G (2004) Deviantology: sociology of crime, narcotism, prostitution, suicide and other deviations. Yuridichesky Center Press, Saint-Petersburg 3. Kleiberg YuA (2004) Social psychology of deviant behavior. TC Sfera, Moscow 4. Kostyunina NYu (2013) Socio-pedagogical prevention of vagrancy and homelessness. Healthc Educ Secur 2:41−44 5. Pozdnyakova ME, Salagaeva AL (2005) Deviant behavior in modern Russia in the focus of sociology: drug addiction, alcoholism, crime, corruption. The Institute of Sociology of the Russian Academy of Sciences (ISRAS), Moscow 6. Slutsky EG (1998) Homelessness in Russia: a formidable threat again. Sociol Stud 3:117–121 7. Zhuravlev VS (2001) Why adolescents are aggressive. Sociol Stud 2:34−38 8. Zmanovskaya EV (2006) Deviantology (Psychology of deviant behavior). Academiya, Moscow

Features of Personal Helplessness and Independence in Young Migrants from Neighboring Countries Evgenia A. Evstafeeva , Marina O. Klimova , and Irina V. Ponomareva

Abstract The paper is devoted to the current problem of psychological adaptation of migrants in a new environment and the role of psychological factors in this process. We consider personal helplessness and independence as integral characteristics of personality that can influence the process of migrants’ adaptation. The research aims to study the features of the manifestation of personal helplessness and independence in young migrants from neighboring countries and Russia. The research novelty lies in the analysis of the characteristics of personal helplessness and independence in young migrants and Russian young adults as possible psychological factors of adaptation to a new environment. We found that cognitive-motivational signs of personal helplessness characterize young migrants, while emotional-forceful ones characterize Russian young adults. Keywords Migrants · Young adults · Culture shock · Psychological adaptation · Personal helplessness · Independence

1 Introduction Today the problem of migration has taken on a global scale. In all countries of the world, in various social groups, both positive and negative consequences of the migration process are observed to varying degrees in all spheres of life. In Russia, migration processes raised some severe social and political problems. In this connection, the search for scientifically grounded information about the group E. A. Evstafeeva (B) · M. O. Klimova · I. V. Ponomareva Tomsk State University, Tomsk, Russia e-mail: [email protected] M. O. Klimova e-mail: [email protected] I. V. Ponomareva e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova (ed.), Complex Social Systems in Dynamic Environments, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 365, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23856-7_83

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and individual characteristics of the migrants themselves and the condition of the receiving party is relevant. It is necessary to understand why, in one case, people are successfully integrated into the host culture, and in the other, they are isolated into a socio-or ethnocultural enclave [4]. In contrast to Western science, the socio-psychological problems of migration and migrants in Russian psychology became the research subject recently. This is largely due to the recent emergence of the mass migration problem and the lack of a systematic approach to solving this issue (including the problem of psychological adaptation of migrants to Russian culture and national characteristics). The problem so quickly became acute and urgent not only in Moscow but also in other large cities of Russia that specialists from various branches of practice and science (economists, lawyers, politicians, sociologists, psychologists, etc.) are paying more and more attention to it. Migration necessarily includes an adaptation component, which implies a change in a person’s behavior model according to new stimuli emanating from a new environment [2]. Besides, scientists note that this process is two-way and is accompanied by difficult experiences for the migrants and the people around them. Not only do migrants adapt to the new environment, but the people around them also adapt to a new person [2]. During the adaptation in the host culture, psychological factors (social attitudes, identity, cultural values, personality orientation, etc.) play a significant role [1]. As a result of psychological adaptation, changes occur at the personal level. Often these changes are associated with social and psychological problems, which are described as “culture shock” and “acculturation stress” [9]. Culture shock leads to difficulties in controlling and predicting the situation and will continue until a new behavior is developed [9]. The psychological symptoms of culture shock include the following (according to Taft 1977): ● ● ● ● ● ●

Tension; Feeling deprived; Feeling rejected; Failure in the role structure; Anxiety; Feeling powerless [9].

Oberg, an American anthropologist, considered one of such manifestations of “culture shock” to be a feeling of helplessness, against the background of which there is a need for dependence on people living for a long time in a given culture and the same nationality [5]. According to the concept of cultural adaptation by Triandis, a person goes through five stages of adaptation. At the first stage, a person experiences euphoria, enthusiasm. At the second stage, the elated mood is replaced with a depressive state. During the third stage, culture shock reaches its maximum and can manifest itself in illness or a feeling of complete helplessness. Migrants who have passed the third stage successfully adapt to the new environment; they have a sense of confidence and

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satisfaction. Integration processes begin at the fourth stage. Finally, the fifth stage means that full or long-term adaptation is achieved [9]. People experiencing strong culture shock need support in a new environment. Measures developed by psychologists to preserve the psychological health of migrants and their successful integration into the host culture can provide significant assistance. For the development of such programs, studies of the young adult group of migrants are of the greatest interest. At this age, individuals are actively forming the national identity due to the development of culture, life prospects, and goals. The ideals of a person are determined in conditions of social changes. Their formation is carried out in the system of external (cultural environment) and internal (psyche) determinations. Besides, young adults of working age are the most adaptable to a new culture [9]. To address the issue of adaptation of young migrants to a new environment, it is important to study the specifics of external and internal determinants of the behavior of representatives from various ethnic groups. The new environment with all its features is a stressful factor for the migrant that can cause feelings of helplessness, hopelessness, and powerlessness. This pattern of feelings is especially typical for those who are characterized by personal helplessness as a certain set of psychological and behavioral characteristics of the individual. Tsiring, the author of the personal helplessness concept, within the subject-activity approach defines personal helplessness as a subjects’ quality, representing the unity of certain personal characteristics arising from the interaction of internal conditions with external ones and determining a low level of subjectivity, i.e., low human ability to transform reality, manage the events of their own life, set and achieve goals, and overcome various difficulties [8]. Personal helplessness has an adaptive effect. A person, relying on the belief that they themselves cannot change the current circumstances and that such circumstances depend on external factors, ceases to be active and interfere in the situation [6]. The opposite characteristic of personal helplessness is the independence of the subject, which determines a high level of subjectivity. Personal helplessness and independence, acting as the systemic characteristics of the subject, determine such important psychological phenomena as optimism, pessimism, behavioral activity, the ability to withstand difficult life situations, and the implementation of life in general.

2 Materials and Methods The research aims to study the features of the manifestation of personal helplessness and independence in young migrants from neighboring countries and Russia. The research novelty lies in the analysis of the characteristics of personal helplessness and independence in young migrants and Russian young adults as possible psychological factors of adaptation to a new environment. Based on the literature analysis, we conclude that such studies have not been carried out in psychology.

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The research involved 92 migrants (from Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan) and 169 Russian young adults. As a research method, we used a standardized questionnaire of personal helplessness by Klimova and Tsiring [3], adapted for adults. The technique allowed us to identify the general level of personal helplessness severity and the manifestation of its following components: ● Cognitive (pessimistic attributive style, rigidity of thinking, and low productivity of divergent thinking); ● Motivational (external locus of control, low level of aspiration, motivation to avoid failure, and low self-esteem); ● Emotional (increased anxiety, emotional instability, tendency to depression, and asthenia); ● Strong-willed (lack of independence, low persistence, low self-control, indecision, and shyness). Comparative analysis of independent samples using Student’s t-test was used as a mathematical method of data processing.

3 Results Table 1 presents the results of a comparative analysis of personal helplessness indicators among Russians and young migrants from neighboring countries. The research showed differences in several indicators of personal helplessness among migrants from neighboring countries compared to Russians. Migrants showed a lower level of divergent thinking compared to Russians (p = 0.044). Migrants are characterized by lower aspirations than Russian citizens; the differences are at a high level of significance (p = 0.002). In turn, the Russians are more characterized by emotional instability as one of the indicators of personal helplessness (p = 0.031), mood swings, inability to control one’s own experiences, and increased anxiety (differences are noted at the statistical trend level, p = 0.055). In addition, asthenia is more typical for Russians (p = 0.017). Differences in emotional instability are also confirmed by the indicator of low self-control, which is more typical for the Russians than for migrants (p = 0.043).

4 Discussion Compared to Russians, it is more difficult for migrants to find different ways of solving problems and approach their own tasks in a non-standard way. Probably, this difference may be due to cultural characteristics. In their research, Tatarko and Lebedeva note that Russian ingenuity is one of the highly competitive values of our society and allows Russians to adapt to sometimes extreme conditions [7].

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Table 1 Results of personal helplessness indicators comparison among Russians and young migrants from neighboring countries Helplessness indicator

Average Migrants

Standard deviation Russians

Migrants

t

p

Russians

Pessimistic attributive style

2.337

2.260

1.431

1.493

−0.402

0.688

Rigidity of thinking

1.315

1.231

1.068

1.052

−0.616

0.538

Low productivity of divergent thinking

3.913

3.296

2.166

2.443

−2.027

0.044

External locus of control

2.880

2.598

1.324

1.306

−1.663

0.098

Low level of aspirations

1.728

1.302

1.059

1.073

−3.080

0.002

Motivation to avoid failure

2.946

2.905

1.585

1.698

−0.188

0.851

Low self-esteem

3.489

3.976

2.002

2.029

1.861

0.064

Increased anxiety

2.370

2.746

1.388

1.562

1.930

0.055

Emotional instability

3.022

3.604

2.010

2.102

2.169

0.031

Depression tendency

2.424

2.828

1.962

2.362

1.400

0.163

Asthenia

1.348

1.811

1.329

1.558

2.410

0.017

Lack of independence

1.598

1.763

1.090

1.156

1.127

0.261

Low persistence

2.228

2.651

1.576

1.912

1.811

0.071

Low composure

2.565

3.107

1.996

2.084

2.034

0.043

Indecision

2.304

2.462

1.202

1.410

0.905

0.366

1.250

1.379

1.210

1.224

0.815

0.416

37.717

39.917

14.741

17.041

1.044

0.298

Shyness General level of personality helplessness

Source Compiled by the authors

When changing the country of residence, people most often find themselves in a situation where they are forced to put up with a lower social status than the citizens of this country. It can reduce aspiration and self-confidence levels. According to the research results, this is especially true for migrants from neighboring countries; the attitude towards whom in our country is less favorable than towards migrants from far abroad, which in turn affects their position in society. The emotional instability of young Russians can negatively affect their ability to organize their activities, follow assigned tasks, and overcome difficulties, and be accompanied by acute negative experiences, contributing to the emergence of helplessness. Asthenia, which is more characteristic of Russians, manifests itself in a reduced energy background, a kind of impotence, a lack of resources to implement active actions to achieve the set goals.

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5 Conclusion We did not find statistically significant differences in the integral indicator of personality helplessness in the two studied groups. It indicates local features in the manifestation of this systemic personality characteristic in migrants from neighboring countries and Russians. Particularly, migrants are characterized by cognitive-motivational signs, while Russians by emotional-volitional ones. The roots of the found differences may lie in the cultural characteristics of the studied groups and require further research and analysis. Acknowledgements The publication was prepared with the support of the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (RFBR) grant “Cultural-ethnic determinants of independence-personal helplessness of young adults in Russia and neighbouring countries (based on material on migrants from Central Asia)” (project No. 19-013-00949 A).

References 1. Grigoriev DS (2015) Relationship between the severity of ethnic identity and acculturation attitudes of migrants with the level of their socio-economic adaptation. PsyJournals.ru 11(1):71−85 2. Ionina OS (2014) Features of the socio-psychological adaptation of migrants to a new life. http:// shgpi.edu.ru/files/nauka/vestnik/2014/2014-2-20.pdf 3. Klimova MO (2018) Features of the behavior regulation in adolescents with personal helplessness. Dissertation. Institute of Psychology of the Russian Academy of Sciences 4. Kuznetsov IM (2013) General characteristics of migration. In: Khukhlaev OE, Chibisova MYu (eds) Technologies of psychological support for the integration of migrants in the educational environment. Moscow State University of Psychology and Education, Moscow, pp 15−33 5. Oberg K (1960) Culture shock: adjustment to new cultural environments. Pract Anthropol 7:142– 146 6. Sizova IN, Evstafeeva EA (2019) Cultural and ethnic factors of personal helplessness development: theoretical background of the research. http://dom-hors.ru/rus/files/arhiv_zhurnala/spp/ 2019/10/psychology/sizova-evstafeeva.pdf 7. Tatarko AN, Lebedeva NM (2007) Cultural values and development of society. Higher School of Economics University, Moscow 8. Tsiring DA (2010) Psychology of personal helplessness. Dissertation. Tomsk State University 9. Vershok AB (2013) Culture shock and acculturation problems. In: Khukhlaev OE, Chibisova MYu (eds) Technologies of psychological support for the integration of migrants in the educational environment. Moscow State University of Psychology and Education, Moscow, pp 54−61

Ethnic Behavioral Patterns of Altaians or Altai-Kizhi in the Contemporary Cultural System of the Altai Republic Natalia S. Grebennikova

and Ekaterina A. Tozyyakova

Abstract The paper examines the transformation of ethnic behavioral stereotypes of Altaians in the modern culture of the Altai Republic. The research is interdisciplinary; it aims to determine the place and role of ethnic stereotypes of Altaians’ behavior in the modern ethno-cultural process in the Altai Republic. The study integrates various branches of knowledge: ethnography, literary studies, semiotics, and cultural studies. We analyzed the ethnic stereotypes of the behavior of representatives of the Altai ethnic group based on the Altaian poetry. Altaian poetry reflects the specific character of national identity and ethnic stereotypes of behavior. It is the first time when the work of an Altaian poet, publicist, orientalist-turkologist Brontoy Bedyurov is considered from the perspective of the stated problem. The poetry collection Strongholds of Altai presents a literary projection of a ritual scenario of the life of an Altaian. The poet represents ethical norms and rituals associated with important moments in the life of the Altaian people, including (1) the birth of a child, (2) the paternal care of a newborn, (3) putting a child in a cradle, (4) the first haircut of a child, (5) the loss of the child’s first tooth, and (6) some hunting rituals. In the modern multicultural context, reference to the traditional fundamental concepts in literature sets the vector for national culture development. Keywords Ritual · Ethnos · Etiquette · Culture · An Altaian · National identity · Mentality · Literature

1 Introduction Universalization became a severe challenge for every ethnic group. In the current conditions of transcultural reality, the risks of losing the original features of the N. S. Grebennikova · E. A. Tozyyakova (B) Gorno-Altaisk State University, Gorno-Altaisk, Russia e-mail: [email protected] N. S. Grebennikova e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova (ed.), Complex Social Systems in Dynamic Environments, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 365, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23856-7_84

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culture by a particular ethnic group increase. Issues of preservation and development of national culture are among the most pressing problems of modern society. Anthropocentric interdisciplinary works indicate a steady interest in the ethnospecific component of culture, national mentality, ethnic strategies of behavior, and ethno-national identity. The issue concerning the peculiarities of the development of national cultures in multiethnic regions of Russia became particularly acute in scientific discourse. In this regard, the study of problems related to the existence of the national culture of the Altai Republic in current conditions is relevant and promising. The Altai Republic is a complex region with more than 90 ethnic groups. The titular nation of the Altai Republic is Altaians or Altai-kizhi. Altai-Kizhi (translation: a human from Altai) is the proper modern name of the indigenous people of the Altai Republic. Altai-Kizhi is a polysemantic concept historically related to the southern Altaians (Shebalinsky, Ongudaysky, Ust-Kansky, and Ust-Koksinsky districts of the Altai Republic). At present, another meaning is used, which refers to the entire Turkic indigenous people of Altai, including various sub-ethnoses. The indigenous population of the Altai Republic by ethnic composition is the northern Altaians (Kumandins, Chelkans, and Tubalars), southern Altaians (telengites, Altai-Kizhi), and Teleuts, which make up an independent ethnic group. The linguistic division also corresponds to the ethnic division of the Altaians. The Altai language is divided into several dialects, although there is a common literary norm for all ethnic groups of the Altai language, which is based on the language of the southern Altaians (Altai-Kizhi). In recent decades, the phenomenon of consolidation of the indigenous population has taken place in the Altai Republic. From the 1990s to the present day, the indigenous population of the region has been experiencing processes of revival and preservation of the national culture. Many national customs, traditions, and holidays of Altaian families, such as the folk holidays El Oyyn (National Holiday), Chaga Bayram (White Holiday), Jylgayak (seeing off winter), were restored in the Altai Republic. The programs aimed to preserve and develop the Altai language and literature are designed and implemented. This research relates to several programs aimed at preserving the ethnic culture of the region. The study aims to determine the place and role of ethnic stereotypes of the behavior of Altaians in the modern culture of the Altai Republic.

2 Materials and Methods Ethnic culture includes the entire spiritual and material diversity of the activities of a particular people. One of the integrating and stabilizing principles of the ethnic culture (along with mentality and worldview) is a system of standardized behavioral acts or ethnic behavioral patterns, which establish strict norms of relations [7]. These norms are fixed in etiquette, customs, traditions, rituals, mythology, and other

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phenomena. Ethnic behavioral patterns are a valuable source of knowledge about ethnogenesis and cultural development. The research analyzes the ethnic behavioral patterns of the indigenous ethnic group of the Altai Republic based on the Altai literature, which is a relevant source of ethno-cultural information. The research novelty lies in the fact that the works of an Altaian poet Brontoy Bedyurov, are considered from the perspective of the stated problem for the first time. Altaian etiquette culture, rituals, and traditions were studied by such historians, ethnographers, and turcologists as Verbitsky [18], Radlov [12], Karunovskaya [8], Potapov [11], Efimova [5], Shatinova [13], Tadysheva [15], Enchinov [6], Muytueva [9], Chochkina [3], and Tadina [14]. Their works formed the methodological basis of the study. Basic methodological guidelines of the research rely on general scientific principles and methods of cognition (analysis, description, meta-analysis, and generalization), as well as systematic, cultural-historical, and comparative methods. To achieve the research goals, we used an interdisciplinary approach that integrates different branches of knowledge: ethnography, literary studies, semiotics, and cultural studies.

3 Results The study obtained the following results: 1. Ethnic behavioral patterns play a crucial role in the modern cultural life of the Altai Republic. In the context of multiculturalism, one of the main vectors of the development of a national culture of Altaians or Altai-Kizhi is the preservation and representation of ethnic values, norms, models, customs, and rituals; 2. As part of the national culture, Altai literature acts as a translator of cultural codes, values, and norms of life of the Altaian ethnic group. Literary texts of Altaian writers (especially ethnic Altaian poets) contain information about the peculiarities of mentality, national worldview, values, and behavioral attitudes of the indigenous people of the Altai Republic; 3. The lyrics of Brontoy Bedyurov represent an artistic interpretation of the system of ritual and ceremonial behavior of the Altaian ethnic group. The work of this author provides the poetic reflection of ethnic identification at the level of personality and ethnos in an artistic and figurative form. By including ethnographic material in a literary text, the poet learns about himself and his connection with his native culture, people, and Altai history. The poet models a traditional ethnic scenario of the life of an Altaian in the artistic world and thereby creates a projection into the future, which is possible as long as the ethnic group is faithful to the foundations of its culture.

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4 Discussion Modern Altai literature fully reflects the specifics of national identity. Archetypical images Der-Cuu (Land–Water), Umay-Ene (the goddess of fertility), Ot-Ene (the goddess of fire), Kaan-Altai (God Altai) prevail in the worldview of the Altaian people. These deities belong to the highest pantheon in mythology; they are associated with the semantics of creation, world harmony, and protection. Altaian traditional culture includes numerous customs, rites, and rituals associated with Der-Suu, Umay-Ene, Ot-Ene, and Kaan-Altay. These rituals and rites reflect the most diverse aspects of the life of the indigenous people of the Altai Republic: from birth to death and the posthumous path of a person. These archetypical images are associated with ethnic stereotypes that ultimately symbolize the merging of the human and the universe. During a ritual, a person gets immersed in a myth and directly experiences it, joining the cosmic rhythms of life and death. All researchers note a specific psychological function of the ritual: relieving emotional tension. The culmination of a ritual is a moment of emotional and mental uplift. It is a kind of catharsis when the experience of the past life is combined with the present in the minds of the participants of the ritual, and a projection into the future is born. In this context, rituals associated with birth and death acquire a special status [10]. From ancient times to the present day, the life of the indigenous population of the Altai Republic is mainly subject to ritual prescriptions. The collection of poetry of the Altaian poet, orientalist-turkologist, and publicist Brontoy Bedyurov Strongholds of Altai presents a literary projection of a ritual scenario of the life of an Altaian. The poet describes rituals associated with important moments in life: the birth of a child, paternal care of a newborn, putting a baby in a cradle, the first haircut of the child, and the loss of the child’s first tooth. Practically, these rituals have not changed for many centuries and continue to take place in the modern life of the Altaians, who adhere to the traditional lifestyle. Ethnic rites associated with the birth of a child are fully described in the works of famous turkologists and ethnographic literature [4, 5, 8, 11, 13]. Altaian rituals associated with the moment of birth have universal sacral semantics of wishing health to the newborn and their mother and happy fate to the child. In the Altaian traditional culture, the ritual of birth includes the following stages: (1) naming a child; (2) celebrating the birth of a child; (3) ritual actions with the umbilical cord, placenta, and things a mother uses in labor; (4) gifts to a newborn, and (5) the first hair [13]. The poem by Brontoy Bedyurov, the Father’s Care for his Newborn Son, depicts the ritual behavior towards a new mother, “On the fire of birch logs // Of the dear hearth // For the wife fat soup // I will cook from roe deer” [2]. After giving birth, the woman was forbidden to eat coarse food, so she was given dairy or liquid dishes. The Altaian people had a special holiday to celebrate the birth of the child, which was called differently in different ethnic groups: balalu bolgonynyng bayramy, kichinek bayram or kichinek toy, balanyng toyy. Special thick soup koyu kocho was cooked at the festival. For the woman who recently gave birth, a special dish was cooked

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called iyt-mun (fat broth with lamb). In the writer’s text, traditional lamb is replaced by roe deer meat, which is a trophy of the husband, a hunter. The father is very proud that he has got a son who, just like his father, will build a house, continue the family line, and be a good hunter, “Praise to life when a boy is born // The son will build a house // He will hunt on horseback // He will bring a live snow leopard from a hunt. // A boy was born and so // He will continue the family line” [2]. The next stage of the ritual is associated with the decoration of the cradle. In his poem, Bedyurov mentioned that Altaians hung a bow and a quiver with arrows over the cradle so that the newborn son would become a good hunter in the future. According to the Altaian traditions, the bow and arrow also protected the child from evil spirits. Other amulets, such as claws of the bear, lynx, owl, or eagle, were also hung over the cradle. All of them were mentioned by Bedyurov, and each of them performed a symbolic role. In the poem, the father put a hare’s paw in the cradle of his son so that the son ran as fast as a hare. The claws of the birds of prey (the owl and the eagle) or those of the bear were put in the cradle for the child to be brave, sharp-sighted, and strong like birds of prey and the bear. The poem by Brontoy Bedyurov Putting the Child in the Cradle describes the ritual of putting a newborn child in the cradle. According to the traditional Altaian culture, the cradle symbolizes the first earthly dwelling of the human, “Newborns until now // The first time, as usual // Are put down in the cradle // Only when the moon is young. // We will set juniper afire // And we will smoke the cradle, // So that it flies like a bird into the house // White Umay-ene” [2]. The cult of Umayene, a good spirit and the patroness of children, occupies an essential place in the Altaian birth rites and the life of children under two years. This cult is thoroughly studied in papers by Karunovskii, Potapov, and Dyrenkova. For example, Potapov, in the paper Umay—the Deity of the Ancient Turks in the Light of Ethnographic Data, notes that the worship of Umay was widespread among various tribes of southern Siberia: Kumandins, Chelkans, Sagay, Shors, and Beltirs. Analyzing the role of the deity Umay in the ideas of ancient Turks, he concluded that “Umay was considered a vital principle dwelling in human” [11]. The poet regarded the ancient Turkic deity Umay-ene with deep reverence. While pointing at the traditional nature of the rite, the poet emphasized its relevance in modern life of the Altaian people. Brontoy Bedyurov associated Umay-ene with a bird that flew from the sky to a newborn. It is the mother’s archetype, the patroness, a benevolent spirit (bayan) that protects children and women in labor. The embodiment of the feminine origin is reflected in the name Umay-ene, where “ene” is translated as “mother.” This fact is also pointed in the previously mentioned article by Potapov. The researcher referred to different translations of the word “Umay,” such as the womb of a woman, placenta, or the umbilical cord. All meanings of the word “Umay” indicate a direct connection of the Umay cult with the moment of birth and the connection between the baby and the mother [11]. According to the Altaians, the deity Umay-ene protects all babies from evil spirits until they make their first step. Brontoy Bedyurov stressed the protective function of Umay-ene, “From all human dwellings” // With cradles inside // Drives away evil spirits // White Umay-ene” [2]. Like many other cultures, Altaians consider white

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color a symbol of purity. Repeatedly emphasizing the white color associated with the image of Umay, the poet enhanced the sense of piety. The poet described all stages of the ritual in detail. As already mentioned, the local people used various objects in their rituals to protect the child’s health, which served as amulets and talismans, protecting them from evil spirits. The poet stated, “On the waves of nights and days // Floats the cradle, // A bow and arrows over it—// This is a sign of Umay-ene” [2]. Besides, Bedyurov mentioned the bow and arrows, a mandatory component of the ritual of putting the baby in the cradle for the first time, during which the prayer to Umay-ene was said. Karunovskaya, an ethnographer, pointed out that before putting a newborn in the cradle, a grandmother, as a rule, performed a rite of purification the cradle. During the ritual, she fumigated the cradle with juniper smoke, thereby driving evil spirits away from the cradle. A symbolic wooden bow and arrow were hung near the cradle intended for a boy, and a white ribbon May-ene was tied to the latter [8]. All ritual actions are described in the poem’s text, “Load the arrow and bullet, // Do not let the evil spirit come” [2]. The poet wanted to reproduce the model of an ethnically significant ritual in a literary text, hence a wide use of ethnographic material. Through such documentary accuracy, the poet translated his ethno-cultural identity. The traditional culture of the Altaians abounds in many rituals associated with family relations. Each relative in the Altaian family has a certain status and role. A particular attitude is shown to the relatives on the maternal side. Among them, Taai, a mother’s brother, who has a special status since he usually performs the rite of the first haircut of the nephew. Shatinova, a researcher of the Altaian folklore, pointed out that the first haircut was performed when the child turned one year old. Taai cut his nephew’s hair and took a lock of the cut hair for himself. The next rite associated with the child’s hair was usually performed at the age of three, when the nephew bought his hair from his uncle. He should cajole his uncle with araka (Altaian homebrew). In return, the uncle gave his nephew a sheep or a horse [13]. Moreover, it was the uncle who had the privilege of naming the baby. For example, the poet claimed, “I will cut my nephew’s hair // In a suede bag I will save the hair, // Trust your Taai, nephew!” [2]. In the poem by Bedyurov, the haircut finishes with the promise given by Taai, “I will give you a saddled horse, // You will touch the stars at full tilt” [2]. The next stage of this ritual is described in the poem Instructions from an Uncle to a Nephew when Giving Gifts. In this poem, the already grown-up nephew comes to his uncle “to buy his own baby teeth and his first hair.” In this text, the nephew is already a teenager. He addresses his uncle with the words “honorable uncle,” “treasured uncle,” which indicates his deep respect towards his uncle. The nephew comes to his uncle to receive gifts and wise advice, “Now, a grown-up, I stand in front of you // To receive instruction, Taai”). // In the forest on a hunt and in a straight fight // I want to be like you, Taai” [2]. The ritual return of the hair is accompanied with a gift from the uncle, “I return your strand of hair”) // And give a gun for hunting” [2]. The uncle also gives his nephew a horse. However, the uncle’s material gifts fade into the background of the poem since the wisdom of his piece of advice exceeds the price of a horse a hundredfold.

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This poem by Bedyurov is engaging in one more aspect: the poetic text gives an idea of the family etiquette of the Altaian people. It is significant in the context of our research topic since etiquette regulates behavior and relationships within the ethnic community, being a vital part of the culture. The researcher Kh. Tkhagapsoev noted that etiquette is the central unifying factor of an ethnic community; it regulates social relations. According to the scientist, etiquette is a mechanism of external arrangement of communication and an extensive form of cultural and social practice. Etiquette also serves as the main factor of the internal conventional and collective self-organization of the community and implies the possibility of intercultural dialogue [16]. In the poem by Bedyurov, relationships built within the traditional etiquette express a specific type of relationship in the Altaian community, “With you, as an equal, to enter into conversation // I will not dare, honorable Taai // To cast a disrespectful glance at you // I will not dare, treasured uncle” [2]. Indeed, in ethnographic studies, we have found a description of the already mentioned special relationship between a nephew and an uncle on his mother’s side. Shatinova wrote that Taai remained a significant figure during the entire life of his nephew, regardless of the fact that he could be younger in age. In the etiquette of Teleuts, Taai settled disputes concerning the lives of his relatives, acting as a justice of peace. An uncle also played a key role in matchmaking rites. Taai took the money for kalym (bride-money) and passed it to the bride’s parents. At a wedding, he acted as a toastmaster and sat at the top of the festive table. An uncle helped his nephew build a house for his family [13]. The poet’s attitude to the tradition was summarized in words, “The word of the uncle is directed to the eye of the nephew, // “Thank you, Taai!” [2]. This phrase suggests infinite trust and an indisputable desire to follow the wise piece of advice. Thus, in the poetry of Bedyurov, the rules and norms of communication, training, and interaction, fixed in etiquette, find the form of an aphorism similar to folk proverbs and sayings. Ritual realities are also reflected in the poem “Instruction to a Boy when Baby Teeth fall out” “All your baby teeth // Have fallen out, son // In the breadcrumb at night // I wrapped up every tooth. // Come to the dog // Let the dog eat bread balls” [2]. This rite draws attention to the connection between a child and a dog. Karunovskaya noted that the Altaian people usually wrapped up a child’s milk teeth in bread and offered this treat to a dog. Such ritual feeding was accompanied by request for sound molar teeth, as strong as a dog’s fangs [8]. Note that some Altaians (burkhanists) had the custom of putting a puppy in the cradle before putting the baby into it. In their opinion, this rite should help strengthen the child’s vitality. Fire rituals are described in the poems by Bedyurov (1) About Language and Hunting Customs and (2) A Word to the Fire after a Successful Hunt, which convey the stereotypic attitude of the Altaians to fire. Many Altaian rituals are associated with the cult of fire. The text of the poem, A Word to the Fire after a Successful Hunt, models the ceremony of offering sacrifices to Ot-ene (Mother Fire). The Altaians have remarkable piety for fire. Ot-ene is one of the most revered goddesses of the Altaian pantheon of gods. The fire goddess also symbolizes the female motherly principle, and it has the semantics of protection from dark spirits. In traditional culture, Ot-ene gives babies

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to families, offspring to domestic animals; the power of fire clears a person from illness and protects the soul from evil. Smoke from the fire is used to smoke the house, the cradle of a newborn, and cattle pens to clear out evil spirits. In the Altaian mythology, Ot-ene lives in the ninth heaven. She is often depicted as a woman with 30 decorated heads. In the traditional dwelling of the Altaians, Mother Fire is associated with the hearth, which was considered a sacred place in the Altaian Yurt. The Altaians never threw garbage into the fire; they “fed” the goddess Ot-ene with milk, homebrew, meat, and fat broth. The cult of fire appears in numerous rites associated with the birth of a person, requests for fertility. Fire plays an important role in funeral traditions [17]. Using poetic language, the poet gradually reconstructs sacred actions with fire during a hunting ritual in the poem A Word to the Fire after a Successful Hunt. The Altaian hunt traditionally began with alkysh (blessing) dedicated to Ot-ene. Addressing the fire, the narrator says the author’s version of alkysh, in which the request for welfare to Ot-ene is accompanied with a ritual treat of meat, milk, and tea, “You see, a tribute // We bring to you again. // Let the meat blood emit smoke, // We sprinkle it with tea and milk” [2]. The next step in the ritual was the fumigation of the fire with heath. In the Altaian culture, like in many Turkic traditions, the smoke of heath was endowed with expurgatory power, “We will fumigate you with smoke—// Heath from mountain wild steeps // Is fragrant and odorous. // Help yourself, Ot-ene”), // You will be thoroughly satisfied” [2]. Feeding Ot-ene had a particular meaning in a hunting ritual. It was customary to give the best part of the prey to Ot-ene with a request to help in the hunt, “Ot-ene, drink first // The hot blood of a red deer, // And eat the liver of a roe deer—// “A delicious piece is fresh” [2]. A similar ritual is described in the poem Milk Offering at the First Thunder, “We will put on a white felt tablecloth // Bowls with milk in front of her, // And let us roast a whole sheep // For the goddess Ot-ene.” The poem offers a description of the appearance of the goddess Ot-ene (“Wallow forty tongues! Thirty fiery heads!”), which correlates with the traditional depiction of this image in mythology and shamanic mysteries. During the ritual action, the shaman beat a tambourine and addressed the goddess of fire, “Take all the treats!” // “My thirty-headed mother fire, // My forty-headed holy mother fire [1]. According to shamanic rituals, fire connects the real and unreal worlds. Using the fire, shamans offer sacrifices to gods. The fire burned until the prayer ritual was over. It is challenging to translate the symbolic meaning of ritual actions into the language of logical concepts and categories. This difficulty is explained by the fact that the ritual is closely related to the sacred realm, which is irrational. In the traditional culture of the Altaian people, fire has always been endowed with sacred power. The image of Ot-ene acted as a primary element in traditional culture and the modern culture of the Altai Republic, as exemplified by Bedyurov. Being a bearer of traditional ethnic values of Altaians, Brontoy Bedyurov felt the deep essence of the ritual and represented it in his work. Using artistic and figurative means, he established the symbolic reality of rituals in modern culture.

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5 Conclusion In the lyrics of the Altaian poet Brontoy Bedyurov, the artistic representation of ethnic stereotypes of behavior forms a scenario of a human’s life: from birth to death. The analysis of ritual and mythological motives in literary texts suggests that Bedyurov’s resort to ethnic behavioral stereotypes represents the biosociocultural programs of the Altaian ethnic group. Using artistic language, the poet provides the key to understanding the Altaian national character and national worldview features. In his work, the image of an Altaian/Altai-Kizhi is constructed on comprehensive ethnographic material. The Altaian poet also learned about himself, understood his ethno-national and cultural identity through poetic creativity. The poetry of this author communicates the key values and cultural codes of the Altaian ethnic group. In the current conditions of universal integration and universalization, when ethnic and cultural differences are leveled out, the resort to traditional foundations serves as a mechanism for developing national culture. The study of ethnic behavioral stereotypes of Altaians based on modern literary material relates to the programs for preserving and developing the Altai language and literature. Acknowledgements The paper was written with the support of the Russian Foundation for Basic Research [RFBR] grant No. 20-412-040005 p_a, “The concept of “Altai-kizhi” or “Altaian” in the Folklore and Literature of the Altai Republic in the Context of National Identity.”

References 1. Baskakov N, Yayimova N (1993) Shamanic mysteries of the Altai Republic. Gorno-Altaisk Institute of Humanitarian Studies, Gorno-Altaisk 2. Bedyurov B (1983) Strongholds of Altai. Soviet Russia, Moscow 3. Chochkina MP (2010) History of art culture of the Altaian people. Editorial and Publishing Department of Gorno-Altaisk State University, Gorno-Altaisk 4. Dyrenkova N (1928) Umai in the cult of Turkish tribes. In: Dyrenkova N (ed) Culture and writing system of the East, vol 3. All-Union Central Committee of the New Turkic Alphabet, Baku, pp 134−139 5. Efimova A (1926) Teleut wedding. In: Bogoraz VG, Sternberg LYa (eds) Materials on the wedding and family structure of the peoples of the USSR. USSR Commission for the Arrangement of Students’ Ethnographic Excursions, Leningrad, pp 225−246 6. Enchinov EV (2009) Altaians’ family values: transformation of customary law in modern culture. Dissertation. Russian State University for the Humanities 7. Gumilev LN (2006) Ethnogenesis and the earth’s biosphere. AST, Moscow 8. Karunovskaya L (1927) On Altaian beliefs and rituals associated with a child. In: Karsky E (ed) Collection of the museum of anthropology and ethnography, vol 6. USSR Academy of Sciences, Leningrad, pp 19–36 9. Muytueva VA (2007) Traditional food of Altai-Kizhi: rituals and performances. Tomsk State University, Moscow 10. Polosin V (1999) Myth. Religion. State. Ladomir, Moscow 11. Potapov L (1973) Umay—The deity of ancient Turks in the light of ethnographic data. In: Kononov AN, Klyashtorny SG, Petrosyan YuA, Tselniker SS (eds) Turkological collection 1972. Nauka, Moscow, pp 265−286

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12. Radlov VV (1989) From Siberia: diary pages. Nauka, Moscow 13. Shatinova N (1981) Altaian family. Altai Book Publishing House, Gorno-Altaisk 14. Tadina NA (2009) The revival of the Zaisanat in the Altai Republic: a look through one’s own ethnic identity. HumItarian Sci Sib 3:77–81 15. Tadysheva NO (2013) The cult of Jaiyk in the traditional ideas of the Altaians. Tomsk State Univ J Hist 3(23):169–171 16. Tkhagapsoev Kh (2000) The nart epic as the logos of the caucasian cultural genesis (existential reconstruction). In: Mosolova LM (ed) Origins of regional cultures in Russia. Russian State Pedagogical University named after A. I. Herzen, Saint Petersburg, p 169 17. Tozuyakova E, Dracheva S et al (2016) Actualization of the linguistic and cultural concept Ot-Ene in Altaian mythology and poetry. In: Kindikova NM (ed) Languages and literatures of the peoples of the Altai Republic. Gorno-Altai State University, Gorno-Altaisk, pp 168–172 18. Verbitsky VI (1893) Altai foreigners: a collection of ethnographic papers and studies. Tovarishchestvo skoropechatni A. A. Levenson, Moscow

University Identity: Corporate Culture Evidence Tatiana V. Fanenshtil

and Elena V. Chibir

Abstract Modern conditions of university functioning (primarily technical and social development and educational market situation) have actualized the issue of university identity exploring and further developing. The research goal is to analyze a modern university identity in consort with its corporate culture. Methodologically, the authors utilize the social and socio-cultural approaches to analyze the university phenomenon, identity, and corporate culture. Moraw’s historical classification has become a framework for tracing university and corporate culture transformation. Shein’s classification permits to illuminate levels of corporate culture to study the elements demonstrating university identity image. The conceptual solution to consider university identity in the context of subject identity provides a possibility to analyze its dynamic content. The research relevance implies revealing the university identity and corporate culture connection through their historical transformation. The research results indicate that in modern “liquid reality” university needs an adaptive internal core. Such a core can be found in a university corporate culture. Corporate culture provides organizational growth, brand recognition, and financial rewards. It attracts and keeps employees, building customer satisfaction and loyalty, especially for the post-classical model of the university. State-of-the-art circumstances of university existence require the occurrence of an overabundant environment, providing an adaptive and creative way of individuality forming. Corporate culture becomes a litmus test for the present university identity, determining the way of its development. By manifesting university identity through all levels (behavior and artifacts, espoused values, and basic assumptions), corporate culture can be used as an instrument for university branding and positioning goals.

T. V. Fanenshtil Tomsk State University, Tomsk, Russia e-mail: [email protected] E. V. Chibir (B) Siberian State Medical Univesity, Tomsk, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova (ed.), Complex Social Systems in Dynamic Environments, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 365, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23856-7_85

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Keywords University corporate culture · University identity · Social subject · Social institute · University model · Multiple identity · Overabundant university environment

1 Introduction Social reality transformation—escalating dynamics, border elimination, and reconstruction of element connections—has resulted in requirements for the adaptability of all social institutions. Educational institutes are not an exception to the mentioned trend. Traditionally, the university was considered as a social phenomenon functioning in the frame of the leading model. The model of the university specifies its structure, essential elements, and the way of their interaction and market positioning strategy. The paper focuses on analyzing university identity alongside its corporate culture. The link between these two categories becomes essential in the circumstances of uncertainty and steady alteration. In this case, the content of new knowledge, produced by science as a social institution, becomes a minor element than the internal university structure and organization, ensuring the learning process. Taking into consideration the factors mentioned above, one regards the corporate culture as a practice-oriented concept. It distinguishes itself in the socio-cultural university model through visible and latent cultural emanations, including events and communication, maintaining and determining university identity development. The identity of the university as a socio-cultural institution requires an overabundant university environment that overpasses its functional needs (it becomes evident through different kinds of audits). In addition to social functioning, the university provides an environment of participation and freedom of creativity because only in such conditions can it contribute to personal development, including choosing in conditions of uncertainty, trying oneself in various fields, and developing leadership qualities. The overabundant university environment implies various inner games, botanic gardens, campus courses, university choirs, scientific conventions, etc. Thus, corporate culture becomes an existential university element that supports its functioning and makes its progress possible in accordance with inner needs and outside requirements.

2 Materials and Methods The research goals demand an interdisciplinary approach. Therefore, the paper is based on studies of Russian and foreign scholars in the field of university identity, university transformation in current conditions, and its corporate culture specifics [25].

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The authors attempt to analyze the university as a socio-cultural institution and comprehend the features of institutional identity in relation to its functionality (external grounds that determine its organization) and self-reference (self-positioning of its own image in the reflection of its own eventfulness). The authors employ both the socio-cultural (empirical) and the conceptual methods (evolution of the ideas of the university), as well as a critical analysis of the first and second. From the authors’ perspective, the definition of the university as a socio-cultural institution ensures the complexity of the approaches mentioned above. Besides, it allows the authors to trace the interdependence of the approaches in understanding the issue of university identity. The authors believe that in the historical period of the university evolution, designated by researchers as non-classical (or post-classical), society needs a university model, where the priority place will be kept not by the technological values, but by the human, personal, and social ones. Furthermore, the authors utilize a social functional approach, analyzing the university as a social institution. Additionally, the authors support the position of Moraw, Douglas, Veber, Readings, Baudrillard, who have conceptualized the understanding of university in the mentioned context. Finally, the authors use a socio-cultural approach to consider university as the meeting point of external challenges and internal reflection [28]. Historical classification of universities, which highlights the critical factors of university organizations formed in a particular period, is used as the materials for the research. Moraw’s classification provides the primary characteristics and corporate culture university models [20]. Therefore, a classical university model is considered [20, 27]. It is a central, peculiar model in studying the changes that a university undergoes in its formation. It is a stable model of university identity in the modern era. Researchers often specifically regard the university classical model state destruction [24] or the crisis of the classical university [1]. In addition to the historical factors of university identity, the authors also consider an anthropological approach in understanding university identity through the context of identity of the subject, where the university itself appears as a social institution [12]. The conceptual solution of the research is to analyze the university as a sociocultural institution. In an identification attempt, the university is considered at the junction of the challenges of social reality and a self-referential image that is formed out of corporate (organizational) culture reflection and its eventfulness. Corporate culture is a complex phenomenon integrating managerial, academic, and student culture [19]. Nevertheless, the authors insist on the position that academic culture is a part of a corporate one. Despite the fact that there is a significant number of preceding academic studies on university identity and corporate culture, the research novelty implies that the authors consider these two phenomena in their interaction in an attempt to clarify the features of their significance and effectiveness in the historical process. Moreover, their conjunction with research provides one with a possibility to understand based on what image, what idea university should be today and, more critically, tomorrow [16].

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3 Results Increasing pressure out of technological factors (digitization of business processes, open access to massive amounts of information, hyperconnectivity) and social challenges (“liquid modernity,” extremely rapid changes) result in university improvement. In addition, university modernization appeared due to a changing university role in the market. Obliged to function in terms of uncertainty and flexibility, the university needs an adaptive internal push to reply effectively [5, 6]. This internal push can be found in corporate culture. Currently, established as a Professional Corporation, collaboration of professors and students, the university possesses more features of an economic corporation [10, 22]. Corporate culture is becoming one of the critical points of success along with fundamentalization, humanitarianization, and university entrepreneurship and communication. It is a significant challenge to keep a “bright university idea” without losing educational market competitiveness. Therefore, the corporate culture that can provide organizational growth, brand recognition, and financial rewards attracts and keeps employees and builds customer satisfaction and loyalty [7]. Comprehending the role of the university through the prism of its internal structure as an organization, the authors consider the university as a corporation in two aspects: a cultural institution [28] and a social institution that seeks to ensure sustainable development through the achievement of order. A number of researchers characterize the dialectical nature of the university as a socio-cultural institution, where the request of order is combined with the realization of the creative potential of its destruction. In the case of the university conceptualization as a socio-cultural institution, the logic of the model formation becomes different. First of all, the identification of university through the model begins to demonstrate a pragmatic, extremely contextual character. Second, the model itself becomes a construction material in the process of university identity generation. It is no longer a university that is identified through the model; instead, the elements of different models (sometimes mutually exclusive in their functionality) are incorporated into the branding of a university (the process of university branding). Thus, there are many taxonomies and classifications of university models in the research field, but as such, they do not occur in their pure form in the modern, dynamic, increasingly complex reality. There are some aspects of specific models in the manifestation of the image of an identity of a particular university. The issues of identifying resources, mechanisms, or techniques due to which the university manages to maintain its systemic integrity in a practical reproduction and the process of constant renewal (rebranding) arise. Much less its achievement, the pursuit of order cannot explain the transforming potential of modern universities, which they tirelessly demonstrate. Legally, a social institution has a fictitious identity. It determines the formal position of a university as an organization in the educational market and determines its internal structure, but “legal existence” for identity in the current increasingly complex situation is not enough. There are corporate emotional addictions [12].

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The focus on creativity, constant readiness for system transformations in accordance with the global system uncertainty in which university currently exists only complicates the existence of a human-made organization and necessarily requires it to possess the qualities of living systems. Among them a coherence, sensitivity of each element to the functioning of the entire system and its other components, flexibility to changing circumstances, and the most critical—systemic integrity. From the authors’ perspective, it is ensured by a university corporate culture. The modern type of university organization excludes the model of the classical university. Disappearing niche specialization of a scientist is an attribute of the classical university model—every scientist is an impresario of their work, devoting their lives to it [27]. A contemporary university scientist is a professional who possesses knowledge on learning new things and is ready to create something new not for the sake of truth but in collaboration with business. University identity detects itself through all corporate culture levels. The most visible elements are presented by the “behavior and artifacts” level. On this level, identity is translated by means of a corporate style, employed technologies, psychological climate, building design, behavior models, workspace organization, existing symbols and rituals (ceremonies), and communicative and event practices. The second level—“espoused values”—demonstrates university identity through ethic norms, organization strategy and philosophy, shared values, and standards of interaction, goals, mission. The third, “basic assumptions” level of corporate culture is the most challenging to cover, but it is definitive for both previous corporate culture and university identity formation levels. It can be found in beliefs, sense of things and phenomena comprehension, and in reality interpretation and mentality of organization representatives [26]. Therefore, if the basic level of corporate culture stands almost stable, two other levels keep changing to allow the survival of the university. Consequently, the meaning of the university changes; it becomes not a microcosm of the universe but a model of “adult life.” It means that the skills acquired within the university course are the same skills of external social relations, processes, practices. They include project work, teamwork, focus on results, ability to organize communication, and ability to work with resources. To be a person—as before—implies being involved in “experiences,” according to Weber, but they are of a different kind. The university offers an overabundant environment for learning. It educates to be happy with the ability to organize activities independently and do it in accordance with the system. Such consistency is relatively reduced to personal experiences and sensations, indicating the fragility of the system and, simultaneously, its strength. Acting for the first time in a specific way (being an amateur, in the words of Weber), each subject observes the world in a new way, as no one has seen. Therefore, they can change it, having the same resources, the same knowledge as many others. Consequently, the most critical and advanced aspect in such a process is not the volume of knowledge, not the depth of experience, but precisely the line where there is a new world-view. The reassembly of individual education, the individuality formation as an ongoing process of reconstructing knowledge, skills, experience is the search for

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the point of no return when an individuality affects the system of changing the reality [14].

4 Discussion 4.1 University Corporate Culture: The Origins Before addressing the university corporate culture analysis, the authors should define the term. In various sources, “corporate culture” is mentioned alongside “organizational culture.” Both categories refer to culture organization determination. However, the second one mentioned above is more widespread due to the fact that organizations of all types have their own particular culture, but not all of them can be considered corporations. Despite the fact of the more widespread usage of the “organization culture” term, these two categories have the same meaning in the presenting research context. The “organizational culture” term initially appeared in Jaques’ work and referred to the culture of the factory. The scholar implies that the culture of the factory is its customary and traditional way of thinking and acting, which is shared to a greater or lesser extent by all its members, and which new members must learn, and at least partially accept in order to be hired [17]. Thousands of books and papers on the topic almost have not changed the aspect mentioned above. Currently, corporate culture manifests itself through values, beliefs, convictions, and assumptions that can be invented or hidden, usually accepted and necessarily respected by all organization members [23, 26]. To summarize, the Business Dictionary provides a complex definition of the corporate culture. It involves values and behaviors that contribute to the unique social and psychological environment of an organization. Organizational culture is based on shared attitudes, beliefs, customs, and written and unwritten rules that have been developed over time and are considered valid and viewed as the shared norms and values of individuals and groups within an organization” [8]. Directing on thoughts and actions of group members, corporate culture develops through critical events in the collective life and can be assimilated out of group members. In “liquid modernity,” corporate culture becomes an internal flexible push of the university serving for the adaptation of an organization to circumstances, providing decision-making and performance, and helping to hold a competitive position [18]. University is accompanied by corporate culture since its foundation through all stages of its development [22]. It has been a historical necessity to organize first universities as “corporations”—the so-called “guild” protects university representatives (students and professors who are excluded from the citizens in the Middle Ages). The appearance of universities was closely connected with the cities growth and revealed the necessity of clerkly people. Universities were often founded based on church schools.

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The educational idea of creating the “knowledge universe” appeared with the first universities and even earlier (similar ideas can be found in ancient Greek philosophical schools). The pre-classic (medieval) period of universities could be described as a time when universities had broad powers of autonomy, the knowledge taught borders (initiated, for example, by the Church), and a minimal number of people involved. Universities at that time were places of intellectual activity where students perceived themselves as “pilgrims” and not as “buyers of service” [11]. University outcomes were from university landed property, government assignments, patron’s financial support, and students’ payments. It was a time of high academic culture, teacher authority, broad university autonomy when the university was considered a “cathedral of science.” The changing social and economic conditions resulted in the establishing of the socalled “classical university.” It appeared based on academic freedom, fundamentalization, and humanitarianization of education. In that period, the principle of the “civil responsibility of universities” was added to the principle of “academic autonomy.” This model was abandoned in Germany, and the so-called “classical model of the university” was created (J. Newman, W. von Humboldt). The period required practical applied knowledge from the university. This factor abhorred the creators of the classical university idea, and they emphasized the status of the university as a carrier and exponent of the national spirit, supply spiritual production, and the production of culture in its functionality.

4.2 University Identity Through Social Reality Transformation The university identity of two previous stages of its development was relatively sustainable instead of the third one—modern or post-classical. The third stage of university development was closely connected with the “liquid modernity” concept and extremely high dynamics of contemporary social processes [3]. It was Bauman who first drew attention to a new formulation of identity [4]. Initially, identity is associated with a person, a subject, and presupposes the place (role, etc.) of human individuality in society or a person’s belonging to some kind of community. Currently, when everything changes, the identity issues refer not only to the individual. It is currently not entirely “adamant” provided by belonging to a particular community, whose collective identity, in turn, is based and largely depended on the place (conditions, circumstances, and environment) in which it exists. Currently, the environment, the nature of man, the boundaries of the places have changed and began to be erased. More than that, the place itself does not guarantee a reliable identity. Professions, social stratification, and other aspects have changed [9]. In such a fast-paced world, the identity of a social phenomenon (and it may be both a subject and an institution) can be defined as integrity and continuity [13]. Therefore, the university identity issue is currently regarded as the complex of university issues

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maintaining its organizational integrity and the content of continuity. The authors believe that the potential for a solution to the issue mentioned above is in university corporate culture. Its investigation allows the authors to comprehend what university brings to society and reflect on its image to respond to the question of the content of continuity (although the form is essential) in constant interaction with the global social context. Moreover, the university identity issue is of great current interest since the university is a place of personal growth of the subject. A real social challenge to university identity is the possibility to objectify permanently in accordance with rhythms of social reality transformation processes (for instance, in policy documents, such as a mission, a strategy, and special events, etc.) Petrova states that the tendency of modern research on university models lies within the framework of the post-modern paradigm (concept) of the ruins [21]. Ruin is something that has lost its integrity and despaired of acquiring it. On the other hand, J. Baudrillard considers the ruin an impactful essence, the actual power of which lies in its historical reference (the simulacrum of the ruins may have a false historical reference, but it works) [2]. A modern ruin for TSU is its “Imperial University” status. Scientific and technological progress, intensifying the interaction of science and technology, and forming the technosphere leads to the emergence of applied professional (engineering) universities [15]. The new university type appearance has resulted in the vanishing of the university identity models. They exist as some ideal constructs, ideas, and practically at risk. The authors believe that even if some ruins are used to build a new university model, the historical gap (possibly), the trend of globalization, and the universalization of meanings emasculates the meaning of ruins as foundations. There is an opinion that such concepts as culture or perfection are unfounded (the process of emasculating meaning from such conceptual institutional categories is dereferentialization). Currently, neither the community nor the government, ideology, and culture can act as reliable semantic value foundations in business. The foundation collapses when there are earlier founded walls in ruins. However, new generations build something new on the old grounds; then everything repeats itself many times. Nevertheless, a significant issue is caused by the fact that there is no response to the essence of ruination and how it works or should it work and be integrated into the current reality.

4.3 University Identity: Corporate Culture Draw Contemporary university identity faces a necessity of transformation along with its corporate culture. University as a social institution ensures the production of knowledge and the renewal of the intellect, competing with other representatives of the educational market. In order to preserve the identity of the university, the system elements of its corporate culture must be grown within a particular university and not simply borrowed. The system at all levels must be able to reproduce the principles and values that are laid down in the mission, strategy, and policy of a university. The

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values and principles of corporate culture should be fixed at the organizational level. For example, the principle of “openness” should be enshrined through designated and regularly operating communication platforms [11]. Bauman, in his concept of liquid modernity, proceeds from the fact that in the field of education, such a borderline socio-cultural phenomenon as collectivities of belonging can act as a basis for the formation of a leader’s personality even in the period of reality dilution, erasing boundaries, and reassembling communication channels. The importance of advocating and exploring the organizational culture in the problematization of the university identity topic arises. It arises due to not only and not so much the content of new knowledge produced and transmitted into the society by science as a social institution is essential, but that shell, structure, and internal organization of the university, within the boundaries of which this process is ensured [4]. Knowledge transfer has been a brand of educational modernization in the Russian Federation for the last 20 years since its inclusion into the Bologna Process and the transition from a knowledge-based approach to a competency-based one, where navigation and communication skills take a predominant position. One way or another, an attempt is being made not only to rationalize but also to technologize the critical point of the educational process, remaining in shadow—the teaching model of it—study to learn. The university currently teaches to study in the following way. Its activity aims to form a social subject and adapt the social subject to an adult and professional life. The educational “core” projects of Russian universities, both at the bachelor’s and master’s levels, only emphasize the relevance of the soft-skills trend in modern university education. The boundaries of these projects form the conditions for project work, teamwork, and navigation activities in any of the proposed professional areas. They use goal-setting technologies, time management, a leadership organization of activities and teams, rely on the subject’s critical self-reflection, and, therefore, assume their growth. Additionally, they do it in the conditions of increased complexity and uncertainty of the current situation. University identity detects itself through corporate culture levels [26]. The most visible elements are presented by the “behavior and artifacts” level. On this level, identity is translated by means of a corporate style, employed technologies, psychological climate, building design, behavior models, workspace organization, existing symbols and rituals (ceremonies), and communicative and event practices. It depends on the university what image it maintains. Outsiders first of all rate personal appearance of employees, building design, technological infrastructure, symbols acceptable and translated by mass media, emotional climate—the aspects which entertain their eyes, ears, and senses. Among the state-of-the-art tendencies, there is the possibility of trust-based relationship construction based on event communications. The second level—“espoused values”—demonstrates university identity through the ethical norms, strategy, and philosophy of the organization. It also includes shared values, standards of interaction, and goals, and a mission. This level of university corporate culture is often formalized, and its evidence can be found in official documents, strategic plans, and a website.

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The third level of corporate culture is the most challenging to cover, but it is nevertheless definitive for both previous corporate culture and university identity formation [26]. The “basic assumptions” level can be found in beliefs, sense of things and phenomena comprehension, and in reality interpretation and mentality of organization representatives. To cover this level and the basis of identity is impossible without integrated investigation of a particular university by using psychological and sociological research methods. This level depends on the worldview, cultural patterns, and historical origins of the analyzed university. The basic level of corporate culture stands almost stable, whereas two other levels keep changing to ensure the survival of the university. Therefore, “espoused values” should be reviewed at least once in five years, while the “behavior and artifacts” level requires correction once or twice a year in accordance with inner needs and external conditions.

5 Conclusion The university is a world within itself. The university as a social institution is identified through its functionality, but in its existence, it is always overabundant and forms a particular culture. The university provides not only the production of new knowledge but also spiritual guidance. The place occupied by a university in the education system emphasizes its status not only as a “socializer” and a “retranslator” of socio-cultural values but also their “producer,” which creates conditions for individual development. As an educational system, it ensures the unity of professional socialization and cultural adaptation of the subject. In this connection, the identification of a university through the functional models reveals it as a social institution. The corporate (organizational) culture of a university identifies it as a socio-cultural institution. A modern university forms based on the already established system of ideals (models) and determine the integrative space for the growth of the university itself and the professional personality to which its functionality is directed both. This combination of a potential overabundance and an existing insufficiency is provided, from the authors’ perspective, by the cultural component of a university since the social institutional component seeks to streamline and ensure sound reproduction. A university looks into the mirror of corporate culture, and only in this process it can identify itself. It recognizes its multiple identities through various features from building design to spread corporate myths and behavior models. Only by evidence of a corporate culture can a university find its soft spots and avoid achieving future success. Therefore, the university development is closely connected with the corporate culture functioning that becomes a litmus test for the university identity. The corporate culture makes the identity visible, providing giving a possibility to change it in the most appropriate way.

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Acknowledgements The reported study was funded by RFBR, project number 20-011-00298 “University Identity in the Era of Global Challenges of Technoscience.”

References 1. Barnett R, Bengtsen SSE (eds) (2018) The thinking university. A philosophical examination of thought and higher education. Springer International Publishing, New-York 2. Baudrillard J (1996) The system of objects. Verso, London 3. Bauman Z (2000) Liquid modernity. Blackwell Publishers Inc., Malden 4. Bauman Z (2001) The individualized society. Polity, Cambridge 5. Berger PL, Luckmann T (1991) The social construction of reality. Penguin Books, Harmondsworth 6. Best S (2020) Zygmunt Bauman on education in liquid modernity. Routledge, London - OF, Yalçinkaya M, Do˘gan M et al (2010) The organizational culture at the university. 7. Beytekdn Int J Educ Res 2(1):1–13 8. Business Terms (n d) Organizational culture. http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/ organizational-culture.html 9. Castoriadis C (1997) The imaginary institution of society. MIT Press, Cambridge 10. Coman A, Bonciu C (2016) Organizational culture in higher education: learning from the best. Eur J Soc Sci Educ Res 3(1):135–145 11. Dadasheva V, Efimov V, Lapteva A (2016) Corporate culture of university as compound organization: Model and scheme of formation. In: INTED’2016: the 10th international technology, education and development conference. IATED, Valencia 12. Douglas M (1986) How institutions think. Syracuse University Press, Syracuse 13. Erikson EH (1974) Identity: youth and crisis. Faber and Faber, London 14. Fanenshtil TV, Chibir EV (2018) Social construction: eventness and everydayness. Vestnik Nauki Sibiri 4(31):203–218 15. Foucault M (2002) The order of things: an archaeology of the human sciences. Routledge Classics, London 16. Galazhinsky EV (2019) The preface. In: Kovalyova TM, Zotkin AO, Sukhanova EA (eds) Stanovlenie tyutorskoy modeli universiteta v Rossii. Izdatelskiy dom Tomskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta, Tomsk, pp 4–6 17. Jaques E (1951) The changing culture of a factory. Tavistock Publications, London 18. Lacatus ML (2013) Organizational culture in contemporary university. Procedia Soc Behav Sci 76:421−425 19. Matizina IG (2014) Spetsifika korporativnoy kultury sovremennogo klassicheskogo universiteta i opyt ego formirovaniya. Natsionalnaya biblioteka Belarusi, Minsk 20. Moraw P (2008) Aspekte und Dimensionen älterer deutscher Universitätsgeschichte. In: Miethke J, Courtenay WJ, Catto J, Verger J (eds) Gesammelte Beiträge zur deutschen und europäischen Universitätsgeschichte, Strukturen, Personen, Entwicklungen. Brill NV, Leiden, pp 3−55 21. Petrova GI (2015) Modern university: multiple identity or ruins of classics? Vestnik Altayskoy Akademii Ekonomiki i Prava 1(39):117–120 22. Petrova GI (2018) Modern university as a corporation: a new role for traditional corporatism. Univ Manag Pract Anal 22(2):25–33 23. Petrova GI, Smokotin VM, Kostyukova TA (2015) The motives for corporate identification of the contemporary Russian university. Procedia Soc Behav Sci 200:490−495 24. Readings B (1996) The university in ruins. Harvard University Press, Cambridge 25. Rorty R (1989) Contingency, irony, and solidarity. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 26. Schein EH, Schein PA (2019) The corporate culture survival guide. Wiley, Hoboken

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27. Weber M (1922) Wissenschaft als beruf. In: Weber M (ed) Gesammelte Aufsätze zur Wissenschaftslehre. Mohr, Tubingen, pp 524–555 28. Yurina EA, Gulius NS (2017) University corporate culture transformation: sociological and linguistics diagnosis methods. Univ Manag Pract Anal 21(2):106–121

Advances in Cognitive and Behavioral Sciences for Social Research

Play as a Means for Developing Socially Acceptable Behavioral Patterns in Preschool Twins Ekaterina S. Praizendorf , Olga M. Lubimova , and Anna S. Kuzmina

Abstract The paper focuses on using game technologies as a means for developing self-awareness in preschool twins. The paper presents the analysis of play as a leading type of activity in preschool age. The literature analysis has shown that selfawareness is formed at the end of preschool age and significantly impacts the preparation of preschoolers for schooling. Self-awareness of twins has specific characteristics determined by the twin situation. Having a constant communication partner, twins often play with each other, which imprints the development of their self-awareness since play is the leading activity in preschool age. Moreover, the main formations of preschool age are formed only at play. When playing, preschoolers learn about themselves and others. The presented study has used the following psychodiagnostic methods to identify the features of self-awareness in preschool twins: (1) Ladder technique for studying self-esteem by V. G. Shchur; (2) methodology for identifying the content and functioning of the image of oneself in preschool children by I. T. Dimitrov; and (3) standardized observation of preschoolers’ play activity. Using game technologies for the development of self-awareness in preschool twins has proven its effectiveness. As a result of the formative experiment, we have obtained positive results expressed in an increase in self-esteem and the ability to predict one’s activity result and the formation of a positive image of oneself. Keywords Play · Game technologies · Learning · Development · Twins · Preschool age · Self-awareness · Twin situation

E. S. Praizendorf · O. M. Lubimova · A. S. Kuzmina (B) Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia e-mail: [email protected] E. S. Praizendorf e-mail: [email protected] O. M. Lubimova e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova (ed.), Complex Social Systems in Dynamic Environments, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 365, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23856-7_86

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1 Introduction 1.1 A Subsection Sample Current psychological and pedagogical studies of the twin developmental situation of preschool children indicate that this specific construct is rather complex and ambiguous. A twin developmental situation is understood as a special social developmental situation that determines the development of twins [2]. It has been determined that due to the particular attitude of the external environment towards twins and the relationships within the dyad, twins grow in a somewhat unusual atmosphere from early childhood, which significantly impacts the way of life and mode of action, choice of values and life-meaning orientations, and the peculiarities of the development of self-awareness and self-attitude [5]. Twins are in a situation in which they have a constant partner in communication and play [4]. Special intra-pair relationships arise in a twin pair, which affect the nature of the relationship to themselves and their twin siblings. The theoretical analysis allows us to state the presence of some problematic issues in studying the personal development of twins. Twins are often perceived as a single inseparable whole [3]. People call them twins and not brothers or sisters, thereby ignoring the peculiarities of external and internal differences of children and not attaching particular importance to their attitude and feelings to the fact that people mistake them for each otherЮ This situation leads to a decrease in self-esteem and self-importance and prevents the harmonious formation of self-awareness of preschoolers. In order to avoid these undesirable consequences, parents and teachers should encourage independence in children from an early age, attach importance to their external and internal differences, and address each child, not a twin pair, using their names as these actions will contribute to the development of self-awareness and identity of twins. As a unity of self-knowledge and self-attitude, preschool twins’ self-awareness is formed under the influence of an intra-paired twin developmental situation [6]. Self-acceptance is the core of self-attitude; it arises in early childhood as a value sense and retains its modality at subsequent age stages [1]. Thus, the negative selfattitude formed in the preschool age persists at other age stages. Therefore, it is essential to develop a positive self-attitude and self-esteem precisely at preschool age. Consequently, studying and researching preschool twins’ self-awareness is relevant and essential since this personal construct is one of the central formations of preschool age. Self-awareness is the foundation of the initial formation of personality. E. O. Smirnova [7] writes that the prototype of a holistic worldview appears in the preschool age, which allows developing voluntary behavior and personal selfawareness.

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In pedagogy, much attention is paid to preschoolers’ play since it is the leading activity in preschool age. Play allows children to solve some problems for development in a given age period. Intellectual and personal formations of preschool childhood develop during play. When playing, children learn to communicate, observe rules, share roles, and form an attitude towards themselves and others. Play is a leading activity, which can also act as a tool for psychological development and psychological correction since it is always a reflection of a person’s real relationships. The works of the classics of Russian psychology prove this thesis. When defining the role of play in preschool age, L. S. Vygotsky writes that play for children is a natural form of labor. Children always play, and play is of great importance for their development. Play acts as a tool for developing social skills and abilities. Play is children’s first school of thought. B. D. Elkonin continues L. S. Vygotsky’s ideas and sees not only an educational tool in play but also the fact that when playing, children simulate the surrounding social reality and the attitude towards themselves and other people. At play, children reproduce the realities of life, which ensures their socialization. S. L. Rubinstein (2002) sees the manifestation of children to influence the world in play. For S. L. Rubinstein, preschool play is a constant meaningful reflection of children on their contacts with others. S. L. Rubinstein emphasizes that the development of children’s self-awareness occurs exclusively in the course of play (Rubinstein, 2002). We agree with A.S. Spivakovskaya, who emphasizes that there is no personality education without play [8]. Thus, play can be defined as a pedagogical technology provided by a set of methodological approaches and pedagogical principles, methods, means, and conditions that ensure the implementation of the goal and tasks of play, focusing on developing self-awareness of older preschool twins. As a pedagogical technology, play should meet the following methodological requirements: ● Conceptuality (reliance on a specific scientific theory); ● Consistency (integrity and logic of the process and interconnectedness of structural elements); ● Controllability (goal setting, planning, design, and correction of the results); ● Reproducibility (ability to use the game technology repeatedly, in different conditions). Play can have various forms, content, and purposes. In the second half of the 19th century, I. A. Sikorsky classified preschool games into three groups: ● Games for developing abstract logical thinking; ● Games strengthening and developing self-awareness; ● Games for exercising in the reproduction of impressions.

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Games that strengthen and develop self-awareness in preschoolers are the most interesting for our study. We have chosen this type of game for the formative part of the experiment. The game technology we propose includes the following aspects: ● Psychological diagnostics, development, and correction of self-awareness in preschool twins as a goal ● Diagnostics and development of children’s ideas about themselves and their selfesteem as the main tasks; ● Activity-oriented, cultural-historical, and personality-oriented methodological approaches; ● Pedagogical principles of activity, problematicity, voluntariness, and consistency. Thus, the peculiar effect of the twin situation determines the specific development of children’s personalities. From the moment of birth, twins are in close proximity and constant contact with their twin siblings, who also have the same appearance as them (in the case of monozygotic pairs). Decisive importance in forming selfconsciousness of preschool twins should be given to the emotional interaction not only among the mother and her children but also among twin siblings. This is due to the fact that in the process of play activity, children’s self-awareness is formed through the basic mechanism of internalization of the attitude of the loved ones towards them. The present study aims to identify the features of self-awareness of preschool twins and the formation of a positive self-attitude through game technologies.

