Collectors and Foragers: Subsistence-Settlement System Change in the Central Canadian Arctic, A.D.1000-1960 9780860544654, 9781407346328

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Collectors and Foragers Subsistence-Settlement System Change in the Central Canadian Arctic, A.D. 1000 -1960

James M. Savelle

BAR International Series 358 1987

B.A.R. 5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR -S358, 1987: 'Collectors and Foragers' © James M. Savel l e, 1987 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860544654 paperback ISBN 9781407346328 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860544654 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS

T his s tudy w as o riginally s ubm itted t o t he F aculty o f G raduate S tudies a nd R esearch a t t he U niversity o f A lberta i n 1 986 i n p artial f ulfilment o f t he r equirements f or t he d egree o f D octor o f P hilosophy, a nd w as o riginally e ntitled ' Mobility a nd S ubsistenceS ettlement: A n A rchaeo logical E xamp le f rom t he C entral C anadian A rctic ' ( Save lle 1 986a). R evisions f or t he p resent v ersion ( which d iffers o nly s light ly f rom t he o riginal) w ere u ndertaken w hile I w as a S ocial S ciences a nd H umanities R esearch C ouncil o f C anada p ostd octoral f e llow a t t he S cott P olar R esearch I nstitute a nd W olfson C o llege, U niversity o f C ambridge, a nd I a m g rateful t o t he C ouncil a nd t hose i nstitutions f or t he s upport a nd f acilities p rovided. Ia m i ndebted t o m any p ersons, i nstitutions, a nd o rganizations f or c ontributing t oward t he c ompletion o f t he o riginal d issertation, a nd I g ratefully a cknow ledge t hem i ndividually h ere. M y s incere a ppreciation i s e xtended t o m y d issertation c omm ittee m embers, D r. M ichael A sch, D r. C lifford H ickey, a nd D r. C har les S chweger, f or t heir t ime s pent c ritically r eading t he s everal d rafts o f t he d issertation a nd f or t heir m any v aluab le c omments, e ncouragem ent a nd a dvice. D r. H ickey a nd D r. S chweger, a s s cho lars a nd f r iends, e ach c ontr ibuted i n i nnumerable w ays d uring t he v arious s tages o f t he r esearch l eading t o t his d issertation - a s incere t hank-you t o b oth. F inancial a nd l ogistical s upport d ur ing t he t hree f ie ld s easons o f a rchaeological i nvestigations w as p rovided b y t he B oreal I nstitute f or N orthern S tudies ( Grant-in-Aid o f R esearch a wards 1 980, 1 981, 1 982), t he P olar C ontinental S helf P roject ( accommodation a nd u se o f f acilities a t R eso lute, a nd f ixed-w ing a ircraft a nd h elicopter f lying t ime 1 980, 1 981, 1 982), t he A rctic I nstitute o f N orth A merica ( Grant-in-Aid a ward 1 982), a nd t he N orthwest T erritor ies S cience A dvisory B oard ( Student A ssistant P rogram 1 980, 1 981, 1 982). I n a ddition, t he N ational M useum o f M an a rranged f or t he p rocessing o f m ater ial f or r adiocarbon d ating. F inally, t he S ocial S c iences a nd H umanities R esearch C ouncil o f C anada p rovided a dditional f inancial s upport t hrough t he ir D octoral F e llowship A ward p rogram ( 1980-81, 1 981-82, 1 982-83, 1 983-84). T o a ll o f t hese o rganizations a nd i nstitutions I e xtend m y g ratitude. T he v ery c apab le a ssistance i n t he f ie ld p rovided b y f ield c rew m embers M ike A leekee ( 1981), K aren D igby ( now D igby-Savelle; 1 981, 1 982), C aro l D ignam ( 1980), K ovik H iqiniq ( 1981), J immy O leekatalik ( 1982), a nd F rancis P iugattuk ( 1980) i s g reatly a ppreciated. I a m a lso g rateful t o a n umber o f o ther i ndividuals w ho p rovided l ogistical a nd o ther a ssistance i n t he f ie ld: A llen A glooku, R andy B ergen, D avid N anook, R hoda N anook, a nd P eter O okp ik, a ll o f G joa H aven; S teve A lookee, C p l. W ayne B odie ( R.C.M.P.), J ames E etoo look, E rnie L yle, a nd S imon O leekatalik, a ll o f S pence B ay; I dlout a nd o ther m embers o f t he K uvinaluk s ett lement, S omerset I sland; A ndrew a nd M ary A tagotaluk, o f I nukjuak, Q uebec; P au l D iggins ( Gladman P oint D .E.W. l ine s tation); D r. O wen B eattie ( Frank lin O steo logy P roject); G eorge H obson ( Director), F red A lt, B arry H ough, F rank

H unt a nd B ill P resley, a ll w ith t he P o lar C ontinenta l S he lf P roject, R eso lute; a nd J anet E dmonds, A nne G unn, H enk K iliian, a nd F rank M iller, a ll w ith t he C anadian W ildlife S ervice. I n a ddition, D r. R obert M cGhee, D r. P eter R amsden, a nd R ichard R ussell k indly p rovided s ite i nformation. A ndrew A tagotaluk a nd D avid a nd R hoda N anook d eserve s pecial t hanks f or a ll o f t heir h ospitality, p atience, a nd i nstruction, d uring t he e thnoarchaeo logical s tudies c onducted i n a ssociation w ith t he r esearch. B eneficial d iscussions o n v ar ious a spects o f t he r esearch w ith D r. M ilton F reeman, D r. A llen M cCartney, D r. S tuart M acKinnon, F rank M iller, a nd D r. D onald T homas, a nd w ith f e llow s tudents R oche lle A llison, T homas A ndrews, R ebecca C o le-W ill, E r ic D amkjar, T errance G ibson, W a lter K owal, R obert P ark, S hir leen S m ith, D ouglas S tenton a nd R ichard W ill, a re g reat ly a ppreciated. S incere t hanks t o T om a lso f or a ssistance, m oral s upport, a nd m uch n eeded c om ic r elief t hroughout t he p roduction o f t his d issertation. I o we a s pecial d ebt o f g ratitude t o D r. M cCartney f or i ntroducing m e t o n orthern a rchaeology, a nd f or h is c ontinued i nterest, g uidance, a nd f r iendship. Ia lso e xtend m y g ratitude t o A nita M oore f or s pending c ountless w eekends ( a lways o n s hort n otice) t yping a nd e diting t he v arious d rafts o f t he d issertation, a nd o f t he p resent v ersion, a nd t o R os lyn M adrid f or p roviding e ncouragement a nd i nvaluable t echnical a ssistance. T o m y w ife, K aren - f ie ld a ssistant, c ompanion, c o lleague, c ritic, a nd e ditor - I c an o nly s ay t hank y ou. Y ou m ade t he j ourney av ery s pecial o ne. Ia m e specially i ndebted t o m y p arents, H arry a nd E dith S ave lle, w ho s upported a nd e ncouraged m e t hroughout m y u ndergraduate a nd g raduate s tudies, a nd w ho c ontinue t o s upport m y a cademic e ndeavours: t o t hem I w ill a lways b e g rateful, a nd i t i s t o t hem t hat I d edicate t his v o lume.

T ABLE O F C ONTENTS C HAPTER 1 .

2 .

3 .

I NTRODUCTION

1

T heoretica l A pproach

1

M ode l S tructure

2

R esource U se S chedule

3

S ettlement L ocation a nd D emographic P atterns

1 3

S ummary o f M ode l

1 7

a nd H ypothesis F ormulation

B ACKGROUND T O T HE S TUDY S tudy A rea

2 0

R esources T errestr ial S ubsystem M ar ine S ubsystem F reshwater S ubsystem

2 0 2 0 2 3 2 6

H istory o f C limatic C hange

2 6

E ffects o f C limatic C hange o n t he R esource B ase T errestr ia l S ubsystem M ar ine S ubsystem F reshwater S ubsystem S ummary

2 8 2 8 2 8 2 9 2 9

S oc iocultural B ackground P rehistory H istory S ince C ontact

2 9 2 9 3 1

P roblems a nd H ypotheses

3 5

A RCHAEOLOGICAL C ONSIDERATIONS

3 9

A rchaeo log ica l C orre lates o f C o llect ing a nd F oraging S ystems

4 2

S ite S pecif ic C orre lates F eature a nd S ite T ype S ite S ize S ite L ocation I nterna l S ite A rrangement E cofact C haracter istics

4 3 4 3 4 4 4 5 4 5 4 7

P a limpsest C orre lates

4 8

4 .

5 .

6 .

T est I mp lications

4 9

H ypothesis 1

5 2

H ypothesis 2

5 3

M ETHODOLOGICAL C ONSIDERATIONS

5 6

F eature a nd S ite T ype

5 6

S ite S ize

6 4

I ntersite V ar iab ility

6 6

I nterna l S ite S tructure

6 6

S ite S ituation a nd I ntersite A ssoc iation

6 8

S ite S easona lity

6 8

D iet B readth

7 2

C ulling

7 4

S ite A ge

7 5

F IELD M ETHODS A ND S CHEDULE

7 6

R eg ional L eve l

7 6

S ite L eve l

9 1

A SSIGNMENT O F A GE A ND C ULTURAL A FFILIATION

9 5

F eature T ype

9 5

A rtifact T ype

9 8

E uropean M ater ia l

9 9

L ichen C haracter istics

1 00

7 .

S URVEY R ESULTS A ND S ITE S UMMARIES

1 05

8 .

H YPOTHESIS 1 :

1 57

T EST I MPLICATION R ESULTS

T est I mp lication 1

1 57

T est I mp lication 2

1 58

i v

9 .

T est I mp lication 3

1 71

T est I mp lication 4

1 97

T est I mp lication 5

2 00

T est D up lication 6

2 02

T est I mp lication 7

2 13

T est I mp licat ion 8

2 29

T est I mp lication 9

2 49

T est I mp lication 1 0

2 54

H YPOTHESIS 2 :

2 60

T EST I MPLICATION R ESULTS

T est I mp lication 1

2 60

T est I mp lication 2

2 67

T est I mp licat ion 3

2 67

T est I mp lication 4

2 67

T est I mp licat ion 5

2 74

T est I mp lication 6

2 74

T est I mp licat ion 7

2 75

T est I mp lication 8

2 75

T est I mp licat ion 9

2 84

T est I mp lication 1 0

2 86

1 0. S UMMARY O F R ESULTS A ND M ODEL E VALUATION

2 87

H ypothes is 1

2 87

H ypothesis 2

2 9 1

I mp lications f or A rctic A rchaeo logy

2 93

R EFERENCES

2 96

V

L IST O F F IGURES

1 .

C haracter ization o f af oraging s ubsistences ettlement s ystem.

4

C haracter ization o f ac ollector s ubsistences ettlement s ystem.

5

3 .

O ptima l

8

4 .

E ffects o f s torage o n r esource u tilization.

1 0

5 .

E ffects o f s torage o n d iet b readth.

1

6 .

A verage p ayoff f unction.

1 2

7 .

E ffects o f r esource c haracter istics o n g roup s ize a nd d ispersion a ccording t o o ptima l f oraging t heory.

1 5

E ffects o f e qual a nd d isproportionate r eturns o n s ettlement a nd d emographic p atterns.

1 6

L ocation o f t he s tudy a rea i n t he c entra l C anadian A rctic.

2 1

A reas o f m ajor b owhead w hale c oncentrations i n t he s tudy a rea b ased o n h istorica l d ocuments a nd r ecent o bservations.

2 4

S ummary o f m ajor e pisodes o f e nvironmental c hange i n t he e astern C anadian A rctic a nd G reenland d ur ing t he l ast 2 000 y ears.

2 7

a ) C o lonization o f t he N etsilik a rea a s s uggested b y p roponents o f t he P arry C hanne l r oute w ith i nitia l c olonization a nd s ubsequent e xpansion. b ) C olonization o f t he N etsilik a rea a s s uggested b y p roponents o f t he A rctic m ainland c oast r oute, w ith a pproximate ly c ontemporaneous c olonization w ith n orthern a reas.

3 3

1 3.

D istribution o f l ocal

3 6

1 4.

I dealized p atterns o f e conomic z ones a ssociated w ith f oraging s ystems a nd c ollecting s ystems.

4 6

a ) R e lationship b etween p ercentage o f c ontemporaneous f eature u se a nd n umber o f u tilization e pisodes a nd b ) R elationship b etween s ite s ize a nd n umber o f u tilization e pisodes.

5 0

D ifferences i n o verall s ite v ariab ility b etween c o llecting a nd f oraging s ystems.

5 1

2 .

8 .

9 .

1 0.

1.

1 2.

1 5.

1 6.

d iet b readth m ode l.

b ands i n t he s tudy a rea.

v i

1 7.

T areum iut E skimo s em isubterranean d we lling.

5 7

1 8.

D istr ibution o f a rtifacts a nd f auna l r emains a ssociated w ith s now d we lling 1 2 a t t he U nion R iver, S omerset I s land.

6 0

P lan o f s tructural r ema ins o f t wo N etsilik I nu it t ents e rected a nd d ismantled a t S her iff H arbour, L ord M ayor B ay i n A ugust 1 831.

6 2

2 0.

I dea lized h ierarchy o f s ite m orpho logy.

6 7

2 1.

T he T areum iut s ite o f U tkeavik, c irca. 1 895.

6 9

2 2.

T he H adza s ite o f U gulu a s r ecorded b y W oodburn i n O ctober 1 959.

7 0

S ettlement a nd h unt ing p atterns o f a n I nu it g roup d ur ing a o ne w eek p er iod i n A ugust 1 981 i n t he T hom B ay r egion o f L ord M ayor B ay.

7 1

C ompar ison o f b iomass c ontr ibut ion o f ag iven n umber o f s pecies t o f oraging a nd c o llecting s trategy d iets.

7 3

2 5.

S urvey r egions i n t he s tudy a rea.

7 8

2 6.

S urvey r outes a nd m ajor r esources i n t he C reswe ll B ay a rea.

7 9

S urvey r outes a nd m ajor r esources i n t he A ston B ay a rea.

8 2

S urvey r outes a nd m ajor r esources i n t he K ing W illiam I sland a rea.

8 4

S urvey r outes a nd m ajor r esources i n t he A de laide P eninsula a rea.

8 6

S urvey r outes a nd m ajor r esources i n t he L ord M ayor B ay a rea.

8 8

S urvey r outes a nd m ajor r esources i n t he N etsilik L ake a rea.

9 0

D istr ibution o f c ar ibou e lements ( as p ercent M NI p er a rea) a ccording t o a ctivity a rea f or t wo h istor ic s now d we lling f eatures e xcavated a t t he U nion R iver, C reswe ll B ay.

9 2

D istr ibution o f s ea l e lements ( as p ercent M NI p er a rea) a ccording t o a ct ivity a rea f or t wo h istor ic s now d we lling f eatures e xcavated a t t he U nion R iver, C reswe ll B ay.

9 3

1 9.

2 3.

2 4.

2 7.

2 8.

2 9.

3 0.

3 1.

3 2.

3 3.

v ii

3 4.

D egree o f l ichen c over o n v ar ious s ubstrate t ypes i n f eatures i n t he C reswe ll B ay, A ston B ay, a nd n e ighbour ing a reas.

1 03

D egree o f l ichen c over o n v ar ious s ubstrate t ypes i n f eatures i n t he K ing W illiam I sland-Ade laide P eninsula a nd L ord M ayor B ay-Netsilik L ake a reas.

1 04

L ocation o f s ites a rea.

r ecorded i n t he C reswe ll

1 06

3 7.

L ocation o f s ites

r ecorded i n t he A ston B ay a rea.

3 8.

L ocation o f s ites I sland a rea.

r ecorded i n t he K ing W illiam

3 5.

3 6.

3 9.

4 0.

4 1.

4 2.

4 3.

4 4.

4 5.

4 6.

4 7.

4 8.

4 9.

5 0.

5 1.

B ay

1 08

10

L ocation o f s ites r ecorded i n t he A delaide P eninsula a rea.

12

L ocation o f s ites r ecorded i n t he L ord M ayor B ay a rea.

14

L ocation o f s ites r ecorded i n t he N etsilik L ake a rea.

16

E ar ly C lassic T hule s ite c haracteristics, C reswell B ay.

1 35

L ate C lassic T hule s ite c haracter istics, A ston B ay.

1 36

C lassic T hule s ite c haracter istics, K ing W illiam I sland.

1 38

M odified T hule-early H istoric s ite c haracteristics, K ing W illiam I sland.

1 40

L ate H istoric s ite c haracteristics K ing W illiam I sland.

1 42

C lassic T hule s ite c haracter istics, A de laide P eninsula.

1 44

M odified T hule-early H istor ic s ite c haracter istics, A delaide P eninsula.

1 45

L ate H istor ic s ite c haracter istics, A de laide P eninsula.

1 46

C lassic T hule s ite c haracter istics, L ord M ayor B ay.

1 48

M odif ied T hule-early H istoric s ite c haracter istics, L ord M ayor B ay.

1 50

v iii

5 2.

L ate H istor ic s ite c haracter ist ics, L ord M ayor B ay.

5 3.

C lassic T hule s ite c haracter istics, N etsilik L ake.

5 4.

M odified T hu le-ear ly H istor ic s ite c haracter istics, N etsilik L ake.

1 52 •••• 1 54

1 55

5 5.

L ate H istor ic s ite c haracter istics, N etsilik L ake.

5 6.

C ompar ison o f e ar ly C lassic T hule ( Creswe ll B ay) a nd l ate C lassic T hule ( Aston B ay) s ite/component t ype f requencies i n t he S omerset I sland a rea.

1 59

C ompar ison o f C lassic T hule a nd M odif ied T hule-early H istor ic s ite/component t ype f requenc ies i n t he K ing W illiam I sland-Ade laide P en insula a rea.

1 60

C omparison o f C lassic T hule a nd M odified T hule-ear ly H istor ic s ite/component t ype f requencies i n t he L ord M ayor B ay-Netsilik L ake a rea.

1 61

C ompar ison o f f requenc ies o f e ar ly C lassic T hule ( Creswe ll B ay) a nd l ate C lassic T hule ( Aston B ay) t ent r ing s ites/components a ccording t o n umber o f t ent r ings i n t he S omerset I sland a rea.

1 62

C ompar ison o f f requencies o f C lassic T hule a nd M odified T hule-ear ly H istor ic t ent r ing s ites/ c omponents a ccording t o n umber o f t ent r ings i n t he K ing W illiam I s land-Ade laide P eninsula a rea.

1 63

C ompar ison o f f requencies o f C lassic T hule a nd M odified T hule-ear ly H istor ic t ent r ing s ites/ c omponents a ccording t o n umber o f t ent r ings i n t he L ord M ayor B ay-Netsilik L ake a rea.

1 64

C ompar ison o f f requencies o f e ar ly C lassic T hule ( Creswe ll B ay) a nd l ate C lassic T hule ( Aston B ay) c ache s ites/components a ccording t o n umber o f c aches i n t he S omerset I sland a rea.

1 65

C ompar ison o f f requencies o f C lassic T hule a nd M odif ied T hule-ear ly H istor ic c ache s ites/ c omponents a ccording t o n umber o f c aches i n t he K ing W illiam I sland-Ade laide P en insula a rea.

1 66

C ompar ison o f f requencies o f C lassic T hule a nd M odified T hule-ear ly H istor ic c ache s ites/ c omponents a ccording t o n umber o f c aches i n t he L ord M ayor B ay-Netsilik L ake a rea.

1 67

5 7.

5 8.

5 9.

6 0.

6 1.

6 2.

6 3.

6 4.

i x

.... 1 56

6 5.

6 6.

6 7.

6 8.

6 9.

7 0.

7 1.

7 2.

7 3.

7 4.

7 5.

7 6.

7 7.

C ompar ison o f a verage p roportion o f c aches/tent r ings a ccording t o n umber o f t ent r ings f or e ar ly C lassic T hule ( Creswe ll B ay) a nd l ate C lassic T hule ( Aston B ay) s ites i n t he S omerset I sland a rea.

1 68

C ompar ison o f a verage p roportion o f c aches/tent r ings a ccording t o n umber o f t ent r ings f or C lassic T hule a nd M odif ied T hule-early H istor ic s ites i n t he K ing W illiam I sland-Ade la ide P en insula a rea.

1 69

C ompar ison o f a verage p roportion o f c aches/tent r ings a ccord ing t o n umber o f t ent r ings f or C lassic T hule a nd M odified T hule-ear ly H istor ic s ites i n t he L ord M ayor B ay-Netsilik L ake a rea.

1 70

F oraging z ones a ssoc iated w ith e ar ly C lassic T hule t ent r ing r esident ia l s ites, C reswe ll B ay, S omerset I sland.

1 72

F oraging z ones a ssociated w ith l ate C lassic T hule t ent r ing r esidentia l s ites, A ston B ay, S omerset I s land.

1 74

F oraging z ones a ssociated w ith C lassic T hule t ent r ing r esidentia l s ites, K ing W illiam i sland.

1 76

F oraging z ones a ssociated w ith M odif ied T hule-ear ly H istor ic t ent r ing r esident ia l K ing W illiam I sland.

1 78

s ites,

F oraging z ones a ssociated w ith C lassic T hule t ent r ing r esidentia l s ites, L ord M ayor B ay.

1 80

F oraging z ones a ssociated w ith M odif ied T hule-ear ly H istor ic t ent r ing r esident ia l L ord M ayor B ay.

1 82

s ites,

F oraging a nd l ogistica l z ones a ssociated w ith e ar ly C lassic T hule s emisubterranean d we lling r esidentia l s ites, C reswe ll B ay, S omerset I s land.

1 86

F orag ing z ones a ssoc iated w ith l ate C lassic T hule s em isubterranean d we lling r esidentia l s ites, A ston B ay, S omerset I sland.

1 88

F oraging a nd l ogistical z ones a ssoc iated w ith C lassic T hule s em isubterranean d we lling r esidential s ites, K ing W illiam I sland.

1 90

F orag ing z ones a ssoc iated w ith C lassic T hule r esidentia l s em isubterranean d we lling s ites, S herman I nlet.

1 92

7 8.

7 9.

8 0.

8 1.

8 2.

8 3.

8 4.

8 5.

8 6.

8 7.

8 8.

8 9.

9 0.

9 1.

9 2.

9 3.

F oraging z ones a ssociated w ith C lassic T hule s emisubterranean d we lling s ites, L ord M ayor B ay.

..

1 94

F oraging z ones a ssoc iated w ith C lassic T hule s emisubterranean d we lling s ites, N etsilik L ake.

1 96

L ocations o f e ar ly H istor ic N etsilik r esidential s ites d ur ing t he w inter a nd s pr ing o f 1 829-30 a s d escr ibed b y R oss 1 835:243-375, w ith a ssociated f oraging z ones.

1 98

' Heavy ' e ar ly H istor ic t ent r ing e xcavated a t s ite 8 2-24 i n t he N etsilik l ake a rea.

2 0 1

N umber o f c aches w ithin a 2 k m r adius o f e ar ly a nd l ate C lassic s emisubterranean d we lling s ites/components a ccording t o n umber o f d we llings.

.

2 03

S ketch m ap o f s em isubterranean d we llings a t t he e ar ly C lassic T hule s ite 8 0-58, C reswe ll B ay.

2 04

S ketch m ap o f s em isubterranean d we llings a t t he e ar ly C lassic T hule s ite 8 0-86 ( Creswe ll B ay).

2 05

S ketch m ap o f s em isubterranean d we llings a t t he e ar ly C lassic T hule s ite o f 8 0-96 ( Creswe ll B ay).

.

2 06

S ketch m ap o f s em isubterranean d we llings a t t he e ar ly C lassic T hule s ite o f 8 0-111 ( Creswe ll B ay).

.

2 07

S ketch m ap o f s em isubterranean d we llings a t t he e ar ly C lassic T hule s ite P eJq-1, n orthern C reswe ll B ay.

2 08

S ketch m ap o f s emisubterranean d we llings a t t he C lassic T hule s ite o f P eJr-1, n orthern C reswe ll B ay.

2 09

S ketch m ap o f l ate C lassic T hule q armang a t P eJr-2, n orthern C reswe ll B ay.

2 10

S ketch m ap o f s em isubterranean d we llings a t t he l ate C lassic T hule s ites a ) 8 0-126 a nd b )80-130, A ston B ay.

2 11

S ketch m ap o f s em isubterranean d we llings a t t he l ate C lassic T hule s ites a ) 8 0-134, b ) 8 0-136, a nd c ) 8 0-149, A ston B ay.

2 12

S ketch m ap o f s em isubterranean d we llings a t t he e ar ly a nd l ate C lassic T hule s ite 8 1-61 ( Ma lerua lik), K ing W illiam I sland.

2 14

S ketch m ap o f s em isubterranean d we llings a t t he e ar ly a nd l ate C lassic T hule s ite 8 2-11, S herman I nlet.

2 15

x i

9 4.

9 5.

9 6.

9 7.

9 8.

9 9.

S ketch m ap o f s emisubterranean d we llings a t t he l ate C lassic T hule s ites a ) 8 1-4, a nd b ) 8 1-5, K ing W illiam I s land.

2 16

S ketch m ap o f s emisubterranean d we llings a t t he l ate C lassic T hule s ites a ) 8 1-52, a nd b ) 8 1-54, K ing W illiam I sland.

2 17

S ketch m ap o f s em isubterranean d we llings a t t he l ate C lassic T hule s ite 8 1-73, K ing W illiam I sland.

2 18

S ketch m ap o f s emisubterranean d we llings a t t he a ) e ar ly C lassic T hule s ite 8 1-80, a nd b ) l ate C lassic T hule s ite 8 1-85, b oth i n t he L ord M ayor B ay a rea.

2 19

S ketch m ap o f s em isubterranean d we llings a t t he l ate C lassic T hule s ite 8 2-17, N etsilik L ake.

2 20

S ketch m ap o f s em isubterranean d we llings a t t he l ate C lassic T hule s ites a ) 8 2-16, a nd b ) 8 2-23, N etsilik L ake.

2 21

1 00. S ummary o f i nterna l s tructure o f t he v ar ious s em isubterranean s ites i l lustrated i n F igures 8 3-99: a ) C reswe ll B ay-Aston B ay ; b ) K ing W illiam I sland-Ade laide P eninsula ; c ) L ord M ayor B ay-Netsilik L ake.

2 22

1 01. S ketch m ap o f s now d we lling s ites i n t he N etsilik L ake a rea.

2 23

1 02. S ketch m ap o f f eatures a t t he C lassic T hule s ite 8 2-11, S herman I nlet.

2 24

1 03. S ketch m ap o f f eatures a t t he C lassic T hule s ite 8 1-61, K ing W illiam I sland.

26

1 04. S ketch m ap o f f eatures a t t he p redom inant ly e ar ly H istor ic s ite 8 2-24, N etsilik L ake.

2 28

1 05. C ompar ison o f f requencies o f e ar ly C lassic T hule a nd l ate C lassic T hule s em isubterranean d we lling s ites/components a ccording t o n umber o f d we llings i n t he S omerset I sland a rea.

2 30

1 06. C omparison o f f requencies o f e ar ly C lassic T hule ( Creswe ll B ay) a nd l ate C lassic T hule ( Aston B ay) r esidential t ent r ing s ites/components a ccording t o n umber o f t ent r ings i n t he S omerset I sland a rea.

x ii

2 31

1 07. C ompar ison o f f requencies o f e ar ly C lassic T hule a nd l ate C lassic T hule s emisubterranean d we lling s ites/components a ccording t o n umber o f d we llings i n t he K ing W illiam I sland-Ade laide P eninsu la a rea.

2 32

1 08. C ompar ison o f f requenc ies o f C lassic T hule a nd M odified T hule-ear ly H istor ic r esident ia l t ent r ing s ites/components a ccording t o n umber o f t ent r ings i n t he K ing W illiam I sland a rea.

2 33

1 09. C ompar ison o f e ar ly C lassic T hule a nd l ate C lassic T hule s em isubterranean d we lling s ite/component f requencies a ccording t o s ite/component s ize i n t he L ord M ayor B ay-Netsilik L ake a rea.

2 34

10. C ompar ison o f C lassic T hule a nd M odified T hule-ear ly H istor ic r esident ia l t ent r ing s ite/component f requenc ies a ccording t o s ite/component s ize, i n t he L ord M ayor B ay-Netsilik L ake a rea.

2 35

11. P opulation e stimates f or e ar ly a nd l ate C lassic T hule s ites i n t he s tudy a rea, a nd c ompar ison w ith h istor ic p opulation e st imates.