2 Materials and Methods Among 50 preschoolers, who participated at the ascertaining stage of the experiment, there were 20 twins and 30 single-born children. The average age of the preschoolers participating in the study was six years and seven months. As for the formative stage of the experiment, which consisted of using game technologies for the development of self-awareness in preschoolers, there were ten dizygotic twins, including six girls and four boys, who participated in it. The ascertaining part of the experiment included standardized observation of the free play of preschoolers in the kindergarten group, where there were all necessary items for the most important types of play activity. When observation of the game was organized, children were asked to play any game for 30 min. After that, we used the following methods: ● Ladder technique for studying self-esteem by V. G. Shchur; ● Methodology for identifying the content and functioning of the image of oneself in preschool children by I. T. Dimitrov, which included an assessment of the following parameters: ● Experiencing one’s own success;

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● Experiencing one’s own failure; ● Assessing the results of one’s own activities; ● Forecasting the success of one’s own activities. The methodology included participation in the following three games: ● Ability to quickly lower figures (keys) into the box through the slots; ● Ability to quickly and correctly move the balls from the first stick to the third using the second one and not disturbing the order of the balls (Tower of Hanoi); ● Ability to hit right on target. The interview was conducted individually with every child. At the formative stage of the experiment, an empirical assessment was performed before and after participation in the formative experiment according to the methods presented above. A psychological and pedagogical program for developing selfawareness in preschool twins based on gaming technologies became the foundation of the formative experiment. The effectiveness of using game technologies for the development of selfawareness in preschoolers was assessed using the method of mathematical statistics–the Mann–Whitney U-test–performed with the use of the SPSS Statistics 23.0.

3 Results The results according to the Ladder technique by V. G. Shchur are as follows. Figure 1 demonstrates the average values for self-esteem indicators (assessing oneself and assessing oneself through the eyes of a teacher, a mother, a father, and a teacher) of twin and single-born preschoolers. The result analysis has shown that preschool twins are generally characterized by a lower self-esteem indicator than single-born preschoolers. The Mann–Whitney U-test has shown significant differences in the two groups of subjects in terms of the assessing oneself indicator (Z = 2.34; p = 0.01). The analysis of the results by the method for identifying the content and functioning of the image of oneself in preschool children by I. T. Dimitrov has confirmed the results obtained. Figure 2 shows that twins more acutely experience their own failures and more vividly experience their own success. They are also characterized by a lower forecast of the success of their own activities compared to single-born preschoolers. The Mann–Whitney U-test application has shown significant differences in experiencing one’s own failures (Z = 1.86; p = 0.03) and forecasting the success of one’s own activities (Z = 1.82; p = 0.03). A lower forecast of the success of one’s own activities and a stronger experience of failure in comparison with single-born children are characteristic of twins. In conversation and the process of play, twins were more likely to be interested in the

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Fig. 1 Comparative analysis of self-esteem indicators of twin and single-born preschoolers. Source Compiled by the authors

Fig. 2 Analysis of the results according to the methodology for identifying the content and functioning of the image of oneself in preschool children. Source Compiled by the authors

success of other children and especially their twins. Moreover, the mean values for the group of twins were calculated from the results of both twins. The situation when one of the twins is the leader in a pair and has higher results in self-esteem and a more realistic level of aspirations is often observed in twin pairs. This is usually the first-born twin. The second twin has lower self-esteem indicators and focuses on rivalry with the sibling. This phenomenon is especially pronounced among boys. A boy in a pair of twins that is better developed physically usually takes the leading role. He chooses to play those areas in which he is more successful. For example,

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when answering the question of what games the boy likes to play, Vasya T. answers, “We play catch-up because Fedya always loses in them.” At the next research stage, we developed a psychological and pedagogical program based on game technologies. The program aimed to develop the self-awareness of preschoolers. The program included eight games that preschoolers played in a group form for 30 minutes for one month. The first and last sessions were diagnostic. The goal of the program was to develop the self-awareness of preschoolers through the games that reflected the different types of activities of preschoolers. The game technology we proposed included the following aspects: ● Psychological diagnostics, development, and correction of self-awareness in preschool twins as a goal ● Diagnostics and development of children’s ideas about themselves and their selfesteem as the main tasks; ● Activity-oriented, cultural-historical, and personality-oriented methodological approaches; ● Pedagogical principles of activity, problematicity, voluntariness, and consistency. Each lesson included a group game based on the presented methodological approaches and principles. Here are some of the games used. Postman. Children should post letters according to the instructions. For this, they need to know the names of the months, numbers from 1 to 100, and primary and additional colors. The winner is the child who correctly delivered a larger number of letters to the mailboxes. Art Gallery. In accordance with the rules of the game, children draw exhibits for an art gallery. After drawing, the exhibits are placed in the study room, and the children take turns acting as a guide and telling about their exhibit. After that, each of the children gives their tokens to the guide whose story they liked most of all. Auction. Children sculpt a lot using plasticine for auction. Then, the lots are put up for auction, and the auction winner is the one who named more ways to use the lot presented. Discussion in a group form necessarily occurs after the game, which allows preschoolers to develop reflection, form a positive self-attitude, and expand knowledge about themselves, their characteristics, and capabilities. The assessment of the effectiveness of game technologies was performed by comparing the results before and after the application of the technology using the method of mathematical statistics of the Mann–Whitney U-test and the methodology for identifying the content and functioning of the image of oneself in preschool children by I. T. Dimitrov. The results analysis presented in Fig. 3 has shown a positive trend in terms of assessing the results of one’s own activities (Z = 1.94; p = 0.03) and forecasting the success of one’s own activities (Z = 1.95; p = 0.03). The results of the formative experiment have shown that game technologies were successful in the development of twins’ self-awareness. In particular, participation in

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Fig. 3 Assessment of the results of the formative experiment. Source Compiled by the authors

the game allowed children to learn and reveal their capabilities and abilities. Reflection at the end of the game allowed children to assess the results of their activities better and receive a positive assessment from the teacher and peers. The games were built so that in each new game, the twins could better understand themselves, see their differences from their siblings, reveal their abilities, and show themselves in new activities.

4 Discussion The twin developmental situation influences the formation of the evaluative component of older preschoolers’ self-awareness through the mechanism of external reinforcement, stimulation, or frustration of children’s need for respect, significance, social approval, recognition, striving for success, and motivation to achieve success. The game technology we developed is based on activity-oriented and culturalhistorical methodological approaches. The goal of the games presented is the development of self-awareness of preschool twins. Therefore, the tasks of the game are formulated as the development of children’s ideas of themselves, their characteristics, and a positive attitude towards themselves and others. The goal of the game can be achieved when the teacher follows the principles of activity, novelty, independence, problematicity, voluntariness, and variability.

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5 Conclusion Thus, the twin situation determines the specifics of the development of twins’ personality in comparison with single-born preschoolers. The presence of a sibling provides a constant partner for play and communication. However, it simultaneously creates difficulties for developing self-awareness and a positive self-attitude since intrapaired interaction of twins often involves competition and rivalry in a pair. Twins of preschool age are generally characterized by a lower self-esteem indicator and a low forecast of the success of their own activities compared to single-born preschoolers. Game technologies have been tested and proven to be effective for the development of self-awareness of preschool twins.

References 1. Bozhovich LI (2008) Personality and its formation in childhood. Piter, Saint Petersburg 2. Cassell S (2011). Examining the twin bond: A look at the psychological development of twins and the differences in individuality and identity differentiation between fraternal and identical same-sex twins. Unpublished manuscript. American University, Washington 3. Klein B (2003) Not all twins are alike. Praeger, Westport 4. Miliora MT (2003) Losers and winners within an intertwine dyad: a case of a twinship, self-object relationships of a twin. Clin Soc Work J 31(3):263–274 5. Morozova TB (2009) Features of working with twin children. Narodnoe Obrazovanie 1:10–18 6. Shelkunova TV (2018) Features of the development of self-awareness in older preschool age. Probl Mod Pedagog Educ 60(2):478–480 7. Smirnova EO (2010) The concept of the genesis of communication by M. I. Lisina. Teoreticheskaya i Eksperimentalnaya Psikhologiya 2(2):35–40 8. Spivakovskaya AS (2000) Psychotherapy: play, childhood, and family. Aprel Press, Moscow

Deviant Behavior in Students: An Empirical Study of Adolescents in the Capital of the Mari El Republic, Russia Larisa V. Lezhnina , Vera G. Pirkina , and Olga V. Pchelina

Abstract The paper focuses on studying the actual problem of deviant behavior of students within the walls of educational institutions, which is confirmed by the growing statistics of tragic incidents in Russian schools and colleges in recent years. The research subject is the propensity to various types of deviant behavior in modern Russian adolescents studying in educational institutions. The paper aims to study the severity of maladjustment and the most common types of deviant behavior among in-school adolescents. The theoretical basis of the study was formed by current data of Russian and foreign scientists on the new types of the deviant, socially dangerous behavior of students in educational institutions and its reasons. The sample of the empirical study consisted of 1,035 teenagers aged 13–15 studying in seven schools of the capital of the Mari El Republic. We used the mass screening examination as the main method for organizing the research. The empirical data collection was performed using the standardized test questionnaire on the propensity for deviant behavior developed by E. V. Leus and A. G. Solovev. The obtained results allowed us to conclude that the behavior of eight out of ten adolescent schoolchildren corresponded to the age norm. The exception was self-injurious behavior capable of manifesting itself in a third of the respondents. From 2 to 7% of teenagers with a high degree of readiness for various types of deviant behavior entered the risk group and needed psychological correction. Keywords Deviant behavior · Delinquent behavior · Addictive behavior · Aggressive behavior · Self-injurious behavior · Socially conditioned behavior · Adolescent · Student L. V. Lezhnina (B) · V. G. Pirkina Mari State University, Yoshkar-Ola, Russia e-mail: [email protected] V. G. Pirkina e-mail: [email protected] O. V. Pchelina Volga State University of Technology, Yoshkar-Ola, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova (ed.), Complex Social Systems in Dynamic Environments, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 365, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23856-7_87

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1 Introduction The problem of deviant behavior in adolescents is not new and remains relevant for many decades. However, an alarming trend of our time is the annual cases of public aggression of students towards their peers and teachers in schools, including with the use of cold weapons and firearms and the presence of victims. It is generally accepted that the mass shooting by two high school students at the Columbine High School in 1999, which became the prototype of other similar events around the world, launched a mechanism of social infection among adolescents with an immature psyche and deviant behavior. The first firearms attack on classmates and teachers in Russia was made by a student in a Moscow school in February 2014. He took his classmates hostage, shot the teacher, and opened fire on the police. There were nine armed attacks by teenagers in Russian schools from 2014 to 2019 [11]. In early September 2020, the Russian special services announced the arrest of 13 people who were planning massacres and terrorist acts, including in educational institutions. Such new forms of deviant and socially dangerous behavior of students in educational institutions threaten to become an epidemic and, therefore, cause concern among educational practitioners and the entire civil society [8, 11]. Scientific studies by Russian and foreign scholars confirm an increase in the number of students with abnormal behavior [3, 4]. Among the various types of deviant behavior of students, cruel treatment and intimidation are highly prevalent [9]. Multiple forms of traditional bullying, discriminatory harassment, and cybervictimization are also common among teenagers [10]. According to them, more than half of adolescents (58.3% of boys and 67.8% of girls) were subjected to some type of victimization. From 20 to 25% of schoolchildren are directly involved in bullying as criminals and victims [7]. Boys who are less able to deal with conflict, feel threatened, or have difficulty recognizing aggressive jokes are especially involved in aggressive behavior [9]. According to Russian studies, about a third of schoolchildren are exposed to violence at school constantly or occasionally, while boys and girls in adolescence are equally prone to bullying [12]. Among the reasons for deviant behavior, experts identify the following ones: • Age characteristics of adolescents that determine a high risk of adaptation disorders [1]; • Individual properties of the psyche (not formed self-regulation and personality orientation) [4]; • Social experience and features of human interaction with the outside world [3]; • Organic brain damage and psychoactive substance abuse [11]. Theoretical analysis shows that despite numerous studies, the problem of adolescent deviant behavior has not been resolved, and the space of a modern school is no longer safe. This makes the problem of prognostic diagnostics of the possible socially dangerous behavior of students topical [2, 8, 9, 13]. Diagnostics of the propensity for deviant behavior is necessary to help psychologists and educators identify risk groups and prevent tragic events.

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The research subject is the propensity to various types of deviant behavior in modern Russian adolescents studying in educational institutions. The research aims to study the severity of maladjustment and the most common types of deviant behavior among in-school adolescents.

2 Materials and Methods An empirical study was conducted in 2020 based on seven schools in the city of Yoshkar-Ola, the capital of the Mari El Republic, which is one of the subjects of the Russian Federation belonging to the Volga Federal District. The sample of the empirical study consisted of 1,035 teenagers: 568 boys and 467 girls aged 13–15, studying in 7–9 grades. We used the mass screening examination as the main method for organizing the study. The empirical data collection was performed using the standardized test questionnaire on the propensity for deviant behavior developed by E. V. Leus and A. G. Solovev [5] since it allowed measuring the readiness of adolescents to various types of deviant behavior. When developing the test questionnaire, the authors took into account the most common types of behavioral deviations determining the behavior and lifestyle of teenagers and having serious consequences for them and the people around them. The rating of the degree of disadaptation of students is performed on the following scales: • • • • •

Delinquent behavior (DB); Addictive behavior (AB); Aggressive behavior (AgB); Self-injurious (autoaggressive) behavior (SIB); Socially conditioned (prosocial or relatively destructive) behavior (SCB).

Depending on the amount of points scored on each scale, we evaluated the severity of specific types of deviant behavior (lack of signs, situational predisposition, or shaped behavior) and socio-psychological maladjustment (absence, low degree, or high degree of maladjustment). When processing the obtained data to check the reliability of the revealed differences in the frequency of occurrence of the trait, we conducted a statistical analysis of the data using the ϕ*-Fisher criterion.

3 Results The data obtained during the empirical study allowed us to characterize the propensity of adolescents in the studied sample to various types of deviant behavior (Fig. 1). The majority of respondents (82%) are dominated by an orientation towards socially conditioned behavior, which manifests itself in the adolescent reaction of

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Fig. 1 Severity of socially conditioned behavior (SCB), delinquent behavior (DB), addictive behavior (AB), aggressive behavior (AgB), and self-injurious behavior (SIB) of students, %. Source Compiled by the authors

grouping as an age norm (the need to belong to a group and focus on its ideals and desire to be noticed, accepted, and understood by peers). Another 11% of students have high values on the SCB scale, that is, they have formed socially conditioned behavior, indicating a close fusion with a significant group. The remaining 7% of respondents have no orientation towards such behavior: they are characterized by isolation and secrecy, which suggests a violation of the ability to adapt to society. Comparative analysis of the severity of different types of behavior depending on the gender of students (Fig. 2) shows that girls are more likely to demonstrate a model of socially determined behavior than boys (16% and 6.8%, respectively). In turn, there are twice as many socially maladjusted boys who do not have an orientation towards socially conditioned behavior than girls (8.2% and 4%, respectively). The use of the ϕ*-Fisher criterion for determining the reliability of differences in the samples in the frequency of occurrence of socially conditioned behavior confirmed the indicated differences between boys and girls on this scale (ϕ = 4.57, ϕ*0.01 ≥ 2.31). At the same time, 68% of respondents have no signs of self-injurious (autoaggressive) behavior. However, three out of ten (30%) have a situational predisposition to this behavior. They have suicidal manifestations in the form of thoughts, statements, and hints, up to suicidal attempts of a demonstrative-setting nature. In 2% of students, such a behavior model has already been formed and manifests itself in the desire to inflict pain or physical harm on oneself as a conscious rejection of life. Girls (34%) significantly more often than boys (26%) demonstrate the propensity to the situational manifestation of self-injurious behavior (ϕ = 2.69, ϕ* 0.01 ≥ 2.31). Eight out of ten survey participants have no signs of delinquent behavior (80.2%). Simultaneously, 18% of respondents have a situational predisposition, that is, under the influence of certain circumstances, they can commit disciplinary misdeeds and

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shaped behavior

60 50 40 30

situational predisposition lack of signs

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Fig. 2 Severity of socially conditioned behavior (SCB), delinquent behavior (DB), addictive behavior (AB), aggressive behavior (AgB), and self-injurious behavior (SIB) of boys (b) and girls (g), %. Source Compiled by the authors

administrative offenses. Formed behavior, contrary to legal norms, is inherent in 1.8% of adolescents, particularly the overwhelming majority of boys (3.2%), while girls (0.2%) practically do not exhibit such behavior (ϕ = 4.08, ϕ* 0.01 ≥ 2.31). We obtained almost the same data on the scale of aggressive behavior. Only 2% of respondents indicated the manifestation of verbal or physical aggression directed at people around them, as well as hostility and negativism. Girls with situational and formed aggression (20.8%) are 6% more than boys (ϕ = 2.36, ϕ* 0.01 ≥ 2.31). However, there are 3.5 times more boys with already formed aggressive behavior than girls with such behavior (2.8% and 0.8%, respectively). Nine out of ten interviewed adolescents have no signs of addictive behavior. Only 7.7% of adolescents have a situational predisposition, and 2% have an already formed model of such behavior, which is characterized by the desire to escape from reality through the change of their mental state by taking certain substances or constantly fixing on certain objects or types of activity. The data also shows that 6.8% of boys and 8.6% of girls have a predisposition to addictive behavior. Addictions have already been formed in 3.7% of boys, who are more prone to addictive behavior than girls (ϕ = 3.965, ϕ* 0.01 ≥ 2.31).

4 Discussion The results obtained during the empirical study allowed us to identify the most common forms of behavior in adolescents studying in schools in one of the Russian provinces. Most of all, they have a focus on socially conditioned behavior among

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peers or significant adults (parents and teachers), which is a sign of the age norm and forms the basis of personal development. However, some of the 16% of good girls with stable socially conditioned behavior (always obedient and observing social requirements and group norms) are at risk of being adversely influenced by others and becoming driven and dependent on other people and communication. On the contrary, individualization (secrecy), up to isolation from peer groups, predominates n slightly more than 8% of boys, that is, they are characterized by nonadaptation. In second place is self-injurious (autoaggressive) behavior with self-harm, which often manifests itself in the form of demonstrative suicide. Slightly less than a third of adolescents have a situational predisposition or an already formed model of such behavior aimed at liberation from emotional experiences that are unbearable due to age characteristics. If the models of coping with difficult situations are not formed, these adolescents (more often girls) can deliberately harm their health and life. Such forms of deviant behavior as delinquent (illegal) and aggressive behavior, accompanied by verbal or physical actions in relation to others, share the third place. We have found that boys are more prone to manifestations of antisocial behavior that threatens public order, while girls are more prone to situational manifestations of aggression. Least of all, according to the answers received from adolescents, they show the propensity to addictive behavior and the use of some substances or a specific activity to escape from reality and obtain the desired emotions. The obtained data correspond to the results of the study conducted by the authors of the used test questionnaire at the beginning of the decade [6]. This allows us to conclude that there is a stable hierarchy of the most common types of deviant behavior in adolescents.

5 Conclusion An empirical study of the propensity of adolescents to various types of deviant behavior has shown that eight out of ten students have no signs of socio-psychological maladjustment, and their behavior corresponds to the age norm. A slight degree of maladjustment for various types of deviant behavior is observed in 7%–18% of adolescents, with the exception of self-injurious behavior, which can manifest itself in every third respondent (especially girls). This group of students with situational signs of maladjustment needs psychological support to form their models of coping behavior in difficult situations. From 2 to 7% of adolescents have a high degree of socio-psychological maladjustment, they constitute a risk group and need long-term psychological correction. Quiet and withdrawn adolescents, who do not have signs of socially conditioned behavior (just over 8% of boys), need especially close attention from psychologists, teachers, and parents. There is a reason to suppose that the unrealized age-related need for group integration with peers can be the cause of extremely dangerous forms of behavior of such adolescents (planned attacks and school shootings).

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Acknowledgements The reported study was funded by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research and the Government of the Mari El Republic (Project No. 19-413-120006).

References 1. Anikudimova EA (2015) Modern forms of manifestation of deviant behavior of adolescents in the aspect of social and pedagogical activity. Simbirskiy Nauchnyy Vestnik 4(22):14–19 2. Daskalopoulou E, Igoumenou A, Alevizopoulos G (2017) School shootings: a review of characteristics and psychopathology of the perpetrators. J Forensic Sci Crim Investig 4(2):1–5 3. Hanımo˘glu E (2018) Deviant behavior in school setting. J Educ Train Stud 6(10):133–141 4. Knizhnikova SV (2019) Amok: relevance of exploring school attacks, causes, and primary prevention possibilities. Sotsialnaya Psikhologiya i Obshchestvo 10(1):152–168 5. Leus EV, Solovev AG (n d) Methodological guidelines for using the test for the propensity to deviant behavior. Available via DIALOG. Retrieved from http://mouschool4.my1.ru/20152016/dokum/metodika.compressed.pdf 6. Leus EV, Sidorov PI, Solovev AG (2012) Diagnostics of the deviant behavior of minors. Vestnik Chelyabinskogo Gosudarstvennogo Pedagogicheskogo Universiteta 9:268–277 7. Menesini E, Salmivalli C (2017) Bullying in schools: the state of knowledge and effective interventions. Psychol Health Med 22:240–253 8. Paolini A (2015) School shootings and student mental health: role of the school counselor in mitigating violence. Ideas and research you can use: VISTAS. Retrieved from https://www.counseling.org/knowledge-center/vistas/by-subject2/vistas-school-counse ling/docs/default-source/vistas/school-shootings-and-student-mental-health 9. Reisen A, Viana MC, Santos-Neto ET (2019) Bullying among adolescents: are the victims also perpetrators. Braz J Psychiatry 9(41):518–529 10. Salmon S, Turner S, Taillieu T et al (2018) Bullying victimization experiences among middle and high school adolescents: traditional bullying, discriminatory harassment, and cybervictimization. J Adolesc 63:29–40 11. Sergeev SA, Sergeev AS (2019) School shooters and their motivation: Pied Piper syndrome, Herostratus syndrome, and Nibelung syndrome. SocioTime 2(18):114–122 12. Shalaginova KS, Kulikova TI, Zalygaeva SA (2019) Gender characteristics of bullying in adolescence. Psikhologicheskaya Nauka i Obrazovanie 24(4):62–71 13. Syrokvashina KV (2019) Attacks in schools: Aggressive and auto-aggressive behavior of minors. Sovremennaya Zarubezhnaya Psikhologiya 8(3):37–44

Digital Technologies in the Psychosis Treatment with Psychological Interventions Olga A. Sagalakova , Dmitry V. Truevtsev , and Olga V. Zhirnova

Abstract The COVID-19 pandemic dictates new demands for professional activity. There are challenges in psychotherapy for mental disorders. Direct contact reduction contributes to the development of digital forms of interaction. The advantages and limitations of digital forms of psychological intervention are not entirely comprehended. The research goal is to analyze the issues and prospects of digitalization of psychological intervention in mental disorders in the context of modern research on digital technologies in psychosis psychotherapy. Digital intervention strategies (digitization of standard techniques, self-help programs, using virtual reality (VR), robotic techniques) are common in cognitive and behavioral therapy (CBT). Utilizing digital technologies in symptoms of psychosis, despite the limitations (lack of skills in using gadgets, clinical factors, etc.), contributes to the treatment effectiveness. The digital environment provides safety of mediated (digitalized) interaction for patients. In the case of paranoia, social anxiety is expressed, and cognitive distortions mediate the relationship. Digital technologies help reveal the mechanisms of maintaining paranoia. Studying the “virtual library” and forming an idea of what the “avatars” in it display concerning the subjects shows that participants who have paranoid reactions in VR are prone to perception distortions and increased suspiciousness. Anxiety and depression are related to both social anxiety and paranoia. Feelings of interpersonal vulnerability and social anxiety contribute to the development of ideas of persecution in a neutral context. In psychotherapy, professionals utilize mobile applications widely. They aim at the psychosis treatment. The authors reveal their appropriateness in the first episode of psychosis. Several scientists study the effectiveness of TechCare application Kingdon & Turkington uses an algorithm of machine learning that forms an individual trajectory of self-help. The current task is the integration of O. A. Sagalakova (B) · D. V. Truevtsev · O. V. Zhirnova Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia e-mail: [email protected] D. V. Truevtsev e-mail: [email protected] O. V. Zhirnova e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova (ed.), Complex Social Systems in Dynamic Environments, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 365, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23856-7_88

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the TechCare and VR resources. Additionally, scientists compare the effectiveness of cognitive VR therapy and VR exposure. The paper recreates stressful situations, which include a trip on a subway train and in an elevator. Cognitive VR therapy is effective in reducing delusions and distress. The variety of digital technologies at psychological intervention, studies of their efficiency testify to intensive development of direction in behavioral sciences. Keywords Digital technology · Psychological interventions · Paranoia · Psychosis · Social alarm · Virtual reality · Mobile application

1 Introduction The COVID-19 pandemic has affected all areas of social life in its entirety and each individual. There is an issue of the importance of personal hygiene and self-isolation in the context of the real threat of coronavirus infection to health. Moreover, the pandemic poses challenges to the qualitative features of interpersonal interaction. People find themselves in a situation of reduced direct contact with others, limited ability to navigate non-verbal means of communication used by an interlocutor, and reduced spontaneity in communication. Global digitalization helps maintain critical social connections through the use of digital tools (e.g., gadgets, social networks). In the context of the pandemic, technological progress gives rise to the importance of people’s participation in social activities. Therefore, one replaces the term “social distance” with “physical distance.” Digitalization carries both important achievements and significant limitations imposed on various aspects of life. Successes in the development of digital technologies contribute, for example, to human mobility, access to information resources, opportunities to communicate at a distance, provide people with digital means of organizing their activities. A. Sh. Tkhostov, V. A. Emelin, and E. E. I. Rasskazova formulate a spectrum of psychological consequences of technological progress. For example, they include developing psychological dependence on digital tools and transforming the structure of needs and activities [3, 12]. Active use of a digital tool, such as a gadget, facilitates its inclusion within the boundaries of the subject, which changes subject-object differentiation in the context of the psychological phenomenon of the probe. The gadget becomes a means of “grasping” the digital space and the real world, or orientation in them, which both extend the psychological boundaries and “blurs” them. Digital tools are operational and technical units that people have created and the success of which is determined by the needs, motivations, and goals. For example, digital tools can serve in the sphere of social interaction, providing an indirect way into the social world, but not as a substitute for it. The research goal is to analyze the issues and prospects of digitalization of psychological intervention in psychiatric disorders in the context of consideration of modern research on using different forms of digital technologies in psychosis psychotherapy.

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2 Materials and Methods 2.1 Experience of Digital Technologies in the Structure of Psychological Intervention in Mental Disorders: Issues, Prospects, and Results of Modern Research Digital technologies, including smartphones and mobile applications, computers, the Internet, have penetrated such socially mediated activity as psychotherapy. In addition, the current situation of the COVID-19 pandemic has brought increased interest in the digitalization of psychological interventions. Nevertheless, digital therapies for mental disorders have been actively developed and used in cognitive and behavioral therapy (CBT) over the past years [4]. Essential features of CBT have contributed to its successful introduction in a digital component. They include (1) focusing on the patient’s comprehensible organization and structured individual emotional, cognitive, and behavioral experiences, which can be conveniently implemented in a digitally mediated context; (2) using behavioral experiments that can be conducted, for example, in the field of virtual reality (VR); (3) inclusion of psychoeducation as a stage of psychotherapy and justification of the patient’s treatment method. The CBT presents various digital intervention strategies–from the digitization of classical psychotherapy methods of this direction, self-help programs to the use of virtual reality and robotic techniques in the treatment of complex psychopathological phenomena. The peculiarities of digital technology application in the context of psychotherapy can be comprehended based on different approaches. For example, most digital intervention techniques are specific to particular mental diseases: social anxiety disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, etc. However, digital treatment strategies aim at a wide range of phenomena, and vice versa, at which have a narrow focus. The latter includes working with suicidal thoughts [14]. The criterion for differentiation of digital methods of treatment also implies the format of psychotherapy. There are regular weekly sessions that reproduce the logic of classical face-to-face therapy and shorter and more frequent sessions focused on the use of applications and websites. According to the intervention structure, one defines the digital methods. The patient gradually, step by step, undergoes an entire course of psychotherapy. It includes the methods that imply flexibility in the choice of intervention objectives and focus on the procedure of therapy in the context of an individual case. The significant flexibility in the digital treatment of mental disorders can be due, on the one hand, to algorithms based on intervention strategies, expert advice, machine learning, and, on the other hand, to the possibility for the patient to choose the psychotherapeutic modules relevant to them [1]. The digital method of mental disorder treatment is a reasonably young area of psychological intervention. However, it is the subject of many theoretical and experimental studies. For example, randomized controlled studies examine the psychotherapeutic effect of introducing the digital component into treating mental disorders. Furthermore, systematic reviews aim at presenting and analyzing the achievements

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of researchers in this area. The results demonstrate that digital psychotherapies are widespread and can significantly increase the possibility of obtaining psychological help for more patients. Furthermore, psychotherapeutic interventions that include digital technology and professional support are as effective as the classical therapy format, which involves face-to-face meetings between patients and therapists.

3 Results and Discussion 3.1 Modern Experience of Using Digital Technologies in Psychosis Psychotherapy: From Mobile Self-Help Applications in the First Episode of Psychosis to Integration of Virtual Reality in Paranoia Discussing and actively developing applications are of digital technologies in treating mental illness is the digital method of intervention in psychosis. There is an opinion that people with psychosis do not use digital means, do not have access to them, and have a negative attitude to the digitalization of psychotherapy. However, empirical evidence shows that patients with psychosis are interested in the new format of intervention in the context of mental health challenges. Furthermore, using digital technologies can increase the psychotherapeutic effect of treatment and develop selfregulation skills in everyday life. In addition, to prevent the possible intensification of delusional symptoms, professionals involve introductory in the treatment protocols procedures for patients to “check” the device and make sure it is safe. However, in the context of the background of promising data obtained most often in pilot experiments, barriers and limitations that complicate the use of digital technologies in psychosis psychotherapy stand out. Such complicating factors include social factors that reflect the specifics of life in patients with disabilities (e.g., low income associated with a lower probability of acquiring a computer or smartphone, lack of developed reading skills, use of gadgets, difficulties in understanding and using English) and clinical factors associated with the severity and the course of the painful process (e.g., negative symptoms, paranoia, cognitive impairment, disorganization of the process, etc.). Simultaneously, in the context of patients’ reported interest in the digitalization of the intervention, a low level of indicators important for obtaining meaningful clinical results, such as involvement in digital therapy and continuous use of the technology, is identified [13]. The authors focus on a topical issue of the inclusion of digital components in psychotherapy of psychoses–the digitalization of psychotherapeutic intervention with delusional ideas of paranoid nature. Concerning the discussion of the probability of triggering paranoia when using digital technology in the process of treatment, one can observe the focus on the operational and technical tools for working with the psychopathological phenomenon. However, the mechanisms of development and maintenance of delusions are often overlooked. They should be aimed at

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the intervention with an auxiliary digital tool and the peculiarities of the patient’s personality and individual experience. Despite the limitations of digital technologies in psychosis psychotherapy, paranoia with adequate methodological understanding has promising prospects. An essential feature of the digital environment is the possibility of safe, mediated interaction, which is significant for patients with delusional beliefs, suspiciousness, perception of others as hostile, stigmatizing, and judgmental. Face-to-face communication in such patients can cause increased anxiety and disorganization of activities, thus reducing the effectiveness of therapy. Social anxiety is expressed in paranoia due to a person’s focus on the threat in the social interaction space. The association of social anxiety and paranoia is mediated by cognitive distortion associated with the perception of communication as potentially dangerous and others as hostile. Cognitive-behavioral patterns may also have standard features associated with monitoring, identifying, and neutralizing perceived threats to status and self-esteem [11]. In Experiment Freeman et al, the scientists ask to study a non-clinical sample of a virtual library and comprehend what “avatars” in the library display about the subjects. The participants attribute mental states to “avatars.” Some people have paranoid thoughts about virtual characters. People who have paranoid reactions in the VR environment are prone to perception distortions and report an intensification of paranoid ideas. Anxiety and depression are associated with both social anxiety and paranoia. The authors conclude that feelings of interpersonal vulnerability and social anxiety can contribute directly to the development of ideas of persecution in response to a neutral context [6]. Simultaneously, there is a question of whether the therapist should use therapy methods aimed at the general psychological state or focus on working with delusional ideas. Using mobile applications in psychotherapy, as a rule, means orientation on the general psychological processes, a psychotic condition as a whole. Thus, the expression of psychopathological phenomena acts as an estimation of intervention efficiency but not as a separate work goal. Usually, mobile applications as a mediating component of psychotherapy are used at the initial stages of developing a psychotic process and act as a means of structuring and organizing new experiences. Single presented completed studies show expediency and acceptability of using mobile devices in psychotherapy at the first episode of psychosis. Positive dynamics are noted on such indicators as loneliness [9], adverse symptoms, and general psychotic symptoms and mood [2]. In addition, several scientists evaluate the acceptability and effectiveness of TechCare [7]–an application developed based on the research experience of D. Kingdon’s & Turkington’s CBT study on psychosis [8]. The application uses an intelligent machine learning algorithm, which, based on the evaluation of the patient’s condition and clinical recommendations, provides the most popular individual methods of self-help (the relationship between emotions, thoughts, and behavior, models of stress, methods of emotion regulation, and goal setting). The achievement of technical progress is the possibility of using BP in psychotherapy of complex mental disorders. For example, elements of the virtual

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world in synchronization with the user’s motor activity provide realism and the illusion of direct interaction with the virtual environment [10]. The mentioned factors open new prospects for treating diseases, including developing self-regulation skills of patients with paranoia during their stay in the hospital. In Experiment Freeman et al, the scientists, based on the importance of avoidance and safety-seeking behaviors as non-adaptive coping strategies for stress in patients with delusional stalking, have developed a method of treating paranoia that integrates the CBT and virtual reality tools [5]. The first pilot experiment aimed at comparing the psychotherapeutic effectiveness of virtual reality cognitive therapy. Virtual reality cognitive therapy implies testing patients’ psychotic beliefs on the danger under virtual reality conditions. It involves the participants having to abandon safety-oriented behavior and virtual reality exposure, implying being in a stressful situation until the anxiety is reduced and maintaining a non-adaptive behavioral response strategy. Immersion into the virtual world is ensured by using a head-end display connected to a computer and tracking system and the possibility of arbitrary movement in the laboratory room. Two stressful social situations were recreated in the experiment: a trip in a subway train and an elevator; besides, the situations were graded according to the degree of complexity, which consisted in the number of avatars placed around the place where the patient could move. For example, situations of trips in subway trains in the absence of avatars were complicated until they found out there were twenty-two avatars on the train. In elevator situations, the graduation from two avatars with the patient to six was presented. The authors have recorded data on the movement of patients in the situation of subway train traveling. In contrast to the space of the elevator, the space of the train provides more significant opportunities for walking. Patients stay for 30 min in a virtual reality environment and receive psychological counseling provided by a therapist. Before and after the intervention, patients are asked to perform a task related to the actual situation, which they perceive as difficult and threatening (e.g., a trip to the store), and assess the delusions [5]. As the researchers suggest, virtual reality cognitive therapy, unlike virtual reality exposure, determines a significant reduction in delusional beliefs and emotional distress in the real world.

4 Conclusion In conclusion, the digitalization of such socially mediated activities as psychotherapy has significant achievements, barriers, and limitations. They are imposed on the process of providing psychological care and obtaining high clinical results. Therefore, one should assess digital technology as an auxiliary operational and technical instrument for work. Psychotherapy should focus on the peculiarities of motivations and demands of a person, as well as understanding the regularities of development and consolidation of psychopathological symptomatology.

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The dominance of the traditional position of understanding delusions outside the patient’s personal traits and life experience in digitalization creates a risk. It implies strengthening the tendency to ignore the social and psychological mechanisms of forming delusional ideas of paranoid nature–the dominance of biological and digital reductionism in the problems of delusional experiences. Mobile applications focused on structuring recent human experiences are usually used at the initial stages of development and complications of psychotic symptoms. Using cognitive behavioral therapy of paranoia helps minimize delusional ideas and related distress. Patients successfully transfer the acquired self-regulation skills in the virtual environment by refraining from behavior aimed at finding safety to socially stressful real-life activities. Situations of communication include a significant layer of verbal and non-verbal information, which often cannot be unequivocally interpreted and causes a potential risk of possible social damage through “wrong” responses. In the case of paranoia, the communicative space of therapy may be perceived as potentially threatening. Digital intervention can reduce these risks by clearing the psychotherapy space of the “multi-dimensional” stimulus overload for a paranoid patient, targeting intermediate variables (cognitive and metacognitive beliefs). One must note that mediated interaction format is not a means of avoidance but a temporary means of understanding and organizing experience. Consequently, the mediated treatment acts as a “probe” that indirectly contributes to overcoming paranoia in communication situations. Literature analysis demonstrates that there is a pronounced bias in the development of methodological arsenal. It includes digital tools. However, the theoretical and methodological issues on the mechanisms of development and maintenance of psychopathological phenomena remain unsolved, which determines the reverse logic of the development of intervention methods–from method to methodology. Acknowledgements RFBR funded the reported study according to the research project No. 1729-02420 entitled “Neurocognitive Mechanisms of Mental Activity Disturbances in Social Anxiety and Social Phobia.”

References 1. Bell IH, Lim MH et al (2020) The therapeutic use of digital technologies in psychosis. In: Badcock JC, Paulik G (eds) A clinical introduction to psychosis. Academic Press, New York, pp 637–662 2. Bucci S, Barrowclough C, Ainsworth J et al (2018) Actissist: proof-of-concept trial of a theorydriven digital intervention for psychosis. Schizophr Bull 44(5):1070–1080 3. Emelin VA, Rasskazova EI, Tkhostov AS (2012) The psychological effects of information technology. Natl Psychol J 1(7):81–87 4. Fairburn CG, Patel V (2018) The impact of digital technology on psychological treatments and their dissemination. Focus 16(4):449–455 5. Freeman D, Bradley J, Antley A et al (2016) Virtual reality in the treatment of persecutory delusions: randomised controlled experimental study testing how to reduce delusional conviction. Br J Psychiatry 209(1):62–67

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6. Freeman D, Slater M, Bebbington PE et al (2003) Can virtual reality be used to investigate persecutory ideation? J Nerv Ment Dis 191(8):509–514 7. Husain N, Gire N, Kelly J et al (2016) TechCare: Mobile assessment and therapy for psychosis – an intervention for clients in the early intervention service: A feasibility study protocol. SAGE Open Med 4:1–9 8. Kingdon D, Turkington D (1994) Cognitive-behavioral therapy of schizophrenia. Guilford Press, New York 9. Lim MH, Rodebaugh TL, Eres R et al (2019) A pilot digital intervention targeting loneliness in youth mental health. Front Psych 10:604 10. Rizzo AA, Buckwalter JG, Forbell E et al (2013) Virtual reality applications to address the wounds of war. Psychiatr Ann 43(3):123–138 11. Sagalakova OA, Zhirnova OV, Truevtsev DV (2020) Transformation of methodological understanding about voices and versions of interventions by experts in the field of auditory hallucinations. Clin Psychol Spec Educ 9(2):34–61 12 Tkhostov ASh (2002) Psychology of physicality Smysl. Moscow 13. Torous J, Staples P, Slaters L et al (2017) Characterizing smartphone engagement for schizophrenia: results of a naturalist mobile health study. Acad Psychiatry 42:791–795 14. Van Spijker BAJ, Van Straten A, Kerkhof AJFM (2014) Effectiveness of online self-help for suicidal thoughts: results of a randomised controlled trial. PLoS ONE 9(2). doi:https://doi.org/ 10.1371/journal.pone.0090118

Diagnostics of the Emotional Significance of Unconscious Visual Stimuli by Human Physiological Reactions: Theory and Applications Felix K. Svobodny

and Alexey P. Detkov

Abstract The research has two objectives: (1) analyzing the main approaches to the study of unconscious perception; (2) examining the results of the experimental study of the possibility to determine the emotional significance of unconscious visual stimuli by the dynamics of human physiological reactions. The method of psychological experiment serves as the main scientific method. The unconscious perception is defined as a form of a person’s direct psychical reflection of reality conditioned by such stimuli, the effect of which cannot be realized by the subject. As a result, we can conclude that it is possible to experimentally diagnose the subjective significance of an unconscious visual stimulus (photograph) for a person by analyzing the galvanic skin response of the human body recorded by a computer polygraph. Besides, we suggest using the mechanism of unconscious perception in crime investigation. Keywords Unconscious perception · Significance of the stimulus · Physiological reactions · Computer polygraph · Crime investigation

1 Introduction In modern psychology, perception is understood as “a subjective image of an object, phenomenon, or process that directly affects the analyzer or the system of analyzers” and “a complex psychophysiological process of forming a perceptual image” of an object or a phenomenon [11]. The processes that a person is not aware of play an essential role in perception functioning. The perceptual integrity mechanism in which the brain complements F. K. Svobodny (B) Moscow Academy of the Investigative Committee of the Russian Federation Moscow, Moscow, Russia e-mail: [email protected] A. P. Detkov Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova (ed.), Complex Social Systems in Dynamic Environments, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 365, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23856-7_89

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the perceived details of an object or a phenomenon using memory or imagination can serve as an example. In such cases, we are talking about unconscious perception. In this regard, E. A. Kostandov emphasized that “a significant number of psychologists, psychophysiologists, and psychiatrists believed that the unconscious reflection of the external world at the psychical level is real and consider reactions to unconscious stimuli from the environment as the most important phenomenon in the organization of human psychical activity” [9]. In this study, we understand the unconscious perception as a form of direct psychical reflection of reality caused by such stimuli, the effect of which cannot be realized by the subject. The experimental study of unconscious perception began in the late nineteenth century [5]. Then this research was actively developed in the middle of the twentieth century [1, 3, 7] and continues to develop in the twenty-first century [8]. Moreover, most studies of unconscious perception are based on verbal reports of the examinees about their feelings, images, and assumptions, which negatively influenced the validity and reliability of the experimental conclusions [2]. This fact made researchers search for traces of the existence of the “unconscious perception” phenomenon in the objective indicators of physiological reactions [9]. The development of digital technologies allowed one to record a person’s physiological reactions in response to the presented stimuli more clearly and objectively. In the practice of investigating crimes, such recording is performed using a computer polygraph. Traditionally, the research technology using a polygraph involves a conscious perception of auditory (words, phrases, sentences) or visual (photographs, diagrams, maps, etc.) stimuli [12–14]. Our experiment attempted to isolate a visual stimulus significant for the examinee from the group of insignificant (less significant) visual stimuli under conditions of unconscious perception.

2 Materials and Methods In the context of this study, we raised the following research questions: 1. Analyzing the main approaches to the study of the phenomenon of unconscious perception. To solve this problem, we examined various scientific papers devoted to the unconscious perception [1, 2, 3, 5, 7–9]; 2. Conducting experimental research of the possibility to determine the emotional significance of an unconscious visual stimulus by the dynamics of human physiological reactions. To solve this issue, in the context of a systematic approach to the study of mental phenomena [6, 10], we used empirical methods of psychological research [1], with a laboratory psychological experiment as the main method [4].

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We formed two groups of subjects from students of one of the law universities to participate in the experiment voluntarily. In the first (experimental) group, we selected 10 male second-year students with failure rates in the oral examination held by Professor X. We should note that Professor X is characterized by a bright teaching style, a strong temperament, and high demands for students’ knowledge. Based on these data, we assumed that for students who recently had failure rates in the oral exam held by Professor X, the photograph of Professor X would be a particularly significant stimulus compared to the photographs of other unfamiliar professors. The second (control) group of examinees included 10 male first-year students whom Professor X had never taught. For this experiment, we also selected 10 photographs of other professors. Besides, the photographs were similar to those of Professor X regarding gender, body type, age, and face shape features. The photographs of the professors were taken from the university website (freely available on the internet). Using a computer program, we compiled six sequences of professors’ photographs to be presented to students in a stroboscopic mode, which excluded the examinees’ perception of the photographs. However, two of the six sequences of the photographs contained a photograph of Professor X. The speed of presentation of photographs in a sequence was selected for each of the examinees, considering the individual values of the lower threshold of the visual stimulus awareness identified in the previous experiment. The duration of each sequence of photographs varied from two to four seconds. The interval between the sequences of photographs was 10 s. The photographs were presented on a 24-inch computer monitor placed in front of the examinee’s face at a distance of 1.5 m. The students of both groups did not know whose photographs would be presented. The examinees were instructed (1) to sit calmly and relaxed; (2) not to make unnecessary movements; (3) not to distract from the monitor; and (4) to try to see (guess) the photographs that display the professors. Simultaneously, with the visual stimuli presentation, the galvanic skin response [GSR] dynamics were recorded at the phalanges of the examinee’s index and middle fingers. The GSR recording was carried out using a computerized polygraph of the Polarg brand, while the computer polygraph program was synchronized with the computer program that controls the presentation of the sequences of photographs.

3 Results The analysis of the secondary literature uncovered that there are two main approaches to the research of unconscious perception. The first approach has a long history; it is based on the verbal reports of the examinees, which are used to make judgments on the presence of the unconscious perception fact. As early as 1904, K. Dunlap discovered that the examinees could give a verbal report on the cessation of the very weak sound stimuli action, although they found it

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difficult to differentiate these sounds. This fact allowed the scholar to conclude that a person has an unconscious perception of sound stimuli [5]. During the experiments conducted by L. E. Baker, several examinees developed a conditioned pupillary reflex to a sound signal, the intensity of which was below the hearing threshold. This situation confirmed the unconscious human perception of inaudible sounds [1]. The second approach is associated with the registration of an examinee’s physiological reactions under conditions of unconscious stimulus perception. Thus, G. V. Gershuni conducted a series of experiments, the results of which convincingly proved that sound stimuli with an intensity below the hearing threshold cause physiological reactions in the human body, such as the GSR or a reaction in the respiratory system [7]. As a result of the experiments, J. S. Bruner and L. Postman found that presentation of “taboo words” (emotional words with negative connotations which are condemned to be used in public) in short exposures which do not allow the examinees to realize the meaning of the presented words can cause the GSR of the subjects [3]. To explain the phenomena of the unconscious perception described above and other phenomena identified during experimental work, J. S. Bruner and A. L. Minturn proposed three principles of the perceptual activity organization concerning the selective function of perception: (1) “the principle of resonance,” “the principle of protection,” and “the principle of sensibility.” The principle of resonance connects perception to the needs and values of a person. According to this principle, stimuli relevant to a person’s needs and values are perceived faster than neutral stimuli. According to the principle of protection, perception is determined by the mindset and defense mechanisms of the psyche. Therefore, stimuli contradicting the expectations of an individual as well as unpleasant or unacceptable stimuli are realized later than neutral stimuli and with significant distortion. Finally, the principle of sensibility is manifested in quick reactions of mental reflection to stimuli that threaten a given person at the physical or mental levels. Consequently, such stimuli are perceived earlier (faster) than other stimuli [2]. According to E. A. Kostandov, the maximum reactions to unconscious stimuli (“the effect of unconscious words”) occur when two factors coincide: (1) the words should be emotionally significant for the examinee at the time of the experiment, and (2) the examinee should have a high level of motivation or emotional stress during the experiment [9]. The experiments conducted by E. H. F. Haan, A. W. Young, and F. Newcomb revealed the presence of the GSR of the examinees during quick presentations of photographs with familiar faces in conditions that excluded conscious recognition of these faces [8]. The selective analysis of experimental scientific papers convincingly proved the following: (1) the perception phenomenon of unconscious stimuli exists in the human psyche; (2) the perception of an unconscious stimulus is manifested, including in the GSR of the human body; (3) unconscious stimuli which have emotional significance for a person cause more pronounced reactions of the body in comparison with other unconscious stimuli.

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The postulates given above allow one to experimentally diagnose the subjective significance of an unconscious visual stimulus for a person by analyzing the autonomic reactions of the human body recorded with a computer polygraph. To test this possibility, we carried out a series of laboratory psychological experiments. The examinees in these experiments were volunteers, students from one of the law universities. As a result of our experiments, we established that most examinees from the experimental group (students who failed the oral examination of Professor X) had GSR in response to a sequence of photographs containing a photograph of Professor X. At the same time, the intensity of these reactions consistently exceeded the GSR, which arose in response to a sequence of photographs that did not contain photographs of Professor X. When testing the examinees from the control group (students who had not known Professor X and had not taken the oral exam), we found that the intensity of the GSR to the sequences of photographs containing a photograph of Professor X did not significantly differ from the intensity of the GSR to the sequences of photographs which did not contain the photograph of Professor X.

4 Discussion The term “unconscious perception” may not be entirely appropriate since the very concept of “perception” presupposes a partial construction of a conscious and verbalized image. To solve this debatable issue, we can suggest using the phrase “perception of unconscious stimuli.” This term will shift the emphasis on the characteristics of the stimulus and distinguish between unconscious and conscious mechanisms underlying perception.

5 Conclusion The results of our experiment revealed that recording the physiological reactions of the examinees allows one to diagnose the emotional significance of the presented visual stimuli, the content of which is not realized by the examinee. Therefore, we believe that the results obtained can be used by law enforcement authorities for crime investigations. Besides, the described method allows one to determine the peculiarities of the awareness of the criminal event participants of some specific circumstances of a crime being investigated. For example, if suspects of a crime deny that they know the victim of a crime, but the fact of such an acquaintance exists, then a photograph of the victim of the crime will be emotionally significant for the suspect. Furthermore, through the procedure of a psychological experiment presented above, one can reveal the emotional significance of this photograph and

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indirectly confirm (or refute) the fact that the suspect was acquainted with the victim of the crime.

References 1. Ananyev BG (1996) Psychology and problems of human science. Modek, Voronezh 2. Bruner JS, Minturn AL (1955) Perceptual identification and the perceptual organization. J Gen Psychol 53:21–28 3. Bruner JS, Postman L (1948) An approach to social perception. In: Dennis W (ed) Current trends in social psychology. University of Pittsburgh Press, Pittsburgh, pp 115–135 4. Druzhinin VN (1997) Experimental psychology. Piter, Saint Petersburg 5. Dunlap K (1904) Some peculiarities of fluctuating and inaudible sounds. Psychol Rev 11:308– 318 6. Ganzen VA (1984) Systemic descriptions in psychology. LSU, Leningrad 7. Gershuni GV (1947) Study of sub-sensory reactions during the activity of the sense organ. Physiol J USSR 33:393–412 8. Haan EHF, Young AW, Newcomb F (2007) Face recognition without awareness. Cogn Neuropsychol 4(4):385–415 9. Kostandov EA (1977) Perception and emotions. Medicine, Moscow 10. Lomov BF (1975) About the systems approach in psychology. Voprosy Psychologii. 231−245 11. Meshherjakov BG, Zinchenko VP (eds) (2009) The large psychological dictionary. AST, Moscow 12. Svobodnyj FK, Detkov AP (2015) Determination of the subject, objects, and competence of the forensic psychological examination of the individual’s awareness of the event under investigation. Izv Altai State Univ 2(2):32–36 13. Widacki J (2012) Polygraph examination in criminal cases. Current Polish practice. A critical study. Eur Polygr 4(22):249−256 14. Zvi L, Elaad E (2014) Personality dimensions predict psychophysiological responses in the concealed information. Int J Psychophysiol 94:129–130

Effects of Computer and Video Games on the Psychological State of Kazakhstani Students: Strategies for Pedagogical Interventions Anya A. Symonenko , Eldar Zh. Zhaparov , and Olga B. Tapalova

Abstract The paper examines the effects of computer and video games on forming stress resistance in Kazakhstani students. The research topic is significantly relevant due to the growing demand for entertainment content. The computer and video game industry is starting to occupy increasingly more information space. It occupies mobile phones, personal computers, and specific game consoles. Besides, video games are a popular information product. Currently, computer and video games represent a significant type of pastime for many people and one of the items of their expenditure. The impact of such close interaction with computer and video games is a discussion point in science. Computer and video games, like regular games, have proven to be a very effective learning tool. The research goal is to identify the psychological features that differentiate a group of students who are gamers and students who are not interested in computer and video games. The research results include identifying the statistical difference in the severity of maladaptive personality traits and distress between groups of student gamers and students who do not interact with computer and video games. Based on the obtained results, the authors have found that students who are fond of computer and video games have a higher threshold of stress resistance and are less susceptible to maladaptive behavior in comparison with the students who are not fond of computer and video games. Research methods include the questionnaire of the authors, clinical and symptomatic questionnaire SCL-90-R, Mini-Mult questionnaire, and PSPP software. Keywords Students · Stress resistance · Distress · Computer and video games · Psychological state

A. A. Symonenko Moscow University of Finance and Industry Synergy, Moscow, Russia e-mail: [email protected] E. Zh. Zhaparov · O. B. Tapalova (B) Abai Kazakh National Pedagogical University, Almaty, Kazakhstan e-mail: [email protected] E. Zh. Zhaparov e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova (ed.), Complex Social Systems in Dynamic Environments, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 365, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23856-7_90

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1 Introduction 1.1 Computer and Video Game Popularity Currently, the computer and video game industry is relatively closely integrated into public life. In 2019, in Europe alone, it was revealed that 54% of the population between the ages of 6 and 64 played computer and video games. Furthermore, the average age of the player was 31–an 8% more than in 2018. Further growth was also forecasted [4]. Major game streaming platforms such as Twitch, YouTube, and Goodgame.ru are prevalent. For example, in Twitch alone, as of September 28, 2020, an average of 2,300,000 visitors was observed per week, and a total of 1,620,491,520h of broadcasts were viewed over the same period. Thus, one could observe a steady increase in users from 2012 to 2020 [12]. Steam–the most prominent game store–as of September 27–28 experienced a peak value of 21,974,000 and the minimum value of 15.275,000 visitors. In the ranking of the five most popular games by the number of active Steam users, there are such games as Counter-Strike: Global Offensive, Dota 2, Among Us, PLAYERUNKNOWN’S BATTLEGROUNDS, and Team Fortress 2. In addition, all games have cooperative modes, meaning they involve human interaction [10]. One should note that computer and video games are one of the player’s items of expenditure. The computer and video game market generated $159.3 billion in revenue in 2020. In Kazakhstan, the computer and video game industry generated $228 million in 2019. On average, every Kazakhstani has approximately $12.20 spent on computer and video games [6, 7].

1.2 Psychological Studies of Computer and Video Game Effects As one has already observed, computer and video games are relatively closely intertwined with people’s daily lives. Their influence on an individual’s behavior and mental stability depends on many factors and can be both positive and adverse. Currently, there is an active discussion of the benefits or harms of computer and video games in the scientific community. Computer and video games affect the amount of gray matter in the hippocampus. Such a phenomenon has two possible development variants–in favor of increasing the volume of this substance and in favor of reducing it. The effect depends on the players themselves and their playing style [13]. Computer and video games have also proved to positively affect visual memory [8]. Additionally, computer and video games have proved to be a very effective tool for teaching and maintaining psychological well-being in the process of school education in the context of compliance with particular standards and control. Computer and video games can stimulate the

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cognitive functions of adolescents and allow them to learn the necessary social skills [2]. In addition, contrary to widespread prejudice, games do not cause aggression [5]. The ability to control the mentioned process is the essential variable, whether it is volitional or external control. In the conditions of uncontrolled computer and video game playing, one cannot expect a positive effect. The games themselves can be used as a method of avoiding the existing reality. Scientists have found that people who play computer and video games often have an implicit preference for the game world to the real world [1]. Avoiding reality is one of the functions of mental defense and not the most effective adaptation method. Computer and video games represent a relatively dual phenomenon, as it has been revealed. On the one hand, they can help people in particular aspects of their activities. On the other hand, if employed uncontrollably, they can lead to adverse consequences. The authors stipulate that the adverse consequences can already be traced in the current global realities at the individual level. Furthermore, the 11th reissue of the International Classification of Diseases in the context of the current issue highlights “Gaming disorder” (Code–6C51) [3]. Some people consciously or unconsciously deprive of the outside world by means of a game, which affects their psychological and general well-being. Therefore, the paper aims to identify the psychological factors that distinguish a group of student gamers from students who are not interested in computer and video games. Based on the factors mentioned above, the authors hypothesize that students who are fond of computer and video games have a higher threshold of stress resistance and are less susceptible to maladaptive behavior in comparison with the students who are not fond of computer and video games.

2 Materials and Methods To achieve the research goal and test the current hypothesis, the authors select the following psychometric tools–the questionnaire of the authors, clinical and symptomatic questionnaire SCL-90-R, Mini-Mult questionnaire, and PSPP software. The questionnaire compiled by the authors consists of three primary and four additional questions (see Table 1). The primary questions of the questionnaire aim to identify people who are interested in video games among the general sample and find out the respondents’ attitudes to video games. The additional questions allow the authors to collect more detailed information on what games the respondents play and prefer. More than that, the authors have collected the information on the approximate playing time in hours. The SCL-90-R methodology is a tool for assessing the current psychological status of respondents. The methodology consists of 90 questions grouped into nine primary scales: Somatization, Obsessive-Compulsive, Interpersonal Sensitivity, Depression, Anxiety, Hostility, Phobic Anxiety, Paranoid Ideation, and Psychoticism. In addition

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Table 1 Primary and additional questions of the questionnaire. Question type

Questions

Primary questions

Specify your age

In your opinion, how do computer and video games affect the person playing them?

Response options Mainly in a positive way Mainly in an adverse way Undecided

Do you play computer and video games? (on a PC, Yes console, or mobile phone) No Additional questions What platform do you play video games on? (You can select several options)

PC Console Mobile phone

What computer and video games do you play most often? List the computer and video games that you like (even if you have not played them)? On average, how much time do you spend playing computer and video games per day? Source Compiled by the authors.

to the primary scales, there are also generalizing scales: General Symptomatic Index (GSI), Positive Symptomatic Index (PSI), and Positive Distress Symptomatic Index (PSDI). GSI is the most comprehensive indicator of the psychological state, reflecting both the depth of the distressed state and the number of its manifestations in human behavior [11]. The Mini-Mult methodology in the adaptation of F. Berezin and M. Miroshnikov aims to study the respondents’ personality traits. The mentioned questionnaire allows the authors to determine the behavior type of test participants according to the following scales: Hypochondria (Hs), Depression (D), Hysteria (Hy), Psychopathy (Pd), Paranoia (Pa), Psychasthenia (Pf), Schizoid behavior (Sc), and Hypomania (Ma). By correlating behaviors with pathopsychological characteristics and their severity, the test allows the authors to assess psychological well-being. The high severity of pathological features is often associated with the presence of an unfavorable situation. The advantage of the mentioned methodology is the presence of three additional scales (L–lie scale; F–faithfulness scale; K–correction scale), which assess the reliability of the obtained results [9]. The authors use the PSPP software from an independent publisher–GNU–for the statistical data analysis. The authors have collected an experimental sample consisting of 166 students of higher educational institutions. During testing, 38 respondents have been found to have a high value of the L and F scales. Further, the mentioned respondents do not

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participate in the statistical data analysis. Therefore, the results of the remaining 128 participants are analyzed, and the results are obtained.

3 Results As a result of the questionnaire analysis, the following primary indicators are identified: ● The average age of the subject is 19.37. The standard deviation is 3.58; ● In 38% of the cases, the participants believe that the games have a positive effect, in 37% of cases–an adverse one, and 25% are undecided (see Fig. 1); ● The most popular game genres in the group of students playing video games are role-playing games, shooter games, and action-adventure games (see Table 2). The respondents note a total of 152 games. Some of the named games can be repeated; ● The average time spent in the game (based on the questionnaire results) is two hours and thirty-nine minutes. To confirm the experimental hypothesis on the difference between the experimental and control groups, the authors calculate the Student’s t-test for independent samples. Statistical processing and criterion calculation is performed using the PSPP software. The results of the SCL-90-R and Mini-Mult scales of the experimental sample are compared with the results of identical scales of the control group. The calculated t-test for all variables is in the zone of insignificance (>p. 0.05), indicating that no significant statistical differences are found between the groups of students who play and students who do not play computer and video games. Fig. 1 The results of a survey on the quality of the effect of computer and video games on a person. Source Compiled by the authors

1018 Table 2 The results of the analysis of games that respondents prefer (by genre)

A. A. Symonenko et al. Genres

Number of mentions

Puzzle

9

Fighting

3

MMORPG

4

Battle Royale

6

Racing

3

Action-adventure

18

Survival horror

14

MOBA

13

Sandbox

4

Platformer

4

Shooter

24

Simulator

12

Strategy Role-playing game

7 31

Note: To determine the genre of video games, the authors utilize information left by developers on various platforms (Google Play, AppStore, Steam, Store. PlayStation, EpicGames.com, Origin, Microsoft) depending on the distribution location of the game product. Source Compiled by the authors.

4 Discussion In the course of our research, the authors hypothesize that there are differences between groups of student gamers and students who do not play computer and video games. The mentioned hypothesis is formulated based on data on the effect of computer and video games. However, as a result, the hypothesis of the difference is not confirmed by the experimental data. This aspect raises particular questions on the authors’ part. As an assumption, the authors can express the idea that video games have a reasonably short chronological period of stimulating effect. Therefore, over time, the stimulation weakens, and the effect is more difficult to identify. Further research will be needed to develop this assumption. It is rather unlikely that computer and video games in the student’s life do not affect their psychological indicators. However, this is the trend the authors observe in the course of the research. It is possible to question respondents after a game activity, approximately an hour after the game ends. In this case, the authors can answer the question that arose as a result of this study on the short-term nature of the stimulation effect. The authors state that the tested students are not avid computer and video game players. In Kazakhstan, such groups are small in numbers. Most people still prefer to devote less time to computer and video games. The study of individuals who are more actively involved in the computer and video game process is vital for a deeper understanding of the impact of computer and video games. Nevertheless, the

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authors tend to believe that computer and video games comprise a tool for helping and correcting behavior. The game industry market is constantly growing along with the demand for its content and requirements. The authors point out that computer and video games can be a cause for personal issues. Therefore, the authors are also considering this angle. It is evident that minors are at risk the most. Due to the not entirely formed emotional-volitional sphere, they may have poor control over the game process. One should understand that for a child, a game is a way of learning about the world, while a computer or a video game is only a reality simulation. The dangers also concern teenagers and vulnerable individuals. The presence of high risks of depression can push them to the path of self-isolation in the virtual world. Currently, researching the impact of computer and video games on humans is in its infancy. However, the scientific world is gradually beginning to master this industry as a corrective, stimulating, and educational element.

5 Conclusion The article examines the differences between the groups of Kazakhstani students who play computer and video games and those who do not play them. The authors find no statistical differences in psychological personality traits between the two groups. Among the 128 study participants, 38% believe that computer and video games have mainly positive consequences, 37% believe that computer and video games have mainly adverse consequences, and 25% are undecided. Among the 64 people in the experimental group (playing computer and video games), the most popular game genres are Role-playing games, Shooter, and Action-adventure.

References 1. Deleuze J, Maurage P, Schimmenti A et al (2018) Escaping reality through videogames is linked to an implicit preference for virtual over real-life stimuli. J Affect Disord 245:1024–1031 2. Granic I, Lobel A (2014) The benefits of playing video games. Am Psychol 69(1). Available via DIALOG. https://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/releases/amp-a0034857.pdf 3. ICD-11 for mortality and morbidity statistics (2020) 6C51 Gaming disorder. https://icd.who. int/browse11/l-m/en/ http://id.who.int/icd/entity/1448597234 4. Interactive Software Federation of Europe (2019) Key facts. Available via DIALOG. https:// www.isfe.eu/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/ISFE-Key-Facts-Brochure-FINAL.pdf 5. Kühn S, Kugler D, Schmalen K et al (2019) Does playing violent video games cause aggression? a longitudinal intervention study. Mol Psychiatry 24:1220–1234 6. Newzoo (2019) Global games market report. Available via DIALOG. https://resources.new zoo.com/hubfs/2019_Free_Global_Game_Market_Report.pdf 7. Newzoo (2020) Global games market report. Available via DIALOG. https://resources.new zoo.com/hubfs/Reports/2020_Free_Global_Games_Market_Report.pdf 8. Pavan A, Hobaek M, Blurton SP et al (2019) Visual short-term memory for coherent motion in video game players: evidence from a memory-masking paradigm. Sci Rep 9(1):6027

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9. Raygorodskiy DYa (2011) Practical psychodiagnostics. Methodologies and tests. BAKHRAMM, Samara 10. Steam (2020) Steam & game stats. https://store.steampowered.com/stats/ 11. Tarabrina NV, Agarkov VA et al (2007) A practical guide to the psychology of post-traumatic stress. Part 1. Theory and methods. Kogito-Tsentr, Moscow 12. Twitchtracker (2020) Twitch statistics & charts. https://twitchtracker.com/statistics 13. West GL, Konishi K, Diarra M et al (2018) Impact of video games on plasticity of the hippocampus. Mol Psychiatry 23:1566–1574

Digital Innovations in Developing Self-Regulation of Children with Severe Speech Pathologies Svetlana A. Belousova , Elena A. Shumilova, and Nadezhda I. Roslyakova

Abstract A research group consisting of electronics engineers, programmers, psychologists, and special educators has developed several prototypes of hardware and software complexes (HSC) for the development of human mental processes. “Robo-Ball” HSC based on Puzzlebox Orbit allows one to create training courses for self-regulation of schoolchildren’s cognitive activity. At the time of its creation, professionals reviewed existing robots controlled by smartphones. With their help, one could form training programs for managing reactions to external stimulating influences. A technical solution was chosen that corresponded to the goals of correction and development work. A set of training scenarios and a corresponding methodological base for using a technical device in current activities were developed. The practice of using a digital simulator in the psychological correction of cognitive processes and self-regulation on the example of schoolchildren with severe speech pathologies convinces one of the possibility to achieve the desired results with high user motivation. Keywords Psychological correction of self-regulation · Digital simulator · Hardware and software complex

S. A. Belousova (B) Chelyabinsk State University, Chelyabinsk, Russia e-mail: [email protected] E. A. Shumilova · N. I. Roslyakova Kuban State University, Krasnodar, Russia e-mail: [email protected] N. I. Roslyakova e-mail: [email protected] E. A. Shumilova Chechen State University, Grozny, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova (ed.), Complex Social Systems in Dynamic Environments, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 365, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23856-7_91

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1 Introduction 1.1 A Subsection Sample Practitioners are faced with significant issues of psycho-correction activity associated with insufficient development of theoretical and methodological aspects of psychological correction. Therefore, most of the correction programs poorly consider the simultaneous existence of different levels of mental determination (culture, social interaction, personality, cognition, brain, organs and tissues, cells, molecules, and atoms). In science, the primary directions and influence mechanisms are not sufficiently disclosed for various options for the mental development of children. Experts note the lack of methods, techniques, and tools that are in demand to achieve the goals set for a particular client. The objectification of programs, reflection, and “institutionalization” of the individualization methods of the proposed methodologies are required. Digital technologies can significantly affect the development of psycho-correction activities. From the authors’ perspective, digital methods are already strengthening the diagnostic stage of work on a practical level. Therefore, together with the “Style of Self-Regulation of Behavior” (SSRB) methodology (1988, Psychological Institute of the Russian Academy of Education, Laboratory of Psychology of Self-Regulation (head−V. I. Morosanova), Raven’s Matrices, Cattell’s personality questionnaire 16PF, the authors employ the program-indicator BFB complex of BioSvyaz CJSC, which simultaneously registers and processes several signals of the electrical activity of the brain (EEG), the electrical activity of muscles (EMG), respiratory rate (RR), and heart rate (HR). The information obtained due to complex diagnostics faithfully characterizes a unique ensemble of a child’s personality traits. For example, A., a nine-year-old client, possesses an average level of intelligence according to Raven, the level of verbal intelligence (according to Cattell) below average, a low level of results according to factor A (sociability), factor C (self-confidence) and factor G (responsibility) (16PF Ketell), with a level above the average for factor D (excitability) (16PF Ketell). It is a relatively laborious correction of deficiencies in interpersonal interaction, including the activation of social functions of the children group. However, even the correction of the deficiencies in the self-regulation functions of the children group may not lead to the correction of deficiencies in the child’s self-regulation if one does not consider the fact that the same student has a weak level of physical health. For example, it is evident by a low level of diaphragmatic arrhythmia of the heart. It also reveals neurophysiological correlates of behavioral disorders (alpha-rhythm of the brain in a depressive state; lowvoltage alpha waves predominate; at rest, theta waves are primarily recorded, etc.). Therefore, digital technologies at the correction stage should fully implement the systemic-structural model of the correction process. They should determine the leading symptom complex underlying the defect (by levels of determination) and include biofeedback technologies in the correction, if necessary (biofeedback training courses).

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However, many years of experience convince the authors that biofeedback training, in combination with psychological practice to increase the child’s autonomy, providing, in general, tangible results, nevertheless, require (1) specialized programs of influence on individual clients (due to, for example, difficulties in maintaining motivation in a typical biofeedback training), as well as (2) methods and programs of supportive work in the post-training period [3]. Therefore, different digital technologies should be selected, refined, and introduced into practice [1, 2].

2 Materials and Methods Based on a patent search, the authors set the task to select/create prototypes of software and hardware complexes that allow targeted action on the brain structures involved in the self-regulation functions implementation of mental activity of junior schoolchildren with severe speech pathologies.

3 Results Currently, there are many different robots, toy robots with different designs, different principles of action. Nevertheless, they are not “tied” to the correction process. Figure 1–3 depict the common ones. It is especially necessary to highlight the group of robots from the Sphero company. Smartphones control a significant group of robots. The authors are interested in the Sphero robot, a device that includes MEMS position sensors–gyroscopes (MEMS–micro-electro-mechanical systems), MEMS acceleration sensors, displacement sensors, proximity to an object, etc. In addition, the robot has an executing mechanism, for example, a motor and a propulsion device Fig. 1 Robot “Ozobot Bit.” Source [4]

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Fig. 2 Robot “Sphero BB-8 Star Wars Droid.” Source [6]

Fig. 3 Robo-ball Sphero SPRK + . Source [5]

with which it can move in space. One can programmatically set the route and speed of the robot. The robot automatically detects the obstacles on the way and allows one to change the route in order to avoid obstacles. The robot has a computer with a radio communication channel. The robot carries out two-way communication with a smartphone through the mentioned channel. Additionally, it receives control commands via the communication channel. Via the same channel, it transmits information on readiness, movement, movement direction, the appearance of obstacles, etc. The Sphero robo-ball “Sphero mini” has a peculiar feature depicted in Fig. 4. By utilizing the front camera, the smartphone forms the control action. The camera recognizes the head position and facial expressions. In accordance with this, a control signal is generated. For example, tilting the head to the right signals the robot to move to the right, tilting the head to the left signals to move to the left. In addition, the travel speed is pre-programmed. Using this opportunity, one can control the ball by a robot and direct its movement along a particular trajectory (Fig. 5, 6). Such technical resources allow psychologists to use the robo-ball to develop many self-regulation functions of cognitive activity:

Digital Innovations in Developing Self-Regulation of Children … Fig. 4 Robo-ball “Sphero mini.” Source [5]

Fig. 5 Robot control. Source Compiled by the authors

Fig. 6 Front camera. Source Compiled by the authors

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1. Ability to mentally interact with an image. This aspect implies mentally carrying out various transformations with the object. It includes rotation, rearrangement of objects, separation, and connection of elements into a whole, etc. Simultaneously, the image of the object must not disappear or become distorted. 2. The ability to navigate in space using a simple scheme and being able to create it independently. 3. Ability to read and create simple diagrams of various objects. 4. Ability to mentally plan their actions. By virtue of the mentioned skill, the student can imagine what they will receive due to their efforts. It implies creating an image of the future result, which does not exist yet. Additionally, this skill opens up new opportunities for planning different paths to achieve a goal, imagining options for action rather than implementing them to make the right decision quickly. In general, the simulator develops visual-figurative thinking through the organization of exciting games that will captivate the child. Thus, the game helps turn the process of development/correction of higher mental functions from a dry and tedious activity into a fun and exciting adventure. Examples of games for schoolchildren of nine years old, deployed using the simulator. Treasure Island Map. Additional equipment requires a map (a schematic representation of the site or room where the “treasures” will be hidden), the “treasures” themselves (the contents of the “treasures” can be very different–toys, pictures). The course of the game (the game is best played by a teacher-psychologist together with a student or a pair of students). The adult gives the child a map and explains that one can discover treasures if one orients themselves correctly. Next, the child searches for treasures, passing the robo-ball, guided by the map. When they succeed, they discover a hidden treasure bag. One can add a competition element to the game. For example, it can imply dividing the children into two teams and give each team a map (the maps must be the same). One can also invite the children to look for treasures not by the map but by notes with riddles (the answer is a hint of the name of the place where the next note lies) or encrypted words. If it is a team game, the host needs to make sure that it proceeds without offense. It is essential to let the winners share their “treasures” with the defeated because it is crucial to instill kindness and generosity. The primary aspect even in interaction with peculiar technology is human interaction. Football. Necessary additional equipment: a sheet of section paper, two pencils (pens, markers). The course of the game. Despite the name, the game is neither team-based nor mobile. At its core, this game is closer to chess and checkers, only more straightforward. Two players can play it, and each plays for themselves. Before one starts playing, one needs to draw a playing field on the paper. The entire sheet of paper represents a “football field.” At a distance of one cell from each

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edge of the sheet, clear lines should be drawn–these are the “sides.” On two less wide opposite sides of the field, one needs to draw “gates” eight to ten cells wide. Then the center of the field is calculated, and a point is put at the intersection of the cells–the “ball” (the robo-ball plays its role). The draw determines which of the players will move first. The game starts after that. The goal of each player is to drive the ball into the opponent’s goal. In this case, particular rules must be followed. 1. One needs to walk strictly along the cells, outlining either one side of the cell or crossing it diagonally. Each player’s turn consists of three such lines. Therefore, the player can move either in a straight line (draw a segment equal to the length of three cells), diagonally (draw a diagonal line passing through three cells), or in a broken line (for example, two straight lines, one diagonal; two diagonal lines and one straight line, or straight + diagonal + straight). 2. Having made a move, the player passes the sheet to the opponent. 3. Outlining the next move, one must not cross the existing lines. 4. While making a move, the “ball” must not touch the boards, and none of the three-course lines must also pass along the lines that bound the field. If the player “crashed” into the board, then the game starts from the very beginning–from the center of the playing field. 5. A player is considered a winner in two cases: if he manages to drive the ball into the opponent’s goal and if he makes a move in such a way that his opponent can no longer go anywhere without violating the game rules. Note. The time spent playing the game directly depends on the ability of the opponents to operate the robo-ball. If the players are experienced, then the game can take up a significant amount of time. In general, the game is excellent for developing ingenuity. Cat and mouse. Additional equipment includes a playing field (a square with a side of 120 cm, lined with 12 cells) and four chips. The course of the game. To begin with, the facilitator explains the game rules to the children. They are reasonably straightforward. The robo-ball plays the role of a cat, and the chips play the role of mice. The playing field is their clearing. The opponents must try to put each other out of the clearing. Whoever remains will win. Two people take part in the game. One takes the role of moving the chips and plays for the mice, and the other takes the robo-ball and plays for the cat. Thus, a cat and mice appear together in the clearing. Both can move around the playing field the same way: one square forward, backward, left, or right (neither one nor the other can move diagonally). However, if the “mouse” ends up on a square adjacent to the cat diagonally from it, then the next move the cat has the right to “eat” it, that is, remove the light chip from the clearing and take its place on the playing field. The same applies to sheep. If the cat ends up on a cage adjacent to it (diagonally), then the mouse has the right to “confuse” the cat–put it out of the clearing.

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Both players make moves in turn, except for the case when one of the chips is “eaten.” In this case, the player who managed to remove the opponent’s chip from the field has the right for an additional move.

4 Discussion The developed scenarios for using the “Sphero mini” robot are conveniently integrated into the correction work with younger students. It is convenient for professionals to simultaneously work out the four most global resource classes: physiological, psychological, social, and material (a robot, a remote control, and a smartphone become the tools that serve to “lengthen” the functional organs of an individual and expand their capabilities). The tasks of actualizing the student’s motivation necessary for correction efforts are easily solved. The informatization of “peripheral” processes of professional activity, scaling of correction, and developmental exercises of the desired orientation are of great importance. However, some issues remain with the “institutionalization” of the individualization methods of the proposed simulator and the corresponding scenarios.

5 Conclusion To solve the issues special teachers and psychologists face (the development of simulators for the self-regulation of cognitive activity development), the professionals review existing robots controlled by smartphones. With their help, it is possible to formulate training scenarios for controlling reactions to external stimulating influences. A technical solution has been selected that meets the goals of correction and developmental work. A set of training scenarios and a corresponding methodological base for using a technical device in current activities have been developed. Training with the use of the robo ball, according to the carried out diagnostics, provides expanding the child’s abilities to use their internal resources, a credible decrease in the general impulsivity of behavior, increasing self-esteem, perseverance, and endurance, improving contact with other children, training attention, developing memory, figurative and logical thinking. + Students’ parents especially note the formation of children’s interest in the active and effective solution of the task.

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References 1. Belousova SA, Voinilenko NV (2018) Mechanisms for the development of network interaction in solving the problems of technological deficiencies in the education of children with disabilities. Mod High Educ: Innov Asp 11(4):70–77 2. Belousova SA, Voinilenko NV, Svetlakova LV (2019) Regulatory processes in children with severe speech impairments: research approaches. Educ Healthc 3(4):39–44 3. Lyutin DV (2003) Training of self-control and self-regulation using the method of biofeedback (BFB) for children and adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: methodical recommendations. Biofeedback Institute, Saint Petersburg 4. Ozobot–a miniature programmable robot for playing and learning that walks along drawn lines (n d) https://habr.com/ru/company/medgadgets/blog/371307/ 5. Programmable Robot Ball: Sphero. (n d) https://sphero.com/products/sphero-sprk-plus 6. Review of Sphero BB-8, a robot from Star Wars (n d) https://habr.com/ru/company/mailru/blog/ 384239/s

Research of Joint Attention Deficit in the Preschool Age: Insights for Pedagogical Interventions Yana K. Smirnova

Abstract The research dwells on a comprehensive study of the relationship between joint attention deficit and the subsequent child development, identifying possible mechanisms of pathological development in particular forms, characterized by deviations in the conjugation of social attention with social cognition. The sample consist of different age groups of children: (1) preschool children with typical development, (2) preschool children with mental retardation (F83 class according to ICD-10), (3) the same age category of children with speech retardation (R47 class according to ICD-10), (4) children with hearing impairment (sensorineural hearing loss, H90 class according to ICD-10), (5) children with visual impairment (amblyopia and strabismus, H53 class according to ICD-10). Therefore, the analysis of the contrast groups allowed us to isolate the general and characteristic symptoms of joint attention deviations in various forms of atypical development. One can identify joint attention deficit markers, hindering the productive interaction of a child with an adult, using the eye tracking method: (1) the duration and target or non-target signals of fixation frequency; (2) fixation distribution; (3) the interest area priority. Also, it is possible to distinguish identical deviation markers of the joint attention episode: (1) complications, connected with applying the partner’s gaze as a meaningful, informative incentive; (2) focusing on separate stimulus fragments and the period of attention when focusing on them, (3) private semantic attention tendency; (4) incorrect determination of the adult’s gaze vector; (5) problems in the interlocutor’s eye tracking; (6) improper correction of the direction of the eye movement when changing the gaze vector; (7) difficulties in determining the cross, simultaneous gaze; (8) high dispersion level of fixations and interest areas; (9) various number of fixations in finding the target stimulus; (10) prediction of the object’s target using the “trial and error” method; (11) compulsion to take action to predict the correct answer. For research, the time indicator of fixation in cases of joint attention can be considered as a predictive marker of the violation of the joint attention mechanism. Thus, joint attention will be associated not only with the spatial characteristics of the interest Y. K. Smirnova (B) Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova (ed.), Complex Social Systems in Dynamic Environments, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 365, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23856-7_92

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areas but also with the duration of the object fixation (decrease or increase in the speed of fixation). Keywords Joint attention · Divided attention · Social attention · Visual social attention · Eye movement · Age development · Preschool age · Atypical development · Eye tracking

1 Introduction Joint attention is the ability to synchronize the visual attention of the object with an interlocutor in the direction of a common subject or event [13]. Thus, this process involves tracing the vector of the interlocutor’s gaze. Furthermore, joint attention is the “direction” equivalent of the appropriate and inappropriate context information to determine and verify the validity of a person’s assumption about other people’s behavior and state [1]. The monitoring of the dynamic multi-modal flow of events in the communication is a complex process. Therefore, it requires a fast and flexible selection of taskrelevant motivation for processing. Additionally, monitoring involves a simultaneous and distributed system of processing socio-information about one’s focus of attention in synchronous comparison with the visual focus of the interlocutor [7, 9, 13, 16, 27]. Moreover, it is necessary to use this skill set to determine other people’s mental health and aims [24]. Primarily, current research studies the problem of joint attention deficit [4]. One can determine the joint attention deficit [2, 13, 19, 21] by the following factors: (1) atypical focus on social signals [5], (2) decreased tactility and correctness of the response (reduced responsiveness) to attract general attention [14], (3) reduced direct attention and focus on socio-signs [6], and (4) difficulties in tracking synchronous gaze. The research focuses on the study of the joint attention deficit of children with autism spectrum disorder [ASD] (including their siblings) [2, 15, 28]. Some studies showed that people with ASD are susceptible to observe dissimilar socially significant objects [5, 8, 25]. Such people have deficiencies in gaze concentration when focusing on the other’s people communication signals [3, 5, 8]. Children with autism fail to predict social events based on the direction of their gaze [18, 19, 25]. Recognition deficits are associated with unbalanced attention in perceiving vital facial features of another person: people with autism are susceptible to look at the lips than at the eye area [3, 12]. Gazing in autism is often described as “atypical” marked by reduced attention to socially relevant signals due to the limited depth of processing or interaction with these stimuli [25]. One can notice an atypical visual scanning based on the “look but not see” principle [3]. Joint attention deficit can lead to a secondary deficit, reflecting the limited knowledge about social interlocutors. Despite the considerable research on general attention issues, there is a lack of integrated data regarding the role of gaze detection in child development within

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different clinical groups [1]. Therefore, the fundamental mission of our comparison was to (1) characterize the peculiarity of the deficit and (2) determine the norm of functioning of the joint attention mechanism. From the perspective of the research, using children eye tracking as a method of diagnostic tool approach when studying joint attention is quite popular nowadays [1, 4, 10, 11, 22, 23, 26]. Moreover, the research provides great prospects on identifying atypical social attention [5, 8, 19]. However, in real life, social-behavioral signals (including gaze direction) are manifested through dynamic stimuli, integrated into perceived and complex semantic contexts. Therefore, it is necessary to engage the natural aspects of adult–child interaction, where one can trace the response towards the natural flow of events a child can face in real life. Therefore, we aim to outline the natural variability of eye movement patterns in cases of joint attention. Furthermore, spatial coordination in particular interest areas between two subject gazes was used as a criterion in previous joint attention studies [17]. Therefore, to establish joint attention cases, both the spatial (areas of interest) and time fixation characteristics are significant [29]. However, compared to the other methods, eye tracking optimizes measuring less accessible markers of joint attention changes, including a detailed analysis of the direction of gaze concentration and time characteristics of the communicative aim required for joint attention. The received data provide (1) time structure analysis of joint attention episodes, (2) variability of selected areas of interest visits, (3) indication of cross gaze [17] or conjugate gaze [20] in cases of preschool children with joint attention and various forms of atypical development. The research aims to (1) identify the destructions involved into the joint attention processes, preventing the effective contact establishment between an adult and a child, which is essential for comprehensive learning and development; (2) systematize the normative and pathological social symptoms of joint attention; and (3) detect possible mechanisms of atypical joint attention.

2 Materials and Methods The research object is represented by preschool children aged 5–7 (average age was six years and two months), developing typically (n = 20); and the same age group of children with atypical development within different nosological groups: 20 children with mental retardation (F83 according to ICD-10); 20 children with speech retardation (R47 according to ICD-10); 10 children with hearing impairment (H90 according to ICD-10); and 20 children with visual impairment (amblyopia and strabismus, H53 by ICD-10).

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Fig. 1 Research procedure. Source Compiled by the authors

2.1 Research Procedure During the experiment, two objects (toys) were placed on the table in front of the test child, who was offered a game. First, they should observe the vector of the adult experimenter’s gaze and guess which thing he would choose (the choice of the toy as the aim object was carried out randomly). Then, there were five repetitions of the task, where the experimenter changed the gaze vector, each time pointing to different objects. The number of correct answers of the child from 0 to 5 was recorded. The tasks of the joint attention reaction were divided into three different phases: (1) “looking down,” (2) “interactive” phase, (3) “joint attention” (see Fig. 1). The main method was eye tracking using the portable tracker Pupil HeadsetPLabs, the eye tracker in the form factor of glasses, binocular version. Eye fixation movements were recorded at a frequency of 200 Hz in monocular and binocular modes, in a resolution of up to 1080p. The accuracy of determining the coordinates was 0.60°; determining the gaze was 0.08°. Pupil tracking technology–“Dark pupil with 3D model”. Pupil parameters were 2D positions and 3D models of the eyes; 9-point and 5-point calibration on the monitor. The sampling rate was 200 Hz. Highspeed price camera 60 Hz @ 720p / 30 Hz @ 1080p / 120 Hz @ VGA. Camera delay was 4.5 ms. Processing delay depending on the CPU > 3 ms. The data was initially calibrated before the game session using 1-point calibration. The following areas of interest were selected for the analysis: adult experimenter’s face, target object (toy), and non-target object.

3 Results The study verified the differences between the contrast groups in the number of fixations in the selected areas. The dispersion analysis revealed differences in contrast groups of children with atypical development and children developing typically. For example, children with

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Table 1 Differences in contrast group fixation within the selected zones Group of children

Σ total number of fixations (F = 6.081, p = 0.0001)

Number of face fixations (F = 2.767, p = 0.032)

Number of “gaze positions” (F = 12.157, p = 0.0001)

Number of fixation duration 300–500 ms (F = 3.884, p = 0.006)

Children with typical development

58.3 ± 2.3

16.7 ± 2.3

14,266.8 ± 663.9

17.2 ± 2.1

Children with mental retardation

75.52 ± 4.1

14.43 ± 2.4

19,388.7 ± 1115.7

28.8 ± 2.4

Children with hearing impairment

71.1 ± 3.97

19.2 ± 2.2

18,635.1 ± 1000.9

25.6 ± 2.6

Children with speech impairment

59.2 ± 4.4

11.1 ± 2.7

15,369.8 ± 1240.2

21.5 ± 2.8

Children with visual impairment

54.4 ± 3.2

23.0 ± 3.3

11,260.9 ± 840.5

19.6 ± 1.6

Source Compiled by the authors

mental retardation, hearing impairment, and speech impairment have increased joint attention fixation. However, the group of children with a visual impairment has a lower number of fixations in comparison to the typically developing children (see Table 1). The child may have difficulties in predicting the next position of the adult’s gaze. To synchronize, the child often needs to follow the adult’s actions, so they need more fixations. The peculiarities of the contrast groups are manifested when children with mental retardation and speech impairment have a reduced number of fixations on the faces of adults. On the other hand, groups of preschoolers with visual impairment and hearing loss have an increasing alternative tendency of face fixation. Moreover, there is an increasing number of fixations in groups with atypical development compared to preschool children developed typically. The duration of such fixation is 300–500 ms (see Table 1). This fact indicates the time duration required for the visual attention stability of children with atypical development. Subsequently, the total duration of fixation between the specific areas of interest was compared. Finally, the total duration of fixation was calculated as a percentage of the total time, analyzing the duration of fixation for this area of interest in relation to the total duration of fixation (see Table 2). According to the statistics, children with atypical development are rarely fixed on an adult’s face, compared to the children developing typically. Therefore, the priority

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Table 2 Duration of fixation for selected interest areas Group of children

Percentage of face fixation (F = 4.422, p = 0.003)

Percentage of fixation duration with target incentives (F = 3.937, p = 0.005)

Percentage of duration fixation with non-target incentives (F = 3.966, p = 0.005)

Children with typical development

30.08

38.1

61.8

Children with mental retardation

20.2

29.9

70

Children with hearing impairment

29.2

40.5

59.4

Children with speech impairment

17.3

23.98

76

Children with visual impairment

40.2

47.9

51.9

Source Compiled by the authors

of interest areas for fixations in contrast groups changes in relation to joint attention episodes. The dispersion analysis revealed the characteristic features of the fixation time in groups of preschool children with atypical development (see Table 3). In the presented group of children, one can observe a long-term fixation on target incentives and socio-signals (on the face of an adult). The results showed that preschoolers with atypical forms of development can face difficulties at several levels: (1) inclination to the most prominent/relevant area of the sensory field (i.g., an adult), (2) detecting the process of social signals from an adult while suppressing attention to irrelevant objects in the visual field, and (3) distributing of attention (e.g., between the eyes and the mouth of an adult to maximize information extract). Suspectedly, one can form a hypothesis to explain the specifics of joint attention in these groups. However, it may be challenging to integrate social signals and identify relevant features for forming a target representation of social signals and the child’s understanding of the adult’s gaze general direction and its localization on a particular object. Nonetheless, children with sensory impairments (hearing and visual impairments), despite reducing object fixation accuracy within the social interaction, frequently perceive and fix social signals (an informative target feature). During correctional work with children, one can use additional methods of establishing and maintaining contact. Unique means can be used to attract children’s attention to speech and the face of speaking adults and children. Children with sensory impairments are purposefully trained to respond to speech and non-speech signals. The deficit of joint attention is determined as a secondary deviation, caused by (1) poor sensory experience, (2) visual and auditory deprivation, (3) reduced speed and

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Table 3 Duration of fixations for specific areas of interest Group of preschool children

Children with typical development

Preschool children with mental retardation

Preschool children with hearing impairment

Preschool children with speech impairment

Preschoolers with visual impairment

Duration of fixation on target incentives (F = 2.567, p = 0.043)

15.2 ± 1.9

13.5 ± 2.2

20.3 ± 2.5

10.5 ± 2.6

19.2 ± 2.7

Duration of fixation on non-target incentives (F = 5.732, p = 0.0001)

26.3 ± 2.79

34.4 ± 3.5

27.5 ± 2.5

28.7 ± 2.3

17.0 ± 1.8

Total duration 41.5 ± 2.2 of fixation (F = 2.728, p = 0.034)

47.9 ± 2.9

47.8 ± 3.6

39.2 ± 3.8

36.36 ± 3.14

13.4 ± 1.9

10.4 ± 1.9

16.1 ± 1.9

Duration of fixation on face (F = 2.478, p = 0.049) Duration of the first fixation on non-target incentives (F = 2.390, p = 0.05)

0.4 ± 0.04

0.6 ± 0.06

0.56 ± 0.06

8.67 ± 2.4

0.56 ± 0.07

17.0 ± 2.7

0.62 ± 0.06

Source Compiled by the authors

volume of perception, (4) insufficient reserve of sensory standards, and (5) difficulties in a complete, accurate, detailed image of perception formation. Consequently, children with sensory impairments need more time to identify informative signs.

4 Discussion We identified that the violation of the joint attention mechanism reflects difficulties in assessing the meaning of particular gaze features (i.e., what they tell one about the perspectives and intentions of others) [1, 19].

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A novel research aspect lies is the role of time fixation in establishing joint attention episodes. Preschool children with atypical development have the following peculiarities: ● Target incentives abstraction and non-target incentives domination; ● Long-term fixation duration that may indicate a slower determination of information signals when selecting the target object and an intense cognitive load when detecting social signals; ● Holistic strategy (e.g., fixation on 1 element, nose) or analytical strategy (distributed fixation on the eyes, mouth, face). However, children with atypical development have a dispersion of fixation due to the difficulties with holistic perception of social signals; ● Increased number of fixations distinguishing difficulties in the complex process of social incentives; ● Preschool children with atypical development have a low level of visibility (“recognition” identification) of social signals (number of children noticing the social signal, the time and number before the first fixation), interest towards social signals (number of fixations, total duration of fixations); ● Fixation duration reflecting reduced visual attention. In children with atypical development, there are differences in (1) the duration when their eyes are focused on the object, (2) the amount of time they spend in a particular area of interest, and (3) the number of fixations. Moreover, the specifics of visual attention are indicated by differences in the fixation’s duration, lasting 300–500 ms, distinguishing the time to maintain stable attention when interacting with an adult; ● First fixation duration indicates the time spent by preschool children to look at the specific interest area from the introduction of incentive. This step can provide information about specific aspects of the visual object as a prior informational feature; ● Time that preschool children spend in particular interest areas varies. One can observe a decrease in time when gazing at the target areas of interest and a decrease in the priority of social signal processing, as well as the difficulties in processing social information downward; Joint attention deficit in various forms of atypical development can be revealed by an atypical following the gaze, violation of the mechanism of joint attention, a decrease in recognition of the gaze direction, changes in time indicators in cases of joint attention. As a result, difficulties in “intention monitoring” are based on the gaze vector. We can conclude that the disruption of joint attention reflects difficulties in assessing particular gaze features (e.g., they can tell one about the perspectives and intentions of others). Children with sensory impairment have a less pronounced joint attention deficit when following the direction of the adult’s gaze. Children with mental and speech impairments have problems when integrating the gaze or a reduced understanding of the referential significance and behavioral relevance of the adult’s gaze. The group of children with sensory impairments can hardly identify this direction compared to

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the group of children with speech impairment and mental retardation. The last group can interpret target social signals with significant difficulties.

5 Conclusion As a result of the research, we analyzed the case of joint attention episodes regarding adults and children. As a result, specific features of the oculomotor activity of children with atypical development were distinguished. Furthermore, we systematized markers, showing changes in the following indicators: ● ● ● ●

Fixation duration with target and non-target incentives; Frequency of fixation on target and non-target incentives; Fixation allocation; Priority of interest areas.

We can define change markers in the visual contact reaction and destruction processes, involved into joint attention. Metrics are based on scanning the following features: ● ● ● ●

Number of shifts and fixations; Fixation duration on the relevant and irrelevant object; Scanning duration; Spatial density of fixations in the fixed area (decreasing or increasing).

In addition, we identified the following specifics of the atypical development groups: ● Time to attain and review a specific interest area; ● Correlation between the gaze duration in the selected area and the total gaze duration; ● Preference of neutral target incentives to social ones in terms of the duration of fixations on them. Finally, we determined potential mechanisms based on the general atypical attention: ● ● ● ●

Atypical gaze direction; Shifting of operative gaze field (interest and search areas selection). Duration of visual concentration; Elements of object fixation accuracy.

Acknowledgements The research results were obtained with financial support of the presidential grant MK-307.2020.6 “Eye tracking research of social attention coordination disorders in preschool age.”

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References 1. Baron-Cohen S (2002) The extreme male brain theory of autism. Trends Cogn Sci 6(6):248–254 2. Bruinsma Y, Koegel RL, Koegel LK (2004) Joint attention and children with autism: a review of the literature. Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev 10(3):169–175 3. Charwarska K, Klin A, Volkmar F (2003) Automatic attention cues through eye movement in 2-year-old-children with autism. Child Dev 74(4):1108–1122 4. Elsabbagha M, Johnson MH (2016) Autism and the social brain: the first-year puzzle. Biol Psychiat 80(2):94–99 5. Falck-Ytter T, von Hofsten C (2011) How unique is social looking in ASD: a review. Prog Brain Res 189:209–222 6. Gillespie-Lynch K, Elias R, Escudero P et al (2013) Atypical gaze following in autism: a comparison of three potential mechanisms. J Autism Dev Disord 43:2779–2792 7. Grossmann T, Johnson M (2007) The development of the social brain in human infancy. Eur J Neurosci 25(4):909–919 8. Guillon Q, Hadjikhani N, Baduel S et al (2014) Visual social attention in autism spectrum disorder: Insights from eye-tracking studies. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 42:279–297 9. Henderson JM, Williams CC, Falk RJ (2005) Eye movements are functional during face learning. Mem Cognit 33(1):98–106 10. Hood BM, Macrae CN, Cole-Davies V et al (2003) Eye remember you: the effects of gaze direction on face recognition in children and adults. Dev Sci 6(1):67–71 11. Johnson L, Sullivan B, Hayhoe M et al (2014) Predicting human visuomotor behavior in a driving task. Philosophical transactions of the royal society. Biol Sci 369(1636):20130044 12. Klin A, Jones W, Schultz R et al (2002) Visual fixation patterns during viewing of naturalistic social situations as predictors of social competence in individuals with autism. Arch Gen Psychiatry 59(9):809–816 13. Mundy P (2018) A review of joint attention and social-cognitive brain systems in typical development and autism spectrum disorder. Eur J Neurosci 47(6):497–514 14. Navab A, Gillespie-Lynch K, Johnson SP et al (2012) Eye-tracking as a measure of responsiveness to joint attention in infants at risk for autism. Infancy 17(4):416–431 15. Presmanes AG, Walden TA, Stone WL et al (2007) Effects of different attentional cues on responding to joint attention in younger siblings of children with autism spectrum disorders. J Autism Dev Disord 37(1):133–144 16. Redcay E, Dodell-Feder D, Pearrow MJ et al (2010) Live face-to-face interaction during fMRI: a new tool for social cognitive neuroscience. Neuroimage 50(4):1639–1647 17. Richardson DC, Dale R, Kirkham NZ (2007) The art of conversation is coordination. Psychol Sci 18(5):407–413 18. Ruffman T, Garnham W, Rideout P (2001) Social understanding in autism: eye gaze as a measure of core insights. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 42(8):1083–1094 19. Senju A, Csibra G (2008) Gaze following in human infants depends on communicative signals. Curr Biol 18(9):668–671 20. Sharma K, Caballero D, Verma H et al (2015) Looking AT versus Looking THROUGH: A dual eye-tracking study in MOOC context. International Society of the Learning Sciences, Bloomington 21. Swanson MR, Serlin GC, Siller M (2013) Broad autism phenotype in typically developing children predicts performance on an eye-tracking measure of joint attention. J Autism Dev Disord 43(3):707–718 22. Tanaka JW, Sung A (2016) The eye avoidance hypothesis of autism face processing. J Autism Dev Disord 46:1538–1552 23. Tiadi A, Seassau M, Gerard C-L et al (2016) Differences between dyslexic and non-dyslexic children in the performance of phonological visual-auditory recognition tasks: an eye-tracking study. PLoS ONE 11(7):e0159190 24. Tomasello M (2016) A natural history of human morality. Harvard University Press, Cambridge

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25. Von Hofsten C (2009) Action, the foundation for cognitive development. Scand J Psychol 50(6):617–623 26. Weigelt S, Koldewyn K, Kanwisher N (2012) Face identity recognition in autism spectrum disorders: a review of behavioral studies. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 36(3):1060–1084 27. Williams J (2008) Self-other relations in social development and autism: multiple roles for mirror neurons and other brain bases. Autism Res 1(2):73–90 28. Yoder P, Symons FJ (2010) Observational measurement of behavior. Springer, New-York 29. Yu C, Smith LB (2017) Hand-eye coordination predicts joint attention. Child Dev 88(6):2060– 2078

Specifics of the Emotional-Personal Sphere Among Preschool Children Svetlana V. Velieva , Oleg I. Grigoriev, and Olga S. Pinyaeva

Abstract The paper addresses an urgent problem related to identifying the features of the emotional-personal sphere and mental states of preschool children aged 6– 7, who are raised by parents with signs of problem alcohol behavior. The provisions of the concept of non-equilibrium mental states by A. O. Prokhorov and the problem behavior theory by R. Jessor and A. S. Morris served as the theoretical and methodological foundations of our research. The research tasks were solved by using projective methods (Metamorphoses by J. Royer, a modified version by D. Van Crevelen and N. Ya. Semago; Steam Engine by S. V. Velieva and The Hand Test by E. Wagner, processed by E. Piotrovsky and B. Bricklin) and methods for calculating average values and the Student’s t-test in the statistical program SPSS. Statistical and mathematical analysis allowed us to establish the general and special characteristics of mental states and the emotional-personal sphere of children aged 6–7. Parents’ transmission of alcoholic behavior and the family atmosphere affect the specifics of the formation of the child’s emotional-personal sphere, actualizing negative nonequilibrium states of increased and decreased mental activity, hyperexcitation, and a high degree of tension. The research results revealed a significant disadvantage in the emotional-personal sphere of preschoolers raised in dysfunctional families. Keywords Mental states · Children of senior preschool age · Emotional-personal development · Dysfunctional family · Alcoholic behavior of parents

1 Introduction The nature of the emotional-expressive and personal sphere of the child is one of the key criteria for the well-being of the child’s development. The transformation of modern society and changes in socio-economic conditions (including those resulting from the pandemic and self-isolation) determine the increase in the number of children with psychoemotional disorders. The behavior and relationships of parents, S. V. Velieva (B) · O. I. Grigoriev · O. S. Pinyaeva I. Yakovlev Chuvash State Pedagogical University, Cheboksary, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova (ed.), Complex Social Systems in Dynamic Environments, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 365, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23856-7_93

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the content and focus of their relationships shape the nature of the child’s needmotivational system, their view of themselves and world around them [1]. The emotional foundation of the child, their individual emotional experience, self-esteem, and the development of motives and needs are mainly determined by the experience gained in the family environment [2]. Psychosocial deformation of the family, where one or more of its members drink alcohol, leads to divorce or to the destruction of the family and the loss of constructive interpersonal and intrapersonal relationships. The scale of the problem associated with alcohol addiction is comparable to military conflicts in (1) the annual mortality of the population (3.3 million annually); (2) the disability of the young population aged 20–39 (25% of all deaths); (3) the increase in mental, behavioral disorders, infectious diseases, and injuries due to alcohol consumption; and (4) the increase in the number of children with various types of disorders born from such parents. Studies established the factors of the negative influence of the family on the mental development of the individual. In addition to structural disorders, the psychosocial deformation of the family, including alcohol consumption by one or both parents, also has a serious impact on mental development [3]. Such families are considered disadvantaged, regardless of the educational and economic level or social status of the spouses. Children raised in such dysfunctional families are not accidentally classified as “at risk” [3]. The scholars established that an unfavorable social situation almost always leads to (1) a violation of the child’s mental development [4], (2) impoverishment of the emotional sphere [5], (3) maladaptation [6], (4) deviant forms of behavior [7], (5) increased victimization [8], and (6) addiction tendencies [9]. According to the theory of the perceived environment system [10, 11], a child learns a model of problem behavior when perceiving specific social means of control, behavior patterns, and support of others in a significant social environment (family, peer society). The scholars distinguish two types of variables: proximal (the model of alcohol consumption by peers) and distal (low level of social control and personal support, approval and example of parents in alcohol consumption). It was found that the proximal variables cause earlier onset and episodic alcohol consumption. The effects of distal factors lead to long-term, but more stable forms of problem behavior in the future. V. A. Odinokova [12] indicated the factor that also contributes to the formation of the child’s alcoholic behavior. The perception of positive experiences of reducing anxiety, stress, excessive tension in life situations (illness, loss, violence, trauma, conflict, and other emotionally intense events) with the help of alcohol, imitation and actual alcohol consumption by children at the initiative of their parents. The studies found [13] that individuals with problem alcohol behavior do not consider that they need any treatment or transformation of their personality and behavior. Meanwhile, variations in their behaviors indicate a weakening of the quality of fulfilling their obligations at work, in educational activities, and in the family.

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The personality of such parents is characterized by low religiosity, low self-esteem, and low need for development. At the same time, they highly value independence and alienation, approve of deviations, and tolerate socially disapproved forms of behavior [10]. Prolonged family conflict situations and negative mental states of parents (high tension, increased anxiety, frustration, fears, etc.) are one of the main factors of negative impact on the child’s psyche [14]. Preschoolers can assimilate the meanings of situations that they do not understand, integrate, and assign representable emotional and behavioral experiences due to synchronization with the emotional response and behavior model of their parents to a particular life situation or activity. Mental states most fully reflect the situation of ill-being, representing the background of the emergence, functioning, and development of mental processes as well as the way of formation and expression of personality traits [15]. Negative social and emotional experience that the child inevitably acquires in dysfunctional families serves as a basis for the actualization of stable negative mental states, the frequency and severity of which further provokes the formation of premorbid psychopathological traits [16], distrust of the world, a sense of inferiority and learned helplessness, auto-aggressive and aggressive tendencies. Children “at risk” are exposed to undesirable interventions of objective family reality, which can have an irreversible negative impact in the future [17]. It is necessary to study the peculiarities of children’s mental states to identify and then timely level the phenomena mentioned above. The paper aims to identify the specifics of the actualization of mental states and features of the emotional-personal sphere in children “at risk” aged 6–7.

2 Materials and Methods The study involved 136 children of preschool educational organizations in Cheboksary: 80 kids from full healthy families (hereinafter referred to as the comparison group [CG]) and 56 pupils from families where one or both parents show signs of alcoholic behavior (drink alcohol more than three or four times a week over one year) (hereinafter—the group of contrast [GC]). We have evaluated and recorded the required parameters with the written consent of the parents of the study participants. To identify the specifics of the actualization of mental states and features of the emotional-personal sphere in children aged 6–7, we applied the projective methods Steam Engine by S. V. Velieva, The Hand Test by E. Wagner, and Metamorphoses by J. Royer. The choice of projective methods is associated with the characteristics of preschool children, age-related difficulties with verbalization and self-reporting. Also, this choice is due to the research goals and the principle of complementarity of the methods that allowed us to see the integral ensemble of mental states and components of the emotional-personal sphere in a particular subject. Selected methods allowed us to determine the mental states, the degree of aggressiveness of children.

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Using The Hand Test method processed by E. Piotrovsky, B. Briklin, and adapted for preschoolers by N. Ya. Semago, we have determined the presence or deficiency of prototypical behavioral tendencies and the focus of social activity. The method of Metamorphosis by J. Royer, a modified version of D. van Crevelen and N. Y. Semago, established the scope and direction of the desires of preschool children, the nature of the choices of conditionally normative, protective, protest, aggressive, self-assertive, socially approved, and demonstrative preferences and rejections. We have identified the strength of correlations between the indicators of the methods by calculating the average values, evaluating the equality of the average values and the significance of the differences in the average values using the Student’s t-test in the standard package of the statistical program SPSS. Besides, we have considered the correlation values with a confidence level of p ≤ 0.01 and not lower than r ≤ 0.5.

3 Results and Discussion The study of the specifics of conditions is most indicative of the continuum, where one group includes children raised in families where both parents do not allow alcohol consumption (healthy families), and in contrast—children whose parents have signs of alcoholic behavior. The diagnostic results of the two groups of older preschool children are presented in Fig. 1 and in Tables 1, 2, 3 and 4. We obtained the following values using the Steam Engine method, evaluating the volitional and emotional components of mental states, and the coefficient of vegetative tone (Table 1). Children from the contrast group expressed states of excitement and tension (35.7%), fatigue (32.1%), apathy (17.8%), and optimism (10.7%). The lowest percentages are set for the state of calmness (3.6%). Such a ratio of mental states indicates a problem in the affective sphere of preschoolers who are raised in dysfunctional families. The children of the comparison group had more favorable indicators: the maximum values were obtained for the state of calmness (43.7%). In this group, we can note optimism (18.7%), excitement (16.2%), fatigue (12.5%), and

Fig. 1 The distribution of the mental states of the subjects according to the degree of mental activity (Steam Engine method). Source Compiled by the authors. Note NESIMA—non-equilibrium states of increased mental activity; NESRMA—non-equilibrium states of reduced mental activity; ES—equilibrium states

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Table 1 Data on the mental states of children aged 6–7 (Steam Engine method) Group

Mental states Optimism, activity

Excitement, tension

Apathy, exhaustion

Lethargy, fatigue

Calmness, adaptation

abs

%

abs

%

abs

%

abs

%

abs

%

CG

15

18.7

13

16.2

7

8.7

10

12.5

35

43.7

GC

6

10.7

20

35.7

10

17.8

18

32.1

2

3.6

Source Compiled by the authors

Table 2 The distribution of the mental states of the subjects according to the emotional sign (Steam Engine method) Group

Mental states Positive non-equilibrium

Negative non-equilibrium

Equilibrium

abs

abs

%

abs

%

%

CG

15

18.7

30

37.5

35

43.7

GC

6

10.7

48

85.7

2

3.6

Source Compiled by the authors

Table 3 Distribution of the respondents’ answers according to The Hand Test method

Parameters

CG

GC

Aggression (Agg)

4

19.2

Dependency (Dep)

13.5

18.9

Directivity (Dir)

16.2

18.1

Active impersonality (Act)

2.7

12.4

Fear (F)

4.9

12.1

Communication (Com)

18.9

8.7

Affectation (Aff)

20.3

4.5

Passive impersonality (Pass)

0.1

3.8

Description (Des)

18.4

2.3

Source Compiled by the authors

apathy (8.7%). These indicators demonstrate the predominance of favorable mental states, an optimistic attitude to life situations, a sense of love, care, and acceptance by others, willingness to overcome problems and achieve their goals. The distribution of mental states according to the degree of mental activity has shown the presence of all three groups of states (equilibrium, non-equilibrium states of reduced and increased activity) (Fig. 1). Analysis of data of the two groups revealed a considerable increase (12-fold) in indicators of mental ES in children in the CG over the same indicators in the GC

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Table 4 Distribution of the types of responses of the subjects by the main categories of choices (Metamorphosis method) Parameters

Choices

CG

GC

Total of choices

Defensive

Preferences

5.2

4.6

9.8

Rejections

2.3

5.6

7.9

Preferences

2.9

11.6

14.5

Rejections

3.4

12.8

16.2

Preferences

20.2

8.2

28.4

Rejections

2.9

13.1

16

Preferences

20.2

12.6

32.8

Rejections

2

10.8

12.8

Preferences

14.4

1

15.4

Rejections

9.2

2.6

11.8

Protest

4.3

12.8

17.1

17.1

Conditionally normative

13

4.1

17.1

17.1

Preferences

12.6

7.6

10.1

Rejections

4

9

Aggressive Demonstrative Self-assertive Socially approved

Responses

Average number of choices 8.85 15.3 22.2 22.8 13.6

6.5

Source Compiled by the authors

(43.7% and 3.6%, respectively). In children from the GC, there is a predominance of non-equilibrium mental states of increased (50%) and reduced activity (46.4%). In the children of the CG, the focus of activity is on the manifestations of affection, love (Aff = 20.3), cooperation, friendship, and collaboration (Com = 18.9), daydreaming and affective experience of situations (Des = 18.4), approbation of leadership qualities (Dir = 16.2), with the predominance of the need to satisfy one’s interests and dependence on adults (Dep = 13.5). Also, we recorded responses reflecting fear (F = 4.9) and aggression (Agg = 4). The children of the GC show expectation and readiness for aggressive and hostile behavioral actions (Agg = 19.2), dependence (Dep = 18.9), directivity (Dir = 18.1), active impersonality (Act = 12.4), and fear (F = 12.1). Additionally, in the GC, there are lower values than in the children of the CG (from 2.2 to 4.5), focus on cooperation, communication (Com = 8.7), manifestations of attachment, emotionally positive attitude, and empathy (Aff = 4.5), dreaminess (Des = 2.3). These data indicate a tendency to retreatrism as a phenomenon of withdrawal from social contacts, a decrease in adaptive activity difficulties or refusal to assimilate socially approved norms. The children of this group showed a clear tendency and readiness for aggressive behavior (the differences are statistically significant p = 0.000000; value t = 13.33 f = 633; at the significance level α = 0.05). Using the Metamorphosis method, we have obtained high values for self-assertion (22.8%) and demonstrativeness (22.2%) for the two groups of subjects. The child’s

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awareness of themselves in the dyad “society and me” is manifested in the selfassertion of “I myself” and the demonstration of their advantages to obtain evaluation and approval by adults and peers, which indicates social maturation, the need for selfrealization, the formation of their position, and independence. The fewest defensive responses were registered (only 8.8%; CG—7.5% and GC—10.2%). The responses of the children of the CG demonstrate a sense of security, reliable protection from external influences, while the children of the GC are more likely to give answers indicating their vulnerability and need for protection. The responses of the protest (CG—4.3%; GC—12.8%) and conditional-normative (CG—13%; GC—4.1%) nature are equally distributed (17.1%). Children of the GC prefer deliberately negative, unpleasant, and rejected objects (bottle of vodka, ravine, dirt), while most of the children of the CG use neutral (table, wardrobe, skirt) or attractive (cat, doll, designer) objects for transformation. Meanwhile, 15.3% of children give answers of aggressive and 13.6% of socially approved types. Such choices can be regarded as a manifestation of (1) self-preserving behavior, (2) training, (3) focus on achieving one’s goals, and (4) fear of not meeting the norms and requirements of others due to the use of non-constructive ways of interaction. In children of a CG, we have found the predominance of responses associated with the choice of rejection (9% of GC versus 4% of CG) (aggressive (12.8%), demonstrative (13.1%), and selfassertive (10.8%), which indicates the manifestation of defensive reactions, elements of negativism, oppositional behavior, attempts to resist directives, instructions and prohibitions of adults. The same indicators in children from the CG are four or more times lower. Their responses are more likely to be preferred (12.6% of CG versus 7.6% of GC), which may point to the need to meet the expectations of other people and comply with socially approved norms. Comparative analysis of the data has allowed us to identify general and special manifestations of mental states and emotional-personal indicators in children aged 6–7 in the GC and CG. We found the following general characteristics of the emotional-personal sphere and states in preschoolers of both groups. • Stable significant dependencies were established at p < 0.01: the higher the frequency of actualization of positive mental states, the lower the aggression, directivity, demonstrativeness, passive impersonality (r = −0.667); fear, dependence, affectation, passive activity (r = −0.557). Positive mental states show a close positive relationship with emotionality, communication, description, and active impersonality (r = 0.74). • Rent attitudes as a desire to meet one’s needs by others, which is consistent with the age characteristics of preschool children. • Desire of the children of both groups is dominated by the procedural creative nature (43.7% in the CG and 17.8% in the GC). • Predominance of self-assertion and demonstrativeness choices indicate the agerelated formation of the child’s self-consciousness, an individual experience of self-development.

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We have established the following specific manifestations of mental states and emotional-personal indicators in children aged 6–7 raised in dysfunctional families, where adults show signs of alcoholic behavior, in comparison with the indicators of children from the CG: • A smaller range of categories and frequency of experienced non-equilibrium mental states than in children from the CG. • Dominance of extreme values of trophotropic (85.7%) and ergotropic (35.3%) types of nervous system response. • Decrease in the volitional component of mental processes with the prevalence of emotional component indicates intemperance, emotional instability, hyperexcitation, and an extremely high level of tension. • Predominance of negative non-equilibrium mental states, namely, increased (excitement and tension) and reduced mental activity (lethargy, fatigue, apathy, exhaustion) over the equilibrium (calm, adaptation) and positive (optimism, joy). • High values in the GC children, higher than those in the CG children, for the following indicators: aggression (Agg), dependence (Dep), directivity (Dir), active impersonality (Act), fear (F); and lower values for communication (Com), affectation (Aff), and description (Des). Only in the GC, we found responses related to the fear of death, bodily injury, and deformity. • On the one hand, the vector of behavioral and social activity of children of the GC is aimed at expectations from others and readiness to display aggressive and hostile behavioral actions; on the other hand, it is aimed at finding support, protection, using others to meet their needs, the need for external guidance and control. • Object of desire concerns mainly the hedonistic sphere, the need to have money (85.7% in the GC and 43.7% in the CG), things (57.1% versus 31.1%), the desire for power (17.8% versus 6.2%). • Low values for desires related to the communicative sphere (8.7% versus 18.9%), aesthetic transformations of the environment (4.5% versus 16.2%), satisfaction of cognitive (3.8% versus18.4%) and social needs (2.6% versus 12.8%). • The desires are mostly egocentric, related to the satisfaction of personal needs (25.7%), but without confidence that they can be fulfilled (26.8%). Children are focused on the present (37.3%) and do not see their future (31%); • The choices are mainly negative (protest). Preferences for rejection choices (aggressive, demonstrative, and self-assertive patterns) indicate the formation of elements of defensive, defiant, and oppositional behavior, indicating the manifestations of the child’s distress and maladaptivity.

4 Conclusion Therefore, the research results demonstrate an obvious problem in the emotionalpersonal sphere of preschool children who are raised in dysfunctional families, where alcohol behavior is observed in one or both parents. Parents’ perception of alcohol preferences, their behavior, parenting styles, and the family atmosphere actualize

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negative non-equilibrium mental states in children, hyperexcitation, and a high degree of tension. This situation leads to the phenomena of (1) maladaptation; (2) suppression of the child’s productive mental activity; (3) retreatism as a form of adaptation; (4) rent attitudes; (5) motivational types associated with the goals of hedonism, power, and security; (6) destruction of healthy attachment, faith in well-being in the present and future; (7) protest, demonstrative, aggressive, dependent, and defensive forms of behavior of the child. The revealed facts do not imply that the unfavorable characteristics of the emotional-personal sphere in preschoolers cannot be corrected. Timely and competent correctional and developmental work of specialists can significantly reduce the risk of actualization of negative mental states, the formation of negative personality traits and patterns of deviant and antisocial behavior.

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A Mental Model of Preschool Children with Cognitive Development Disorders and Socialization Strategies Yana K. Smirnova

Abstract The research is devoted to the role of cognitive function in the formation of the mental model. A comparative study identifying the primary psychological causes of the mental model deficit, including the universal symptoms of social cognition disorders, was conducted in a sample of 56 preschoolers in 3 contrast groups: preschoolers with typical development, preschoolers with mental development deviation and mild mental retardation. Using the methods of assessing the mental model and the method of eye movement registration within the experimental interaction of an adult and a child, I identified the primary markers of mental model deficit with different degrees of cognitive development disorders in preschool age. The obtained data showed that children with cognitive disabilities have difficulties when understanding and sharing intentions. The reduced importance of social signals is reflected by the limited ability of preschoolers with mental retardation and intellectual disabilities to recognize, identify, and respond to social signals. One can indicate the inaccurate correction of the gaze direction when initially following the trajectory of the partner’s gaze in children with cognitive development disorders. Also, I revealed some difficulties in crossing, synchronizing the gaze, and following the partner’s gaze. Various intensity of the mental model deficit is reflected by the severity degree of the cognitive defect. The data obtained indicates that a decreased accuracy of detecting the gaze direction will be a universal symptom of a joint attention deficit, inherent in nosological groups with sensory defects and cognitive disorder within atypical development. The research findings correspond to the idea that joint attention disorders reflect the difficulty in assessing the meaning of individual gaze features (e.g., what they tell one about the prospects and intentions of others). Keywords Mental model · Social cognition · Joint attention · Preschool age · Cognitive disorders · Mental retardation

Y. K. Smirnova (B) Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova (ed.), Complex Social Systems in Dynamic Environments, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 365, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23856-7_94

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1 Introduction Social cognition is a critical human ability to perceive, interpret, and respond to various affective and social signals [1, 2]. At an early age, the formation of social cognition involves developing the ability to represent the interlocutor’s mental states, a skill of sharing the psycho-activity product with the partner, including experience and knowledge. Thus, the mental model is a cognitive mechanism predicting the child’s social and cognitive development, providing the effective interaction between an adult and a child within the learning process. The phenomenon of a child’s mental activity development in infancy and preschool age is “perspective taking”. However, this phenomenon determines the child’s ability to understand the point of view of another person [3]. In this regard, the approach called “mental model” (Theory of mind, ToM) has been actively developed in the study of social cognition processes [2, 4]. The unique mental model is a way to organize the mental activity concerning the “proprius” psychic features of other individuals. This feature allowed me to describe and predict the actions of children, as well as to define the phenomenon of “readability” (mindreading), the spiritual condition of individuals (mental states) (e.g., beliefs, desires, aspirations, and emotions) [2, 4]. However, it is possible to use this coordination within symbolic communication. Moreover, I established that the mental model deficit correlates with mental and perceptive disorders, complex contextual percepts, and the distortion of cognitive schemes, including the ability to decode social signals and respond to them without a specific critical level of symbolic thinking (symbolic deficit) [5]. Thus, the mechanisms of cognition, including negative variables (e.g., aspiration, mental states), have not been formed. Thus, the ability to fulfill the deficiency in the perception of objective reality is decelerated. In previous studies, I identified the problem of the interaction between mental model deficits and the creation of complex “conditional abilities”, accumulating social and cognitive actions in children [6, 7]. Violation of the sign-symbolic function genesis in children with autism spectrum disorder involves the development of retardation based on symbolic-model ways of social interaction, including the abstract construction of the allopreening explanation of an individual within the mental model [6]. The interpretation of social signals involves the mechanism of polymodal perception: comparing the received data at a given time with the previously received impressions of social interactions stored in memory. Thus, the processes of social perception correlate with memory and thinking. Several processes are required, including (1) the perspective of the interlocutor’s focus, (2) self-reference experience model (e.g., present and past) identifying thoughts of the individual, and (3) long-term private information “déjà vu” relevant to the model [8].

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Social-cognitive mentalization is based on constructive cognitive processes. Despite numerous research results, it is challenging to determine the nature of mental model disorders, which are a consequence of a cognitive deficit or scarification beyond the clinical status. Many scientists agreed that undesirable changes in the mental model are a characteristic symptom in schizophrenia and autism. However, these changes do not depend on the intelligence level and cognitive functioning level [9], including concentration and memory deviations [10]. In addition, I have not found a correlation between the quality of mental model testing and intelligence, speech, and language abilities in several studies [11, 12]. Nevertheless, previous studies emphasized that the level of children’s intelligence development and their ability to understand mentality within the mental model are interrelated [11–13]. A negative change in the mental model is a complex cognitive deficiency manifestation (a remanent manifestation). Thus, mental model changes are secondary deviations related to cognitive disorders [14]. Moreover, cognitive shifting is a significant factor in progress predicting within social understanding [15, 16]. I assumed that a mental model deficit correlates with the mental process disorder in a clinical group suffering from schizophrenia and autism [17–19]. In addition, researchers pay particular attention to samples of children with autism symptoms. Thus, the study showed that verbal intelligence is a significant but insufficient condition for socio-understanding development [20]. Therefore, the current study is based on a similar cognitive profile, identifying false beliefs and understanding of social situations, and using tactical strategies in a mental model in a sample of people with schizophrenia [1, 5, 18, 21, 22]. In addition, individuals with schizophrenia have a high level of social ingenuity and limited access to “social knowledge” [11, 13]. Current objective evidence allowed me to correlate the deficit in understanding the mental and physical world in children with an auto-spectrum disorder with a reduced intelligence level. Therefore, mental model deficit in autism is determined by individual modules of impaired abilities responsible for understanding the mental and physical world [4]. Furthermore, I revealed an interaction between intellectual development and fragmentary development within the mental model based on a meta-analysis of previous studies [4]. Despite the divergence of scientific opinions and attempts to control the impact of speech development, including memory and mental activity, I could not distinguish the value of these variables into grouped differences when testing the mental model. Thus, I detected the interconnection between the (1) mental model deficit, (2) quantitative or qualitative memory disorders [21], (3) verbal memory, (4) mental activity, (5) mental disabilities [1, 14, 19, 20], and (6) speech impairments [23]. Also, cognitive functioning affects the mental model. Therefore, according to some researchers [15, 16, 24], a structural and functional inconsistency reduces socio-cognitive ability. I designated that the mental model is an integral part of the cognitive sphere. Thus, the limitations of cognitive abilities are related to a limited ability to distinguish the intention within the mental model [11].

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The limitations of the previous results correlated with the studies that involved children with autism. Thus, there is an unresolved issue concerning the development of the psychometric category intelligence, evaluated by testing. I found that this issue proves the necessity of cognitive development to be a central position, establishing a mental model development [4, 8]. A significant verification of the joint attention deficit specificity in a sample of children with cognitive impairments will be the primary goal of this task. Additionally, I identified little systematic data in the sample of children with cognitive development disorders (e.g., mental retardation, intellectual disabilities). Thus, one of the hypotheses related to the deficit of mechanisms for forming social experience, based on mental model deviations, including the cognitive development deviation, needs to be tested [21]. In addition, several issues of the study are under consideration: difficulties in detecting the correlation between aspiration and other individuals within the cognitive deficit [20, 23], a violation of “independence” [10, 12], and the deficit of the mental model is a secondary deviation within the cognitive impairments [14, 20]. The research aims to conduct a comparative analysis of the mental model as a cognitive ability to understand the mental state and its consequences in preschoolers with different cognitive impairment degrees and the behavior of other individuals.

2 Materials and Methods The sample consisted of preschoolers aged 5–7 (average age 6 years and 2 months), including (1) typically developing preschoolers (n = 20), (2) preschoolers with mental retardation (class F83 according to ICD-10, Wechsler Intelligence Scale 0.05) (see Table 1), I revealed significant differences when carrying out individual tasks for the mental model assessment. Thus, children with cognitive disabilities have a reduced complex level of the mental model, including particular dimensions. Furthermore, to represent the oculomotor activity within the experimental process of adult–child interaction, I built heat maps and eye-tracking graphics for preschoolers with mental retardation and preschoolers with mental development deviation. Finally, using an eye tracker visual search strategies were recorded in an adult–child with cognitive disability interaction. I determined specific features of contact-making strategies in children with mental retardation. However, preschoolers with mental retardation use the gaze direction as an information signal, but they do not detect intentions correctly when choosing a target object, reducing the fixation accuracy (see Fig. 3). Preschoolers with mental retardation have a preemptive reaction: a “false alarm” when choosing a target object (see Fig. 4). The child pointed to the toy before the adult has made his choice and made a hint. The underdevelopment of selective inhibition processes can explain such impulsivity. I emphasized reduced attention, stability, and concentration with attention fluctuations, increased distractibility, “slipping”, and excessive attention in children with mental development deviation when interacting with an adult (see Fig. 5).

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Table 1 Results of contrast group comparison of individual tasks for the mental model assessment Test

Preschoolers with typical development

Preschoolers with mental development deviation

Preschoolers with mental retardation

3. “False belief test”, 0.571 ± 0.507 “Sally-Ann” (F = 1.326, p = 0.05)

0.333 ± 0.4923

0.285 ± 0.487

Test “What does Charlie 0.667 ± 0.483 wants”? (F = 9.543, p = 0.0001)

0.166 ± 0.389

0

2. Test to study the issue 0.857 ± 0.3585 “to see is to know”: “Which girl knows what is in the box”? (F = 8.032, p = 0.001)

0.583 ± 0.514

0.142 ± 0.377

4. Test to study the 1±0 intention with the fixation of external signs (F = 11.196, p = 0.0001)

0.416 ± 0.514

0.414 ± 0.487

Source Compiled by the authors

Fig. 3 Heat maps and eye-tracking graphics for preschoolers with mental development deviation illustrate difficulties in social signal detection. Source Compiled by the authors

Besides the partner’s gaze direction, I found that children with mental development deviation often use additional behavior to fix the episode of joint attention and determine the target object. Thus, the additional behavior includes the position of the head, body rotation, and other communication signals during the interaction (see Fig. 6). I revealed errors in the actions “mirroring” in children with mental development deviation (e.g., an adult experimenter lowers their head, and the child imitates the experimenter’s action, also lowering their head down) (see Fig. 7). Preschoolers with mental development deviation can understand other people outwardly, simulating

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Fig. 4 Heat maps and eye-tracking graphics for preschoolers with mental development deviation, an example of a preemptive reaction. Source Compiled by the authors

Fig. 5 Heat maps and eye-tracking graphics for preschoolers with mental development deviation, an example of difficulties in attention concentration. Source Compiled by the authors

Fig. 6 Heat maps and eye-tracking graphics for preschoolers with mental development deviation, an example of multimodal tools. Source Compiled by the authors

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Fig. 7 Heat maps and eye-tracking graphics for preschoolers with mental development deviation, an example of action “mirroring.” Source Compiled by the authors

their behavior with embodied copying. Most likely, the difficulties of visual-spatial information can be the reason for such understanding. Moreover, changes in interaction with an adult in the experimental situation were recorded in preschoolers with mental retardation. I detected atypical gaze following and eye tracking in preschoolers with mental retardation (see Fig. 8). Furthermore, the difficulties in determining cross simultaneous gaze were revealed. In addition, one could find difficulties in maintaining eye contact. Heat maps could record difficulties when identifying social signals and detecting intentions. Children with mental retardation and children with mental development deviation have repeated errors in the “mirroring” actions (see Fig. 9). Preschoolers with mental retardation have a preemptive reaction: a “false alarm” when choosing a target object (see Fig. 10). I emphasized reduced attention, stability, and concentration with attention fluctuations, increased distractibility, “slipping”, and excessive attention in children with mental retardation and children with mental development deviation (see Fig. 11). Thus, I distinguished significant difficulties in preschoolers with cognitive impairments when interacting with an adult, such as (1) difficulties in detecting and following the interlocutor’s gaze direction, (2) increased distraction to nontarget incentives, (3) preemptive reactions, (4) inefficient use of additional tools (multimodal tools) when fixing an episode of joint attention.

Fig. 8 Heat maps and eye-tracking graphics for preschoolers with mental retardation, an example of difficulties in gaze detection and eye contact maintaining. Source Compiled by the authors

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Fig. 9 Heat maps and eye-tracking graphics for preschoolers with mental retardation, an example of the “mirroring” actions. Source Compiled by the authors

Fig. 10 Heat maps and eye-tracking graphics for preschoolers with mental retardation, an example of a “false alarm”. Source Compiled by the authors

Fig. 11 Heat maps and eye-tracking graphics for preschoolers with mental retardation, an example of difficulties in attention concentration. Source Compiled by the authors

In interaction with an adult, children with cognitive impairments frequently demonstrate dyadic orientation, identifying social signals of pointing to an object; therefore, they do not get access to a reference object. I selected several features concerning the mental model deficit: difficulties in adopting a common counting system with a target and exchanging information related to an object or event within a common counting system of coordinates. The critical manifestations of the mental model deficit are difficulties in (1) recognizing the partner’s gaze as a significant informational stimulus and (2) shifting the

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focus of attention and correction after the partner changed their gaze direction to detect their intentions. Moreover, I indicated the ability of improper correction of the gaze direction when initially following the partner’s gaze in children with cognitive development disorders. Thus, difficulties in crossing, synchronizing the gaze, and following the partner’s gaze were also detected. Heat maps of preschoolers with atypical development reflect the deficit in detecting the gaze direction necessary for understanding the intentions and predicting the actions of an adult. The degree of mental development deviation determines the reduced degree of socio-cognitive ability, including the heterogeneous mental structure. The study revealed the correlation of the severity degree of cognitive disorders with the manifestations of mental model deficit due to the contrast group comparison. Thus, there are some differences between children with mental retardation and those with mental development deviation. In preschoolers with mental retardation, both aspects are disturbed. Preschoolers with mental development deviation have difficulties using an adult’s gaze direction as a social signal for detecting intentions. Therefore, they recognize this action as an information signal but do not frequently use it. Children with mental retardation do not use gaze to detect intentions.

4 Discussion The research findings are consistent with the idea that joint attention deficit reflects the difficulty in assessing the individual gaze features (e.g., they can tell one about the perspectives and intentions of others) [6, 19, 25, 26]. The data of S. Baron-Cohen supplemented the surveyed children with cognitive development disorders. The scholar emphasized, “a violation of internal representation can be a secondary manifestation of a previous violation of socio-cognitive mentalization creativity”. The confirmed data indicates that the limitations of cognitive abilities affect the ability to isolate intention within the mental model [11]. Preschoolers with cognitive disabilities perceive information related to the actions of people (e.g., the gaze vector, movements, and gestures), but they do not have a stable mechanism for understanding and interpreting the meaning of this information in the future. Thus, tracking the mental model disruption through eye movement allowed me to detect discrepancies in child–adult interaction. The eye-tracking method improved the assessment of less accessible markers of mental model deficit. World experience [25–30] shows that the eye-tracking research paradigm can be used to detect the mental model deficit when registering metadata about sharp gazes between a child–adult interaction and assessing fixations in predetermined interest area [31].

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Using the heat maps of preschoolers with cognitive development deviations, I revealed that in the interaction and prediction of the intentions of an adult, a child could face the following difficulties: ● Recognizing the partner’s gaze as an information-significant motivating moment. ● Shifting the focus of attention. ● Correcting the actions after the partner changed their gaze direction to detect their intentions. ● In the absence of adult response tracking and the result of experimental play conditions as an essential indicator of the reduced motivation for social participation.

5 Conclusion Comparative analysis of contrast samples allowed me to conclude that incomplete mental development, including deviations, is characterized by a reduced experience, identifying the complex mental level; it is directly related to the mental model functioning. Thus, the formation of the mental model may correlate with the cognitive functioning interdependence: the higher the level of cognitive functioning, the more positive the mental model state is. Different severity degrees of cognitive disability do not correlate with the same intensity and severity of the mental model deficit. Regarding the previous studies, I can explain the difficulty in perceiving significant social signals and sign-symbolic means with direct perception, a low level of generalized “symbolic abilities” in children with cognitive disabilities within the mental model deficit. Preschoolers have difficulties in understanding and using joint intentions, including intentional actions within the mental model at a low level. The mentalization ability deficit can be the result of cognitive development deviations, inhibiting the development of the child’s ability to accumulate significant social experience, destroying the existing experience and the basis for the representation development. Acknowledgements The research results were obtained with the financial support of the Russian Foundation for Basic Research within the project No. 19-013-00220, “The role of joint attention and the ability to integrate social information in the development of preschool children”.