2 36

12. C ompar ison o f r e lative b owhead w ha le b one e lements f requencies ( as p ercent M NI) f rom s em isubterranean d we lling s ites a nd b owhead w ha le p rocessing l ocations ( data f rom M cCartney 1 978, 1 979a a nd t h is s tudy).

2 42

13. C ompar ison o f t he p roportion o f b owhead w ha le M NI/sem isubterranean d we lling n umber f or e ar ly a nd l ate C lassic T hule s ites i n t he S omerset I sland a rea.

2 44

14. P ercent c ontr ibution b y w e ight t o d iet o f s pecies r epresented i n t rench 7 e xcavation a t P eJr-1.

2 45

15. P ercent c ontr ibution b y w e ight t o d iet o f s pecies r epresented a t a ) t he e ar ly C lassic T hule s ite 8 2-11 a t S herman I n let, a nd t he l ate C lassic T hule s ites b ) 8 1-61 a nd c ) 8 1-52, a nd b oth o n K ing W illiam I sland.

2 48

16. P ercent c ontr ibution b y w e ight t o d iet o f s pecies r epresented a t t he e ar ly C lassic T hule s ite 8 1-80; a ) d we lling, b ) t est p its a nd c ) t he l ate C lassic T hule s ite 8 2-17.

2 50

17. P ercent C ontr ibution b y w e ight t o d iet o f f auna r epresented a t t he e ar ly H istor ic s ites a )82-24, ' heavy ' t ent r ing, b ) 8 2-57, f our t ent r ings, c ) 8 2-48, t hree s now d we lling s catters, d ) 8 2-70, 3t ent r ings, e ) 8 2-50, t wo t ent r ings, f ) 8 2-21, o ne t ent r ing, a nd g ) 8 2-22, t wo t ent r ings.

2 51

18. R e lative e lementa l a bundances f or c ar ibou f rom c omplete d we lling a nd m idden e xcavations a t t he e ar ly C lassic T hule c omponent a t s ite 8 2-11 a t S herman I nlet a nd t he l ate C lassic T hule c omponent a t s ite 8 1-61 o n K ing W illiam I sland.

2 52

19. R e lative e lementa l a bundances f or c ar ibou f rom c omp lete d we lling a nd m idden e xcavations a t t he e ar ly C lassic T hule c omponent a t s ite 8 1-80 i n t he L ord M ayor B ay a rea, t he l ate C lassic T hu le s ite 8 2-17, a nd t he e ar ly H istor ic s ite 8 2-24, b oth i n t he N etsilik L ake a rea.

2 53

1 20. R e lat ive e lementa l a bundances f or c ar ibou f rom t wo c aches e xcavated a t t he C lassic T hule c omponent a t s ite 8 1-61, K ing W illiam I s land.

2 55

1 21. R e lative e lementa l a bundances f or c ar ibou f rom a M odified T hule-ear ly H istor ic c ache e xcavated a t s ite 8 1-26, K ing W illiam I sland, a nd a n e ar ly H istor ic c ache e xcavated a t s ite 8 2-24, N etsilik L ake.

2 56

1 22. S ummary o f r esults o f c ementum a nalysis o f c ar ibou t eeth.

2 57

1 23. S ummary o f r esults o f c ementum a nd d entine a na lysis o f r inged s ea l t eeth.

2 58

1 24. C omparison o f M odif ied T hule-ear ly H istor ic a nd l ate H istor ic s ite/component t ype f requenc ies i n t he K ing W illiam I s land-Ade la ide P en insula a rea.

2 61

1 25. C ompar ison o f M odified T hule-ear ly H istor ic a nd l ate H istor ic s ite/component t ype f requencies i n t he L ord M ayor B ay-Netsilik L ake a rea.

2 62

1 26. C ompar ison o f f requenc ies o f M odif ied T hule-ear ly H istor ic a nd l ate H istor ic t ent r ing s ites/ c omponents a ccording t o n umber o f t ent r ings i n t he K ing W illiam I sland-Ade laide P eninsula r egion.

2 63

1 27. C omparison o f f requencies o f M odif ied T hule-early H istor ic a nd l ate H istor ic t ent r ing s ites/ c omponents a ccording t o n umber o f t ent r ings i n t he L ord M ayor B ay-Netsilik L ake r egion.

2 64

1 28. C ompar ison o f f requencies o f M odif ied T hule-ear ly H istor ic a nd l ate H istor ic c ache s ite/components a ccording t o n umber o f c aches i n t he K ing W illiam I s land-Ade laide P eninsula a rea.

2 65

1 29. C ompar ison o f f requencies o f M odif ied T hule-early H istor ic a nd l ate H istor ic c ache s ites/components i n t he L ord M ayor B ay-Netsilik L ake a rea.

2 66

x iv

1 30. C ompar ison o f a verage p roport ion o f c aches/tent r ings a ccord ing t o n umber o f t ent r ings f or M odif ied T hule-ear ly H istor ic a nd l ate H istor ic s ites i n t he K ing W illiam I sland-Ade la ide P en insula a rea.

2 68

1 31. C ompar ison o f a verage p roportion o f c aches/tent r ings a ccord ing t o n umber o f t ent r ings f or M odif ied T hule-ear ly H istoric a nd l ate H istor ic s ites i n t he L ord M ayor B ay-Netsilik L ake a rea.

2 69

1 32. F oraging z ones a ssoc iated w ith l ate H istor ic r esident ia l t ent r ings s ites i n t he K ing W illiam I sland a rea.

2 70

1 33. F oraging z ones a ssoc iated w ith l ate H istor ic r esident ia l t ent r ing s ites i n t he L ord M ayor B ay a rea.

2 72

1 34. S ketch m ap o f s now d we lling f eature r ema ins a t t he l ate H istoric s ites a ) 8 1-45 a nd b ) 8 2-47.

2 76

1 35. S ketch m ap o f l ate H istor ic s ite 8 1-80, L ord M ayor B ay a rea.

2 78

1 36. C ompar ison o f f requencies o f M odif ied T hule-early H istor ic a nd l ate H istor ic r esident ia l t ent r ing s ites/components i n t he K ing W illiam I sland-Ade laide P eninsula a rea.

2 80

1 37. C ompar ison o f f requencies o f M odif ied T hule-early H istor ic a nd l ate H istor ic r esident ia l t ent r ing s ites/components i n t he L ord M ayor B ay-Netsilik L ake a rea.

2 8 1

1 38. P ercent c ontr ibution b y w e ight t o d iet o f f auna r epresented a t t he l ate H istor ic s ites a ) 8 1-81, t wo f all q armang, b ) 8 2-45, t wo s now d we lling s catters, c ) 8 2-17a, o ne t ent r ing, a nd d ) 8 2-19, o ne t ent r ing; a ll i n t he L ord M ayor B ay-Netsilik L ake a rea.

2 83

1 39. R e lative e lementa l a bundances f or c ar ibou f rom t he e ar ly H istor ic s ites a ) 8 2-24, a nd t he l ate H istor ic s ites o f b ) 8 2-17a a nd c ) 8 1-81, a ll i n t he L ord M ayor B ay-Netsilik L ake a rea.

2 85

X V

L IST O F T ABLES

T ab le

1 .

2 .

D escr iption

S ummary o f t he e ffects o f c limatic c hange o n h ab itat a nd r esources i n t he s tudy a rea.

3 0

P revious a rchaeo logica l a rea.

3 2

i nvestigations i n t he s tudy

3 .

E xpeditions t o t he N etsilik a rea p r ior t o 1 923.

3 4

4 .

R adiocarbon d ates f or e ar ly a nd l ate C lassic T hule s em isubterranean d we llings.

9 6

5 .

S ite d ata s ummary

6 .

S ite d ata s ummary - A ston B ay.

1 21

7 .

S ite d ata s ummary

K ing W illiam I sland.

1 23

8 .

S ite d ata s ummary

A de laide P en insula.

1 27

9 .

S ite d ata s ummary - L ord M ayor B ay.

1 28

1 0.

S ite d ata s ummary

1 32

1.

S ummary o f b owhead w hale e lements a t C reswe ll B ay a nd A ston B ay, S omerset I s land.

2 38

S ummary o f f auna M NI f rom e xcavated a nd/or t ested C lassic T hule s em isubterranean d we lling s ites.

2 45

S ummary o f f auna M NI f rom e xcavated M odif ied T hule/ear ly h istor ic s ites.

2 47

S ummary o f f auna M NI f rom e xcavated l ate H istor ic s ites.

2 82

S ummary o f r esults o f H ypothesis N o. 1 t est i mp lications.

2 88

S ummary o f r esults o f H ypothesis N o. 2 t est i mp lications.

2 92

1 2.

1 3.

1 4.

1 5.

1 6.

C reswe ll B ay.

N etsilik L ake.

x vi

17

L IST O F P LATES P late 1 a )

R inged s eals a t t he p resent r esident ia l c amp o f K uvina luk, U nion R iver, S omerset I sland. J u ly 1 980.

b )

P rocess ing c ar ibou a t ak ill s ite i n t he T hom B ay R egion o f L ord M ayor B ay, B oothia P eninsula. A ugust 1 981.

c )

S teatite q uarry, L ord M ayor B ay ( Site 8 2-35) u t ilized a t l east d ur ing l ate H istor ic a nd R ecent t imes.

3 23

P late 2 a )

R ema ins o f aD C-3 t hat c rashed o n n orthern B ooth ia P eninsula i n 1 947.

b )

R ema ins o f ab e luga w hale a t ap rocessing s ite n ear K uvina luk, U nion R iver, S omerset I sland. J u ly 1 980.

c )

S tone f ish w e ir o n t he S tanley R iver n ear T hom B ay i n t he L ord M ayor B ay a rea o f B ooth ia P eninsula. A ugust 1 981.

3 25

P late 3 a )

C onstructing f ish w e ir o n t he S tan ley R iver n ear T hom B ay i n t he L ord M ayor B ay a rea o f B ooth ia P eninsula. A ugust 1 981.

b )

L ocat ion o f f ish w e ir s hown i n P lates 2 c a nd 3 a a pprox imate ly o ne y ear l ater. A ugust 1 982.

c )

C ar ibou o bservation s ite n ear T hom B ay i n t he L ord M ayor B ay a rea o f B oothia P eninsula. A ugust 1 981.

3 27

P late 4 a )

A bove-ground s tone c ache c ontain ing 2 9 A rctic c har p rior t o t he f ina l c over ing s tone l ayer . A ugust 1 981.

b )

A bove-ground c ache o f c ar ibou a t S herman I nlet, A de laide P eninsula. J u ly 1 982.

c )

L arge t ent r ing a t C lassic T hule r esidentia l n ear C reswe ll B ay, S omerset I sland.

s ite 8 0-107

P late 5 a )

' Heavy ' s emisubterranean s tone/sod/whale b one d we lling a t s ite 8 0-86, C reswe ll B ay, S omerset I sland.

b )

' L ight ' s emisubterranean s tone/sod d we lling a t s ite 8 1-52, K ing W illiam I sland.

x vii

3 29

c )

R ema ins o f g rave l s leep ing p latform i nsulation l ayer a nd a rtifacts a nd f auna l r ema ins a ssociated w ith s now d we lling a t s ite 8 2-45, F e lix H arbour, L ord M ayor B ay. . 3 31

P late 6 a )

S em isubterranean d we lling i nterpreted a s ap oss ib le k ar ig i a t s ite 8 0-93, C reswe ll B ay, S omerset I s land.

b )

' Heavy ' s emisubterranean d we lling i nterpreted a s p ossible k ar ig i a t s ite 8 2-11, S herman I nlet, A de laide P eninsula.

c )

C ircular r ing o f t en b owhead w ha le c rania a t s ite 8 0-86, C reswe ll B ay, S omerset I sland.

3 33

P late 7 a )

B owhead w ha le c rania ( Site 8 0-53) s how ing a rtif icia l p erforations i mmediate ly a nter ior o f t he f oramen m agnum. C reswe ll B ay, S omerset I sland.

b )

C ar ibou d r ive s ystem c onsist ing o f i ntr icate f ence-corra l n etwork, s ite 8 2-12, S herman I nlet, A de laide P eninsula.

c )

C ircular g rave l ( S ite 8 0-92).

c aches, C reswe ll B ay, S omerset I sland 3 35

P late 8 a )

P art o f t he r ema ins o f t he V ictory 's e ng ine ( Site 8 2-49), a bandoned i n 1 830 a t F e lix H arbour, L ord M ayor B ay, B ooth ia P eninsula.

b )

I nuit c anvas t ent a nd t he f ie ld c rew 's t ent a t t he m outh o f t he S tanley R iver i n t he L ord M ayor B ay a rea, B ooth ia P en insula. A ugust 1 981.

c )

C ached s ea l i n c ache c onstructed o f t ent " ho ld-down" s tones a t t he o rigina l t ent l ocation a nd i mmediate ly f o llow ing t he d ismantling o f t he t ent. A ugust 1 981.

3 37

C HAPTER O NE:

I NTRODUCTION

C entral t o m uch o f r ecent a nthropo logica l a nd a rchaeo logica l r esearch i s t he i nvestigation o f t he r elationship b etween h unter-gatherer s ettlement s ystems a nd t he r esource s tructure o f t he n atura l e nvironment. M ost s tudies o f s uch m an-land r e lationships h ave t yp ically c oncentrated u pon s uch a spects a s s oc ioterr itor ia l o rganizat ion ( e.g. D amas 1 969a, 1 969b ; H e lm 1 968 ; L ee 1 972; R iches 1 982; Y e llen a nd H arpending 1 972), a nd s ettlement l ocation a nd s ettlement s pac ing ( e.g. C rum ley 1 979; H arpending a nd D avis 1 978; R oper 1 979; V ita-Finz i a nd H iggs 1 970; W illiams e t a l. 1 973; W ilmsen 1 973; W ood 1 978). W hile t he p resent s tudy o f n ecessity a ddresses t hese c oncerns, i ts p r imary f ocus i s t o d eterm ine h ow h unterg atherer m ob ility s trateg ies a rticulate w ith t he r esource s tructure t o s hape s ettlement s ystems. A ccording ly, a m ode l r e lating m ob ility s trateg ies t o e nvironmenta l c haracter ist ics i s p resented. T he m odel i s t hen u sed t o s tructure t wo h ypotheses r e lating t o t he a rchaeol og ica l a nd h istor ica l r ecord o f t he l ast 1 000 y ears i n t he c entral C anadian A rctic; t he f irst d ea ls w ith t he e ffects o f c limatic c hange b eginning A .D. 1 200, a nd t he s econd w ith t he e ffects o f t echnol ogica l c hange ( the i ntroduction o f t he r if le ) b eginning i n 1 923.

T heoretical A pproach

T he g enera l t heoretica l p erspective g u iding t he p resent r esearch i s t hat o f e co logica l a nthropo logy - " the s tudy o f c ultura l b ehavior i n i ts n atural a nd s ocia l e nvironment, i n t erms o f i ts r e lat ionship t o t his e nvironment" ( Joch im 1 979:77-78). C ultura l b ehavior i n t urn c an b e c onsidered t o o perate w ithin t he c ontext o f a ' comp lex a dapt ive s ystem ' w hich i s o pen i nterna lly a s w e ll a s e xterna lly, s uch t hat " feedback c ontro l l oops m ake p ossib le n ot o nly s e lfr egulation, b ut s e lf-direction o r a t l east a daptation t o ac hanging e nvironment" ( Buck ley 1 968:490, c ited i n K irch 1 980:106). A s n oted b y K irch ( op.cit.), t his ' complex a daptive s ystem ' " maps" p arts o f t he v ar iety a nd c onstraints o f i ts a ssociated e nvironment i nto i ts o rganization a s s tructure a nd/or i nformation, t hereby r egister ing c hanges i n e nvironment a nd s electively m atching s ystem t o e nvironment. A n u nder ly ing a ssumption i n t he e xam ination o f h unter-gatherer s ettlement s ystems a s ' adapt ive ' s ystems i s t hat t he ' adaptive ' b ehavior r esults f rom r ational d ec isions, a nd t hat t hese d ecisions a re r e lated t o s ecur ity p rob lems p resented b y t he e nvironment. P ut a nother w ay, " s ince s ystems o f a daptation a re e nergy-captur ing s ystems, t he ( adaptive b ehaviora l) s trateg ies t hey e mploy m ust b ear s ome r e lat ion t o t he...structure o f t he e nvironment i n w hich t hey s eek e nergy" ( Binford 1 980:13 e mphasis i n o r iginal).

1

A ccording ly, h unter-gatherer m ob ility s trategies c an b est b e e xamined o n t he p rem ises t hat t hey a re s tructured i n t erms o f t he ir s ystem ic i nteraction w ith t he n atura l e nvironment, a nd t hat t he r esulting r e lationships c an b e c onsidered a daptive i n t hat t hey a ttempt t o s o lve p rob lems d ef ined b y t he n atura l e nvironment. V iew ing m obility s trategies i n t his c ontext a llows t he d ef in ition o f r e levant v ar iab les w hile a t t he s ame t ime s pecify ing v ar iab le i nterre lationships ( cf. J och im 1 976 ; S abo 1 981). W h ile t he e co logica l a pproach h as b een v iewed b y s ome a s a p otentially p owerful e xplanator y t oo l f or t he s tudy o f h unterg atherer s ocieties ( see f or e xamp le B ennett 1 976; B ettinger 1 980; E llen 1 982; H ardesty 1 977, 1 980 ; J och im 1 979; K irch 1 980 ; R icherson 1 977; a nd V ayda a nd M cCay 1 975, f or r ecent d iscussions), o thers h ave v iewed i t a s l ess t han a dequate ( e.g. A sch 1 978 ; L ee 1 979, 1 981; S ahlins 1 972). T he s hortcom ings o f t he a pproach a s s een b y t he l atter g roup i nc lude t he l ack o f a n a pparent d irect a rticulation b etween e co logica l f actors a nd s ocia l a nd i deo logica l f actors, t he l ack o f a n a pparent d irect c ulture c ore-techno logy s tructura l i nterr e lationship, a nd, p erhaps m ost i mportant ly, t he l ack o f a d ef init ion o f p rocesses t hat e xplain t he t ransformations t hat s oc ieties m ay u ndergo t hrough t ime ( cf. L ee 1 979:3). T hese a re i mportant c onsiderations, a nd i t i s n ot i mplied h ere t hat t he c u lturale co logica l a pproach o ffers a c omp lete p erspective o n h unter-gatherer s ociet ies. C erta in ly o ther v ar iab les s uch a s s ocia l r e lationships, i nformation n etworks, o r t echno logy c an s ubstantia lly a ffect o r a lter t hese r e lationships. H owever, s ince h unter-gatherer s ystems a re e ssentia lly " anchored" t o e nvironments, t he m anner i n w hich t hey a dapt, o r a t l east r espond, t o t he e nvironment m ust b e g iven s er ious c onsiderat ion. A ccording ly, t he c ultura l-eco log ica l a pproach o ffers o ne f orm o f a n e xplanator y f ramework i n t erms o f ab ody o f g eneral t heory t hat, w hen c ompared a nd/or c ombined w ith c omplementary e conom ic, s ocia l, a nd/or c ognitive/symbo lic t heory, a llows f or a m ore c omprehensive u nderstanding o f h unter-gatherer b ehavior.

M ode l S tructure

M obility, a s d ef ined a s a p o lar o pposite t o s edentism, h as t raditionally b een u sed t o d escr ibe h unter-gatherer s ett lement s ystems i n t erms o f t he t emporary n ature o f r esidentia l s ites, a nd i n t his c ontext h as o ften s erved t o c haracter ize t he ' lowest ' s tage o r l eve l i n m ode ls o f e vo lutionary c hange f rom ' s imp le ' t o ' comp lex ' s ociet ies ( see f or e xample F r ied 1 967; M urdoch 1 967; S ah lins a nd S ervice 1 960; S ervice 1 962; S teward 1 955). R ecently, h owever, B inford ( 1980, 1 982) a nd K e lly ( 1983) h ave d ist inguished b etween r esidentia l a nd l ogistica l m ob ility. R esidential m ob ility r efers t o t he m ovement o f a ll m embers o f a r esidentia l s ite f rom o ne l ocation t o a nother, w hile l ogistical m ob ility r efers t o t he m ovement o f i ndividua ls o r s mall g roups o n t emporar y e xcursions f rom ( and r eturning t o) a r esidentia l s ite. B inford ( 1980) h as i dentif ied t wo b asic h unter-gatherer s ystem ' types' b ased o n m obility c haracteristics: ' foragers ' a nd

2

' collectors'. F oragers a re c haracterized b y h igh r esidential m ob ility a nd l ow l ogistica l m obility. F ood a nd o ther r esources a re t ypica lly g athered o n ad ay t o d ay b asis, a nd a s s uch f ood s torage i s r e lative ly r are. R esources a re t yp ica lly g athered t hrough a n ' encounter ' s trategy w ithin a ' foraging r ad ius ', a nd w hen c ommuting t ime b etween t he r esidential b ase a nd t he r esources b ecomes e xcessive, a r esidentia l m ove t akes p lace ( Figure 1 ). T h is m ove t o a nother f oraging l ocat ion w ill f requent ly b e a ccompanied b y e ither g roup f usion o r g roup f ission. E xamp les o f t yp ica l f oraging g roups a s i dentif ied b y B inford ( 1980) i nc lude t he D obe!Kung a s d escr ibed b y L ee ( 1968) a nd Y e llen ( 1977), t he G /w i S an a s d escr ibed b y S ilberbauer ( 1972), a nd t he H adza a s d escr ibed b y W oodburn ( 1972). C o llectors, o n t he o ther h and, a re c haracter ized b y l ow r esid entia l m ob ility a nd h igh l ogistica l m obility. F ood a nd o ther r esources a re o bta ined a t s pecif ic p rocurement l ocations t hrough t he e fforts o f s pecif ic t ask g roups ( Figure 2 ), a nd s uch s trateg ies a re t ypica lly a ccompanied b y f ood s torage. B inford ( 1980) i dent if ies t he N umam iut E skimos a s at ypica l c o llecting g roup. S ince m ob ility a s d ef ined h ere h as b oth s patial a nd d emographic o rganizat iona l c omponents, a nd s ince t hese c omponents r epresent a daptations s tructured a ccording t o a s ystem ic i nteraction b etween h unter-gatherer s ocieties a nd t he r esource b ase u pon w h ich t hey d epend, t he a rticulation o f t hese s ubsystems c an b e m ode lled a s f o llows ( after J och im 1 976:13).

R ESOURCE U SE S CHEDULE

S ITE L OCATION

D EMOGRAPHIC A RRANGEMENT

F urthermore, s ince t he c ultural-eco logica l a pproach e mphasizes t he g reater i ndependence a nd c ausative p riority o f t he r esource s tructure, a n e xam ination o f u nder ly ing p rincip les d eterm ining r esource u se s cheduling s hould a llow a n u nderstanding o f s ubsequent s ite l ocation a nd d emographic a rrangements, a nd c onsequently m obility s trategies.

R esource U se S chedule

D etermination o f u nderlying p rinciples o f h unter-gatherer r esource u se s chedu ling h as p reviously r elied o n b oth i nformal a nd f orma l m ode ls. T he i nforma l s ystems t hrough

m ode ls h ave t ended t o ' adaptive p rinciples'

3

a pproach h unter-gatherer s uch t hat a s eries o f

F igure 1 . C haracter ization o f af oraging s ubsistences ettlement s ystem . A fter B inford 1 980.

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F igure 2 . C haracterization o f ac ollecting s ubsistences ettlement s ystem. A fter B inford 1 980.

5

s eeming ly c omp lex e conom ic d ec isions c an b e s een a s t he r esu lt o f t he r e lative ly s traightforward g oa l o f m inim izing r isk ( Bettinger 1 980:198). H e n oted, f or e xamp le, t hat t he W estern A ustra lian D esert a borigine s ubsistence a daptation a s o utlined b y G ould ( 1977:168-170) w as a s trategy o f ' r isk m inim ization ', w hile t hat o f t he W eagamow O jibwa a s c haracter ized b y R ogers a nd B lack ( 1976:202 2) w as o ne w hich f ocused o n g oals o f 1 . T o s eek f ood r esources c h ief ly a t t he t ime t hey a re m ost r eadily a nd a bundantly a va ilab le. 2 . T o l ocate a nd d istr ibute t he h uman p opulation ( providers a nd c onsumers) i n s uch a m anner a s t o m inim ize t ime a nd e nergy s pent o n t rave l a nd t ransport, a nd r egulate g roup s ize i n a ccordance w ith r esource a vailab ility...and t he e xistence o f a ppropr iate h abitat c ampsites. 3 . T o b e r eady w ith c ontingency p lans t hat m ay o verr ide o r s upercede t he r ules a s g iven a bove w hen c ircumstances d emanded i t f or s urviva l ( Rogers a nd B lack 1 976:20-22). W hile s uch e thnographica lly-der ived i nforma l m ode ls o f r isk m inim ization h ave t he a dvantage o f " s imp licity a nd p arsimonious s ummar ization a nd e xp lication" ( Bettinger 1 980:202), t hey t end t o b e a mbiguous a nd a re d iff icult t o o perationa lize a s p redictive m ode ls. F orma l m ode ls o f r esource s cheduling i nc lude o ptima l f oraging ( e.g. P er lman 1 980; S m ith 1 983, 1 985; W interha lder a nd S m ith 1 981), e conom ic ' goa l' t heory ( e.g. J och im 1 976), g ame t heory ( e.g. C oombs 1 980), a nd l inear p rogramm ing ( e.g. K eene, 1 979, 1 981; R e idhead 1 979). A lthough t here a re c onsiderab le t echnica l d ifferences i n t he v ar ious m ode ls, t hey a ll s hare a c ommon f eature i n t hat, a s i n t he i nforma l m ode ls, t hey " ...account f or s ubsistence b ehavior i n t erms o f o ne o r m ore s imp le p rinc ip les t hat w e igh t he r e lative p ayoffs a nd c osts o f d ifferent e conom ic c ho ices..." i n t he d eterm ination o f a daptive s o lutions, a nd t hus r esource s chedu les ( Bettinger 1 980: 2 21). A s n oted b y S mith ( 1983) i t i s t his s tress o n p arsimony a nd l ogica l r igor t hat m ake s uch m ode ls a ttractive. T wo o f t he m odels, o pt ima l f oraging a nd g ame t heory, a re o f p articular r e levance t o t he p resent s tudy . A ccording t o o ptima l f orag ing t heory, r esource u se i s s cheduled s o t hat m ax imum b enef it i s d er ived f or i ndividua l s urviva l a nd r eproductive s uccess. A ccording ly, s uch m ode ls f ocus o n t he c osts a nd b enefits r esulting f rom d ecisions b y i ndividual a ctors. T ypically, t his i nvolves t he i dentification o f a ll p otential s ubsistence r esources a nd t he d eterm ination o f t he s earch t ime ( time t aken t o l ocate o ne u nit o f ar esource ) a nd p ursu it t ime ( time t aken t o c apture a nd p rocess o ne u nit o f a r esource) f or e ach r esource. G enerally, s earch t ime d ecreases w ith i ncreasing d ensity o f t he p rey i tems, w hile p ursuit t ime i ncreases w ith l arger p rey i tems. R e liance o n i tems w ith t he l owest h andling t imes w ill m axim ize h arvesting e ff iciency, b ut a t t he s ame t ime w ill r esu lt i n h igh s earch t imes. H owever, a s a dditional i tems a re a dded t o t he d iet, s earch t ime w ill d ecrease ( a lthough h andling t ime w ill i ncrease).