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References 1. Penn DL, Corrigan PW, Bentall RP et al (1997) Social cognition in schizophrenia. Psychol Bull 121(1):114–132 2. Tomasello M (2019) Becoming human: a theory of ontogeny. Harvard University Press, Cambridge 3. Ermakov PN, Vorobyeva EV, Kaidanovskaya IA et al (2016) Theory of mind and thinking development of preschool children. Exp Psychol 9(3):72–80 4. Sergienko EA, Lebedeva EI, Prysakova OA (2009) The model of the mental as the basis for the development of the understanding of oneself and another in the ontogenesis of man. Institute of Psychology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow 5. Ricks DM (1975) Vocal communication in pre-verbal normal and autistic children. In: O’Connor N (ed) Language, cognitive deficits and retardation. Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, pp 75–80 6. Baron-Cohen S (2002) The extreme male brain theory of autism. Trends Cogn Sci 6(6):248–254 7. Bruner J (1985) Child’s talk: learning to use language. Child Lang Teach Ther 1(1):111–114 8. Frith CD (2007) The social brain? Philos Trans R Soc B Biol Sci 362(1480):671–678 9. Harrington L, Siegert RJ, McClure J (2005) Theory of mind in schizophrenia: a critical review. Cogn Neuropsychiatry 10(4):249–286 10. Alfimova MV (2006) Hereditary factors of cognitive processes deficit in schizophrenia. Dissertation, Moscow Scientific Research Institute of Psychiatry 11. Happe F (2000) Parts and wholes, meaning and minds: central coherence and its relation to the theory of mind. In: Baron-Cohen S, Tager-Flusberg H, Cohen DJ (eds) Understanding other minds: perspectives from developmental cognitive neuroscience. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 203–221 12. Leekam S, Perner J (1991) Does the autistic child have a metarepresentational deficit? Cognition 40(3):203–218 13. Blijd-Hoogewys EMA, van Geert PLC, Serra M et al (2008) Measuring theory of mind in children. psychometric properties of the tom storybooks. J Autism Dev Disord 38:1907–1930 14. Bora E, Pantelis C (2013) Theory of mind impairments in first-episode psychosis, individuals at ultra-high risk for psychosis and first-degree relatives of schizophrenia: systematic review and meta-analysis. Schizophr Res 144(1):31–36 15. Holmogorova AB, Rychkova OV (2014) The social cognition impairments of people with schizophrenia and affective spectrum disorders. Clin Psychol Spec Educ 6(29):10 16. Shipkova KM, Malyukova NG (2017) Violation of Theory of mind in patients with local brain lesions. V M Bekhterev Rev Psychiatry Med Psychol 2:64–70 17. Bora E, Yucel M, Pantelis C (2009) Theory of mind impairment in schizophrenia: meta-analysis. Schizophr Res 109:1–9 18. Mazza M, Costagliola C, Di Michele V et al (2007) Deficit of social cognition in subjects with surgically treated frontal lobe lesions and subjects affected by schizophrenia. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 257(1):12–22 19. Russell T, Sharma T (2003) Social cognition at the neural level: investigations in autism, psychopathy and schizophrenia. In: Brune M, Ribbert H, Schiefenhovel W (eds) The social brain. Evolution and pathology C. John Wiley & Sons, New-York, pp 253–276 20. Brent E, Rios P, Happe F et al (2004) Performance of children with autism spectrum disorder on advanced theory of mind tasks. Autism 8(3):283–299 21. Gardenfors P (2003) How homo became sapiens: on the evolution of thinking. Oxford University Press, Oxford 22. Pilowski T, Yirmiya N, Arbelle S (2000) Theory of mind ability in children with schizophrenia, children with autism, and typically developing children. Schizophr Res 42(2):145–155 23. Dawson G, Jones EJ, Merkle K (2012) Early behavioral intervention is associated with normalized brain activity in young children with autism. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 51(11):1150–1159

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24. Rumyantseva EE (2014) Mental model and cognitive functioning in young patients after an endogenous attack. Dissertation, Herzen State Pedagogical University of Russia 25. Yu C, Smith LB (2013) Joint attention without gaze following: human infants and their parents coordinate visual attention to objects through eye-hand coordination. PLoS ONE 8(11):e79659 26. Yu C, Smith LB (2017) Hand-eye coordination predicts joint attention. Child Dev 88(6). https:// doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12730 27. Chen C, Castellanos I, Yu C et al (2019) What leads to coordinated attention in parent-toddler interactions? Children’s hearing status matters. Dev Sci 23(2). https://doi.org/10.1111/desc. 12919 28. Chen C, Monroy C, Yu C et al (2020) Using head-mounted eye-trackers to study sensory-motor dynamics of coordinated attention. Prog Brain Res 254:71–88 29. Shvarts A, Abrahamson D (2019) Dual-eye-tracking Vygotsky: a microgenetic account of a teaching / learning collaboration in an embodied interaction technological tutorial for mathematics. Learn Cult Soc Interact 22:100316 30. Shvarts A, Abrahamson D (2020) Intracorporeal dynamic functional system: a dual eyetracking study of student-tutor collaboration. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/346 488598_Intercorporeal_dynamic_functional_system_a_dual_eye-tracking_study_of_studenttutor_collaboration 31. Falck-Ytter T (2015) Gaze performance during face-to-face communication: a live eye-tracking study of typical children and children with autism. Res Autism Spectr Disord 17:78–85 32. Senju A, Csibra G, Johnson MH (2008) Understanding the referential nature of looking: Infants’ preference for object-directed gaze. Cognition 108:303–319

Comparative Analysis of Fears in Twin and Single-Born Preschoolers: Building a Better Understanding Anna S. Kuzmina

and Aleksandra A. Pugacheva

Abstract The paper aims to evaluate and compare di- and monozygotic twins and single-born children of preschool age. As a special social developmental situation, the twin situation determines the peculiarities of the development of preschool twins, thereby impacting all aspects of their development. The content of fears reflects the peculiarities of children’s emotional development and indicates the importance of certain needs. We have used the Fears in the Houses method developed by M. A. Panfilova and A. I. Zakharov to study preschoolers’ fears. The zygote of twins has been determined based on a detailed survey of parents. We have examined about 130 preschoolers in an individual form and divided them into three groups: (1) monozygotic twins (16 preschoolers); (2) dizygotic twins (84 preschoolers); and (3) single-born children with their siblings (30 preschoolers). The results obtained during this study indicate reliable qualitative and quantitative differences in fears of twin and single-born preschoolers. Twin preschoolers have a reliably higher number of fears compared to single-born children. Moreover, a greater number of identical fears characterizes twins. Dizygotic twins have a difference in the level of fear due to their birth order. The older twins have a smaller number of fears compared to their siblings. The most significant fears in preschool twins are the following: (1) death, (2) loneliness, and (3) physical harm. For the first time, the paper presents the results on fears of di- and monozygotic twins and single-born children of preschool age. Keywords Preschoolers · Twins · Fears · Self-consciousness · Twin situation · Intra-variant interaction · Communication · Development

1 Introduction Fear is one of the strong and vivid emotions experienced by children in preschool age. The imagination is actively developing in preschool age and brightly colors A. S. Kuzmina (B) · A. A. Pugacheva Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova (ed.), Complex Social Systems in Dynamic Environments, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 365, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23856-7_95

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children’s fears. During preschoolers’ development, cognitive processes that simulate the meaning of certain situations for children and regulate the dynamic side of their behavior begin to be gradually included in the structure of their emotional reactions. For older preschool children, scary objects include mostly real and unreal situations that they live when communicating with adults [1]. In preschool children, the triad of fears is considered the main fears: (1) loneliness, (2) darkness, and (3) confined space. Typically, boys at the age of 6–7 years have 2 fears, while girls have 12. Negatively colored emotional state associated with many fears imprints children’s mental development and forms a negatively colored life position, which further affects personality formation. Zakharov [2] describes the behavior of such children as more passive since this emotional state atrophies curiosity (therefore, children avoid any risk associated with entering a new situation of communication unknown by its consequences) and develops alertness, affective isolation, and care for themselves and their problems in children, instead of immediacy and openness. Many fears lead to the formation of such traits like insecurity, shyness, and low self-esteem. According to Zakharov [2], the only child in a family, being the focus of parental care and anxiety, is most exposed to fear. The only child is, as a rule, in closer emotional contact with parents and easily adopts their anxiety. However, it is worth paying attention to the families in which twins are born. A twin situation is a frustrating situation for the development of preschoolers and requires a systematic and in-depth study. A twin situation is a special social situation in preschoolers’ development since two children, who are at the same stage of physical and mental development, simultaneously grow and develop in a family. Twins constantly communicate with each other and have a similar, almost identical, life experience. These special conditions of the social environment and the presence of a life partner from the moment of conception affect twins’ psychological and social development and the relationships they form throughout their lives. A twin situation is a unique experience that can play a positive role in the life of both twins; however, it also provides a unique set of obstacles, especially in differentiation and individual formation [3–5]. The formation of their identity is one of the difficulties the twins face. They often define themselves as one of a pair or a part of the same whole. Twins’ roles can be often divided in a pair. Bracken [6] has identified the following functions between the members of a twin pair: (1) representation in the world when one of the twins expresses the opinion of a pair and (2) dominance in a pair when the dominant twin has a decisive influence on the sibling. Additionally, Anastasi [7] has distinguished the following roles: (1) representative of a pair in communication with other people, who is more interested in social contacts; and (2) dominant twin, who tends to lead and decide for a pair. This distribution of roles in a twin pair is associated with the formation of differences in preschoolers’ fears. The present paper aims to evaluate and compare di- and monozygotic twins and single-born children of preschool age.

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2 Materials and Methods We have used the Fears in the Houses method [2] to study preschoolers’ fears since it allows estimating them quantitatively and qualitatively. According to the proposed method, we have performed studying fears with each child in the course of play. Children had to put the fears into the black house and non-fears into the red house. Mathematical and statistical data processing has been conducted in the SPSS Statistics 23.0 using single-factor analysis of variance to identify differences in the groups of subjects. With the help of the Fears in the Houses method, we have examined 130 preschool children (67 girls and 63 boys). All subjects were divided into three groups. The zygote of twins was determined based on a detailed survey of parents. The first group consisted of 16 monozygotic twins, the second group consisted of 84 dizygotic twins, and the third group consisted of 30 single-born children with their siblings.

3 Results At the first stage of the study, we have conducted a qualitative analysis of the similarities and differences in fears in di- and monozygotic twins and single-born children of preschool age. We have illustrated the distribution of fears in pairs of di- and monozygotic twins and single-born children of preschool age (Table 1). Analysis of Table 1 illustrates that di- and monozygotic twins have more fears than single-born children. The number of identical fears is twice as high for di- and monozygotic twins as for single-born children. Preschool twins are characterized by identical fears (loneliness, their own and their parents’ death, and fears associated with physical harm). The fear of their own and their parents’ death and loneliness is present in preschoolers of all groups. The results of the literature analysis confirm this fact (Fig. 1). As a result of the single-factor analysis of variance for independent groups, we have identified that M_x value of the level of fears in the groups of monozygotic twins and single-born children (F = 2.99 at p ≤ 0.03) and the groups of dizygotic twins and single-born children (F = 3.21 at p ≤ 0.01) are statistically significantly different. The level of fear is significantly higher in twins compared to single-born preschoolers. Fears indicate a significantly higher level of maladaptation in twins compared to single-born preschoolers. The compilation of a rating of fears of twins has shown that the most common fears of twins are as follows: (1) fear of death; (2) fear of loneliness; and (3) fear of physical harm (Table 2). Twins are afraid of being alone and being shared with their siblings. They focus on joint activities more than on independent work. A high level of twins’ readiness

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for unity with each other requires constructing a special intra-pair interaction, which regulates the relationship within the pair and provides the interaction with the outside world. The research results have shown that twins, born first, more often provide contact between a pair and an adult and occupy a dominant role in a pair. The distribution Table 1 Comparative analysis of fears within pairs of di- and monozygotic twins and single-born children of preschool age Group

Monozygotic twins

Dizygotic twins

Single-born children

Birth order

1

2

1

2

1

2

Staying home alone

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

Attack

1

1

Death

1

1

1

1

1

1

Parents’ death

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

Being sick or infected

Alien people Dad and mom

1

Punishment

1

Fairy-tale creatures

1

1 1 1

1

1

Before falling asleep Nightmares

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

Darkness Animals Transport

1

1 1

Weather Height

1

Depth

1

1

1 1 1

1

Small, cramped rooms Water Fire

1

1

1

1

1

Firestorm

1

1

1

1

1

War

1

1

1

1

Big streets

1

1 1

Doctors Blood

1 1

Punctures Pain Incidental sounds

1

1

1

1 1

1

1 (continued)

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Table 1 (continued) Group Doing something wrong

Monozygotic twins 1

1

Total

14

15

Number of identical fears

12

Dizygotic twins

Single-born children 1

Being late for kindergarten 14

19

7

12

12

5

Source Compiled by the authors

Fig. 1 Comparative analysis of the level of fear in di- and monozygotic twins and single-born children of preschool age. Source Compiled by the authors

Table 2 The most common fears in preschool twins

Fear

Ranking

Death

79

Parents’ death

72

Staying home alone

68

Firestorm

62

War

58

Source Compiled by the authors

of roles in pairs of dizygotic twins is of particular importance. Elder dizygotic twins have significantly fewer fears than younger twins, which is confirmed by the results of single-factor analysis of variance (F = 2.38 at p ≤ 0.05). In pairs of monozygotic twins, we have found no differences in the level of fears associated with the birth order.

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4 Discussion In Russian psychological school, the concept of the social developmental situation, which is the source of children’s mental development [8], is widely elaborated. Preschoolers develop in play activities with peers, which allows children to look at themselves through the eyes of another, from the outside, to better understand themselves, their strengths and weaknesses, feelings, experiences, and motives of behavior. Preschoolers’ attitude is formed through the attitude towards other children [9, 10]. Therefore, a twin situation is a special social developmental situation determining children’s emotional development [11]. Most researchers emphasize the protective nature of fear. Thus, according to Zakharov [2], fears help children to know the world by fulfilling the function of socialization and personality formation. In this regard, studies of preschool twins’ fears become particularly important since they help reveal the nature of children’s fears, the nature of their formation, and their role in the development of preschool children [12].

5 Conclusions The results obtained during this study have shown the difference between the fears of twins and single-born children of preschool age. Twins have more fears than singleborn children. Twins are afraid of loneliness and do not like to be separated from their twin siblings. The revealed differences in the level of fears indicate a more pronounced maladaptation of twins compared to single-born children of preschool age. The fears in a pair of monozygotic twins are often identical and reflect the need to merge and identify with each other. The fears in a pair of dizygotic twins are different and associated with a special distribution in the pair roles of master and slave.

References 1. Morozova TB (2009) Features of working with twin children. Public Educ 1:10–18 2. Zakharov AI (2004) Daytime and night fears in children. Soyuz, Saint-Petersburg 3. Cassell S (2011) Examining the twin bond: a look at the psychological development of twins and the differences in individuality and identity differentiation between fraternal and identical same-sex twins. American University, Washington 4. Klein B (2003) Not all twins are alike. Praeger, Westport 5. Miliora MT (2003) Losers and winners within an intertwine dyad: a case of a twinship, selfobject relationships of a twin. Clin Soc Work J 31(3):263–274 6. Bracken von H (1969) Humangenetische psyhologie. https://www.uni-wuerzburg.de/filead min/42050000/user_upload/Findbuecher/Findbuch_HvB-final-Mai_2017.pdf 7. Anastasi A (1958) Differential psychology: individual and group differences in behavior. Macmillan, New York

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8. Vygotsky LS (2005) Psychology of human development. Smysl, Moscow 9. Lisina MI (2009) Formation of personality in communication. Piter, Saint-Petersburg 10. Smirnova EO (2009) The concept of the genesis of communication by M. I. Lisina. Theor Exp Psychol 2(2):35–40 11. Kuzmina AS, Praizendorf ES, Fokina NV (2020) Self-consciousness of di- and monozygotic twins of preschool age. Azimuth Sci Res: Pedagog Psychol 9(32):353–356 12. Bozhovich LI (2008) Personality and its formation in childhood. Piter, Saint-Petersburg

Response and Initiation Skills of Joint Attention in Children with Different Forms of Atypical Development Yana K. Smirnova

Abstract The study aims to distinguish the mechanisms and function processes of response and initiation of joint attention in preschoolers with different forms of atypical development. We conducted an eye tracking study using eye movement registration to obtain data on the variants of joint attention deficit. Moreover, a comparative study within different nosological groups of preschoolers was conducted: (1) preschool children with mental retardation (F83), (2) preschool children with speech retardation (R47), (3) preschool children with hearing impairment (sensorineural hearing loss, H90), and (4) preschool children with visual impairment (amblyopia and strabismus, H53). In an experimental situation of real-time interaction between a child and an adult, using an eye tracker, one can fix the peculiarities of eye movementmarkers of joint attention in real-time. Among the primary peculiarities are the duration and number of fixations, showing the episode establishing the specifics of joint attention in contrast groups, including universal and specific symptoms of initiation and response skills deviation in joint attention. Thus, one can conclude that joint attention, initiation, and response skills reflect distinct interacting processes between a child and an adult. Therefore, I systemized normative and pathological symptoms affecting joint attention initiation in preschoolers. Keywords Joint attention · Divided attention · Social attention · Joint attention response · Joint attention initiation · Age development · Preschool age · Atypical development · Eye tracker

1 Introduction The intentional coordination of joint attention is the primary mechanism for learning, speech acquisition, and complex social competencies throughout life. Y. K. Smirnova (B) Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova (ed.), Complex Social Systems in Dynamic Environments, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 365, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23856-7_96

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Joint attention is the ability of two individuals to focus on the same object or event. Thus, this process involves tracing the direction of the gaze of one subject to another, indicating the object, and other verbal and non-verbal methods of identifying the object [1].

Children can use various types of behavior regarding declarative and instrumental imperative functions of interaction, initiating or responding to proposals for cooperation with the social partners, and supporting joint attention [2, 3]. One can implement multiple terms to refer to these behavioral aspects of attention in children [3, 4]. I selected the following definitions. ● Responding to Joint Attention [RJA] is the ability to follow the direction and gestures of other people’s gaze, dividing the focus of general attention on the subject. Thus, RJA is an automatic response to the potential of the interlocutor’s gaze as an essential information source in the environment. ● Initiating Joint Attention [IJA] is the ability to use the direction of the interlocutor’s gazes and gestures, focusing their attention on spontaneous experience sharing. Therefore, IJA can be further subdivided into gesture initiation and gaze shifting. One critical characteristic of joint attention ontogenesis is the separation and differentiation of IJA and RJA during the development process [1]. In this regard, the relevant research question is the correlation of RJA and IJA, their heterochromic or synchronous development in cases of typical and atypical development, and the violation equivalence degree of both skills within a joint attention deficit. Previous studies accumulated evident differences in the mechanisms and functioning processes, including the correlation with response and initiation skills of joint attention in ontogenesis. Independent studies show correlations between the frequency or consistency of IJA and RJA [1, 5, 6]. In addition, it was shown that although infant IGA and RJA scores correlate or predict the effectiveness of a child’s learning, cognitive development, and IQ [7]. Additionally, I conducted alternative comparative studies to distinguish critical differences between IJA and RJA development [1]. The main distinction between RJA and IJA is based on intentional cognitive control. The development of RJA includes relatively involuntary forms of social orienting behavior [2, 8] and imitation [9]. However, IJA cannot involve imitation [1, 9, 10]. Nevertheless, IJA is integrated with the functions of a more volitional and intentional system of attention, developing in infancy [11]. Furthermore, IJA requires critical attention towards the intentions of others behind their actions (e.g., the interlocutor’s gaze shifting) [12]. One can consider that internal motivational restrictions focus on intentional control rather than on reflexive one [11]. In this regard, some theoretical positions imply important features of joint attention development: (1) the tendency of psychological state sharing [13], (2) individual motivation differences in information exchange, and (3) positive affective experience exchange [14]. These peculiarities of social behavior can contribute to individual differences regarding the IJA, reflecting

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dissimilarities in the RJA or initiating behavior regulation or requests [IBR] and responding to behavior requests [RBR] to a lesser extent [2, 8, 9, 15]. Joint attention deficit is commonly associated with autism spectrum disorders [16, 17]. We used the assessment of RJA and IJA skills to detect the early stages of childhood autism [18]. Thus, IJA disorders in autism are more critical in comparison with RJA disorders. We determined IJA deficit in preschool and adolescent children with autism [1, 16, 17, 19–21]. In turn, one can identify the decrease in RJA disorders among grown-up children with autism [1]. Therefore, RJA can be atypical at the beginning of autism development, whereas IJA remains atypical throughout life. Thus, I assume that IJA is more predicted for social outcomes compared to RJA. I also indicated that RJA confidently correlates with language development [20, 21]. However, IJA is also associated with differences in social and affective manifestations of autism symptoms [17–19, 21]. Thus, IJA and RJA do not have a critical correlation in development; they demonstrate further growth and age-related patterns in infancy, including unique associations with subsequent development [2]. The research question “what is the content difference between RJA and IJA and how are they dissociated in typical and atypical development”? remains open. The unresolved question explains that the extent of RJA and IJA is universal; it is manifested explicitly in a sample group of people with autism and other clinical groups. The identification of universal and specific symptoms of IJA and RJA disorders in preschool children with different forms of atypical development allows us to analyze the role of physiological peculiarities, including the etiology and pathogenesis peculiarities of the disease regarding IJA and RJA. Moreover, we will be able to trace the deficit peculiarities in children of each group. In response to the previous studies [22–27], I compared the gaze direction tracking method to other methods of eye tracking. Thus, I assumed that this method would improve the measurement of less accessible markers of joint attention disorder, including a detailed analysis of the routes and time of gaze fixation on the communication goal, essential when achieving social interaction between interlocutors. Moreover, the communication goal is also essential to achieve joint attention towards the object of social interaction or event and regulate the behavior of an interlocutor. Using the method of eye movement recording, this study aims to trace the accuracy of the child’s following adult’s gaze and the object of interaction within the joint attention episodes. Thus, it is essential to identify critical points in the overall focus changes within the episode of joint attention. I assumed that the primary tested hypotheses are universal and specific manifestations of RJA and IRJ deficits in preschool children with different developmental disabilities.

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2 Materials and Methods The research aims to identify the differences between joint attention response mechanisms and initiation in preschool children with different forms of atypical development. The sample of the study consists of preschoolers aged 5–7 (average age was 6 years and 2 months), including 20 preschoolers with typical development, 20 preschoolers with mental retardation (F83), 10 preschoolers with hearing impairment (H90), 20 preschoolers with speech retardation (R47), and 20 preschoolers with visual impairment (H53). The experiment procedure included 2 series of tasks in determining the IJA and RJA. First, two objects (toys) were located in front of the child. The child, observing the vector of the adult’s gaze, should guess and show which object the adult experimenter would choose (see Fig. 1). There were five random repetitions of this task. The number of the child’s correct answers was recorded. In the second series of the experiment, the child was to point at any object (toy) with their eyes. The adult’s task was to guess which object (toy) the child would select. The number of successful attempts to initiate joint attention was recorded. During the experiment, I used a portable binocular tracker in the form factor of glasses (Pupil Headset—Plabs). The accuracy of determining the coordinates was 0.60°; determining the gaze—0.08°. The camera delay was 4.5 ms. Processing delay depending on the CPU > 3 ms. The data was initially calibrated before the game session using 1-point calibration.

Fig. 1 Research procedure. Source Compiled by the authors

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3 Results Using the dispersion analysis, I compared two series of experimental tasks regarding initiating and responding skills in joint attention. Significant differences were revealed in all five contrast groups of preschoolers (Levene’s test > 0.05). Initially, significant differences were found in RJA contrast groups. On the one hand, preschoolers with mental retardation, hearing, and speech impairment had an increased total number of fixations in RJA. On the other hand, groups of preschoolers with visual impairment and hearing loss had a reduced number of fixations compared to children with typical development (see Table 1). The child may have difficulties predicting the next position of the adult’s gaze. In addition, to synchronize, the child often needs to follow the adult’s actions, so they need more fixations. The peculiarities of the contrast groups are manifested when children with mental retardation and speech impairment have a reduced number of fixations on the faces of adults. Moreover, groups of preschoolers with visual impairment and hearing loss have an increasing alternative tendency of face fixation. Moreover, there is an increasing number of fixations in groups with atypical development compared to preschool children who developed typically. The duration of such fixation is 300–500 ms (see Table 1). This fact indicates the time duration required for the visual attention stability of children with atypical development. Subsequently, the duration of fixation between the groups of preschoolers was compared (see Table 2). Preschoolers with different forms of atypical development have an increased duration of the first fixation on target incentives. Table 1 Differences in contrast groups within the number of fixations in RJA Groups/number of fixations

Preschoolers with typical development

Preschoolers with mental retardation

Preschoolers with hearing impairment

Preschoolers with speech impairment

Preschoolers with visual impairment

Total number of fixations (F = 6.081, p = 0.0001)

58.3 ± 2.3

75.52 ± 4.1

71.1 ± 3.97

59.2 ± 4.4

54.4 ± 3.2

Number of face fixations (F = 2.767, p = 0.032)

16.7 ± 2.3

14.43 ± 2.4

19.2 ± 2.2

11.1 ± 2.7

23.0 ± 3.3

28.8 ± 2.4

25.6 ± 2.6

21.5 ± 2.8

19.6 ± 1.6

Number of 17.2 ± 2.1 fixation duration 300–500 ms (F = 3.884, p = 0.006) Source Compiled by the authors

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Table 2 Differences in RJA in contrast groups Groups/number of fixations

Preschoolers with typical development

Preschoolers with mental retardation

Preschoolers with hearing impairment

Preschoolers with speech impairment

Preschoolers with visual impairment

13.5 ± 2.2

20.3 ± 2.5

10.5 ± 2.6

19.2 ± 2.7

34.4 ± 3.5

27.5 ± 2.5

28.7 ± 2.3

17.0 ± 1.8

Total duration of 41.5 ± 2.2 fixation (F = 2.728, p = 0.034)

47.9 ± 2.9

47.8 ± 3.6

39.2 ± 3.8

36.36 ± 3.14

Duration of 13.4 ± 1.9 fixation on face (F = 2.478, p = 0.049)

10.4 ± 1.9

16.1 ± 1.9

Duration of 15.2 ± 1.9 fixation on target incentives (F = 2.567, p = 0.043) Duration of fixation on non-target incentives (F = 5.732, p = 0.0001)

Duration of the first fixation on non-target incentives (F = 2.390, p = 0.05)

26.3 ± 2.79

0.4 ± 0.04

0.6 ± 0.06

0.56 ± 0.06

8.67 ± 2.4

0.56 ± 0.07

17.0 ± 2.7

0.62 ± 0.06

Source Compiled by the authors

Furthermore, I compared the IJA skills in contrast groups of preschoolers in the second series of the experiment (see Table 3). A group of preschoolers with sensory impairments have an ability to IRJ compared to preschoolers developed typically. However, they require a long-term number of duration fixations. In addition, one can observe another tendency in preschoolers with mental retardation and speech impairment within IRJ. Preschoolers with mental retardation and hearing impairment have an increased duration of fixation on non-target incentives.

4 Discussion The study results allowed me to conclude that both the number (the face of an adult and the total number of fixations in an episode of joint attention) and the duration of fixations on target incentives are critical for effective RJA.

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Table 3 Differences in IJA in contrast groups Groups/number of fixations

Preschoolers with typical development

Preschoolers with mental retardation

Duration of fixation on target incentives of IRJ (F = 4.398, p = 0.003)

3.87 ± 0.56

2.70 ± 0.46

4.37 ± 1.12 1.82 ± 0.29

5.20 ± 0.61

Duration of fixation on non-target incentives of IRJ (F = 2.353, p = 0.05)

7.20 ± 0.64

8.14 ± 1.26

11.02 ± 0.37 6.23 ± 1.03

6.59 ± 0.78

Total duration of fixation of IRJ (F = 4.196, p = 0.003)

11.06 ± 0.62 10.84 ± 1.08 15.39 ± 0.78 8.04 ± 1.00

11.79 ± 0.98

Preschoolers with hearing impairment

Preschoolers Preschoolers with speech with visual impairment impairment

Number of 4.71 ± 0.68 fixation on toys IRJ (F = 3.271, p = 0.014)

3.50 ± 0.57

5.00 ± 1.73 2.44 ± 0.38

6.24 ± 0.78

Duration of 3.11 ± 0.56 fixation on toys IRJ (F = 3.100, p = 0.019)

1.78 ± 0.35

3.43 ± 1.32 1.46 ± 0.9

4.15 ± 0.59

7.71 ± 0,66 Number of fixation with a duration >500 ms IRJ (F = 6.314, p = 0.0001)

7.83 ± 1,51

14.00 ± 1.34 4.67 ± 0.88

8.94 ± 0.93

Source Compiled by the authors

The IJA specifics can be determined by using the duration of the fixation on the target incentives. It was found that the differentiating marker of IJA deficit is the time to maintain constant attention when interacting with an adult. Based on the obtained data, I concluded that there is a critical limit for maintaining constant attention in interaction. Thus, I revealed that fixation lasting 300–500 ms is the RJA differentiation between preschoolers with typical development and contrasting atypical groups of preschoolers. The specificity of the joint attention deficit in preschoolers with mental retardation and speech impairment lies in the fact that they perceive information related to the social behavior of people but suffer from the mechanism of social signals integration, which would later allow them to interpret the essence of this social information [28– 30]. As a result, difficulties in “intention monitoring” are based on the gaze direction. Thus, the research findings are consistent with the idea that the disruption of joint

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attention reflects the difficulties in assessing particular gaze features (e.g., they can tell one about the perspectives and intentions of others) [31]. Due to the sensory and visual impairment, a reduced speed and amount of perception in social signal detection is a significant manifestation of the joint attention deficit. Children with sensory impairment have a less pronounced joint attention deficit when following the direction of the adult’s gaze [32, 33]. Children with atypical development can distinguish gaze cues and non-social cues less accurately compared to children with typical development, even when reflexive eye tracking is not violated. A comparison of the identified deficit markers in RJA and IJA allowed me to conclude that the symptoms of joint attention deficit are universal regarding both skills. According to the number of markers indicating a joint attention deficit, we can assume more pronounced changes in the RJA. However, the content markers are intersectional and universal. Nonetheless, in particular atypical groups of children, we established RJA and IJA deficits. In the group of preschoolers with mental retardation, visual and speech impairment, specific universal markers of deficit can be systematized. Children with sensory impairments can detect target social signals and permanently fix on them within RJA and IJA. Moreover, they focus on an adult’s reaction, fixating on their face for an extended period, following the gaze by fixing their eyes on the toys. However, they demonstrate a dyadic orientation by responding and obtaining access to social references, directing the interlocutor’s attention [34–36]. Thus, a deficit of joint attention in a group of children with sensory impairments can manifest itself in time increment and number of fixations to identify target social signals, including joint attention episodes in an adult. Due to this fact, a group of children with sensory impairments has a reduced sensibility when determining adult intentions regarding a deficit of joint attention, compared to preschoolers with typical development [37, 38]. The group of preschoolers with mental retardation and speech impairment have a frequent long-term fixation on non-target incentives, with reduced visual stability. One can frequently find social signals in the interest area of such preschoolers. In this regard, the detection of adult intentions in episodes of joint attention is significantly reduced. Children in these groups are frequently motivated to IRJ, as well as to the result of joint attention initiating. The results of the study allowed me to suggest that the violation of joint attention can manifest itself in children with mental retardation and speech impairment, with a pronounced range of detected markers and the severity degree. Children with mental retardation and speech impairment have RJA disorders, involving difficulties regarding the adult’s reference intention. In this regard, we can conclude that mental states understanding is not a critical factor for gaze following but a motivational one [39, 40]. Finally, I can assume that understanding the reference intention understanding in the direction of the partner’s gaze in RJA is an essential marker of joint attention deficit compared to understanding the gaze in groups of children with mental retardation and speech impairment. Consequently, the difficulty with the relative

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significance of gaze is accompanied by the level of mental development, essential for interpreting the predictive value of gaze signals [41].

5 Conclusion The research results showed that preschoolers with atypical forms of development can face RJA difficulties at several levels. For instance, they have difficulties when (1) fixing on the visible or relevant area of the sensory field (e.g., an adult); (2) processing social signals from an adult, suppressing attention to irrelevant objects in the gaze area; (3) distributing attention by maximizing the information extraction; (3) detecting accurately the partner’s intentions through social signals. Regarding IJA, one can have difficulties when (1) understanding the referential significance of social signals (e.g., gaze direction) to maintain the interlocutor’s attention; (2) processing information concerning one’s attention and experience of the object and situation; (3) using social signals (gaze direction) to express one’s intentions towards the partner; (4) searching for motivation for social participation, sharing experience, and tracking social interaction results (whether the interlocutor has detected intentions). Due to these peculiarities, it is challenging for the child to coordinate their visual attention and an adult’s attention. Therefore, I can conclude that the ability to establish contact between a child and an adult could be helpful when understanding social learning difficulties in children both with typical and atypical development. Acknowledgements The research results were obtained with the financial support of the presidential grant MK-307.2020.6 “Eye tracking research of social attention coordination disorders in preschool age”.

References 1. Mundy P, Jarrold W (2010) Infant joint attention, neural networks and social cognition. Neural Netw 23(8–9):985–997 2. Mundy P, Block J, Delgado C et al (2007) Individual differences and the development of joint attention in infancy. Child Dev 78(3):938–954 3. Seibert JM, Hogan AE, Mundy PC (1982) Assessing interactional competencies: the early social-communication scales. Infant Ment Health J 3:244–258 4. Carpenter M, Nagell K, Tomasello M et al (1998) Social cognition, joint attention, and communicative competence from 9 to 15 months of age. Monogr Soc Res Child Dev 63(4). https:// doi.org/10.2307/1166214 5. Sheinkopf S, Mundy P, Claussen A et al (2004) Infant joint attention skill and preschool behavioral outcomes in at-risk children. Dev Psychopathol 16:273–293 6. Slaughter V, McConnell D (2003) Emergence of joint attention: relationships between gaze following, social referencing, imitation, and naming in infancy. J Genet Psychol 164:54–71

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Learning Difficulties Associated with Joint Attention Deficit in Children with Hearing Disorders: Perspectives for Education System in Russia Yana K. Smirnova , Olga M. Lyubimova , Anna A. Makashova , and Alexander A. Mudruk Abstract The research aims to study the peculiarities of joint attention deficit in preschoolers with hearing impairment after cochlear implantation. A child’s awareness of an adult’s attention is a critical component of joint attention, essential for effective interaction within the learning process. In a sample of 40 preschoolers with sensorineural hearing loss with cochlear implants, including contrast samples in real-time interaction and learning, we determined specific aspects of joint attention deficit using the eye tracking method. It was stated that preschoolers with hearing impairment are selectively unable to detect and interpret another person’s intentions. Moreover, children with hearing impairment can hardly identify relevant features to form a target social signal. Thus, they can specify the general direction of the adult’s gaze, fixing on a target object. More than that, the means of establishing joint attention are changing. Children with hearing impairment experience critical shifts in visual attention and focus shifts, which prevent the effective establishment of episodes of joint attention during interaction and learning. In addition, a joint attention deficit in children with hearing impairment reduces intentionality or awareness, essential for determining the adult’s communication intentions. Keywords Joint attention · Divided attention · Social attention · Age-related development · Preschool age · Atypical development · Hearing impairment · Eye tracker

1 Introduction Current research showed that children with hearing impairment significantly retard their typically developing contemporaries in joint attention skills [1]. Joint attention is a parallel system processing information about one’s visual attention focus and the interlocutor’s visual attention focus. Y. K. Smirnova (B) · O. M. Lyubimova · A. A. Makashova · A. A. Mudruk Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova (ed.), Complex Social Systems in Dynamic Environments, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 365, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23856-7_97

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The early joint attention compared to subsequent development are indirectly reflected within the cultural and historical concept: in an experimental study by L. S. Vygotsky [2] about the development of attention as a primary mental function (“distributed cognition”, an intrapsychic form of attention, socially divided between a child and an adult). According to the experiments of A. N. Leontiev (the “nut” game) [2], we analyzed that index gesture is a way to control the child’s attention in the zone of proximal development. Modern studies confirmed that the joint attention deficit can hinder the typical agerelated development of the child. With a joint attention deficit, the ability to maintain eye contact with a communicative partner is violated. As a result, children have difficulties adjusting the direction of another person’s gaze and responding to attention. However, children with autism use less communicative pointing gestures, eye contact coordination, vocalization, and other communicative referents to establish an attention focus [3]. Furthermore, we have limited data about atypical sensory experiences, such as hearing loss and attention coordination between children and their social partners [4– 6]. Therefore, children with hearing impairment are of particular scientific interest in the study of joint attention deficit. Due to the availability of various multimodal means of establishing joint attention, we identified a selective access denial for children with hearing impairment to interpret other people’s mental states and maintain joint attention [3, 7]. In addition, parents without hearing impairment emphasized difficulties regarding interaction with their children, including regular daily activities. Thus, it is critically challenging for them to share their thoughts, memories, intentions, and beliefs [1, 3, 8, 9]. The significant feature of joint attention is a consistent perceptual perspective of the world, corresponding to the situational context of various people’s visions, creating a common information exchange background. Once the perspective is conformed, the actions between two people can be synchronized. In several studies on joint attention in children with hearing impairment, we identified that they spend reduced time within joint attention, frequently reacting and expanding their initiative and communicative actions [1, 10]. However, hearing loss in children affects the synchronicity of object naming by parents and the joint attention of children [10, 11]. Pronounced psychological states (desires or emotions) can be better perceived by children with hearing impairment, excluding hidden mental states, which are challenging to express without words, using social, behavioral signals [12, 13]. Consequently, we can identify the problem of studying the deficit of verbal and non-verbal joint attention skills in preschoolers with hearing impairment. Based on the scholars’ opinions, we should emphasize that the relevance of the method is an additional problem in the study of joint attention skills in children with hearing impairment. Thus, studies minimizing the requirements for oral tasks should be involved [1, 10, 14]. Therefore, based on the eye tracking method, it was proposed to study children with cochlear implants to coordinate joint attention with an adult during a joint

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naturalistic game, identifying specific features of social signal processing, hindering the normative development of the mental model. The study aims to identify the specifics of joint attention deficit in children with hearing impairment after cochlear implantation, including the frequency and method data of coordinated attention with an adult in a learning situation.

2 Materials and Methods The study sample consisted of preschoolers aged 5–7 (average age was 6 years and 2 months) with hearing impairment (sensorineural hearing loss, class H90 according to ICD-10) (n = 20). These children have a pronounced bilateral sensorineural hearing loss (the average auditory perception limit at frequencies of 0.5, 1, 2, and 4 kHz is more than 90 dB). The contrast group involved typically developing preschoolers (n = 20). Research procedure. The procedure included fixing and analyzing the child’s eye movement within the adult’s training instruction. A task involved the encryption method (similar to the Pieron–Ruzer method), when the child was suggested to fill in the signs-symbols. The instruction (rules for symbol encryption) was given in two versions: (1) verbal version, excluding showing, indicating gestures, and additional non-verbal means; (2) demonstration version, including rules for filling in the symbol except verbal accompaniment. In addition, the face and forms were marked for studying the child’s interaction with the selected interest area. The primary method was eye tracking using the portable tracker Pupil HeadsetPLabs–, the eye tracker in the form factor of glasses, binocular version.

3 Results According to the results of the study, heat maps were built and analyzed in a series of experiments, involving an adult training instruction (rules for symbol encryption) in two versions: (1) verbal version, excluding showing, indicating gestures, and additional non-verbal means; (2) demonstration version, including rules for filling in the symbol except verbal accompaniment. The heat maps showed critical eye tracking violation and joint attention violation, hindering the effective learning of the child regarding the situation of verbal instructions between adults and children with hearing impairment (see Fig. 1). It was possible to determine the specifics of joint attention deficit in children with hearing impairment and study the interaction difficulties between adults and children, identifying the development strategies for the material perception improvement within various learning areas in children with hearing impairment. Within the joint attention deficit manifestations regarding the learning process in children with

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Fig. 1 Heat maps and eye-tracking graphics. Source Compiled by the authors

hearing impairment, we can distinguish several difficulties: (1) detecting and maintaining eye contact with an adult, using additional means to establish joint attention episodes (e.g., the position of the head, body rotation, using gestures); (2) using the peripheral attention. Furthermore, we detected difficulties in the sensory perception of social signals due to the information lack (fragmentary perception). Children with hearing impairment express detail “completion”, field behavior, selectivity, and social signal violation (“snatching” of accidental perception field objects from the environment, avoiding significant objects and phenomena) within the visual attention. Within nonverbal instruction, children with hearing impairment follow the adult’s action more precisely, establishing and maintaining joint attention (see Fig. 2). Thus, successfully completed task by children with hearing impairment was the nonverbal instruction, demonstrating the rule of filling in symbols. Most likely, this is due to the correctional work with children, when experts use additional methods of establishing and maintaining the contact. Besides, specific methods are involved in attracting children’s attention to the speech, the face of the speaking adults and children. Children with hearing impairment are purposefully trained to respond to verbal and nonverbal signals. During the learning process, children with hearing impairment improve the specification and differentiation of visual perception, including (1) gestures, (2) lip movements, (3) facial expressions, (4) gestures of communication partners, and (5) articulation. Moreover, additional representation methods

Fig. 2 Heat maps and eye-tracking graphics. Source Compiled by the authors

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were used (demonstration, repetition, as well as verbal and gestural forms of explanation). Thus, the purposeful development of visual sensory-perceptual activity was conducted, including the formation of sensory standards, which allowed the child to accumulate social experience and compensate for the developmental lag of visual perception.

4 Discussion Due to the conducted studies, we identified that methods of detecting and interpreting the mental states of another person are selectively unavailable for preschoolers with hearing impairment. As a result, it is challenging for such children to form a visual perspective of the adult attention focus and predict social interaction. We used eye-tracking methods to establish the source of intention detection between preschoolers with hearing impairment and their social partners. However, we can distinguish the social information processing peculiarities in children with hearing impairment in real-time interaction with an adult using eye tracker technologies. Moreover, we can determine violation when establishing and maintaining joint attention in the child–adult interaction. Thus, children with hearing impairment have reduced initiating and responding skills towards the adult’s joint attention. The results of the study, reflecting the dynamics of interaction between adults and children with hearing impairment, allowed us to identify interaction support mechanisms in child–adult interaction. The research data showed that adult social gaze direction signals are available for children with hearing impairment. Thus, unlike typically developing children, who shift their gaze between the adult’s face and the object of interest, children with hearing impairment search for a social signal on the adult’s face. Children with hearing impairment use several methods to achieve joint attention with an adult. In addition, they can find a solution to establish joint attention to understand the adult’s intentions. The variety of methods of joint attention indicates flexibility in using multimodal means for detecting the adult’s intentions. Nevertheless, children with hearing impairment used various methods in joint attention with adults, demonstrating the flexibility to develop a wide range of methods to maintain the effective child–adult interaction required for comprehensive learning and development.

5 Conclusion The current study focused on hearing-impaired children with cochlear implants. Thus, we identified difficulties when using general references to mental states in communication exchanges. Moreover, we succeeded in tracing the consequences of

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sensory and conversational deprivation concerning the mental model functioning in children with hearing impairment after cochlear implantation. The eye tracking method identified the peculiarities of interaction between preschoolers with hearing impairment and adults, predicting learning challenges. Therefore, we found that time gaze shifts can predict joint attention deficit in the process of learning. Based on the study results, we can assume that the development specifics of children with hearing impairment implies increasing the joint attention skills to achieve learning results. We considered difficulties in establishing contact, underdevelopment of communication tools, undirected self-discipline of a child with hearing impairment, unstable joint attention on a general object between an adult and a child, the inability to make a flexible dialogue (verbal and efficient). In this regard, we should find a combination of direct, self-discipline, and proximate methods to maintain joint attention within learning and development processes. Acknowledgements The research results were obtained with the financial support of the presidential grant MK-307.2020.6 “Eye tracking research of social attention coordination disorders in preschool age”.

References 1. Yu C, Smith LB (2017) Hand-eye coordination predicts joint attention. Child Dev 6:2060–2078 2. Falikman MV (2019) Joint attention: the role in the child’s verbal and social development and intervention in autism spectrum. In: Bitova AL (ed) From Birth to adulthood. Terevinf, Moscow, pp 55–58 3. Peterson CC, Slaughter VP (2006) Telling the story of theory of mind: deaf and hearing children’s narratives and mental state understanding. Br J Dev Psychol 1:151–179 4. De Villiers PA (2005) The role of language in theory-of-mind development: what deaf children tell us. In: Astington W, Baird JA (eds) Why language matters for theory of mind. Oxford University Press, New York, pp 266–297 5. Dunn J, Brophy M (2005) Communication, relationships, and individual differences in children’s understanding of mind. In: Astington W, Baird JA (eds) Why language matters for theory of mind. Oxford University Press, New York, pp 50–69 6. Tomasuolo E, Valeri G, Di Renzo A et al (2013) Deaf children attending different school environments: sign language abilities and theory of mind. J Deaf Stud Deaf Educ 1:12–29 7. Jackson AL (2001) Language facility and theory of mind development in deaf children. J Deaf Stud Deaf Educ 3:161–176 8. AYu, Khokhlova (2008) Effectiveness of child-parent communication and intellectual development of deaf children. Cult-Hist Psychol 3:86–91 9. Marschark M, Green V, Hindmarsh G et al (2000) Understanding theory of mind in children who are deaf. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 8:1067–1073 10. Chen C-H, Castellanos I, Yu C et al (2020) What leads to coordinated attention in parent–toddler interactions? Children’s Hear Status Matters Dev Sci 23(3):e12919 11. McQuillan ME, Smith LB, Yu C et al (2020) Parents influence the visual learning environment through children’s manual actions. Child Dev 3:e701–e720 12. Meins E, Fernyhough C, Wainwright R et al (2002) Maternal mind-mindedness and attachment security as predictors of theory of mind understanding. Child Dev 6:1715–1726

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13. Meristo M, Falkman KW, Hjelmquist E (2007) Language access and theory of mind reasoning: evidence from deaf children in bilingual and oralist environments. Dev Psychol Copyr 5:1156– 1169 14. Morford J (1996) Insights to language from the study of gesture: a review of research on the gestural communication of non-signing deaf people. Lang Commun 2:165–178

A Software and Hardware Complex for Diagnostics and Operational Control of Functional Psychophysiological States and Behavior in Humans Svetlana A. Belousova , Vitaliy A. Vasilyev , and Elena A. Shumilova

Abstract The paper presents the results of creating a prototype of a hardware and software complex for diagnostics and operational control of functional psychophysiological states of conventionally healthy persons and persons with disabilities in current activities based on electroencephalogram (EEG) data. Electronic engineers, programmers, psychologists, and special educators have included a wearable hardware and software complex in the biofeedback system. This complex consists of a microprocessor-based EEG recorder, EEG sensors connected to it, and a set of programs for a personal computer. The EEG recorder is an autonomous mobile device that provides functions for measuring the electrical activity of the user’s brain in real-time. A smartphone program is being developed to provide customer feedback. Keywords Biofeedback (BFB) · Hardware and software complex (HSC) · Wearable EEG device · Management of functional states in current activities

1 Introduction Today, psychologists have the need and the ability to include data from the electroencephalogram (EEG) of a client with severe speech pathology into the system of psychological correction. Statistics show that the majority of research subjects with severe speech pathology at the age of 8–9 years, according to the EEG systematics S. A. Belousova (B) Chelyabinsk State University, Chelyabinsk, Russia e-mail: [email protected] V. A. Vasilyev South Ural State University, Chelyabinsk, Russia e-mail: [email protected] E. A. Shumilova Kuban State University, Krasnodar, Russia e-mail: [email protected] Chechen State University, Grozny, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova (ed.), Complex Social Systems in Dynamic Environments, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 365, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23856-7_98

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established in science [1], is a disorganized type with an alpha rhythm; there is a high percentage of slow fluctuations (30% and more) that are most of all presented in the occipital zones of the cortex, widely varying in shape. According to the data on the age dynamics of the EEG [2], our research subjects do not achieve the characteristics of the norm. According to the methodological recommendations of D. V. Lyutin [3], EEGBFB-trainings contribute to the formation of the voluntary concentration skill in subjects and consolidate the changes in the ability to self-control, level of attention, and behavioral reactions, which have begun in games and psycho-gymnastic exercises. Effects of EEG training are as follows: (1) increase in the alpha rhythm; (2) increase in the sensorimotor rhythm of 12–14 Hz; (3) beta-1 subrange; and (4) suppression of the theta rhythm (according to indications). Figure 1 shows an example of the EEG structure during the course of EEG-BFB training. According to the observations of subjects’ parents and teachers, changes in the subjects’ EEG are associated with improved speech, cognitive functions, coordination of movements, improved attention processes, decreased anxiety, and improved sleep. At the same time, practice shows the great importance of supporting work during the EEG-BFB training and post-training periods (e. g., family therapy, training parenting skills (eye and physical contact), and teaching behavior modification techniques). In addition, it is recommended to repeat the EEG-BFB training course (15–20 sessions) after 4–6 months. In total, it is recommended to take two courses a year [3]. The subjects’ difficulties in transferring and retaining skills in the current activity set the tasks for the researchers to develop the BFB technology. Specialists need wearable EEG devices included in the BFB system in the conditions natural for the client.

Fig. 1 Dynamics of the EEG structure during the course of BFB-training: upper graph—background measurements before the EEG-BFB session; lower graph—background measurements after the EEG-BFB session. Source Compiled by the authors

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Thus, wearable EEG devices can become a toolkit that is important for the implementation of a social request for the technologization of control of persons’ psychophysiological states in current activities. During the period of rapid development of neuroscience and high technologies, the process of diagnostics and management of human functional resources based on EEG data can be enriched with new methods. Digitalization can make it possible to implement a systemic-structural model of the organization of the correctional process—define the leading symptom complex underlying the defect (according to the levels of determination) and provide objectification of correctional programs, as well as reflection and institutionalization of their (programs’) individualization methods. The technical devices used currently and the corresponding methodological developments in the BFB loop imply work with the subject in laboratory conditions. Basically, the skills of relieving psycho-emotional stress are being practiced. Techniques for the development of cognitive functions are presented to a lesser extent. Methods of remote technological support of persons for self-regulation of the functional state and mobilization of their resources are not presented in the unified state information system for accounting of scientific research, experimental design, and technological works for civil purposes (EGISU NIOKTR). Low-potential measurements require high-precision, low-noise amplifiers (gain from 20,000 to 100,000, which is a lot). With this gain, even small noise becomes large and can lead to problems in examining electrical signals. In addition, there is a need for special devices for converting analog signals into a digital code for input into a computer and special programs for conducting frequency analysis and isolating certain waves (frequencies), for example, EEG. Such devices have always been quite bulky and rather expensive [4]. However, the present time is characterized by the rapid development of microelectronics. The SOC (System-on-a-Chip) technology has become a real technical revolution. On a 15 × 20 mm crystal, there is a computer with a power greater than a personal computer and means of communication with peripherals: analog-todigital converters, switches, amplifiers, and communication interfaces (e. g., a radio channel—WIFI, Bluetooth). In short, it is everything one needs to process electrical, biological signals [5]. Miniature amplifiers have been developed and produced specifically for measuring EEG and ECG signals. There are stationary and mobile ECG and EEG systems, the so-called holters. However, these are medical devices, and they are not intended for BFB sessions. For BFB, it is necessary to adapt hardware and software systems, develop special scripts, write special programs, and develop methods for remote feedback control. In addition to electrophysiological methods, purely physical methods based, for example, on navigation methods are used in the development of software and hardware BFB systems. The advent of revolutionary MEMS (micro-electro-mechanical systems) technologies can significantly increase the accuracy of positioning an object in space and significantly reduce manufacturing costs [6].

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2 Materials and Methods On the basis of a patent search, the task has been set to develop and create a prototype of a wearable hardware and software complex for a BFB system. The portable HSCBFB should consist of a microprocessor-based EEG recorder, EEG sensors connected to it, and a set of PC programs [7]. The developed EEG recorder should be an autonomous mobile device providing the following functions: ● ● ● ●

Measuring the electrical activity of the user’s brain in real-time. Filtering and preprocessing the received signals. Transmitting the received information over a wireless connection to a PC. Recording received information into the built-in memory with the possibility of subsequent transmission and processing to a PC. ● Transmitting the received information over a wireless connection using a wireless Internet gateway to a remote PC. A technical solution should be found to provide feedback to the test subject to control the functional state in current activities. The results of the work of the equipment being created should be agreed with the converter for measuring bioelectric and biomechanical signals of the human body for working with a PC for treating patients using the PBS-BOS BFB method (Registration Certificate No. FSR 2008/03995).

3 Results In 2017–2019, a research team, including biologists, psychologists, programmers, and electronics engineers, has been developing a prototype of a wearable device— a hardware and software complex for diagnostics and operational control of functional psychophysiological states of conventionally healthy persons and persons with disabilities in current activities based on EEG data. The HSC-BFB prototype (hardware and software complex of the biofeedback system) consists of a microprocessor-based EEG recorder, EEG sensors connected to it, and a set of PC programs. The EEG recorder being developed is an autonomous mobile device. Figure 2 shows the general view of the device. The converter interface module (Fig. 3) is equipped with a special processor module (SoC—System-on-a-Chip) with an integrated high-performance Bluetooth® Smart and WIFI transceiver, as well as an embedded microcontroller that can usually be programmed using an easy-to-use development environment. The data transfer rate of Bluetooth 4.0 (BLE) does not exceed 9,600 Bit/s. Software data compression is used before transmission and subsequent (after reception) signal recovery to solve this problem. It is possible to solve the problem of data transmission only after switching to the WIFI interface. For this purpose, one can use, for example, a special WIFI module ESP8266 from Espressif Systems. The data transfer rate reaches 150

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Fig. 2 Wearable hardware and software BFB-EEG complex. Source Compiled by the authors

Mbit/s, which completely solves the problem of data transmission of biosignals from almost any number of measurement channels. However, the power of the microprocessor is enough only for preprocessing the raw signal and preparing the data transfer. The quality of the connection between the sensor and the scalp, direct control of the analog-to-digital converter (ADC), compression of the digitized signal, and transfer of the received data to the network application computer are performed directly on the interface module of the converter.

Fig. 3 Communication device between computer and brain. Source Compiled by the authors

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Further processing (in particular, the fast Fourier transform, the construction of the spectral characteristics, and the isolation of individual components of the brain rhythm) occurs using the computing facilities of a stationary or mobile computer (laptop). The control action on any object can be generated using the processed EEG signal and signals from position and motion sensors (e. g., MEMS vibration acceleration sensors) [8–10]. One of the problems in the study of biosignals is the harmful effect of electrical interference. As a rule, this is a potential with a frequency of 50 Hz. To eliminate the influence of the 50 Hz frequency, the authors have used special notch filters. Based on the obtained spectral characteristics (Fig. 4), the authors have obtained frequency bands for the corresponding brain rhythms (Fig. 5), summing up the spectral components of the sensors used. When the spectral components change, the amplitudes of the corresponding alpha, beta, and gamma change rhythms in real-time. Since each rhythm is responsible for a certain activity of the brain, highlighting individual components, it is possible to create control actions in the form of feedback. The authors note that in addition to EEG potentials, other signals can be used for these purposes, for example, signals from position sensors. The idea of a mobile BFB system involves remote control. In this case, Bluetooth and WIFI have significant limitations. The use of the 4G LTE standard for wireless high-speed data transmission for mobile phones and other terminals practically removes the dependence on geography, and it is possible to control the BFB process Fig. 4 Spectral characteristics of EEG potentials. Source Compiled by the authors

Fig. 5 Brain rhythms derived from EEG potentials. Source Compiled by the authors

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even from another country. The use of the LTE standard also presupposes the use of cloud database services that work with large amounts of information at high speeds and time-bound. For this purpose, special time-series databases (TSDBs) [11] can be used currently. Unlike traditional relational databases (SQL), such databases allow real-time monitoring of the collection of storage and presentation of information. Time series database, for example, InfluxDB, is optimized for fast data acquisition. Such systems use indexing of data integrated over time [12]. As a result, the download speed does not decrease over time and remains fairly stable (from 50 to 500 thousand lines per second on one node). Graphical presentation of data can be performed by special software monitoring tools Grafana or Chronograf . They have built-in solutions for data visualization and creating user interfaces [13, 14].

4 Conclusion Thus, the results obtained earlier testify to the effectiveness of the use of biofeedback in a comprehensive rehabilitation program. In the course of biocontrol, a decrease in the initially increased activation of the structures of the limbic-reticular complex is observed, which manifests itself in an increase in the power of the alpha component of EEG, a significant decrease in anxiety, and an improvement in the general wellbeing of the subjects. The BFB technology can be used to teach self-regulation skills and increase the level of psychophysical activity of healthy persons for the purpose of prevention and clients suffering from neuropsychiatric disorders and psychosomatic diseases. The created mobile EEG device is conveniently integrated into the correction process and allows continuous monitoring of the electrical activity of the subject’s brain in natural conditions. This means that electroencephalography, being an adequate and, sometimes, the most optimal method for studying spontaneous brain activity, can help a person successfully manage the functional states in current activities. The use of modern technological advances and the simplicity of the model in creating a prototype of the wearable hardware and software BFB-EEG complex make it possible to count on the possibility of its refinement and implementation into the practice of specialists in solving a number of difficulties, including methodological ones.

References 1. Zhirmunskaya EA (1991) Electroencephalographic characteristics of discirculatory encephalopathy. Neuropathol Psychiatry S S Korsakov 91(1):35–41 2. Gorbachevskaya NL (2011) Child and adolescent psychiatry: clinical lectures for professionals. LLC Medical Information Agency, Moscow

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3. Lyutin DV (2008) Training of self-control and self-regulation using the method of biofeedback (BFB) for children and adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. JSC BIOSVYAZ, Saint Petersburg 4. Belousova SA, Voinilenko NV, Svetlakova LV (2019) Regulatory processes in children with severe speech impairment: research approaches. Educ Healthc 3–4(7–8):39–44 5. Valldorf J, Gessner W (2008) Advanced microsystems for automotive applications. In: IEEE international instrumentation and measurement technology conference Victoria. IEEE, Vancouver Island 6. Looney M (2014) An introduction to MEMS vibration monitoring. Analog Dialogue, 48(6). https://www.analog.com/media/en/analog-dialogue/volume-48/number-2/articles/intro-tomems-vibration-monitoring.pdf 7. Song EY, Lee KB (2008) Sensor network based on IEEE 1451.0 and IEEE p1451.2-RS232 National Institute of Standards and Technology. In: IEEE instrumentation and measurement technology conference. IEEE, Victoria 8. Belousova SA, Voinilenko NV (2018) Mechanisms for the development of network interaction in solving the problems of technological deficiencies in the education of children with disabilities. Mod High Educ: Innov Asp 11(4):70–77 9. Belousova SA, Vasiliev VA, Nitskiy AS et al (2018) Development of a software and hardware complex for diagnostics and operational management of psychophysical conditions in current activities of healthy persons and persons with disabilities. Appl Int Sci J Bull Psychophysiol 1:55–57 10. Vasiliev VA, Erpalov AV, AY, Nitskiy et al (2019) MEMS technologies and vibration diagnostics of power equipment of TPPs. Power Station 4:52–56 11. Standard for a smart transducer interface for sensors and actuators—common functions, communication protocols, and transducer electronic data sheet (TEDS) formats (2007) https:// standards.ieee.org/standard/1451_0-2007.html 12. Standard for a smart transducer interface for sensors and actuators—transducers to radio frequency identification (RFID) systems communication protocols and transducer electronic data sheet formats (2010) https://standards.ieee.org/standard/1451_7-2010.html 13. Smart transducer interface for sensors and actuators—digital communication and transducer electronic data sheet (TEDS) formats for distributed multidrop systems (2003) https://standa rds.ieee.org/standard/1451_3-2003.html 14. Smart transducer interface for sensors and actuators—network capable application processor information model (2000) https://webstore.iec.ch/preview/info_isoiecieee21451-1%7Bed1. 0%7Den.pdf

Neural Network Models for Psychodiagnostics: Analysis of Cross-Functional Relationships for Understanding Human Interactions Elena V. Slavutskaya , Il’dar M. Yusupov , and Leonid A. Slavutskii

Abstract In this paper, we suggested using elementary perceptron as the simplest feedforward neural network to identify and analyze cross-functional relationships of psychological characteristics. The use of a neural network is based on the fact that the quality of its training depends on the stability and structure of the connections between data in its input and output. For the analysis, we used the testing results of students aged 11–12 and 14–15. The results of psychodiagnostics included psychological characteristics of different levels: (1) individual psychological characteristics (inclinations and abilities); (2) personal traits; and (3) adaptive and motivational characteristics as signs of the psychosocial level. Furthermore, we gave examples of analyzing cross-functional relationships of psychological traits in cases where the tests have different numerical scales and the relationships between psychological traits are mediated. More than that, we proved that it is possible to conduct a comparative analysis of the results of training a neural network on the range and distribution of errors and the percentage of recognition of relationships. Furthermore, changing the set and number of attributes at the neural network input allows one to detect latent (hidden) connections between them. As a result, we identified the possibility of using artificial neural networks in psychological practice to analyze cross-functional relationships in a small sample of several dozen respondents. Keywords Artificial neural networks · Psychodiagnostic data · Cross-functional relationships · Latent relationships

E. V. Slavutskaya (B) Chuvash State Pedagogical University, Cheboksary, Russia e-mail: [email protected] I. M. Yusupov Kazan Innovative University Named After V.G. Timiryasov, Kazan, Russia e-mail: [email protected] L. A. Slavutskii Chuvash State University, Cheboksary, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova (ed.), Complex Social Systems in Dynamic Environments, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 365, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23856-7_99

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1 Introduction Artificial neural networks [ANN] and neural network models [1, 2] are proposed to be used for analyzing psychodiagnostic data in the context of obtaining information about the cross-functional relationships of various psychological signs [3, 4]. These can be signs of different levels: from the psychophysiological characteristics of a person to their relations in society [5, 6]. Furthermore, the nature of such relationships can be different: there may be highly non-linear and non-monotonic rerlationships or latent (mediated, hidden) connections between psychological signs [7, 8]. Such relationships cannot always be identified using traditional statistical methods, such as regression, correlation, cluster, or factor analysis [9, 10]. The use of neural network models as a machine learning method based on fuzzy logic [11] allows one to ignore differences in the dimensionality of psycho diagnostics data (numerical test scales) [12]. The nature of the relationships between the analyzed data does not impose restrictions on the ANN usage [13]. At the same time, some scientists suggest using the simplest neural network models with a small number of neurons and, accordingly, the connections between them [14]. Thus, one can work with a relatively small sample of psychodiagnostic data. The approach neither requires setting a link function between the analyzed data (as in regression analysis) nor a link measure (as in cluster analysis) [15]. Besides, ANNs are one of the most common elements of artificial intelligence and one of the data mining methods; they are increasingly used in various fields, including big data analysis in medicine and education [13, 16]. These approaches also apply to processing survey data and analyzing the results of psychodiagnostics. However, practical psychologists mostly use the traditional methods of statistical evaluation outlined above [17] since they have to deal with a limited sample of respondents. On the other hand, data mining methods, including ANN, may solve problems of classification, forecasting, or decision-making more effectively. Nonetheless, adequate ANN training requires a large sample of training examples [18]. The learning process and errors occurring during ANN training depend on the stable and structured relationships between the ANN input and output data. Therefore, the quality assessment of the ANN model training allows one to draw conclusions about the presence or absence of such relationships. These facts are the basis for analyzing cross-functional relationships of psychological characteristics in this paper. The research aims to analyze the possibility of using ANNs for processing psychodiagnostic data with a relatively small sample of respondents (several dozen people) and demonstrate its effectiveness for analyzing cross-functional relationships of psychological characteristics.

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2 Materials and Methods To verify the neural network algorithms, we used psychological testing of schoolchildren aged 10–12 and 14–15. Experimental data were obtained in schools of the Chuvash Republic, Russia. After preliminary processing and elimination of abnormal, duplicate, and incomplete data, we obtained 17–19 numerical indicators of test results for each student. Additionally, we applied the following standardized, widely used, and proven methods: 1. Culture Fair Intelligence Test [CFIT] [19]—IQ. 2. Tapping T-test of E. P. Ilyin—the type of nervous system according to the psychomotor parameters. 3. Children’s Personality Questionnaire [CPQ] (12PF) [19] (personal traits of children aged 8–12). 4. High School Personality Questionnaire [HSPQ] (14PF) [19] (personal traits of children aged 14–16). 5. Test developed by Y. M. Orlov on motivational characteristics “Need for achievement [NA]” [20]. 6. Test designed by Carl R. Rogers and Rosalind F. Dymond [21], the results of which present socio-psychological adaptability [AD] and maladaptivity (MAD). The psychological tests that we used have different numerical scales, and the statistical distribution of the results for each of the tests differs significantly from the Gaussian one. For instance, Fig. 1 shows the histograms of the distribution of the results of testing adaptive and motivational characteristics in a sample of 57 schoolchildren aged 14–15. For data processing, we enabled a simple ANN with the help of the Russian open-access software Deductor (www.basegroup.ru). All operations were performed automatically and were no more complicated than those using factor or cluster analysis. Figure 2 presents an example of the simplest direct propagation neural network (elementary perceptron) [22] for analyzing relationships between the results of different tests. Motivational and adaptive characteristics are used as target variables in the ANN output, and the values of personal traits are fed to its input. According to R. B. Cattel, personal traits include the following: ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

A—sociability (gregariousness versus isolation). B—verbal intelligence (abstract versus concrete thinking). C—degree of emotional stability. D—anxiety versus calmness. E—independence versus obedience. F—carelessness versus concern (levity versus care). G—moral normativity (high versus low discipline). H—boldness versus shyness. I—emotional sensitivity (sensitivity versus realism). J—(neurosis, “Hamlet’s factor”).

1106 Fig. 1 Histograms of feature values in the ANN output. Source Compiled by the authors

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30 N

20 10 0

20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 AD

20 N 10 0

20 15 N 10 5 0

20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 MAD

0

6

10

14

20 60 100 140 180 NA

Fig. 2 An example of the simplest ANN structure. Source Compiled by the authors

● ● ● ●

O—anxiety (guilt-proneness versus self-confidence). Q2—autonomy (degree of group dependence). Q3—degree of self-control. Q4—tension-relaxation (frustration degree).

The primary condition for using ANN is that the number of interconnections (computational paths) between neurons should be less than the training (analyzed) data sample. In this case, for ANN in Fig. 2, the number of such relationships is 14 × 2 + 2 = 30. Moreover, we found that the ANN can be used starting from a sample of

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approximately 50–60 respondents. In our case, the training process was conducted over 1500 cycles (epochs), while the error values stabilize. after 300 training cycles. Thus, the most critical criteria for adequate ANN training are the achieved levels of maximum and standard error and the percentage of recognized relationships.

3 Results Table 1 shows the results of the ANN training from Fig. 2. The best results were obtained for the relationships of personal traits in the ANN input with NA. The results achieved when training based on the target function NA and recognizing 100% of the relationships allow for a further data analysis. In addition to data in Table 1, quantitative criteria for the quality of the ANN training can serve as a scattering diagram and a histogram of the error distribution, an example of which is shown in Fig. 3. The scattering diagram shows the distribution of values of the target function (NA) relative to the source data: the degree of uncertainty of the constructed neural network model. A histogram of the error distribution demonstrates this uncertainty quantitatively: the amount of respondents’ data that does not correspond to the built model. In this case, for 91% of respondents, the error does not exceed 0.7%. Consequently, with a relatively small sample, one can identify the remaining respondents and perform their additional psychological diagnostics. Thus, to use the ANN and train it on a small sample of respondents, it is possible to develop a system and methodological support for evaluating the quality of neural network models using traditional statistical criteria. Then one can use a fairly simple visual structure of neural networks and conduct a comparative analysis. Statistical criteria for assessing quality are understandable for psychologists who do not have special mathematical skills. Using statistical criteria for assessing the quality of the ANN training, one can change its structure, choosing the optimal ANN with the best indicators of training and testing. The corresponding procedure for the ANN (Fig. 2) involved the following steps: when the target function NA was in the output of the ANN, the data of individual characteristics were consistently excluded from the input. Table 1 Results of the ANN training from Fig. 2

Output sign

Maximum error, σmax

Standard error, σs

Relationships recognized, S (%)

AD

2.67 × 10−1

1.29 × 10−2

91.23

MAD

1.13 × 10−1

9.37 × 10−3

92.98

NA

4.68 × 10−2

5.07 × 10−3

100

Source Compiled by the authors

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Fig. 3 The histogram of the ANN training errors. The solid curve is the cumulative sum. Source Compiled by the authors

The ANN was trained again, and the maximum, standard error, and link recognition percentages were assessed. First, the personality trait A was excluded, then B, and so on. As a result, the most stable interrelations with motivational characteristics have personal traits C, D, and F. The quality of ANN training with only three input neurons corresponding to data on these personal traits is not worse than for ANN (Fig. 2) with 14 input neurons: (σmax = 4.08 × 10−2 , σs = 4.61 × 10−3 , S = 100%). Thus, the results of the NA test have structured relationships with emotional traits at this age: (1) C—the degree of emotional stability, (2) D—anxiety versus calmness, and (3) F—levity versus care. This conclusion can be drawn with the reservation “within the analyzed sample of respondents”. The approach described above, based on assessing the quality of ANN training and empirically identifying the most significant features in its input, allows for a vertical system analysis of psychodiagnostic data when changing the neural network structure. If the input of the neural network contains significant characteristics of the lower level (inclinations, individual psychological characteristics), and the output contains characteristics of the upper (social) level, they may not be directly related. Connections between different-level psychological characteristics can be latent, that is, mediated by other psychological qualities. The corresponding example of a neural network model is shown in Fig. 4. This neural network was used for vertical system analysis of pre-adolescents testing data (81 students aged 11–12, 5th grade of secondary school). The ANN input contains the values of basic-level attributes: (1) gender, (2) type of nervous system, (3) fluid intelligence; while the output contains the motivational characteristic. When

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Fig. 4 Example of the ANN structure to analyze connections between different-level psychological characteristics. Source Compiled by the authors

there are three input signs (solid lines of computational paths in the figure), the quality of neural network training was very low: σmax = 12%, S = 86%. After that, the values of personal traits were fed to the input according to the theory of R. B. Cattell: the communicative traits A or H, as well as the volitional trait G (relationships in Fig. 4, indicated by the dotted line). In this case, the quality of neural network training is improved dramatically (σmax = 4.8%, S = 100%). Thus, we can conclude that the relationship of individual psychological characteristics of the basic level (inclinations) with motivation at the given age (11–12) is mediated by students’ communicative and volitional qualities.