6

T he p rob lem i s t herefore t o d eterm ine w hich i tems w ill b e a dded t o t he d iet s uch t hat t he r eturns f or t he t ime s pent f oraging i s ' optim ized '. A ccording t o o ptima l f orag ing t heory, t his w ill o ccur a t t he p o int w hen d ecreasing s earch t ime e qua ls i ncreasing h andling t ime ( see F igure 3 ). A s n oted b y B ettinger ( 1980:209-210), t wo i mportant i mp lications f o llow f rom o ptima l f oraging m ode ls. F irst, t he i nc lusion o f a n i tem i n a d iet i s i ndependent o f i ts o wn a bundance a nd d epends o n ly o n t he a bundance o f i tems w ith l ower h and ling t imes; i .e. l ow-ranked i tems a re a cquired o nly i f h igher r anked i tems b ecome s carce. S econd, a s t he o verall a bundance o f a ll i tems d ecreases, m ore i tems a re a dded t o t he d iet. I f t he m ost i mportant r esource a ttr ibutes t o h unter-gatherers a re a ssumed t o b e w e ight, d ensity, a ggregat ion s ize, a nd n onfood y ie ld ( cf . J och im 1 976:23), s ecur ity i n t erms o f r isk m inim ization c an b e r ated a s f o llows: s ecur ity = w nd

w here w - w e ight, n - n onfood y ie ld ( i.e. p arts o f a r esource v a lued o ther t han f or f ood; e .g., h ides, i vory), m - m ob ility

T hus, a r esource w ill w e ight, n onfood y ie ld, l eve l. T his r e lationship w ill s earch t ime

b e o f g reater i mportance t he g reater i ts a nd d ensity, a nd t he l ower i ts m ob ility

a lso d eterm ine s earch t ime, s uch t hat:

= m

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A ggregation s ize ( a), o n t he o ther h and, w ill d eterm ine p ursuit t ime a ccording t o t he f o llow ing: p ursuit t ime =

m w na

F rom t hese r e lationships, i t c an b e s een t hat a n i ncrease i n r esource m obility w ill i ncrease b oth s earch a nd p ursuit t imes. O n t he o ther h and, o vera ll r esource d ensity w ill d irectly a ffect s earch t ime, b ut w ill h ave l ittle e ffect o n p ursuit t ime, w h ile a n i ncrease i n r esource a ggregate s ize h as t he e ffect o f d ecreasing p ursuit t ime p er u nit w e ight b ut w ill h ave l ittle e ffect o n s earch t ime. T he l atter r e lationship a ssumes t hat t he s earch c ost f or a n a ggregated r esource i s t he s ame a s f or a n i ndividua l o f t hat r esource. I n r eality, t he p redictab le ' localization ' o f s easona l a ggregates c ompensates f or t he r educed d ensity o f p otentia l s earch t arget u nits ( cf. J ochim 1 976:27-28). A ccording ly a r esource w ill b e o f g reater i mportance t he g reater i ts a ggregation s ize, t he f ood a nd n onfood y ie lds a nd m ob ility b e ing h eld c onstant. G roups s eeking o ptima l s o lutions, t herefore, w ill a djust r esource u se a ccording t o c hanging d ensities a nd a ggregations o f c ritical r esources. S ince m ost e nvironments a re h eterogeneous e ither s patia lly o r t empora lly, t he f orag ing p atterns c an b e e xpected t o f o llow a g eneralized s trategy s uch t hat a n a verage r esource y ield i s

7

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F igure 3 . O ptimal d iet b readth m odel. A s a n i ncreasing n umber o f r esource t ypes a re a dded t o t he d iet, t he AS c urve p lots d ecreasing a verage s earch c osts a nd t he AP c urve i ncreasing a verage p ursuit c osts. C ost c an b e e ither t ime o r e nergy. R esources a re r anked a ccording t o t heir v alue i n t erms o f t he c ost b enefit m easure a dopted. T he o ptimal d iet b readth i s r epresentated a t t he i nters ection o f t he t wo c urves. A fter W interhalder 1 981a.

8

m a intained t hrough a ' m ixing ' o f r esources t hrough t ime. T h is r esults i n a s trategy o f ' mapping-on ' t o t he c hanging r esource s tructure, w hereby d emographic a nd s patia l c haracter istics o f t he f orag ing g roup f luctuate t o m ax im ize r eturn r ates a nd m inim ize r isks ( see d iscussion b elow ). T he r esource s chedu ling c haracter istics a s d escr ibed a bove a re p recise ly t hose w h ich w ould f avour a ' foraging ' s trategy b y h unterg atherers a s d ef ined b y B inford ( 1980). S uch s trateg ies w ill b e a ppropr iate w hen t here i s n o s patia l i ncongruity o f r esources, w hether t hese r esources a re c ontinua lly a vailab le o r w hether t hey a re ' phased i n ' t hrough a s easona l c ycle. F urthermore, s uch g roups m ay b e c onsidered ' generalists ' i n t he s ense t hat e mphasis i s o n r educ ing s earch t imes t hrough t he a ddit ion o f r esources. I f, h owever, t he r eturn o f ap articular r esource i s s uch t hat a l arge s urp lus w ill a ccrue, t hen a dditiona l r esources w h ich w ou ld o therw ise h ave b een u tilized f ollow ing t he h arvest o f t he f irst r esource w ill b e i gnored. T he f ormer r esource w ill b e u tilized u ntil t he ' storage r eturn ' d ecreases b e low t he m inimum r equired r eturn ( Figure 4 ). A t t hat t ime, a dditiona l r esources w ill b e p rocured s uch t hat t he r eturn r ate i s m a intained a t t he m inimum r equired l eve l. I n F igure 4 , r esource ' D ' w ill b e h arvested f rom t he r esidentia l l ocat ion a ssoc iated w ith r esource ' A ' u ntil t he p otentia l r eturn o f am ove t o r esource ' D ' e xceeds t hat f rom s tored r esource ' A '. A t t hat p oint a r esidential m ove t akes p lace t o r esource ' 0 '. I f t he r eturn f rom s tored r esource ' A ' r ema ins a bove t he m inimum r equ irement l eve l u ntil r esource ' A ' a ga in b ecomes a vailable, h owever, t hen a r esidentia l m ove w ill n ot b e r equired, a nd l og istical m ob ility w ould b e o riented t o a ) t he m aintenance o f a m in imum l eve l f rom s tored r esource ' A ', a nd b ) t he p rocurement o f t he r equired a mounts o f r esource ' 0 ' t o s upplement r esource ' A '. T hus a s torage s trategy, t hrough t he r eduction o f s earch t ime ( for s tored r esources), h as t he e ffect o f d ecreasing d iet b readth, w ith a r esult ing ' pursuit ' s pecia lization ( see F igure 5 ). A n a dditiona l i nsight i nto t he e ffects o f t he d isproportionate r eturn o f o ne r esource c an b e o btained b y c onsider ing t he r esource b ase i n t he c ontext o f g ame t heory. G ame t heory a pproaches t he r esource b ase o n t he p rem ise t hat a n i ndividua l ( or g roup) c an a nticipate f uture c onditions ( i.e. t he p redictib ility o f r esources), a nd m akes t he c ho ice o f a p rocurement s chedule a ccording ly ( Coombs 1 980). T wo g ame t heory s o lutions o f p articu lar i mportance t o h unterg atherer s tudies a re t he m inimax a nd B ayes s o lutions. A m inimax s o lution r epresents t he m ix o f s trategies i n a g iven e nvironment t hat g uarantees a m ax imum r eturn f or m in imum r isk. A s a n e xamp le, F igure 6 i llustrates t he m inimax s o lution i n a c ase w here t wo r esources h ave t he ' payoff ' v a lues a s i ndicated a ccording t o t he t ime a lloted t o t he e ffort i n s earching, p ursuing a nd c aptur ing e ach o f t he t wo r esources ( hor izonta l a xis) g iven t wo e nvironmental c onditions. T he m inimax s o lution ( maxim izing t he m inimum p ayoff) o ccurs a t p o int x . T he B ayes s o lution, o n t he o ther h and, t akes i nto a ccount t he p redictability o f t he e nvironmenta l s tates a nd

9

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1 0

D IET B READTH

F igure 5 . E ffects o f s torage o n d iet b readth. S torage d ecreases s earch t ime f rom AS1 t o AS2, r esulting i n a s hift i n d iet b readth t oward f ewer s pecies.

1

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F igure 6 . A verage p ayoff f unction. B ayes a verage p ayoff, w hile a m inimax s trategy p ayoffs.

1 2

s trategy m axim izes t he m axim izes t he m inimum

a ttempts t o m ax im ize a verage p ayoffs t hrough a ' pure ' s trategy. W h ile t his s o lution i s g reater t han a m inimax s o lut ion, i t c an b e s een t hat t he m inimum p ayoff i s w e ll b e low t hat o f am ixed s trategy. C oombs ( 1980 :203-204) h as o utlined t he f o llow ing c onsequences o f s torage s trategies i n t he c ontext o f g ame t heory: 1 . t he g reater t he s torage e ff ic iency ( i.e. t he p roportion o f f ood p roduced a t t ime T n t hat a s torage s ystem c an m ake a vailab le f or c onsumption a t Tel), t he c loser i ts s trategy w ill a pprox imate B ayes s o lution. 2 . t he l onger t he i nterva l b etween o pt ima l e nvironmental s tates ( as t hey a re d efined f or e ach s eason), t he c loser a s trategy w ill a pprox imate m inimax. 3 . t he m ore i rregular a n e nvironment w ith r espect t o t ime ( i.e. t he v ar iance i n t he t ime i nterva l b etween e nvironmental s tates), t he c loser a s trategy w ill a pprox imate m in imax. 4 . t he c loser t he s ubsistence l eve l i s t o t he a verage p ayoff f or B ayes s o lution, t he c loser a s trategy s hould a pprox imate B ayes s o lution. I f i t i s a ssumed t hat t he d ensity o f c r itica l i tems c hange a ccording t o e nvironmental s tates ( thus i ncreasing o r d ecreasing s earch t imes), a nd i f i t i s a ssumed t hat s torage e ff iciency ( i.e. t he a mount o f t he r esource s tored p er u nit t ime) d ecreases s earch t ime, t hen i t c an b e s een t hat g ame t heory p redicts e ssentia lly t he s ame r e lat ionships b etween r esource s tructure a nd r esource s chedule a s o ptima l f oraging. T hat i s, a s t he p redictab ility o f a c r itica l r esource i ncreases, r esidentia l m ob ility a nd d iet b readth d ecreases a nd t otal y ield ( and t hus t otal s torage, a ssuming a s torage c apability) i ncreases. T he c haracter istics o f a s torage s trategy a s p redicted f rom o pt ima l f oraging a nd g ame t heory a re t hose a ssociated w ith h unterg atherers e mp loy ing a ' co llecting ' s trategy, i n t hat e mphasis i s o n t he d irected p ursuit o f a f ew s pecif ic r esources. S uch s trategies w ill b e a ppropr iate w hen t here i s a ) s patia l o r t empora l i ncong ruency o f r esources, b ) d isproportionate ly g reater r eturns f rom o ne ( or a f ew ) r esources, a nd c ) t he p otential r eturn o f t he m ost c r itica l r esource(s) i s h igh ly p redictab le.

S ettlement L ocation a nd D emographic P atterns

S ince r esource s earch a nd p rocurement t echniques p lace s pec if ic d emands o n s ocial c o-operation a nd g roup m obility, s ettlement l ocations a nd d emographic a rrangements c an b e e xpected t o ' track ' c lose ly t he r esource u se s chedule. F or f oragers p ractic ing a ' mapping-on ' s trategy, t he m ode l f or o ptima l s ett lement p atterns p roposed b y H orn ( 1968) f rom a n a na lysis o f c o lonial n esting i n b lackbirds i s p articularly i nstructive. A s n oted b y H effley ( 1981:127) t he g enera l f orm o f t he m ode l i s a s f o llows :

1 3

a =2 k tz .g .j t ( ( a

yj )V7 (x i-x0)2

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a verage r ound-tr ip d istance b etween a u ser a nd r esource p o ints -n umber o f f orag ing g roups p er u nit t ime

t -t ota l t ime u nder c onsideration t (x i , yi ) - p roportion o f t ime d ur ing w hich f oraging i s b etter a t ( x .y .) t han a t a ny o ther p o int i n t he j a rea ( x0 ' y0 ) - c oordinates o f u ser l ocation A ccording t o t he m ode l, e ven ly d ispersed, s table ( low m ob ility) r esources a re m ost e ff iciently p rocured t hrough a s trategy o f s ma ll s earch ing g roups ( see F igure 7 a ). W hen r esources a re m ob ile, a ggregated a nd u npredictab le, h owever, a c entra l l ocation f rom w hich a ll c arry o ut s earches i s m ost e fficient ( see F igure 7 b ). T he m ode l m akes t wo a ssumptions c oncerning t he r esource s tructure; 1 ) r esources a t s tab le, e ven ly d ispersed . po ints a re s imultaneous ly a vailab le, a nd 2 ) r esources a t m ob ile, a ggregated r esource p oints a re a vailable a t o ne, o r a t t he m ost v er y f ew , o f t he p o ints ( Heffley 1 981:127). A s a pplied t o h unter-gatherers, f oragers p rocur ing e ven ly-spaced a nd s tab le r esources w ill t end t oward a s trategy u tilizing s mall, d ispersed s ocial u nits. F oragers p rocur ing m obile, a ggregated, u npredictable r esources w ill t end t oward a s trategy u tilizing o ne c entral p opu lation a ggregat ion. F or l ogistically o rganized h unter-gatherers, H orn 's o ptimal g roup s ize/loca lity m odel i s n ot d irect ly a pp licab le. I nstead, p opulation a ggregations c an b e e xpected t o o ccur p r imar ily i n r e lation t o c ached r esources. I f t he c ached r esources a re e ven ly d istr ibuted, t he o pt ima l s ettlement l ocat ion t hat w ill m inim ize l ogistical m ovements i s c entra lly l ocated. I f, o n t he o ther h and, t he c ached r esources a re a t o ne l ocation, t he s ettlement w ill b e e xpected t o b e a t o r n ear t hat l ocality. S ince m ost c aching s trategies a re b ased o n t he p rocurement o f m ob ile, a ggregated, p redictab le r esources, s ettlements c an o ften b e e xpected t o b e s ituated a t o ne l ocat ion o n a n a nnua l b asis. H eff ley ( 1981:142-145) h as d emonstrated t his r elationship a mongst t he I ngalik, w ho m aintained l arge v illages f or n ine m onths o f t he y ear a nd d ur ing m ost o f w hich s tored f ish s erved a s t he p r imary r esource. T he d ifferences b etween t he t wo s trategies c an b e f urther i l lustrated b y r eferr ing t o t he c oncepts o f r e lat ive a bundances o f r esources d iscussed p revious ly. I n F igure 8 a, a pprox imate ly e qual r eturns a re o btained f rom r esources ' A ' - ' D ' a t e ach o f t he r esource p oints, a nd t he s ettlement a nd d emographic p atterns ' track ' t he r esources a ccording ly. W ith a d isproportionate a bundance o f r esource ' A ', t he g roup m a inta ins a p ermanent r esidence a t p o int ' A ', w hile s ma ller t ask g roups m a inta in t he s torage r eturns o f r esource ' A ' a nd t he a dditiona l r eturns ( required f or a m inimum p opulation m aintenance ) f rom r esource ' D ' ( F igure 8 b ).

1 4

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F igure 7 . E ffects o f r esource c haracter ist ics o n g roup s ize a nd d ispersion a ccording t o o ptimal f oraging t heory. R ound-trip d istance f rom f orager t o r esource p oints d etermined b y t he p robab ility o f s uccessfully l ocat ing r esource i s g iven b y a . A fter W interha lder 1 981a.

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F igure 8 . a ) E ffects o f a pprox imate ly e qua l r eturns o f a n umber o f r esources a vailab le a t d ifferent t imes a nd/or l oca lities o n s ett lem ent a nd d emographic p atterns. b ) E ffects o f d isproportionate a bundance o f o ne o f a s er ies o f r esources o n s ett lement a nd d emog raphic p atterns.

1 6

O ne f ina l a spect t o b e c onsidered i n d iscussing s patia l a nd d emographic c haracteristics o f f oragers v s. c ollectors i s t he i nf luence o f e ach o n s oc ia l o rganizat ion. F orag ing s trategies, d ue t o t he ir r e lative ly s imp le p rinc ip les r egarding r esource p rocurement ( i.e. r esidence g roups v s. f oraging g roups), w ould r equire, a t l east f or r esource p rocurement p urposes, n o s pecial o rganizational s tructures. C o llectors, o n t he o ther h and, d ue t o t he s pec ia lizat ion i n p ursu it t echn iques f or f ewer r esource t ypes, l og istica lly o rganized t ask g roups, a nd s tored f ood r equir ing m anaging a nd d istr ibution, w ould b e e xpected t o r equire f orma l, a lthough p erhaps t emporary, a dditiona l o rganizationa l c omponents ( see e .g. J ochim 1 981).

S ummary o f M ode l a nd H ypothesis F ormulation

T he c onsequences o f r esource b ase c haracter istics, r esource u se s chedu le, c an b e s ummar ized a s f o llows: R esource B ase

F oragers

a nd

t hus

C o llectors

L ittle d ifference i n p otential p roportiona l r eturn f rom r esources

G reat d ifference i n p otentia l p roportional r eturn f rom r esources

L ittle o r n o s torage; r e lat ive ly w ide d iet b readth ( genera lists)

S torage, r e lative ly n arrow d iet b readth ( specia lists)

G roup s ize/loca lity f luctuates w ith r esource b ase : D iverse s table r esources - s mall r esidentia l g roups M ob ile a ggregate r esources - l arge r esidentia l g roups

L arge r esidentia l g roups n ear c ach ing l oca lities

H igh r esidentia l m ob ility L ow l og istica l m ob ility

L ow r esidential m ob ility H igh l ogistica l m obility

R e lative ly s imp le r esource p rocurement o rganizationa l s tructure

M ore h ighly s tructured r esource p rocurement o rganizationa l s tructure

S me ller t ask g roups c urement l ocat ions

G iven t he c haracteristics o f t he f o llow ing h ypothesis c an b e s uggested:

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1 7

o ther r esources, h unter-gatherer s ubsistence-settlement s ystems w ill t end t oward a c o llect ing s trategy c haracter ized b y s torage, l ow r esidentia l m ob ility, h igh l og istical m ob ility, a nd a r e lat ive ly c omp lex p rocurement o rganizationa l s tructure. O n t he o ther h and, i f t here i s r e lat ive ly l ittle d ifference i n p otentia l y ie ld o f t he r esources, h unter-gatherer s ettlement s ystems w ill t end t oward a f orag ing s trategy c haracter ized b y l itt le o r n o s torage, h igh r esidentia l m obility, l ow l ogistica l m obility, a nd a r e lative ly s imp le p rocurement o rganizational s tructure. T here a re a n umber o f a pproaches t o t esting t he h ypothesis a s f ormu lated. O ne o f t he m ore o bvious t ests w ould b e t hrough a c ross-cultura l c ompar ison o f h unter-gatherers a s d escr ibed d ur ing t he ' ethnographic p resent '. I n t his r egard b oth B inford ( 1980) a nd K e lly ( 1983) h ave r ecent ly c onducted u sefu l c ompar isons, w h ich a re b r iefly r eviewed b elow . O n t he a ssumption t hat w armer, m ore t hermally s tab le e nvironm ents p ossess f ewer ' cr it ica l' r esources a nd t hus a l ow f requency o f s patia l a nd t empora l r esource i ncongruency, B inford ( 1980) s uggested t hat h unter-gatherers i nhab iting s uch e nvironments w ould t end t oward a f orag ing s ubsistence-settlement s ystem w ith h igh r es identia l m obility a nd l ow l ogistica l m obility. I n e nvironments w ith g reater t herma l i nstab ility, a nd t hus a g reater n umber o f c r itica l r esources a nd c orresponding g reater f requency o f s pat ia l a nd t empora l r esource i ncongruency , h e s uggested t hat h unter-gatherers w ould t end t oward a c o llecting s ubsistence-settlement s ystem w ith l ow r esident ia l m obil ity a nd h igh l ogistica l m obility. T he r esults o f h is c ompar ison s uggested t he h ypothesized r e lationship i s t rue, b ut w ith s ome n otab le e xceptions, i nc lud ing t he S lave, M icmac, M istassini C ree, C opper E skimo, I g lu lik E skimo, P o lar E sk imo, a nd N etsilik E skimo, a ll o f w hom i nhab ited t herma lly u nstab le e nvironments b ut p racticed f orag ing a s o pposed t o c o llecting s trategies. A ccording t o B inford, t hese e xceptions c an b e c lassif ied a s ' co ld-adapted ' f oragers w ho a re ' ser ia l s pecia lists ' i n t hat t hey p ractise h igh r esidential m obility s o a s t o p osit ion t he g roup w ith p articu lar f ood r esources a s t hey b ecome a vailable s easona lly. W hile B inford d id n ot p ursue t he s tudy o f t he ' cold-adapted f oragers f urther, t he m odel d eve loped i n t his s tudy w ould s uggest t hat s uch p ractices a re n ot d ue t o a ny p articular d esire o n t he p art o f t he g roups t o a vo id p utting u p s tores, b ut r ather b ecause t here a re n o r esources w ith d isproportionate ly h igh y ie lds t o f avour a s torage s trategy. K e lley 's ( 1983) s tudy e xamined s evera l e nvironmenta l v ar iab les w hich m easure r esource a ccessib ility ( re lated t o t he a mount o f t ime a nd e ffort r equired t o e xtract f auna l a nd p lant r esources f rom t he e nvironment) a nd m onitor ing c osts ( re lated t o t he d egree t o w hich t he l ocus o f a r esource 's e xplo itation m ust b e m onitored i n o rder t o e nsure t he s uccessful e xploitation o f t hat r esource). H igh r esidentia l m ob ility w as f ound t o c orre late w ith h igh c r itical r esource a ccessib ility a nd l ow c ritica l r esource m onitor ing c osts, w hile h igh l ogistica l m obility w as f ound t o c orre late w ith l ow c ritical r esource a ccessibility a nd h igh c ritical r esource m onitor ing c osts. H owever, K e lley a lso f ound s evera l e xceptions t o t he g enera l p attern, i nc luding t he N etsilik I nuit, w ho d isp layed

1 8

h igh r esidentia l m obility i n a n e nvironment t hat w ould g enera lly b e c onsidered c haracter ized b y l ow c ritica l r esource a ccessibility a nd h igh c r itica l r esource m onitor ing c osts. B oth s tud ies a re p rom ising i n t he e xam ination o f a daptat ion t o v ary ing e nvironmenta l c onditions o n a w or ld-w ide b asis, a nd a re t herefore u seful i n i nitiat ing t he d eve lopment o f a t heory o f h unter-gatherer m obility s trategies. N evertheless, t hese c ross-cultural s tud ies, a s w ith m ost c ross-cu ltural s tudies, s uffer f rom a l ack o f t ime d epth, a nd r esponses t o c hanges i n r e levant i ndependent v ar iab les c annot b e e xam ined. F urthermore, n either s tudy s pec if ica lly a ddresses t he i ssue o f t he e ffects o f t echno logy ( and c onsequent ly, t echno log ical c hange). T h is i s p articu lar ly i mportant, s ince, o n t he o ne h and, w hile c hange i n t he r esource b ase r epresents c hange e xterna l t o t he c ultura l s ystem, c hange i n t echn o logy ( through i nvention o r d iffusion) r epresents i nterna l s ystem c hange. A ccording ly, a s tudy w hich d ocuments r esponses o f m ob ility s trateg ies t o c hanges i n t he r esource b ase, a nd i n at echno logy t hat a ffects t he p otential r eturn o f c r itical r esources, s hould p rovide a v aluable i nsight i nto p rocesses o f c hange i n h unter-gatherer s ubsistence-sett lement s ystems, w hile a t t he s ame t ime s erving a s a u sefu l c omplement t o c ross-cultura l s tudies. T he p reh istor ic T hule E skimo-h istor ic N etsilik I nuit t ransition i n t he c entral C anadian A rctic p rovides a n i dea l c ultura l s equence f or s uch a s tudy, s ince a ) t he c ultura l c ontinuity h as b een e stab lished, b ) t he a rchaeol ogica l v isib ility o f r e levant s ettlement f eatures i s f or t he m ost p art e xtreme ly h igh, c ) a w e ll d ocumented s equence o f c limatic c hange a ffecting t he a bundance o f c r itica l r esources h as b een e stablished, a nd d ) a m ajor t echnological c hange r elating t o r esource p rocurement, t he r if le, w as i ntroduced i nto t he a rea w e ll b efore t he m ajor d isruption o f t he s ociety w hich a ccompanied t he m ovement i nto p ermanent s ettlements.

1 9

C HAPTER T WO :

B ACKGROUND T O T HE S TUDY

S tudy A rea

T he s tudy a rea a ssociated w ith t he T hule-Netsilik t ransition s equence i n t he c entra l C anadian A rctic i s r epresented i n F igure 9 a nd i ncludes S omerset I sland, B oothia P eninsula, K ing W illiam I sland, A delaide P eninsula, a nd a djacent c hannels a nd i nlets. A lthough t he e thnographically-documented N etsilik I nuit t err itory w as r estr icted p r imar ily t o t he s outhern p art o f t he s tudy a rea ( Rasmussen 1 931), t he a ncestra l T hule E sk imo c ulture h as b een w e ll d ocumented t hroughout t he e ntire s tudy a rea ( see b e low ). T he w est c oast o f S omerset I sland a nd t he c entra l p art o f B oothia P eninsu la a re c omposed o f r e lative ly h igh ( > 4 00 m ), r ugged p lateaus o f P recambr ian g ranites a nd g ne isses ( Blackadar a nd C hr ist ie 1 963), w hile K ing W illiam I s land, A de la ide P eninsu la, t he c oastal a reas o f B oothia P eninsula a nd t he e ast c oast o f S omerset I sland c ompr ise l ow lands a nd/or p lateaus o f p rimarily P aleozoic c lastic a nd c arbonate s ed imentary r ock u nits ( Blackadar a nd C hrist ie 1 963; T horste insson a nd T ozer 1 970). S urface m ater ials a re p r imar ily r ock a nd r esidium, w ith l esser a mounts o f g laciofluvial, g laciolac ustr ine, f luv ial, m arine, a nd c o lluvial s ediments ( Craig 1 964; D yke 1 983, 1 984). T he p resent c limate i s t yp ically A rctic, w ith l ong, c o ld, d ry w inters a nd s hort, c ool, d amp s ummers ( Canadian H ydrographic S ervice, 1 982). V egetation z ones a re p r imar ily ' H igh A rctic ' o n S omerset I sland a nd n orthern B oothia P eninsula, c haracter ized b y r ock d eserts w ith v egetation s urviving o nly i n t he m ore f avoured l oca lities, w hile v egetation z ones i n t he r ema inder ( southern) p art o f t he s tudy a rea a re p r imarily ' M idd le A rctic ' c haracter iz ed b y c onsp icuous v egetation b ut w ith f requent o pen d esert a reas ( B ird 1 964:54-55; s ee a lso B liss 1 977:3).

R esources

R esources i n t he s tudy a rea o ccupy t hree m ajor e nvironmenta l s ubsystems; t errestr ia l, m ar ine, a nd f reshwater. F reeman ( 1984) p resents a d etailed t reatment o f e ach o f t he s ubsystems a s t hey a pp ly t o t he A rctic g enera lly.

T errestria l S ubsystem. T he t errestr ia l s ubsystem i n t he s tudy r eg ion i s t yp ically ' tundra ' i n t hat p r imary p roductivity i s l ow, t here a re r e lat ive ly f ew a nima l s pecies, a nd t he t rophic s tructure i s s imple. M ajor t errestr ia l r esources a re a s f o llows:

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a ) C ar ibou. C ar ibou a re b y f ar t he m ost e conom ically i mportant t errestr ia l s pec ies i n t he s tudy a rea. T wo s ubspecies, e ach w ith d ifferent b ehaviora l c haracter istics, o ccur : P eary c ar ibou a nd b arren g round c ar ibou. P eary c ar ibou a re y ear-round i nhab itants i n t he s tudy a rea, a re r estricted t o S omerset I sland a nd n orthern B oothia P eninsula ( Fischer a nd D uncan 1 976; T homas e t a l. 1 977), a nd a verage 5 5-80 k g ( Thomas a nd B roughton 1 978). B oth w inter a nd s ummer g roup s izes t end t o b e v ery s ma ll, a veraging f our-f ive d uring b oth s ummer a nd w inter, a lthough g roup s ize v ar ies f rom o ne t o t wenty ( Fischer a nd D uncan 1 976:91). T he p resent S omerset I s land p opu lation f luctuates c onsiderab ly, d ue t o l oca l m igration t o a nd f rom P rince o f W a les I sland ( Thomas a nd B roughton 1 978), a lthough i t g enerally a ppears t o r emain l ess t han 1 000 a nimals. P opulation e stimates f or J une 1 974 a nd J une 1 975, f or e xamp le, w ere 2 45 a nd 9 03 a nima ls r espective ly ( Fischer a nd D uncan 1 976:89). B oth s ummer a nd w inter g roup c oncentrations t end t o o ccur o n t he w est c oast s outh o f A ston B ay t o t he w est o f S tanwe ll-F letcher L ake a nd s ummer g roup c oncentrations o nly a long C reswe ll B ay ( op. c it. 9 0). P eary c ar ibou o n B oothia P eninsula p resent ly n umber a pprox imate ly 2 300 a nima ls ( op. c it. 9 8), a nd a pparently r epresent a c ross b etween t rue P eary c ar ibou a nd b arren g round c ar ibou ( Thomas e t a l. 1 978). G roup s ize r anges f rom o ne t o a pproximate ly 3 50, w ith a n a verage o f e leven ( Fischer a nd D uncan 1 976:175). W inter g roup c oncentrations t end t o b e r estr icted t o t he n ortheast p art o f t he p eninsula, w hile s ummer g roup c oncentrations a re r estr icted p r imar ily t o t he n orthwest p art o f t he p eninsula ( op. c it. 9 8). T rue b arren g round c ar ibou, ( averaging 8 0-110 k g - K e lsa ll 1 968), r are ly o ccur i n t he s tudy a rea, h aving b een r educed c onsiderab ly i n n umber s ince t he 1 930's ( Ke lsa ll 1 968; M iller e t a l. 1 978). D uring t he e arly c ontact p eriod, h owever, a nd b y e xtrapo lation t he p rehistor ic p er iod, t hey m igrated o n a s easonal b asis t o B oothia P eninsula a nd o nto K ing W illiam I sland ( see f or e xamp le A mundsen 1 908; S tackpo le 1 965). A ccording t o K e lsa ll ( 1968:65), t hese c aribou w ould h ave w intered o n t he t undra. M igration r outes a ppear t o h ave b een t raditional, w ith m ajor c rossings a t t he n arrows o f S impson S tra it, n ear C rescent H arbour o n S herman I nlet, a nd a t s everal l ocations i n t he N etsilik R iver-Netsilik L ake r egion, i nc luding t he w est s ide o f P angnikto L ake ( Amundsen 1 908; R asmussen 1 931; B a likc i 1 964). A lthough p rehistoric a nd e arly h istoric p opulations a re d ifficult t o e stimate, h erds o f 1 0,000 t o 1 00,000 h ave b een r ecorded w inter ing o n t he n orthern b arrens ( Ke lsa ll 1 968:64-66). b ) M usk-oxen. M usk-oxen, ( averaging 3 40 k g - T ener 1 965), a re e xtreme ly r are i n t he s tudy a rea. T he m ost r ecent p opulation e stimates a re 2 5 o n S omerset I s land, n one o n B oothia P en insu la, a nd n one o n K ing W illiam I sland ( Urquhart 1 982). T hey a re e xtreme ly r are o n A de la ide P eninsula ( Gunn e t a l. 1 984), a lthough a h erd o f s eventeen w as o bserved a t S herman I n let d ur ing t he c ourse o f f ie ld w ork a ssoc iated w ith t he p resent s tudy. H istor ically, m usk-oxen a ppear t o h ave b een a t l east p resent o n B oothia P eninsula ( Ross 1 835; H one 1 934; B a likc i 1 964), b ut a pparently n ever i n s ignif icant n umbers.

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c ) O ther t errestrial r esources. A rctic f oxes, A rctic w olves, A rctic h ares, w olverines, a nd p tarm igan o ccur y ear r ound b ut i n r elatively s mall n umbers, a nd, u ntil t he r ecent e mphasis o n t rapping, h ad h istorically b een o f s econdary i mportance ( Br ice-Bennett 1 976).

M arine S ubsystem. A s f or t he t errestrial s ubsystem, t he m arine s ubsystem p rimary p roductivity i s g enerally v ery l ow, w ith a r esult ing l ow s econdary p roductivity a nd a r elative ly s imp le f ood c hain. O ne o f t he m ost i mportant c onsiderations i n t he e xam ination o f t his s ubsystem i s t he d istr ibution, t ype a nd t hickness o f s ea i ce c over. I n t he s tudy a rea, s ea i ce c overs a ll m ain w ater b odies e ight-ten m onths p er y ear, a nd a s a r esult, m uch o f t he s econdary p roduct ivity i s u navailable. I n t he s tudy a rea, s ea i ce b egins t o b reak u p n ortheast o f S omerset I sland i n J uly, a nd b y l ate A ugust n orthern P rince R egent I nlet, B arrow S trait, a nd n orthern P ee l S ound a re a ll o pen ( w ith t he i ce c lear ing f rom s outh t o n orth a nd t hen w est t o e ast - C anadian H ydrographic S ervice 1 982:165). M e lting i n P rince R egent I nlet s outh o f B e llot S trait i s b alanced b y a n i nflux o f i ce f rom f urther s outh, s uch t hat t he r egion r arely e xper iences t otal o pen w ater c onditions. S outhern P ee l S ound, F ranklin S trait, a nd t he w ater b odies b ordering K ing W illiam I sland, A delaide P eninsula, a nd B oothia P en insula b reak u p i n J uly, b ut b ecause o f l oca l s hoa l a reas a nd i slands a nd t he s outhward d r ift o f i ce f rom M cClintock C hanne l, i ce u sually m e lts i n s itu, r are ly b eing c leared. M e lting i s n orma lly c ompleted b y t he m iddle o f A ugust ( op. c it.: 1 70). F reeze-up t hroughout t he a rea b egins a pproximately m id-September a nd i s c ompleted b y e ar ly-late O ctober ( op. c it.:162, 1 70). M ajor m ar ine f aunal

r esources a re a s f ollows:

a ) B owhead W ha les. B owhead w hales ( averaging 2 0,000-21,000 k g B anfie ld 1 974) a re e xtreme ly r are a t p resent, w ith t he e ntire e astern A rctic p opulation e stimated a t ' a f ew h undred ' ( Reeves e t a l. 1 983). P rior t o t he e xtensive h arvest b y E uropean a nd E uroamer ican w halers b eginning i n t he 1 8th c entury, h owever, b owhead w hale s tocks w ere m uch h igher. M itche ll a nd R eeves ( 1981) e stimate t hat a s o f A .D. 1 825 b owhead w hale s tocks i n t he e astern A rctic w ere a pproximately 1,000, w hile M owat ( 1984) e stimates t hat p r ior t o a ll n on-native w haling i n N orth A merica s tocks w ere a pproximately 1 50,000. A ssum ing t hat p rehistoric d istr ibution ( but n ot n ecess ar ily a bundance) w as s imilar t o t hat r ecorded d ur ing t he h istor ic p eriod i n t he s tudy a rea, C reswe ll B ay a nd n orthern P ee l S ound c onstituted t he w estern-most p art o f t he p rincipa l s ummer f eeding g rounds ( see F igure 1 0 a nd R eeves e t a l. 1 983:30-31). P enetration i nto m iddle a nd s outhern P rince R egent I nlet a nd P ee l S ound w as a pparently r estr icted b y l ate c lear ing a nd/or i n s itu m elting o f t he i ce. b ) i n i n

W a lrus. W a lrus ( averaging 5 70-760 k g - B anfie ld 1 974) a re r are t he s tudy a rea, w ith s mall n umbers o ccurr ing f o llow ing b reak-up t he s ummer t o t he n orth a nd e ast o f S omerset I sland ( Canadian

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F igure 1 0. A reas o f m ajor b owhead w hale c oncentrations i n t he s tudy a rea. A fter R eeves e t a l. 1 983.

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W ildlife S ervice 1 972; F inley 1 976). T hese a nima ls a pparently m igrate t o t he a rea f rom t he B aff in B ay-Davis S tra it r egion ( Dav is e t a l. 1 980:43). W alrus n umbers, a s t hose o f b owhead w ha les, w ere s evere ly d epleted d ur ing t he e ra o f E uropean a nd E uroamer ican w ha ling. H owever, f rom t he h istor ic c atch r ecords c omp iled b y R oss a nd M acIver ( 1980), t hey a ppear t o h ave a lways o ccurred i n r e lat ive ly s mall n umbers i n t he s tudy a rea. c ) B e luga W hales. B e luga w hales ( we igh ing u p t o 1 360 k g -B anf ield 1 974) o ccur i n l arge n umbers i n t he s tudy a rea, p r imar ily i n n orthern P r ince R egent I nlet, C reswe ll B ay, a nd n orthern P ee l S ound, t hese a reas s erving a s m ajor s ummer f eeding g rounds. F inley ( 1976) e stimates a s ummer ing p opulation o f a pproximate ly 5 500 w hales i n t he a rea. d ) N arwhal. N arwhals ( averag ing 6 00-800 k g - B anf ie ld 1 974) a re a pparent ly a t l east a s a bundant a s b e lugas i n t he n orthern s tudy a rea d ur ing t he s ummer ( Davis e t a l. 1 980) a nd a pparently c ongregate a t m ajor f eeding g rounds i n C reswe ll B ay a nd m iddle a nd n orthern P ee l S ound. e ) R inged S ea l. T he r inged s ea l ( averag ing 9 0 k g -B anf ie ld 1 974) i s t he m ost w idespread o f m ar ine m amma ls i n t he A rctic, a nd i s u sually a p ermanent r esident t hroughout m ost o f i ts r ange, m ainta in ing b reathing h o les i n t he s ea i ce d ur ing t he w inter. I t i s b e lieved t o b e s edentary, u ndergo ing l ocal m igrations o nly, a nd t hose g enera lly o nly i n r esponse t o c hanging i ce c onditions ( Davis e t a l. 1 980). T he a mount a nd s tab ility o f f ast i ce a ppears t o d etermine t he u pper s ize l imit o f r inged s ea l p opulations ( Sm ith 1 981). I n t he s tudy a rea, r inged s ea ls a ppear t o s how t he h ighest p opulation d ensities i n A ston B ay o n t he n orthwest c orner o f S omerset I sland ( greater t han 1 9.5/1,000 h ectares), i n B e llot S trait ( 11.7-19.5/1,000 h ectares), a long t he e ast c oast o f B oothia P en insula i n a nd n orth o f L ord M ayor B ay ( greater t han 1 9.5/1,000 h ectares), o n t he w est c oast o f B oothia P eninsula n orth o f S pence B ay ( greater t han 1 9.5/1,000 h ectares) ( a ll e stimates f rom F inley 1 976), a nd a pparently i n t he Q ueen M aud G ulf, R asmussen B asin, a nd S impson S trait r egions ( Br ice-Bennett 1 976). S m ith e t a l. ( 1978) a nd K ingsley a nd L unn ( 1982) a lso i ndicate h igh r inged s eal p opulations i n t he A ston B ay a rea. f ) B earded S ea l. B earded s ea ls ( averaging 4 00 k g -B anf ie ld 1 974) a re f ound t hroughout t he C anadian A rctic, t ending t o b e s o litary. T hey a re s trong ly a ssoc iated w ith m oving p ack i ce, r are ly m aintain b reath ing h o les i n f ast i ce, a nd t end t o m igrate i nto t he a rea f o llow ing t he i nitiation o f b reak-up ( Finley 1 976). T hey a re n ever v ery a bundant, a lthough l oca l c oncentrations a pparently o ccur i n e astern Q ueen M aud G ulf ( Rasmussen 1 931; B r ice-Bennett 1 976). g ) H arp S ea l. H arp s ea ls ( we ighing u p t o 1 60-180 k g - B anf ie ld 1 974) o ccur i n t he n orth p art o f t he s tudy a rea, b ut a re n ot n umerous, a nd a pparent ly m igrate i nto t he a rea i n s ummer f o llow ing b reak-up ( Fin ley 1 976).

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h ) P o lar B ears. P o lar b ears ( averaging 4 20-500 k g -B anfie ld 1 974) o ccur t hroughout t he s tudy a rea, b ut a re m ost a bundant i n L ord M ayor B ay, n orth o f C ape F e lix ( northern t ip o f K ing W illiam I sland), a nd n ear C reswell B ay a nd A ston B ay ( Br ice-Bennett 1 976; F inley 1 976). H istor ically, t hey w ere r arely h unted p rimar ily f or f ood, b ut i nstead f or t he p e lt ( e.g. R asmussen 1 931; B alikci 1 964).

F reshwater S ubsystem. A s n oted b y F reeman ( 1984), t he f reshwater s ubsystem i s o f l east ( although n ot i nsignificant) p otential i mportance t o A rctic i nhabitants. A rctic f reshwater p roductivity i s l ow, w ith l akes, f or e xample, a veraging a pproximate ly 1 .25 k g o f f ish p er h ectare ( op. c it. 4 0). H owever, a t l east f or t he N etsilik I nuit, t he s ystem i s o f c onsiderable i mportance d ue t o t he f act t hat i t s easonally s upports l arge p opulations o f a nadromous f ish ( arctic c har) a nd n esting a nd m igrating w aterfow l. A nadromous a rctic c har l eave f reshwater l ake s ystems i mmed iate ly f o llow ing i ce b reak-up, a nd r eturn t o s pawn a nd/or o verw inter i n l ate s ummer a nd e ar ly f all. T hey a re m ost a bundant a nd a ccessib le d ur ing t he l ate s ummer/fall r eturn m igration, e specially a long s hallow c onnecting r ivers. A lthough m ost r iver/lake s ystems i n t he s outhern s tudy a rea f eature c har m igrations, i n t he n orthern a rea o nly t he U nion R iver a nd S tanwe ll F letcher L ake s ystem o n S omerset I sland, a nd t he N udlukta I nlet a nd N ud lukta L ake s ystem o n B oothia P eninsula s upport a ppreciable m igrations ( Br ice-Bennett 1 976; R iewe 1 976; M cCart a nd B este 1 979). T he m ost i mportant s ummer m igratory w aterfow l c oncentration l ocalities i n t he s tudy r egion a re t he R asmussen L ow lands s outhwest o f S pence B ay ( McClaren e t a l. 1 976), M iddle L ake n orth o f S pence B ay, W rottesley I nlet o n n orthwest B ooth ia P eninsula, a nd t he B e llot S trait a nd C reswe ll B ay a reas o f S omerset I s land ( Davis e t a l. 1 977). O ver f ifty s pecies o f m igratory b irds h ave b een r eported i n t hese a reas, t he m ost i mportant o f w hich i nclude s now g eese, b rant g eese, C anada g eese, w histling s wans, c ommon a nd k ing e iders, a nd v arious g ulls ( McClaren e t a l. 1 976).

H istory o f C limatic C hange

E vidence f or c limatic c hange s ince t he e nd o f t he l ast m ajor g laciation i n t he C anadian A rctic a nd G reenland h as b een w e ll d ocumented b y B ryson a nd W endland ( 1967), D ansgaard e t a l. ( 1971), F redskild ( 1972), M iller ( 1973), N icho ls ( 1972, 1 975 Tand B arry e t a l. ( 1977), a mong o thers. O f p articular c oncern f or t he p resent s tudy i s t he n ature o f c limatic c hange d ur ing t he l ast a pproximately 1 000 y ears ( see F igure 1). T he p eriod f rom a pproximately 100-800 B .P. w itnessed a w a ming t rend s uch t hat m ean s ummer t emperatures w ere a pproximately 1 v C w armer t han p resent s ummer t emperatures ( Nicho ls 1 975). F rom a pproximate ly 8 00-400 B .P., a n a pparent c ooling t rend d eve loped, a nd c ulm inated i n w hat i s t ermed t he ' little i ce a ge ' f rom a pprox imate ly 4 00-100 B .P., d ur ing w hich t ime l ocal g laciers a dvanced, s ummers b ecame c onsiderab ly c ooler a nd w inters c o lder a nd d r ier ( Barry e t a l. 1 977).

2 6

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E ffects o f C limatic C hange o n t he R esource B ase

T errestr ia l S ubsystem. T he t wo m ajor t errestr ia l m amma ls i n t he s tudy r egion, c ar ibou a nd m usk-oxen, a re a pparent ly v ery s ensitive t o s hort-term, l oca l c limatic c hange ( see e .g. M iller e t a l. 1 977). W arm, w et w inter c onditions t end t o c reate h ard i ce-7. a r laT ör s now c rusts, a s w e ll a s h eavy s now a ccumulations, w hich a re d etr imenta l t o a t l east P eary c ar ibou a nd m usk-oxen o n r estr icted r anges i n t he A rct ic I s lands ( M iller e t a l. 1 977). B arren g round c ar ibou p opulat ion d ensit ies, o n t he o ther h and, a ppear t o b e m ore c lose ly r e lated t o c onditions o n s ummer c alving g rounds a nd t o p opulation d ensities o f t he m ainland h erds g enerally. C o ld w eather, e specially s easona lly l ate b lizzards o n s ummer c a lving g rounds, c an s ubstantia lly r educe c ar ibou p opulations t hrough h igh m orta lity r ates a mong n ewb orn c a lves ( Ke lsa ll 1 968 ; P arker 1 972). F urthermore, t he b arren g round c ar ibou t hat p reviously s ummered i n t he s tudy a rea c an b e c onsidered a m argina l p opulat ion. S ince m argina l p opulations t end t o b e m a intained o nly d ur ing t imes o f p opulation i ncrease i n t he ' core ' a reas, a nd s ince c o lder c ondit ions w ill a pparent ly a lso a ffect p opulations i n ' core ' a reas, t he p ressure t o m aintain l arge m argina l g roups i s l essened ( Ke lsa ll 1 968:108). T herefore, w hile n umbers o f P eary c ar ibou w ill t end p erhaps t o i ncrease d ur ing c oo ling c limatic p eriods, t he o pposite w ould a ppear t o b e t rue f or b arren g round c ar ibou. M cGhee ( 1972) a nd G ordon ( 1975) s uggest s omewhat s imilar b arren g round c ar ibou r esponses i n t he A mundsen G ulf a rea a nd t he b arren g rounds, r espective ly.

M ar ine S ubsystem. T he m ost i mportant d irect e ffect o f c limat ic c hange i n t he m ar ine e co logica l s ubsystem r e lates t o t he d istr ib ution, d uration a nd t hickness o f s ea i ce. B ryson a nd W endland ( 1967) a nd N icho ls ( 1975) s uggest f ast i ce f ormation i ncreased d ur ing t he c oo ling p er iod o f 8 00-400 B .P., r each ing a p eak e xtent d ur ing t he p er iod 4 00-100 B .P. I n m ost a reas t his w ould h ave r esulted i n i ncreased r inged s ea l h abitat a nd c orresponding l arger p opulations ( c.f. S m ith a nd H ammil 1 981). I n a ddition t o i ncreasing t he e xtent o f f ast i ce, t he c oo ling t rend a lso w ould h ave r esulted i n l ater b reak-up d ates a nd e ar lier f reeze-up d ates ( i.e. g reater d uration), a llow ing a ccess t o s ea ls f or l onger p er iods. H owever, t here i s am aximum t h ickness o f i ce b eyond w hich r inged s ea ls d o n ot m aintain b reathing h o les, a nd i nstead m ove t o t he f ast i ce e dge a nd/or l eads ( McC laren 1 958). S ch ledermann ( 1976a) s uggests t hat g reater t han m ax imum p ermissible t h icknesses ( for b reathing h o le m a intenance) m ay h ave b een a ttained d ur ing t he c o ld p er iod o f 4 00-100 B .P. M igratory m ar ine s pecies s uch a s b owhead w ha les, b e luga w ha les, n arwha ls, b earded s ea ls, h arp s ea ls, a nd w a lrus w ould p robab ly h ave b een r educed i n d istr ibution a nd a bundance i n t he s tudy a rea a s e xtens ive f ast i ce a nd c losing l eads a re d etr imenta l t o s uch s pecies. B owhead w hales w ould h ave b een p articular ly a ffected b y t he i ncreased i ce d istr ibution d ur ing t he c oo ler p er iods, a s, a t

2 8

l east i n t he e astern A rctic, t hey t end t o f o llow t he r etreating i ce m argin a nd e nter t he H igh A rct ic c hanne ls o n ly w hen a m ax imum o f o pen w ater i s a va ilab le ( Reeves e t a l. 1 983:60). S chledermann h as s uggested t hat b owhead w hale d istr ibution d ur ing t he c o ldest p er iod ( 400-100 B .P.) w as c haracter ized b y " scarce a va ilab ility...and p oor p redictab ility" ( 1976a:41).

F reshwater S ubsystem. C limatic c hange w ou ld p robab ly h ave t he l east e ffect o n a n ima l p opulations u tiliz ing t he f reshwater s ubsystem, s ince o n ly r elative ly s light c hanges i n f reeze/me lt c yc les, r unoff c haracteristics, a nd p erhaps p rimary p roductivity, w ould b e e xpected. A ccord ing ly, t he p rimary c hanges w ou ld p erhaps b e i n a djustments i n t he t im ing o f w aterfow l m igrations a nd, p erhaps, a nadromous c har m igrations.

S ummary : T he m ajor e ffects o f c limatic c hange o n r esources i n t he s tudy a rea o ver t he p ast a pprox imate ly 1 000 y ears a re s ummar ized i n T ab le 1 . W ithin t he s tudy a rea, b y f ar t he t wo m ost a bundant r esources i n t erms o f p otentia l y ie ld d ur ing t he w arm p er iod o f 1 000-800 B .P. w ould h ave b een b owhead w ha les i n t he n orthern p art o f t he s tudy a rea, a nd b arren g round c ar ibou i n t he s outhern p art o f t he s tudy a rea. I n t he n orthern p art o f t he s tudy a rea, f or e xamp le, t he y ie ld f rom a s ing le b owhead w hale w ould h ave a pprox imated t he y ie ld f rom t he e ntire p resent c ar ibou a nd m usk-oxen p opu lations. T o t he s outh, l arge c oncentrations o f m igratory b arren g round c ar ibou ( probab ly 1 0,000 o r m ore) a t p rimary c rossing l ocalities w ou ld h ave b een e qua lly i mportant i n t erms o f p otentia l y ie ld. T hus, a ssuming r equisite t echno logy, t he p otential a vailab le y ie lds i n t hese a reas a re d isproportionate ly c entered o n o ne s pec ies i n t he n orth a nd o ne i n t he s outh ( it s hould b e n oted t hat t here a ppears t o h ave b een l ittle i f a ny o ver lap i n a reas o f t he r espective s pecies). W ith d eter iorating c limatic c onditions, t he t wo s pecies w ould h ave b een d ramatica lly r educed i n n umbers, a nd p robab ly a ltered i n d istr ibution, w hile s everal o ther c ritica l s pecies ( r inged s eal, P eary c ar ibou, m usk-oxen) w ould h ave i ncreased i n a bundance a nd p robab ly e xpanded i n d istr ibution. F inally, w ith e xtreme c limatic d eter ioration, p robab ly a ll m ar ine m amma ls, a nd a t l east s ome t errestr ia l m amma ls, p rimarily b arren g round c ar ibou, w ou ld h ave b een a dverse ly a ffected.

S ociocultura l B ackground

I . P reh istory

A rchaeo logica l i nvestigations i n t he s tudy a rea w ere i nitiated b y K nud R asmussen i n 1 923 ( Mathiassen 1 927; R asmussen 1 931), w ho e xcavated t he s ite o f M a lerua lik ( s ite 8 1-61 i n t his s tudy) o n K ing

2 9

T ab le 1 .

S ummary o f t he e ffects o f c limatic c hange o n h ab itat a nd r esources i n t he s tudy a rea.

D ates

C limate

1 000-800 B .P. W arming t rend

8 00-400 B .P.

4 00-100 B .P.

C oo ling t rend

C o ldest

E ffects

R esource S tatus

R e lative ly l ittle s ea i ce c over, l ess f ast i ce

A bundance o f a ll m ar ine m amma ls e xcept r inged s ea ls

L ess w inter f orage i n r estr icted a reas

P ossib ly f ewer P eary c ar ibou, m usk-oxen

L arge b arren g round p opulations s outh o f s tudy a rea, f avourab le c a lving c onditions

A bundant b arren g round c ar ibou

I ncreasing s ea i ce c over d ur ing m ajor m igration p er iods, i ncreasing f ast i ce

D ecreasing a bundance o f a ll m ar ine m ammals e xcept r inged s eals. I ncreasing r inged s eal a bundance

P robab le d ecrease i n m ajor b arren g round c ar ibou h erds, l ess f avoura b le c onditions o n c alving g rounds

I ncreasing a bundance o f P eary c aribou a nd m usk-oxen

G reatest e xtent o f s ea i ce c over a nd f ast i ce. P oss ib le i ce t hicknesses g reater t han m aximum f or b reathing h o le m aintenance

C ontinued d ecrease i n a ll m ar ine m ammals. R inged s ea l p opulation m ay h ave s tarted t o d ec line a t t his t ime, a nd/or t he ir d istr ibut ions w ere a ltered.

L east f avourab le c a lving g round c onditions, a nd p robab ly l east a bundance o f b arren g round c ar ibou ' core ' h erds

C ontinued d ecrease i n b arren g round c ar ibou; P eary c ar ibou a nd m usk-oxen a t p opulation m ax imums(?)

3 0

D ecreasing a bund ance o f b arren g round c aribou

W illiam I sland. S evera l c o llections o btained i n t he 1 930 's f rom t he S omerset I sland a nd B oothia P eninsula r egions w ere d escr ibed b y V anstone ( 1962), a nd i n 1 961 W .E. T aylor ( Tay lor a nd M cGhee 1 979) e xcavated t wo s ites o n t he n orth c oast o f C reswe ll B ay o n S omerset I sland. D ur ing t he p ast f ifteen y ears a l arge n umber o f a rchaeol ogical i nvest igations h ave b een c onducted i n t he s tudy a rea a nd a re s ummar ized i n T ab le 2 . W hile s evera l o f t hese i nvestigations y ie lded e vidence o f s ubstantial P aleoeskimo ( approx imate ly 4 500-1000 B .P.) o ccupations ( e.g. B ie lawsk i, 1 980, 1 982; R amsden 1 981, 1 982; D amkjar 1 983, 1 984), l ater N eoeskimo o ccupations ( approx imate ly 1 000 B .P.-present) a re o f p articular i mportance t o t he p resent s tudy. T he N etsilik I nuit w ho h istor ically i nhab ited t he s tudy r egion a re t he c ultura l a nd b io logica l d escendants o f T hu le E sk imos w ho i nitially m igrated a cross t he C anadian A rctic a nd i nto G reen land a pprox imate ly 1 000 A .D. ( McGhee 1 969/70, 1 975 ; V anstone 1 962). T wo m igration r outes h ave b een s uggested. A n orthern r oute a long P arry C hannel w hich e ssentially b ypassed m ost o f t he N etsilik a rea i nitially, a nd w hich l ater l ed t o a c olonization o f t he a rea f rom t he n orth, h as b een s uggested b y M cGhee ( e.g. 1 975) a nd M cCartney ( 1977), ( Figure 1 2a). M orr ison ( 1983a), a nd A rno ld a nd S t imme] ( 1984), o n t he o ther h and, s uggested t hat a c ontemporaneous o r s light ly l ater m igration a long t he s outhern A rctic c oastal m a inland l ed t o t he c o lon ization o f m uch o f t he N etsilik a rea ( F igure 1 2b). I n v iew o f t he g enerally e arly T hule a rtifacts e xcavated b y R asmussen a t M a lerualik ( Mathiassen 1 927a), a nd t he e ar ly d ates a nd a rtifact a nd d we lling s tyles a ssociated w ith o ther T hule s ites i n t he s outhern p art o f t he s tudy a rea ( see b e low ), M orr ison 's s cheme w ould a ppear t o h ave t he m ost s upport. F o llow ing t he e stab lishment o f T hule c ulture t hroughout t he s tudy a rea a pproximate ly 8 00-900 B .P., c ultura l d eve lopment c ontinued t o h istor ic t imes i n t he s outhern p art, b ut a pparent ly b y a pprox imate ly 3 00-400 B .P. t he n orthern p art h ad b een a bandoned. T h is a bandonment o f t he n orthern r egion w as s uggested b y M cGhee ( 1969/70, 1 975) a nd M cCartney ( 1977) t o h ave b een t he r esult o f t he d ec line o f t he a bundance o f s ummer ing b owhead w ha les i n t he r egions, w hich i n t urn w as r e lated t o c oo ling c limatic c onditions. I t s hould b e n oted t hat a lthough b oth M cGhee a nd M cCartney ( see e specia lly M cCartney 1 980) s tress t he c entra lity o f b owhead w hales i n t he T hule s ubs istence e conomy, F reeman ( 1979) a nd Y orga ( 1979b) h ave s uggested t hey w ere r elatively m inor c omponents.

I.