4 Discussion Different authors differently classify machine learning and data mining methods. Most often, ANNs are referred to as image recognition tools or “predictive” methods. However, even within the predictive methods, ANN allows to solve regression analysis problems [1] effectively: build approximations, including non-linear ones. Such dependencies between the input data and the target function in the output of the ANN are the result of non-linear multiparametric optimization if we consider the process of the ANN training. Approximations are obtained within the “if then” mechanism; they are determined by the values of the entire sample of training examples. For example, for analyzing psychodiagnostic data, one can obtain approximating relationships between psychological traits for each respondent [23]. However, these relationships depend on the data of all respondents and allow only comparative qualitative analysis, not a quantitative one. Vertical system analysis of the psychodiagnostic data was conducted in accordance with the concept of B. F. Lomov [24]. The study of the psyche is a system with the lower level considering the components and systems of physiological support for mental activity [25, 26]. At the next levels, the cognitive functions, processes, states, qualities, and behavior of a person are studied. Finally, the personality and its socio-psychological relations occupy the highest level [27, 28]. This

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approach provides broad opportunities for systemizing and analyzing psychological data from psychophysiological characteristics to psychosocial phenomena. The corresponding analysis is increasingly used in education [29, 30]. Additionally, the study of biological predictors of social behavior is a rapidly developing field [31]. The research results show that the process of the ANN training can be used to analyze cross-functional relationships of psychological characteristics of different levels. Suppose one changes the psychological signs in the input and the target function in the output of the neural network. Then a comparative analysis of learning errors and the percentage of recognized relationships will allow one to draw conclusions about the presence and stability of both direct and indirect interrelations between the analyzed results of psychological testing. The nature of such relationships, the degree of their non-linearity and non-monotonicity can be identified within the study sample in the mode of using the “if then” mode of the trained ANN selectively for each respondent. We emphasize that such an analysis can be carried out on a limited sample of several dozen respondents.

5 Conclusion The examples of processing and analysis of psychodiagnostic data show that the most straightforward neural network of direct propagation (elementary perceptron) effectively solves one of the most critical tasks of psychology: detecting and analyzing non-linear latent interrelations between psychodiagnostic indicators. These aims can be achieved with a relatively small sample of respondents. The tool that we proposed is currently widely available and does not require special mathematical skills. Most software products for statistical data processing allow one to build, train, and test a simple ANN in automatic mode. As a tool for processing psychodiagnostic data, neural network analysis allows one to solve several tasks. First, if the ANN input has psychological characteristics and the output is related to gender, statistics show the most significant feminine and masculine characteristics. Second, ANN allows one to detect latent non-linear relationships between test data even when test results have limited and different numerical scales. Third, using ANN allows one to solve the issue of a hierarchical classification of psychological characteristics. Acknowledgements We express our gratitude to professor V. S. Abrukov for his advice in the data processing.

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References 1. Kantardzic M (2011) Data mining: concepts, models, methods, and algorithms, 2nd edn. John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken 2. Kruglov VV, Borisov VV (2002) Artificial neural networks. Theory and practice. Goryachaiya Liniya-Telecom, Moscow 3. Baxt WG (1994) Complexity, chaos and human physiology: the justification for non-linear neural computational analysis. Cancer Lett 77(2–3):85–93 4. Shendiapin VN, Skotnikova IG, Barabanchikov VA et al (2008) Mathematical modeling of confidence in decision-making in sensory tasks. Psychol J 29(4):84–97 5. Delibalt VV, Degtyaryov AV, Dozortseva EG et al (2017) Evaluation of cognitive functions, personality, and regulatory sphere in minors with deviant and delinquent behavior within the authority of the psychological, medical and educational committee. Int J Cogn Res Sci, Eng Educ 5(2):107–117 6. Han H, Firat S, Anchan MD (2019) Connecting levels of analysis in educational neuroscience: a review of multi-level structure of educational neuroscience with concrete examples. Trends Neurosci Educ 17:100113 7. Pluck G, Mancero PB, Ortíz EPA et al (2020) Differential associations of neurobehavioral traits and cognitive ability to academic achievement in higher education. Trends Neurosci Educ 18:100124 8. Slavutskaya EV, Abrukov VS, Slavutskii LA (2019) Simple neural network algorithms for evaluating latent links of younger adolescent’s psychological characteristics. Exp Psychol 12(2):131–144 9. Glass JV, Stanly YC (1970) Statistical methods in education and psychology. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs 10. Witten IH, Frank E, Hall MA et al (2011) Data mining: practical machine learning tools and techniques. Elsevier, Amsterdam 11. Adriaens F, Lijffijt J, De Bie T (2019) Subjectively interesting connecting trees and forests. Data Min Knowl Disc 33:1088–1124 12. Usher M, Zakay D (1993) A neural network model for attribute-based decision processes. Cogn Sci 17:349–396 13. Grossberg S (2020) A path toward explainable ai and autonomous adaptive intelligence: deep learning, adaptive resonance, and models of perception, emotion, and action. Front Neurorobot 14:36 14. Slavutskaya EV, Slavutskii LA (2018) Preteen age: the analysis of the multilevel psychodiagnostic data based on neural network models. Society. Integration. Education. Proc Int Sci Conf 5:455–464 15. Mei J, Lv H, Yang L (2019) Clustering for heterogeneous information networks with extended star-structure. Data Min Knowl Disc 33:1059–1087 16. Reznichenko NS, Shilov SN, Abdulkin VV (2013) Neuron network approach to the solution of the medical-psychological problems and in diagnosis process of persons with disabilities (Literature review). J Sib Fed University HumIties & Soc Sci 9(6):1256−1264 17. Vorobev AV (2010) The review of mathematical methods application in psychological research. Psychol Res 2(10):8 18. Schmidhuber J (2014) Deep learning in neural networks: an overview. Neural Netw 61:85–117 19. Cattell RB (1990) Advanced in Cattellian personality theory. Guilford Press, New York, Handbook of personality. theory and research 20. Eliseev OP (2003) Practicum on psychology of personality. Piter, Saint Petersburg 21. Rogers CR, Dymond RF (1954) Psychotherapy and personality change: coordinated research studies in the client-centered approach. University of Chicago Press, Chicago 22. Rosenblatt R (1959) Principles of neurodynamics. Spartan Books, New York 23. Slavutskaya EV, Slavutskii LA (2014) Neural network analysis of the interrelation between verbal and nonverbal intelligence of younger adolescents. Psikhologicheskii Zhurnal 35(5):28– 36

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24. Lomov BF (1996) Systematic in psychology: selected psychological works. Modek, Voronezh 25. Barabanchikov VA (2007) The system approach in the structure of psychological cognition. Methodol Hist Psychol 2(1):86–99 26. Geary DC (2018) Efficiency of mitochondrial functioning as the fundamental biological mechanism of general intelligence (g). Psychol Rev 125(6):1028–1050 27. Golubeva EA (2018) About study of reactivity, strength, and inertia of nervous system in B. M. Teplov—V. D. Nebylitsyn school. Psikhologicheskii Zhurnal 39(2):72–78 28. Keefer KV, Parker JD, Saklofske DH (eds) (2018) Emotional intelligence in education (Integrating research with practice). Springer, Cham 29. Amiel JJ, Tan YS (2019) Using collaborative action research to resolve practical and philosophical challenges in educational neuroscience. Trends Neurosci Educ 16:100116 30. Daugherty AM, Sutton BP, Hillman CH et al (2020) Individual differences in the neurobiology of fluid intelligence predict responsiveness to training: evidence from a comprehensive cognitive, mindfulness meditation, and aerobic exercise intervention. Trends Neurosci Educ 18:100123 31. Kuznetsova VB (2017) Personality traits as mediator of interrelationship between upbringing methods and behavioral problems of children. Psikhologicheskii Zhurnal 38(1):31–40

A Physical Self-Image of the Middle-Aged Women Engaged in Soft Fitness Techniques: Implications for Understanding Behavioral Patterns Olga I. Chernyshova , Natalia A. Luzhbina , and Irina A. Ralnikova

Abstract The paper focuses on assessing the physical self-image in middle-aged women engaged in soft fitness techniques (Pilates, yoga, body flex, stretching, myofascial release, and their combinations). The paper presents the analysis of data from scientific sources on selected topics and the results of studying the physical selfimage in middle-aged women involved in soft fitness techniques. As a psychodiagnostic tool for assessing satisfaction with the components of the physical self-image, the authors have used V. A. Labunskaya’s questionnaire Estimated and Restraining Interpretation of the Components of Appearance in the modification by N. A. Luzhbina. The nonparametric Mann–Whitney U test and factor analysis by the IBM program SPSS Statistics v. 23.0 are the methods of mathematical and statistical data processing used. The study involved two groups of women aged 30 to 45 years. The first group consisted of women engaged in soft fitness techniques for at least six months, and the second group included women not engaged in such techniques. The authors have identified that middle-aged women practicing soft fitness techniques are highly satisfied with the components of their physical self-image associated with such characteristics as femininity, sexuality, and attractiveness to the opposite sex. Keywords Self-concept · Physical self-image · Soft fitness techniques · Middle age · Gender roles

O. I. Chernyshova · N. A. Luzhbina (B) · I. A. Ralnikova Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia e-mail: [email protected] O. I. Chernyshova e-mail: [email protected] I. A. Ralnikova e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova (ed.), Complex Social Systems in Dynamic Environments, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 365, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23856-7_100

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1 Introduction According to V. A. Labunskaya [1], physical appearance, as well as behavior, gestures, facial expressions, clothes, and accessories, form an individual image of each person. These aspects are essential for many females since they express themselves through their external image, behavior, and accessories. Such self-representation is associated with females’ roles in society, family, and at work [2]. Young women can change their appearance with beauty treatments, strength training, and nutrition. However, at middle age, the value structure of many women changes due to physiological reasons, life experiences, and changes in the self-concept [3]. Middle-aged women driven by this attitude begin to change their diets, clothing design, and fitness training. Classic fitness as a tool for influencing the image of their physical self no longer satisfies modern women. Therefore, many women pay attention to conscious forms of fitness—the so-called Body & Mind directions (soft fitness techniques), where movement is combined with the coordination of the breathing rhythm and awareness of body sensations, such as Pilates, yoga, body flex, stretching, myofascial release, and their combinations [4]. The main scientific publications on this issue refer to the studies of the functional and physiological state in middle-aged women and their changes when they perform these fitness techniques. According to S. T. Kim and J. H. Lee [5], as well as D. Chmielewska and her co-authors [6], breathing exercises used in soft fitness techniques positively impact the abdominal and pelvic floor muscles and improve the function of the genitourinary system. Besides, it has a positive effect on the assessment of women’s well-being and appearance. The relevance of the topic under study is due to the fact that the image of the physical self as a component of the self-concept in middle-aged women engaged in soft fitness techniques is not sufficiently studied in psychological science. At the same time, at middle age, the importance of a meaningful choice of tools for the transformation of the physical body and the qualitative transformation of the selfimage becomes increasingly acute. According to G. J. Craig [7], at this age, there is an awareness of the existence of one’s youth and its extremes and making decisions in a conscious way by a person. In connection with the above, studying the features of the image of the physical self in middle-aged women engaged in soft fitness techniques is of scientific interest to the authors.

2 Materials and Methods The study involved 40 women aged 30 to 45 years and living in Barnaul and Altai Krai. A group of women engaged in soft fitness techniques for at least six months included 20 people, and 20 women of the same age not engaged in fitness formed a control group.

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The authors have conducted the research using V. A. Labunskaya’s questionnaire Estimated and Restraining Interpretation of the Components of Appearance in the modification by N. A. Luzhbina. The use of the modified questionnaire based on the psychosemantic approach has given the following opportunities: ● Quantifying the differences in the analysis of the appearance components under study. ● Revealing the presence of static and dynamic characteristics in the structure of the physical self-image in women engaged in soft fitness techniques. ● Evaluating changes in the structure of women’s gender roles. At the first research stage, the authors have used a nonparametric Mann–Whitney U test to assess the differences in quantitative features between two sets of samples. The presence of quantitative assessments obtained using the questionnaire at the second research stage has allowed constructing a factorial model of the physical self-image in middle-aged females engaged in soft fitness techniques. Statistical processing of the research data has been performed using the IBM program SPSS Statistics v. 23.0.

3 Results Based on the results of statistical processing of data from the two independent samples (Mann–Whitney U test), the authors have found significant differences in the assessment of the appearance components in women practicing soft fitness techniques and those not engaged in them. The authors could observe the differences in the following components. ● ● ● ●

Face (p = 0.011). Build (p = 0.03). Appearance (p = 0.015). Expressiveness of the behavior (p = 0.011).

As for the component Evaluation of appearance, there were practically no reliable differences except for the characteristic I like to show my photos to other people (p = 0.03). That is, middle-aged women engaged in soft fitness techniques are more satisfied with the components of their appearance than their peers who are not engaged. A detailed analysis of the characteristics of the Face component has revealed the following reliable differences. ● ● ● ● ● ●

Graceful (p = 0.033). Outstanding (p = 0.044). Well-built (p = 0.04). Healthy (p = 0.015). Well-groomed (p = 0.036). Feminine (p = 0.016).

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The analysis of characteristics of the Build component has shown the following significant differences. ● ● ● ● ● ●

Harmonious (p = 0.035). Well-built (p = 0.023). Proportional (p = 0.007). Well-groomed (p = 0.021). Attractive to the opposite sex (p = 0.007). Feminine (p = 0.009).

In the Appearance component, the authors have obtained reliable differences in the following characteristics. ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

Beautiful (p = 0.002). Attractive (p = 0.003). Interesting (p = 0.024). Original (p = 0.04). Sexual (p = 0.03). Attractive to the opposite sex (p = 0.042). Feminine (p = 0.012).

In the Expressiveness of the behavior component (facial expressions, gestures, gait, gaze, etc.), the authors have statistically processed the following results. ● ● ● ● ● ●

Harmonious (p = 0.011). Expressive (p = 0.043). Attractive (p = 0.006). Attractive to the opposite sex (p = 0.017). Sexual (p = 0.022). Feminine (p = 0.004).

This analysis has allowed identifying and detailing the differences in the components of the physical self-image in middle-aged women engaged and not engaged in soft fitness techniques. In order to identify the content of the image of the physical self in middleaged women engaged in soft fitness techniques, the authors have conducted a factor analysis of the data obtained by the method of main components and the varimax rotation. The factor analysis has made it possible to identify three factors describing 72.7% of the variance. The first factor, which explains 29.11% of the variance, includes the following characteristics of appearance: ● ● ● ● ●

Sexual body (a = 0.885). Interesting appearance (a = 0.847). Healthy body (a = 0.811). Attractive body to the opposite sex (a = 0.806). Well-built body (a = 0.783).

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● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

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Attractive body (a = 0.773). Sexual behavior (a = 0.749). Attractive appearance (a = 0.737). Beautiful appearance (a = 0.733). Graceful body (a = 0.720). Sexual person (a = 0.719). Attractive appearance (a = 0.699). Behavior attractive to the opposite sex (a = 0.673). Harmonious body (a = 0.663).

This factor includes static and average dynamic characteristics of the self-image and has been named image attractiveness. The second factor describes 24.76% of the variance and includes the following characteristics of appearance. ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

Extraordinary person (a = 0.824). Well-groomed person (a = 0.802). Healthy person (a = 0.751). Colorful appearance (a = 0.746). Original appearance (a = 0.743). Graceful behavior (a = 0.730). Spectacular appearance (a = 0.722). Individual behavior (a = 0.703). Unusual body (a = 0.663). Well-groomed body (a = 0.661).

This factor includes average dynamic characteristics of the self-image and is called image individuality. The third factor includes 18.9% of the variance and describes the following characteristics of appearance. ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

Feminine face (a = 0.822). Expressive face (a = 0.781). Attractive face (a = 0.754). Attractive face to the opposite sex (a = 0.744). Graceful face (a = 0.737). Feminine appearance (a = 0.730). Natural behavior (a = 0.665). Feminine behavior (a = 0.661). Well-built face (a = 0.646).

This factor consists of static and dynamic characteristics of the image of the physical self and has been named image femininity. The factor analysis of the physical self-image in women engaged in soft fitness techniques confirms the authors’ conclusions about the positive impact of this type of fitness on perceiving static and dynamic characteristics of the physical self-image related to femininity, sexuality, and attraction to the opposite sex.

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4 Discussion The structure of the revealed components of the image of the physical self has shown that there are differences in static and dynamic characteristics of the appearance of women engaged in soft fitness techniques. In this group of women, such characteristics as sexuality, femininity, and attractiveness to the opposite sex are more clearly expressed in assessing the face, build, appearance, and expressiveness of behavior. Differences in the evaluation of these components among females engaged in soft fitness techniques may be due to their satisfaction with changes in their body shape and posture, as well as the way clothes, accessories, and cosmetics combine with the changed body and adorn it. Soft fitness techniques contribute to changing the length of body muscles [8]. As a result, muscles become longer but retain their elasticity, which gives the figure a more feminine appearance. Probably, this is the reason for emphasizing the femininity characteristic in the structure of appearance. In addition, one of the features of these fitness techniques is the emphasis on deep stabilization of the abdominal and pelvic floor muscles, which normalizes the functioning of the pelvic organs, contributes to the normalization of female sex hormones [9], and, therefore, affect the satisfaction of women practicing soft fitness techniques with such characteristics of their appearance as sexuality, attractiveness to the opposite sex, and femininity. When analyzing the Evaluation of appearance data, the authors have found significant differences between the group of middle-aged women engaged in soft and nonsoft fitness only in the characteristic I like to show my photos to other people. This indicates that women practicing soft fitness techniques are more satisfied with their appearance. In addition, soft fitness techniques help control posture, which is often seen in photographs and evaluated positively [10].

5 Conclusion The authors have concluded that middle-aged women engaged in soft fitness techniques are more satisfied with their physical self-image than their peers who are not engaged in soft fitness. Since soft fitness techniques contribute to the comprehensive development of personality and body awareness, they actualize the transformation of the image of the physical self and change the models of self-presentation of women. At the same time, these women are more satisfied with their femininity, sexuality, and attraction to the opposite sex, which contributes to the deepening of self-acceptance and the expansion of the boundaries of their gender identity.

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References 1. Labunskaya VA (2019) Multifactor model for studying the attitude to appearance: theoretical bases and empirical research. In: XVI European congress of psychology. Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 2. Luzhbina NA, Sheveleva IV (2015) Gender features of the image of the physical self in middleaged women. In: Lomonosov readings in the Altai: fundamental problems of science and education, collection of scientific articles of the international conference. Altai State University, Barnaul 3. Burns R (1986) Self-concept development and education. Progress, Moscow 4. Hoffman J, Gabel F (2015) The origins of Western mind-body exercise methods. Phys Ther Rev 20(5–6):315–324 5. Kim ST, Lee JH (2017) The effects of Pilates breathing training on trunk muscle activation in healthy female subjects: a prospective study. J Phys Ther Sci 29(2):194–197 6. Chmielewska D, Stania M, Kucab-Klich K et al (2019) Electromyographic characteristics of pelvic floor muscles in women with stress urinary incontinence following sEMG-assisted biofeedback training and Pilates exercises. PLoS ONE 14(12):e0225647 7. Craig JG (2006) Human development. Piter, Saint-Petersburg 8. Gala- P, Calvo C, Serrano- A et al (2018) Ultrasound evaluation of the abdominal wall and lumbar multifidus muscles in participants who practice Pilates: a 1-year follow-up case series. J Manipulative Physiol Ther 41(5):434–444 9. Gronesova P, Cholujova D, Kozic K et al (2018) Effects of short-term Pilates exercise on selected blood parameters. Gen Physiol Biophys 37(4):443–451 10. Silva GB, Morgan MM, Gomes de WR et al (2015) Electromyographic activity of rectus abdominal muscles during dynamic Pilates abdominal exercises. J Bodyw Mov Ther 19(4):629– 635

Personal Meanings of the Generation Z in a Pandemic: Risk Diagnostics Larisa V. Zanina , Alexander V. Miroshnichenko , and Olesya A. Radchenko

Abstract The paper presents an analysis of the current situation in the context of a pandemic from the standpoint of the “risk society” concept, characterized by deep contradictions between generations. The research presents comparative characteristics of value orientations, personal meanings, and values of generations X, Y, and Z, allowing one to test the hypothesis that in a pandemic, the list of risks arising in society has significantly expanded, which can lead to a change in the personal meanings of generation Z, as the most capable part of the population. The research examines (1) comparative characteristics and features of subjective control over various life situations in representatives of all three generations, (2) the vitality levels in representatives of all generations, and the correlation links between the success in the formation of personal meanings and general semantic structures of the personality; (3) a conducted online interview of high school students, during which the respondents has described three conflict situations that are significant for them and the ways of avoiding them in the “student–teacher-parent” system. The obtained results confirm the hypothesis on the growth of risks in society. Nonetheless, it is evident that the young people’s generation Z is characterized by (1) reducing the necessities of life, (2) declining the significance of the dominant social values (primarily, indicators such as “kindness” and “tradition”), and (3) high prevalence (compared to the older generation) of “universalism” indicator. In the pandemic conditions, the following aspects remain relevant for young people—their appearance, financial capacities of a family, profession choice, and leadership in the team. The obtained results determine the directions of counteraction to the emergence of transformation risks in personal and value meanings of young people in the education system, including considering the revealed changes in young people’s attitudes in educational L. V. Zanina · A. V. Miroshnichenko · O. A. Radchenko (B) Southern Federal University, Rostov-on-Don, Russia e-mail: [email protected] L. V. Zanina e-mail: [email protected] A. V. Miroshnichenko e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova (ed.), Complex Social Systems in Dynamic Environments, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 365, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23856-7_101

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activities. It also implies the likelihood of adverse impact risks of the network on students’ personal development in a mixed learning model, focusing the attention of teachers and parents on the organization of activities that contribute to the formation of the experience of students’ creative self-realization. Keywords Lockdown risks · Instability · Generation Z · Personal meanings · Resilience

1 Introduction Currently, over the past decade and especially during the lockdown period, there have been global changes and individual rapid force majeure changes [8]. A new reality that brings rapid changes has spontaneously emerged (and continues to form), which affects both politics, such as the usual infrastructure of social life and the everyday routine of daily life. A fundamentally new characteristic of current reality is a new information-communication field, resulting from a breakthrough development of digital technologies. Toffler has suggested that by virtue of computerization, a large number of people will be able to work at home, which, in turn, will affect the development of intra-family relations and improve the atmosphere in a family [9]. Emphasizing the exclusivity of the current situation, Shestakova examines a qualitative leap in the rate of development (QLRD), which marks the transition to a new temporal era [6]. Considering the current situation, philosophers and sociologists focus on the fact that an increase in the density and variety of events gives rise to ambiguity in their assessments and all together increases the current global uncertainty. Simultaneously, looking at the essence of uncertainty, it has two sides: 1. One can view the mentioned situation as promising and helping to create additional opportunities and development prospects; 2. As a period of social trauma, when rejected by the continuity of values and traditions, and the changes are perceived solely as entertainment [5, 7]. The opinions of the “risk society” theory supporters are significant for considering this aspect [2], who believe that dangers and risks are the essences of the development of nature or society, forcing individuals to respond to them. Simultaneously, according to Beck, modern risks are fundamentally different from previous socio-cultural and economic development risks. However, they are typical for each development period of the “society of risks.” At each stage, risks are generated in mathematical progression and threaten both the individual’s life and social development. Therefore, there is no absolute security of the individual in modern society, nor is there a risk-free behavior of the individual that has constant contact with a significant number of risks [2]. The position of political scientists is essential in considering the current socioeconomic situation. The integrity of public consciousness in a pandemic context is deconstructed when the relations between the carriers of this consciousness of

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different generations are in conflict. The necessity to study the causes of current risks is obvious. It will make it possible to predict methodological approaches and technologies to prevent the occurrence of risks and threats to human life [4]. At the same time, sociologists point out positive changes in society during the lockdown. They include willingness for solidarity and cohesion in overcoming the encountered difficulties and change of the human life value and the moral and psychological qualifications of a person (e.g., the transition of social ideals from athletes and artists to medical workers) [1]. The straightforward conclusion that in the conditions of the pandemic, the list of risks that arise in society has significantly expanded suggests changes in a person’s spiritual sphere. The validity of this statement is the research subject. The authors proceed from the fact that one of the most critical aspects of human existence is the process of creating meanings that determine the semantic and value orientation of the subject [3].

2 Materials and Methods The research object defines the characteristics of life positions, personal meanings, and values of the most capable part of the population—youth— whose age affiliation is defined as “generation Z.” The research initially uses an authors’ questionnaire, which makes it possible to substantiate the primary patterns of the study and the structure of the sample of interest. Comparative characteristics and features of subjective control over diverse life situations in representatives of all three generations are studied using the Subjective Control Level (SCL) technique, which is a modified version of the Rotter questionnaire. The methodology allows one to determine the degree of responsibility of a young person for his actions and life in general. Simultaneously, two types of responsibility localization of each generation are diagnosed: 1. External (when a person believes that what happens to them does not depend on themselves and is mediated only by the influence of external causes); 2. Internal (when a person considers any life event as the result of their own efforts). To study the features of the relationship between young persons’ personality changes and their life features, the “Schwartz Value Survey,” qualitatively modified based on the use of the Rocky technique, is used to study the dynamics of group values change depending on changes in society. The levels of life comprehension by representatives of different generations and the determination of correlation between success in the formation of interpersonal meanings and general semantic structures of the personality are diagnosed using the Russian version of the Goal in Life Test (GIL) (James Crumbaugh and Leonard Maholic), adapted by D. A. Le. In the process of adaptation, the English version of the seven-stage quantifier has been modified into a Russian five-stage quantifier (“neverrarely-sometimes-often-constantly”). The Z generation resilience level is studied in

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terms of the resilience technique (Hardy Survey) by S. Maddi, adapted by D. A. Leontyev and E. I. Rasskazova. In this method, the personal variable hardiness (defined as resilience in the Russian version) characterizes a measure of a person’s ability to withstand a stressful situation, maintaining internal balance without reducing the success of the activity. The research considers hardiness as a set of individual beliefs about oneself, the world, relations with the world, which are described through the categories “engagement,” “control,” and “taking risk.” The severity of these resilience components is an indicator of countering a person’s risk of internal stress in stressful situations (due to persistent coping with stresses and perceiving them as less significant). The standard version of the methodology for studying personality resilience includes 45 points. The authors use an online interview of high school students at the final research stage, during which respondents describe three conflict situations that have occurred between the respondents and their teachers (“student–teacher”), their parents (“student-parent”), and classmates (“student–student”). The authors have asked the respondents to describe their vision of the way of avoiding each conflict situation.

3 Results Having studied the features of subjective control of three generations in various life situations (Table 1, Fig. 1), the authors have found that respondents of generation Z show the lowest level. The obtained results suggest that young people of generation Z are characterized by: 1. A decrease in life needs; 2. A decrease in the importance of values dominant in society. The mentioned conclusion is supported by the study results obtained during a comparative study of the general level of life comprehension. Young people have shown significantly lower indicators than representatives of generation X and Y (see Table 2 and Fig. 2). These distinctions are evident in comparing values on the scales of “kindness” and “traditions”—they are not vital to young people. The only predominant indicator in respondents of generation Z is universalism. Result analysis of a comparative study of the resilience severity confirms the hypothesis of the exponential growth of risks in society. The authors mention the relatively stable correlation of age characteristics. The “resistance to risks” indicator is low among respondents—the representatives of all three generations at each indicator stage (see Table 3, Fig. 3). The degree of formation of the risk acceptance indicator is significantly influenced by the richness of impressions, variability, and heterogeneity of the individual’s living environment. In the process of analyzing the resilience characteristics of generation Z, the authors turn to a more detailed study of changing the value characteristics dynamics

2.173

2.978

11.434

After 2003

Source: Compiled by the authors

6.978 9.173

5.565

8.043

20.217

25.586

Scale failure internality scale (In)

1983–2003

Achievement Internality Scale (Id)

1963–1983

Scale of general internality (Io)

Year of birth

Table 1 Comparative results of subjective control level

2.217

6.934

4.304 1.608

6.413

4.326

The scale of The scale of internality in family internality in the relationships (Ic) field of industrial relations (Ip)

1.195

2.847

2.282

Internality scale in the field of interpersonal relations (Im)

1.695

−3.152

−0.934

Internality scale for health and illness (Iz)

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30 25 20 15 10 5 0 -5

Scale of general internality

Achievement Internality Scale

Scale failure internality scale

The scale of internality in family relationships

The scale of internality in the field of industrial relations

1983-2003

After 2003

1963-1983

Internality scale in the field of interpersonal relations

Internality scale for health and illness

Fig. 1 Comparative results of the level of subjective control of respondents of X, Y, and Z generations. Source Compiled by the authors

Table 2 Values of X, Y, and Z generations (Schwartz value survey) Year of birth

Conformity

Traditions

Kindness

Universalism

1963–1983

22.821

20.641

34.333

22.179

1983–2003

20.978

15.935

31.500

20.870

After 2003

18.326

Year of birth

Independence

Stimulation

1963–1983

33.212

11.152

12.804

23.870

Hedonism

Progress

Power

Safety

25.152

18.121

37.515

9.939

25.109

1983–2003

35.283

17.130

19.304

25.543

17.217

32.152

After 2003

32.022

18.957

21.043

19.087

15.478

29.761

Source Compiled by the authors

and receive the following rather unexpected results by analyzing the responses of 150 schoolchildren who are in lockdown utilizing distance education tools: 1. The appearance remains the most relevant for schoolchildren (31.5% of the respondents); however, in the case of self-realization, the risks associated with the level of material capabilities of the family are more contrasting; 2. For a significant share of schoolchildren in lockdown (25% of the respondents), the problem of the team leadership remains essential, and conflicts become severe;

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40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

1963-1983

1983-2003

After 2003

Fig. 2 Values of generations X, Y, and Z. Source Compiled by the authors

Table 3 Comparative indicators of X, Y, and Z generation resilience (Maddy) Year of birth

Viability

Engagement

Control

Risk-taking

1963–1983

63.67391304

24.69565217

23.69565217

15.2826087

1983–2003

69.63043478

27.41304348

25.89130435

16.32608696

After 2003

68.65217391

27.7173913

25.45652174

15.47826087

Source Compiled by the authors

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Viability

Engagement 1963-1983

Control

1983-2003

Risk taking

After 2003

Fig. 3 Indicators of respondents’ resilience of X, Y, and Z generations (Maddy). Source Compiled by the authors

3. Superiority in intellectual activity among classmates is essential for 18.5% of schoolchildren who participated in interviews; 4. Apart from that, 12.5% of respondents believe that the relationships between the sexes are significant for them and bear the risk. It should be noted that schoolchildren’s parents in private conversations point out the stress of the lockdown, which forms due to the inability to meet with friends.

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12.50%

Abscence of trust

12.50%

18.75%

Future profession choice

31.25%

“Children-parent” issues (Phone and computer are sources of evil and problems for children) No issues

25% Parental attention absence

Fig. 4 Analysis of the generation Z respondents’ interview results devoted to “Conflicts in the “student-parent” horizon.” Source Compiled by the authors

As the interview has demonstrated, the most challenging aspect of parent-children relationships for most of the surveyed students is their choice of future professional activity (31.5%, Fig. 4). The authors believe that this conflict and risk situation remains urgent in a situation of forced self-isolation (lockdown); since parents and schoolchildren’s communication space is limited, their online learning process is under the constant control of parents. Therefore, their successes or failures in learning are more often “motivated” by parents as a threat of failure in the future profession. The condition specificity of forced self-realization for 25% of respondents actualizes intergenerational conflicts, which are exacerbated by the emerging additional requirements on the part of parents to fulfill their daily household duties. In addition, the risks of conflicts between parents and children in conditions of self-isolation are due to the fact that for schoolchildren, a gadget becomes the only familiar means to communicate with the outside world and friends. It turns into an additional aggravating factor for parents, habitually concerned about the threat of “computer addiction” in their children. Simultaneously, schoolchildren complain about the lack of attention and indifference of their parents (12.5%), who are also forced to communicate with the world using gadgets. In distance education and lockdown conditions, the most critical complaints are bias (37.5% of the respondents) and humiliation (25% of the respondents). As a result, for 6.25% of schoolchildren, these risks of relations with the teacher give rise to their negative behavior (see Fig. 5).

Fig. 5 Analysis of the generation Z respondents’ interview results devoted to “Conflicts in the “student–teacher” horizon.” Source Compiled by the authors

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In the current post-coronavirus socio-economic situation, the generational characteristics of generation Z are significantly transformed and acquire unique characteristics: 1. The propensity for rapid decision-making, consumption, and achievement of high results; Simultaneously, the ability to assess the situation completely disappears, which negatively affects the quality of decisions made; 2. Inability to perceive large volumes of complex information, since free and constant access to a large volume of already processed information eliminates the need for the “millennial” to analyze and understand it; 3. Aspirations to receive information through images, films, audio files (generation of “visuals”) with the dominance of forms of Internet communication and virtual reality, which are based on small text messages, and, as a result—inability to express their thoughts, build complex proposals, enter publicly, etc.; 4. Non recognition (up to denial) of authorities, ideals, social values, and reduction of emotional intelligence; 5. Later adulting and infantilism manifested in the absence of a desire for independent life and reliance on parental care, etc.

4 Discussion In the process of exploring the changing personal meanings of generation Z representatives, the authors find out that the younger generation is characterized by a decrease in vital needs and a reduction of the importance of the dominant social values. Simultaneously, conformity, traditional values, kindness, interpretation (as a valuable understanding of what is occurring in accordance with the rules), independence, and safety are crucial. These indicators are significantly lower than that of generations X and Y. The hedonism (which values pleasure and enjoyment) of generation Z is higher than that of generation X but lower than that of generation Y. The importance of stimulation (motivation) for generation Z representatives is higher than for generation X and is almost equal to such value for generation Y. The pronounced superiority of generation Z representatives concerning representatives of generations X and Y have been diagnosed according to the characteristic “universalism” (as the meaning of breadth and globalism of views). Representatives of all generations out of 10 characteristics of personal meanings have significantly higher indicators of “kindness,” “independence,” and “safety.” The result analysis of a comparative study of the severity of the resilience confirms the hypothesis of social risk growth in geometric progression. Simultaneously, the authors have observed low indicators of risk resistance in representatives of all three generations, which the authors consider confirmation of the hypothesis of a decrease in the risk resistance level. It manifests itself in an increase in the internal tension of an individual in stressful situations. The respondents of generations Z and Y are almost equal in indicators, which are higher than that of the generation X respondents. The authors put out a hypothesis of pandemic-induced risks in terms of generation Z

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resilience. The research finds out that appearance remains the most topical issue in the conditions of a lockdown for young people (31.5%). At the same time, students are concerned with the financial opportunities of their families. For a significant number of generation Z representatives in lockdown (25%), the issue of team leadership remains essential, the conflicts are becoming more severe, and the inability to meet with friends also remains. As the interviews have shown, the most challenging thing in relationships with parents for most surveyed schoolchildren is their choice of future professional activity (31.5%). The authors have not focused on the issues associated with personal values in the process of distance education. Notably, it applies to the issues of network ethics and “netiquette” (etiquette in technology), “trolling” and “bullying” in the network, etc., which are, according to the psychological, pedagogical, and philosophical literature, affects the personal meanings of generation Z representatives. The mentioned issues are the subject of the authors’ further research.

5 Conclusion After conducting the research, the authors have attempted to address a set of issues. Namely, consideration of the current socio-cultural situation from the standpoint of the “risk society” theory [2], according to which dangers and risks are essential for developing nature or society, forcing individuals to respond to them. During comparative analysis of the viability of different generation representatives, the authors conclude that not only modern risks are fundamentally different from the risks of previous periods of socio-cultural and economic development, but, generated in a mathematical progression, begin to threaten both the spirituality of the individual and social development. Thus, in a modern society of “uncertainty,” there is no risk-free behavior of a person who has constant contact with a significant number of risks. The conducted research has confirmed the peculiarities of characteristic transformation of generation Z youth which are manifested in the following: 1. The necessity for quick acceptance solutions for rapid consumption and momentary achievement of high results. If this happens, the ability to assess the situation entirely disappears, and it harms the quality of the made decisions; 2. The inability to process large amounts of complex information, as free and permanent access to a large amount of already processed data, to exclude the need for its analysis and understanding by a “millenial;” 3. The inability to express their thoughts, to construct complex sentences, publicly join, etc. with the dominance of online communication and virtual reality forms, on which small text messages, videos, etc. are based; 4. Non recognition (up to denial) of authorities, ideals, social values, and reduction of emotional intelligence; 5. Later adulting and infantilism manifested in the absence of a desire for independent life and reliance on parental care, etc.

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Primarily, the risk overcoming subjects have defined the education system, which is faced with strategic tasks and requires substantial understanding by theorists and education practitioners. The authors outline the basis for the individualization of education methodology based on the provision of conditions selected by students and the implementation of their individual educational trajectory. The research uses case study methodology in the study of special educational needs. The mentioned aspect continues to be the subject of systemic research for the team of authors. As a significant aspect in solving the mentioned issue, the authors consider the principles of modeling teachers’ and students’ interaction in the educational process, highlighted in the Model Education Program developed by the Russian Academy of Education. It serves to create a psychologically comfortable environment for each child in the educational organization, providing constructive interaction between schoolchildren and teachers. It also ensures students’ and teachers’ joint affairs based on joint care, pedagogical mediation techniques, etc. Additionally, the authors believe that in order to achieve the set tasks, one should: 1. Take into account the changes that have occurred in the personal meanings of young people during the lockdown; 2. In a blended learning model, special attention should be paid to the risks of the negative influence of the network on the personal development of schoolchildren and modeling the mechanisms of counteraction using digital means; 3. Focus the attention of teachers and parents on the organization of students’ educational and extra-curricular activities, contributing to the formation of the experience of creative self-realization and systemic and critical thinking. The indicated theoretical and practical approaches are reflected in the content of the only Russian master’s program “Primary prevention of addictions, socially dangerous behavior and mediation in education,” implemented by the Academy of Psychology and Pedagogy teaching staff in the Southern Federal University. Acknowledgements The research was carried out with the support of the Russian Foundation for Basic Research No. №19-313-90077.

References 1. Anpilov SM, Sorochaikin AN (2020) Russia in the post-pandemic world. Econ Gov Law Basis 2(21):24–30 2. Beck U (2001) The end of neoliberalism. https://inosmi.ru/untitled/20011115/142162.html 3. Bratus BS (2014) The problem of restoring the category of soul in academic psychology. Natl Psychol J 3(15):3–12 4. Derecha VA, Derecha GI (2013) The problem of deviating behavior in the aspect of social motives and personal needs. In: Soldatkin VA, Merkurieva KS (eds) Psychiatry: roads to skill. Rostov State Medical University, Rostov-on-Don, pp 202–211 5. Faber VO (2004) Problema neopredelennosti v strukture filosovskogo znaniya. Dissertation, Saratov State University

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6. Shestakova IG (2017) Quantum leap in speed of development: new mentality. Intell Innov Investments 8:47–50 7. Sokolova ET (2012) Cultural-psychological and clinical perspectives of research on phenomena of subjective uncertainty and ambiguity. Moscow Univ Psychol Bull 2:37–48 8. Toffler E (2002) Future shock (trans: Rudneva E, Burmistrova L, Burmistrova K, MoskvinaTarkhanova I, Mikisha A, Mirer A, Komarova A). AST, Moscow 9. Toffler E (2004) Third wave. AST, Moscow

Social Determinants of Human Health and Well-Being: Quantitative and Qualitative Studies

Evaluating the Alertness Level of the Health Care System in Altai Krai (Russia) Svetlana I. Tokmakova , Olga V. Bondarenko, and Yulia V. Lunitsyna

Abstract Numerous studies confirm the increase in the number of malignant neoplasms in the incidence structure worldwide. In the frame of dental diseases, the share of oral mucosa pathology, including precancerous diseases and cancer, is also relatively high. For dentists, oncological alertness is an essential part of professional competence. Therefore, its implementation should be a priority in their daily practical work. Studies conducted by many authors in various regions of our country prove the fact of low oncological alertness of doctors. The paper aims to assess the level of oncological alertness of dentists in the Altai Krai. We surveyed 1.150 dentists of the Altai Krai. The surveyed dentists have various medical education and work experience. They also work in institutions under various systems of ownership. We established that the mistakes made by dentists are often caused by (1) non-compliance with the algorithm of patient examination, (2) insufficient knowledge of the oncological alertness principles, and (3) existing screening methods. In addition, we identified mistakes in the patient routing with an established malignant neoplasm of the oral cavity. Another mistake is ignorance of the main regional document concerning the oncological patient’s care management. Thus, analyzing the questionnaire results, we conclude that in the Altai Krai, the early diagnosis of oncological diseases at the dental appointment is imperfect. Insufficient knowledge of screening tests, patient routing schemes, principles of cancer prevention, and insufficient examination by dentists is a serious issue since it is essential to diagnose the disease at an early stage. Keywords Oncological alertness · Oncological disease prevention · Dentistry · Questionnaire · Altai Krai

S. I. Tokmakova (B) · O. V. Bondarenko · Y. V. Lunitsyna Altai State Medical University of the Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Barnaul, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova (ed.), Complex Social Systems in Dynamic Environments, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 365, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23856-7_102

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1 Introduction Numerous studies confirm the increase in the number of malignant neoplasms in the incidence structure worldwide. Various factors have a negative impact on human health: lifestyle, an increase in chronic diseases, late request for medical assistance, insufficient oncological alertness of doctors, pathology detection in the late advanced stages, doctors’ ignorance of the sequence of actions when a neoplasm is suspected or detected, etc. There is an unfavorable trend in the health status dynamics of the Russian population and the Altai Krai in particular. According to the Russian Federal State Statistics Service (Rosstat), in 2019, 16.4% of deaths were due to malignant neoplasms [MN]. Over the past ten years, the incidence of cancer among Russians has increased by 23.7%. In the structure of dental diseases, the share of oral mucosa pathology, including precancerous lesions and cancer, is also relatively high [1, 10]. This is due to the long-term chronic course of processes in conditions of constant traumatization. In addition, the highly unfavorable environmental situation in the region and a large number of socio-economic factors (stress, bad habits, unbalanced diet) contribute to the MN occurrence of different localizations. Consequently, they lead to the increase in the one-year mortality rate in this nosology [2]. To change the current situation, the Ministry of Health of Altai Krai adopted Order On healthcare delivery to the adult population of the Altai Krai in the field of “Oncology” and on patient routing with suspected (detected) cancer [6]. For dentists, oncological alertness is the essential professional competence [4]. Its implementation should be a priority in their daily practical work [3]. The oral cavity is easily accessible for examination. Despite that, doctors often make mistakes at the diagnostic stage, leading to disappointing results. The reason for that is the neglect of additional diagnostic methods and screening tests. Evidently, these methods allow one to determine the degree of cornification and signs of the beginning of malignant transformation more accurately. Studies conducted by a number of authors in various Russian regions prove the fact of low oncological alertness of doctors [7–9]. The study aims to assess the oncological alertness level among doctors of dental medicine of the Altai Krai. Following this aim, we solved the following tasks: ● To assess the knowledge level of dentists in the Altai Krai concerning screening methods for the diagnosis of oncological and precancerous diseases; ● To identify the incidence of cancer and precancerous diseases at the dental appointment; ● To evaluate the knowledge of doctors in routing patients when cancer is suspected or detected.

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2 Materials and Methods As part of the educational programs of the continuing medical education system, we conducted a questionnaire of 1150 dentists in the Altai Krai. The study used a questionnaire developed by Kryazhina et al. [5]. The forms were filled out by the respondents independently and individually. Some of the questions contained multiple-choice, while others suggested the respondents’ personal wording. In addition to the questionnaire, the doctors were asked to answer the question about the knowledge of the content of Order No. 29 On healthcare delivery to the adult population of the Altai Krai in the field of “Oncology” and on patient routing with suspected (detected) cancer. Depending on the work experience, education, and place of work, the respondents were divided into groups as follows: ● 422 people (36.7%) had 1–5 years of work experience, 200 people (17.4%)— 6–10 years, 130 people (11.3%)—11–15 years; 38 people (3.3%)—16–20 years; 230 (20%)—21–25 years; 130 people (11.3%)—more than 25 years; ● 84 respondents (7.3%) specialized in surgical dentistry, 86 (7.5%)—orthopaedic dentistry, 406 (35.3%)—therapeutic dentistry, 31 (2.7%)—paediatric dentistry, 198 (17.2%)—general dentistry, 345 (30%) had two or more medical education specialties; ● 460 respondents (40%) were employees of the city and regional dental clinics; 329 (28.6%)—dental departments of central district hospitals; 360 (31.3%)—nonstate dental institutions (in a city or village). Statistical processing of the study results was carried out in the Microsoft Office 2000 software using Excel 2000.

3 Results On the first question concerning the patients’ survey, 31.3% of doctors reported that they usually do not spend much time collecting the patient’s life history and do not find out the comorbidity. However, the majority of doctors (68.7%) find time to identify chronic systemic diseases and risk factors for MN development. Furthermore, when comparing the data depending on the length of service, we determined that a large proportion of doctors who devote time to a thorough survey are young doctors. The next question was on the traditional maxillofacial region examination, including palpation of regional lymph nodes. Unfortunately, a fairly large proportion of doctors (22%) did not conduct a complete examination of the patient who first applied to them. Among the full-fledged examining dentists, a large share was accounted for by young specialists with 1–5 and 6–10 years of experience. We noticed that doctors often face oncological pathology and precancerous conditions at a dental appointment. In their practice, 55.3% of doctors met with these

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diseases. Most often, at the appointment, doctors revealed leukoplakia and flat lichen (69.8% of respondents), lip cancer (18.1%), oral mucosa cancer (14.9%), tongue cancer (11.5%), and salivary gland cancer (3.4%). According to the answers, among the methods used by dentists to diagnose diseases of the oral mucosa and lips, the most commonly used methods are traditional: examination and palpation (Fig. 1). Surprisingly, 14% of doctors found it difficult to answer this question. However, 66% of people use only the basic methods of diagnosis. Additional methods are not popular among doctors. It is expected that such methods as biopsy and cytological examination are most often used by dental surgeons and general dentists in their work. When detecting oncological pathology, most doctors refer patients to the Altai Regional Oncological Dispensary (department of head and neck tumors) (Fig. 2). However, we point out that a fairly large percentage of doctors are not familiar with the routing of patients, which leads to loss of precious time. A large percentage of respondents (42.7%) found it difficult to answer the question concerning screening tests. The autofluorescence stomatoscopy (AFS) device for the examination was mentioned by 21.3% of doctors. Among the methods for diagnosing precancerous and oncopathology of the oral cavity, only 37% of dentists named ViziLitePlus. Doctors also noted cytological examination (7.3%) and incisional biopsy (5.3%). Among doctors with different work experience, the answers were distributed as follows: ● 40% of doctors with 1–5 years of experience found it difficult to answer; ● 23.6% wrote an autofluorescence method; ● 14.5%—an incisional biopsy; Fig. 1 Distribution of doctors’ responses regarding the main and additional methods of diagnosing oral mucosal pathology used in the Altai Krai at a dental appointment (%). Source Compiled by the authors

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Fig. 2 Distribution of doctors’ responses regarding medical institutions and doctors that receive patients with suspected MN (%). Source Compiled by the authors

● 14.5%—cytology; ● only 9.1%—ViziLite. Almost half of the dentists (46.2%) with 6–10 years of experience could not answer this question, but 19.2% mentioned ViziLite. The same number indicated the autofluorescence method 7.7%—methods of stomatoscopy and biopsy. The vast majority of more experienced doctors with more than 15 years of experience were unsure what to answer (84.6%). The proposals of the dentists of the Altai Krai concerning the development of the system of early diagnosis of oncological pathology are presented in Fig. 3. As shown in the diagram, almost a third of the doctors found it difficult to answer this question. Many responses are related to the importance of having an examination room in a medical institution, cancer prevention rooms in schools, and in enterprises. Most often, the young doctors with up to ten years of experience suggested the widespread introduction of screening tests into practice. More experienced doctors were more likely to speak out about a thorough dispensary observation. The last question that we added to the questionnaire concerned studying the regional Order On healthcare delivery to the adult population of the Altai Krai in the field of “Oncology” and on patient routing with suspected (detected) cancer. In general, 54% of respondents answered in the affirmative, 14% of the specialists, unfortunately, are not familiar with it. Another 32% could not answer. We did not find any significant differences in the responses of doctors of dental medicine who work in medical and preventive institutions under various systems of ownership.

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Fig. 3 Distribution of responses of the Altai Krai doctors regarding suggestions for the development of the system of early diagnosis of oncological and precancerous mouth diseases (%). Source Compiled by the authors

4 Discussion According to the study results, it is clear that dentists of the Altai Krai often face precancerous diseases of the oral mucosa and MN. Visual examination remains the primary method of diagnosing lesions of the oral mucosa. However, considering the signs of oral mucosa disease, based only on visual examination data without conducting a multilevel diagnosis, is very indicative. To clarify the diagnosis and identify the beginning of the malignant transformation of pathological processes, dentists should use additional tools and tests, which are not widely used in the Altai Krai today. Modern screening methods that allow timely detection of pathological processes are rarely used in the system of dental care, mainly by young specialists. Most experienced doctors do not use these technologies and even do not know about their existence. Thus, these facts do not contribute to reducing the incidence of cancer and mortality from this cause in the Altai Krai.

5 Conclusion After the conducted sociological research of dentists of the region, we draw the following conclusions: ● The main mistake made by doctors is not following the algorithm of patients’ examination (incomplete survey and examination, ignoring the use of additional diagnostic methods of oral pathology); ● A small percentage of specialists (mostly young doctors) use screening methods for detecting oral pathology; experienced doctors not only do not use them, but also find it difficult to name them; ● The morbidity rate of precancerous pathology and MN is relatively high. Every second dentist in the Altai Krai has encountered these diseases in their practice;

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● Most doctors, if they detect or suspect an oncological pathology, refer the patient to an oncologist in a specialized dispensary, but every third refer them to doctors of subspecialization or medical institutions of an incorrect profile, thereby losing precious time; ● Every second specialist is not familiar with the main regional document regulating the timing of medical care for patients with detected cancer, the list of necessary studies, and the rules for routing such a patient. Analyzing the questionnaire results, we conclude that the early diagnosis of oncological diseases at the dental reception in the Altai Krai is imperfect. Insufficient knowledge of screening tests, patient routing schemes, principles of cancer prevention, and insufficient quality examination make up a serious issue since it is essential to diagnose the disease at an early stage, which largely determines treatment success. In this regard, we find it necessary to conduct regular activities within the continuous medical education of specialists in dental oncology prevention. Therefore, one should pay more attention to the control of students’ knowledge concerning (1) oncological alertness, (2) oral mucosa pathology, and (3) dynamic monitoring of the oncological alertness level among practicing specialists of dental medicine of the Altai Krai.

References 1. Bulgakova NN, Pozdnyakova TI, Smirnova YuA et al (2013) Studying the morbidity of precancerous oral mucosa diseases based on the use of screening diagnostic methods. Dent Rev 3:186 2. Gazhva SI, Grekhov AV, Goryacheva TP et al (2015) The issue of early oral mucosal oncopathology diagnosis (social aspects). Mod Probl Sci Educ 3:107 3. Gileva OS, Libik TV, Kazantseva EV et al (2019) Assessment of the oncological alertness level in the system of oncostomatological prevention. Dental Forum 4(75):28–29 4. Khomutova EA, Kabachev DA (2018) Oncological alertness in dentistry. National. Health 3:98–101 5. Kryazhina IA, Olesov EE, Sadovsky VV et al (2019) Oncological alertness of dentists according to the survey in the Moscow region. Extreme Med 21(2):226–232 6. Ministry of Health of Altai Krai (2019) Order on healthcare delivery to the adult population of the Altai Krai in the field of Oncology and on patient routing with suspected (detected) cancer, No. 29, February 6, 2019. Barnaul 7. Pinelis et al (2020) The oncological alertness level among dentists in Transbaikal. In: Aktualniye problemy i perspektivy razvitiya stomatologii v usloviyakh Severa, North-Eastern Federal University, Yakutsk, 17 June 2020 8. Rykov MY, Turabov IA, Punanov YA et al (2019) Analysis of the leading indicators characterizing medical care for oncological children in St. Petersburg and the Leningradskaya region in 2013–2017. Voprosy Onkologii 65(1):77−82 9. Sdvizhkov AM, Kozhanov LG, Shatskaya NK et al (2014) Analysis of the causes of neglect and low survival of patients with malignant neoplasms of the ENT organs and oral cavity in Moscow. Vestn Otorinolaringol 1:20–23 10. Starikova IV, Radyshevskaya TN (2018) Precancerous diseases in the structure of the oral mucosa pathology. Colloquium J 7–2(18):36–38

The System of Health Care Facilities: Problems of Consolidation in the Penal Legislation Alexey P. Detkov , Andrey P. Skiba , and Tatiana S. Tunchik

Abstract The paper analyzes the status of medical and preventive treatment facilities, indicates the problems of the status of medical and preventive treatment facilities in the legislation. The research describes the following problems of the legal status of convicts in medical and preventive treatment facilities: (1) the legal status of people sentenced by a court to serve their sentence in a settlement colony, (2) the lack of regulation of the peculiarities of the convicts’ legal status left in medical and preventive treatment facilities to perform facility-related work, but not receiving inpatient medical care. The focus is placed on the fact that executing and serving prison sentences in medical and preventive treatment facilities are due to the unregulated status of these institutions, which requires adjustments in the penal enforcement legislation. It should be noted that medical and preventive treatment facilities carry out the functions of correctional institutions in respect of convicts in these institutions. However, there are still many unresolved issues related to the execution and serving of prison sentences in these institutions. Amendments to the legislation will allow clarifying the status of treatment and prevention institutions and to increase the effectiveness of correctional actions for convicted people, indicating treatment as one of the means of correction. Keywords Medical and preventive treatment facilities · Correctional facilities · Criminal code · Convicts

A. P. Detkov Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia A. P. Skiba Academy of Law and Administration, Federal Penitentiary Service of Russia, Ryazan, Russia T. S. Tunchik (B) Saint Petersburg Juridical Academy, Saint-Petersburg, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova (ed.), Complex Social Systems in Dynamic Environments, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 365, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23856-7_103

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1 Introduction Medical and preventive treatment facilities functioning in the Federal Penitentiary Service of Russia structure are one of the correctional institutions, along with prisons, settlement colonies, correctional colonies of general, strict, and special regimes, educational colonies, etc. Types of correctional institutions are listed in Article 74 of the Criminal Executive Code of the Russian Federation, which, among others, indicates medical and preventive institutions. At the same time, the institutions in question, for some unknown reason, are absent from the corresponding list in Part 9 of Article 16 of the Criminal Executive Code of the Russian Federation (and even in Part 1 of Article 56 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation) [3]. Besides, unlike other correctional facilities, the status of healthcare institutions in the penal legislation does not clearly define. However, it has a direct impact on the organization of their activities (including the implementation of corrective action), the legal status of prisoners, and other issues of execution and serving them imprisonment. Thus, the general issues of execution of punishments in the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation are defined by Skiba and Rodionov [6]: ● ● ● ●

Articles 120–121—in general regime correctional colonies; Articles 122–123—in the penal colonies; Articles 124–125—in correctional colonies of the special regime; Articles 126–127—in correctional colonies of a special regime for convicts serving life imprisonment; ● Articles 128–129—in penal colonies; ● Chapter 17 (Articles 132–142) —in the educational colonies. These criminal executive law norms define various conditions for serving sentences by convicts, the grounds for changing them, some aspects of the legal status of convicts (number of visits, etc.), and other issues. Particularly, at the legislative level, it is determined that, in addition to the settlement colonies, all mentioned institutions are “closed,” in which there are additional conditions for the separation of prisoners and their isolation, etc.

2 Materials and Methods When considering the existing problems of consolidating the status of medical and preventive institutions in the penal legislation, the research relies on the provisions of materialist dialectics to analyze the theory and legal regulation of the execution of sentences in the Russian Federation. The author uses various research methods: analysis, synthesis, comparative-legal, forecasting, document analysis, etc., to identify the need to improve penal legislation and consolidate the status of medical and preventive institutions.

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The opinions and conclusions indicated in the paper are based on a study of the current legislation of the Russian Federation; information published in scientific literature and periodicals and works of scholars in the field of the activities of institutions and bodies of the penal system, including in terms of fixing the status of medical and preventive institutions in the penal legislation.

3 Results However, concerning medical and preventive treatment facilities, the executive criminal law in Part 2 of Article 101 provides that these institutions operate in the penitentiary system for the medical care of convicts without specifying the issues. It is not even clear whether they can function independently and not only under any other correctional institutions. At the same time, this provision of the law states that hospitals, special psychiatric and tuberculosis hospitals are the institutions of both “general” and specialized profile. However, the executive criminal law does not provide differences in their status depending on the medical and preventive facility type. In this case, the main purpose of treatment and prevention institutions is generally not clear: this is the correction of convicts by Part 1 of Article 1 of the Criminal Executive Code of the Russian Federation or their medical support, which is not directly related to correction and is not a means of correcting convicts (although in the legal literature it has already been suggested to supplement the list of remedies in Part 2 of Article 9 of the Criminal Executive Code of the Russian Federation by treating convicts and providing them with psychological assistance [7, 8]. Concerning the abovestated, the author considers the status of medical and preventive institutions, which is not properly enshrined in the criminal executive law. Educational colonies, in addition to numerous provisions of the Criminal Executive Code of the Russian Federation, are dedicated to a separate order of the Ministry of Justice of Russian Federation on Approval of the Internal Regulations of Educational Colonies of the Penal System of November 6, 2006 No. 311 [3]. The order regulates aspects of the relationship between the convict and the administration of the institution: admission of convicts to an educational colony, the basic rights and obligations of convicts, their movement within the colony, travel outside the colony, peculiarities of keeping convicts in strict conditions of serving sentences, primary vocational education and training, recruiting convicts to work, etc. Juvenile correctional facilities are “closed” institutions with a specific organization of the correctional process, considering the minority of the vast number of prisoners. Other correctional facilities dedicated to the Order of the Russian Ministry of Justice on Approval of the Internal Regulations of Correctional Institutions of December 16, 2016 No. 295 [3, 4]. The order defines their status in detail, enshrines the basic rights and obligations of convicts in correctional institutions, attracting convicts to work (transportation to and from work), checking their availability, the

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procedure for movement within the colony, the procedure for withdrawing prohibited items, the procedure for providing them in settlement colonies with the right to live outside, especially the conditions of detention of convicts in punishment cells (cell-type rooms, single cell-type rooms, and solitary cells), etc. These and other provisions of this order detail the norms of the Criminal Executive Code of the Russian Federation on the procedure for the execution and serving of imprisonment in various correctional institutions. Section 20 of the Order of the Ministry of Justice of the Russian Federation of December 16, 2016 No. 295 [3, 4], concerns the peculiarities of the placement of convicts in medical facilities and the conditions of serving sentences during the period of inpatient treatment. Paragraph 133 provides for the conditions for the separation of convicts, paragraphs 134–135—the specifics granting the visits, paragraph 139 tells about the non-applicable means of correction (obtaining general education and vocational training) to convicts during their period in medical facilities, etc.

4 Discussion Following paragraph 132 of the above order, medical and preventive treatment facilities perform the functions of correctional institutions for convicts. However, there remain numerous unsolved issues related to the procedure for executing and serving imprisonment in these medical facilities. These include the following: ● There is no consolidation of the mutual rights and obligations of the “treated” convicts and employees of a medical and preventive treatment facility with the responsibility of the first for evading treatment or fulfilling medical recommendations (similar and other problems of relations between convicts and administrations of institutions have already been paid attention to in the legal literature [1, 2, 5, 6, 9]. ● Specifics of the use of other means of correction (except for receiving general education and vocational training)—regime, educational work, etc.—are not provided for concerning convicts held in medical and preventive institutions, which, accordingly, narrows the possibility of applying incentive or punishment measures to them, changes in the scope of legal restrictions depending on their behavior, etc.; ● Peculiarities of the legal status of convicts have not been determined depending on the department where they are treated (tuberculosis, surgical, etc.). Also, the author outlines several problems of the legal status of convicts in medical and preventive institutions. First, the legal status of persons who (by a court sentence) were convicted to serve their sentences in a settlement colony, transferred to a medical and preventive care institution for the provision of inpatient medical care (i.e., an “open” institution to a “closed” one).

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Second, convicts from correctional colonies of general and strict regimes, in fact, in medical and preventive institutions, find themselves in more isolated conditions of detention than hostels (which are available in the abovementioned colonies). It worsens the legal status of such convicts and does not comply with the court verdict. Third, there is no regulation of the peculiarities of the legal provisions of convicts who are left in medical institutions to perform work on household services, but at the same time, do not receive inpatient medical care.

5 Conclusion The problems of the execution and serving of imprisonment in medical facilities are mainly due to the lack of regulation of the status of these institutions, which requires adjustments to the penal legislation. The introduction of the following changes will allow clarifying the status of medical and preventive care institutions and increasing the effectiveness of corrective action concerning the convicts. Part 2 of Article 9 of the Criminal Executive Code of the Russian Federation should indicate treatment as one of the means of correcting convicts. Part 9 of Article 16 of the Criminal Code should mention medical and preventive treatment facilities as a place of serving imprisonment. The status of medical and preventive institutions directly affecting the organization of their activities (including the implementation of corrective action), the legal status of convicts, and other issues of execution and serving of imprisonment in these medical institutions in the penal legislation should be spelled out by the Criminal Code Of the Russian Federation and Order of the Ministry of Justice of the Russian Federation On Approval of the Internal Regulations of Correctional Institutions of December 16, 2016 No. 295 [3, 4].

References 1. Detkov AP (2011) Organization and conduct of psychological work with convicts, proactively destructive processes in places of deprivation of liberty. Soc Law 1(33):134–138 2. Detkov AP, Kozachenko I, Sergeev D et al (2019) Cadena perpetua: 25 years of criminological and psychological investigation. Religación Revista de Ciencias Sociales y Humanidades 4(19):191–195 3. Krymov AA, Skiba AP (eds) (2018) Collisions of the legislation of Russia and a number of countries. UNITY-DANA, Moscow 4. Ministry of Justice of the Russian Federation (2016) Order on approval of the internal regulations of correctional institutions, No 295, Dec 16 2016, Moscow 5. Pavlenko AA (2017) Problems of paid medical services in conditions of imprisonment. Bull Kuzbass Inst 1(30):152–159 6. Skiba AP, Rodionov A (2018) The legal status of prisoners sentenced to imprisonment during their forced feeding. Law J High School Econ 4:216–234 7. Skiba AP, Skorik EN (2016) On the basic and optional means of correcting sick convicts. Crim Executive Law 2(24):34–38

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8. Spasennikov BA (2015) Psychological assistance as a means of correcting convicts. Inst Bull Crime Punishment Correction 2(30):70–71 9. Tunchik TS (2018) Topical issues of the legal status of convicts held in medical correctional and treatment and preventive care institutions of the penal system. Ius Publicum Et Privatum 2(2):71–73

Medical and Sociological Support of Regional Prevention Programs in Russia Natalia S. Timchenko, Irina V. Osipova, Tatiana V. Repkina, and Margarita V. Starchikova

Abstract To prevent infant mortality at an early age and preserve the younger generation’s health, one should develop preventive medicine to conduct timely examinations of children for cardiovascular diseases. The main priorities shortly should prevent adolescent morbidity and improvement of medical and social care. Keywords Child and teenager’s health · Cardiovascular diseases · Behavioral risk · Preventive medicine · Prevention of adolescent morbidity · Sociological monitoring

1 Introduction Currently, the problem of preserving and strengthening the health of children in the Russian Federation is one of the strategic objectives of government policy. The population health of children and adolescents is a factor that determines the contours of the economic, intellectual, reproductive, and spiritual potential of the country in the future. At the same time, monitoring studies record negative trends in the somatic and mental health of children and adolescents [4]. Scientists and practitioners share a perception in public health that the actual data on the incidence of adolescents is 1.5–2 times higher than the official data. At the population level, diseases of the cardiovascular system occupy one of the first places in the structure of diseases. These diseases reduce the quality of human life and are primarily the cause of the high mortality rate in Russian society. The share of cardiovascular diseases in the overall structure of the prevalence of diseases in children is 2.3%. With age, the contribution of this pathology increases, and already in N. S. Timchenko (B) · I. V. Osipova Altai State Medical University, Barnaul, Russia e-mail: [email protected] T. V. Repkina · M. V. Starchikova Regional Center for Medical Prevention, Barnaul, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova (ed.), Complex Social Systems in Dynamic Environments, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 365, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23856-7_104

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the adolescent period, diseases of the cardiovascular system begin to occupy leading positions [3]. The solution to the issue of increasing the population’s life expectancy lies in the plane of increased attention of the medical community, public, educational organizations, and state authorities to childhood, which lays the foundation for cardiovascular pathology, which prevails in adults. The pilot project “Child’s healthy heart” was developed by the “Regional Center for Medical Prevention” Center for Public Health under the leadership of T. V. Repkina (Barnaul, Altai Krai). The ideological basis of the project, the implementation of which began in 2018. the concept of selfpreservation behavior of the individual and behavioral health factors is planned to be completed in 2020 [1, 2]. It is aimed at early detection of known cardiovascular risks and the organization of educational work. The purpose of the educational work is to strengthen the anti-risk factors in the behavior of children.

2 Materials and Methods The implementation of the project is a two-step process that combines the diagnosis of the state of the cardiovascular system of children with the construction of individual trajectories, depending on the results of medical research, and the formation of a positive attitude of children towards maintaining and maintaining their health. The medical component of the project includes a set of studies: ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

Rapid blood test for sugar and cholesterol; Measurement of blood pressure; Height and weight measurement; Calculation of BMI; Dynamometry; Computerized heart screening (rapid assessment of the state of the heart by ECG signals from the extremities using the “Cardiovisor” device); Pulse oximetry; Bioimpedance; Comprehensive assessment of the respiratory system functions (computerized spirometer); Testing (using hardware and software complex) for screening assessment of the level of psychophysiological and somatic health; Functional and adaptive reserves of the body; Assessment of the oral cavity; Electrocardiographic examination in 12 derivations; Examination by a pediatrician; Individual preventive consultation by a preventive specialist.

The educational block of the project includes “Health Schools” in the thematic areas “Healthy nutrition,” “Healthy physical activity,” “Prevention of bad habits,” and “Psychological Health.”

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The pilot project “Child’s healthy heart” includes 72 municipalities of the Altai Krai, where more than 25 thousand children aged 12 years live. During the implementation of the project, 13,836 children of the age of 12 took part in it (including 7.071 boys (51.1%) and 6765 girls (48.9%)). According to the territorial basis, the surveyed population is 7192 urban children (52%) and 6076 children from rural areas (48%). The results of diagnostic studies were subjected to statistical processing using a specialized SPSS Statistics program. Considering the geographical representation of the sample, the main focus is on identifying the frequency indicators of risk factors in the development of cardiovascular pathology. Nominal data were described with the indication of percentages.

3 Results The results were obtained based on medical studies of school-age children in 72 municipalities of the Altai Krai, supplemented by a survey of each child by a specialist in medical prevention. The main results can be presented in the following theses: ● Based on objective medical research data, we determined ECG abnormalities in 17% of schoolchildren (2351 people), more often in boys (17.3%) than in girls (16.6%). Screening electrocardiographic study showed that the most common cases in children considered practically healthy were accelerated atrial rate— in 66.2% (1556 people), migration of the rhythm driver—in 22% (517 people), atrioventricular block of the first degree—in 2.6% (61 people), extrasystole—in 2.3% (54 people), sinus bradycardia—in 1.9% (45 people), prolongation of the QT interval—in 0.47% (11 people); ● There is a high degree of prevalence of risk factors for cardiovascular pathology development in the Altai Krai schoolchildren in the surveyed municipalities. We did not identify any risk factors in 21.4% of children. The large group of children with an unfavorable prognosis for cardiovascular disease development included children with at least one risk factor (78.6%). As a rule, one child could have several such factors; ● The most common risk factor in terms of frequency is poor nutrition recorded in 60.1% of children. We found hypercholesterolemia in 26.2% of schoolchildren, followed by obesity typical for 22.6% of children. In addition, we found an increased level of blood pressure in every fourth person—20.4%. Hyperglycemia was registered in 15.5% of the participants in the medical study. 15.5% of 12year-olds have a lifestyle associated with a low level of physical activity. We determined smoking as a risk factor in 9.8% of schoolchildren; ● There are minor differences in the degree of risk factors and lifestyle of girls and boys participating in the pilot project; ● There is an eightfold prevalence of tobacco smoking in the group of boys (Table 1).