H istory S ince C ontact

T he f irst c ontact w ith t he N etsilik I nuit w as i n 1 830 d ur ing J ohn R oss ' v oyage o f 1 829-33 i n s earch o f a n orthwest p assage. E leven m ore e xpeditions v isited t he a rea b etween R oss ' e xpedition a nd t he t ime t hey w ere f irst s tud ied b y a n e thnographer i n 1 923 ( Tab le 3 ). I n t hat y ear R asmussen s pent s even m onths i n t he a rea, p ub lishing t he r esults o f h is f ie ld w ork ' The N etsilik E skimo ' i n 1 931. T hey w ere l ater s tudied b y B alikci ( 1964, 1 968, 1 970, 1 984) a nd D amas ( 1968, 1 969a, 1 969b), a nd d escr iptions o f t rad itional N etsilik s ociety h ave s ince s erved a s e xamples o f ' pr istine ' I nuit

3 1

T ab le 2 .

P revious a rchaeo logica l

Y ear

A rea

T ype o f I nvestigation

R eferences

1 923

K ing W illiam I s land ( Ma lerua lik)

S ite e xcavation

R asmussen 1 931

1 930's

C reswe ll B ay B oothia P eninsula

S urface c o llections(?)

V anstone 1 962

1 961

C reswe ll B ay P eJr-1, P ejq-1

S ite e xcavations

T ay lor & M cGhee 1 979

1 973

C reswe ll B ay P cJq-5

S ite e xcavation S ite s urvey

Y orga 1 979a

1 975

C reswe ll B ay

S ite s urvey

C larke 1 979

1 976

C reswe ll B ay P eJr-1, P cJq-5

S ite e xcavations

M cCartney 1 979a

1 977

A ston B ay, C reswe ll B ay, L ord M ayor B ay, N etsilik R iver

S ite s urveys

S ch ledermann 1 978

1 978

A ston B ay

S ite s urvey

B ie lawski 1 980, 1 982

1 978

C reswe ll B ay

B owhead w ha le b one i nventory

M cCartney 1 978

1 979-82

S tanwe llF letcher L ake

E xcavation

B ie lawski a nd C o le 1 980

1 980

R usse ll

S ite e xcavations

R amsden 1 981

1 980

B ack B ay

S ite e xcavations

R amsden 1 981

1 982

B ack B ay

S ite e xcavations

R amsden 1 982

1 983-85

C reswe ll B ay

S ite s urveys S ite e xcavations

D amkjar 1 983, 1 984

I sland

i nvestigations i n t he s tudy r egions.

M athiassen 1 927a,b

3 2

F igure 1 2. a ) C olonization o f t he N etsilik a rea a s s uggested b y p roponents o f t he P arry C hanne l r oute, w ith i nitia l c olonization ( 1) a nd s ubsequent e xpansion ( 2). b ) C olonization o f t he N etsilik a rea a s s uggested b y p roponents o f t he A rctic m ainland c oast r oute, w ith a pproximate ly c ontemporaneous c olonization w ith m ore n orthern a reas.

3 3

T ab le 3 .

E xpeditions t o t he N etsilik a rea p r ior t o 1 923.

Y ear(s)

E xpedition L eader

* Time S pent i n A rea

R eference

1 829-33

J ohn R oss

3y ears

R oss 1 835

1 833-35

B ack

2w eeks

B ack 1 836

1 837-39

S impson

2w eeks

S impson 1 843

1 845-48

F ranklin

2 (1?) y ears

C yriax 1 939

1 846-47

R ae

2w eeks

R ae 1 850

1 851-52

K ennedy

1w eek

K ennedy 1 853

1 853-54

R ae

6w eeks

R ae 1 855

1 855

A nderson

1w eek

A nderson 1 940-41

1 857-59

M 'Clintock

1y ear

M 'Clintock 1 859

1 864-69

H a ll

4w eeks

N ourse 1 879

1 878-80

S chwatka

8m onths

S tackpo le 1 965

1 903-06

A mundsen

2y ears

A mundsen 1 908

* Inc ludes t ime a ctua lly s pent i n t he s tudy a rea t o a s f ar n orth a s B e llot S trait.

3 4

s ociety ( see f or e xamp le S ervice 1 962; S ahlins 1 972). A t t he t ime t hey w ere f irst v isited b y R asmussen, t he N etsilik n umbered 2 59 i ndividua ls d ivided i nto s ix l ocal b ands ( Figure 1 3), w hich w ere " bilatera l w ith p rominence o f m ale r e levant t ies" i n c omposition a nd c haracter ized b y ' e lastic ' s ocial b oundar ies ( Damas 1 968:113). T he n uc lear f am ily w as t he s ma llest c o llaborative s ocial u nit, b ut v ery r are ly c onstituted a n a utonomous e conom ic u nit. I nstead, e xtended f amilies, a veraging 1 5-20 p ersons ( Damas 1 968:115) c onstituted t he p rimary e conom ic u nit d ur ing t he s pr ing a nd s ummer w hen s ea ls ( spr ing) a nd f ish ( summer) w ere o btained. D ur ing t he f all, t wo o r t hree e xtended f am ilies o ften c ombined a t f ish w eirs f or a nadromous a rctic c har a s t hey r eturned t o f reshwater l akes, a nd a t r ivers a nd l ake c rossings f or t he i nterception o f m igrating c ar ibou. W inters w ere s pent p r imar ily o n t he s ea i ce h unting s ea ls a t b reath ing h o les, w ith m aximum p opulation a ggregates o f u p t o 1 00 a t t his t ime. A dditional f aunal r esources p rocured, b ut o f a pparent ly s econdary i mportance, w ere p o lar b ears, f oxes, w o lves, h ares, m armots, p tarm igan, a nd m igratory w aterfow l ( see e .g. B a likci 1 964, 1 970, 1 984; B r ice-Bennett 1 976). T raditiona l m ater ia l c ulture w as t ypica lly ' Eskimo ' i n t he u se o f h arpoons f or s ea ling, l ances, b ows a nd a rrows, k ayaks f or c ar ibou h unting, f ish s pears f or f ishing, a nd s kin t ents ( summer a nd f all), a nd s now h ouses ( w inter) f or r esidential d wellings. D ogs w ere g enera lly r are, a nd s leds w ere t yp ically c onstructed f rom f rozen f ish w rapped i n s ea l s kin, f rom w ood, o r o ccasionally e ntire ly o f i ce. E arly i n t he 2 0th c entury r ifles w ere o btained i n s mall q uantities t hrough t rade w ith w halers a t R epulse B ay, o r t hrough t rade w ith I nuit g roups f rom C hantrey I nlet t o t he s outh, w ho i n t urn o bta ined t hem f rom t he B aker L ake H udson 's B ay p ost. I n 1 923 a t rading p ost w as e stab lished o n K ing W illiam I sland a t M a lerua lik ( for t he f irst t ime e nsur ing c onstant s upplies o f r ifles a nd a mmun ition), a nd w as s ubsequent ly m oved t o G joa H aven i n 1 926. A dditional t rading p osts w ere e stablished a t P ort L eopold o n S omerset I sland i n 1 926 ( c losed i n 1 927), a t B e llot S trait i n 1 937, a nd a t S pence B ay i n 1 949. T he w idespread u se o f t he r if le w as a ccompanied b y t he a ddition o f f ox t rapping, w hich g radually d eve loped a s a n i mportant s econdary a ctivity ( Brice-Bennett 1 976). T he t ransition f rom a h unting-and-trapp ing e conomy t o o ne o f w age l abour-hunting-and-trapp ing t ook p lace i n t he 1 960 's w ith t he m ovement o f a lmost a ll f am ilies t o t he s ettlements o f G joa H aven, S pence B ay, P e lly B ay ( immediate ly e ast o f t he s tudy r egion) a nd R esolute ( immediate ly n orth o f t he s tudy r egion). T wo f am ilies, h owever, r emained a t C reswe ll B ay a nd c ontinue t o l ive t here o n a p ermanent b asis ( Kemp e t a l. 1 977).

P rob lems a nd H ypotheses

T he c limatic a nd c u ltura l

c hanges i n t he s tudy a rea p resent t wo

3 5

A LL IS I S

A s ton

D EVON I SLAND

BARROW S TRAIT

Bey

4 N-

SOMERSET I SLAND

P R INCE O F W ALES I SLAND C roswe l l B ay

BAFF IN I S LAND

McCLI M OCK CHANNEL PRI NCE REGENT

VERTORM IUT ,, ,,

BOOTH IA P EN INSULA 0

7 0

L o rd Mayo r B ay

NETS IL INGM I QEQERTARM IUT w u l em OUEEN MAUD GULF Ne t s /I lk L ake

S i mpson 0 'RE ILLY

ARV IL IGJUARM I T KUNGM IUT

S tra i t

I SLAND

S no r rnan I n le t 1 00

0

200 KM 9 0 W

9 5

F igure 1 3. D istr ibution o f l oca l t ime o f R asmussen 's e thnographic R asmussen 1 931.

3 6

b ands f ie ld

i n t he s tudy a rea s tudies i n 1 923.

a t t he A fter

N e

p rob lems t hat c an b e a ddressed i n t he s trategy m odel d eve loped i n C hapter 1 .

c ontext

o f

t he

m ob ility

1 . H ow d id t he c hange i n t he a bundance o f t he t wo p r imary r esources ( bowhead w hales a nd b arren g round c ar ibou) i n t he s tudy a rea d ur ing t he p rehistor ic T hule o ccupation o f t he a rea a ffect m obility s trategies, a nd t hus s ettlement s ystems? 2 . W hat e ffect d id t he i ntroduction o f t he r if le, d ecrease i n p ursuit t ime o f s e lected r esources, h ave s trategies, a nd t hus s ett lement s ystems?

t hrough t he o n m ob ility

P rob lem 1 . T he b ackground t o t he f irst p rob lem h as b een d eve loped i n t he d iscuss ion o n t he r esource b ase a nd c limatic c hange. F rom t he o riginal h ypothesis p resented i n C hapter 1 , t he f irst s tudy h ypothesis c an b e s tated a s f o llows, . A d ecrease i n t he d istr ibut ion a nd a bundance o f b owhead w hales i n t he n orthern p art o f t he s tudy a rea, a nd i n b arren g round c ar ibou i n t he s outhern p art o f t he s tudy a rea, w ill b e a ccompanied b y a t ransformation o f s ubsistence-settlement s ystems b ased o n c ollecting s trategies t o s ubsistence-settlement s ystems b ased o n f oraging s trategies. T h is w ill i nc lude a n i ncrease i n r esident ia l m obility, a d ecrease i n l ogistica l m ob ility, a n i ncrease i n d iet b readth, a nd a d ecrease i n l ogist ica llyo r iented s oc ia l d ifferentiation.

P rob lem 2 . S ince t he u se o f t he r ifle d ecreases p ursu it t ime, t he p r incipa l e ffect o f t he i ntroduct ion o f t he r if le a ccording t o t he m ob ility m ode l w ould b e a n i ncrease i n d iet b readth a nd a t endency t o m aintain a f oraging s trategy. T his i s a pparent ly p rec ise ly t he e ffect t he i ntroduction o f t he r ifle h ad o n t he M uskrat D am L ake C ree o f n orthern O ntar io ( W interha lder 1 981b). H owever, t he p rob lem i s c onsiderab ly m ore c omp lex f or t wo r easons. F irst, t he i ntrod uction o f t he r if le, w hile a llow ing g reater p ursuit e ff ic iency f or c ertain r esources, w as a ccompanied b y as hift t o at rapp ing e conomy. T he r ating o f f ox a s o ne o f t he c r itica l r esources i s t herefore a rtificial, b ut t he r esource n evertheless r equired e xtensive l ogistica l m ob ility d ue t o t he m aintenance o f t rap l ines ( see e .g. B r ice-Bennett 1 976). S econd, t he u se o f t he r if le a llowed g reater f ood y ie lds, a nd t herefore l arger d og t eams, w h ich w ere i n t urn r equired f or m aint a ining t rap l ines. T he u se o f l arger d og t eams, h owever, i n t urn d ecreased s earch t ime. T his, t ogether w ith t he d ecrease i n p ursuit t ime, w ould h ave r esulted i n a n i ntensif ication o f t he h arvest o f c r itica l r esources ( pr imar ily c ar ibou a nd r inged s ea ls, s econdar ily m usk-oxen). H owever, t his i ntensificat ion w ou ld n ot b e a ccompanied b y i ncreased s pecia lization o f p rocurement s trategies o r t he d eve lo pment o f s pecialized p rocurement g roups. S uch s trateg ies a re t hemse lves d esigned t o d ecrease s earch a nd p ursuit c osts, b ut t he r ifle i n e ffect a ccomp lished t his. 3 7

T hus, t he o vera ll e ffect o f t he i ntroduction o f t he r if le w ou ld h ave b een t he i ntensif ication o f t he e xp lo itation o f h igh ly r ated r esources, a p robab le d ecrease i n d iet b readth, i ncreased l og istica l m obility a nd s torage, a nd a d ecrease i n c o-operative p rocurement t echniques. T he s econd s tudy h ypothesis c an b e s tated a s f o llows; T he i ntroduction o f t he r if le w ill b e a ccompanied b y a t ransformation o f a s ubsistence-settlement s ystem b ased o n a f orag ing s trategy t o a s ubsistence-settlement s ystem b ased o n a c ollecting s trategy, b ut o ne w hich l acks s pec ia lized p rocurement t echniques. T his w ill i nc lude a n i ncrease i n l ogistical m ob ility, a d ecrease i n r esidential m obility, a d ecrease i n d iet b readth, a nd n o c hange o r a d ecrease i n l og istically-or iented s ocial d ifferentiation.

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C HAPTER T HREE:

A RCHAEOLOGICAL C ONSIDERATIONS

T he i nterpretation o f c ultural s ystems a nd p rocesses t hrough t he ir a ssociated a rchaeo logica l r ema ins m ust n ecessar ily a ddress t he n ature a nd c onsequences o f f ormation p rocesses r esponsib le f or t he s patia l, q uantitative, f orma l, a nd r e lat iona l p roperties o f t hose r ema ins ( Schiffer 1 976:11-12); t hat i s, a rchaeo logica l o bservations ( data) d o n ot ' speak f or t hemse lves ', a nd a s s uch c annot b e a utom atica lly t rans lated i nto p ast h uman b ehavior o r p ast Il ifeways ' ( see f or e xamp le B inford 1 968 a nd H ill 1 972 f or d etailed d iscuss ions). T he r ecognition o f t he i mportance o f t he u nderstanding o f f ormation p rocesses c an b e t raced t o t he p ioneer ing e thnoarchaeol ogica l s tud ies o f A scher ( 1961, 1 962, 1 968), w ho c onsidered t he a rchaeo logica l r ecord a s a d isorganized a rrangement o f m ater ial p roduced a fter t he e vent(s) w hich a rchaeologists a ttempt t o r econstruct f rom t hat m ater ia l. I n e ffect, " time 's a rrow " w as c onsidered t o r educe p rogressively t he q uantity, q uality, a nd p atterning o f d ata s uch t hat a n u nderstanding ( know ledge ) o f t he p ast i s d irect ly r e lated t o t he p reservationa l s tate, w hich i n t urn i s r e lated t o t he t ime e lapsed s ince c ultura l d eposit ion. O n t he b asis o f t his " entropy" v iew o f f ormation p rocesses, A scher a dmon ished a rchaeo logists a gainst i nterpret ing t he a rchaeo logical r ecord o n w hat h e t ermed t he e rroneous n otion o f t he " Pompe ii p rem ise" ( Ascher 1 961:324), s uggest ing t hat t he d eterm ination o f m any, i f n ot m ost, c ultural p rocesses a nd o rganizational " rea lities" w ere s imp ly b eyond t he l im its o f a rchaeo logica l c ognizance ( 1962: 3 62). C urrent a pproaches t o t he s tudy o f f ormation p rocesses c enter o n S chiffer 's " behaviora l a rchaeo logy" ( Sch iffer 1 972, 1 976, 1 977, 1 983) a nd B inford 's " organizationa l d ynam ics" ( see f or e xample B inford 1 981b, B inford a nd S ab loff 1 982). A ccording t o S chiffer, ..archaeo logical r ema ins a re n ot i n a ny s ense a f ossilized c ultura l s ystem . B etween t he t ime a rtifacts w ere m anufact ured a nd u sed i n t he p ast a nd t he t ime t hese s ame o bjects a re u nearthed b y t he a rchaeo logist, t hey h ave b een s ubjected t o as er ies o f c ultural a nd n oncu ltural p rocesses [ and t hus] a rchaeo log ica l r emains a re a d istorted r ef lection o f a p ast b ehaviora l s ystem" ( 1976:11-12). A ccording ly, S ch iffer d eve loped a m ethod o f a na lysis w hereby t he c ontext o f c ultura l r ema ins i s f irst c onsidered, a nd s ubsequent ly t he v ar ious f ormat ion p rocesses w h ich a ffected t he c ultura l r emains i n t he v ar ious c ontexts. C ontext c an b e e ither s ystem ic, i n w hich m ater ia l i s " ...w ithin a n o ngo ing b ehaviora l s ystem - [ it i s] h andled o r o bserved..." ( 1976:28), o r a rchaeo log ical, i n w hich m ater ia l i s i n a " nonbehaviora l s tate" ( op. c it.). S ch iffer c lassif ied f ormation p rocesses a s e ither c ultura l o r n oncu ltura l, w ith c ultura l f ormation p rocesses b e ing d ef ined a s t hose t hat g overn t he m ovement o f m ater ial b etween s ystem ic a nd a rchaeo log ica l c on -

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t ext, a nd n oncultura l f ormation p rocesses b e ing d ef ined a s e nvironm ental p rocesses t hat a ffect a rtifacts p rimar ily i n a n a rchaeol ogica l c ontext ( 1976:14-15). A ccording t o S chiffer 's " behavioral a rchaeology" m ethods, t he i dentification o f p ost-depositional n oncultura l f ormation p rocesses, f o llowed b y t he i dentif icat ion o f t ransformation p rocesses r esponsib le f or t he m ovement o f m ater ial f rom s ystemic i nto a rchaeological c ontext, e nables a " recons truction" o f c ultural s ystems " distorted" i n t he a rchaeo logical r ecord: T he b asic p ractica l i mp lication o f t he t ransformation v iew i s q uite s imple : r egardless o f h ow m uch e vidence i s p resent, t he a rchaeologist c annot r ead b ehavior a nd o rganization d irectly f rom p atterns d iscovered i n t he a rchaeological r ecord. H owever, b ecause f ormation p rocesses t hemse lves e xhib it p atterning...the d istort ions c an b e r ectif ied b y u sing a ppropr iate a na lytica l t echniques a nd i nferentia l t oo ls b uilt u pon o ur k now ledge o f l aws g overning t hese p rocesses ( 1983:677). A d ifferent a pproach t o t he " reconstructionist" v iew, w ith i ts e xp licit i nductive m ethodo logy, h as b een a dvanced b y B inford a nd i s h ere r eferred t o a s t he " organizationa l d ynam ics" a pproach. T he " organizational d ynamics" a pproach b egan w ith h is c lassic A rchaeo logy a s A nthropo logy ( 1962), a nd i s m ost r ecently a rticu lated t hrough h is v ar ious e thnoarchaeo logica l a nd r e lated s tudies ( see f or e xamp le B inford 1 976, 1 977, 1 978a, 1 978b, 1 979, 1 980, 1 981a, 1 981b, 1 982; B inford a nd S ab loff 1 982). B inford 's c oncern i s p r imar ily w ith t he d etermination o f h ow o rganizational p roperties o f a ' c ultura l s ystem c ondition f orms o f s tatic p atterning i n t he a rchaeol ogical r ecord, a nd i n t urn, w ith t he e xp lanation o f d ifferences a nd s imilar ities a mong o rganizationa l p ropert ies o f c u ltura l s ystems. A ccording t o B inford, b ehaviora l r econstruction a s e nvisaged b y S chiffer i s i mpossib le, s ince t he c haracteristics o f t he a rchaeol ogica l r ecord, e ven u nder t he b est o f c onditions, r epresent a " ...massive p a limpsest o f d er ivatives f rom m any s eparate e p isodes" ( 1981a:197). I n B inford 's v iew, t his d oes n ot r ef lect l im itations o f t he a rchaeo logica l r ecord, b ut i nstead c a lls f or a d ifferent v iew o f c ulture : I f w e l ook a t c ulture m ore a s t he a rchaeo log ist m ight s ee i t, w e s ee n othing o f t he i ndividua l's m otives o r o f t he i deas a nd v alues t hat r endered a p articipant 's l ife m eaningful a nd v a lued b y o thers. I nstead, w hat w e s ee a re p laces u sed o ver a nd o ver i n t he s ame w ay a nd c ontinuities i n t he w ay t hings w ere d one a t t hese p laces. W e s ee r epetitive p atterns i n t he f orms a nd k inds o f m ater ia l i tems a s w e ll a s m odif ied p laces u sed b y d ifferent g roups. T hese a re t he c ultura l c ontexts i n t erms o f w hich p eop les o f t he p ast m ust h ave b oth l earned a nd c arr ied o ut t heir c ulturally d istinctive f orms o f b ehavior ( regardless o f t he j ustif ication f or t hem). W e s ee d uration o f f orm a nd c ont inuity i n d esign a nd p lacement, a s w ell a s a ssociations b etween t hings t hat b etray d urations o f o rganized w ays o f d o ing t hings t hat g reatly e xceed t he l ife s pans o f h uman p articipants ( 1983a:221).

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T hus, i t i s t he p atterning p roduced b y c ultura l s ystems o ver t ime a s ac onsequence o f v ar ious l eve ls o f o rganization t hat i s r epresented b y t he a rchaeo logica l r ecord. T his o rganization, a nd c onsequent a rchaeo logical p atterning, i s d iff icu lt t o d eterm ine t hrough t he o bservat ion o f e vents a nd e p isodes i n w hat B inford r efers t o a s t he " quick t ime" p erspective o f t he e thnographer o r t he p articipant i n a c ultura l s ystem ( 1981a :197). F urthermore, i t i s ..necessary f or a rchaeo logists t o i nvestigate t he a rchaeol og ica l r ecord a s ad ifferent o rder o f r eality, t he p atterned s tructure o f w hich r epresents n ot a s ingle a ccumu lation o f l itt le e vents, b ut r ather s ome o f t he b asic o rgan izational c onstraints a nd d eterm inants o perating o n t he e vents o r e p isodes o f d aily l iving" ( op. c it.) F rom B inford 's p erspective, t hen, t he a rchaeo logical r ecord i s n ot a d istorted e thnographic ' reality ' b ut i nstead a s tructured c onseq uence o f o rgan izational l eve ls n ot d irectly o bservab le b y a n e thnographer. F urthermore, i t i s a pparent ly o n t hese l eve ls o f o rganization t hat " eco log ical-evo lutionary s election o perates, r ather t han t he l eve l o f t he s pec if ic e vent" ( op. c it.). I n d iscussing t he a pproaches o f S chiffer a nd B inford, W illey a nd S ab loff ( 1980:249-254) c onsider S chiffer 's " behaviora l a rchaeo logy", b ased o n t he c oncepts o f f ormation p rocesses, t o b e " low-leve l" t heory, w hich a lthough s een a s a n e ssentia l f oundat ion f or t he s tudy o f c ulture p rocess a nd c ulture c hange, c an b e v iewed a s " partia l e xplanation" a t b est. B inford 's " organ izat iona l d ynam ics", o n t he o ther h and, i s v iewed b y t hem, a nd b y B inford h imse lf, a s r epresenta tive o f " midd le-range" t heory i n t hat i t a dvocates n ot o nly t he s tudy o f h ow t he a rchaeo logical r ecord w as f ormed ( i.e. l ow-leve l t heory), b ut a lso t he e xplanation o f w hy a p ast d ynam ic c u ltural s ystem p roduced t he s tatic a rchaeo logical r ecord o f t oday ( i.e. m iddle-range t heory). G oodyear e t a l. ( 1978), a nd e specia lly R aab a nd G oodyear ( 1984), h ave r ecent ly d iscussed t he c oncepts o f " low-leve l" t heory a nd " m iddle-range" t heory i n a rchaeo logy. A s i nitia lly i ntroduced i nto t he a rchaeo logica l l iterature b y R aab a nd G oodyear ( 1973, c ited i n R aab a nd G oodyear 1 984), " m iddle-range" t heory w as p roposed a s a n a pproach w hich s eeks t o c onsolidate h igh-order t heories w ith l ow-order e mp ir ica l s tudies. H owever, t he t erm " m idd le-range" t heory a s a pplied t o B inford 's " organ izat iona l d ynam ic" a pproach b y W illey a nd S abloff ( 1980), a nd i n s ome i nstances b y B inford h imself ( e.g. B inford 1 977, 1 981b), i s s omewhat a mbiguous, i n t hat w hile s uch t heory s erves a s a b ridge b etween s tatic f acts o f t he a rchaeo logica l r ecord a nd t he b ehav ior t hat p roduced i t, i t d oes n ot s uggest t he l eve l o r s cale o n w hich s uch t heor ies o perate ( Raab a nd G oodyear 1 984:261). A s s uch, t hey n ote t hat " It i s d iff icult t o s ee s ignif icant d ifferences b etween s o-called l ower-leve l t heory a nd m iddle-leve l c onstructs" a nd f urther t hat " ...W illey a nd S ab loff 's " lower-leve l t heory" a nd " m idd le-leve l t heory" b oth s eem t o r efer t o t he c entra l m ethodo logica l p rob lem o f d ealing w ith m ater ia l t races." I nstead, t hey s uggest t hat o nly

4 1

w hen w e c ease t o a sk m ere ly w hat k inds o f b ehaviors c an b e l inked t o c ertain r ecords a nd s tart t o a sk w hy t he b ehaviors i n q uestion c ame i nto e x istence, c hanged, o r r emained s tab le, [ w ill] w e a pproach m eaningfu l t heory-building. T o d ate, m ost t reatments o f s ite f ormation p rocesses h ave b een c arr ied o ut a t a m echanica l l eve l a nd e asily r e lated t o p r inc iples a lready e xtant i n b io logy a nd t he p hysical s c iences ( op. c it. : 263) T he a bove d iscuss ion i s n ot m ere ly a n e xerc ise i n s emantics. C lear ly, d istinguishing b etween a n a pproach b ased o n " low-leve l" t heory ( i.e. a " reconstructionist" a pproach) a nd o ne b ased o n " midd le-range" t heory ( sensu R aab a nd G oodyear ) i s c rucia l. T he f ormer i s e ssentially a m ethodology i n t hat w hile i t a llows d etection o f p atterning i n h uman b ehavior, t aken b y i tse lf i t w ill l ead o n ly t o t r ivial " exp lanations". T he l atter a pproach, o n t he o ther h and, r equires i n a ddition c omp lementary f ormulation a nd t esting o f p ropositions w hich a ttempt t o e xp lain c ultura l d ynam ics ( op. c it.:265). A ccording ly, t he p resent c hapter w ill p roceed a long t he p rem ise t hat t he a rchaeo logica l c orre lates o f t he o rgan izationa l s trategies i nvo lved i n t he m a intenance o f c o llecting a nd f oraging s ubs istences ettlement s ystems c an b e d efined i n t erms o f t he r esource s chedu ling, s ite p lacement, a nd d emograph ic a rrangement a ssociated w ith t he r espective s trateg ies. T his f ollows t he d istinction b etween m ethodological a nd e xplanatory l evels o f a nalysis i n a rchaeo logy a s d ifferentiated b y R aab a nd G oodyear ( 1984), a nd B inford's ( 1981a) v iew o f t he a rchaeological r ecord a s t he p atterning r esulting f rom t he o rgan izat iona l d ynam ics o f c ultural s ystems. C onsequent ly, a s er ies o f t est i mp lications w ill b e d eve loped b ased o n t he c ausa l r e lationships i dentified e ar lier ( Chapter 1 ) a nd r e lating t he a rchaeo logica l c orre lates t o c hanges i n r esource s cheduling d ue t o c hanges i n t he r esource s tructure, a nd c hanges i n t echno logy. T h is s trategy, t hrough t he c onversion o f a t heoretical a rgument i nto a s eries o f d erivative p ropositions r e lating t o a s et o f a rchaeo logical p henomena a nd t hereby a ssigning m eaning t o t hose p henomena, s hould c onstitute a l egitimate t est o f t he h ypotheses g enerated i n C hapter 1 ( cf. R aab a nd G oodyear 1 984:265).