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Table 1 Prevalence of risk factors among girls and boys Risk factors

Boys

Values

Relative values (%)

Absolute values (people)

Girls Relative values (%)

Absolute values (people)

Poor nutrition

60.5

4.279

59.5

4.030

Hypercholesteremia

23.7

1.680

27.9

1.892

Obesity

23.6

1.670

21.5

1.455

Increased blood pressure

20.1

1.426

20.6

1.400

Hyperglycemia

16.4

1.164

14

950

Low level of physical 14.6 activity

1.036

16.3

1.109

Smoking

1.202

2.2

155

16.9

Source Compiled by the authors

● There are some differences in the structure of risk factors for cardiovascular diseases in urban children and children living in rural municipalities, but what is common is the factors such as poor nutrition and smoking in the first two positions. At the same time, the factor of “poor nutrition” is more pronounced in urban schoolchildren, and the opposite situation is observed in the factor of smoking. Rural schoolchildren are more likely to show a tendency to tobacco smoking. They are also more likely to have hypercholesterolemia and low levels of physical activity. A medical study of urban schoolchildren allowed them to record increased blood pressure and blood sugar level (Table 2). Table 2 Prevalence of risk factors in urban and rural schoolchildren Risk factors

City

Values

Absolute values (people)

Relative values (%)

Rank

Absolute values (people)

Relative values (%)

Rank

Poor nutrition

4.525

86.2

1

3.784

67.3

1

Hypercholesteremia

1.622

30.9

4

1.954

34.8

3

Obesity

1.495

28.5

5

1.630

29

4

Increased blood pressure

1.630

31

3

1.196

21.3

6

Hyperglycemia

1.289

24.5

6

820

14.6

7

Low level of physical activity

666

12.7

7

1.479

26.3

5

Smoking

531

39.2

2

826

60.8

2

Source Compiled by the authors

Rural area

Medical and Sociological Support of Regional Prevention Programs … Table 3 Risk factors in children living in the cities of the Altai Krai

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City

Risk factors (people)

Risk factors (%)

Sample (people)

Zarinsk

142

86.1

165

Biysk

1.081

85.3

1.268

Barnaul

3.031

80.9

3.746

Slavgorod

338

81.8

413

Belokurikha

94

82.5

114

Aleysk

170

67.7

251

Novoaltaysk

396

68.5

578

Source Compiled by the authors

● Students of small cities (Novoaltaysk, Aleysk) have higher objective health indicators and positive health affirmation (Table 3). ● Geographically, risk factors for cardiovascular diseases in children are distributed evenly across the Altai Krai. A noticeable predominance of one factor characterizes rural municipalities. Two factors at the same time occur in three districts. Thus, in the Zonalny district, along with the low level of physical activity of children (58.9%), there is such a factor as hypercholesterolemia (55.8%). A low level of physical activity (55.9%) of 12-year-old schoolchildren is accompanied by obesity (27.4%). We also recorded two risk factors in the Soltonsky district: a low level of physical activity of children (69.2%) (this indicator is the largest in the region) and an increased level of blood pressure (31.4%). Thus, all three areas have a common risk factor—low levels of physical activity of children (Table 4). ● As part of the implementation of the informational-educational block of the project, 315 “Health Lessons” were held in general education schools of rural settlements and cities of the Altai Krai. Thus, 10.152 children took part in the project.

4 Discussion The state of health is derived from many factors: biological, social, environmental, psychological, and behavioral factors that determine a person’s lifestyle. Therefore, the model of attitude to one’s health that is formed in adolescence will be decisive in the period of adulthood, giving rise to alternative options for either preserving, maintaining, or losing health and quality of life in general. The medical and sociological monitoring carried out within the framework of the pilot project “Child’s Healthy Heart” allows to run early diagnosis of cardiovascular risk in 12-year-olds and build a system of measures to reduce this risk. Furthermore, the obtained results of medical studies allow us to determine the health situation of 12-year-olds participating in the pilot project as not the most favorable. Hence, the probability of developing cardiovascular pathologies is significant.

1154 Table 4 Risk factors in children living in rural municipalities of the Altai Krai

N. S. Timchenko et al. Risk factors

District

Relative value (%)

Poor nutrition

Tabunsky

100

Burlinsky

92.5

Zalesovsky

90.8

Krasnoshchekovsky 90.8 Biysky

89

Hypercholesteremia Tselinny

76.1

Altaisky

60.8

Krasnogorsky

59.2

Khabarsky

58

Zonalny

55.8

Yeltsovsky

34.4

Kulundinsky

30.2

Rodinsky

27.4

Talmensky

27.1

Rebrikhinsky

27

Ust-Kalmansky

50.7

Aleysky

47

Tyumetsevsky

45.8

Soltonsky

31.4

Novoaltaysk

27.2

Soltonsky

62.9

Zonalny

58.9

Troitsky

57.5

Rodinsky

55.9

Petropavlovsky

54.6

Obesity

Increased blood pressure

Low level of physical activity

Source Compiled by the authors

It is further aggravated by the presence of such behavioral risk factors in the behavior of school children, such as tobacco smoking, improper eating behavior, and a sedentary lifestyle. Tobacco smoking is more pronounced in boys than in girls. We can explain this fact by the desire of male adolescents to conform to gender stereotypes. This fact is a kind of sign of brutality. It is more noticeable where traditional ideas about men predominate—in rural society. The poor nutrition of urban schoolchildren is due to the availability of fast-food establishments in the urban environment, the commitment to fast food as an element of the modern lifestyle, and the financial capabilities of teenagers. Rural schoolchildren lead a less physically active lifestyle. Thus, the information gathering tool itself should be critically evaluated. Adolescents can perceive low levels of physical activity through the prism of their participation or non-participation in specially organized formats, such as sports groups and clubs. In

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this regard, the possibilities of urban and rural environments are often not comparable enough. The development of medical and sociological support for the pilot project, which in the future has every chance to become a full-fledged regional targeted prevention program, can supplement medical and hygienic research with an expanded sociological block. The instrumental base of a large international study, “Health Behavior in School-Age Children” [HBSC], can become a resource for implementing this task. It is based on a multi-factor model (60 factors) of adolescent behavior that affects the state of health [5]. Adding medical data with information about the social environment of schoolchildren, positive and negative behaviors is essential for expanding the number of participants of the project “Child’s Healthy Heart,” including social protection agencies, education, scientific and public organizations.

5 Conclusion The implementation of the pilot project “Child’s healthy heart” made it possible to identify a group of children with high cardiovascular risk. The children were later sent for consultation and treatment to regional and specialized federal centers. The degree of distribution of behavioral factors of the development of cardiovascular pathology in children in the context of sex and territorial differentiation creates the basis for targeted actions to change the situation in a positive direction. Medical and sociological support of prevention programs takes the problem of preserving the life and health of children beyond the narrowly medical content. The support gives a systematic and comprehensive understanding and solution. Acknowledgements We express our gratitude to the heads of municipalities and educational institutions of the Altai Krai, who contributed to the successful implementation of the pilot project “Child’s healthy heart.”

References 1. Baranova AA et al (2018) The state and problems of adolescents’ health in Russia. Paediatrician, Moscow 2. Kuchma VR, Sokolova SB (2019) Critical trends in behavioral health risks. Health Risk Anal 2:4–13 3. Romankova YuN, Adzhigerimova GS, Yaroslavtsev AS (2016) Characteristics of medical and social factors, conditions, and lifestyle as risk factors for children’s health. Fundam Res 12:314– 315

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4. Shkolnikova MA, Abdulatipova IV, Nikitina SY et al (2014) Main trends in morbidity and mortality from cardiovascular diseases in children and adolescents in the Russian Federation. Rossiyskiy Vestnik Perinatologii i Pediatrii 4:4–14 5. World Health Organization (n.d.) Health behaviour in school-aged children (HBSC) study: International report from the 2013/2014 survey. http://www.euro.who.int/en/health-topics/Lifestages/child-andadolescent-health/health-behaviour-in-school-aged-children-hbsc/hbsc-intern ational-reports/growing-up-unequal.-hbsc-2016-study-20132014-survey

Socio-medical Aspects of Labor Longevity of the Rural Population Galina A. Bezrukova , Tamara A. Novikova , and Veronica S. Novikova

Abstract The paper analyzed current socio-medical aspects and trends affecting the economic activity and labor longevity of the rural population. Statistical sources showed that from 2014 to 2018, the tendency of a decrease in the rural population and deformation of its age structure persisted due to (1) the birth rate decrease, (2) the migration outflow of the economically active population, (3) an increase in average life expectancy due to the decrease in deaths of cardiovascular diseases among older age groups, and (4) decrease in mortality of the working-age male population from external causes. The share of people employed in various sectors of the economy in rural regions of the total number of the rural population in 2018 decreased by 6.7% compared to 2014. At the same time, the share of economically active people among the population of retirement age was consistently about 20%. This testified in favor of the formation of an aging model of socio-economic relations in rural settlements. For the majority of the rural population of 60+ age, motivated to continue working in agriculture, the priority factor of labor longevity was the state of health. Therefore, the most important condition for increasing life expectancy and healthy longevity of the rural population is to ensure the availability and quality of free medical services, primary health care, and specialized treatment of the most common somatic diseases in the older age group. Keywords Rural population · Demographic aging · Labor longevity · Health care

G. A. Bezrukova (B) · T. A. Novikova Saratov Hygiene Medical Research Center, Federal Scientific Center for Medical and Preventive Health Risk Management Technologies, Saratov, Russia e-mail: [email protected] T. A. Novikova e-mail: [email protected] V. S. Novikova Moscow State Institute of International Relations (MGIMO University), Moscow, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova (ed.), Complex Social Systems in Dynamic Environments, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 365, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23856-7_105

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1 Introduction In recent decades, demographic aging of the population caused by a decrease in mortality in older age cohorts against the background of reduced population reproduction has become a key social problem in most developed countries. According to experts, the expansion and globalization of the aging development model will shape the nature of the world economy in the twenty-first century: from transnational, intersectoral, and interprofessional reallocation of the workforce to a direct impact on the technological process [10, 14, 18]. Along with an increase in life expectancy, one of the signs of aging is the increase in the proportion of people of the “silver” age among the economically active population (61–74 years for men, 56–74 years for women) who are focused on continuing to work after retirement age. Despite significant differences in pension legislation, since the early 2000s in the countries of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD], there has been a persistent trend towards an increase of these age groups in the labor market. In 2015, the share of workers among people over 65 years in OECD countries averaged about 14%. This was more than a third higher than in 2000. Older residents of the Scandinavian countries showed the highest labor activity, with a maximum employment rate of 40% in similar age cohorts in Iceland [19]. The analysis results of the influence of institutional (socio-economic conditions of life, regulatory relations, and pension legislation) and individual (health status, educational level and qualifications, motivation) factors on the economic activity of people of “silver” age and their labor longevity indicate the determination of personal characteristics. First of all, this is the state of health and professional competence, which determines the ability to continue working in the post-retirement period and competitiveness in the labor market [12, 16, 24]. According to Rosstat, at the beginning of 2020, the share of the 60+ age cohort in the general population of the Russian Federation exceeded 22.4%. Following the scale of demographic aging of J. Beaujeu-Garnier-E, most often used in Russia, this allows classifying our country as an “old” country with an aging model of development that requires the widespread introduction of promising technologies for preserving health and creating favorable socio-economic conditions that stimulate the labor activity of the older population [1, 2]. With the adoption of the federal project “Older Generation” of the national project “Demography” [17], improving the quality of life of older generations and the associated active longevity was raised to the rank of government policy. Following its action plan, this task will be solved by (1) increasing the coverage of the older population with preventive examinations and dispensary observation, (2) updating the calendar of preventive vaccinations, (3) developing and putting into practice clinical guidelines for the management of diseases associated with age, and (4) popularization of measures for systemic support of the older generation in the media. At the same time, several researchers consider the directions presented in the federal project “Older Generation” to be insufficient in terms of developing measures

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to increase the availability of specialized and high-tech treatment of diseases identified during the prophylactic examination for older people, the formation of a safe living environment (prevention of domestic injuries), and also harmonization of program indicators with the criteria adopted in the OECD countries and the European Union [23]. The authors believe that implementing the “Older Generation” project may have the greatest difficulties in rural areas due to the pronounced depopulation of most rural areas [4] and the limited medical care availability. Rural medical care is due to the lower potential of rural areas’ socio-economic and infrastructural development compared to the city [3]. The research purpose was a comprehensive analysis of modern socio-medical aspects and trends affecting the labor longevity of rural residents.

2 Materials and Methods The research used generally accepted informational, epidemiological, sociological, and statistical research methods. When analyzing current trends in the dynamics of medical and demographic indicators (population size, mortality and fertility rates, natural and migration population growth), the authors applied linear regression analysis with the determination of the coefficient of determination (R2) of the considered models using the statistical functions of Microsoft Excel. The research information base was presented by the statistical materials of the Federal State Statistics Service [7].

3 Results In the last decade, even though the Republic of Crimea became part of Russia, a persistent downward trend in the rural population continues. This is confirmed by a downward linear trend in the time series of the dynamics of this demographic indicator and an extremely high value of the reliability of the approximation coefficient (R2 = 0.969). The depopulation process of rural areas was especially active from 2016 to 2018 when the rate of reduction of the rural population began to exceed 200 thousand people per year (Table 1). The most significant reasons for demographic shifts that threaten to become irreversible [21] are (1) the progressive natural decline of the rural population (R2 = 0.905), and (2) the continuing wave migration outflow (R2 = 0.268) of the economically active population to the federal, regional, and large regional centers. This outflow represents the social component of demographic processes, more dynamically than the natural decline affecting the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of labor resources [11].

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Table 1 Dynamics of the rural population (data at the end of the year) Statistical indicators

Observation period (years) 2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

37.77 37.55

37.33

Population at the end of the year (million people)

37.99

Regression equation

y = −0.166x + 38.20 (R2 = 0.969)

Total mortality rate (‰)

14.5

Regression equation

y = −0.25x + 14.83

(R2

Total fertility rate (‰)

14.4

12.2

Regression equation

y = −0.9x + 14.96 (R2 = 0.960)

37.89 14.4

14.2

12.8 −1.6

13.7 = 0.935)

−0.1

Regression equation

y = −0.65x + 0.13 (R2 = 0.905)

Regression equation

−2.0

11.2

Natural growth of the rural population (‰)

Migration balance in rural areas (thousand people) −133.7 −47.5

−36.5

y = 12.86x − 105.4

(R2

13.6

−2.5

10.7 −2.9

−47.3 −69.5

= 0.268)

Source Compiled by the authors based on [15]

It should be noted that since 2015 there has been a sharp decline in the birth rate in rural settlements (R2 = 0.960) to values below the urban level. It is not typical for the rural population. Such a phenomenon could be associated with the spread of labor pendulum migration among women of fertile age and the convergence of the reproductive behavior of rural and urban families. At the same time, despite the increase in life expectancy at birth, the overall mortality rate in rural areas has traditionally exceeded the urban level. This indirectly indicated a higher proportion of people of older age groups in rural settlements. A comparative analysis of the age structure dynamics of the rural and urban population revealed a general tendency to decrease the share of the working-age population in the last five years, with an increase in the proportion of people younger and older than working age in the population (Table 2). Demographic aging was most pronounced in rural settlements, where the share of the older age group during the observation period increased by 2.5% versus 1.7%, typical for the urban environment, and, at the end of 2018, in the rural areas—26.8%, in the city—25.6%. As for the younger age groups, in rural areas, their contribution to the age structure increased by only 0.2%, while the number of young people under the age of 16 living in the city increased by 2%. The obtained data convincingly testified to the explicit deformation of the age structure of the rural population, shifted towards persons of “silver” age. The considered demographic processes influenced the size of the economically active rural population. From 2014 to 2018, the total labor force in rural villages decreased by 267 thousand people (15%), of which employed—by 149 thousand people (9.1%). The share of people employed in different sectors of the economy in rural regions concerning the total number of the rural population in 2018 decreased compared to 2014 by 6.7% and amounted to 53.9%. In the context of age groups, the greatest

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Table 2 Dynamics of the age structure of the rural and urban population (data at the end of the year) Observation period (years)

Statistical indicators

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

100

100

100

100

100

Rural population Total population (%) Population under working age (%)

19.9

20.0

20.2

20.2

20.1

Population of working age (%)

55.8

55.0

54.3

53.6

53.1

Population over working age (%)

24.3

25.0

25.5

26.2

26.8

Urban population Total population (%)

100

100

100

100

100

Population under working age (%)

16.8

17.3

17.7

18.0

18.2

Population of working age (%)

59.3

58.3

57.2

56.8

56.2

Population over working age (%)

23.9

24.4

24.8

25.2

25.6

Source Compiled by the authors based on [15]

changes were noted among young people aged 15–19, whose share in the economy decreased by 1.5% (Table 3). Traditionally, the highest employment level was maintained among rural residents of 30–39 and 40–49 years old. Interestingly, the proportion of pre-retirement age workers (50–59 years old) was comparable to workers of 20–29 years and did not undergo significant changes. The average annual values of employment in these age groups were 66.77 ± 0.19 and 66.23 ± 0.27%, respectively (r = 0.285828). Almost every fifth rural resident of the “silver” age continued their labor activities after entering the retirement age. However, the involvement of this category in the aging economy was significantly lower (for different years, from 2.3 to 4.9%) compared to the urban population. This circumstance could be associated with limited offers on the labor market in rural regions, where agricultural production continues Table 3 Distribution of the employment rate of the rural population by age groups (data at the end of the year) Observation period (years)

Age groups (years) 15–19

2014

9.7

20–29

30–39

40–49

50–59

60+

65.8

79.5

82.6

66.1

19.6

2015

9.7

66.5

79.5

82.7

66.3

20.1

2016

10.4

67.0

79.4

82.7

66.7

20.5

2017

9.0

67.2

80.1

82.9

65.4

19.2

2018

8.2

66.4

81.4

83.3

66.5

19.7

Source Compiled by the authors based on [15]

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to occupy the first rank place traditionally, and the state of health determines the competitiveness of potential workers, regardless of their age status. The results of the all-Russian survey “Rural Life—2015” [22] showed that (1) only one-sixth of the rural population (15.9%) felt completely healthy; (2) more than a third of the rural residents reported serious health problems—chronic diseases (26.7%) and disability (5.4%). Researchers noted a direct relationship between personal health assessments and the length of work experience in the agricultural sector. Two-fifths (38.5%) of rural residents with more than ten years of work experience indicated that they have chronic (including occupational) diseases. Besides, this group registered the highest percentage of people with disabilities. The specifics of rural life and working conditions determine the structural and functional organization of rural health care and require a special approach to the problem of its optimization and the implementation of health-saving programs [8]. In contrast to the urban environment, rural health care institutions operate in conditions of (1) uneven settlement of rural residents and a relatively small number of the served population living on a large area; (2) a high proportion of people over working age; (3) the continuing shortage of primary health care workers; (4) the unsatisfactory state of transport communications and insufficient sanitary transport; (5) low level of information technology development [20]. The structural and functional organization of rural health care that emerged during the Soviet era has a pronounced specificity, focused on better meeting the population’s needs in both primary and specialized medical care [6]. The main principles of providing medical and preventive care to villagers are its stages and continuity in the work of all structures. The implementation of primary health care proceeds from the territorial availability of medical organizations [MO] for the population and is carried out through: ● ● ● ●

Rural district hospitals; Feldsher-midwife station [FMS]; Rural medical outpatient clinics; General practice doctor offices, which are currently divisions of the central district hospitals [CDH] or district hospitals [DH].

The provision of specialized medical care, as a rule, is geographically remote from rural settlements and is carried out based on regional, territorial, district, or republican hospitals and dispensaries. It should be noted that the optimization of the structure and resources of rural health care carried out in the early 2000s, which was ambiguous in its results, led to a decrease in the availability of primary health care. First of all, this concerns the unjustified reduction of FMS, which, given the remoteness of rural settlements from the district and regional centers, accounts for the main burden of providing treatment, prophylactic, and rehabilitation measures. Between 2005 and 2018, according to the Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, the number of FMS decreased by 9000 (Table 4), which limited the availability of primary health care for most residents of underpopulated villages (less than 500 people). People were forced to create households to provide first aid.

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Table 4 Network of medical and preventive organizations in rural areas Statistical indicators

Observation period (years) 2005

2010

2015

2016

2017

2018

Total number of medical organizations (units)

3659

1349

1036

1006

996

982

Central regional hospitals (units)

688

727

597

573

563

560

District hospitals (units)

119

79

185

183

193

194

Rural district hospitals (units)

2591

382

65

59

52

42

Feldsher-midwife station (thou units)

42.5

37.7

34.3

34.0

33.8

33.5

Source Compiled by the authors based on [7]

Also, to optimize the use of bed capacity, local hospitals, which previously provided medical and preventive care, and nursing care in a hospital environment, were closed or reoriented to outpatient admission. The reduction in the MO network of primary rural health care in recent years has been partially offset by the opening of centers (offices) for general practice doctor offices, the creation of mobile medical teams, and the abovementioned households [15]. However, there are reasons why these measures fail to offset the effects of rural health restructuring, namely: ● General practice doctor offices (offices) are created only in villages with a population of more than 1000 and are not available for residents of low populated areas; ● The number of mobile medical teams (less than 2000), designed to serve rural villages with a population of up to 100 people, is not comparable to their number (about 83 settlements); ● Members of households who have committed themselves to provide health care generally do not have a medical degree; this is not enough even for first aid and is fraught with fatal outcomes. Considering that currently, over 11,000 rural villages are located more than 20 km from the nearest health facility, and about a third of the settlements are not provided with regular public transport [15], medical care becomes geographically difficult to access or inaccessible to a significant number of rural residents, especially older ones. Another significant problem affecting the effectiveness of health programs for the rural population is the quality of services provided by rural health care institutions, which are significantly inferior to urban MO in terms of providing qualified personnel and the level of medical equipment (Table 5). Despite the implementation of government programs (“Zemsky Doctor,” “Zemsky Feldsher,” etc.) aimed at increasing the availability and quality of medical care for the rural population, the total number of health workers in rural areas in 2019 compared to 2018 decreased by 5600 people and amounted to 245,200. Among them: medium qualification staff—192,100 (−4,400), doctors—up to 53,100 (−1200), which was only 9.6% of the total number of doctors working in Russia in 2019. At the same

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Table 5 Dynamics of population provision with doctors (per 10,000 inhabitants) Statistical indicators

Observation period (years) 2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

Provision of the urban population

60.3

58.4

56.9

58.1

58.8

Provision of the rural population

15.1

15.8

16.1

16.4

16.2

Source Compiled by the authors based on [7]

time, 16% of specialists had the highest qualification category among doctors serving rural residents, the first category—10% [16]. According to rural residents, the main reasons for the unsatisfactory performance of the primary MO in rural health care, along with a shortage of medical specialists, are (1) low qualification of nursing staff, (2) inattention to patients, (3) lack of dispensary supervision and rehabilitation at the FMS and rural medical outpatient clinic levels, (4) limited availability of free specialized medical care [13]. At the same time, a sample survey of residents of rural villages conducted as part of the project ‘The Russia Longitudinal Monitoring Survey” [9] showed that approximately 40% of the population noted an improvement in the work of MO in their region. However, the share of positive assessments was significantly higher in social groups with a higher socio-economic status. In the “poor” groups of the rural population (with limited income), which include the majority of 60+ people, the greatest criticism was still caused by (1) the need to go to paid clinics and MOs in neighboring regions; (2) queues in budgetary healthcare institutions, both for outpatient admission and inpatient treatment; (3) high cost of medicines; and (4) insufficient information about the rights to receive free medical services.

4 Discussion Comparison of mid-term forecasts (2020–2040) of the formation of the demographic situation in rural villages in mortality, fertility, and migration [5] with competent data [15] showed that currently, demographic processes in the rural areas develop according to the following scenario: a decrease in the mortality rate of men of working age from unnatural causes (accident, injury, murder, suicide, and alcohol poisoning), and the severity of diseases of the circulatory system in men and women of middle and older age, when fixing age fertility rates, leading to reduced reproduction. This scenario’s eligibility is confirmed by the increase in the average life expectancy of the rural population: in the period from 2014 to 2018, the average life expectancy increased by 2.9 years for men (from 69.4 to 71.7 years) by 2.7 years for women. The birth rate also decreased: from 14.4 to 10.7 births per 1000 rural residents. Along with depopulation, a significant contribution to the deformation of the age structure of the rural population towards people aged 60+ is made by the continuing migration outflow of the economically active part of the population (primarily young

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people) to cities and federal centers of Russia, the level of which is usually considered as one of the indicators of socio-economic well-being of the region [11]. Despite the signs of the formation of an aging model economy in rural areas [14, 18], the involvement of rural residents of the “silver” age in labor relations is significantly lower than the urban population [9]. This circumstance is connected with a relatively limited list of types of economic activities in the rural labor market, the main of which are: agriculture—19.7%; trade, public catering, consumer services— 14.6%; education—11.4%; construction—7.3; healthcare—7.2%. Besides, the official data on the economic activity of rural residents of retirement age is influenced by unrecorded employment in the informal labor sector, which is largely prevalent in rural villages. On the other hand, such an essential factor of labor longevity as professional competence [12, 24] is vital for continuing labor activity, mainly in rural areas education and health care. For people of retirement age with low educational qualifications, agricultural production and work associated with harmful working conditions remain the most accessible [6]. The activity of most rural residents of older age groups is mainly determined by the state of health and not by the motivation to work [10]. Also, when analyzing the impact of health on working longevity, it is necessary to consider that a full general working capacity, corresponding to the level of capabilities of young practically healthy individuals, remains in a quarter of men 60–75 years old, and only in every tenth woman of the same age [12]. In contrast to the generally accepted opinion that the share of the impact of accessibility and quality of medical care on the health of the population (life expectancy, healthy years of life) does not exceed 30%, in the conditions of heterogeneous socioeconomic development of rural areas, guaranteed medical care for residents of low populated, hard-to-reach or remote rural villages are becoming factors of survival [3, 8]. According to Rosstat [7], MO providing primary health care are currently geographically accessible only to 49.4% of the rural population. For 40%, they are difficult to access; for 9%—they are inaccessible. At the same time, practice shows that the introduction of new structural and functional links in rural health care (general practice doctor offices, mobile medical teams, and households for primary care) does not allow for leveling the consequences of optimizing rural health care and ensure universal and equal access for rural residents to medical care, and the right to choose a medical institution and an attending physician [13].

5 Conclusion The results of a comprehensive analysis of updated information on the demographic situation in rural villages of Russia, the age structure of the economically active rural population, the structural and functional organization of rural health care, the quality and availability of primary health care for rural residents allowed the authors to single out the following socio-medical aspects and current trends that affect on the labor longevity of rural residents.

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Recently, there has been an explicit deformation of the age structure of the rural population, shifted towards older people (60+). It is caused by a drop in the birth rate, the migration outflow of the economically active part of the population, and an increase in average life expectancy. The prerequisite for the formation of an aging model of the economy in rural regions is the continuation of labor activity by every fifth rural resident who has entered the retirement age. The economic activity of older age groups is limited by the list of economic activities typical for the rural labor market. Higher education in rural areas is a limitedly significant factor contributing to labor longevity, mainly in education and health care. For the bulk of rural residents of retirement age, motivated to continue working in agricultural production (especially in harmful working conditions), the priority factor of labor longevity is the state of health. The most important condition for increasing life expectancy and healthy longevity of the rural population is to ensure the availability and quality of free medical services, primary health care, and specialized treatment of the most common somatic diseases in the older age group.

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Autonomy and Control in the System of Occupational Risk Management Alexey D. Trubetskov

and Ekaterina I. Pashinina

Abstract The paper presents a sociological view on the features of the system for detecting occupational diseases. The paper aims to identify the specifics of the interaction of subjects of social partnership (employers, hygienists and occupational pathologists, employees, and the state) in the system of occupational risk management and preservation of employees’ health. The paper focuses on the study of expert opinions on the processes of identifying occupational diseases and conditions for their diagnosis and prevention in Russian practice. In line with the qualitative strategy of sociological research, we interviewed specialists directly involved in diagnosing and providing medical care to patients from the risk group of getting an occupational disease. A sociological interpretation of informants’ statements and opinions regarding the ratio of the share of autonomy (understood as freedom of decision-making) and the control of specialists and patients as subjects of the processes of identifying occupational diseases in the system of occupational risk management became the result of the study. In the context of dynamically changing socio-economic relations and the growing role of medical control over national security, we identified multidirectional motives and strategies for managing professional risk on the part of occupational pathologists while monitoring the health of workers in the field of professional activity. Liberal and authoritarian interaction strategies have rather pronounced forms of manifestation in the doctor/occupational pathologist—patient/client system. As a result, the behavioral strategy of the subjects of the social partnership system changes in respect of the rights of workers to safe working conditions. The research results show the power and control resources of occupational pathologists and the flexibility of tools for detecting health disorders of workers and occupational diseases. The study made it possible to conclude about A. D. Trubetskov Saratov Hygiene Medical Research Center of the Federal Budget Scientific Institution, Federal Scientific Center for Medical and Preventive Health Risk Management Technologies, Saratov, Russia e-mail: [email protected] E. I. Pashinina (B) Yuri Gagarin Saratov State Technical University, Saratov, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova (ed.), Complex Social Systems in Dynamic Environments, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 365, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23856-7_106

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the peculiarities of occupational pathologist—patient interaction, the arising intraoccupational conflicts, the resources of persuasion and control, and the professional strategies and tools used, which allows expanding the scientific data in the field of sociology of health and medicine and presenting the interpretation of the practice of identifying occupational diseases in the system of occupational risk management. Keywords Sociology of medicine · Occupational risk · Occupational risk management · Occupational diseases · Occupational pathology · Health care

1 Introduction Sociocultural factors in the identification, monitoring, and prevention of occupational diseases are manifested in the interdisciplinary space of the sociology of medicine and the sociology of health. These scientific directions force us to look at this phenomenon in different ways based on (1) the medical practice and activities, the structure, methods, and tools of the medical community, and the expert position of physicians or (2) a complex of factors that directly or indirectly determine the mechanisms of occurrence and control of the phenomenon of occupational diseases (including groups of workers, employers, and labor protection specialists, and a system of organizations conducting a special assessment of working conditions (SAWC) and making a decision on the withdrawal from workplaces hazardous to health). It is worth emphasizing that hygienists and accredited laboratories previously performed the workplace certification, while enterprises can conduct the SAWC themselves (if necessary, with hygienists’ advice). The transition from the workplace certification to the SAWC practice has determined a significant reduction in jobs classified as harmful. Approaches to occupational risk management can be considered in the management system of the health care and occupational medicine system in the aspect of measures to preserve and restore the health of workers and their withdrawal from hazardous industries with adverse consequences. The developed set of regulations defining the activities of medical workers creates a legal basis for them to be agents of the system of occupational risk management in terms of protecting the health of workers and the state interests of preserving the health and working capacity of its citizens. In general, the model of occupational risk management involves agents, such as organizations that conduct special assessments of working conditions, medical institutions and centers for detecting occupational diseases, employers and their unions, workers and their professional groups, insurance organizations and foundations, human rights advocacy groups, and the state. The approaches of the sociology of medicine and medical anthropology, the theory of stigmatization, the conflict-resolving approach to the study of professional communications, and the concept of risk were the theoretical framework of the study.

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The authors emphasize the relevance of the problem of stigmatization in the event of socially dangerous and socially caused diseases and the analysis of intraoccupational processes associated with the identification of harmful occupational factors and persons affected by them. Thus, Goffman [12] defined stigma as physical or social signs that change and destroy the social identity of a social subject and distort its perceived image. In medical practice, the researcher demonstrated the killing ritual of the patient’s personality in closed institutions (standardization of patient’s reactions to behavioral forms of humility and consent) using the example of the work of psychiatric institutions [11]. As one of the representatives of critical medical anthropology, Foucault [10] has shown the connection between stigmatization and the manifestation of social control when the stigmatized is endowed with symbolic meaning, which is retained even after overcoming the grounds for the emergence of stigma (curing the disease). Symbolic meanings and associated forms of social control construct a model of the relationship between a person and society with consideration of medical knowledge and power, representing a person as a body and an object of rational examination and influence. Following M. Foucault, we will consider the forms of medical control and discursive practices in relation to the analysis of the processes of identifying occupational diseases. According to Foucault [9], the linguistic form of manifestation of stigma is expressed in its construction in speech. At the same time, overcoming stigma can be performed through linguistic transformation. Applying a reflexive approach to the use of terminology for designating certain groups leads to the fact that the concept of groups of risky behavior or vulnerable groups supplants the concept of a risk group. Simultaneously, the concept of physically challenged people, which becomes discriminatory in international practice, is transformed into people with disabilities or disabled people. In this case, a conscious transformation of terminology acts as a way to overcome stigma and normalize behavior perceived as deviating from the norm. With the growing trends in the spread and globalization of risk, including those of technogenic and environmental origin, we should emphasize that the problem of disability associated with the activities of industrial enterprises and employment in sectors of high occupational risk can affect almost everyone. When an occupational disease is detected, the patient loses the opportunity to work only in a certain range of professions in most cases but retains the possibility of socialization and self-realization in other areas of activity. At the same time, it is important to note that with the closure of one of the areas of professional activity of patients, not only emerging problems and stigmatization but also the fact that getting an occupational disease is a very desirable result for many patients since it gives material and social preferences. The conflict-resolving approach to studying professional activity is reflected in the following: ● Principles for analyzing class conflict by Marx and Dahrendorf [6]; ● Functional model of the conflict by Simmel [24]; ● Theory of positive-functional conflict by Coser [5];

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● Scheme of development and structure of the conflict by Boulding [3]; ● Ideas about social conflict in the context of informatization and globalization [4, 25]. In our research, it is important to emphasize the features of the formation of rallying and disconnecting relations within professional communities. We assume that within each profession, there are contradictions in values, goals, and the choice of tools to achieve them among occupational pathologists and their patients. In some cases, the roles taken by occupational pathologists can go beyond the immediate professional relationship and take the position of mediators, arbitrators, or judges. This can become relevant when the research focuses on class conflicts (especially in the Marxist understanding when the opposition between the exploited and exploiting classes is visible). The functionalist view of conflicts allows seeing the processes of balancing the interests of different social and occupational groups in them to achieve common goals and solidarity. In a risk society, new communities associated with these risks are emerging, and risk becomes one of the factors of social stratification. Based on the ideas of Beck [1] and Yanitsky [27] about the formation of new communities based on fears growing in a risk society, one can see the formation of solidarities of potential and actual risk producers and risk consumers. The solidarity of potential risk consumers who do not belong to risk groups can become the basis for associations aimed to combat risk factors, its manifestation in the form of diseases, and carriers of the threat of the disease (risk-generating organizations and the sick). In addition, we will emphasize the formation of a community of risk analysts [21] and managers of riskgenerating processes whose professionalization is actively developing. In the SAWC system, there is an increase in the tools for monitoring and managing risk-generating processes in production, which is a special resource for risk management. The practical dominance of the medical prevention model can be reduced to the establishment of medical authority in a sector that is predominantly socially and technically determined. At the same time, strengthening the socio-medical paradigm of health allows us to shift the emphasis on social and political life for solving health problems [22]. Analysis of urban and regional risk factors with consideration of the factors of sanitary-hygienic and socio-economic well-being allowed the research team of Lebedeva-Nesevrya to draw a map of the most and least favorable Russian territories for maintaining health, including during labor activity to develop strategies of the health-saving environment [19]. The scientific elaboration of prevention and monitoring of occupational and socially caused diseases is presented in some dissertations, in particular of Borodkina [2] (on measures to prevent and counteract HIV/AIDS considered as an example of a socially dangerous disease with pronounced social and behavioral characteristics in the history of epidemics of other infectious diseases) and Dudintseva [7] (on the results of a comprehensive socio-hygienic study of occupational diseases of medical workers). The studies of the economic profile of Kaminsky [13], Kuznetsova

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[17], and Dulyasova [8] contain the analysis of principles of socio-economic protection of workers from occupational risks in the system of compulsory social insurance and management of the occupational risk level. In the works of the technical profile, Panferova [20] has identified occupational risk when analyzing social factors of labor protection and considering the qualitative and quantitative indicators of damage to workers’ health and their relationship with the state of working conditions. At the same time, Khrupachev [14, 15] has developed a concept for assessing the environmental, occupational risk of production facilities. Therefore, we find it relevant to pay special attention to different points of view on social prevention of occupational diseases in the system of occupational risk management in the context of socially determined factors of their etiology, when only medical measures are relatively ineffective. In the current conditions of the spread of coronavirus infection (on the one hand, social contacts become factors of an epidemic threat, including during work, and on the other hand, the variability of occupational risks is expanding), research aimed to preserve the health of workers in the production process is especially important. For this purpose, we have developed a sociological research program designed to demonstrate the discursive field of attitudes towards occupational diseases in the system of occupational risk within the assessments of occupational pathologists as subjects of the process of labor protection and identification of occupational diseases of workers employed in harmful and dangerous working conditions.

2 Materials and Methods We have conducted the study in line with the qualitative methodology of sociological research using expert interviews, which allows diving deeper into the semantic field, attitudes, and motives of the informants. The research peculiarity is that the solution of the set tasks is based on the assessment of experts working in occupational medicine. Using the method of expert interviews allows gaining access to hard-toreach information about the poorly articulated problem of diagnosing occupational diseases and a specialized target group, which makes it possible to obtain an assessment of the real processes and conditions of the interaction of a specific segment of the doctor-patient communication and design the conditions for a more effective model of occupational risk management. We have selected specialists directly involved in providing medical care to patients of the considered risk group as informants. We used the following criteria for selecting experts: ● ● ● ●

Competence and experience in the field of identifying occupational pathologies; Authority; Decision-making experience; Influence on the decision to establish the diagnosis of an occupational disease.

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The number of informants includes occupational pathologists with different experiences and occupying different positions in the system: ● ● ● ●

Heads of departments; Heads of occupational pathology centers; Researchers from specialized departments of a medical university; Employees of a specialized bureau of medical and social expertise (MSE) or a social insurance fund; ● Occupational pathologists who have recently worked in the field and can express themselves more independently while maintaining competence. We have continued the research and surveyed the participants of the Profession and Health Congress (Russia, Samara, 2019) that came from various cities (Moscow, Samara, Kazan, Ufa, Yekaterinburg, etc.). We have conducted the survey under conditions of anonymity and coding of the respondents’ identification data. We interviewed a total of 23 specialists between June and September 2019. Each interview lasted 40–90 min. Research questions included the following thematic areas: ● ● ● ● ● ●

Peculiarities of removing workers from harmful working conditions; Availability of medical care in occupational pathology centers; Reimbursement of treatment costs and compensation payments; Demand for a spa treatment; Factors that reduce the degree of social protection of workers; Opportunities for improving the protection system of citizens with occupational diseases.

In the presented paper, we focus on (1) occupational pathologists’ choice of tools for influencing patients according to professionally determined value priorities and (2) the ratio of autonomy and control in the work of occupational pathologists as agents of the system of occupational risk prevention with patients and employers’ representatives.

3 Results In this paper, research attention focuses on the process of changing the system for assessing working conditions, and problems and prospects for monitoring the health status of workers at enterprises that are at risk of developing occupational diseases from the point of view of occupational pathologists. We emphasize that the attitude to preserve the health of patients is a key value for medical ethics. Although patients have the right to make decisions about their health, they are still not always competent in its adequate assessment or have other life priorities detrimental to their health. As a result, there are often relations of confrontation and conflicts between occupational pathologists, whose mission is to protect workers from harmful working conditions, and workers who want to keep their jobs and income. The opposite situation also

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happens. For instance, employees seek to diagnose an occupational disease as soon as possible, presenting health complaints in an exaggerated form. As a result, doctors are often in a situation of professional and ethical dilemmas. They use different strategies and tools to influence patients (including patients’ close circle) and change the center of responsibility for decision-making from the patient’s wishes and rights to the joint acceptance of a compromise or their authoritarian position. We consider the aspect of decision-making by occupational pathologists to remove workers from harmful working conditions in more detail, including raising the following questions: ● How early it is necessary to remove workers from work; ● Whether the employee has the right to refuse; ● Whether the doctor is obliged to establish a diagnosis and remove patients from work; The issue of removing workers from a situation of occupational risk is associated with the fact that the termination of work in harmful conditions in the case of the development of health disorders is one of the first and most significant ways to protect patients. Early withdrawal from harmful conditions with initial signs of occupational diseases is perceived from a medical perspective as the right decision. Traditionally, the amount of social guarantees depends on the degree of disability in a specialty established by a specialized MSE Bureau. However, this is simultaneously associated with a violation of the existing social status and the need to change jobs, including, possibly, with a decrease in income. Thus, a contradiction arises between the health protection and social protection of workers. The most obvious answer is as follows: Withdrawing from harmful working conditions is not always good. People lose their jobs. They try to hide their complaints to stay at work because losing a job brings many problems now. Patients often try to hide their pathology. And then, other people come in their place and acquire an occupational disease. And these people already have experience, and they are registered. Therefore, one cannot deprive them of work. It is my opinion. They are not particularly autonomous because we act in accordance with orders, and there is nothing they can do. Anyway, there are patients who, on the contrary, control their complaints, want to aggravate their condition, and precisely get an occupational disease. In essence, they try to hide the pathology (Informant 13).

Hiding health problems during professional examinations has detrimental consequences for workers and their future, including physical, social, and financial wellbeing, since expensive treatment and disability drastically reduce the quality of life: We try to explain to people that receiving harm (as they say) is only to the detriment and at the expense of the family. In other words, it is better to pay less and today than more and later (Informant 17).

In addition to individual health consequences, preserving harmful and hazardous working conditions provokes a reproduction cycle of occupational risk at a given workplace for subsequent workers. The issue of doctors’ and patients’ autonomy in making decisions about the diagnosis and status of an occupational disease carries a significant reflexive burden

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for informants. The opinion on a pronounced priority of the client’s autonomy is indicative: I believe that it is necessary to withdraw from harmful conditions as early as possible so that this disease does not develop further. Health in our state is a personal matter of every citizen. Therefore, if people do not want, we should not diagnose the disease as we have no right (Informant 2).

From the point of view of patients, their autonomy manifests itself in the following aspects: ● Readiness to bear conscious responsibility for their health; ● Right to self-determination with the sphere of professional activity and preservation of the workplace; ● Right to social and financial guarantees in the process of working in hazardous working conditions and withdrawal from them. When setting patients’ health as their personal matter, doctors recognize the special autonomous status of their patients. In this situation, on the one hand, doctors consider patients’ will and rights, and on the other hand, this can be a position of noninterference in the matter of conscious or unconscious self-destruction of a person under the influence of socially and professionally determined circumstances. In our opinion, the specificity of such a liberal approach to patients’ self-determination in preserving their health is associated with the following factors: ● Recognition of the need to fill jobs with harmful and hazardous production factors when it is impossible to completely control them in the conditions of present technological equipment; ● Creation of a social support system for workers (including risky industries and organizations) through social insurance that provides compensation payments and medical and social rehabilitation. Restraining patients’ autonomy occurs in the process of analyzing the results of the examination. Moreover, their subjective opinions and manifestations of medical authority based on prescribed regulations do not determine it. The control over the situation on the part of physicians and their ability to exercise their autonomy in choosing the means and tools of work and influencing patients come into force. We consider the following abilities as the moments determining the doctor’s autonomy: ● Ability to make choices in the face of ethical and professional dilemmas; ● Ability to set value priorities in the implementation of their work; ● Ability to choose more liberal or harsh methods of persuasion and decisionmaking. The professional medical community, regulations, and prescriptions perform internal control over their activities. We should also note that organizations conducting SAWC often depend on employers and their interests. The state exercises external control by creating an appropriate legal framework and structures that

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control its implementation. The cyclical nature of the problems of reproducing occupational risk, which result from concealing or postponing the solution of workers’ problems to withdraw them from harmful working conditions, negatively affects the health indicators of the working population and restrain employers’ motivation to improve working conditions. All informants recognize the importance of dialogue with patients and the possibility of explaining them (and their understanding) the health consequences of continuing work in risky conditions: Doctors must find contact with patients and explain what happens and what will happen to them in the future (i.e., explain all the pros and cons) if they are not withdrawn from harmful working conditions. It is better to give patients some time to think it over (Informant 2).

Preserving patients’ health is a priority for doctors. Nevertheless, the readiness to change the professional trajectory on the part of workers must also be formed. Excessive pressure can cause resistance and conflicts in the doctor—patient dyad. Therefore, the time factor can be decisive for realizing the need for changes in the work path and looking for additional persuasion methods. One of the experts explains: Sometimes we find mutual understanding, and sometimes we do not because it is very difficult to find a job. There are no vacant jobs because there is always a conflict. When job seniority is worked off, there are no questions. If it is not worked off, there is always a struggle with patients and their consciousness. Sometimes we invite family members, children, or spouses to help. And yet we try to find them a job (Informant 17).

Thus, occupational pathologists use rational ways to convince patients in prioritizing health maintaining and patients’ close environment to enhance the impact for deciding on their withdrawal from harmful working conditions with a serious health risk. With a liberal approach to interaction with patients, doctors seek to maintain contact and dialogue, especially if there is a real or potential risk to employees’ health. Informant 3 says, ‘If they are interested in continuing work, we need to communicate and find a common language.’ Such situations, when patients are interested in keeping a job in hazardous working conditions, are quite common since this is a way to get the necessary income and support themselves and their families and an opportunity to apply for a social pension for seniority. Informant 8 answers as follows: How often do patients want to stay at work anyway? Often enough. However, this is already the role of doctors’ conversation and the substantiation of the diagnosis, that is, our clinical activity. Doctors must justify and show what the work will lead to in such conditions, and ask, ‘Do you want to become disabled at 45?’ That is motivation. But many want to stay, and they do not always understand everything (Informant 8).

When describing the regulation of inpatients’ behavior and the implementation of directive actions concerning them, Goffman [11] has demonstrated a more pronounced approach of doctors to assessing the situation of patients’ misunderstanding of their state of health and the consequences of their current actions.

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Therefore, we can consider the professional attitude towards removing workers from harmful working conditions and achieving their informed consent with such a decision indicative since it allows immediately removing some negative effects on the body and promoting its recovery. Informant 3 says: Therefore, of course, it is better to withdraw as they will immediately be able to walk, move without paresis. Have you always managed to convince patients? Yes, I think so. I try to talk (Informant 3)

Thus, in the liberal model of interaction with patients, the leading role is assigned to informing them about their health and the consequences for them, which can influence their decision. Informant 4 notes: Patients must be notified that they already have manifestations of an occupational disease. There are patients who want to be brought to an occupational disease, and there are patients who do not, who are more sensitive to their health. Therefore, they may not want to continue working in these conditions when they know that at least some diseases have appeared in them (Informant 4).

In some cases, occupational pathologists agree and accept the situation when employees remain to work in harmful working conditions after diagnosing an occupational disease: Patients do not really want to get out of harmful conditions since they are paid fairly well. They continue to work with occupational diseases in the same conditions. Our insistent recommendations pass them by and are ignored, and we have to turn to employers. Employers are on our side. They try to remove workers into other conditions. Patients continue to work (with occupational disease) in excellent conditions at the only plant in our city. Employees insist on continuing to work in this profession. I think this is bad. Employers are interested, and employees are interested too (Informant 16).

This situation can manifest itself in employment in the agricultural sector and be associated with the practice of gray wages. Thus, the presented expert opinion shows a more complex system of interaction between the subjects of the system of occupational risk management, their multidirectional interests, possible coalitions, and partnerships, and the hidden processes of mutual influence of employees, employers, and organizations conducting SAWC and professional examinations. Moreover, emerging relationships can reduce occupational risk and reproduce it. Violation of the rights and discrimination of employees in creating and maintaining safe working conditions, and preserving their health is associated with relations in the employee—employer dyad and their willingness to reproduce occupational risk when employees are viewed as productive resources destroyable over time and interchangeable. The following opinion is indicative: Yes, workers are unprotected. This is not good, of course. Employers are interested in finding new employees who do not get sick and will work for a longer period. It is probably more correct for patients to decide. We have such patients who, unfortunately, continue to work (Informant 4).

In our opinion, it is possible to define the situation when workers hide their health problems from doctors to preserve their jobs as self-discrimination concerning their

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rights to health care. Patients’ conscious acceptance of the risk of harm to their health is demonstrated in the following statement: Are there patients who want to continue working although they know that there is a change? Yes, there are such people who are afraid of losing their jobs and, therefore, they begin to hide this information (Informant 7).

Simultaneously, the informants have noted that keeping jobs is sometimes a blessing for patients, and they hide occupational diseases in various ways. The act of occupational disease can even lie in a closet during all their lives, but they can work in their previous positions all their lives and have no percentage of loss of professional ability to work. Of course was the answer to the question of whether patients can hide their occupational disease. A further question about the awareness of employers in the context of the possibility of changing the place of work showed the following: Will any company or employers demand from everyone an act of occupational disease? There are plenty of such cases. A preliminary examination can be done in a polyclinic, and no one will know that workers have an occupational disease (Informant 1).

The opposite situation is when employees want to be diagnosed with an occupational disease despite its early cases, which are doubtful: Such patients usually come by themselves. They see doctors, specialists, and occupational pathologists. Thank God, it is not often enough. We also explain, communicate, and see what opportunities exist or not (Informant 8).

The situation with setting patients, which was repeatedly discussed in previous decades, appears only in the case of long seniority or when harmful seniority is worked off. Informant 16 notes, ‘I wish there would be at least one person in ten years who would like to leave.’ Doctors consider patients who deliberately exaggerate their complaints and focus on stopping work and receiving maximum social assistance as setting ones. Doctors can allow patients to continue working in risky conditions in a situation of constant monitoring of their health: If there are preclinical signs (e.g., stigma), patients can work under doctors’ supervision and undergo obligatory examinations every year. If these signs intensify and some clinic appears, patients are freed from work in harmful conditions. Employees and their employers take responsibility. Withdrawal from work can be postponed for a year and a half in case of neuro-sensory hearing loss, but bronchial asthma causes complications (Informant 11).

We can see that the issue of taking responsibility for the health and life of workers is divided between doctors, patients (workers), and employers united in the assessment and management of occupational risk, in particular occupational diseases. Nevertheless, with their assessment of patients’ condition based on knowledge and experience, occupational pathologists are mostly responsible for this process. Arguments of specialists most focused on maintaining patients’ autonomy are based on data on the progression of the disease and are as follows:

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I have my ideas about the clinical picture in neurology. And if I get the impression in my head that there is no progression (great progression) and that this does not lead to disability, I will allow working as far as possible because people highly rely on their occupation now so that they can keep themselves somehow in this profession and earn something. Depriving a piece of bread is very difficult and unacceptable for me. However, if there is a feeling that the disease can lead to disability and if I understand that the clinical picture can be depressing, I will be categorically persistent, but anyway, I will look for a compromise (Informant 2).

The degree of patients’ autonomy and doctors’ participation in decision-making largely depends on the nosology and the disease form. Thus, the quality of life connected to occupational sensorineural hearing loss or bronchial asthma and the possibility of rehabilitation differ significantly. The following statement reveals this approach: We understand perfectly well that it depends on the diagnosis. If this is bronchial asthma, if we see that this is already a sufficient clinic, and if patients are sent to us with an established diagnosis of bronchial asthma not yet related to the profession, deterioration and progression will unambiguously lead to disability. The same thing is if this is a suspicion of silicosis or pneumoconiosis as the issue is resolved unambiguously. If these are diseases, such as neurosensory hearing loss, it is quite natural that we can dynamically observe it at the initial degree, at the first degree, and admit it. These are purely medical considerations (Informant 8).

To a large extent, the decision may depend on the specifics of the harmful production factor and the type of occupational activity that affect the formation of occupational disease: There are various factors in production. Therefore, it depends on the factors in which patients are directly involved. If it is the dust of plant or animal origin, the timing is not particularly important here. One can get the same bronchial asthma or obstructive bronchitis by working there for a year or two and get a moderate or severe degree of this disease. If it is physical activity, vibration, or noise, I believe that patients can work for longer, even more than ten years. Therefore, it makes no sense to withdraw them from these conditions early (Informant 4).

A tougher position regarding the assessment of workers’ state concerns professions with a high degree of responsibility, the cost of mistakes, and, accordingly, the admission of workers: With drivers, everything is much tougher. Drivers can bring danger to other residents and property. It also concerns the nuclear industry. It is somehow different on ships. They have some concessions (Informant 19).

The time of withdrawing employees from harmful working conditions is determined individually for each patient with consideration of a set of the following factors: ● ● ● ●

Examination results; Clinical picture and its dynamics based on monitoring data; Consideration of the amount of compensation; Influence of the specifics of harmful production factors;

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● Characteristics of the performed labor functions and labor intensity, including in working with equipment; ● Gender. An informal approach to work allows us to consider the whole range of factors, which characterizes the transition to a socio-medical model of work in occupational medicine. The following statement vividly represents the position of putting oneself into patients’ place and taking into account the conditions of their lives: If people have loans and their children study, they are forced to work. It so happens that doctors meet patients’ wishes and extend their work for a year, two, or three. If there is a dynamic, the question is raised about the connection between the disease and the profession or the contraindications. Consideration of patients’ opinions is mandatory. An occupational disease is a social one. Patients go through the MSE and receive a percentage for the loss. Still, we must put ourselves into patients’ places. They have families. There will be problems in families. They are wageworkers, especially those who work in hazardous jobs (Informant 21).

Personal attitude with consideration of the social situation and identification of the relationship between the disease and production factors is important in the work of occupational pathologists: Withdrawal... Whether they want to leave or not... There is a double position. Many want to stay and receive cash payments. This is the best option. Nevertheless, it does not work that way. Well, we write about rational employment. It often happens that there is no harm, but the disease progresses. It concerns the same hearing loss or respiratory pathology. Of course, we let people work with early signs of disease. We watch the dynamics. Patients say that they have a year left to work off harmful seniority. If we see no negative dynamics, we allow them to work off (Informant 22).

Experts are often aware of the negative social consequences for employees in the form of the impossibility of employment and the lack of free rehabilitation measures after receiving a diagnosis of occupational disease: We diagnose occupational disease, but patients do not receive free treatment or spa treatment if they have no complications. That is, they do not enjoy any privileges. They leave their workplaces and then have problems in finding jobs (Informant 2).

Occupational pathologists conduct complex accounting of the social effects and consequences for health and well-being regarding the situation with the withdrawal of workers from harmful working conditions and attempt to accept patients’ point of view. At the same time, aspects of material well-being, income preservation, and receiving compensation payments may dominate: If patients are withdrawn in the early stages of the disease, they will receive negligible compensation. Effective rehabilitation comes first. It is necessary to monitor the state of health. There should be a very scrupulous analysis of working conditions and, accordingly, monitoring of the state of health of these people. Then one can achieve something for patients to be at work as long as possible. Because in the case of withdrawal, patients will lose their jobs and receive nothing. This is a sore point. It is an order. It is necessary to approach each patient individually (Informant 12).

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We should emphasize that the gender issue in assessing the impact of occupational risk is pronounced. Thus, a gender-differentiated approach to health protection is reflected in the Concept of Demographic Policy of the Russian Federation for the Period up to 2025 and the focus on the priority removal of women from harmful and hazardous working conditions, which is associated with the differences in the influence of risk factors on the health of men and women and the characteristics of the course of their diseases [18]. Informant 12 notes: For example, the production of beryllium. Primarily women are employed. Show me a woman without uterine fibroids after 40 years. They should be fired from there. And employers cannot hire new ones because the same ones will come. An individual approach is needed since the fate of people is decided. Medics need to think and decide informally. There is almost always a way out (Informant 12).

Some experts directly indicate the need to consider social, household, and demographic factors, in addition to medical ones: We certainly take into account social factors and social orientation in current conditions. Patients’ age is considered. All factors. How often do patients want to stay at work anyway? Often enough. But here, the conversation and justification of the diagnosis by doctors already play a role (Informant 8). But here, doctors need to work in concert with patients because sometimes, there are some everyday difficulties (Informant 3).

Social factors considered by occupational pathologists determine patients’ choices and, as a rule, include the dependency burden, the presence of financial encumbrances and loans, and the need to maintain income. Along with consideration of the clinical picture of the disease, the question of considering the social context and patients’ wishes is raised due to the following features of occupational diseases: ● Social nature; ● Association with the existing system of social relations and consciously assumed occupational risk; ● Need in work of potentially hazardous industries (including chemical ones and those producing atomic energy) associated with work in conditions of increased noise, vibration, smoke, and heavy physical exertion. We can present examples of experts’ answers with a more pronounced authoritarian position of occupational pathologists when patients’ opinion is secondary to doctors’ decisions: The issue has been solved and is being solved. Patients have a medical screening on their professional suitability... If someone is fired from work, the medical commission gives a conclusion. People go to work, and there, this issue is resolved. What if patients do not want to go out? They have no choice. They are given three jobs to choose from. If they do not want, they are fired, and that is it. It can be challenging to find a job, but everything is within the law (Informant 6).

Within this approach, the manifestation of medical authority and regulations tightly regulate and truncate patients’ desire and autonomy.

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The following statement can demonstrate doctors’ autonomy in making decisions about the time of withdrawal of employees from harmful working conditions and taking responsibility in view of a more adequate understanding of the situation with patients’ health: Allowing patients to work for a short period or saying no is already a doctor’s decision. Patients cannot assess adequately. In fact, we do it sometimes, take responsibility, and admit. But nothing more. We give patients a specific conclusion: either you start to deal with your health or continue to ruin yourself further. If patients continue to ruin themselves, of course, there may be a volitional decision. We can prevent it. We have such opportunities (Informant 7).

Demonstration of medical authority in practice can be pronounced to some extent and depends on the internal attitudes of doctors and factors within the external occupational control of supervisory authorities. The following statement illustrates the contradictions between occupational pathologists and patients that are difficult to resolve and the existing professional dilemmas: Only doctors should decide. It is very twofold here. From the point of view of maintaining health, we must limit contact as early as possible. On the other hand, there is a social moment. Under current conditions, people may not always be employed with sufficient wages and sufficient social working conditions, and naturally, they try with all their might to delay withdrawal as long as possible. This contradiction always creates difficulties. We try to withdraw patients as early as possible, while patients try to delay this moment as long as possible (Informant14).

There is an opinion that flexible forms of work with patients can carry a pronounced risk: There are such moments, I call them points of pity. You take patients’ side, and then this pity of yours turns the other side in a year, and patients begin to complain to the center that nobody told them, nobody warned them, and now, they feel worse (Informant 22).

Late registration of an occupational disease results from postponing the decision to register it: I think that it is more than 50% or even 70% of cases when occupational diseases are established at the stage when people’s professional ability to work (or, perhaps, the general ability to work) is limited. This should not happen (Informant 8).

At the same time, this is about the protection of employees’ and patients’ rights, the protection of doctors, and the legal basis for the variability of decision-making of the latter: The importance of age is significant since many patients express the desire to work until retirement. Not determined yet? They have the right if they do not have three sick lists during a year. If they do, doctors need to withdraw them regardless of whether they want or not. Was it in 302? Or was it in 90? Somewhere it sounded. This will protect doctors, too (Informant 10).

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Preserving the workplace after working off job seniority in terms of harmfulness is a significant point. On the one hand, this situation is associated with limiting occupational exposure duration (protection by time). On the other hand, it involves the dismissal of employees, and their social maladjustment, and the need to find a new job less paid in most cases. The choice depends on many factors: health status, availability of jobs, and marital status. One of the experts notes: There are more young people now, more… However, most of my patients are people of retirement age who have worked off their harmful seniority three times. Three times! I believe that our healthcare, employers, or the Ministry of Labor should not make attacks in the direction of employees with harmful job seniority of 30 years instead of 12 years permitted. They also do not have the right to decide whether employees are entitled to occupational disease and whether they have any deviations in health. In my opinion, people need to work no more than 20 years, after which they need to be withdrawn from harmful conditions so that they do not develop an occupational disease. We need to give them another job. However, since there is no opportunity to provide them with another job with the same material interest in our conditions, they always continue to work to the last (Informant 23).

When summarizing the results of the expert interviews presented, we emphasize that occupational pathologists’ conclusions about the system of diagnostics and occupational diseases reflect the presence of professional dilemmas, doctors’ goals not always coinciding, and the need to apply flexible liberal and authoritarian methods of work. The share of autonomy and control in preventing occupational risk is formed in the dynamic system of interaction of its agents. ● ● ● ● ● ●

We should also emphasize a range of patients’ interests; Preserving health; Obtaining minimal social guarantees; Losing a job before the further development of the disease; Prolonging work in harmful conditions; Obtaining large social guarantees.

Occupational pathologists prioritize the preservation of workers’ health, but in some cases, they cannot fail to consider social and domestic factors and allow an informal approach when interacting with patients and deciding on their withdrawal from harmful working conditions.

4 Discussion Modernization in the healthcare sector has also affected occupational risk management, where introducing a special assessment of working conditions instead of the previous procedures for attesting workplaces became a turning point. This led to introducing new agents into the system of occupational risk management and building a new system of interaction between its subjects. We focused on the interaction of

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occupational pathologists as double agents of the system of occupational risk prevention and the system of health care who interact with employees of enterprises and their employers. The study allowed us to conclude about the peculiarities of the occupational pathologist–patient interaction that arise within professional conflicts and persuasion and control resources. Transforming the system of professional risk management is associated with the transition from the system of attestation of workplaces to the SAWC system, in connection with which new agents of change and new systems of relations between them appear. Legal regulation of the need for labor protection is established in Article 209 of the Labor Code of the Russian Federation and includes measures to identify, assess, and reduce occupational risk levels [23]. Occupational risk management in the field of occupational safety and health of citizens is mainly entrusted to employers through compliance with the requirements of occupational safety and the social insurance system. At the same time, the Social Insurance Fund of the Russian Federation (in 2023 The Social Fund of Russia merged the Pension Fund and the Social Insurance Fund) provides for the fulfillment of obligations to compensate for harm to employees’ health. In other words, it deals with the consequences of occupational risk and aims to increase the economic interest of employers in providing safe working conditions for employees. Nevertheless, the organization of the process of identifying and assessing occupational risk provides for the inclusion of the following social actors in this area: ● Organizations participating in the SAWC; ● Medical professional examinations of workers and their rehabilitation; ● Rospotrebnadzor (Federal Service for Surveillance on Consumer Rights Protection and Human Wellbeing); ● Lawmaking and human rights activities. In turn, the transformation of the professionalism of occupational pathologists includes not only the development and adherence to the new requirements of the system for protecting the health of workers, but also actionist sentiments and a reflection of occupational pathologists’ powers, problems, and prospects for changing occupational activities. In particular, we focused on the increasing autonomy of patients and the role of occupational pathologists in their life paths when deciding to withdrawal patients from work with harmful working conditions. We should note that in current conditions, patients’ status is revised, and in some cases (with the preservation of legal capacity and intelligence), they are transformed into clients and even beneficiaries. Liberal and authoritarian interaction strategies have rather pronounced forms of manifestation in the doctor/occupational pathologist—patient/client system. Therefore, the compliance and concordant models (the softened paternalistic model and a model of equal interaction with the patient, respectively) coexist [26]. Among the multidirectional strategies of employees, it is possible to note the motives to hide the occupational disease or, on the contrary, intensify health complaints to obtain a conclusion about the occupational disease more quickly. As a result, the behavioral strategy of the subjects of the system of social partnership and occupational risk

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management in respect of observing workers’ rights to safe working conditions is changing. Occupational pathologists record the state of employees’ health, factors that influence employees’ decision to continue working in hazardous working conditions, and employers’ interests and motives. Doctors influence employees’ perception of their health, the consequences of harmful working conditions for them, make tough decisions about the withdrawal of workers from the workplace, and give recommendations on acceptable work types. Their vision of the motives and behavior of employees and employers reflects the contradiction between social and occupational roles and interests within the profession of occupational pathologists. The system of doctor–patient relations in identifying occupational diseases requires expressed empathy and persuasiveness from specialists and the need to apply flexible forms of persuasion and relatively rigid, authoritarian ones depending on the situation. Based on the research materials, we present a pyramidal structure of interaction between agents of the system of occupational risk prevention, including organizations conducting the SAWC and professional examinations, patients (employees), and employers that interact under state control reflected in the legal regulation of their activities and the work of regulatory structures. Kuhlmann notes: The state plays a decisive role in preserving or diminishing the role of medical power. Therefore, as a result of these processes of transformation of the profession, the state and the public are connected with each other in a more complex way [16].

The presented system of relations shows the ambiguous and sometimes multidirectional interests of the basic subjects of the system of occupational risk management. Employers are interested in reducing financial costs. Therefore, if employees’ withdrawal from harmful working conditions will reduce the obligations to employees, they become partners in interaction with organizations conducting the SAWC and are ready to bring employees to safer working conditions, and even change labor conditions in some cases, reducing their harmfulness. If this situation concerns shadow labor relations, employers may strive to reduce their costs even at the cost of threatening the health of workers (risky interaction in the employer— employee dyad). Employees’ motivation to safe workplace and income comes into conflict with the interests of maintaining health and working capacity (interaction in the patient—occupational pathologist/SAWC organization dyad). We assume that the activities of the state and its structures aim to observe the main value, namely, human well-being, and maintaining the health and efficiency of its citizens. The vector of interaction between the state and each agent focuses on maintaining the legality of actions, avoiding punishment, and receiving support, preferences, and benefits for approved behavior. On the other hand, the development of civil society presupposes building a dialogue between employees and employers to protect and promote their interests. We should note the growing role of the non-profit sector of public organizations representing the interests of various occupational groups and enterprises. Therefore, regarding patients’ and doctors’ autonomy in identifying occupational diseases and forms of control over them and between them, we can see a dynamic

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multi-level structure of the mutual influence of the key subjects of the system of occupational risk management, which considers the following elements: ● Forms of internal occupational control in the medical community in relation to doctors and patients; ● External forms of control by state structures; ● Forms of the legal protection of the rights concerning the health of patients who are victims of labor activity or reactions from employers in the system of occupational risk management and labor protection.

5 Conclusion The professional community regards the provision of social and medical care to patients with occupational diseases as satisfactory but requiring improvement. The following moments determine the imperfections of the current system: (1) priority of income, compensation payments, and social support measures over the preservation of health; (2) possibility of pressure on employees from employers; and (3) association and dependence of medical institutions on customers (employers) during professional medical examinations. Experts recognize a particular right of patients to autonomy in deciding to continue working despite an occupational disease but significantly limit it due to the existing legislative framework, paternalistic traditions, and the performance of the double agent function. Autonomy and control in the direct activities of occupational pathologists are manifested in their ability to apply liberal and authoritarian strategies in interaction with patients and provide (or restrict) the free choice of workers in planning a professional path in compliance with professional norms, values, and regulations. The combination of formal and informal approaches in communication with patients can add or exclude an individual approach and consideration of social factors and life circumstances from the interaction. The existing conflict between the motives for achieving patients’ social and physical well-being may seem risky and require individual solutions in increasing the trust of relations in the worker—occupational pathologist dyad. Awareness of the conflicting interests of the factors of the system of occupational risk management entails the need for further scientific understanding and public discussion of strategies for the formation of an effective model of interaction between key social subjects of this system in securing the priority of maintaining health, labor longevity, and social protection of workers. Acknowledgements We are grateful to the survey participants.