A rchaeo log ica l C orre lates o f C o llecting a nd F oraging S ystems

C orre lates c an b e d efined a s p r inc iples o r s tatements t hat r elate b ehavioral v ariables t o v ariables o f m aterial o bjects, s pat ia l r e lationsh ips, o rgan ization, a nd e nvironment ( cf . H ill 1 970:63; S chiffer 1 976:13). A ccording ly, a rchaeo logical c orre lates c an b e d ef ined a s p r inciples o r s tatements r e lating b ehavioral v ar iab les o f p ast c u ltura l s ystems t o t he p resent s tatic a rchaeol ogica l r ecord. D etermination o f a rchaeo logica l c orre lates, h owe ver, d oes n ot n ecessar ily, a nd i n f act r are ly d oes, f o llow d irectly f rom w hat S chiffer ( 1976:44) r efers t o a s e quiva lency t ransformat ions, w h ich a ssert a o ne-to-one c orrespondence o r i dentity b etween s ystem ic a nd a rchaeo logica l c ontext. I nstead, b oth c u ltura l a nd n oncultural f ormation p orcesses, a s n oted p reviously, m ust b e 4 2

c onsidered a nd a ppropr iate t ransformations d efined. I t s hould b e s tressed t hat, w hile j ustification f or t he v ar ious t ransformations t o b e e mployed w ill b e p resented, t hey a re b ased o n e thnographic a nalogy, e thnoarchaeological s tudies, a nd, i n t he a bsence o f r elevant d ata, " invention". F urthermore, w hile s ome r esearchers ( e.g. G ould 1 978, 1 980) h ave c autioned a rchaeo logists a gainst t he u se o f u niform itarian a ssumptions t o i nfer p ast b ehavior, t he p resent s tudy p roceeds a long t he p rem ise t hat, a s n oted r ecently b y B inford " ...any i nference, e ven a s imple i dentification, t o t he p ast m ust m ake a u niform itarian a ssumption" ( 1983b:422, e mphasis i n o r iginal). F rom t he p receding d iscussion, i t i s c lear t hat a rchaeological c orre lates c an, a nd m ust, b e e xamined f rom b oth t he " site s pecific" b ehavioral p erspective a s t hat b ehavior r e lates t o t he o rganizat iona l d ynamics o f a c ultura l s ystem a nd f rom t he " slow t ime" o r p alimpsest p erspective. T his s ection w ill f irst d iscuss t he a rchaeologica l c orre lates a t t he " site s pecific" b ehaviora l l eve l, a nd t hen f rom t he p alimpsest p erspective.

S ite S pecific C orrelates

S ince t he b ehavioral v ariables o f p r imary i nterest t o t he p resent s tudy a re t hose r e lating t o r esource p rocurement s cheduling, s ite p lacement, a nd d emographic a rrangements, " observation u nits" o f d irect r e levance i nclude f eature a nd s ite t ypes, s ite s ize, s ite l ocation, s ite a rrangement, a nd e cofact c haracter istics.

F eature a nd S ite T ype I n d iscussing t he d ifferences b etween f oraging a nd c o llecting s trategies, B inford ( 1980) n oted t hat t he f ormer r esults i n t wo b asic s ite t ypes: r esidential b ases a nd l ocations. C ollecting s trategies, i n a ddition t o r esidentia l b ases a nd l ocations, r esult i n t hree f urther s ite t ypes d ue t o t he l ogistical n ature o f t he ir p rocurement s trategies: f ield c amps, s tations, a nd c aches. 1 .

R esidential b ases. R esidential b ases f orm t he " hub" o f s ubsistence a ctivities, w ith f oraging p arties o r iginating a t t hese l ocalities, a nd m ost p rocessing, m anufacturing a nd m aintenance a ct ivies b e ing c onducted t here. D ue t o t he l ower r esidential m obility o f c ollectors, h owever, r esidentia l b ases a ssociated w ith s uch g roups w ill t end t o r epresent g reater e xpenditures o f e nergy i n d welling a nd r e lated f eature c onstruction a nd m aintenance ( compare f or e xamp le t he s em isubterranean d we llings o f t he N orth A laskan E sk imo " co llectors" [ Spencer 1 959:49] w ith t he s now d we llings o f t he C opper I nuit " foragers" [ Jenness 1 922:59-75]). F urtherm ore, b ecause m ore p ermanent r esidentia l s ites a re o ften t he l ocations o f f orma l r esource r edistr ibution a nd h unting-re lated c eremonialism, s pecific f eatures r e lated t o s uch b ehavior a re

4 3

t ypica lly a ssoc iated w ith s uch s ites. I n t he e ssentia lly s edentary T areumiut c ommunities, f or e xample, s pecialized p ermanent f eatures ( i.e. K ar ig i) a re a ssoc iated w ith e ach w ha ling u nit o r c rew ( see S pencer 1 959:177-180), w hile i n t he s me ller a nd m ore m ob ile N unam iut r es identia l c amps, o nly o ne s uch f eature i s n orma lly p resent, a nd i s o f at emporary n ature ( Spencer 1 959:48-49). 2 .

L ocations. L ocations a re p laces w here e xtractive a ctivit ies a re c arr ied o ut, a nd i nc lude t errestr ia l a nd s ea m amma l ' k ill' l ocalities; f ishing l ocalities; a nd w ood, m eta l, l ithic a nd r aw m ater ia l p rocurement l oca lities. A lthough b oth c o llecting a nd f oraging s ystems a re c haracterized b y l ocations, t hose a ssoc iated w ith t he l atter t end t o b e p r imar ily " low-bu lk" e xtraction l ocalities, w hile t hose a ssociated w ith t he f ormer a re t ypically " high-bulk" e xtraction l ocalities i nvolving r e lative ly s ophisticated p rocurement s trategies ( Binford 1 980), a s w e ll a s " low-bu lk". E xamples o f " low-bulk" l oca lities i nclude k ill s ites o f s ing le, o r a f ew, c ar ibou o r m usk-oxen, s ea l k ill s ites, a nd h unting b linds ( see f or e xample M ath iassen 1 928; R asmussen 1 931; B a likc i 1 970). " High-bu lk" l ocat ions, o n t he o ther h and, w ill i nc lude f eatures t yp ically a ssociated w ith s oph isticated, l ogistica lly o rganized h unting t echniques s uch a s c ar ibou d r ive s ystems ( e.g. R asmussen 1 931; B alikci 1 964, 1 970; F itzhugh 1 981), f ishing w e irs ( Ba likc i 1 970), a nd w hale " haul-out" a nd f lensing l ocalities ( Spencer 1 959; S avelle 1 984).

3 .

F ie ld C amps. A f ie ld c amp i s d ef ined a s a " ...temporary o perationa l c entre f or a t ask g roup. I t i s w here a t ask g roup s leeps, e ats, a nd o therw ise m a inta ins i tse lf w hile a way f rom t he r esidentia l b ase" ( Binford 1 980:10). E xamples o f f ie ld c amps i nc lude c ar ibou-hunt ing f ie ld c amps, f ish ing f ie ld c amps, a nd w ha le-hunting f ie ld c amps.

4 .

S tations. S tations a re a ssociated w ith i ntercept s trategies a s o pposed t o e ncounter s trategies, a nd i nc lude h unting s tands s uch a s t he M ask S ite d escr ibed b y B inford ( 1978b), w here ..spec ia l p urpose t ask g roups a re l oca lized w hen e ngaged i n i nformation g etting, f or i nstance g ame m ovement..." ( B inford 1 980:12).

5 .

C aches. C aches a re c ommon c omponents o f c o llecting s ystems, a nd r epresent t emporary s torage f ac ilities f or b ulk i tems t hat a re a fterwards t ransported t o t he c onsumers, o r a lternate ly, t hey m ay r epresent s torage f acilit ies a t w hich c onsumers g ather a nd e stab lish r esidentia l b ases ( see C hapter 1 ).

S ite S ize T he n umber o f f eatures u tilized a t a ny o ne t ime w ill b e ad irect r eflection o f t he s ite p opulat ion a nd/or e xtent o f p articular a ctivities r e lated t o t hose f eatures. W h ile f oraging g roups c an b e e xpected t o m aintain r e lat ive ly s ma ll c amp s izes t o m inim ize t he r ate o f r esource d epletion w ithin a c amp 's " catchment" a rea, s edentary o r s emi-sedentary c ollectors d o n ot h ave t he s ame 4 4

r estr ictions, a nd t his, c omb ined w ith r esource s urp luses, a llows g enera lly g reater p opulation l eve ls a mongst t he l atter. A s tra ight e quiva lency t ransformation, h owever, w ill b e a pplicab le o nly i f t he s ite h as n ot b een o ccup ied o r u t ilized p r ior t o, o r s ubsequent t o, t he t ime p er iod i n q uest ion. A lthough i n s ome i nstances s uch c onditions w ould b e l ike ly, i n o ther i nstances t hey w ould n ot. T he e ffects o f r eoccupation o r r eutilizaton o f s ites w ill b e d iscussed i n d etail i n t he s ect ion d ea ling w ith t he p a limpsest p erspective. A n a lternative a pproach t o s ite s ize w as u tilized b y Y ellen ( 1977), w ho d eterm ined t hat s ite s ize, a t l east a mongst f oraging g roups, w as r e lated n ot t o p opulation d irectly b ut r ather t o l ength o f o ccupat ion. H owever, s ite s ize i n t h is i nstance r e lates t o b oth r esident ia l f eatures a nd m idden a reas. B y s ite s ize, i n t he p resent s tudy, i s m eant t he n umber o f f eatures w ithin a s ite, r ather t han o verall s ize, m idden d epth o r a reas, o r a ny o ther p ossible c r iter ion.

S ite L ocation S ite l ocation m ode ls i n r ecent y ears h ave t ended t o e mphasize s ite p lacement i n t erms o f g enera l a djacent " subsistence a reas" a ccessib le f rom t he s ite i tse lf. T hat i s, s ite l ocation i s s een a s ad irect f unction o f t he n ature o f l oca l a nd r egiona l r esources. A s s ummar ized b y B ettinger ( 1980:222-226), t hese i nc lude s ite c atchment m ode ls ( e.g. V ita-Finz i a nd H iggs 1 970 ; R oper 1 979), " gravity" m ode ls ( e.g. J och im 1 976; C rum ley 1 979), " optima l" l ocation ( e.g. W ood 1 978), a nd s o-ca lled " po lythet ic-satisf icer" m ode ls ( e.g. W illiams e t a l. 1 973; T homas a nd B ettinger 1 976). H owever, s uch m ode ls t end t o a ccount f or t he i nteraction b etween e conom ic z ones a nd r esidentia l b ases o nly ; i .e. w hat B inford ( 1982) h as r eferred t o a s t he " foraging r adius". L ocationa l a na lysis i n t his r egard w ill t hus b e a pplicab le o nly t o f oraging s ystems. C o llecting s ystems, o n t he o ther h and, m ust a lso b e e xamined f rom t he s tandpoint o f a " logistical" z one; i .e. t he z one e xp lo ited b y t ask g roups o perating o ut o f f ie ld s tat ions. A ccording ly, i n f oraging s ystems s ite l ocationa l p atterns w ill t end t o c onsist o f a s er ies o f r esident ia l b ases w ith a ssoc iated l ocations a t o r n ear r esource c oncentrations. I n c ollecting s ystems, r esidential b ases w ill b e m ore w idely d ispersed a nd s ituated a t p r imary c aching l oca lities ( re lated i n t urn t o p rimary r esource c oncentrations), w hile b etween a nd p er iphera l t o t he r esident ia l b ase c amps a nd l ocations w ill b e a n umber o f f ie ld c amps, s ma ller c aches, a nd s tations ( Binford 1 982). T hese d ifferences a re i llustrated i n F igure 1 4.

I nternal S ite A rrangement I nternal s ite a rrangement h as o ften b een u tilized a s ac r iter ion o f s ocia l d ifferent iat ion a nd i ntegrat ion a mongst b oth n omadic a nd s edentary s oc ieties ( see f or e xamp le C hang 1 958, 1 962; D eetz 1 965; T r igger 1 968 ; H ill 1 968, 1 970 ; D ickens 1 978; M uller 1 978 ; F lannery 1 976). S uch s tud ies a re t yp ica lly b ased o n t he a ssumpt ion t hat t he d istr ibution o f f eatures w ithin a s ite a re a r ef lection o f t he

4 5

a R es iden t ia l F orag ing

S i te

Z one

l g i ?

R es iden t ia l o rag ing Z one

L og is t ica l

L og is t ica l

S i te

o ne

S i tes

0

1 0

km

F igure 1 4. I dealized p atterns o f e conom ic z ones a ssoc iated w ith ( a) f oraging s ystems a nd ( b) c o llecting s ystems. A fter B inford 1 981a.

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s oc ia l o r o rganizationa l c omponents o f t he c ulture r epresented b y t he s ite. L evi-Strauss, f or e xample, n oted t hat " ...in m any p arts o f t he w or ld t here i s a n o bvious r e lationship b etween t he s oc ia l s tructure a nd t he s patia l s tructure o f s ettlements, v illages, o r c amps", s ince, i n p art " ...spat ia l c onf iguration s eems t o b e a lmost a p roject ive r epresentat ion o f t he s ocia l s tructure" ( Levi-Strauss 1 953:533-534, c ited i n C hang 1 962:37). C hang ( 1962) h as r eferred t o t he f eature a rrangement w ithin a s ite a s t he " community p attern", w hile r eserving t he t erm " settlement p attern" t o r efer t o t he " locality o f t he s oc ietal o ccupation i n r e lation t o t he n atura l e nvironment, t echno logy, a nd s ubsistence " ( 1962:28). C hang d istinguished t wo b road " northern" ( or c ircumpolar ) c ommunity p attern t ypes: " Siber ian" a nd " Eskimo". S iber ian c ommunity p atterns t ake t he f orm o f m ulti-dwe lling v illages w ith p lanned o r iented l ayouts, o r a s v illages c onsisting o f as ing le o r s ma ll n umber o f c ommuna l h ouses. S uch p atterns a re t ypically a ssociated w ith c ommunities c onsisting o f am ore o r l ess p ermanent m embership d eterm ined b y b irth, m arr iage, a nd o ccasiona lly a doption. E sk imo c ommunity p atterns, o n t he o ther h and, a re c haracter ized b y a n i rregular c ommunity l ayout a nd a re a ssociated w ith s ma ll g roups o f l oose ly o rganized h ouseho lds w ith f lexib le m embership r equirem ents, a nd a pparent ly l ack a n e xplicit t endency f or a s ymbo lica lly o r iented s ettlement l ayout. A lthough C hang d ifferentiated e ffects o f t he e nvironment, t echno logy a nd s ubsistence a nd c onsidered t hem u n important i n " community p attern" a na lysis, a n e co logical a pproach a s f o llowed i n t he p resent s tudy w ould s uggest t hat s uch p atterns m ay b e m ore c lose ly r e lated t o t he o rganizat ional c omponents o f a s oc iety w ith r egards t o h unting c rew o r g roup m embersh ip, d istr ib ution o f s urp lus r esources, a nd/or f orma lized s ocial c ontro l. A ccording ly, t he m ore s tructured " Siber ian" p attern w ould t end t o b e r elated t o s edentary o r s emi-sedentary r esidential b ases o f c ollectors, w here r esource s urpluses, l ogistically o rganized h unting c rews, a nd l arger p opulations w ith t he p otential f or c orresponding i ntragroup c onflict, w ould b e e xpected ( c.f. R enouf 1 984). T he l ess s tructured " Eskimo" p attern w ould t end t o b e r e lated t o t he m ore m ob ile, l ess l ogistica lly o rgan ized r esidential b ases o f f oragers.

E cofact C haracter istics G eneral a pproaches t o t he s tudy o f f aunal r emains i n a rchaeological c ontexts f or t he i nterpretation o f s ubsistence b ehavior h ave b een o utlined b y M edlock ( 1975), B inford ( 1978a), W ing a nd B rown ( 1979), a nd L yman ( 1982), a mong o thers. M edlock ( 1975) w as o ne o f t he f irst t o s tress t he i mportance o f t he r ecogn ition a nd a na lysis o f t aphonom ic h istor ies ( inc luding c ultural) o f f aunal a ssemb lages, a nd s uggested f our m ethods o f a pproaching t he s tudy o f t hese h istor ies: a ) i mproved t echniques o f a na lys is, b ) e xperim entation, c ) a na logy, a nd d ) s imu lation r esearch. A s n oted b y L yman ( 1982:340-341), t he f irst i nvo lves p r imar ily t he i nvest igation o f v arious q uantitative t echniques, w hile t he r emaining t hree m ethods i nvo lve w hat h ave b een t ermed " actua listic" s tudies ( G ifford

4 7

1 981; B inford 1 981b). C ertain ly t he m ost u seful o f r ecent a ctua list ic s tudies i n t he s tudy o f h unter-gatherer s ystems h ave b een t hose b y B inford ( 1978a, 1 981b). A ccording t o B inford, t he N unam iut E skimo s ystem, w hich h e u ses a s am ode l f or c o llecting s ystems, i s c haracter ized b y s trategies t o " ...increase a ) t he t ime u tility o f r esources ( storage), b ) t he s pace u tility o f r esources ( logistics), c ) t he c onsumer u tility o f r esources ( sometimes c omp licated s er ia l o r u se d ifferentiat ion a mong f ood s ources) a nd d ) t he s ocial u tility o f r esources ( v iab le p atterns o f s haring a nd m utua l a id t hat f requent ly r esulted i n a k ind o f t ime-and-space b ank ing s trategy f or a ccess t o r esources a lready s oc ia lly i ncorporated b y o thers)." ( 1978a :458) A ccording ly, B inford s uggested t he f ollow ing g enera l

p ropositions:

1 .

T he g reater t he d istance o ver w h ich m eat i s t o b e t ransp orted, p er u nit o f t ime, t he m ore r adica l w ill b e t he c ulling o f l ow-utility a natomica l p arts a long t he t ransp ort r oute.

2 .

T he g reater t he b ulk o f m ater ia l t o b e t ransported, p er u nit o f t ime, t he m ore r adica l w ill b e t he c u lling o f l ow-ut ility a natom ical p arts a long t he l og istica l r oute. ( Binford 1 978a :459).

F rom t he a bove p roposit ions, i t c an b e s een t hat, o ther c onditions b e ing e qua l, h igh-bu lk, l ogistically-organ ized c o llect ing s ystems w ill b e c haracter ized b y r elat ive ly h igh-utility f auna l e lements a t r esidentia l s ites, m oderate-utility e lements a s r esidua l c ache i tems, a nd l ow-utility e lements a t k ill a nd p rocessing s ites. F oraging s ystems, o n t he o ther h and, w ill b e c haracter ized b y c omparative ly l ess r ad ical c u lling w ithin t he f oraging r adius. T hese r e lationships a lso s erve t o o ut line, i n p art, t he r ationa le f or t he r e lative d ecrease i n d iet b readth a mong c o llectors. T he e quality o f " other c onditions", h owever, c annot b e a ssumed w ith r espect t o o ne i mportant a spect: s pecif ically, d ogs. A s d iscussed b y B inford ( 1978a :214-217, 3 30-332, 4 42-445), d ogs a re t ypica lly f ed l ow a nd m edium u tility e lements, w ith t he r esu lt t hat r adica l c ulling s een i n r esident ia l s ites m ay b e a ttr ibuted t o a n i ncreased u se o f d ogs r ather t han t he r equirements o f l ogistica l t ransportation. I n t he l atter c ase, h owever, t here w ould n ot b e a c orresponding p resence o f l ow a nd m edium u tility e lements a t c aches a nd l ocations.

P alimpsest C orre lates

A s n oted p revious ly, t he a rchaeo logica l r ecord c an i n m any i nstances b e c onsidered a p alimpsest o f d er ivative m ater ial f rom a s er ies o f d ifferent o ccupationa l o r u tilizationa l e p isodes. A ccordi ng ly, t here a re n o n ecessary o r d irect a ssoc iational r e lat ionships

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b etween v ar ious m ater ia ls a t a n a rchaeo logica l s ite, u nless t he c u ltura l d epositional e vents a re o f s uch " h igh e nergy" t hat b ur ia l u nits c an b e d irect ly e quated w ith h uman a ctions ( Binford 1 981a :197, 1 982:16). A lthough t he a rchaeo logical c onsequences o f " s ite d eve lopment" h ave b een i nvestigated i n d etail i n p r imar ily s edentary g roups ( see e .g. H ill 1 970; P loy 1 975; L ongacre 1 976), v ery f ew s uch s tudies h ave b een d evoted t o h unter-gatherer s ites. H owever, i t c an b e s uggested t hat t here w ill b e a t endency t o r eoccupy o r r euse f eatures o r m ater ia ls s equentia lly . F urthermore, t he m ore e nergy e xpenditure r equired f or t he c onstruction o f a f eature, t he m ore l ike ly t he f eature w ill b e r eused o r r eoccup ied. H owever, i t c an a lso b e a ntic ipated t hat n ot e very r euseab le f eature w ill i n f act b e r eused. A ccordingly, t he p roportion o f " redundant" f eatures i ncreases w ith i ncreasing r eoccupation a nd/or r eutilizat ion a nd, a s s uch, a bso lute s ite s ize w ill i ncrease. T hus, w h ile a bso lute r esidentia l u nit e st imates, o r e st imates o f o ther f eature-associated a ctivit ies m ay n ot b e p ossib le, r e lat ive e st imates, b ased o n f eature n umber o r s ize, a re c omparab le. F urthermore, i t c an b e s een t hat t he s maller t he s ite s ize, t he c loser w ill b e t he a pprox imation t o c ontemporary f eature u tlization. T hese r e lationships a re r epres ented i n F igure 1 5. S ince f oraging s ystems e mphasize w idespread c overage o f a reas t hrough a n " encounter" s trategy a nd c o llecting s ystems e mphasize " intercept" s trategies, r edundancy o f s ite o ccupation o r u tilization c an b e e xpected t o v ary a ccording ly. S pec if ica lly, s ites a ssociated w ith f oraging s ystems ( residences a nd l ow-bu lk l ocations) c an b e e xpected t o s how l ess r edundancy, w hile c o llect ing s ystems, b ecause o f t he ir e ncounter s trategy a t s pecif ic " h igh-bu lk" l ocations, w ill s how g reater o ccupat iona l a nd u tilization r edundancy. T his o ccupat ional a nd u tilization r edundancy w ill i n t urn a ffect i ntersite v ar iability . F or c o llecting s ystems, s ince l arger r esident ia l s ites a re a ssociated w ith h igh-bulk l ocations a nd c aches, a nd t hus g reater o ccupationa l r edundancy, i ntersite v ar iability w ill b e c onsiderable. F or e xamp le, l arge c ache s ites o f c ollectors m ay b e e xpected t o b e a ssoc iated w ith l arge r esident ia l s ites a nd/or h igh-bu lk l ocations. S m a ller c aches, o n t he o ther h and, c an b e e xpected t o b e i so lated, o r o ccasiona lly, b ut n ot c onsistent ly, a ssoc iated w ith o ther s ite t ypes. F or f orag ing s ystems, r e lative ly l ow s ite o ccupational r edundancy, a s w e ll a s l ow i n itia l v ar iab ility i n s ite t ype, w ill r esult i n r elative ly l ow i ntersite v ar iab ility. T hese r e lationships a re i llustrated i n F igure 1 6.

T est I mp lications

G iven t he h ypotheses a dvanced i n C hapter 1 , a nd t he a rchaeol ogical c orrelates o f r elevant h unter-gatherer b ehavior, t his s ect ion w ill p ropose a s er ies o f t est i mp lications, o r p ropositions, t hat s hould o btain i f t he p ostu lated c ausa l r e lationsh ips a nd r esponses a re c orrect. I t s hould b e s tressed h ere t hat f or t he h istor ic p er iod e thnohistor ica l d ocumentation w ill b e u tilized, w hen

4 9

a

-

NUMBER O F U T IL IZAT ION E P ISODES -

*o r-

C 7 )

N UMBER O F U T IL IZAT ION E P ISODES

F igure 1 5. a ) R e lationsh ip b etween c ontemporaneous f eature u se a nd u tilization e p isodes o f l ow a nd h igh e nergy f eatures, a ssum ing c onstant u tilization i ntensity. b ) R e lationship b etween s ite s ize a nd u tilization e p isodes, g iven t he r e lationships e stab lished i n 1 5(a) a bove a nd a ssum ing c onstant u tilization i ntensity.

5 0

/

I NCREAS ING

/

/

COLLECI NG S f CE ' T YPE B

I NCREAS ING NUMBER O F F EATURE X

F igure 1 6. A n e xamp le o f d ifferences i n o verall s ite v ariability b etween c ollecting a nd f oraging s ystems. R egardless o f s ite s ize, t he r e lationship b etween f eatures X a nd Y r ema in c onstant f or s ites c ontaining t hose f eature t ypes i n f oraging s ystems, w hile f or c o llecting s ystems c hanging r e lationships a re e quated w ith a c hange i n s ite t ype.

5 1

a ppropr iate, t o s upport c onc lusions d er ived f rom t he a rchaeo logical d ata. H owever, t he a rchaeological d ata a re s till c onsidered c rucia l, s ince, a s d iscussed p revious ly, t he e thnographic/ethnoh istor ic " quick-time" p erspective m ay f ail t o r ecord f ully o rganizat iona l r esponses t o e nvironmenta l o r t echno logica l c hange. F urtherm ore, i t s hould b e n oted t hat w hile t he t est i mp lications a re n ecessar ily p resented i n q ualitative t erms, t hey n everthe less a llow c omparisons o f d irection o f c hange a ccording t o t he s tated h ypotheses. F inally, t o p rovide a c hrono logical f ramework, N eoeskimo s ites a nd/or c omponents r e lating t o t he p er iod o f m ax imum b owhead w ha le d istr ibution a nd a bundance a re r eferred t o a s " classic" T hu le. T h is f o llows M cCartney ( 1977) a nd S abo ( 1981), w ho h ave d ef ined t his t erm o n t he b asis o f s equences i n o ther a reas. A lthough t his " chronol ogical" d efinition i s s ubsistence-based, c hanges i n m aterial c ulture c haracter istics h ave t raditiona lly b een c lose ly a ssociated w ith c hanges i n s ubsistence e conom ies ( see f or e xample M cGhee 1 972; S ch ledermann 1 975; M cCartney 1 977; S abo 1 981). E xtending t his c oncept t o t he s outhern " car ibou" a rea, " c lassic" T hule r efers t o t hose s ites a nd/or c omponents r e lating t o t he p er iod o f p robab le m ax imum c aribou d istr ibution a nd a bundance, a nd i s c omparable i n a ge t o " classic" T hule e lsewhere. " Modif ied" T hule r efers t o t hose s ites a nd/or c omponents f o llow ing t he d ecline o f m ax imum b owhead w hale a nd c ar ibou a bundances, a nd e xtending u p t o t he b eginn ing o f t he h istor ic p er iod i n t he s tudy a rea ( 1829). T he h istor ic p er iod i s d ef ined a s t he p er iod f rom 1 829 u p t o t he e stab lishment o f g overnment h ousing i n p ermanent s ettlements ( approx imate ly 1 960), a nd i s f urther d ivided i nto a n " ear ly" p hase, w hich i nc ludes t he p er iod u p t o t he t ime o f t he e stablishment o f H udson 's B ay C ompany p osts a nd t he c orresponding w idespread u se o f t he r if le, a nd a " late" p hase, w hich i nc ludes t he p er iod f o llow ing t he b eginn ing o f w idespread u se o f t he r if le.

H YPOTHESIS 1

A d ecrease i n t he d istr ibution a nd a bundance o f b owhead w hales i n t he n orthern p art o f t he s tudy a rea, a nd o f b arren g round c ar ibou i n t he s outhern p art o f t he s tudy a rea, w ill b e a ccompanied b y a t ransformation o f s ubsistence-settlement s ystems b ased p rimarily o n c o llecting s trategies t o s ubsistence-settlement s ystems b ased p r imar ily o n f oraging s trategies.

T est I mp lications:

1 .

T here s hould b e as trong f unctional s eparation o f C lassic T hule s ites i nto r esident ia l b ases, h igh-bu lk l ocations, f ie ld c amps, c aches, a nd s tations, a nd t his f unctiona l s eparation s hou ld d ecrease i n M odif ied T hule a nd e ar ly H istor ic s ites.

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2 .

I ntersite v ar iab ility s hould b e r e lative ly h igh f or C lassic T hule s ites a nd d ecrease f or M odified T hule a nd e ar ly H istor ic s ites.

3 .

C lassic T hule s ite p atterns s hould e xh ib it r ecognizab le f oraging a nd l ogistica l z ones, a nd t he f oraging z ones ( def ined f rom r esidential b ases) s hould b e a ssoc iated p r imar ily w ith h igh-bu lk l ocations a nd c aches. M odified T hule a nd e ar ly H istor ic s ite p atterns s hould e xh ib it l ess o f a t endency t oward l ogistica l z onations a nd i nstead a pproximate a c ontinuous s eries o f f oraging z ones.