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References 1. Beck U (1986) Risikogesellschaft. Auf dem weg in eine andere moderne. Suhrkamp, Frankfurt 2. Borodkina OI (2008) Institutionalization of social prevention of socially dangerous diseases in the Russian Federation. Dissertation, Herzen State Pedagogical University of Russia 3. Boulding KE (1962) Conflict and defence: a general theory. Harper & Brothers, New-York 4. Castells M (2000) Information age: economy, society, and culture. HSE Publishing House, Moscow 5. Coser LA (2000) Functions of social conflict. Ideya-Press, Moscow 6. Dahrendorf RG (2007) Elements of the theory of social conflict: journalism. Direct-Media, Moscow 7. Dudintseva NV (2015) Scientific substantiation of monitoring of occupational diseases of medical workers. Dissertation, Federal Research Institute for Health Organization and Informatics of the Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Moscow 8. Dulyasova MV (2004) Social and economic protection of workers from occupational risk. Dissertation, Research Institute of Labor and Social Insurance of the Ministry of Health and Social Development of Russia 9. Foucault M (1994) Words and things. A-cad, Saint Petersburg 10. Foucault M (1997) History of insanity in the classical era. Universitetskaya Kniga, SaintPetersburg 11. Goffman E (1961) Asylums: essays on the social situation of mental hospital and other inmates. Anchor Books, New-York 12. Goffman E (1963) Stigma: notes on the management of the spoiled identity. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs 13. Kaminsky KP (2010) Occupational risk in the system of compulsory social insurance. Dissertation, Research Institute of Labor and Social Insurance of the Ministry of Health and Social Development of Russia 14. Khrupachev AG (1998) Assessment of the level of perfection of technological processes and production facilities of mechanical engineering by the factor of occupational risk. Dissertation, Tula State University 15. Khrupachev AG (2003) Concept of environmental and occupational risk generated by production facilities and its quantitative assessment. Dissertation, Tula State University 16. Kuhlmann E (2005) Varieties of professionalism in late modern times: on the example of the German healthcare system. J Soc Policy Stud 3(4):535–550 17. Kuznetsova MN (2008) Occupational risk and management of its level. Dissertation, Voronezh State University 18. Lebedeva-Nesevrya NA, Tsinker MY (2018) Differences in health indicators of working women and men in Russia. J Sociol Soc Anthropol 21(3):7–25 19. Lebedeva-Nesevrya NA, Barg AO, My T et al (2019) Assessment of the relationship between heterogeneous risk factors and morbidity of the working population of the Russian regions with a different background of health formation. Health Risk Anal 2:91–100 20. Panferova IV (1998) Solution of occupational safety problems based on professional risk assessment. Dissertation, Tula State University 21. Pashinina EI (2014) Formation of urban ecosociology and environmental awareness: the role of intellectualization in managing professional and technological risk. In: Toshchenko ZhT (ed) Iintelligentsia: natural science, social, and humanitarian knowledge on the path of integration. Russian State University for the Humanities, Moscow, pp 135–144 22. Prokofieva AV, Lebedeva-Nesevrya NA (2018) Formation of a health-oriented urban space as a way to manage public health risk. Health Risk Anal 3:144–155 23. Russian Federation (2001) Labor code of the Russian Federation, No 197-FZ, Dec 30, 2001, Moscow 24. Stepanenkova VM (1999) Fight of all for all: Georg simmel’s theory of conflict. Sotsiologicheskiy Zhurnal 3–4:123–138

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25. Touraine A, Fomina V (2002) Social transformations of the 20th century. Sociol Rev 2(4):49–54 26. Trubetskov AD, Naumova EA, Schwartz YuG (2007) Periodic medical examinations: Concordance problem. Russ J Occup Health Ind Ecol 9:6–10 27. Yanitsky ON (2003) Sociology of risk: key ideas, Universe of Russia. Sociol Ethnol 12(1):3–35

Analyzing the Effect of Living in Rural and Industrial Urban Areas on the Life Quality of Women Diana A. Tsiring , Irina V. Ponomareva , and Yana N. Pakhomova

Abstract Studies of the psychological characteristics and quality of life of breast cancer patients retain their relevance today. Occurring suddenly, this disease threatens the life of a woman. It leads to uncertainty of the future, changes the picture of the world. The quality of life of women with breast cancer lowers, while it is directly related to the prognosis of treatment and survival. The paper aims to study the quality of life of women diagnosed with breast cancer living in rural and industrial urban areas. We used the SF-36 “Health Status Survey” as the main research method. Comparative analysis shows that women with breast cancer living in rural areas have a better mental health picture. They are active participants in communication with others and feel full of strength and energy, unlike women with breast cancer living in urban areas or district centers. The results obtained are part of a comprehensive longterm study of psychological risk factors for malignant neoplasms in women living in rural and industrial urban areas and reflect the results of the first cross-section of this longitudinal study. Keywords Psycho-oncology · Quality of life · Breast cancer · Industrial urban area · Rural area

1 Introduction Breast cancer is an oncological disease that is the first most common disease in the world among women. Thus, the problem of survival and effectiveness of treatment in cancer is a relevant and socially significant task of current science and practice.

D. A. Tsiring · I. V. Ponomareva · Y. N. Pakhomova (B) Tomsk State University, Tomsk, Russia e-mail: [email protected] I. V. Ponomareva · Y. N. Pakhomova Chelyabinsk State University, Chelyabinsk, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova (ed.), Complex Social Systems in Dynamic Environments, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 365, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23856-7_107

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Currently, medicine is focused on improving the survival rate of patients with malignant neoplasms, increasing their life expectancy, and maintaining the quality of life of this category of patients. Severe somatic disease, such as breast cancer, leads to a new life situation that destroys the structure of the personality, leading to mental health disorders [9, 10, 17, 18, 21, 23]. The consequence of this oncological pathology can be a decrease in the quality of life of women, inability to work, disability, and death. Although current medicine has effective methods of treating breast cancer, oncologists note a high mortality rate and a short relapse-free period of oncology [22]. Regarding the nature of breast cancer, one can find suggestions that psychosocial factors and certain personal characteristics can act as a trigger mechanism for the disease and contribute to its progression or the occurrence of a relapse of the disease [4, 10, 21]. The psychological prerequisites for the development of malignant neoplasms are described in the works of P. Revidi, H. J. Eysenck, L. Temoshok, Y. Chida, I. G. Malkina-Pykh, M. G. Ivashkina, K. P. Balitsky, N. V. Tarabrina, and others. P. Revidi notes that cancer is promoted by a tendency to depressive reactions, restraint in the expression of emotions, feelings of guilt, and self-doubt. The author remarks that the experience of long-term stress and psychologic traumatic experience can lead to the development of malignant neoplasms in the period from 1 to 15 years [16]. According to a study by Eysenck, cancer occurrence relates to such personality traits as suppression of anger, anxiety, and other emotional reactions, the rigidity of attitudes, feelings of despair, depression, and self-sacrifice. In relationships, such people tend to avoid open conflicts, have difficulties in defending their point of view. They are conformists, patient, and helpful. When coping with difficulties, they tend to feel helpless. Eysenck notes that a person with these characteristics is more likely to develop malignancies and, in the case of cancer, to die more quickly than people with other personality traits [6]. Temoshok attempted to create an integrative model that considers the psychological and physiological characteristics of a person with cancer and the peculiarities of the process of coping with the disease. In this model, the author tries to smooth out the existing contradictions between understanding the nature of cancer. Temoshok also provides data on the factors that determine the formation of malignant tumors. These factors include feelings of hopelessness and helplessness in stressful situations, difficulties in expressing emotions [19]. According to Chida et al., psychosocial factors influence the occurrence of malignant neoplasms in initially healthy people. Unproductive coping strategies, experiencing negative emotional states, and poor quality of life are factors that increase the risk of cancer and affect the survival of patients with already diagnosed cancer [4]. In addition to the issues of studying the factors and mechanisms of breast cancer, the problem of survival and effectiveness of treatment for diseases with malignant neoplasms remains relevant. Survival is understood as the time during which a patient remains alive after the detection of cancer. Several researchers remark that the prognosis for the course of the disease and its outcome (high patient survival rates) are associated with such an integral indicator

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as to the quality of life [5, 7, 11, 15, 20]. In addition, the World Health Organization considers the quality of life as the primary criterion for rehabilitation and medical measures in the absence of a real threat to the patient’s life. Quality of life is a subjective assessment of the physical and mental components of health and the social aspect of life. The quality of life is used in international medicine to assess the condition of patients, the response to treatment, and the dynamics of recovery. It is a systemic prognostic indicator, including in oncology. The study of quality of life is a popular area among medical research in clinical psychology and psychotherapy. However, to date, there are practically no studies on a cancer patient’s quality of life that would consider the general standard of living, demographic characteristics, environmental living conditions, etc. According to sociological studies, the urban population is more likely to suffer from cancer than the rural [3]. On the one hand, the megalopolis has more accessible health care than in rural areas. The quality of medical services and the availability of medical equipment also differ in district centers and megalopolises. On the other hand, the impact of cancerogenic and human-made environmental factors in big industrial cities, the urbanization process that changes the way of life, the increasing pace of life, and the information load have an impact on the increase in the incidence of megalopolises [1, 2, 8, 12–14, 23]. In this regard, it is essential to study such an environmental factor as the place of residence in studying the quality of life of a woman diagnosed with breast cancer. Thus, the study aims to analyze the quality of life of women diagnosed with breast cancer living in rural and industrial urban areas.

2 Materials and Methods We used the SF-36 “Health Status Survey,” a questionnaire for collecting data on social indicators, as well as methods of mathematical data processing (Mann– Whitney U test, Kruskal–Wallis H test) as our research methods. Recommended by the international protocol, the SF-36 survey (a short medical examination of 36 items) allows one to determine the physical, psychological, and social functioning issues of the patient. Diagnostic results are presented in the form of factors on eight scales, arranged so that a higher score indicates a higher level of quality of life. We evaluated the following factors: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

General health [GH]; Physical functioning [PF]; Physical role functioning [RF]; Emotional role functioning [EF]; Social role functioning [SF] (defined by the degree to which a physical or emotional state restricts social activity (communication)); 6. Bodily pain [BP]; 7. Vitality [VT];

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8. Mental health [MH]. The study involved 146 women living in the Chelyabinsk region of the Russian Federation and diagnosed with stage I and III breast cancer: 63 women live in the industrial megalopolis of Chelyabinsk, 59 women—in the cities or district centers of the region, and 24 women live in rural areas. The average age of the participants was 55.4 years.

3 Results A woman who has been diagnosed with cancer is experiencing tremendous stress. One needs to understand how much medical care is available. Therefore, the place of residence as an environmental factor is connected with the quality of life of women with malignancies. A comparative analysis using the non-parametric Kruskal–Wallis H test showed significant differences in mental health among women living in different territories and differences at the level of statistical trends in life activity (Table 1). According to the data obtained, the highest mental health and life activity rate is typical for women living in rural areas. Moreover, we found out that the indicator of social functioning is higher for women in rural areas. In addition, we conducted a paired comparison of the studied samples using the Mann–Whitney U test. As a result of this comparison, we discovered that women from the villages differ from Table 1 Comparative analysis of scores of the quality of life of women living in rural and industrial urban areas Quality of life criteria

Average rank

H test

p, level of significance

Women living in an industrial urban area

Women living in the district center

Women living in the rural area

General health

79.50

64.53

79.79

4.46

0.107

Physical functioning

75.01

70.59

76.69

0.49

0.779

Physical role functioning

76.68

68.50

77.44

1.47

0.479

Emotional role functioning

75.44

70.89

74.81

0.4

0.818

Social role functioning

70.14

70.36

90.04

4.48

0.106

Bodily pain

77.06

70.75

70.92

0.79

0.671

Vitality

73.19

66.95

90.42

5.28

0.07

Mental health

70.60

68.17

94.23

7.02

0.03

Source Compiled by authors

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women living in a big industrial city (U = 574, p = 0.08) and women living in the district center (U = 520, p = 0.05) in terms of social functioning. We did not find any other significant differences in the paired comparison of the samples for other indicators other than those indicated.

4 Discussion The results about the mental health score indicate that women from rural areas assess their mental health as good. They do not experience anxiety and have no depressive emotional states. Perhaps, the prognosis of the course of the disease will be better than that of women from a highly urban area or a regional center. Women living in rural areas are geographically removed from the district center and megalopolises, where appropriate treatment can be provided. Despite that, they do not experience the daily psycho-emotional stress that is common for a megalopolis. Their way of life is more stable and predictable. Women living in highly urban areas and district centers, to a lesser extent than women from rural areas, feel full of strength and energy, viable. Women from the megalopolis and the district center are often characterized by fatigue and a decrease in vital activity. High values of the vital activity factor, characteristic of women living in the village, imply a feeling of full strength and energy. Thus, the pace and way of life of a rural woman imply her involvement in all that is happening and increased efficiency. Together with high mental health indicators, these factors allow one to maintain vitality and avoid anxious experiences or emotional distress. “Social functioning” as the indicator of the quality of life is determined by the degree to which the physical or emotional state restricts the subject’s communication with others. According to the research results, we discovered low scores in women living in an industrial megalopolis and a district center. These scores indicate a significant restriction of social contact, a decrease in the level of communication due to the deterioration of the physical and emotional state. The explanation for this result may be the predominance of a negative emotional background connected with cancer. Moreover, in a city, a person faces many people who can invade their personal space. It is also essential to point out that some of the “urban” women taking part in our study reported that the topic of their disease outside the walls of a medical institution is prohibited. Because of the diagnosis of breast cancer, they have limited social contacts and seek solitude and isolation.

5 Conclusion Women with breast cancer living in rural areas demonstrate better mental health as a component of the integral quality of life factor than women with breast cancer living in highly urban areas or district centers. In addition, women living in rural areas,

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despite the cancer diagnosis, do not limit themselves in social contacts and feel full of strength and energy. These results should be addressed to practical psychologists who provide psychological assistance to women with breast cancer at all stages of the disease. It is important to remember that women with breast cancer need comprehensive care from oncologists and psychologists. The joint work of doctors and psychologists in a multidisciplinary approach to the treatment of breast cancer can increase the survival rate of patients by improving the quality of life during the course of the disease. The obtained data reflect the results of the first cross-section of a longitudinal study of psychological risk factors for malignant neoplasms in women living in an industrial megalopolis and rural areas. A prolonged, systematic study of psychological risk factors allows assessing the risk of the disease in connection with subjective psychological factors, individual characteristics of the patient, and the environmental conditions of life and obtaining valuable data on the dynamics of the course of the disease and the survival of patients. Acknowledgements The research was supported by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research grant “Psychological risk factors for the development of malignant neoplasms in women living in rural and industrial urban areas” (No. 20-013-00824).

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10. Matrenitsky VL (2018) Forgotten psycho-oncology: on the need for psychotherapy and psychosocial rehabilitation in the prevention of relapses and metastases of cancer. Clin Oncol 8(1/29):46–52 11. Müller V, Nabieva N, Haberle L et al (2018) Impact of disease progression on health-related quality of life in patients with metastatic breast cancer in the pregnant breast cancer registry. Breast 37:154–160 12. Pisareva LF, Boyarkina AP, Kayukova EV et al (2010) Cervical cancer incidence among females of Chita region (Russia). Siberian J Oncol 6(42):42–47 13. Radkevich LA, Nikolaeva IS, Radkevich DA (2018) Oncologic diseases and ecological factors. Norw J Dev Int Sci 15:3–8 14. Ratcliff CG, Torres D, Tullos EA (2020) A systematic review of behavioral interventions for rural breast cancer survivors. J Behav Med. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865-020-00174-x 15. Rautalin M, Farkkila N, Sintonen H et al (2018) Health-related quality of life in different states of breast cancer—comparing different instruments. Acta Oncol 57(5):622–628 16. Shchelkova OY, Usmanova EB (2015) Quality of life and relation to disease in patients with bone sarcoma. Psychol Russ State Art 22–31. https://doi.org/10.11621/pir.2015.0103 17. Spring B, King AC, Pagoto L et al (2015) Fostering multiple healthy lifestyle behaviors for primary prevention of cancer. Am Psychol 70(2):75–90 18. Tarabrina NV (2014) Posttraumatic stress in patients with life-threatening (oncological) diseases. Couns Psychol Psychother 1:36–90 19. Temoshok L (1987) Personality, coping style, emotion, and cancer: towards an integrative model. Cancer Surv 6:545–567 20. Tsiring DA, Yevstafeyeva EA (2020) Personal characteristics, coping strategies, and quality of life of women with breast cancer. Soc Sociol Psychol Pedagogy 4(72):87−91 21. Tsiring DA, Yevstafeyeva EA, Ponomareva IV et al (2019) Subject and personal particularities of women having various stages of breast cancer. Electron J Gen Med 16(6):150 22. Velikaya VV, Balatskaya LN, Startseva ZhA et al (2020) Quality of life of patients with locally advanced breast cancer after complex treatment with neutron therapy. Siberian Cancer J 19(2):34–40 23. Zaridze DG (2005) Epidemiology, mechanisms of carcinogenesis and cancer prevention. Problemy Klinicheskoi Meditsiny 2:10–16

Indicators of the Relationship Between Psychological Health and Personal Characteristics of University Students Akmaral B.-P. Daniyarova , Nadezhda B. Zhiyenbaeva , and Olga B. Tapalova

Abstract The paper presents the results of an experimental study of the psychological health of modern university students. In the study, it has been important to determine the psychogenic factors preventing the development of cognitive and emotional components of students’ psychological health. The research goal has been to identify the correlations between university students’ psychological health and indicators of individual typological and personal characteristics, the level of reactive and personal anxiety, and the severity of low mood. The tasks of the study have been to clarify whether anxiety belongs to factors that negatively impact university students’ adaptive capabilities and psychological health. The authors have performed experimental studies using the following methods: (1) individual typological questionnaire by L. N. Sobchik; (2) technique of psychological health diagnostics by A. V. Kozlov; (3) questionnaire for diagnosing self-esteem by Ch. Spielberg; and (4) method for diagnosing low mood by Zung. Based on the experimental data obtained, the authors have revealed that university students’ psychological health is predetermined by personal qualities, such as extraversion, introversion, personal anxiety, emotional rigidity, and sensitivity. Indicators of emotional instability, self-doubt, inability to express their own emotions, and increased sensitivity represent the negative pole of the dichotomous scale of personal qualities of students. Keywords Students · Psychological health · Anxiety · Adaptability · Stress tolerance · Mood

A. B.-P. Daniyarova · N. B. Zhiyenbaeva · O. B. Tapalova (B) Abai Kazakh National Pedagogical University, Almaty, Kazakhstan e-mail: [email protected] A. B.-P. Daniyarova e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova (ed.), Complex Social Systems in Dynamic Environments, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 365, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23856-7_108

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1 Introduction Teachers and psychologists note that currently, pronounced psychoemotional and psychophysiological stress among students accompanies education at the university. Subsequently, this state leads to accumulating chronic overstrain of the compensatory-adaptive systems of the body, which leads to a violation of student youth’s mental and psychological health [8]. Indicators of young people’s psychological health are indicators of their general state, personal development, adaptability, and stress resistance [9]. The problem of maintaining and strengthening psychological health is presented in numerous studies [3, 5, 6]. The accumulated chronic stress of students’ vital activity can also serve as a criterion of psychological and psychophysiological value, which increases with information overload. A sharp increase in the tension of the nervous and compensatoryadaptive systems leads to a breakdown in adaptation and a violation of university students’ psychological health [2]. The goal of this study was to identify the relationship between the state of students’ psychological health and the following parameters: ● ● ● ●

Individual typological characteristics of students’ personality; Level of students’ situational and personal anxiety; Severity of low mood; Model of individual psychological health.

2 Materials and Methods The experimental sample has consisted of first-year students of the Pedagogy and Psychology (P&P) and Defectology (D) specialties of the SilkWay International University and Miras University in Shymkent. Individual typological questionnaire (ITQ) by Sobchik [7] is one of the research methods used. The ITQ method is rather laconic to determine the typological and personal characteristics of an individual and allows revealing the leading character traits of university students. This method makes it possible to understand whether students are balanced or have accentuations in character and whether students are adapted or maladjusted to a specific situation. The ITQ method reveals stress tolerance, which explains the application of this technique within the study. An individual model of psychological health (IMPH) by Kozlov [4] is another psychodiagnostic method used. The authors have applied this technique for the psychosemantic analysis of students’ understanding of the phenomenon of psychological health. According to Kozlov [4], the structure of psychological health is represented by some areas of its implementation: ● Mental balance; ● Prosocial orientation;

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Physical well-being; Humanistic position; Desire to be oneself; Creative self-expression; Family well-being; Spirituality; Goal orientation; Intellectual improvement. The technique contains nine scales:

● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

Strategic vector (StV)—goal orientation; Prosocial vector (PrV)—desire to be oneself; I-vector (IV)—mental balance and physical well-being; Creative vector (CV)—creative self-expression; Spiritual vector (SpV)—spirituality/religiosity; Intellectual vector (InV)—intellectual development and improvement; Family vector (FV)—family well-being; Humanistic vector (HV)—humanistic position; Psychological health (PsS)—a total indicator of psychological health [4].

In this study, the authors have used an IMPH method as a standardized test. Identifying university students’ psychological states has necessitated measuring the indicators of their personal and situational anxiety. The authors have determined these indicators using the method of diagnosing anxiety by Ch. Spielberger in the adaptation of Yu. Khanin [1]. Measuring anxiety as a personality trait is especially important since this property largely determines the subject’s behavior. Personal anxiety is a constitutional feature and a stable individual characteristic reflecting the subject’s predisposition to anxiety. With high personal anxiety, any situation will have a stressful effect on a student and cause anxiety. High personal anxiety is directly correlated with the presence of a neurotic conflict and emotional and neurotic breakdowns. In order to diagnose signs of depression in the tested students, the authors have also used the scale of low mood—subdepression according to W. Zung’s questionnaire adapted by T. Balashova [1]. This questionnaire has made it possible to determine the degree of mood disturbance in students according to seven factors containing groups of signs that reflect a feeling of mental emptiness, mood disorder, general somatic and specific somatic symptoms, symptoms of psychomotor disorders, suicidal thoughts, and irritability/indecision. The authors have conducted experimental research according to the method of L. N. Sobchik with the entire sample studied. By highlighting the data obtained for each specialty separately, the authors have had the opportunity to further divide the total sample into control and experimental groups. Differentiated measurement of anxiety as personal property and a state using the method of diagnosing anxiety by Ch. Spielberger has also made it possible to determine psychogenic factors that prevent the formation of cognitive and emotional

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components of students’ psychological health. The authors have also explored whether anxiety is among the factors that negatively impact university students’ adaptive capabilities and psychological health.

3 Results Based on the experimental data obtained, the authors have established correlations between individual typological characteristics and indicators of psychological health. As a research result, the authors have received a picture of such interaction. Table 1 shows the results of the data obtained. Table 2 shows significant correlations between the studied indicators in a group of students. Experimental data show that each indicator of individual psychological health of university students is due to communicative, emotional, volitional, and intellectual qualities. During the subsequent mathematical processing, the authors have linked some individual typological characteristics as qualitative factors. In P&P students of the first and third experimental groups, intrapersonal conflict, extraversion, and sensitivity showed the following correlations of aggravation: 0.755 with intrapersonal conflict; 0.675 with extraversion; 0.575 with sensitivity; and 0.764 with aggressiveness. Introversion and spontaneity correlate as follows: the index of introversion is 0.732, and the index of spontaneity is 0.400. The authors have identified gender distinctive features in the student sample using the Mann–Whitney U test. Table 3 shows data on the level of personal anxiety among first-year students in experimental groups. The authors have revealed a positive correlation when studying the relationship between high indicators of personal and situational anxiety and the degree of mood severity in university students. Table 4 presents the results obtained. Table 1 Relationship of the IMPH model with the personal characteristics of university students

Group of subjects (specialties)

Correlations of indicators

P&P

0.635**

D

0.543**

** - the correlation is significant at the 0.01 level; * - correlation is significant at the level of 0.05 Source Compiled by the authors

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Table 2 Correlation of indicators of an IMPH model with individual psychological characteristics of students Method Psychological quality (scale)

P&P SilkWay D SilkWay

ITQ by Introversion Sobchik Anxiety

4.5 ± 0.3

4.6 ± 0.2

5.9 ± 0.3

4.6 ± 0.2

0.008

5.7 ± 0.3

14.9 ± 0.6

4.6 ± 0.2

14.8 ± 0.6

0.017

Sensitivity

17.2 ± 0.6

2.9 ± 0.3

14.9 ± 0.6

2.9 ± 0.3

0.013

Emotional instability

3.1 ± 0.4

3.6 ± 0.3

2.9 ± 0.3

3.7 ± 0.3

0.947

Extroversion

6.2 ± 0.5

6.5 ± 0.3

6.3 ± 0.3

6.8 ± 0.3

0.936

Spontaneity

0.5 ± 0.2

IMPH by Kozlov

Students (total sample)

P1/2 P&P Miras

D Miras

0.6 ± 0.2

0.7 ± 0.2

0.8 ± 0.2

−0.013

Aggressiveness 28.5 ± 1.0

28.1 ± 1.6

28.3 ± 1.6

28.4 ± 1.6

−0.013

Rigidity

13.7 ± 0.7

12.3 ± 0.6

12.5 ± 0.6

13.8 ± 0.6

−0.035

Depression

0.10 ± 0.1

0.13 ± 0.1

0.12 ± 0.1

0.15 ± 0.1

0.122

Maladjustment 1.40 ± 0.4

2.03 ± 0.5

1.33 ± 0.5

2.05 ± 0.5

−0.065

Conformity

1.60 ± 0.6

3.12 ± 0.6

3.02 ± 0.6

3.09 ± 0.6

0.930

Self-control

6.61 ± 0.4

7.08 ± 0.2

7.08 ± 0.2

7.08 ± 0.2

−0.027

Compromise

3.65 ± 0.3

3.70 ± 0.2

3.80 ± 0.2

3.90 ± 0.2

−0.027

Sociality

24.8 ± 1.0

25.0 ± 0.7

25.6 ± 0.7

25.7 ± 0.7

−0.027

StV

7.947 ± 0.7

7.847 ± 0.7

7.121 ± 0.7

7.047 ± 0.7

0. 29

PrV

7.79 ± 0.7

7.936 ± 0.7

7.109 ± 0.7

7.936 ± 0.7

IV

−0.013 ± 0.7 −0.013 ± 0.7 −0.077 ± 0.7 −0.013 ± 0.7 4.013 ± 0.7

0.201 0.185

CV

4.013 ± 0.7

4.965 ± 0.7

4.013 ± 0.7

0.119

SpV

−0.035 ± 0.7 −0.035 ± 0.7 0.114 ± 0.7

0.035 ± 0.7

0.027

InV

4.122 ± 0.7

4.122 ± 0.7

0.027

FV

−0.065 ± 0.7 −0.065 ± 0.7 0.947 ± 0.7

4.122 ± 0.7

−0.065 ± 0.7

0.162

HV

0.930 ± 0.7

0.930 ± 0.7

0.027

0.930 ± 0.7

4.122 ± 0.7 0.111 ± 0.7

Source Compiled by the authors

Table 3 Gender differences in the indicator of personal anxiety Variable Personal anxiety

Groups

Average rank

Mann–Whitney U test

Confidence

Women

18.79

172.000

0.018

Men

11.47

Source Compiled by the authors Table 4 Correlation links between indicators of personal and situational anxiety and low mood in the tested students

Low mood Kendall’s Tau-b

Personal anxiety

0.242**

Situational anxiety

0.286**

** - the correlation is significant at the 0.01 level; * - correlation is significant at the level of 0.05 Source Compiled by the authors

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4 Discussion Students of both specialties have shown significant connections between individual typological characteristics and indicators of psychological health. In other words, the more students value their personal development, the higher the level of their psychological health. According to the experimental results obtained using the ITQ method, 21 P&P students of SilkWay have pointed and accentuated features, while 14 students have pronounced over-maladaptive properties. Simultaneously, the authors have found that 24 P&P students of Miras have pointed and accentuated features, while 11 students have pronounced over-maladaptive properties. As for D students of SilkWay, 25 people have pointed and accentuated features, and 10 people have shown pronounced over-maladaptive properties. The results obtained for D students of Miras demonstrate that 19 students have pointed and accentuated features, while 16 students have shown clear pronounced maladjustment. The authors have noted the severity of indicators of maladjustment among students in the aggressiveness, sensitivity, anxiety, and emotiveness scales, which indicates a pronounced sensitivity to life situations and the manifestation of negative emotions and the inability to respond to the prevailing circumstances adequately and causes socio-psychological maladjustment. According to the indicators obtained, the authors have selected students with signs of adaptation disorders into experimental groups. Before the beginning of the formative training, the students of the experimental groups have demonstrated the following behavior: low physical activity, emotional withdrawal, insecurity, high anxiety, aggressiveness, thoughtfulness, detachment, and lack of initiative in social work.

5 Conclusion Thus, the results of the experimental study to identify the relationship between psychological health and personal properties of first-year students allow the authors to draw the following conclusions. The authors have found that students most often show conformal behavior in a group and not sincere emotions, and some of them, on the contrary, demonstrate aggressive behavior. Accentuated character traits are not consistent with a sufficient level of psychological health, which is an increasing tendency towards maladjustment. These results indicate the presence of the tension of adaptation to the university in students, which is a tendency to impairment of psychological health. The research results have shown that many highly anxious and low-anxious students of the experimental groups have low mood. The obtained results indicate that a high level of low mood in first-year students of the experimental groups indicates the presence of subdepression.

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The study of gender differences in the severity of low mood among first-year students has not shown significant differences, which indicates that both women and men are susceptible to subdepression. Indicators of the relationship between the degree of low mood and the level of personal (0.242** ) and situational (0.286** ) anxiety demonstrate positive correlations. Thus, the research results indicate that the higher the level of anxiety (and worry during a stressful situation) in the tested students is, the more pronounced low mood up is (up to an anxiety-depressive state). Students who have shown a high level of personal and situational anxiety, a high degree of low mood, and the presence of accentuated character traits need a formative experiment with the use of psychocorrectional training to improve their psychological health.

References 1. Burlachuk LF (2006) Psychodiagnostics. Piter, Saint Petersburg 2. Daniyarova A, Zhiyenbaeva N, Tapalova O (2019) Applying to adaptive biofeedback to correct the psychological health of university students. J Adv Soc Sci Educ Humanit Res 396:217–221 3. Dubrovina IV (2016) Psychological well-being of school children in the system of modern education. Nestor-Istoriya, Moscow 4. Kozlov AV (2014) The technique of psychological health diagnostics. Perspect Sci Educ 6(12):110–117 5. Nikiforov GS (2006) Health psychology. Piter, Saint Petersburg 6. Shuvalov AV (2015) Anthropological aspects of health psychology. Nat Psychol J 4(20):23–36 7. Sobchik LN (2010) Individual typological questionnaire: a practical guide to the traditional and computer versions of the test. Borges, Moscow 8. Steptoe A, Deaton A, Stone A (2015) Subjective well-being, health, and aging. Lancet 385(9968):640–648 9. Vodopyanova NE (2009) Psychodiagnostics of stress. Piter, Saint Petersburg

Critical Life Events as a Threat to Human Psychological Health Irina A. Ralnikova , Natalia G. Yanova , and Natalia A. Luzhbina

Abstract The research aims to study the quality of psychological health of young men and women who have sought medical assistance due to the long-term experience of a complex mental and psychological state because of critical life events. One could use the following psychodiagnostic methods: (1) a multi-level personal questionnaire “Adaptivity” (A. G. Maklakov, S. V. Chermyanin); (2) a method of differential diagnostics of depressive states (V. A. Zhmurov); (3) an assessment scale of stressful events (T. Holmes, R. Rage); (4) a personal scale of anxiety manifestations (J. Taylor in the adaptation of T. A. Nemchina); (4) the questionnaire “Methods of coping behavior” (R. Lazarus in the adaptation of T. L. Kryukova, E. V. Kuftyak, M. S. Zamyshlyaeva); (5) the test “Mississippi Scale for Combat-Related Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder” (N. M. Cairn, J. M. Caddell, K. L. Taylor). However, descriptive statistics and correlation analysis were among mathematical and statistical methods of data processing. By means of the research, we proved that critical life events can act as a threat to the psychological health of a person in the case of a specific subjective response to this event in the form of expressed reactions indicating psychotrauma. Moreover, we determined (1) a decrease in adaptive potential (especially in such aspects as neuropsychiatric stability and communication abilities), (2) high anxiety, (3) pronounced depressive states, (4) low resistance to stress loads and maladaptation. Thus, we established that the adaptive potential of a person in a situation of a critical event is associated with such individual and personal characteristics as stress resistance, anxiety, and depressive states. Keywords Critical life events · Psychological health · Age category of youth

I. A. Ralnikova (B) · N. G. Yanova · N. A. Luzhbina Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova (ed.), Complex Social Systems in Dynamic Environments, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 365, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23856-7_109

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1 Introduction Modern social reality is becoming increasingly stressful. Moreover, this is a potent threat to the psychological health of a person. Today, the vast number of psychological problems are determined by excessive mental distress and behavior disorganization and by the violation of the human adaptation process and the adaptive mechanisms of instability in critical and extreme life events [1, 5, 11]. Psychological science proved that changes in a person’s life are determined to a lesser extent by what exactly happens and to a greater extent by how they perceive, categorize, and evaluate the current situation [13]. However, in this regard, every life event can become a critical one for a person. Different authors have a common understanding of the event essence creating the effect of a life crisis. This understanding implies their specific subjective status in the context of individual life history, constantly returning memories of past life events, the experience of the inability to live as before and realize personally significant goals, motives, and the necessity of changes and modifications in the established way of life [2, 13]. At the same time, changes in a critical situation can be both positive, contributing to personal development, and negative, blocking the personal potential [7]. Our research focuses on the life-changing events and their consequences that pathogenically affect a person’s psychological health in the context of uncovering threats. Thus, events related to the loss experience, psychological trauma, frustration, and crisis are considered critical. Critical events that trigger the loss experience are associated with life loss (e.g., people, relationships, health, and work). Critical events causing a traumatic experience involve contact with extreme situations (e.g., military operations, natural disasters, and human-made disasters). Critical events producing frustration introduce difficult or insurmountable obstacles when achieving a goal (e.g., illness, old age, rules). Moreover, crisis critical events reflect situations that a person cannot solve in the usual way (e.g., personal, professional, age-related crises) [2, 7, 9, 13]. Such critical events are accompanied with acute negative emotional distress (e.g., hopelessness, helplessness, despair, fear, guilt, resentment, anger, loneliness, shame) [9, 13] and can pose risks of psychological health disorders. Psychological science is focused on human psychological health threats actualized by modern society [4]. Psychological health is a complex entity; its functioning is based on various components [6]. Today, in most cases, psychological health appears to be a state of individual subjective health [8], which contributes to an active and autonomous subject of life in a changing world [3]. In addition, this state allows one to realize and discover capabilities [10], acting as a predictor of stress resistance, social adaptation, and successful self-realization [12]. In this regard, we conducted a study to identify and analyze the psychological health of a person undergoing critical life events. The quality of psychological health assessment was based on the expression components measurement, such as personal adaptive potential, post-traumatic stress reactions, anxiety, depression, resistance to stress, and coping strategy.

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2 Materials and Methods The sample of the empirical study consisted of 60 people, equalized by gender, aged 25–35 years, who sought medical assistance due to the long-term experience of a complex mental and psychological state because of critical life events. Critical life events of the respondents included the loss of a loved one (divorce, death, termination of a relationship), illness, long-term separation, crisis, social deterioration, job loss, and a situation of violence. The components of the empirical data collecting methods comprised the following: (1) a multi-level personal questionnaire “Adaptability” (A. G. Maklakov, S. V. Chermyanin); (2) a method of differential diagnostics of depressive states (V. A. Zhmurov); (3) an assessment scale of stressful events (T. Holmes, R. Rage); (4) a personal scale of anxiety manifestations (J. Taylor in the adaptation of T. A. Nemchina); (4) the questionnaire “Methods of coping behavior” (R. Lazarus in the adaptation of T. L. Kryukova, E. V. Kuftyak, M. S. Zamyshlyaeva); (5) the test “Mississippi Scale for Combat-Related Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder” (N. M. Cairn, J. M. Caddell, K. L. Taylor). The mathematical and statistical processing and empirical data analysis had the following constituents: (1) descriptive statistics (calculation of the average, standard deviation, standard error of the average value), (2) the correlation analysis (the calculation of the Spearman Rank Correlation coefficient) using the package “SPSS Statistics 23.0.”

3 Results The results of the diagnostics of psychological health parameters regarding young men and women who sought medical assistance due to critical events and their consequences experience are presented in Table 1. The data presented in Table 1 allowed us to establish the personal adaptive potential of young men and women in the changed life conditions caused by critical events. We identified that the level of this potential is reduced compared to the norm level (3.5 ± 0.7). Therefore, the context analysis of the adaptive ability components, representing neuropsychic stability, communication abilities, and moral normativity, focused on the components with values below the average level, neuropsychiatric stability (3.0 ± 0.7), and communication skills (3.0 ± 0.6) in particular. The low level of these parameters indicates the predisposition of the surveyed men and women to emotional breakdowns, the absence of relevant self-assessment, distorted reality perception, difficulties in interacting with other people, increased conflicts, and aggression state. Herewith, they objectively assess the team role and adhere to the norms of behavior accepted in society (4.5 ± 0.9). The results of the post-traumatic reaction diagnostics allowed us to determine the post-traumatic stress disorder in the respondents (101.9 ± 4.8). The obtained data

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Table 1 Diagnostics of the results of the psychological health parameters Scale

Average value

Standard deviation

Standard error of the average value

A multi-level personal questionnaire “Adaptability” (in sthenes) Neuropsychiatric stability

3.0

0.7

0.1

Moral normativity

4.5

0.9

0.2

Communication skills

3.0

0.6

0.1

Personal adaptive potential

3.5

0.7

0.1

Method of differential diagnosis of depressive states (in points) Depressive state

64.0

8.5

1.6

Evaluation scale of stressful events (in points) Stress resistance

195.0

24.4

4.5

The personal scale of anxiety expression (in points) Anxiety

42.0

5.8

1.0

Mississippi scale for combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder (in points) Post-traumatic stress disorder

101.9

4.8

0.9

Questionnaire “Ways of coping behavior” (in points) Confrontation

15.3

2.2

0.4

Self-control

13.9

2.0

0.4

Responsibility acceptance

13.0

3.3

0.6

Escape-avoidance

10.1

1.0

0.2

Distancing

8.8

2.0

0.4

Social support search

5.3

2.2

0.4

Positive reassessment

1.7

1.3

0.2

Problem solution plan

1.0

1.3

0.1

Source Compiled by the authors

emphasize that life events classified by researchers as turning points have a strong negative impact on the human mind. Consequently, they experience a severe mental state. This state is specified by psychopathological flashbacks, memories of traumatic experience avoidance, high anxiety, increased irritability, and sleep disorder. Sometimes one can face dissociative reactions and amnesia (absence of traumatic event memories). Additionally, this state can remain for a more extended period, thus exacerbating risks of psychological health, leading to depression, panic attacks, dependent behavior, anti-vital intentions, and generalized anxiety disorder. Such symptoms of psychotrauma entail self-consciousness transformations, the meaning of life loss, and a changed attitude toward oneself and others. Besides, one can face psychosomatic diseases.

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During severe critical events and their consequences, men and women who took part in the study demonstrated a high level of anxiety (42.0 ± 5.8). High anxiety is characterized by obsession, lack of control, unpredictability, and lack of volitional self-regulation. Furthermore, it disrupts the functioning of the cognitive activity component, negatively affecting human health and quality of life. The results of the depression level diagnostics allowed us to assess the upper limit of the moderate depressive state expression (64.0 ± 8.5), followed by a pronounced manifestation of a depressive state. At the same time, pronounced depression in research group has already been observed in 30% of cases in the study. Accordingly, assessing the group of respondents, we can state that men and women with critical event experience are noticeably immersed in an emotional background of boredom, apathy, hypothymia, dysphoria, frustration, anxiety, and fear. Young men and women have a threshold degree of stress resistance (195.0 ± 24.4), indicating a decrease in the ability to withstand psychophysical loads, to endure stress without organism and mind damage during the experience of the critical events. Furthermore, the threshold degree of stress resistance maintains the risks of stress resistance weakening and increasing stressful events in life. Consequently, one spends excessive personal resources to cope with the negative psychological states that arise in stress. Due to the study of strategies of goal-oriented social behavior, using which young men and women cope with life difficulties during critical events experience, we identified a high intensity of coping, indicating a pronounced inadaptation of the respondents. The high coping intensity was fixed owing to the following behavioral strategies: (1) confrontational coping (15.2 ± 2.2), (2) self-control (13.9 ± 2.0), and (3) taking responsibility (13.0 ± 3.3). The pronounced coping strategy of confrontation indicates impulsive behavior, insufficient purposefulness, and rational justification of actions in a problem situation, hostility, conflict, unjustified persistence, difficulties with planning actions and predicting results, and reduced flexibility when choosing a behavior strategy in different situational contexts. In addition, this coping results from the emotional tension abreaction rather than a way to resolve a problem situation. The high intensity of the coping strategy of self-control is determined by the negative experience of overcoming related to a critical event by purposeful suppression and restriction of emotions, minimization of their impact on the situation assessment, and prohibition of self-disclosure. Thus, the coping strategy of taking responsibility, highly expression of behavior is unjustified self-criticism, the experience of guilt, dissatisfaction, and a risk factor for the depressive state development. At the same time, the average coping intensity in cases of escape-avoidance strategies (10.1 ± 1.0) and distancing (8.8 ± 2.0) indicates the individual’s adaptive potential is borderlined. Moreover, this potential can be blocked. The borderline level of the escape-avoidance coping strategy of the investigated men and women involves overcoming negative experiences related to a critical event by responding to the type of evasion: problem denial and ignore, responsibility avoidance, inaction, fantasy immersion, unjustified expectations, and passivity. This behavior strategy intensifies

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the risks of problem avoidance but accumulates difficulties or has a short-term effect on the actions taken to reduce emotional discomfort. A low-tension level, indicating the adaptive coping option, which contributes to the constructive solution of problem situations, is recorded in the case of such strategies as (1) problem solution planning (1.0 ± 1.3), (2) positive reassessment (1.7 ± 1.3), (3) search for social support (5.3 ± 2.2). Coping strategy of problem solution planning is focused on using the possibility of purposeful and systematic resolution of the problem situation. This strategy involves analyzing the problem, working out possible solutions, developing a strategy for coping with the problem, planning and implementing actions, including objective conditions, experience, and available resources. As an adaptive coping in men and women, positive reassessment implies a positive rethinking of a critical event and its consequences and related experiences, an analysis of this situation from the point of view of a significant life experience, and an incentive for self-development. The coping strategy aims to find social support, implying that surveyed young men and women can solve the problem by intensive interaction with other people. Moreover, such people need to find information support (seeking advice from friends or specialists who have the necessary information), emotional support (the desire to share experiences, to be listened to, and understood), and assistance in the form of specific actions. The peculiarity of the correlation is the statically significant interactions of the personal adaptive potential of young men and women with critical event experience within other parameters of psychological health. The results are presented in Table 2. Thus, personal adaptive capacity is related to direct correlations with neuropsychiatric stability (r = 0.8; p = 0.001), stress resistance (r = 0.7; p = 0.001), inverse depressive correlations (r = −0.8; p = 0.001), and anxiety (r = −0.4; p < 0.04). The obtained data allowed us to represent the aspects of the development and vulnerability of the personal adaptive potential among young men and women at the stage of critical events. Therefore, the adaptive potential in a situation caused by a critical event, will unfold and intensify in case of increased stress resistance, depressive state weakening, and reduced anxiety. Accordingly, low-stress resistance, deep depression, and high anxiety will be considered inhibitors of personal adaptive potential. Table 2 Statistically significant correlations

Parameters of psychological health

Personal adaptive potential r

p

Depression

r = −0.8

p = 0.001

Stress resistance

r = 0.7

p = 0.001

Anxiety

r = −0.4

p = 0.040

Neuropsychiatric stability

r = 0.8

p = 0.001

Source Compiled by the authors

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4 Discussion The conducted research demonstrated that critical events could threaten the psychological health of a person. The obtained results dwelled on the quality of psychological health of young men and women with critical severe life event experience seeking medical help. In addition, we proved that representatives of this age group endure critical life events as a psychological trauma within a pronounced post-traumatic stress disorder. The adaptation resources to new aspects of life specified by a critical event are attenuated. Primarily, the adaptive potential is reduced due to low neuropsychiatric resistance to stress factors, increased conflict, and aggressiveness intensity in interpersonal interactions. At the stage of the crisis, young men and women have a very high level of anxiety. Moreover, we can determine the depressive states. The high intensity of coping confirms the maladaptation of a person in this period. This feature is manifested in impulsivity, insufficient action, purpose to solve a problem situation, evading the problem, rigidity in behavioral strategies, suppression of emotions, unjustified self-criticism, expressed dissatisfaction, and guilt. The research showed that the development of personal adaptive potential is a significant component of psychological health at the stage of critical events related to a complex of individual characteristics, such as stress resistance, depression, and anxiety. In general, the research results confirm the data of psychological science regarding the individual experience of critical events and the negative impact on a person’s psychological health. Relatedly, we revealed new aspects of this problem. First, we conceptualized the construction of “the quality of psychological health” through a set of the following psychological parameters: personal adaptive potential, posttraumatic stress reactions, anxiety, depressive state, stress resistance, and coping. Second, we studied psychological health in young men and women with severe mental and psychological states. Thus, the people described above could not independently cope with the experience of a critical event and its consequences and sought medical help. Third, we proved that the critical life events for the representatives of this category are psychotraumatic. When people could not cope with psychotrauma independently, and in time, men and women at a young age have severe post-traumatic stress disorder. Fourth, we analyzed increasing and decreasing conditions of the personal adaptive potential among young men and women with traumatic consequences of critical events.

5 Conclusion To sum up, we confirmed the urgency of the problem of risks, and threats to the psychological health of a person in the conditions of modern society caused by critical life events and their consequences. The quality of psychological health

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reduction in a period of critical events foregrounded a person’s self-questions in relation to their past, present, and future. These questions contain the reasons for (1) the inability to cope with the realities of critical events (the past), (2) the existence principles, (3) the current state, (4) life choice at the stage of “turning point” (the present), (5) self-realization, (6) life satisfaction, (7) life productivity, including the experience of critical events (the future). Consequently, we requested psychological practice correlating with an individual coping with various difficulties in changed realities due to critical events, traumatic experiences, and the necessity to activate psychoprophylactic work to improve the quality of psychological health.

References 1. Aschwanden D, Strickhouser JE, Sesker AA et al (2020) Psychological and behavioural responses to coronavirus disease 2019: the role of personality. Eur J Psychol. https://doi.org/ 10.1002/per.2281 2. Burlachuk LF et al (1998) Psychology of life situations. Russian Pedagogical Agency, Moscow 3. Kaliteyevskaya ER (ed) (1999) Humanistic perspective in Post-Soviet psychology. Smysl, Moscow 4. Kötter T, Fuchs S, Heise M et al (2019) What keeps medical students healthy and well? A systematic review of observational studies on protective factors for health and well-being during medical education. BMC Med Educ. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-019-1532-z 5. Maklakov AG (2001) Personal adaptation potential: its mobilization and forecasting in extreme conditions. Psychol J 22(1):16–24 6. Marshall GN, Wortman CB (1994) The five-factor model of personality as a framework for personality-health research. J Pers Soc Psychol 67(2):278–286 7. Nurkova VV, Vasilevskaya KN (2003) Autobiographical memory in difficult life situation: new phenomena. Vop Psychol 5:93–102 8. Pakhalyan VE (2006) Development and psychological health: preschool and school age. Piter, Saint-Petersburg 9. Ruppert F (2014) Trauma, communication, and family constellations. Understand and heal mental wounds. Institute of Counseling and Family Relations, Moscow 10. Slobodchikov VI, Shuvalov AV (2011) Anthropological approach to the problem of mental health in children. Issues Psychol 4:91–105 11. Srivastava K, Das RC (2015) Personality and health: road to well-being. Ind Psychiatry J 24(1):1–4 12. Sysoeva SA (2008) Psychological health as a problem of psychological and acmeological science and practice. Tomsk State Univ J 12(68):173–177 13. Vasilyuk FE (1995) Lived world and crisis: the typological analysis of critical situations. Psychol J 3:90–101

Emotional States of the Unemployed People on Their Life Prospects: Social Determinants in Focus Svetlana S. Darenskikh, Olga S. Gurova , and Irina A. Ralnikova

Abstract The research is devoted to the emotional and evaluative content analysis of the life prospects of unemployed people. These specific issues allowed us to determine, on the one hand, the growing scientific and research interest in studying the life prospects of a person in various challenging situations, and on the other hand, the necessity of providing timely psychological assistance to people who lost their jobs. The issues described above are based on practical experience and specific empirical data. Empirical study data include 58 surveyed people: 28 unemployed and 30 employed men and women. The content of the emotional evaluative measurement of life prospects was investigated using the questionnaire of the temporal personality perspective by F. Zimbardo, time scales, and the questionnaire “Scales of psychological well-being” by K. Riff. One could consider the results of the study through the prism of lack of jobs. Therefore, we can determine features of the emotional and evaluative life prospects content of unemployed people. The specifics of this content are manifested in the limited emotional assessments of one’s future, reduced value of the past, and a sense of future fatality, simultaneously full of hope and anxiety. Besides, we identified a high emotional load and insufficient differentiation of future emotional assessments. As a result, unemployed people detect obstacles on the life path and have difficulties coping with this problem. The obtained results demonstrate the necessity of psychological assistance to the unemployed and create conditions for optimizing future planning. Keywords Life prospects · Future · Unemployed · Emotional-evaluative content of life prospects

S. S. Darenskikh Moscow State University of Humanities and Economics, Dolgoprudny, Russia O. S. Gurova (B) · I. A. Ralnikova Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova (ed.), Complex Social Systems in Dynamic Environments, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 365, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23856-7_110

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1 Introduction Permanent economic and political changes in society lead to changes in human life that affect all spheres of life, especially the volume and structure of population employment. In these conditions, the individual could face various difficulties, which impact the future life and stable existence of society. Nowadays, the critically pressing and urgent problem is job loss. Changes accompanying the job loss are fraught with dangers and risks concerning the emergence of new roles, other areas of responsibility, which reflect the difficulties in planning life prospects for unemployed people. Therefore, changes in human professional realization can be regarded as an essential turning point in the life path. Nowadays, psychology intensely studied the problem of human life and future time perspective. Considering life prospects, Kalugina identified three central approaches [4]: ● Life perspective as a subsystem of the motivational need sphere (J. Nuttin, T. Gisme, A. G. Shmelev, L. D. Demina, I. A. Ralnikova, M. R. Ginzburg, I. S. Kohn, A. G. Shmelev, K. K. Platonov); ● Life perspective as a subsystem of the value-semantic sphere (I. S. Kohn, N. A. Loginova, V. Frankl, K. A. Abulkhanova-Slavskaya, T. N. Berezina, A. A. Kronik, E. I. Golovakha); ● Life perspective is a part of an integral time chronotope, the time perspective of the individual (S. L. Rubinstein, F. Zimbardo, L. K. Frank, K. Levin, V. I. Kovalev, V. F. Serenkova). The facet variety in the future construction shows the volume and complexity of this phenomenon [4]. Ralnikova, with a group of authors, suggested an author’s view on the problem of life prospects in a situation of global social transformation. Thus, the life perspective as a future multidimensional image is considered in the psychological system theory. The study of this theory includes the unity of four dimensions: (1) value-semantic, (2) emotional-evaluative, (3) cognitive, and (4) organizational activity. The valuesemantic dimension combines value and human semantic formation, identifying the individual specifics of the process and future planning (personal values, value orientation, personal meanings, motives). The emotional evaluative dimension is focused on the emotional attitude of a person toward their future (emotions and feelings that arise from filling the future image of life with some content). The cognitive dimension covers the entire complex of expected and planned events. Present-day behavior, strategies, and activity style due to life goals and plans can be consistently translated into reality, reflecting the organizational and activity dimension [14]. This concept implicates the life prospects of the individual in the continuity of dimensions and reveals the connection with the future and simultaneous presence in thoughts about it. Ralnikova analyzed numerous international and Russian authors’ works and indicated that life’s perspective is a dynamic education, transforming within critical

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moments of a person’s life path. Each qualitatively new stage corresponds to the specific content of the perspective with the interrelated components of life planning in personal and family life, professional career, or leisure time, while other components show the changes in the world around them and in a person. The transition to a new stage of life is closely connected with the necessity of correction or significant reconstruction of the life perspective, including past changes. Accordingly, it is impossible to consider a person and life prospects without a context [12]. In this regard, the research is focused on job loss as a starting event of life prospect transformation. A lifestyle, expectations, goals, and values of an unemployed person have been changed. Thus, confidence in the future could be lost. This process gives rise to (1) stress, (2) painful emotional experiences (e.g., remorse, rage, indignation, depression, fear of the future, helplessness, or despair), (3) pessimistic thoughts, (4) complaints about poor physical condition, and (5) breakdown. Frequently, we can determine the consequences of stress as the development of deviant behavior, including the following features: (1) alcoholism, (2) drug addiction, (3) psychological and physical violence, and (5) suicidal thoughts. [2, 3, 6, 11, 15]. Unemployment harms a person. Stable individual characteristics preventing from getting a job may emerge, such as increased anxiety. People regard various situations as a threat to their prestige and personal well-being. In addition, these stressful situations produce a state of anxiety. The fear of failure can decrease job searching activity, including the perception of an unsuccessful employment situation or its avoidance [10]. This kind of state is also reflected at the level of personal control over life situations. The unemployed people could not reveal the correlation between their state, actions, and significant life events, considering their inability to influence and control their development. Moreover, they believe that many events are accidental or depend on other people’s actions. As a result, the unemployed person perceives themselves as a weak person without freedom of choice, unable to control their life, make decisions and implement them freely. As a result, such people begin to live in the present moment or reflect on the past without achieving clear goals and having plans for the future. At the same time, such a person does not feel satisfied with their position. The problem of the life prospects of unemployed people is multifaceted and studied insufficiently. According to Ralnikova, job loss determines life prospects. The “dispersion” of life prospects reduces the intensity of their planning. Thus, the integrity is lost, and tactical contradiction is found. [13]. Besides, Kalugina advanced the interaction between personality characteristics, self-attitude, and the content of life prospects, showing the depth of change after job loss [4]. Investigating life prospects, precisely, the emotional-evaluative dimension, allowed us to identify the emotional foundations in constructing the perspective. The content characteristics of this dimension will remove the emotional obstacles and resources when achieving personal goals. The relevance of this issue is determined using empirical studies focused on analyzing the emotional and evaluative content of the life prospects of non-working

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people. The study’s hypothesis implies a specific emotional and evaluative content of the life prospects of the unemployed. Thus, such content can be manifested in “confusion” and inconsistency of emotional assessments.

2 Materials and Methods The study consists of 58 surveyed people, including 28 unemployed and 30 working men and women. The sample of unemployed respondents involved 17 women and 11 men aged 25– 47 seeking assistance at the Employment Center of Barnaul in February–May 2019. The unemployed respondents were searching for a job after losing the previous one. The job search period varied from three to eight months. Respondents were poorly motivated to participate in the study. The control group consisted of 12 men and 18 women aged 25–49. All respondents worked at a permanent place for more than a year. The time perspective questionnaire by Zimbardo is a technique aimed at diagnostics of the system of personal relations within the time continuum, assessing the time interaction, and the interaction of the individual to the surrounding reality in general, as well as to themselves, their experience, and prospects [16]. The “Time attitude Scale” is based on the method of semantic differential by Ch. Osgood. This method allowed us to create a group semantic space, substantively analyzing and describing the emotional fullness of future images [7, 8]. The questionnaire “Scales of Psychological Well-Being” by Riff is intended to diagnose the relevant psychological well-being of a person at the current stage of life. Psychological well-being is closely related to the meaningfulness of life, the value-semantic sphere, and motivation [5]. We presented methods of mathematical statistics within the calculating procedure of the average difference criterion for independent samples (the Mann–Whitney U-test) and factor analysis using the computer software package “SPSS” 22.0.

3 Results We determined statistically significant differences according to the results of the methodology analysis “Personality time perspectives” by Zimbardo in the groups of unemployed and working respondents due to the criteria: “Negative past” (U = 263.0, at p = 0.014), “Positive past” (U = 229.5, at p = 0.003), and “Fatalistic present” (U = 237.0, at p = 0.004). The unemployed have a high degree of rejection of their past. However, due to the lack of jobs, people turned to the past in greater detail, recalling mistakes they made (“Negative past” m = 2.48). Memories of the past did not give them positive emotions. The future is predetermined for them, which does not depend on the person’s actions.

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Therefore, we can assume that the empirical group is focused on fate rather than on changing something by individual actions (“Fatalistic present” m = 2.58). The results of statistical data analysis according to the “Scales of Psychological Well-Being” by Riff allowed us to determine significant differences in the groups due to the scales (1) “Positive attitudes” (U = 256.0, at p = 0.011), (2) “Personal growth” (U = 161.5, at p = 0.000), (3) “Goals in life” (U = 241.0 at p = 0.005), (4) “Self-acceptance” (U = 229.0 at p = 0.003), and (5) “Psychological well-being” (U = 188.5 at p = 0.000). We evaluated the obtained results based on several features. The average values of the scales showed that the survey participants were less communicative and loyal to the people around them (“Positive attitudes” m = 60.46). In this group, the ability to establish close and trusting relations was lower. The empirical group has a lower assessment of the development prospects. The surveyed people also had a less pronounced life interest (“Personal growth” m = 57.42); they were less aware of the interrelation between the past, present, and future, without clear life goals (“Goals in life” m = 60.89). Therefore, this group of people is more disillusioned with their past. Additionally, such people worry about personal qualities (“Self-acceptance” m = 58.35). In addition, the unemployed respondents are less reserved and less independent (“Autonomy” m = 56.64). The statistical analysis of the results is based on the method of “Time attitude Scale” Nuttin, which showed the significant differences in the group according to the scales “accepted–not accepted” (U = 180.5, at p = 0.001), “full–empty” (U = 231.5, at p = 0.002), “repulsive–attractive” (U = 256, at p = 0.007), “light—dark” (U = 246.5, at p = 0.002), “beautiful–terrible” (U = 265.5, at p = 0.009), “hopefull– hopeless” (U = 276.0, at p = 0.016), “structured–unstructured” (U = 267.0, at p = 0.012), “cold–warm” (U = 300.0, at p = 0.039), “difficult–easy” (U = 264.0, at p = 0.013), “uncertain–definite” (U = 269.0, at p = 0.015), “boring–interesting” (U = 293.0, at p = 0.032), “simple-complex” (U = 289.0, at p = 0.037), “problem-nonproblematic” (U = 295.0, at p = 0.047), “valuable–worthless” (U = 321.0, at p = 0.054), “imposed from the outside–coming from within” (U = 292.5, at p = 0.032). Thus, we can identify various emotional assessments of the future. Due to the empirical group, pessimistic views on the future are more pronounced since the average values on the scales are significantly reduced. The future is viewed as unpleasant (m = 2.28), filled with emptiness (m = 2.21), less attractive (m = 5.75), beautiful (m = 2.25), structured (m = 2.71), warm (m = 5.85), light (m = 4.21), definite (m = 4.6), valuable (m = 1.85), dark (m = 2.14), hopeless (m = 2.35), complex (m = 3.71), problematic (m = 3.75), imposed from outside (m = 5.6), and more boring (m = 2.42). Pronounced descriptors in the control group, expanding an emotional attitude to the future, have a highly positive connotation. Factor analysis based on seven factors, explaining 82.37% of the dispersion, allowed us to identify the emotional attitude toward the future in the empirical group. The first factor (35.49% of the dispersion) included the following scales: (1) repulsive–attractive (−0.942), (2) pleasant–unpleasant (0.898), (3) beautiful–terrible (0.875), (4) full–empty (0.860), (5) light–dark (0.811), (6) imposed from outside–depends on oneself (−0.729), (7)

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cold–warm (−0.677), (8) hopeful–hopeless (0.651), (9) simple–complex (0.650), (10) problem–non problematic (0.640), (11) conflict–non conflict (−0.628), (12) difficult–easy (−0.623), and (13) planned by oneself–planned by others (0.617). The first factor comprised various descriptors, indicating a critical load and insufficient differentiation of the future emotional assessment. Moreover, this assessment of the unemployed contained restrained hopes and seemed pleasant, full, attractive, planned, bright, trouble-free, dependent on oneself. The second factor (12.08% of the dispersion) included the following scales: (1) fast–slow (0.595), (2) difficult–easy (0.572), (3) valuable–worthless (0.554), (4) simple–complex (−0.539), (5) dependent on oneself–independent of oneself (0.537). This factor shows that the unemployed are ready to face easy-to-solve difficulties in the future. The third factor (9.49% of the dispersion) included the following scales: (1) dependent on oneself–independent of oneself (0.537), (2) structured–unstructured (−0.523), (3) ordered–disordered (0.514), and (4) valuable–worthless (−0.506). Most likely, the unemployed people realized their future depended on them. Nevertheless, they lacked structure and order in the personal actions. The fourth factor (7.98% of the dispersion) contained the following scales: (1) immediate–delayed (−0.575), (2) conflict–nonconflict (0.558), (3) remote–approximate (−0.552). This factor indicates that the future of the unemployed is delayed and contradictory. The fifth factor (6.89% of the dispersion) incorporated the remote approximate scale (−0.629). Therefore, this factor indicates a desire for the experience of the event, essential for psychological well-being. The sixth factor (5.74% of the dispersion) did not include any scale with a significant weight. The seventh factor (4.68% of the dispersion) included the “indefinite–definite” scale (0.592), determining that the future for the unemployed is definite.

4 Discussion The content of the emotional-evaluative dimension consists of the formation of fears concerning possible problems and difficulties in the future, including transience and unstructured time. The group of unemployed respondents involved uncertainty and worthlessness in the emotional assessments of the future. Based on the previous experience, respondents realized the future could be complicated, unpleasant, worthless, and even terrible. However, hopes for favorable events break through emotional assessments of the future. In the study of Ralnikova, we obtained relatively identical results, indicating the transformation of life prospects of the unemployed as a result of relevant psychotraumatic events or negative reconstruction of past events. Thus, it reflects helplessness, hopelessness, a firm belief in a predetermined future, and the submissive present. In this regard, we can mention the unbalanced life prospects of the unemployed. Surveyed respondents have significantly reduced flexibility to switch between thinking about the past, present, and future. As a result, the representation of the

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past experience content was negative. The present desire was pessimistic and filled with bitterness. As a result, the emotional assessment of the future was negative. The study of Ralnikova also showed a personal redefinition of the past image, determining the future image, and rebuilding the present when losing a job [13]. The unemployed have a general pessimistic, negative, or mixed with disgust attitude to the past. This attitude was challenged by a lack of jobs and perceived as a traumatic event. The unemployed saw the future as independent of the person’s will, initially predetermined. Planning and achieving future goals are not a priority in the ideas about the future. Osipovich indicated that the unemployed attach significant importance to their past, assessing it as negative. In this study, the “Fatalistic present” factor prevailed in the unemployed group, associated with a hopeless attitude toward the future and life in general [9]. The emotional state of the respondents prevented them from being more open towards other people and events. Pessimistic mood and frustration in the past block personal change, growth, self, and future confidence. In the research of Bendyukov, we indicated characteristics of the emotional process, determining whether the loss of a job is a crisis for a particular individual or not [1]. The obtained results are primarily critical for practical work, predicting behavior, and psychological support plan.

5 Conclusion Thus, we can specify the emotional and evaluative content of the life prospects of the unemployed manifested in contradictory emotional assessments of their future. On the one hand, the future seems complicated, unattractive, complete, and structured to this group of people. On the other hand, they are filled with hopes, without short-time difficulties. The lack of reliance on the past experience and depreciation of the present moment brings unsystematic and confusing ideas about the future. The assessment confusion does not allow one to look ahead optimistically, be the initiator of events, and be attentive to current events. The unemployed are subjected to hard-to-solve obstacles and difficulties on the life path. Specifically, we can distinguish the desire to “force” future events among the respondents. Nevertheless, they remain uncertain about this issue. The content structure of the emotional fullness of life prospects has various characteristics, including a high load and insufficient differentiation of future emotional assessments. We can define respondents as “overwhelmed” with emotions when thinking about future events. The unemployed consider that the future is predetermined, regardless of their actions. The primary responsibility of the respondents rests with fate rather than changing something by one’s actions. Thus, the life interest is reduced.

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References 1. Bendyukov MA (2006) The emotional experience of the employment crisis. In: Vestnik of Saint Petersburg University Series 6 Political Science International Relations, vol 2, pp 88−99 2. Bendyukov MA (2008) Personal traits of unemployed. Tomsk State Univ J 316:161–164 3. Ilyin EP (2012) Psychology of adulthood. Piter, Saint-Petersburg 4. Kalugina AS (2013) Person’s life prospects in crisis situation of unemployment: statement of a problem. Perm Univ Herald Juridical Sci Philos Psychol Sociol 1(13):117–122 5. Lepeshinskiy HH (2007) Adaptation of the questionnaire scales of psychological well-being. Psychol J 3(15):24–27 6. Nurkova VV, Vasilevskaya KN (2003) Autobiographical memory in a difficult life situation: new phenomena. Issue Psychol 5:93–102 7. Nuttin J (2004) Motivation, actions, and future prospects. Smysl, Moscow 8. Nuttin J et al (1985) Future time perspective and motivations: theory and research method. Leuven University Press, Leuven 9. Osipovich TA (2012) Investigation of personal coping-resources, that influence the choice of behaviour in situation of unemployment. Teoreticheskaya i Eksperimentalnaya Psikhologiya 2:28–35 10. Ovcharova EV (2012) Psychological peculiarities of unemployed and their correlation with unemployment term. Vestnik Yaroslavskogo Gocudarstvennogo Universiteta im. P. G. Demidova. Series the Humanities 4(22):103−106 11. Prikhidko AI (2001) Cognitive factors of coping behavior of the unemployed. Psychol J 22(2):109–112 12. Ralnikova IA (2007) System transformation of personality’s life prospect concept at life journey turning-point. Siberian J Psychol 26:36–43 13. Ralnikova IA, YaO D (2012) Loss of job during the global economic crisis as an event transforming the system of life perspectives of a person. Izv Altai State Univ 2(74):51–55 14. Ralnikova IA et al (2020) Life prospects of modern women: hopes, fears, risks. Altai State University, Barnaul 15. Sigachev VE (2004) Psychodiagnostics of unemployed citizens. Chelovecheskie Resursy 2:26−32 16. Syrtsova A, Sokolova ET, Mitina OV (2008) Adaptation of Zimbardo time perspective inventory. Psychol J 29(3):101–109

Psychological and Economic Well-Being of Those Involved in the Credit Behavior Natalia G. Yanova

Abstract The paper presents an interdisciplinary approach to studying the relationship between the economic and psychological well-being of personality in the paradigm of economic psychology. The author has performed an experimental statement of the problem of psychological well-being of personality in credit behavior. More than that, the author has considered a hypothesis related to the role of economic and psychological criteria for the well-being of personality in a rational and emotional type of credit behavior. The research design has included (1) identifying patterns of credit behavior for different types of borrowers, (2) describing the profile of the well-being of credit personality with different types of the loan portfolio, and (3) determining predictors of the well-being of personality with the coping of credit behavior. The paper also demonstrates the possibilities of psychodiagnostics for analyzing the reliability of the consumer lending market. Keywords Psychological well-being · Credit behavior · Debt behavior · Credit attitudes · Decision making · Cognitive and emotional regulation

1 Introduction In socio-economic transitivity, the quality of human life acquires particular importance, and a person’s well-being is its essential attribute [10–12]. In social science, understanding the relationship between the objective and subjective nature of wellbeing in economic behavior reflects the concepts of economic and psychological well-being of personality [18]. As a research subject, the psychology of well-being of economic personality becomes increasingly relevant in studying consumer behavior, including in the lending market [6]. The psychological approach to studying effective models of credit behavior concerns studying the nature of irrational economic behavior in a rational situation [13]. N. G. Yanova (B) Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova (ed.), Complex Social Systems in Dynamic Environments, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 365, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23856-7_111

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The problem of the population’s debt load, enshrined in the everyday consciousness by the metaphor of fear of the personal default or a credit loop, is an example of such a situation. The psychological well-being of economic personality in credit behavior is an important indicator of stability in the consumer lending market. In this paper, the author has investigated the role of economic and psychological criteria for the well-being of personality in rational and irrational credit behavior. The author has described psychography of the personality type with rational and irrational credit behavior and identified differences in the level and structure of well-being for a rational and irrational type of credit borrower. Moreover, the author has compared the well-being profile of credit personality with different types of loan portfolio and investigated the balance of economic and psychological factors of the well-being of personality under constant credit load. In the hypotheses of the study, the author has proceeded from the following assumptions: ● Models of credit behavior differ among people with high and low levels of psychological well-being. ● Models of prosperous and dysfunctional people in credit behavior differ in economic and psychological criteria. ● The type of rational credit behavior does not depend on the rational type of personality and is not a condition of psychological well-being. ● There are psychological predictors of the well-being of personality in credit behavior. In the rhetoric of the psychology of everyday life [23], the research questions posed in the paper are as follows: ● Why people are unable or unwilling to live according to their income; ● Why financial literacy does not guarantee bailout from the credit loop; ● What the well-being of credit personality choosing or avoiding different types of loans is; ● What the difference between credit and debt behavior in the psychology of the borrower is. Modern cognitive analysis in positive psychology [17] argues that rational and irrational focus, namely, reasonable logic and intuitive feeling, can underlie decisionmaking at the deep level. In different situations, logic and intuition justify themselves with varying effectiveness. Economic fiasco, tolerance, and frustration can be acquired in the case of both rational and irrational thinking strategies. A rational personality type can choose a rational or emotional strategy of economic behavior. More than that, psychological well-being can be associated with any of these strategies. In the paper, the author investigates precisely this hypothesis.