4 .

C lassic T hule s ite p lacement p atterns s hould e mphasize, a nd b e r e lated t o, b owhead w hale p rocurement l ocations i n t he n orth a nd c ar ibou p rocurement l ocations i n t he s outh, a nd s econdar ily t o o ther " cr itica l" r esources i n t he r espect ive a reas. L ater s ite p lacement p atterns s hou ld t end t o e mphasize, a nd b e r e lated t o, s econdary r esources.

5 .

C lassic T hule r esidentia l s ites s hould b e r e lat ive ly p ermanent ( i.e. s eason-long, a nnua lly-repeated o ccupat ions), a nd s hould b e a ssociated w ith h igh-bu lk l ocations. M odif ied T hule a nd e ar ly H istor ic r esidentia l s ites, o n t he o ther h and, s hould b e o f a m ore t emporary n ature a nd s how l ess a ssoc iation w ith h igh-bu lk c ache s ites a nd/or h igh-bu lk l ocations.

6 .

C lassic T hule s ites s hould b e i nterna lly r e lative ly s tructured w hile l ater s ites s hould s how a t rend d ecreasing i nternal s ite s tructure.

7 .

T here s hould b e at rend t o d ecreasing r esident ia l s ite s ize f rom C lass ic T hule t o M odif ied T hule a nd e ar ly H istor ic s ites.

8 .

D iet b readth a s r eflected b y f auna l r ema ins s hould b e r e lat ive ly n arrow a t C lassic T hule s ites a nd r e lative ly w ide a t M odif ied T hule a nd e ar ly H istor ic s ites.

9 .

H igh-bu lk

r esources

a t

r esidential

s ites

s hou ld

s how

h ighly t oward

g reater

c ulling o f l ow u tility e lements a t C lassic T hule s ites a nd l ess a t M odif ied T hule a nd e ar ly H istor ic s ites; l ocations a nd c aches s hould s how p rogress ive ly g reater c ulling o f h igh a nd m edium u t ility e lements f or t ransfer t o r esident ia l s ites. 1 0. F auna l r emains a t C lassic T hule r esidentia l s ites a ssociated w ith h igh-bu lk r esources s hould i ndicate r e lative ly e xtended s easona l o ccupations, w hile t hose a t M odified T hule a nd e ar ly H istor ic r es identia l s ites s hould i ndicate r e lative ly s hort s easona l o ccupations.

H YPOTHESIS 2

T he i ntroduction o f t he r ifle w ill b e a ccompanied b y a t ransformation o f a s ubs istence-sett lement s ystem b ased o n

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a f orag ing s trategy t o a s ubsistence-sett lement s ystem b ased o n a c ollecting s trategy, b ut o ne w hich l acks s pecia lized p rocurement t echniques.

T est I mp lications 1 .

T here s hould b e ag reater f unct iona l s eparation o f l ate H istor ic p er iod s ites i nto r esident ia l b ases, h igh-bu lk l ocat ions, f ie ld c amps, c aches a nd s tations t han f or s ites a ssoc iated w ith p receding M odif ied T hule a nd e ar ly H istor ic p er iods.

2 .

I ntersite v ar iab ility s hou ld b e r e lative ly h igher f or l ate H istor ic p er iod s ites t han f or t he p reced ing M odif ied T hu le a nd e ar ly H istor ic s ites.

3 .

T here s hould b e a t rend f rom s ite p atterns e xhibiting a c ont inuous s er ies o f f orag ing z ones d ur ing t he M odif ied T hu le a nd e arly H istoric p eriods t o s ite p atterns e xhibiting r ecognizab le f orag ing a nd l ogistica l z ones d ur ing t he l ate H istor ic p er iod.

4 .

L ate H istor ic s ite p lacement p atterns s hou ld e mphas ize , a nd b e r e lated t o, t he p r imary c r itica l r esources o f c ar ibou, s ea l, a nd f ox, a s o pposed t o am ore g enera l p attern d ur ing t he p receding M od if ied T hule a nd e ar ly H istor ic p er iods.

5 .

L ate H istor ic r es ident ia l s ites s hou ld b e r e lat ive ly p ermanent o r s em i-permanent, a nd s hould s how a g reater a ssociat ion w ith h igh-bu lk l ocat ions a nd c aches t han M odif ied T hule a nd e ar ly H istor ic s ites.

6 .

I nterna l s ite s tructure s hou ld r ema in r e lative ly u nchanged f rom t he M odif ied T hule a nd e ar ly H istor ic p er iod t o t he l ate H istor ic p er iod.

7 .

T here s hould b e at rend t o i ncreas ing r esidentia l s ite s ize f rom t he M odif ied T hule a nd e ar ly H istor ic p er iod t o t he l ate H istor ic p er iod.

8 .

D iet b readth a s r ef lected b y f auna l r ema ins s hou ld b e r e lat ive ly n arrow a t l ate H istor ic s ites i n c ompar ison w ith M odif ied T hule a nd e ar ly H istor ic s ites.

9 .

H igh-bu lk r esources a t l ate H istor ic r es identia l s ites s hou ld s how g reater c ulling o f l ow- t o m ed ium-ut ility e lements i n c ompar ison t o t hose a t M odif ied T hu le a nd e ar ly H istor ic s ites. T his s hould n ot, h owever, b e a ccompanied b y a c orresponding i ncrease i n l ow- t o m edium-utility e lements a t c aches a nd l ocations.

1 0. F auna l r ema ins a t l ate H istor ic r es ident ia l s ites a ssoc iated w ith h igh-bu lk r esources s hould i nd icate r e lative ly e xtended s easona l o ccupat ions, w hile t hose a t M odif ied T hu le a nd e ar ly

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H istoric s ites o ccupations.

s hould

i ndicate

r elatively

s hort

s easonal

I t s hould b e s tressed t hat w hile t he t est i mp lications f or h ypothesis 2 s hould i dea lly b e r estr icted t o t he e ar ly a nd l ate H istor ic p er iods, t he n ecessary d etailed f ie ld i nvestigations t o d ifferentiate l ate M odified T hule f rom e arly H istoric s ites/ c omponents w ere n ot p ossib le g iven t he n ature o f t he p roject. H owever, s ince a ccording t o t he s tated h ypotheses, b oth M odif ied T hule a nd e ar ly H istor ic s ubsistence-settlement s ystems s hou ld b e b ased o n f oraging s trategies, c omb ining s ites f rom t he t wo p er iods a llows c ompar ison o f m uch l arger s amp le s izes w ithout c omprom ising p roposition v a lidity. T his i s n ot t o s uggest t hat i ndirect o r d irect c ontact w ith E uropean o r E uro-Amer ican e xp lorers a nd/or w ha lers p r ior t o 1 923 d id n ot, o r c ould n ot, a ffect s ignif icantly v ar ious a spects o f i ndigenous I nuit s oc iety ( see e .g. H ickey 1 979, 1 984; S ave lle 1 985). B ased o n p resent e vidence, h owever, t here d o n ot a ppear t o h ave b een s ignif icant c hanges i n a ctua l s ubsistences ettlement s ystems, i ntergroup g eographic b oundary c hange n otw iths tanding.

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C HAPTER F OUR:

M ETHODOLOGICAL C ONSIDERATIONS

T he d eterm ination o f a na lytical u nits i s d irectly d ependent u pon t he v ar iab les i dentif ied i n t he f ormulated p roposit ions ( test i mp lic ations), s ince, a s n oted b y B inford ( 1968 :24) I ntuitive ly e stab lished a na lytica l u nits, w hose s ignificance i s n ot s pecified, c an a t b est b e o f l im ited u tility i n t esting h ypotheses. F or i n h ypothesis t est ing w e m ust a lways b e a b le t o j ustify o ur o bservat ions a s r e levant m easures o f t he v ar iab le i dentif ied i n t he p roposition w e h ave f ormul ated. H ill h as a lso o utlined t he f utility o f u nstructured d ata c o llection, a nd m akes t he p o int t hat " ...we c annot c o llect d ata e ff ic iently w ithout h ypotheses. H ypotheses a re b r idges b etween p rob lems a nd d ata, a nd p rovide e xplicit f rameworks f or i nterpretation..." ( 1972:63). A ccording ly, t he a na lytical u nits e stab lished f or t he p resent s tudy a re d er ived f rom t he a rchaeo logica l c orre lates d ef ined i n t he p revious s ection, a nd a s s uch, s hould t ranscend t he l eve l o f " arguments o f r e levance" a nd a pp ly d irectly t o " explanatory a rgum ents" ( Binford 1 983c:160). F urthermore, i n m aintaining t he s trategy a dopted i n t he p receeding s ection, u niformitarian a ssumpt ions a re m ade w ith r egard t o t echnofunctional a nd s oc iof unctiona l r ea lms ( cf. B inford 1 962). G iven t he t est i mp lications p resented p revious ly, t he r e levant a na lytica l u n its t o b e e xamined a re t hose r e lating t o 1 ) f eature a nd s ite t ype, 2 ) s ite s ize, 3 ) i ntersite v ar iab ility, 4 ) i nterna l s ite s tructure, 5 ) s ite , s ituation a nd i ntersite a ssociation ( i.e. f oraging v s. l ogistical r adius), 6 ) s ite s easonality, 7 ) d iet b readth, 8 ) c ulling c haracter istics, a nd 9 ) s ite a ge.

1 .

F eature a nd S ite T ype

a ) R esidential S ites. H istorically, r esidential f eatures a ssociated w ith T hule E skimo a nd H istor ic I nu it g roups i nc luded t rue s emisubterranean d wellings, c ormang, s kin t ents, c anvas t ents ( post-1923), a nd s now d we llings. 1 . S em isubterranean d we llings : S em isubterranean d we llings w ere t ypica lly d eep, c onstructed o f s tone, s od, a nd l oca lly w ha lebone o r w ood, w ith r ecognizab le " cold-trap" e ntrances. S uch d wellings w ere u tilized h istor ica lly i n A laska ( Spencer 1 959, 1 984), i n L abrador ( Bird 1 945; T ay lor 1 984), i n G reenland ( K le ivan 1 984), a nd o n S outhampton I sland ( Taylor 1 960), a nd a n e xample i s r epresented i n F igure 1 7. P rehistor ic u se o f s uch d we llings ( dur ing t he e ar ly T hule p er iod) h as b een e stab lished t hroughout t he w estern, c entra l, a nd e astern A rctic ( see e .g. M ath iassen 1 927a,b ; H o ltved 1 944; F ord

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S TORAGE A LCOVES

WHALE SCAPULAE

W OODEN S LEEPING P LATFORM WHALE

S KULLS

WHALE R IBS/ MAND IBLES

F igure 1 7. T areum iut E skimo s emisubterranean d we lling: b ) c ross s ection. A fter S pencer 1 959.

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a )

p lan,

1 959; T aylor 1 972; S ch ledermann 1 975, 1 976a, 1 976b; M cCartney 1 977, 1 979a; T aylor a nd M cGhee 1 979, 1 981; M axwe ll 1 981; S abo 1 981; Y orga 1 982; M cGhee 1 984). H istor ically, s em isubterranean d we llings w ere a ssociated w ith p ermanent r esidentia l v illages w hich w ere t yp ically o ccup ied d ur ing t he e ntire w inter, s erving a s b ases f or l ogist ically o rganized t ask g roups. 2 . Q armang: M athiassen ( 1927b:133) d escribed q armang ( "qarmaq") a s " ...pure ly t emporary d we llings w hich a re m ost o ften b u ilt o f s now , b ut s ometimes o f i ce o r s tones a nd t urf". T he p urpose o f s uch s tructures w as " ...to f ill i n t he u np leasant p er iod i n t he f all f rom t he t ime w hen t he t ent b ecomes t oo c o ld u ntil s now b ecomes f irm e nough t o b e s uitable f or b uilding s now h ouses, a p er iod t hat i s r arely l onger t han a m onth o r s o..." ( op. c it.). M athiassen w as t he f irst t o s uggest t hat s uch f eatures w ere " superfluous" t o t he t rue s em isubterranean d we llings a nd p ost-dated s uch f eatures i n m ost p arts o f t he A rctic. S chledermann ( 1976a) h as d iscussed t he t ransition f rom s em isubterranean d we llings t o q armang i n d etail. H istor ica lly, q armang w ere e ntire ly a bove-ground s truct ures ( see f or e xamp le C larke 1 979:133-134) o r, w hen c onstructed o ver p revious ly e xisting s em isubterranean d we lling r uins, p artly b e low g round, b ut i n s uch c ases l acked t he c haracter istic c o ld t rap e ntrances a nd s od r oofs o f t rue s em i-subterranean d we llings ( see f or e xamp le M athiassen 1 927a :133-139). A lthough t rue s em isubterranean d we llings h ave b een d istinguished f rom q armang, " transitional" t ypes b etween t he t wo s ty les c an b e e xpected. F or t he p urposes o f t he p resent s tudy, s uch t rans itiona l t ypes w ill i nc lude t hose s tructures w ith s ma ll, s hallow e ntrance p assages a nd s ha llow m a in c hamber c onstruction w ith o r w ithout e vidence o f s o lid ( sod a nd s tone o r w ood/bone ) r oofs. 3 . S now d wellings: S now d we llings w ere a n i mportant a rchitectura l f orm a mongst m ost I nuit g roups i n t he c entra l a nd e astern A rctic d ur ing H istor ic t imes, a nd w ere t yp ica lly o ccupied d ur ing t he l ate f a ll t hrough t o e ar ly s pr ing. D ur ing t he m ajor p art o f t his p er iod, t he s now d we llings w ere i n t he f orm o f t he t yp ical " igloo" c onsist ing o f s now w a lls a nd r oof, s now s torage a nd e ntrance p assage, a nd s now " furniture" ( raised s leep ing p latform a nd r aised s ide b enches), a s d escr ibed a nd i llustrated b y J enness ( 1922:59-75), M athiassen ( 1928:118-131) a nd B oas ( 1964:132-135), a mong o thers. D ur ing t he e ar ly s pr ing a nd l ate f all, s now d we llings w ere o ften m odif ied a ccording t o c hang ing t emperature a nd s now c onditions. T hese m odif ied s tructures c onsisted o f a l ower w a ll o f s now a nd a n u pper w all a nd r oof o f s kins ( in s ome i nstances e ntire s kin t ents w ere e rected o n t he l ower w all o f s now ), a nd r etained t he s now s torage a nd e ntrance p assage a nd s now " furniture" ( see f or e xamp le J enness ( 1922:76-79), B oas ( 1964:143), B a likci ( 1970:81)). S now d we llings a re b elieved t o h ave b een t he p redom inant f orm o f w inter h ab itation i n t he c entra l a nd e astern A rctic f rom a pproxim ate ly A .D. 1 500, a nd w ere a pparently a t l east i n u se, a lthough l ess c ommon ly, f rom t he b eginning o f t he T hule c ulture o ccupat ion i n t h is a rea f rom a pproximate ly A .D. 1 000. E vidence f or t he ir p rehistor ic u se i s b ased p r imar ily o n t he o ccurrence o f s now k nives ( e.g.,

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T ay lor 1 968; S ch ledermann 1 976a). I t s hould b e n oted t hat M cGhee ( 1983) h as r ecent ly q uest ioned t he a rchaeo logica l e vidence f or s now d we llings p rior t o t he e ar ly h istor ic p er iod, a nd h as s uggested t hat t ools t raditiona lly i dentif ied a s s nowknives i n f act f unctioned a s f lensing t oo ls. H owever, M axwe ll ( 1983), i n r ep ly, n oted t hat s uch t oo ls a re g enera lly t oo d ull a nd b lunt t o h ave f unctioned a s f lensing k nives, a nd a re s im ilar i n s ty le t o e thnographica lly d ocum ented s nowknives. F urthermore, M axwe ll n oted t hat f lens ing k nives u tilized b y m odern I nuit h ave r eadily i dentif iab le c ounterparts i n a rchaeo logica l a ssemb lages a nd t hat t hese d iffer s ignificantly f rom t he t raditiona lly i dentif ied s nowknives. D esp ite t he o bvious i mportance o f s now d we llings i n A rct ic p rehistory a nd h istory, a rchaeo log ica l r ema ins t hat c an d ef inite ly b e a ttr ibuted t o s uch o ccupations h ave n ot b een r eported. R emains a ssoc iated w ith s now d we llings ( and r e lated f eatures s uch a s s now d og s he lters) h ave t raditionally b een c onsidered u nrecogn izab le s ince t yp ically m any w inter c amps w ere l ocated o n t he s ea i ce a nd t he ir a ssoc iated r ema ins a re t herefore u nrecoverab le . A lso, i t h as b een a ssumed t hat e ven w here s uch e ncampments w ere t errestr ia lly b ased, t he e phemera l n ature o f t he s now d we llings, a nd o f t he g round s urface o f s now i tse lf, w ould p rec lude t he ir a rchaeo log ica l r ecognit ion. U nquestionab ly t he f irst c ondition c onstitutes a l egitimate r estr iction t o t he s tudy o f t he r ema ins o f s uch d we llings. H owever, a s tudy u ndertaken i n c onjunction w ith t he p resent p roject h as d emonstrated t hat r emains a ssociated w ith t errestrially-based h istor ic w inter s now d we llings ( and a ssoc iated s tructures) a re r ecognizab le. T he s tudy ( Save lle 1 984) i nvo lved t he e xam ination a nd i nterpretation o f r ema ins a ssoc iated w ith t wo s now d we llings a nd t hree s now d og s he lters o ccup ied d uring t he w inter o f 1 958-59 a t t he U nion R iver o n S omerset I sland. I t u tilized o ra l i nformat ion o n v ar ious c u ltural a nd n atura l f ormation p rocesses a ssoc iated w ith t he s ite, s upp lied b y t he R everend A ndrew A tagota luk, o ne o f t he s ite 's o r igina l i nhab itants. A s d iscussed i n d etail i n S avelle ( 1984), " typical" s now d we lling r emains c onsist o f g rave l d eposits a ssoc iated w ith s leeping p latforms, b one c oncentrations c orresponding t o t hree-dimensiona l d isposal s ystems, a nd t he m aintenance o f o riginal i nternal p atterning o f p r imary a nd s econdary r efuse ( see F igure 1 8). 4 . T ents : T ents u tilized i n t he s tudy a rea i nc luded s kin t ents ( pr ior t o t he 1 920's) a nd c anvas t ents ( gradua lly r ep lacing s kin t ents f o llow ing t he 1 920's). S k in t ents h ave b een d escr ibed o ften i n t he l iterature ( see f or e xample H uish 1 835; A mundsen 1 908 ; J enness 1 922; M athiassen 1 928; R asmussen 1 931; S pencer 1 959; B oas 1 964; B a likci 1 970; T ay lor 1 974). B a likc i d escr ibed t he c onstruction o f t raditiona l N etsilik t ents a s f o llows: T he t ent w as c onstructed b y f irst p lac ing l arge, s quar ish s tones i n a r ing, t hus m arking o ut t he f loor s ize o f t he t ent. T hen a t ent p o le w as e rected i n t he m iddle o f t his c ircle, r esting o n a f lag s tone. A t t he u pper e nd o f t he

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F igure 1 8. D istr ibut ion o f a rtifacts a nd f aunal r emains a ssociated w ith s now d we lling 1 2 a t t he U nion R iver, S omerset I sland, w ith s uper imposed p lan o f i dealized s now d we lling. F rom S ave lle 1 984. C opyr ight S oc iety f or A mer ican A rchaeo logy 1 984.

6 0

p o le a n umber o f s ea lskin t hongs w ere a ttached, s trongly f astened a t t he o ther e nds t o t he h eaviest o f t he r ing s tones. T h is c onstituted t he f rame o f t he t ent, o ver w hich a s ea lskin t ent s heet w as s tretched. T he b ottom p art o f t he s heet w as p ulled t ight a nd h e ld s olidly u nder t he s tone r ing. O ften a dditiona l s tones w ere p laced i nside, l eaning h eavily o n t he o uter r ing a nd p roviding m ore s tability t o t he t ent...the h ousew ife p laced a l ine o f f lat s tones a ll a cross t he f loor s pace, s eparating t he s leep ing a rea b ehind f rom t he k itchen a nd w ork a rea i n f ront, n ear t he o pen ing o f t he t ent. ( 1970 :26-27) U pon s ite a bandonment, t he r ema ins a ssoc iated w ith s uch t ents c an b e e xpected t o r esemble t he ' heavy ' t ent r ings d escr ibed b y M athiassen ( 1927a :100-101) a t N aujan, o r, i f f ewer s tones w ere u tilized t o w eigh d own t he t ent a pron, a ' l ighter ' a nd m ore s cattered t ent r ing c an b e e xpected. A s lightly d ifferent, H uish;

b ut

c ontemporaneous,

s ty le

w as

n oted

b y

T he s ummer t ents o f t hese p eop le d iffer g reatly f rom t he ir w inter o nes. T heir m ode o f e recting t hem, i s, i n t he f irst p lace, t o m ake a c ircle o f s tones, a bout s even f eet i n d iameter : a p o le i s t hen p laced u pr ight, b ut n ot e xact ly i n t he m iddle: a nd t o t he t op p art o f t he s tick a re t he s kins a ttached, s omething i n t he s hape o f am arquee. T he h e ight o f t he t ent i s a bout 7 t o 8 f eet. ( Hu ish 1 835:523-524) T ents c onstructed i n t his f ash ion a nd o ccup ied i n 1 831 a t S her iff H arbour i n L ord M ayor B ay a re i llustrated i n R oss ( 1835:518), a nd t he r ema ins a ssoc iated w ith t wo o f t he t ents i n F igure 1 9. T he i ntact i nner c irc les o f s tone a re r eadily e vident,as a re t he s cattered o uter r ings, w h ich w ould t end t o b e s cattered w hen t he t ents w ere d ismant led. F urthermore, t he p artly p aved k itchen a nd w ork a reas c an b e d istinguished i n e ach, a nd t he r ow o f s tones s eparating t hese a reas f rom t he s leeping a rea i n t ent r ing ' a '. I n t he N etsilik r egion, t he c ircular t ent d escr ibed a bove w as u tilized u ntil t he e ar ly 2 0th c entury, w hen a s econd s ty le c onsisting o f a n ' H '-shaped c ross b eam o n t op o f t he p o le w as i ntroduced f rom t he I glulik a rea ( Ba likc i 1 970:26). T h is r esulted i n a n e longated t ent, w ith a c orrespond ing e longated t ent r ing r ema ining f o llow ing s ite a bandonment. F inally, c anvas t ents, i ntroduced i nto t he N etsilik a rea i n t he 1 920's a nd 1 930's ( Ba likc i 1 970:xxiv) t yp ica lly r esu lt i n o ne s cattered i nner s tone r ing ( from i nner " ho ld-down" s tones) a nd, i f g uy r opes a re u sed, a s cattered o uter r ing. A dditiona l e xamp les a re g iven i n S ave lle 1 983:124-125. 5 . K ar ig i .: A f inal t ype o f s tructure a ssoc iated w ith r esid entia l s ites i s t he k ar ig i. A mongst t he T areum iut o f n orthern A laska, s uch s tructures w ere i n t he f orm o f l arge, p ermanent o r s em ipermanent s em isubterranean d we llings ( occasiona lly a bove g round, r esemb ling a q armanq), a nd c onsiderab ly l arger t han i ndividual

6 1

F igure 1 9. P lan o f s tructura l r ema ins o f t wo N etsilik I nu it t ents e rected a nd d ismantled a t S her iff H arbour, L ord M ayor B ay i n A ugust 1 831. S ee a lso R oss 1 835:518 a nd S ave lle 1 987.

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f am ily d we llings ( see e .g. S pencer 1 959:50, 1 82-185). T hey l acked t he c ustomary s leep ing p latforms a nd i nstead o ften c onta ined a s er ies o f l ow s ide b enches ( S impson 1 855:259 ; S pencer 1 959:183). F urther, a nd a s n oted b y S pencer, t he " ...most d istinctive c haracter istic o f t he k ar igi, o ne w hich r e inforces i ts c haracter a s a c eremonial h ouse, w as t he p resence o f a ny n umber o f c harms ( aanaroat) o n t he w alls, o n t he f loor, h anging f rom t he r oof b eams, e tc.", a ll o f w hich r e lated t o w haling ( 1959:184). F or a n A laskan a rchaeological e xample, s ee H ickey ( 1976:240). A mongst t he N unam iut, k ar ig i w ere o f am ore t emporary n ature, a nd w ere u tilized a s r equired a t t he t ime o f h unting a ssemb lages ( i.e. f or c eremonies r e lated t o t he c ar ibou h unt) ( Spencer 1 959:182). F inally, a lthough k ar ig i w ere n ot u sed i n t he s ummer i n n orthern A laska, s pec ia l t ents a nd/or w indbreaks w ere s et u p t o s erve a s " men 's h ouses" ( Spencer 1 959:184). D ur ing t he h istor ic p er iod i n t he e astern A rctic, f orma l k ar ig i w ere n ot u tilized. H owever, " dance h ouses" c omposed o f s everal j o ined s now h ouses w ere o ften u tilized d ur ing t he m ajor w inter s ea l h unting a ggregations ( e.g. B a likc i 1 970:62-63).

b ) L ocat ions. A s d iscussed p reviously, l ocations i nc lude k ill a nd/or e xtractive l ocalities. " Low-bu lk" l ocations g enera lly l eave f ew a rchaeo logica l r ema ins. K ill s ites o f s ing le o r a f ew c ar ibou, f or e xample, m ight b e i dentif ied b y d iscarded l ow u tility e lements ( see f or e xamp le B inford 1 978a:53-54; P late l b, t his s tudy). H owe ver, s ubsequent s cavenger a ctivity a nd d ecay w ould m ake s uch i dentif ications e xtreme ly i mprobab le. A lso e xtreme ly d iff icult i f n ot i mpossible t o d eterm ine, a re s maller s ea l k ill l ocations, s ince t he s ea ls w ere t raditionally k illed o n o r u nder t he s ea i ce a nd t herefore d o n ot l eave a ssoc iated f auna l e lements o r f eatures, a nd a lso b ecause s ea ls w ere a pparent ly r eturned t o b ase o r f ie ld c amps e ntire ( see e .g. B a likci 1 970:77; P late l a, t his s tudy). " Low-bu lk" e xtraction l ocalit ies t hat w ould b e p reserved i nc lude t hose w ith a ssoc iated f eatures, s uch a s s mall c ar ibou- o r b ird-hunting b linds, m eta l l eg-ho ld a nd t raditiona l s tone f ox t raps, a nd r aw m ater ial p rocurement l oca lities ( see P lates l c a nd 2 a). I n c ontrast t o " low-bulk" l ocations, " high-bulk" l ocations e xhibit m uch g reater a rchaeo logica l v isibility. S uch l ocations i nclude m ajor c aribou f ence a nd/or i nukshuit s ystems ( Balikci 1 970:41-45; 1 964:13), m ajor c aribou b utchering s ites ( Binford 1 978a :51-52; a lthough a s f or " low-bu lk" e xtraction l oca lities, s evere d isturbance a nd d ecay c an b e e xpected), w ha le h aul-out a nd b utchering l ocalities ( see e .g. K ristof 1 973:350-353; S pencer 1 984:321; P late 2 b, t his s tudy), a nd w hen r iver c onditions p erm it, f ishing w e irs ( Rasmussen 1 928:206; B a likc i 1 970:28-37; P lates 2 c, 3 a a nd 3 b, t his s tudy).

c ) F ie ld C amps. F ie ld c amps, a s d iscussed p reviously , a re t emporary o perationa l c enters w here t ask g roups s leep, e at, a nd o therw ise m a intain t hemselves w hile a way f rom t he r esidential b ase. A ssoc iated s ite f eatures w ill b e v ery s im ilar t o t hose a ssoc iated

6 3

w ith t emporary r esidentia l s ites ( e.g. t ent c amps a nd s now d welling c amps). A ccording ly, p r imary a rchaeo logica l f eatures a re t ent r ings o r s now d we lling s catters. B ased o n t he n ature o f f eatures a lone, f ie ld c amps w ould i n m any i nstances b e d iff icult, i f n ot i mpossib le, t o d istingu ish f rom r esidentia l b ases. H owever, s ite s ize i s a n i mportant f actor ( see b e low ), a s i s s ite v ar iab ility ( i.e . s ite v ariab ility w ill t end t o b e g reater f or r es identia l s ites t han f or f ie ld c amps).

d ) S tations. A s d iscussed p reviously, s tat ions a re a ssoc iated w ith i ntercept s trategies, a nd a re t ypically u tilized f or i nformation g athering. A long w ith m any " low-bulk" e xtraction l ocalities, s tations h ave r e lative ly l ittle a rchaeo logica l v isib ility, s ince t hey g enerally l ack s ite ' furn iture ' o r o ther f eatures a nd r epresent v er y t emporary o ccupations ( see B inford 1 978b ; P late 3 c, t h is s tudy), c haracter ized b y w hat B inford ( 1978b:288) r efers t o a s " boredom " a ctivities ( such m odern a ct ivit ies i nc lude c ard p laying, " crafts", c igarette s mok ing, e tc.).

e ) C aches. H istor ica lly, f ood c aches w ere o f f ive t ypes; s now a nd/or i ce ( Ba likc i 1 970 :51), s od i ce c e llars ( Spencer 1 959:60), a bove g round s tone c airns ( Balikci 1 970:37; B inford 1 978a:240-241; P late 4 a, t his s tudy ), l arge g rave l d epressions, u sua lly o n b each r idges ( McCartney 1 980:535-536; p ersona l o bservat ion a t U nion R iver, S omerset I sland 1 980), a nd e xposed a bove g round ( B inford 1 978a: 4 9-50 ; P late 4 b, t his s tudy ). A rchaeo logica l v isib ility o f t he s now a nd/or i ce c aches a nd t he e xposed a bove g round c aches i s e xceeding ly l ow, w hile f or t he r emaining t hree t ypes i t c an b e e xpected t o b e r e lative ly h igh.

f ) O ther F eatures. A n umber o f o ther f eatures c an b e e xpected t o b e f ound i n a ssociation w ith t he v ar ious s ite t ypes, i ncluding b ur ia ls, k ayak r ests a nd k ayak p its, e xterna l h earths, m eat a nd/or s led r ests, d ry ing r ack s upports, " p lay" d we llings a nd " play" k ayaks, a nd s kin a nd h ide s tretching o ut lines. W h ile s uch i nformat ion w ould b e r ecorded, i t i s n ot o f d irect r e levance t o t he p resent s tudy.