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2 Materials and Methods 2.1 Study Sample In the research, the author has not studied a sample of the population with financial illiteracy, age immaturity, or a difficult life situation that provokes quick financial loans with the consequence of a debt trap. The author has studied credit, not debt, behavior of borrowers with a positive credit history, more than five years of lending experience, and experience in increasing and expanding the loan portfolio, including those who have both deposits and loans. By demography, the author has examined a sample of adult borrowers with higher education, permanent employment in the public or commercial sphere, and a family. The sample includes those who earn a lot and spend a lot, those who live beyond their means, and those who use credit for credit. However, in all cases, these are people who prefer the risk of long-term lending to the risks of bankruptcy. The research has involved regular consumers of bank loan products (consumer loans, credit cards, or mortgage lending): men and women aged 30–50 with credit experience, refinancing experience, or co-holding experience.

2.2 Research Procedure Research methods included questioning and testing. At the questionnaire stage, the sample consisted of 120 people. After economic and psychological selection criteria, there were 42 people: 19 of them were in the group with a low level of psychological well-being, and the remaining 23 people formed a group with a high level of psychological well-being. Tables 1 and 2 present the sample quotas. Selection criteria were as follows: ● Size of the loan portfolio (loans over one million rubles); ● Volume of accounts payable (amount of payment is more than 60% of income per month); Table 1 Sociological research (questionnaire) Borrowers

Refinancers

Co-holders

Total

Consumer loan

10

10

10

30

Car loan

10

10

10

30

Credit card

10

10

10

30

Mortgage loan

10

10

10

30

Total

40

40

40

120

Source Compiled by the authors

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Table 2 Psychological research (testing) Borrowers

Refinancers

Co-holders

Total

Consumer loan

5

5

5

15

Credit card

5

5

5

15

Mortgage loan

5

5

0

10

15

15

10

40

Total

Source Compiled by the authors

● Assessment of psychological well-being according to the age standards of the C. Ryff’s test for a population category aged 35–50 (high or low level).

2.3 Research Tools The toolkit included the following survey methods of psychodiagnostics: ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

Questionnaire for identifying the types of credit personality of borrowers; Ryff’s scales of psychological well-being; Debt behavior questionnaires by A. N. Demina and A. N. Lebedev; Questionnaire of credit attitudes by A. N. Lebedev; Questionnaire of types of demonstrative consumption by O. S. Posypanova; Questionnaire of the type of decision making by T. V. Kornilova; Ways of coping questionnaire by R. Lazarus and S. Folkman; Emotion regulation questionnaire by J. Gross.

The choice of tools is determined by the research methodology and correlates with its theoretical basis.

2.4 Theoretical Basis of the Research The author used psychological and economic theories as a theoretical basis for the research design: ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

Model of economic personality in economic psychology by L. Werth; Theory of the paradox of co-holding in the model of economic behavior [15, 21]; Theory of subjective economic well-being by V. Khashchenko; Theory of psychological well-being by C. Ryff; Theory of subjective well-being by E. Diener; Theory of cognitive control by M. Snyder; Theory of cognitive regulation of emotions by J. Gross; Theory of decision making by T. V. Kornilova.

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2.5 Data Analysis Methods of statistical data processing included Student’s t-test by grouping attribute and correlation and regression analysis. The statistics package was Statistica 23.0.

3 Results The author has identified the profiles of well-being in the groups of borrowers at the first stage, the models of credit behavior of people with these profiles at the second stage, and the predictors of well-being in credit behavior at the third stage.

3.1 Personality Profiles The level of well-being in the experimental group is higher than the diagnostic norm, while the level of well-being in the control group corresponds to the age norm of the test. The difference between the indicators of the high and low groups is statistically significant (Fig. 1). A significant correlation of the results of the Ryff well-being test [25] and the Diener life satisfaction test [7, 8] in a sample of borrowers shows that credit personality is not necessarily frustrated and can harmoniously maintain the quality of life (Fig. 2). The level of well-being in various groups of borrowers is different: refinancers have the lowest level, while co-holders have the highest level (Fig. 3). Intergroup differences show how well-being depends on the type and severity of the loan. There are no unhappy people among co-holders. Simultaneously, with the increasing number and size of loans, the well-being of personality decreases (Fig. 4). It has been shown experimentally that the presence of credit obligations does not affect the subjective characteristics of a person (self-acceptance, optimism, environmental control, and self-control) but presupposes psychological and economic attitudes that affect the coping of credit behavior.

Fig. 1 The level of well-being in the experimental and control groups. Source Compiled by the author

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Fig. 2 Objective and subjective criteria of well-being. Source Compiled by the author

Fig. 3 The level of well-being in groups of borrowers. Source Compiled by the author

Fig. 4 Intergroup and intragroup dynamics of well-being. Source Compiled by the author

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The author has calculated the economic profile of well-being using the scales of debt behavior and credit attitudes and the psychological profile with the help of the scales of cognitive regulation, control, and decision-making. As a result, the author has identified economic and psychological coping of well-being. In credit attitudes, a psychologically prosperous personality (PPP) is distinguished by endurance to the term of the loan but intolerance to debt and the desire to avoid it. A psychologically unsuccessful personality is characterized by an aversion to loans but readiness for debt and indebtedness. Willingness and endurance for the role of a credit borrower do not mean readiness for the role of a loan debtor (Fig. 5a). In credit behavior, a prosperous credit personality is thrifty, has financial literacy, and a high credit motivation and credit standard, and does not fear loans (Fig. 6). Co-holders and then usual borrowers have the greatest psychological reliability in credit behavior (Fig. 5b).

Fig. 5 Credit behavior (a) and credit attitudes (b). Source Compiled by the author

Fig. 6 Coping of economic well-being. Source Compiled by the author

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Fig. 7 Coping of the psychological well-being of personality. Source Compiled by the author

Psychological coping of well-being has been calculated according to the Lazarus questionnaire (Fig. 7) and includes the following characteristics of the borrower’s behavior: ● ● ● ●

Ability to plan; Ability to reassess the situation; Self-control; Absence of an avoidance strategy.

The self-control parameter (Fig. 8) determines the rational, not emotional, type of credit behavior. Coping of rational credit behavior to preserve the well-being of personality includes high control of oneself and the situation and a combination of personal responsibility with the search for external resources.

3.2 Behavior Profiles Proving the hypothesis about the relationship between the personality type and the type of credit and debt behavior includes the question of whether and why a rational person can choose irrational behavior. Rational type of credit behavior provides for high credit tolerance, low credit frustration, an average level of debt tolerance, and a high level of debt frustration and is distinguished by a high degree of awareness and conscientiousness. Emotional type of credit behavior involves low credit tolerance, high credit frustration, medium debt tolerance, and low debt frustration. This type cannot calmly

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Fig. 8 Coping of rational and emotional credit behavior. Source Compiled by the author

endure long lending terms, is not ready for the risks of lending, and allows the transition of credit liabilities into debt. An emotional type of credit behavior is a less reliable type of credit personality in the personal default. In short-term lending, this type behaves similarly to the rational type. The paradox of the co-holding theory is that a rational personality type does not necessarily choose a rational strategy of debt behavior. The rational type of decisionmaking is positively correlated with the emotional and rational type of debt behavior (Fig. 9). However, the rational personality type has a higher level of psychological well-being compared to the risky one (Fig. 10).

Fig. 9 Co-holding paradox. Source Compiled by the author

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Fig. 10 Rationality, risk, and well-being. Source Compiled by the author

3.3 Well-Being Predictors Regulatory parameters of self-control and personality parameters of demonstrativeness act as psychological predictors of the well-being of personality in credit behavior. Cognitive control associated with cognitive reappraisal rather than suppression of emotions is a predictor of well-being (Fig. 11). Suppression of emotions negatively affects debt frustration, which reduces the consciousness and cognitive control of credit personality. Demonstrative consumption [9] also negatively impacts the psychological wellbeing of credit personality, (Fig. 12). Each type of credit personality (Fig. 13) has its type of demonstrative behavior [24]. Borrowers are motivated by perfectionist attitudes, while refinancers and coholders are motivated by hedonistic and status ones, respectively.

Fig. 11 Regulatory strategies as a predictor of well-being. Source Compiled by the author

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Fig. 12 Demonstrative consumption as a predictor of well-being. Source Compiled by the author

Fig. 13 Demonstration profile according to Posypanova’s questionnaire. Source [24]

4 Discussion Studying differences in attitudes and regulatory mechanisms of credit behavior forms the basis of studying credit psychology [2]. Research areas include the analysis of personality attitudes in meeting and defaulting on borrowings [3] and personality features in saving and borrowing behavior [27]. The literature has shown that personality traits (emotional stability, extraversion, and consciousness) are important determinants of financial decision-making and economic behavior [22]. In western studies, borrower attitudes towards debt are measured by tests, such as the Debt Attitude Scale [1], designed to assess debt behavior using the debt tolerance scale. A number of scholars have revealed the differences between the pro-debt and anti-debt attitudes to credit borrowing as the degree of a subject’s disposition to borrowing practices [16]. The psychography of borrowers with different types of debt and credit attitudes [14] is of the most significant interest. Russian studies have shown that differences in attitudes toward debt and credit have a different psychological nature since debt is perceived more painfully than credit [4, 5, 9, 20, 26]. The difference between fear of debt and credit is that the nature of debt frustration is emotional, while the nature of credit frustration is rational.

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This paper continues the vector of domestic research [19, 20]. The author of the paper has examined the rational and emotional coping of the borrower’s credit behavior. Moreover, the author has tried to answer the question about the consumer’s ability to rationally choose the loan portfolio and loan obligations while maintaining the psychological well-being of a credit personality with a positive credit history. The obtained results allow drawing the following conclusions: ● The model of the well-being of personality in credit behavior includes economic and psychological criteria. The economic criterion of well-being is associated with financial awareness and financial altruism, and the economic criterion of unhappiness is associated with financial rigorism (fear of loans). The psychological criterion of well-being includes self-control, social support, acceptance of responsibility, the ability to plan and reevaluate situations, and the lack of avoidance. ● Economic differences are associated not so much with the types of loan portfolio but rational and irrational types of credit behavior. In credit behavior, there is no analogy between the binary logic of rational–emotional personality type, there is a rational–risky type of decision-making. ● Rationality (not risk) in making economic decisions, cognitive (not emotional) control, and the priority of cognitive self-regulation (not emotional suppression) are the key to the psychological well-being of the economic personality. ● At the heart of rational credit behavior, there is a demonstrative personality model, and rationalization is used as a form of defensive behavior while maintaining the function of cognitive control of the situation. Irrational credit behavior is based on the loss of cognitive and emotional control, which entails the risk of impulsive consumer behavior.

5 Conclusion It is advisable to consider the credit behavior of the economic personality in a holistic and dynamic structure of behavior regulation. Credit behavior depends on the system of credit attitudes in relation to the situation of lending and borrowing activity. A system of credit attitudes updated by the rational or irrational type of decision-making becomes the objective basis for taking and repaying a loan. The rational personality type in decision-making has a greater chance of psychological well-being in contrast to the risky personality type. At the same time, a rational personality type can choose both rational and emotional credit behavior. The boundary of the well-being or ill-being of personality in credit behavior is determined by the following factors: (1) cognitive control and its loss; (2) advantage of cognitive processing of information over its emotional suppression; and (3) use of co-holding to control conspicuous consumption to rationalize irrational credit behavior. Experimental design and research results demonstrate that the psychographic method can become an objective basis for predicting the successful history of a credit loan and its return.

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References 1. Achtziger A, Hubert M, Kenning P (2015) Debt out of control: the links between self-control, compulsive buying, and real debts. J Econ Psychol 49:141–149 2. Almenberg J et al (2018). Attitudes toward debt and debt behavior. Available via DIALOG. https://www.nber.org/papers/w24935.pdf 3. Amar M, Ariely D, Ayal S (2011) Winning the battle but losing the war: the psychology of debt management. J Mark Res 5(49):38–50 4. Demin AN, Pedanova EY, Kireeva OV (2018) Debtors’ attitude to loans. Sociol Stud 11:85–94 5. Demin AN, Pedanova EY, Kireeva OV (2019) Development of a questionnaire of attitudes towards loans and its psychometric justification. Hum Commun Manage 17(4):153–166 6. Diamond PH, Vartiainen NJ (eds) (2007) Behavioral economics and its applications. Princeton University Press, Princeton 7. Diener E, Biswas-Diener R (2002) Will money increase subjective well-being? A literature review and guide to needed research. Soc Indic Res 57:119–169 8. Diener E, Seligman MEP (2004) Beyond money: toward an economy of well-being. Psychol Sci Pub Interest 5:1–31 9. Dudina IM (2015) Demonstration and credit behavior: Research findings. Social’nye i Gumanitarnye Znanija 4:266–271 10. Easterlin R (2006) Life cycle happiness and its sources: intersections of psychology, economics, and demography. J Econ Psychol 27:463–482 11. Ferrer-i-Carbonell A (2005) Income and well-being: an empirical analysis of the comparison income effect. J Public Econ 89(5–6):997–1019 12. Ferrer-i-Carbonell A, Frijters P (2004) The effect of methodology on the determinants of happiness. Econ J 114:641–659 13. Frey BS, Stutzer A (2007) Economics and psychology: a promising new cross-disciplinary field. The MIT Press, Cambridge 14. Gagarina MA (2020) Debt tolerance of individuals: predictors and diagnostic features. Azimuth Sci Res Pedagogy Psychol 9(1(30)):63−68 15. Gathergood J, Weber J (2014) Self-control, financial literacy & the co-holding puzzle. J Econ Behav Organ 107:455–469 16. Harrison N, Agnew S, Serido J (2015) Attitudes to debt among indebted undergraduates: a cross-national exploratory factor analysis. J Econ Psychol 46:62–73 17. Hawkley LC, Eid M, Cacioppo JT (2012) Time frames and the distinction between affective and cognitive well-being. J Res Pers 46:431–441 18. Khashchenko VA (2005) The model of subjective economic well-being. Psikhologicheskii Zhurnal 26(3):38–50 19. Kireeva OV, Demin AN (2016) Cognitive and emotional components of a person’s attitude to loans. Psikholog 4:126–139 20. Lebedev AN, Bulygina OA (2015) Current problems of social and economic psychology: methodology, theory, and practice. Izdatelstvo Sputnik+, Moscow 21. Livingstone S, Lunt P (1992) Predicting personal debt and debt repayment: psychological, social and economic determinants. J Econ Psychol 13:111–134 22. Mosca I, CoCrory C (2016) Personality and wealth accumulation among older couples: do dispositional characteristics pay dividends? J Econ Psychol 56:1–19 23. Muzhichkova YuE (2015) Psychology of everyday ideas about debts and loans. Humanit Soc Sci Bull Fin Univ 4:37–44 24. Posypanova OS (2012) Economic psychology: economic aspects of consumer behavior. Kaluga State University, Kaluga 25. Ryff CD (1995) The structure of psychological well-being revisited. J Pers Soc Psychol 69:719– 727

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26. Strebkov D (2007) Social aspects of credit behavior of the population. Sotsiologicheskiy Zhurnal 1:83–102 27. Webley P, Nyhus EK (2001) Life-cycle and dispositional routes into problem debt. Br J Psychol 92(3):423–446

Psychological Health of Adolescents in Diverse Families Anna A. Kislykh

and Marina V. Shamardina

Abstract The paper aims to comparatively analyze the psychological health of teenagers diagnosed with diabetes, deviant behavior, teenagers who have no chronic diseases, and teenagers who are not inclined to deviant behavior. The methodology of the research was (1) fundamental models for analyzing family relationships by S. Minukhin, V. Satir, A. Spivakovskaya, E. G. Eidemiller, and V. V. Yusitsky; (2) works by R. A. Lurii and A. E. Likhko considering the attitude to the disease and types of response to it; (3) works by L. L. Rohlin devoted to the study of the impact of somatic disease on the human psyche; and (4) the concept of deviant behavior of teenagers by Yu. A. Kleiberg. We conducted a comparative analysis of three groups of families with teenagers using the analysis of the reliability of differences (Mann– Whitney U-test), which allowed us to establish the direction and severity of changes in different indicators of psychological health of the considered families. As a result, we determined differences in adequacy of social role among adolescents diagnosed with diabetes and without chronic diseases. We also found differences in socialrole adequacy indicators in these two groups. Adolescents with diabetes showed a high level of social-role adequacy. Group of families where teenagers scored high according to the ACT-P method and families with teenagers with no inclination to deviant forms of behavior gave reliable differences according to the “Functionallyrole consistency” method, indicating differences between family groups. Common to all three groups of families were changes in the social and role structure and a decrease in family adaptability, which leads to changes in social-role adequacy. The research showed violations of roles; these data demonstrate a conflict between ascribed roles and individuals. The dominant types of attitude towards the disease and the presence of additive and delinquent behavior in adolescents determine the protective reactions of the adolescent’s role position. They are closely related to certain indicators of families’ psychological health. Keywords Adolescents · Deviant behavior · Diabetes · Family · Psychological health · Attitude to the illness A. A. Kislykh (B) · M. V. Shamardina Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova (ed.), Complex Social Systems in Dynamic Environments, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 365, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23856-7_112

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1 Introduction The study of the psychological health of the family has become topical in recent decades. Psychological health problems were revealed in the psychoanalytical theory presented by Freud [7], Horney [8], Jung [10], Freud [6], and others. According to their assumptions, mental health, namely, its violation, directly depends on individual socialization. Torokhtiy [21] defines the psychological health of a family as a comfortable, emotionally colored state of functioning of the family. Accordingly, psychological health can contribute to the development of deviant behavior among adolescents. Deviant behavior in psychology was of interest to Freud [7], Adler [1], Sullivan [19], Horney [8], Bowlby [4], Mahler [15], Thorndike [20], Watson [23], Skinner [18], and Khomich [11]. According to them, deviant behavior determines a person’s past experiences as a child and, thus, in a family. Kleiberg [13] understood deviant behavior as a deviation from social norms. Teenagers often require special treatment, especially if their health condition is violated. Diseases, especially chronic and complicated, related to disability, have a significant impact on their mental sphere, leading to deep psychological experiences of all family members, which triggers a reassessment of real life. The reaction to the disease affects the personal characteristics of those living next door, changing them [2–4, 16, 17, 22, 24]. According to Luban-Plozza et al. [14], diabetes mellitus patients are characterized by a constant feeling of insecurity that colors the entire life situation. The current research involved families with adolescents who are diagnosed with diabetes. A sharp increase in the incidence of this disorder in the world is found in all age categories, and adolescents are no exception. Adolescent age is a crisis period of human development during which serious changes in the body occur, leading to strong emotional reactions and protest behavior. The problem of psychological health research in families with teenagers, both with diabetes and a tendency to deviant behavior, is currently quite acute. Over time, each family turns to the analysis of their psychological health. Speaking about the study of psychological health, we are dealing with the diagnosis of the family, more comprehensive and in-depth knowledge of social and psychological processes, and phenomena that occur in the family life as a micro group [5]. Adolescents diagnosed with diabetes are characterized by changes in the structure of self-esteem, resulting in the formation of a “difference complex” from others, nonaffected adolescents. The disability of a child may lead to social maladaptation of the entire family. From Isaev [9] point, the presence of the chronic disease has a negative impact on the life strategy of a patient who often organizes their life around their suffering and feels insecure.

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To consider the psychological health of the family, it is necessary to consider the components that determine the following indicators: (1) family values, (2) functionalrole coherence, (3) social-role adequacy, (4) intra-family adaptability, (5) emotional satisfaction, and (6) aspiration for family longevity [21]. The specifics of the psychological health of the modern family, which brings up the teenager, remain poorly studied to date. It is important to study this problem because deviant behavior is often formed within the family, and the disease that occurs in a teenager’s life can suddenly become an event transforming the entire system of family relations, affecting not only life plans but also the professional self-realization of parents.

2 Materials and Methods The research aims to compare the features of the structure and components of psychological health in modern families with teenagers without chronic diseases, teenagers diagnosed with diabetes and ones with a tendency to deviant behavior. The research object is the psychological health of the family. The research subject is the psychological health of modern families with different teenagers. The following are the methodological grounds: ● Fundamental models of analysis of family relations (S. Minukhin, V. Satir, A. Spivakovskaya, E. Eidemiller, and V. Yustitsky); ● Psychosomatic concepts of diabetes (V. D. Mendelevich, S. L. Solovyova); ● Theory of Psychological Health (V. S. Torokhtiy); ● The concept of deviant behavior of adolescents (Yu. A. Kleiberg); ● Age periodization of personality (L. S. Vygotsky). During the research, we used different methods, namely: ● Methods of theoretical analysis: analysis, comparison, generalization of information on the problem of studying the psychological health of modern families with adolescents; ● Empirical methods: questionnaires and psychological testing; ● Mathematical: statistical methods of data processing, analysis of the reliability of differences (Mann–Whitney U-test), and Student’s t-test using “SPSS 17.0” statistical data processing program; ● Methods of studying the psychological health of the family by V. S. Torokhtiy; personal questionnaire of the St. Petersburg Bekhterev Psychoneurological Research Institute; methods of “Analysis of family relationships” (E. G. Eidemiller, V. V. Yustitskis), Diagnostic Questionnaire for Detecting Propensity to Various Forms of Deviant Behavior “DAP-P” (developed on the base of the Institute in St. Petersburg, the Department of Psychiatry). The research of psychological health features was conducted with the help of a control group—22 families with teenagers who do not have chronic diseases and

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a tendency of deviant behavior. The sampling was based on the DAP-P method, which determines the presence or absence of inclination to various forms of deviant behavior. Families with teenagers with no inclination to deviant behavior were more prosperous: 17 complete and 5 incomplete families. Empirical groups were 21 families with adolescents diagnosed with “diabetes mellitus. Among them, 21 teenagers with 2–7 and more years of disease experience and teenagers of 8–9 grades of “Lyceum No 73” and “Berezovskaya Secondary School” were additionally examined.

3 Results At the first stage of the research, we conducted a biographical questionnaire and diagnostics of teenagers of 8–9th grades of “Lyceum No 73” and “Berezovskaya Secondary School” for deviant behavior. Based on the collected material analysis, we selected 43 teenagers; 21 of them tended deviant behavior, 22 had no chronic diseases and no inclination to deviant behavior. At the second stage, we identified the leading attitudes towards the disease in adolescents diagnosed with diabetes: euphoric (average value—3.71) and anosognotic (2.94) types. They have manifested themselves in an unreasonably high mood, often playful and disregarding the disease and its treatment, as well as active discarding of thoughts about the disease itself, not recognizing themselves as sick. The results of the t-test application for independent samples allowed us to distinguish one difference between girls and boys diagnosed with “diabetes mellitus.” This difference was found in such types of attitudes to the disease as obsessivephobic (p = 0.039). Girls are characterized by alarming mistrust associated with the unlikely complications of the disease and treatment failures. Their imaginary problems worry them more than real ones; obsessive thoughts begin to dominate. In boys, this type of attitude towards the disease has not been revealed, which may indicate that they are not inclined to believe in superstitions and do not attach importance to small things. At the third stage, all three groups of families were offered V. S. Torokhtiy’s method of diagnosing psychological health using questionnaires for all family members studying the indicators “Functionally—role consistency,” “Adaptivity in intrafamily relations,” and “Emotional satisfaction.” The Mann–Whitney U-test was used to define indicators in three samples: ● Analysis of the reliability of differences in groups of families with adolescents by the Mann–Whitney U-test; ● Reliable differences were determined by the methods “Functionally—role consistency,” “Adaptation in microsocial relations,” “Emotional satisfaction”; ● Reliable differences in all indicators of the method were obtained, indicating differences between groups of families with adolescents.

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The indicators diagnosed the readiness or unwillingness of family members to agree on intra-family activities and the desire or unwillingness to adapt to the intrafamily climate. The indicator “Adaptivity in microsocial relations” shows the harmonious functioning of the family and agreement among its members. In families where the indicator is low, the role structure changes, one of the parents switches to the key role position. Also, with the changed role structure, the family will not show such components of psychological health as mutual assistance, trust, and mutual understanding—these are families with adolescents with a tendency to deviant behavior. Family members are separated from each other; each one is left to his or her own devices. In the absence of synchronous actions between spouses, there is an inconsistency in the upbringing of children. The correlation analysis revealed a strong correlation between the indicator “Functional-role consistency” and the level of teenagers’ inclination to deviant behavior (p = 0.000, r = −0.927) with a significance level of 0.01. The inverse relationship indicates that an increase in the level of inclination to deviant behavior of teenagers leads to a decrease in indicators of functional-role consistency in the family. A very high strength of the correlation relationship was observed between the level of teenagers’ inclination to deviant behavior and “Adaptivity in microsocial relations.” Pearson’s correlation showed values (p = 0.000; r = −0.974) at the significance level of 0.01. These values are also correlated with feedback, suggesting that increased deviant behavior leads to decreased intra-family adaptability. A sufficiently high force correlation exists between the index of delinquent behavior and “Adaptivity in microsocial relations” (p = 0.000, r = −0.907). The relationship between delinquent behavior and “Emotional Satisfaction” (p = 0.000, r = −0.816) is inversely correlated, with a high force of correlation. Data from group statistics on mean dispersion and comparison of mean dispersions (Student’s t-test) determined that dispersions differ in social-role adequacy in adolescents. The psychological health of a family with teenagers diagnosed with diabetes was determined by a strong direct correlation between the “Functional-role consistency” indicator and the leading types of attitude to the disease: euphoric (p = 0.000, r = 0.883) and anosognotic (p = 0.000, r = 0.927) at the significance level of 0.01. Functional-role coherence (FRC) is determined through the level of development of mutual understanding and assistance of the family and the degree of attention to the emotional state of family members. It means that the disease will promote interaction, care, and attention in connection with the disease of the adolescent. Through active interaction, the family adapts to the diagnosis of the teenager, and because of the experience of the disease as a turning point (stressful situation), family members will be more adaptive. Adaptivity in microsocial relations is higher in families with teenagers diagnosed with diabetes (the leading intellectual and behavioral one for the control group families, with an average level of adaptability (0.75–0.5)). With leading intellectual adaptability, families have to make serious efforts to cope with complex life situations through reflection.

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4 Discussion Our results demonstrate significant differences in family psychological health indicators and highlight components and meaningful characteristics of psychological health of families with teenagers with and without deviant behavior. There is a mutual influence between the components of family psychological health (“Functional-role consistency,” “Adaptivity in microsocial relations,” and “Emotional satisfaction”), the level of inclination to deviant behavior of teenagers, and the type of attitude to the disease in teenagers diagnosed with diabetes. Changes in social roles in a family with teenagers diagnosed with diabetes contribute to an increase in the level of development of socio-psychological mechanisms within the family (mutual trust, care about the emotional state). The increase in mutual assistance and understanding contributes to accepting social roles and the formation of socio-psychological mechanisms [12]. These studies demonstrate differences in social-role adequacy between adolescents diagnosed with diabetes and adolescents without chronic diseases. We found that there are differences between the social-role adequacy indicators within the target groups. Violations of roles of a teenager, father, and mother determine a conflict between an assigned role and an individual, which changes the content of performing certain functions in the family. When compensation for parental roles comes from a teenager, it allows considering that the family has regressive tendencies.

5 Conclusion The data of the conducted experiment consider the substantial characteristics of the psychological health of the modern family bringing up both deviant teenagers and teenagers diagnosed with diabetes will be subject to changes. In such families, the social and role structure changes, and the adaptability in the family decreases, which leads to changes in social-role adequacy. In our opinion, socio-psychological training can be an effective measure to correct interpersonal relationships in families.

References 1. Adler A (1997) On a nervous character. (trans: Stefanovich IV). Universitetskaya kniga, SaintPetersburg 2. Ananyev VA (2006) Fundamentals of health psychology. Rech, St. Petersburg 3. Bowen M (1960) The family as the unit of study and treatment. Am J Orthopsychiatry 31(1):40– 60 4. Bowlby J (1975) Family interaction in disturbed and normal families: a methodological and substantive review. Psychol Bull 1:33–65

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5. Eidemiller EG (2003) Family diagnosis and family psychotherapy: study manual for doctors and psychologists. Rech, St. Petersburg 6. Freud A (1993) The ego and the mechanisms of defense. Pedagogika-Press, Moscow 7. Freud Z (2006) Basic psychological theories in psychoanalysis (trans: Wolff MV, Spektor AA). AST, Moscow 8. Horney K (2009) New ways in psychoanalysis (trans: Bokovikova A). Akademicheskiy proyekt, Moscow 9. Isaev DN (2000). Psychosomatic disorders in children. Piter, St. Petersburg 10. Jung CG (1994) Libido, its metamorphoses and symbols. Eastern European Institute, SaintPetersburg 11. Khomich AV (2006) Psychology of deviant behavior. South Russian Humanitarian Institute, Rostov-on-Don 12. Kislykh AA, Shamardina MV (2020) Psychological training as a way to self-regulate the emotional state of adolescents diagnosed with diabetes mellitus. Bull Psychol Pedagogy Altai State Univ 2:87–93 13. Kleiberg YA (2012) Psychology and pedagogy of deviant behavior: educational-methodical complex. Bull Moscow Reg State Univ, Moscow 14. Luban-Plozza B, Peldinger V et al (1992) Psychosomatic disorders in general practice. Springer, Berlin 15. Mahler M (2011) Psychological birth of a human baby. Symbiosis and individuation. CogitoTsentr, Moscow 16. Malkina-Pyh IG (2008) Family therapy: handbook of a practical psychologist. Eksmo, Moscow 17. Maller AR (1995) Teacher and family of a disabled child. Defectology 5:15–19 18. Skinner B (2016) The behavior of organisms. Operant, Moscow 19. Sullivan G (1998) Interpersonal theory in psychiatry. KSP+, Moscow 20. Thorndike EL (1926) Learning principles based on psychology. Rabotnik prosveshcheniya, Moscow 21. Torokhtiy VS (1996) Methodology for assessing the psychological health of the family. CSP RAO, Moscow 22. Wahler RG, Winkel GH, Peterson RF (1965) Mothers as behavior therapists for their own children. Behav Res Ther 3:113–124 23. Watson J (1913) Psychology as the behaviorist views it. Nalanda Digital Library, Bihar 24. Zelentsova TV (2012) Psychological health of the individual: diversity of approaches. Sibac, Novosibirsk

Socio-psychological Determinants of Pregnant Women’s Health Svetlana A. Burilkina , Nelli G. Suprun , and Inna V. Guryanova

Abstract The health of a woman in the unity of physical, mental, and social components determines the health of future generations. The reduced quality of life, stress, and uncertainty deteriorate women’s physical health and lead to social deprivation, including unavailability of the maternal role. The current paper presents the results of an empirical study aimed at the analysis of the socio-psychological determinants of the pregnant woman’s health, including their attitude to the socio-psychological program and pedagogical support in a charity. We analyzed scientific literature and the questionnaire of pregnant women using the parametric method. The analysis of one-dimensional and two-dimensional distributions was carried out, involving the VORTEX program for selecting the data set for a specific variable. The study results identified differences in the levels of socio-psychological readiness for pregnancy, the interaction between the levels of psychological readiness for motherhood, and the emotional characteristics of pregnant women. In addition, the study dwells on (1) social factors, (2) the quality of social health of expecting mothers, (3) social health condition, (4) lifestyle, (5) well-being, (6) risk factors, (7) the emotional characteristics of pregnant women, (8) the balance of personal characteristics, (9) efficiency, (10) stress, and (11) anxiety, contributing to the success of the motherhood and hindering it simultaneously. According to the study results, we can identify the dynamics of the psychological state of women during pregnancy in relation to the social situation of pregnancy. Medical, qualified social, and psychological support during pregnancy are among the most significant features for women. The scientific novelty of the research employs an empirical study of pregnant women’s attitude to psychological and pedagogical support. Keywords Social, psychological, and pedagogical support · Child expecting period · Adapting to a new social parent role · Psycho-emotional state · Socio-psychological characteristics of pregnant women

S. A. Burilkina (B) · N. G. Suprun · I. V. Guryanova Nosov Magnitogorsk State Technical University, Magnitogorsk, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova (ed.), Complex Social Systems in Dynamic Environments, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 365, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23856-7_113

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1 Introduction The influence of social and psychological factors on the health of pregnant women is the basis for a differentiated approach to the development of social and preventive work programs for pregnant women. Pregnancy is an acute stage of intrapersonal contradiction intended to provide psychological support for pregnant women. Unfortunately, nowadays, social and psychological support for pregnant women is hardly regulated by Russian legislation. Thus, several legal acts provide medical and psychosocial assistance to pregnant women in a crisis. In this regard, the program on preparing for birth, based on the prenatal clinic data, prevails over the preparatory medical aspects. The study of the socio-psychological determinants of the pregnant woman’s health, including their attitude to the socio-psychological and pedagogical support program, implies the solution of the critical problems during pregnancy. Thus, psychological acceptance of physiological changes in a pregnant woman, the need for social consulting; assistance in stabilizing the emotional state of a pregnant woman; and information about the postnatal period and motherhood are among the most significant issues during pregnancy.

2 Materials and Methods The theoretical and methodological basis of the study comprised the works of Russian and international scientists on health and family issues. However, to define the concept of health, we should involve an interdisciplinary, integrated approach, characterized by a multilevel and gradual analysis by representatives of the entire complex of human sciences [10]. We identified social factors in the studies of Alexandrovsky [2], Bedny [6], Bolypova [8], V. M. Borisov, Ivanova [14], Istoshin [13], Komarov [15], and many others. However, Russian and international approaches to the study of the psychology of pregnancy, childbirth, and the postnatal period (Abramchenko [1], Avdeev [3], Batuev [4], O. V. Bazhenova, Bertin [7], Dobryakov [12], Kovalenko [16]) formed the basis of the theoretical and methodological study of the psychological support of pregnant women, including the concept of maternal psychology of pregnant women in higher education by Philippova [19]. Nowadays, many studies focus on pregnancy from the perspective of conditions for child development (O. V. Bazhenova, Brekhman [9], Zh. V. Kolesova, Skolbo [21], Denisenko and Naumova [11], Dobryakov [12], Baz [5]). However, it is equally significant to consider pregnancy in terms of the ability to provide a favorable development of the child, including the development of the pregnant women’ personality,

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and changes in many aspects of a woman’s life during pregnancy. Thus, these changes include self-consciousness and transformation of value-semantic components [20]. The research object is the analysis of socio-psychological determinants of the health of pregnant women participating in the program of socio-psychological and pedagogical support and their attitude to the program of the center “Motherhood” supported by the Charitable Fund “Metallurg” in Magnitogorsk, Chelyabinsk region. The study was carried out by the parametric method on the “input” and “output.” The study sample consisted of 100 women in the second-third trimester of pregnancy, aged 22–39, attending classes at the Maternity Center of the Metallurg Charitable Fund. The analysis of a questionnaire conducted in June–December 2019 by the Laboratory of Social and Psychological-Pedagogical Research of the Department of Social Work and Psychological-Pedagogical Education is a significant issue of the presented study. The conducted research aims to study the socio-psychological determinants of pregnant women’s health, including their attitude to the program of sociopsychological and pedagogical support.

3 Results We detected and analyzed socio-psychological issues of pregnant women and their adaptation to a new parental role. Moreover, we evaluated their psycho-emotional state during the research. The study comprised two stages: the primary analysis—at the “beginning” of socio-psychological and pedagogical support and the secondary analysis—“in the end” after participating in the socio-psychological and pedagogical support program. Social determinants of health include the social conditions in which people were born, raised, lived, worked, and grown old [17]. However, when discussing women’s physical and social well-being, we can emphasize that indicators of this data are positive. In addition, we determined that 76% of women have an uncomplicated pregnancy, while 24% of pregnant women (almost one-fifth of women) answered this question negatively: 7 women expecting their first and third child, and 10 women expecting their third child emphasized that their pregnancy is complicated. In 90% of surveyed women, pregnancy was planned. Nevertheless, 10 women did not plan pregnancy. We discovered that four women (17%) with two children did not plan to have a third child; three women (8.8%) with one child did not plan a second child, and three women (8.1%) with their first child did not plan to be pregnant. Thus, more than two times, women with two children expecting a third child did not plan a pregnancy. When women found out that they were expecting a child, most of them experienced positive emotions and feelings: gladness—70 women (70%), happiness—51 of the women (51%).

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Table 1 Feelings and emotions experienced by women when they found out that they were expecting a child, depending on the number of children in absolute numbers Number of children for the present moment

Gladness Happiness Alarm Anxiety Surprise Incomprehensible Concern feeling

Expecting 30 first child

17

6

8

0

1

1

One child, 28 expecting for the second one

22

1

4

1

0

0

Two children, expecting for the third one

12

12

5

4

0

0

0

Total:

70

51

12

16

1

1

1

Source Compiled by the authors

At the same time, 16 women experienced anxiety, 12 women felt alarmed, some expectant mothers noted surprise; every woman felt an incomprehensible feeling and concern. Furthermore, we identified that women expecting their first child (21.6%) and women expecting their third child (17.3%) are more anxious about pregnancy. The emotion “alarm” also prevails in women expecting their first or third child (see Table 1). Additionally, during the second and third pregnancies, women felt concerned: about the attitude to their eldest child (42%); about the second Cesarean section; childbirth and breastfeeding (36%); about the attitude to them as a pregnant woman by relatives and friends (25%). Finally, five people had a negative attitude toward pregnancy. However, the reasons for such an attitude are (1) difficult financial situation, (2) difficult family relations, and (3) short time passed since the previous birth (less than a year). Therefore, less than five women expecting the second child felt anxiety and fear. According to the results of the survey, 46 women (46%) felt fear regarding pregnancy, including women expecting their first child—23 out of 30 (72.9%); women who, expecting their third child—almost one-third of the respondents—7 out of 23 (31.8%); women who had one child and expected their second child—one-fourth of women—12 out of 39 (30.7%). However, two women did not answer this question. Most of the respondents rarely felt fear—33%.

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Table 2 Alarm reasons in pregnant women Alarm reasons

Expecting first child

Afraid of giving birth

20

One child, expecting for the second 6

Two children, expecting for the third 6

Total

32

Nobody needs me

0

0

1

1

Afraid of losing a child

0

1

0

1

Proper care for a child

4

0

1

5

Health of the future child

4

3

1

8

Afraid of a misbirth

0

1

0

1

Afraid of losing a baby

0

1

0

1

I am single, do not have money to raise a child

0

0

0

0

Afraid of giving a birth

20

6

6

32

Total

37

40

23

48

Source Compiled by the authors

Fears of pregnant women are explained by various reasons (see Table 2). For instance, 32 of the total number of surveyed women were afraid of giving birth, including women expecting their first child (20 out of 32). Furthermore, we distinguished that eight women were anxious about the health of their future child, including five respondents that were concerned about the appropriate care of the child. Women expecting the second child also felt fear: six of them were afraid of giving birth, three women worried about the future child’s health, and two women were afraid of losing the child because of an inevitable miscarriage. This fear was related to health problems or the first child with a disability. Thus, six of the women expecting their third child were also afraid of childbirth, and one woman from this group emphasized that nobody needed her. According to the diagnostic study, at the “beginning,” women rarely visited psychologists to solve their problems. The reasons were different: they (1) did not trust the psychologist and did not go there (11 women); (2) did not want to go to a psychologist (9 women); (3) visited them only once (3 women); (4) repeatedly visited the psychologist (2 women); (5) did not know where to go (2 women); Only one-fifth of the respondents (22% of surveyed women) would like to visit a psychologist. The research sample consisted of 48 women; 22 women (45.8%) would like to get a psychologist consultation.

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However, it is critical to emphasize that the emotional state of a pregnant woman depends on how the father of the child accepts the pregnancy and what feelings and emotions they feel. Women noticed that the child’s father experienced gladness (72%), happiness (44%), alarm (7%), anxiety (5%), incomprehensible feelings (1%). Pregnant women distinguished that when getting pregnant, their husband (the father of the child) helped them with everything (65.7%); always supported (45.5%); spoke about feelings (32.3%); did all housework (6.1%); took care of children (6.1%); did not help at all (2%). According to the research, we determined that the fewer children, the more the husbands help. According to surveyed women expecting their first child, husbands helped them in everything—72.9%; while 62.5% of husbands help women expecting their second child, and 56.5% of husbands help women expecting their third child. However, four women from this group indicated problems with the husband; problems with the employer and colleagues (4 women); problems with the first or second child (3 women); problems with parents (1 woman). Therefore, according to the study results, we identified that it is necessary to eliminate and reduce fears regarding childbirth, baby health, and child care among women expecting their first and third child—they are subjected to fear. In women expecting their second and third children, it is necessary to normalize the psycho-emotional state associated with the fear of losing a child, loneliness, and challenging interaction with other people. When women get pregnant, their lifestyle changes; 40% of surveyed women emphasized that they slept a lot, 38% of women changed their diet, 19% of women began to walk more often, and 23 of women (23%) did not change anything. However, in changes regarding sleep, we can determine the dependence of sleep duration on the number of children. Women expecting their first child (51.3%), including women expecting their second child (37.5%), slept a lot. The fewest women slept a lot when expecting their third child (34.7%). Thus, if we compare the answers about the frequency of walking, we can stress the dependence of the duration of walking on the number of children: women expecting their first child began to walk more often (24.3%); women expecting their second child were most likely to walk (20%); women expecting their third child were most likely to walk either (8%). The study results revealed health problems in six expectant mothers, two women pursued an active lifestyle, and only one woman from the group waiting for the first and second child devoted more time to themselves and felt happy. However, the psycho-emotional state changes with pregnancy: 43% of women noticed that their mood often changed, 26% of women felt relax, 15% of pregnant women felt peaceful, and 14% did not notice any changes. At the same time, eight women became more irritable, and six women cried a lot. According to the results of the primary research stage, we discovered the necessity to eliminate and reduce fears related to childbirth, baby health, and child care among women expecting their first child; they are subjected to fear. Therefore, it is significant to conduct individual consultations primarily for single women who experienced different fears. In addition, it is necessary to provide

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knowledge about the physical and psychological peculiarities of child development, including joint training with husbands to improve relations. The next stage of the study was the attitude of pregnant women and the assessment of their socio-psychological health after completing the program of socio-psychological and pedagogical support. However, women believe that they are lucky to have a chance to attend the center “Motherhood.” The majority of women (87%) improved their psycho-emotional state after completing the entire course with specialists. Moreover, women emphasized the improvements they have after the consultation of a psychologist: 66% of women improved their mood, 34% improved the atmosphere in the family, 30% of women recognized where they can receive psychological assistance, 20% of women learned how to solve problems with their husbands, and 13% of women lost their fears. Additionally, about one-third of the surveyed women (9%) met interesting people. The mental state of a woman, contact with the child, and psychological comfort in the family are significant factors in the formation of the somatic and mental health of the child and the preservation of the mother’s health. Thus, in the classes with a cultural specialist, women liked learning lullabies and children’s songs (48%); learning poems and fairy tales (34%); listening to classical music (30%); drinking tea (29%); dancing (3%); watching a movie and discussing relations (2%). Furthermore, women emphasized positive aspects of classes for child care and preparation for childbirth. Besides, 63% of women received knowledge on child care, 48% received swaddling skills, 39% received information on child care, 36% received knowledge on preparation for childbirth, including information on benefits and payments to families with children. Psychological training classes had a positive impact on future parents and intrafamily relations. About one-third (30%) of future fathers attended training with their spouses. Moreover, families got the necessary attitudes, knowledge, and skills at the psychologist training within the socio-psychological and pedagogical support of a pregnant woman, they could not get from any other specialists. However, 17 people belonged the families who learned a lot and can solve problems together; 9 people noticed that everything became just fine; 8 people found no impact; 3 people solved recent problems; and 3 people stopped quarreling. Most women participated in individual sessions with a psychologist. However, women emphasized that individual consultations helped them in various issues: women found answers to their questions (30%); learned to cope with emotions (26%); a psychologist helped them a lot, and they wanted to communicate with them further (22%); helped them find a way out of a problematic situation (19%); a psychologist calmed them (14%); did not help them (3%). However, 77% of women confided that they improved the quality of life after receiving socio-psychological and pedagogical support; 18 people found it difficult to answer; and two people noticed that their quality of life has not improved.

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4 Discussion We will discuss the results of the study and the contradictions in the process of analyzing the questionnaire data of pregnant women. The program of social, psychological, and pedagogical support for pregnant women is a method to improve the psycho-emotional state of pregnant women and affect the social and psychological health of expectant mothers. However, taking into account the research results, we can assert that the discussed program of socio-psychological and pedagogical support should be implemented without any doubt. According to the study, it is necessary to work with pregnant women to overcome fears and anxiety regarding their physical and psycho-emotional state. Women need not only medical support for pregnancy but also qualified social and psychological support. Moreover, we found out that 10% of women did not plan a pregnancy. Pregnancy fears were primarily experienced by women expecting the first child. Therefore, women were anxious about the child’s health, taking appropriate care of the child, and bringing them up, including the relations with their husband. Thus, we should emphasize that it is necessary to work on preserving pregnancy, including family planning. In addition, we identified that it is necessary to work with future fathers. According to the research, we determined the trend: the fewer children there are, the more husbands help their spouses. Women expecting their first child emphasized that husbands helped them in everything—72.9%; husbands with women expecting their second child helped them in everything—62.5%, and women expecting their third child with husbands helped them in everything—only 56.5%. According to the study results, the dependence of the time duration for walking on the number of children became visible: women expecting a third child are three times less likely to go for a walk than women expecting their first child. Therefore, it is significant to indicate that women expecting their first child sleep and walk more often. Nevertheless, they have more concerns and fears. Critical attention should be paid to women who are afraid of pregnancy termination due to health problems or the unhealthy born child since the first one had several health deviations. Thus, it is essential to provide training for pregnant women to manage emotions during pregnancy, using the formation of psychological attitudes, mood, and stabilization of the emotional state before childbirth. Additionally, based on the research results, we found out that a stable emotional state characterizes pregnant women with a high level of psychological readiness, desire for success, self-affirmation, and independence, including a high level of efficiency and low indicators of stress and anxiety. The research results on the influence of social and psychological factors on the well-being of pregnant women can become the basis for a differentiated approach to the development of social and preventive programs for working with pregnant women.

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5 Conclusion Thus, the period of expecting a child is a new stage in the development of a woman’s life, a period of the most challenging and essential life changes. Pregnancy is associated with difficulties adapting a woman to a new social role, a new lifestyle, and increasing psychological and emotional stress. Therefore, during this period, a woman needs medical and psychological support, including the support of other specialists, such as a cultural specialist and a specialist in social work, the primary purpose of which is to provide relevant socio-psychological and pedagogical assistance in the process of adaptation and socialization of the individual. However, in this context, the socio-psychological and pedagogical support will be aimed at adaptation to the new parental role. Human health is one of the most significant qualitative characteristics of a person and society, contributing to stability, well-being, and development. The results of the study expanded the issue of socio-psychological and pedagogical support, including gender relations [18]. Summing up the research results, we identified the necessity of the further study of risk factors and social conditions, determining the socio-psychological health of society and individual groups, and developing strategic and preventive programs that contributed to health and a healthy lifestyle.

References 1. Abramchenko VV (2004) Perinatal psychology: theory, methodology, experience. Inteltek, Petrazavodsk 2. Alexandrovsky YA (2000) Borderline mental disorders. Medicina, Moscow 3. Avdeev MN (2018) Effectiveness of prevention and comprehensive rehabilitation treatment of pregnant women with iron deficiency anemia in the resort of Sochi. Dissertation, First Pavlov State Medical University of St. Petersburg 4. Batuev AS, Sokolova LV, Stankevich LN (2007) Psychophysiology of mother and infant: results and perspectives. Psychol J High Sch Econ 4(3):27−43 5. Baz LL (2003) Changes in the motivational and need sphere of women during pregnancy. University Publishing House, Saint-Petersburg 6. Bedny MS (1980) Girl or boy? Statistika, Moscow 7. Bertin A (1992) Upbringing in the womb, or a story about missed opportunities. Zhizn, Minsk 8. Bolypova TE (2007) Social health of the population as the goal of the functioning of social work. Yuri Gagarin State Technical University of Saratov, Saratov 9. Brekhman VI (2001) Ways of multilevel interaction between a mother and her unborn child. Ivanovo Publishing House, Ivanovo 10. Burilkina SA, Oleinik EV, Suprun NG et al (2016) Life values of today’s women in singleindustry towns of Russia (adapted from sociological studies done in Magnitogorsk). Soc Sci 11(4):4059–4063 11. Denisenko LN, Naumova VN (2008) The influence of pathological pregnancy on the hard tissues of the teeth. Collect Sci Theses Art Health Educ XXI Century 10(3):499–500 12. Dobryakov IV (2000) Perinatal psychology. MIR Med 5(6):45−46 13. Istoshin NG (1997) Socio-medical aspects of modern human health. Dissertation, Rostov State University

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14. Ivanova EI (2014) Structural and social health factors of the population of Russia. Bull RGGU Ser Philos Sociol Art 4(126):138–155 15. Komarov YM (2015) Lifestyle and health. https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/obraz-zhizni-i-zdo rovie 16. Kovalenko NP (2002) Psychoprophylaxis and psychocorrection of women during pregnancy and childbirth: medical and social problems. Dissertation, First Pavlov State Medical University of St. Petersburg 17. Krecha R (2011) Social determinants of health: practical solutions to deal with a wellrecognized issue. Bull World Health Organ 89:703–703 18. Panina VV (2016) Value psychological support women’s access to the child’s birth. Omsk Psychiatric J 19. Phillipova GG (1999) Psychology of motherhood and early ontogenesis. Mysl, Moscow 20. Plaksij AN (2010) Social pedagogic support to pregnant women at a university. Pedagogic education in Russia, Moscow 21. Skolbo GV (1992) The mother-child system at an early age as an object of psychoprophylaxis. Soc Clin Psychiatry 2:12–31

Psychological Well-Being of Mothers During Counseling Irina I. Cheremiskina

and Aleksander K. Samoylichenko

Abstract Psychological well-being is a theoretical construct that allows one to describe a person’s general satisfaction with their life, the subjective experience of “happiness”. In the context of a person’s assessment of their achievements and planning their life, psychological well-being is among the essential conditions. In international psychology, this construct has been studied for a long time and has a detailed description. In Russian psychology, the interest of researchers in this topic has increased in recent decades. Psychological well-being is associated with various objective and subjective factors, in particular, gender and social role. Psychological well-being is associated with various objective and subjective factors, in particular gender and social roles. The paper shows that the level of psychological well-being of women is generally lower than men’s one; it is conditioned by the maternal role and its combination with the professional one. Improving psychological well-being is one of the significant goals of psychological counseling. Improving the psychological well-being of women with children is particularly crucial due to the close connection between the experiences of the child and the mother. We conducted a theoretical analysis of Ryff’s Six-factor Model of Psychological Well-Being using the available foreign data. Besides, we described the main stages, their content, and the targets of counseling work with the psychological well-being of women with children. The advantage of this model of the counseling process is its short-term, systematic, and problem-specific orientation. Also, we gave the main problems that are worth paying attention to, which will allow mothers-clients to learn to notice the positive aspects of their lives, focus on their assessments, and, as a result, establish positive relationships with the people around them. The presented data is of practical importance for consultant psychologists, as it can become the basis for organizing work with women with children. Keywords Psychological well-being of women with children · Psychological counseling · Stages of the consultative process I. I. Cheremiskina · A. K. Samoylichenko (B) Vladivostok State University of Economics and Service, Vladivostok, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova (ed.), Complex Social Systems in Dynamic Environments, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 365, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23856-7_114

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1 Introduction The concept of “psychological well-being” was introduced and described by Bradburn [1]. In his model, an important aspect was the balance between positive and negative experiences. A person has something to do with every event in their life. Psychological well-being here acts as the difference between the sum of positive and negative experiences. Thus, general satisfaction with life also acts as psychological well-being. In other words, if the complex of positive experiences exceeds the complex of negative experiences (reflected in the general feeling of satisfaction with life), then the person experiences psychological well-being that corresponds to their high level. In the opposite case, when the sum of negative experiences exceeds the positive ones, people feel unhappy; that is, they have low psychological well-being. At the same time, N. Bradburn emphasized that positive and negative experiences are independent of each other; moreover, they can coexist in consciousness, averaging the quality of the experience of their lives. Based on the model of psychological well-being of N. Bradburn, K. Riff developed her theoretical model relying on the concepts of positive psychological functioning of the individual [2–4]. K. Riff’s six-factor model includes such components as selfacceptance, positive relationships with others, autonomy, environmental management, personal growth, and purpose in life. It is worth noting that all these factors apply only to a positive policy; that is, psychological well-being is determined by what score a person gets on each of these scales, and indicators that reduce such psychological well-being are not taken into account at all [3–6]. In Russian psychology, the study of psychological well-being has begun relatively recently. After the popularization of K. Riff’s research in Russia, the study of psychological well-being was split into two directions. Representatives of the first direction followed K. Riff, accepting her model and applying her questionnaire. Prominent representatives of this direction are Shevelenkova and Fesenko [7], who considered psychological well-being as a holistic experience that is closely related to basic needs and core values. Such well-being is expressed in a subjective feeling of happiness and satisfaction with one’s life. An important aspect in assessing one’s life is perceptive vision, a sense of achievable prospects in one’s life. The second direction involves the study of the phenomenon of well-being by investigating its aspects. In particular, such concepts as “human well-being,” “personal well-being,” “interpersonal well-being,” and “material and financial well-being” are considered. In Russian psychological science, well-being is most often associated with gender, age, and socio-demographic characteristics. For example, Manandhar et al. [8] stated that gender is a crucial social determinant of mental health and as a consequence of mental well-being. From this point of view, gender is essential for complete and detailed consideration of the problem of wellbeing. For example, many studies have shown that women are more likely than men to suffer from internalizing (anxiety and emotions) disorders, such as depression [9, 10] and stress-related disorders [11–13], while men are more likely than women to

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have externalizing (manifesting in social disharmony) disorders, including antisocial and substance use disorders [9, 10]. Several studies show that there are differences between women and men in some dimensions of psychological well-being [11, 14–16]. Such differences are usually caused by other factors, such as age, culture, and social roles [15, 17]. For example, in Asian culture, women scored lower in self-acceptance and autonomy than men [15, 17]. However, according to Karasawa et al. [15], differences between women and men in terms of autonomy appeared in the Japanese sample only in the first decades of adulthood (in this study, “adult life” meant separation from the parental family). Motherhood is the main critical stage in the development of any woman during adulthood. Many studies are devoted specifically to the relationship between motherhood and the psychological well-being of women. Thus, in the study by Diener [18], data are provided that the level of psychological well-being of a woman increases immediately after childbirth and gradually decreases during the period of growing up of an infant: from 6 months to 3 years. However, there is a correlation in the decrease in psychological well-being depending on social support, the material support of the family, and the degree of satisfaction with marriage [19]. For example, the psychological well-being of women with higher scores for these parameters decreased to a lesser extent during this period than in women who experienced difficulties in these parameters [20]. The relationship between the psychological well-being of mothers and the number of children was studied in a longitudinal study by Kohler [21]. The scholars showed that with the birth of a child, the psychological well-being of both fathers and mothers can change. Thus, mothers’ level of psychological well-being increases with the appearance of their first child, regardless of gender. For fathers, this relationship has some peculiarities: the psychological well-being of fathers with the appearance of the first child differs in cases of the appearance of a daughter or a son. Thus, for fathers, an increase in the level of psychological well-being with the appearance of their first-born son is almost 75% higher than with the appearance of their first-born daughter. However, it is vital to notice that the appearance of the first child increases the level of psychological well-being of both the mother and father. This trend was noticeable only in couples who maintained their relationship after the birth of the child. The author also showed that the command of the second and each subsequent child leads to a gradual decrease in the level of psychological well-being of women, while the psychological well-being of fathers does not change, and the presence of children does not significantly affect the psychological well-being of men or women aged 50–70 years. On the one hand, another important factor influencing the psychological wellbeing of mothers is the reconciliation of roles and the combination of childcare and work activities of a woman. On the other hand, the combination of such roles can lead to an internal conflict that requires finding a balance between family and work; however, it opens up prospects for another field of socialization, which reduces the subjective experience of isolation.

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In the Russian tradition, consideration of the psychological well-being of a woman is mainly connected with the social role of women and the peculiarities of motherhood in Russia. The Russian reality is often characterized by a combination of parental and professional roles, not to mention monoparenting. According to Idobaeva [22], for women who have to combine work and motherhood, taking care of the family from different positions becomes unbearable, affecting psychological well-being. As a matter of course, the role of caring for children in Russian culture is assigned to a woman. Moreover, the primary purpose of a woman in the everyday ideas of Russians remains realization in motherhood, children, and family [23]. At the same time, many women are unambiguous about such a distribution of roles and increasingly adhere to conscious motherhood, which involves implementing professional ambitions and only then family. Thus, the number of women seeking to postpone motherhood for an indefinite period is increasing. In addition, Moroz et al. [24] indicated that the main predictor of the psychological well-being of mothers is the help of a spouse in raising children and taking responsibility for some of the household responsibilities. Moreover, there has been strong evidence that married mothers have higher psychological well-being scores and positive relationships with others, environmental management, and self-acceptance than single mothers. The overall indicator of psychological well-being is also higher among married women than single women (in monoparenting). In contrast, among single mothers, more women have a lower score for psychological well-being. Thus, the concept of “psychological well-being” has been elaborated in detail in the traditions of international psychology; Russian researchers and practitioners have recently (but with great interest) begun to use this concept. Psychological well-being is manifested in the subjective feeling of happiness and satisfaction with one’s life, which is vital in building life prospects. One of the psychological counseling tasks is to increase clients’ psychological well-being since people looking for psychological help have low indicators for this parameter. Analysis of the data in the above studies reveals differences in psychological well-being between men and women. Women score lower than men in terms of self-acceptance and autonomy but score higher in positive relationships with others. With the birth of the first child, a woman’s overall level of psychological well-being rises, regardless of the life circumstances. At the same time, when a child grows up (from six months to three years), a woman’s psychological well-being decreases. With the birth of the second and each subsequent child, this trend persists. One of the factors that reduce the psychological well-being of mothers is the combination of work and domestic roles. Single mothers compared to mothers in marital relationships have lower scores for general psychological well-being, lower scores for self-acceptance, environmental control, and positive relationships with others. Therefore, motherhood correlates with the psychological well-being of a woman, which is proved by the available scientific data, including the Russian sample. As is known, the psychological state of a child is directly related to the psychological state of the mother: a happy mother means a happy child. Thus, increasing the psychological well-being of women with children in the framework of the counseling process seems to be very urgent. This paper aims to analyze and describe the stages of psychological counseling for women with children from the

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methodological standpoint of the six-factor model of psychological well-being by K. Riff. The scientific novelty of the results obtained is since in Russian psychology, paying attention to this phenomenon, there are no structured data on practical work with it, which is associated with various factors, for example, with methodological polyphony. However, questions of practice cannot wait for the unambiguous views of researchers; therefore, the stages of the consultative process presented in work can become the basis for the work of counseling psychologists with women with children.

2 Materials and Methods As stated earlier, the main goal of this research is to analyze and describe the counseling steps for women with children using K. Riff’s Six-Factor Model of Psychological Well-Being. Based on the goal, we have determined the following objectives: (1) conduct theoretical analysis on the psychological well-being of women with children; (2) consider K. Riff’s model of “well-being therapy” from the view of psychological impact’s content of the stages and targets; (3) identify opportunities of applying this model while working with women who have children; and (4) outline the expected results of the therapy based on the theoretical analysis of the reduced well-being of mothers. The following objectives allowed us to define the design of conducted research and outline its primary stages. The use of the qualitative research strategy, which implies an inductive approach based on the analysis of available data on the problem, allowed us to achieve a general conclusion on the problem. The research relies on theoretical and analytical methods, which empowers us to reveal the mechanisms of the studied phenomena, in particular, the features and content of the stages of the six-factor model of “well-being therapy.” Using these methods, we also tried to extrapolate the available data to the process of solving the problem of psychological well-being psychotherapy of a specific group of clients and create a model of planned results.

3 Results One of the main directions of counseling that aims to increase psychological wellbeing is the well-being therapy model. In 1954, Parloff et al. [25] suggested that the goals of psychotherapy are not necessarily limited by reducing or eliminating symptoms but are aimed at increasing personal comfort and effectiveness. However, specific techniques aimed at creating a positive result for this purpose have not been developed in subsequent years. The exception was Ellis’s guide to rational-emotional therapy [26], which sought to increase happiness, modifying rational-emotional therapy to eliminate the main obstacles to personal happiness.

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First of all, as noted by Ryff and Singler [27], historical research of mental health is primarily associated with identifying mental dysfunctions, when health is considered the absence of disease. There were no alternative models from which to build a therapeutic setting to focus on improving psychological well-being. Nevertheless, with the emergence of K. Rieff’s concept, it became apparent that opportunities to build such a therapeutic paradigm had arisen. Because of cognitive-behavioral therapy and K. Riff’s model, a new model was created, and its abbreviated name is PWB. Well-being therapy is a short-term form of psychotherapy aimed at improving well-being from a subjective point of view. The duration of the work takes eight sessions, which can be held every week or every two weeks. In terms of duration, each session can last approximately 30–50 min. In the process of consulting, subjective methods can be actively used (of course, in addition to the interaction of the client and the consultant), such as self-observation and keeping a structured diary. The main features of this consultative process are its directivity, structuredness, focus on the problem, and the primary use of the educational model. Further, the main stages of this process are described. The first meetings are traditionally associated with defining a request and setting work goals. Additionally, from this stage, clients are asked to keep a diary of selfobservation and life situations and their circumstances, in which a person feels well, evaluating each event from 0 to 100, where 0 means complete ill-being, and 100 means complete well-being. It is through this that clients learn to notice favorable events in their lives. It is believed that such practice will allow people to pay more attention to those minor moments that bring pleasure. This initial phase usually lasts several sessions. However, the length of this stage is determined by factors that interfere with the client’s homework; one of such factors may be resistance. As soon as clients properly recognize the signs of well-being in major life events, the next step of the consultative process takes place. This stage is associated with the fact that the client learns to recognize their thoughts and beliefs that reduce psychological well-being. This stage is also devoted to the search for irrational beliefs, that is, those attitudes of the client that do not have objective confirmation but cause a disproportionate emotional reaction of the client. Working with such clients involves understanding the problems, challenging them, and reducing the potential of these factors’ impact on the emotional background of the client. This stage is critical because it allows the therapist to understand which areas of psychological wellbeing are not affected by irrational beliefs and automatic thoughts and which, on the contrary, are filled with them. At this stage, the therapist can use the Socratic dialogue technique. Questions such as “what are the arguments in favor of this belief, and what are against?” are used. Additionally, the consultant can encourage such thoughts that allow the client to notice their well-being. In terms of duration, 2–3 sessions are allocated for this stage. Monitoring the client’s course of episodes of poor health allows the therapist to become aware of specific disorders in the parameters of well-being according to the concept of K. Riff. At this stage, a method can be proposed for diagnosing the level of psychological well-being of K. Riff. Then the counselor gradually tells the patient

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about specific categories of psychological well-being which are not expressed in the client’s mentality and connects them with certain irrational attitudes and thinking errors. Besides, the task of this stage is to formulate alternative thoughts and replace the automatic ones with the newly developed ones. The main targets of psychological counseling within this approach are presented below. The first factor is environment management. This factor represents the most common violation. When it is evident that the client devalues all their achievements and nullifies all their efforts. In this case, clients just as often interpret a negative outcome as evidence that they are worthless. This situation is due to the lack of subjective control. As a consequence, any opportunities are missed by the client, and regret for mistakes is expressed. The second factor deals with personal growth. Clients often show disinterest in their goals. As a result, clients ignore and overlook their contribution to subjective development. Thus, the client transfers the negative experience into the future to events that are about to happen, thereby refusing to develop. Based on this behavior, such an irrational belief arises that everything that happens to the client happens as always, in the usual way. The third factor relates to the purpose in life. In consulting, the client often does not feel the results of the work, which can lead to a decrease in the pace of consulting work; this situation is due to the lack of ideas about the future development of the client. The lack of developmental goals manifests itself especially sharply in the case of violations described above. The fourth factor is autonomy. This indicator is manifested in the fact that the client ignores self-esteem; it is based on the assessments of others and their opinions. Such inattention to self-esteem leads to passivity. The clients hide their own opinions, while they do not show their need for social approval. Trying to please everyone, they are likely to fail to achieve their goal, leading to conflict, dissatisfaction, and frustration. The fifth factor is associated with self-acceptance. Clients demonstrate unrealistically high standards and expectations, and as a result, any case of well-being is neutralized by chronic dissatisfaction with oneself, which leads to greater rejection of oneself. The sixth factor is connected with positive relationships with others. Interpersonal relationships can also be influenced by irrational attitudes that clients are unable to grasp. For example, clients’ self-depreciation inherent in interpersonal relationships leads to a constant thought that they are not loved. As a result, due to these beliefs, clients reject positive relationships with others. The general idea of these stages, considering the identified problems, boils down to the fact that general psychological well-being increases as these components are gradually corrected. As a result, the client can achieve a sense of autonomy and independence, the definition of life goals and personal meanings, and an understanding of limitations and opportunities in environmental management to balance levels of self-acceptance and guidelines for personal growth. For the formation of optimal

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self-acceptance, it is necessary to define one’s criteria for assessing one’s personal growth based on creating an image of the ideal “I.”

4 Discussion Given that the main factor in the decrease in the subjective well-being of mothers is an intrapersonal conflict associated with a variety of significant social roles, we can assume that its increase will contribute to the harmonization of different spheres of women’s life. As indicated by Idobaeva [22], Moroz et al. [24], Semenova and Kozhina [23], high loads associated with raising a child or playing the role of a wife and an employee lead to a decrease in the meaningfulness of these relations, and the formation of negative attitudes about oneself. A high pace of life often imposes multitasking on women with children. Low efficiency can lead to a decrease in selfesteem. In this regard, it seems practical to use the presented counseling model since a woman learns to see favorable events in her life, modifies irrational attitudes, gains self-confidence, learns to set meaningful goals, and builds positive relationships with other people. Convincing studies confirm the specificity of the psychological well-being of women with children. This step allowed us to determine the targets of psychological influence to optimize personal relationships and greater self-acceptance of women with children. Thus, our findings differ from those previously presented in Ryff’s model [2–6, 28]. In addition, based on the social ideas of mothers about their performed roles [23], we revealed the meaningful aspect of working on the psychological well-being of women with children. Psychological work boils down to the fact that it is precisely eliminating the significant mismatch of social roles that leads to an increase in the meaningfulness of actions within these roles and, ultimately, the formation of women’s favorable attitudes about themselves.

5 Conclusion In Russian psychology, the consideration of psychological well-being began later than in foreign psychology. In Russian psychology, the most significant terminological variability of this term is observed from the point of view of different positions. Nevertheless, the relationship between psychological well-being and subjective activity remains generally accepted in Russian psychology. The psychological well-being of women and mothers has its own specifics. In terms of the parameters of self-acceptance and autonomy, women have significantly lower values than men. The birth of the first child by a woman, regardless of life circumstances, leads to an increase in psychological well-being, which decreases in the process of growing up a child from six months to three years. With the birth of the second and each subsequent child, this trend continues. One of the factors that reduce

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the psychological well-being of mothers is the combination of work and domestic roles. Irregular work schedules and high employment have a particular effect on the decrease in the psychological well-being of women, which leads to an aggravation of the conflict related to women’s roles. Single mothers compared to mothers in marital relationships have lower scores for general psychological well-being, lower scores for self-acceptance, environmental control, and positive relationships with others. In our opinion, the consultative process based on the Six-Factor Model of K. Riff is the optimal solution to the problem of low psychological well-being of mothers since it is short-term, changing the internal bases of assessments of both life events and the person and contributing to the normalization of interpersonal relationships and harmonization of different social roles and related spheres of life. The results of solving the above problems within the consultative process are outlined below. The first factor is self-acceptance. Awareness of one’s own experience is associated with self-esteem, self-acceptance; furthermore, solving life problems will increase, while neuropsychic stress and anxiety will decrease. The second factor is autonomy. Experience of self-autonomy or independence from assessments will appear or be renewed. The necessary psychological boundaries with other people will be established. Besides, there will be an opportunity for independence in choices and decisions that affect the course of life. The third factor deals with the goals in life. The individual meaning of life will be found and understood, helping to evaluate and accept the life path that the client has already gone through, which will help them build their perspective for the future. The fourth factor is personal growth. Freedom of choice and responsibility for one’s life will become conscious, developing an optimistic outlook. The fifth factor is related to environment management. Self-esteem, a sense of the ability to influence the environment, will be established. Finally, we should mention positive relationships with others. There will be an awareness of the difficulties in communicating with other people, establishing positive contacts, and reflecting on the importance of others in their own lives. Experience of new behavior in a safe environment will be gained. Overall psychological well-being will increase due to the connection between the existing experience, its positive assessment, and plans for the future.

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