2 .

S ite S ize

S ite s ize h as t raditona lly b een e mp loyed a s a m eans o f d eterm ining p opulation s ize. E thnographica lly-based t echniques p reviousl y u tilized i nc lude t he d eterminat ion o f r oofed f loor s pace ( e.g. N aroll 1 962), t he n umber o f i ndividua l d we llings ( e.g. H ill 1 970), t ota l s ite a rea ( We isner 1 974; Y e llen 1 977), a nd v o lume o f s ite m idden d eposits ( e.g. A mmerman e t a l. 1 976). A lthough a ll s uch s tud ies h ave t he ir l imitations ( see e .g. H assan 1 978 f or a d etailed r eview ), f or t he p resent s tudy i f t he l ength a nd t ype o f o ccupation c an b e e stimated, a s w e ll a s t he r e lative ' energy l eve l' o f t he f eature t ype, t hen t he p opulat ion u nits r epresented b y t he s ites s hould b e c omparable. F or e xample, w inter r esident ia l s ites o f

6 4

s em isubterranean d we llings w ill b e c omparab le t o o ther o ccupations f or s imilar t ime p er iods, b ut w ould n ot b e d irectly c omparab le t o t emporary s ummer r esident ia l s ites i ndicated b y t ent r ings. S im il ar ly, s ummer r esident ia l s ites c annot b e c ompared d irectly t o s ummer f ie ld c amp s ites, s ince t he n umber o f o ccupational e p isodes, e ven o ver a r e lat ive ly s hort p er iod, i s e xpected t o b e h igher t han f or t he f ormer. T h is i s d irectly r e lated t o t he f unctions o f t he r espect ive s ites. S ummer r esident ia l s ites a re t ypica lly l ocated s o a s t o p rovide a ccess t o s easonal r esources f or t he s ites ' i nhab it ants. S uch s ites w ill b e p laced s uch t hat t hey s atisfy n ot o nly t he s patial r equirements t o e fficiently h arvest t he t arget r esources, b ut a lso t ransportation r equirements a nd s econdary r esource r equirements s uch a s f ue l, f resh w ater, e tc. A ccordingly, s uch s ites w ill t end t o b e l ocated c onsistent ly a t f avoured l oca lit ies a ccording t o t he s eason. S ummer f ie ld c amps, o n t he o ther h and, r epresent t emporary e ncampments b y g roups o f h unters/ c ollectors a ctively m onitoring a l arge l ogistical z one, a nd o perating o ut o f t he a forementioned s ummer r esident ia l c amps. T he a ctua l p er iod o f t ime s pent a t s uch c amps i s s hort r e lative t o t hat s pent a t t he r esidentia l c amps o ut o f w h ich t hey o perate. F urtherm ore, b ecause t he s econdary r equirements a t f ie ld c amps a re n ot a s c onstraining, t here i s l ess l ike ly t o b e c onsistently r epeated o ccupations o f a ny o ne f ie ld c amp s ite. F rom a d ifferent p erspective, t he n ature o f t he d ifferent l ogistica lly-re lated a ct ivities a llows d ifferentiat ion o f s ites a ssociated w ith t hose a ctivities o n t he b asis o f s ite s ize; s pecifica lly, t emporary r esidentia l s ites v s. t emporary f ie ld c amps. R esident ia l s ites a re c omposed o f v ar ious c ompositions o f f am ily u nits, w hile f ie ld c amps, a lthough t hey m ay a lso o ccasionally i nvo lve f am ily u nits, a re t yp ica lly c omposed o f s pecia lized t ask g roups. A s D amas ( 1968, 1 969b), a nd v ar ious c ontr ibuters i n L ee a nd D evore ( 1968) h ave n oted, t he m in ima l r esidentia l e conomic u nit o f h unter-gatherer s oc ieties t ends t o a pproximate 2 0-25 p ersons. I n t he A rctic r egions, s ma ller f am ily r es ident ia l g roups h ave b een r eported f or t he C opper I nuit ( see e .g. J enness 1 922:121-144; D amas 1 969b:47) d ur ing t he s ummer m onths, b ut t his i s a pparently a u nique i nstance. T he n umber o f d we llings a ssociated w ith g roups o f 2 0-25 p ersons w ould o f c ourse v ary t o s ome e xtent, b ut t hree-four d we lling u nits a ppears t o b e t he m ost f requent f or c entra l A rctic I nu it g roups ( see e .g. P arry 1 824:271; R oss 1 835:518, 5 81; J enness 1 922:85, 1 42). S pecific t ask g roups, h owever, w hile c ertain ly m ainta ining c amps o f f our o r m ore d we lling u nits o n o ccasion ( for e xample w ha ling c amps s ee e .g. S pencer 1 959:336-337, P 1.5a), o ften m a intained f ie ld c amps o f o n ly o ne o r t wo s tructures f or u p t o e ight o r n ine t ask g roups m embers ( Spencer 1 959:178). F urthermore, m uch o f t he l ogistics i n t ransportation o f h arvested a nimals a nd a nimal p arts, c ached p roducts, e tc., c an b e e xpected t o b e c arr ied o ut b y o ne-tent t ask g roups o f p erhaps t wo-four p ersons. F rom t he a bove d iscussion i t c an b e s een t hat w h ile r esidential s ites a ssoc iated w ith e ither c o llect ing o r f oraging s ystems w ill t end t o c onsist o f am in imum o f t hree-four r esidential s tructures, t ask g roup f ield c amps ( associated p rimarily w ith c ollecting

6 5

s trategies) w ill o ften c onsist o f o ne o r t wo d welling s tructures o nly. A ccording ly, f or t he p urposes o f t he p resent s tudy, s ites c onsisting o f o nly o ne o r t wo d we lling f eatures, u nless t here a re i ndications t o t he c ontrary, w ill b e c onsidered a s t ask g roup f ie ld c amps.

3 .

I ntersite V ar iability

I ntersite v ar iab ility w as p reviously d iscussed i n t he c ontext o f o ccupation a nd u tilization r edundancy . T o a void m ere ly d up licating o bservations r e lated t o t he v ar iab ility i n s ite s ize ( Imp lication N o. 7 ) a nd s ite f unction ( Imp lication N o. 1 ), h owever, c ompar ison o f i ntersite v ar iab ility b etween c o llecting a nd f orag ing s ystems i s m ost m eaningful i f a pplied s pecif ically t o r atios o f c aches t o t ent r ings ( expressed a s c aches/tent r ings) a ccording t o i ncreasing s ite s ize. S uch c ompar isons i ncorporate o ccupation r edundancy o f " lowe nergy" f eatures u sed t hroughout t he e ntire C lassic T hule t o l ate H istor ic s equence i n t he s tudy a rea, a s w e ll a s d ifferential s ite u tilizat ion, b oth o f w hich a re r e lated t o t he c o llect ing v s. f oraging d istinction. A ccordingly, s ince f oraging s ystems a re c haracter ized b y g roup f ission a nd f usion i n d irect r e lation t o t he r esource s tructure, t he c ache/tent r ing r at io s hou ld r ema in c onstant w ith i ncreasing s ite s ize. C o llecting s ystems, o n t he o ther h and, s ince t hey r e ly t o v ary ing d egrees o n h igh-bu lk c aching, s hould s how h igher r atios a ssociated w ith l arger r esidentia l s ites, a nd l ower r atios a ssociated w ith s ma ller r esidentia l s ites a nd f ie ld c amps.

4 .

I nternal S ite S tructure

F or p urposes o f t he p resent s tudy, i nterna l s ite s tructure c an b e c onsidered r andom, c lustered o r r egular. T his f o llows t he s ettlement p attern m orphological s cheme p resented b y H aggett ( 1965:89), e xcept t hat r egular i n t he p resent s tudy r efers t o a l inear a nd/or p arallel a rrangement a s o pposed t o a h exagonal a rrangement. A lthough v ar ious m athematica l a na lytica l p rocedures h ave b een s uggested f or s uch a rrangements ( see e .g. D acey 1 962), s uch a na lyses w ould a ppear t o b e u nwarranted f or t he p resent s tudy, s ince l ocal t opographic/ p hysiograph ic c onditions w ou ld p otentially i ncrease t he v ar iat ion t o t he p o int t hat v isua l, s ubjective e stim ates w ould a pproach t he s ame d egree o f r e liability. A s uggested ' hierarchy ' o f s ite a rrangement m odified f rom H aggett 's ( 1965) s cheme a nd w hich r ef lects c ommun ity s tructure i s p resented i n F igure 2 0. T he s cheme i s e ssentia lly o ne i n w hich d ecreasing h ierarchy r ank e quates w ith i ncreasing p attern e ntropy. T he m ore s tructured c ommunity p atterns a re s im ilar t o t hose t hat C hang ( 1962) h as d esignated t he " Siber ian" p attern, w hile t he l ess s tructured c orrespond w ith h is " Eskimo" p attern. I t s hould b e s tressed t hat t he a bove d istinctions a re m ost a pplicab le t o s ites r epresenting m aximum o r n ear m ax imum a ggregation. F urthermore, t h is r epresents a n " ideal" s cheme, a nd a ctua l s ite p atterns c an b e e xpected t o o n ly a pprox imate t he i dea l p atterns. A n e xamp le o f a

6 6

J

S TRUCTURED

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h ierarchy o f s ite m orpho logy .

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6 7

s ite w ith m oderate ly h igh i nterna l s tructure i s t he h istor ic A laskan s ite a t U tkeavik ( Figure 2 1) w hile a n e xamp le o f a r e lat ive ly " random" a rrangement i s t he H adza s ite o f U gu lu ( Figure 2 2).

5 .

S ite S ituation a nd I ntersite A ssociation

S ite s ituation r efers t o t he s ite l ocation i n r e lat ion t o l oca l f auna l a nd r aw m ater ia l r esources. L ocat ion i s, o f c ourse, a r e lative t erm i n t hat t he e conom ic r ange o f a s ite w ill d epend u pon s uch f actors a s t ransportation m ethods, s easonal t ravelling c onditions, n ature o f t he t errain. A s n oted b y R oper ( 1979), e xplo itative t err itor ies a ssociated w ith a g iven r esidentia l s ite h ave t raditionally b een d efined t hrough t wo t echniques; t ime " contours" o f t wo h ours w a lking d istance, a nd f ixed r adii o f t en k m. S upport f or t hese a ssumptions h as t raditionally b een d rawn f rom L ee 's ( 1969:61) o bservat ion t hat t he ! Kung n orma lly r emain w ith in t en k m o f t he ir c amps t o h arvest r esources, w hich, a t aw alking p ace o f t en-twe lve m inutes p er k m , t ranslates i nto a t wo h our w a lk. A mongst I nuit g roups, B inford ( 1982:359) h as n oted a s im ilar " foraging" d istance f or t he N umam iut. A lthough a d istance i s n ot s pec if ied, B a lkc i ( 1970:73) c haracter izes t he H istoric N etsilik h unt ing a rea a s " ...not t oo f ar, u sua lly w ithin w a lk ing d istance f rom c amp" s uggesting a s im ilar r adius a nd a s im ilar p attern w as o bserved a mong m odern N etsilik d ur ing e thnoarchaeo logica l s tudies i n a ssociation w ith t he p resent s tudy ( see F igure 2 3). F ina lly, B urch ( 1981:62) n oted a n e ight k m " catchment" o r f oraging z one f or A laskan E skimos a t P o int H ope. A ccording ly, t he f oraging r adius c an b e c onsidered a s t he a ccessible a rea w ithin a t en k m r adius o f a r esidential s ite, a nd t he " target" r esource(s) w ill b e c onta ined w ithin t hat a rea. T hese " target" r esources a re i dentif ied a ccording t o m odern r esources o r p robab le p revious r esources, w ithin t he f orag ing r adius. T raditiona lly, t he l ogistical r adius f or I nu it g roups v ar ied c onsiderab ly, a nd a ccording t o t ransportat ion t echniques. H owever, o ne a nd o ne-ha lf t o t wo t imes t he f oraging r adius ( f ifteen-twenty k m) w ould a ppear t o b e a r easonab le a pprox imation ( see e .g. B inford 1 980:345, 1 982: F ig. 1 ; B urch 1 981:62; a nd F igure 2 3 o f t h is s tudy). " Target" r esources i n t he l ogistica l z one w ill b e p r imar ily c ached o r l iving " bu lk" r esources, a nd c rit ical r aw m ater ia ls.

6 .

S ite S easona lity

A lthough a n umber o f t echn iques h ave t raditiona lly b een e mployed i n t he d eterm inat ion o f s ite s easona lity ( see e .g. R athje a nd S ch iffer 1 982:270-271), t hose o f p articu lar r elevance t o t he p resent s tudy i nc lude f eature t ype a nd f auna l c haracter istics. I n t he c entral a nd e astern A rctic, f eature t ypes s how a p articular ly s trong c orre lation w ith s eason o f o ccupat ion. A s d iscussed i n d etail p reviously, s o lid ly c onstructed s em isubterranean

6 8

S EM ISUBTERRANEAN D WELL INGS

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F igure 2 1. T he T areum iut s ite o f U tkeavik, c irca. 1 895, e xhib iting c haracteristics o f b oth m ultiple l inear a nd m ultiple c luster i nterna l a rrangement. A fter S pencer 1 959. C ompare w ith F igure 2 2.

6 9

GRASS HUT

C 0 00 0

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F igure 2 2. T he H adza s ite o f U gu lu a s r ecorded b y W oodburn i n O ctober 1 959, e xhibiting c haracteristics o f a n i nternal s ite s tructure a pproaching r andom. A fter W oodburn 1 972. C ompare w ith F igure 2 1.

7 0

F igure 2 3. S ettlement a nd h unting p atterns o f a n I nuit g roup d ur ing a o ne w eek p eriod i n A ugust 1 981 i n t he T hom B ay r egion o f L ord M ayor B ay.

7 1

d we llings w ith c o ld-trap e ntrances a re t ypica lly a ssociated w ith w inter-long o ccupations, s now d wellings w ith t emporary w inter o ccupations, s od q armang w ith l ate f all o ccupations, s now a nd s kin q armang w ith f all a nd s pr ing o ccupations, a nd t ents w ith l ate s pr ing t hrough t o e ar ly f all o ccupat ions. I t s hould a lso b e n oted t hat S ch ledermann h as s uggested t hat, a s o pposed t o t he f a ll-on ly u se o f s od q armang i n t he c entra l A rctic, s uch s tructures w ere u tilized t hroughout t he w inter i n t he e astern C anadian A rctic ( 1976a:44). S easonality e stimates b ased o n f auna l c haracter istics h ave b een r eviewed b y M onks ( 1981) a nd i nc lude m ethods s uch a s t he p resence o r a bsence o f s easona lly a vailable f auna, p hysio logica l c hanges, a nd i ncremental s tructures. S uch m ethods, h owever, a ctua lly i nd icate o n ly t he s eason o f d eath o f t he p articular r esource e xamined. W hile a d irect c orre lation b etween t he s eason o f d eath o f a p articu lar r esource s pecimen a nd s ite o ccupation c an b e e xpected f or l ogistically-re lated c amps a nd t emporary r esidentia l b ases, s uch i s n ot t he c ase f or m ore p ermanent r esident ia l b ases, a t w h ich s tored r esources a re c onsumed. I n s uch i nstances, f eature c haracter ist ics, c ombined w ith s eason o f d eath e stimates o f t he r esources, s hould p rovide a n e stimation o f t he t ota l l ength o f s ite o ccupation b ased o n t he i ntroduction o f n ew r esources t o t he s ite a s t hey b ecome a va ilab le. S ince, i n t he s tudy a rea, m ore p ermanent r esidential s ites a re t hose a ssociated w ith f all, w inter, a nd s pring o ccupations, d etermination o f s eason o f d eath o f s pecies a va ilab le t hroughout t hese s easons w ill p rovide t he m ost r e liab le i ndication o f t he s eason(s) o f s ite o ccupation. A lthough t here a re a v ar iety o f s uch s pecies, c ar ibou ( Peary c ar ibou a nd i so lated g roups o f b arren g round c ar ibou) a nd r inged s ea l c onstitute t he m ost u seful f or t he p resent s tudy, a nd e mphasis i s a ccording ly p laced o n t hese s pec ies i n t he d etermination o f s eason(s) o f s ite o ccupat ion, u tiliz ing i ncrementa l d enta l a nnuli ( see e .g. M cClaren 1 958 ; S mith 1 973; M iller 1 974; S p iess 1 976; M orr ison 1 983a, 1 983b - s ee a lso S ave lle a nd W ill 1 982; S ave lle a nd B eattie 1 983; a nd G ordon 1 984 f or a r eview a nd d iscussion o f t he v ar ious a na lytica l t echniques).

7 .

D iet B readth

A lthough t heoretica lly d iet b readth r efers t o t he a bso lute n umber a nd a bundance o f c r itica l r esources, s ome " co-harvesting" o f m inor r esources ( i.e. " unearned r esources") c an b e e xpected. F urthermore, a s o ut lined b y Y esner ( 1981:150), o pt ima l f oraging t heory p redicts t hat l arge c arnivorous f oragers ( e.g. h umans) e xploit c ritical r esources i n a pproximate p roportion t o t heir r e lative b iomass. A ccording ly, w hile s pecia lists ' ( co llectors) d iet b readth m ay, i n t erms o f a bso lute s pec ies a bundance, a pproach t hat o f g eneralists ( foragers), i t w ill n everthe less b e n arrower i n t erms o f i ntentiona lly h arvested r esources ( see F igure 2 4). D etermination o f r elat ive r epresented b iomass f or e ach s pecies i s d irect ly d ependent u pon t he r e lative p roport ion o f i ndividuals o f t hat s pecies. T he v ar ious m ethods o f q uantification o f f auna l r emains h ave b een e xam ined i n c onsiderab le d etail a nd i nc lude s uch m ethods a s t he d eterm ination o f n umber o f i dent if ied s pec imens p er

7 2

CONTR IBUT ION

COLLECT ING

N

F ORAG ING

CO -HARVESTED

N

S PEC IES

C R IT ICAL R ESOURCES

F igure 2 4. C ompar ison o f b iomass c ontr ibution o f a g iven n umber o f s pecies t o f orag ing a nd c o llecting s trategy d iets.

7 3

t axon ( e.g. C astee l a nd G rayson 1 977), m inimum n umber o f i nd ividua ls p er t axon ( e.g. W hite 1 953; C hap lin 1 971), a nd t he w eighted a bund ance o f e lements ( e.g. H o ltzman 1 979). A s n oted b y G rayson ( 1979) a nd L yman ( 1982), e ach i s n ot w ithout i ts p rob lems, a nd e ach w ill b e a ppropr iate i n d ifferent c ircumstances. H owever, f or t he p urposes o f t he p resent s tudy, t he t echnique o f d etermining t he m inimum n umber o f i nd ividua ls w ill b e u tilized s ince i t a ) a llows f or i ntersite c ompar isons o f r e lative s pecies a bundances ( and t herefore a pprox imate d iet c ontr ibut ion), a nd b ) a llows f or t he e ffect o f c ulling o f l arger s pec ies a nd d ifferentia l t aphonom ic p rocesses. 8 .

C ulling

D etermination o f t he d egree o f c ulling, t hat i s, t he c onsc ious s eparation o f m ost a nd l east u sefu l p arts o f a c arcass ( cf. B inford 1 978a :459), i s i n t urn d ependent u pon t he d eterm ination o f t he " utility" o f i ndividual a natomical u nits. W hile a ppropriate " actua listic" s tud ies i n t his r egard h ave b een c onducted b y B inford ( 1978a) f or c aribou a nd s heep, " follow-up" s tudies h ave b een e ssentially r estr icted t o B inford 's ( 1981b) o wn r esearch a nd t hat o f S peth ( 1983) o n b ison a nd W ill ( 1985) o n m usk-oxen. F rom e thnographic a ccounts o f h istor ic I nu it g roups ( e.g. J enness 1 922; R asmussen 1 931; S pencer 1 959; B oas 1 964; B a likci 1 970), h owever , a nd f rom " actualistic" s tud ies a ssoc iated w ith t he p resent p roject, i t w ould a ppear t hat m ost s ma ller s eals a nd s ma ller l and m amma ls a re n ot c haracteristically c ulled, w hile l arger s ea m ammals a nd t errestr ia l m amma ls a re ( see f or e xamp le P lates l a a nd 2 b). T he q uestion o f b owhead w hale c ulling i s a p articularly i mportant i ssue s ince t he t raditiona l v iew o f T hule E skimo c ulture a s a p redominantly a ctive w haling c ulture ( where r esources p erm itted) h as r ecent ly b een s evere ly q uestioned b y F reeman ( 1979). A ccording t o F reeman, a rchaeo logists h ave n ot d istinguished b etween w ha le h unting a nd w ha le b one u tilization; t hat i s, t he p resence o f b owhead w hale b ones a t T hule s ites m ay s imp ly d er ive f rom t he s cavenging o f t he s ke letons o f p reviously b eached b owhead w ha les. A ccording ly , " culled" e lements p resent a t T hule d we lling s ites s hould b e c orrespondingly u nderrepresented a t " beached w hale" l ocations, w hile e lements p resent a t t he l atter s ites s hou ld b e u nderrepresented a t d we lling s ites. I f h owever, t he w ha les w ere a ctually h unted a nd b utchered, t hen i nitial p rocessing c an b e e xpected t o h ave b een e ither a t t he i ce e dge o r i n r e lat ive ly d eep w ater f rom u m iaks ( Spencer 1 959; T ay lor 1 979), a nd a s s uch " low u tility" e lements w ould n ot s urvive a s " beach" a ssemb lages ( see M cCartney 1 980 a nd M cCartney a nd S ave lle 1 985 f or a d etailed d iscuss ion o f t he a rchaeo logica l i mplications f or a ctive w ha le h unting). I n t erms o f " preferred" e lements, i f m eat, b lubber, a nd e ntrails o n ly w ere r equired, l ittle i f a ny w ha le b one w ould b e r eturned t o d we lling s ites f rom t he p rimary p rocess ing l ocations ( see e .g. K r istof 1 973:353; a nd P late 2 b). H igh u tility " structura l" w ha le b one, h owever, w ould i nc lude p r imarily m andibles a nd s kulls w ith

7 4

a ttached m axillae, ( McCartney 1 979b).

a nd

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9 .

r ibs,

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a nd

v ertebrae

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E st imates o f t he a ge o f T hule a nd H istor ic I nuit s ites a nd/or c omponents h ave t raditiona lly b een b ased o n e levation a bove s ea l eve l ( e.g. M athiassen 1 927a:197), d endrochrono logy ( e.g. G iddings 1 952; M anning 1 956), t he p resence o f E uropean m ater ia ls ( e.g. M athiassen 1 927a:198), a nd m ore r ecently r adiocarbon d at ing a nd c ross-dating o f a rtifacts a nd f eatures ( see D ekin 1 973, 1 978 a nd S avelle 1 980 f or a s ummary o f t he d eve lopment o f T hu le c hrono logy). E levation a bove s ea l eve l, w hile c ertainly a u seful t oo l i n t he c hrono logica l a ssessment o f m any p aleoeskimo s equences ( see f or e xamp le M e ldgaard 1 960, 1 962) i s o f e xtreme ly l im ited u se i n t he s tudy a rea w here i sostatic r ebound h as b een o n t he o rder o f 3 -5.5 m d ur ing t he p ast 1 000 y ears ( Dyke 1 983, 1 984). D endrochrono logica l m ethods a re l ikew ise o f e xtreme ly l imited u tility, a nd a pplicab le o n ly i n t he w estern A rctic. T he r ema ining t hree m ethods a re d ependent u pon e xcavations a nd s urface c ollections, a nd w hile c ertain ly e xtreme ly u seful i n t raditiona l, e xtensive e xcavations o f T hule s em isubterranean d we llings, t hey a re n ot a lways a ppropr iate f or s ma ller, t emporary s ites w here in a rtifacts m ay b e r are a nd/or l ack d iagnostic t ra its, o r m ater ia l s uitable f or r adiocarbon d ating i s l ack ing. O ne o f t he m ore a pparently o bvious a lternative m ethods, b ut c ertainly o ne w h ich h as r ece ived v ery l ittle a ttention, i s t hat o f p ost-occupationa l v egetationa l d eve lopment. A lthough v egetation d ating m ethods, e spec ially t hose e mp loy ing l ichens, h ave b een u sed t o ac onsiderab le e xtent t o d ate n atural f eatures ( see e .g. B esche l 1 961; B rown e t a l. 1 976 ; S eaward 1 977; a nd t he b ib liography i n A ndrews a nd -A ndrews 1 979), t hey h ave r are ly b een u tilized i n a rchaeo logica l s tudies ( and i n s uch c ases h ave b een g enera lly r estr icted t o B r itish d ry-stone m ono liths - s ee e .g. B r ightman a nd S eaward 1 977:266-277). N . M cCartney ( 1978, 1 979) h owever, h as r ecently n oted e xtensive c hanges i n v egetational c ommunities, i ncluding l ichens, a t T hule w inter s ites c onsisting o f s emisubterranean d we llings o n S omerset I s land a nd o n t he n orthwest c oast o f H udson B ay, a nd n oted t he p otent ia l f or t he d at ing o f f eatures s uch a s t ent r ings. A ccording ly, i t w as d eterm ined t o r ecord l ichen c haracter istics o f a bove g round s tone f eatures, t ogether w ith s tone f eature m ater ial, d ur ing t he p resent s tudy. S ubsequently, i f a n umber o f t he f eatures c ould b e d ated e ither a bso lute ly o r r e lative ly t hrough i ndependent m ethods, t hen t he d eterm ination o f t he a pprox imate a ge o f f eatures w ithin a ny g iven T hule o r H istor ic s ite s hould b e p ossib le.

7 5

C HAPTER F IVE:

F IELD M ETHODS A ND S CHEDULE

T he l eve ls:

p resent s tudy r equires t he t he r eg ion a nd t he s ite.

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R eg iona l L eve l. A t t he r egional l eve l, t he f ocus o f s tudy i s o n t he r e lationships b etween s ites. A s d iscussed b y R ead ( 1975:51), r egiona l s amp ling d esigns p resuppose t wo b asic d ec ision l eve ls. T he f irst r equires t he d esignation o f t he t ype a nd s ize o f s ample u nits, a nd t he s econd t he s amp le p rocedure. a ) T ype a nd S ize o f S amp le U n its. R ead ( op. c it.) i dentif ies t hree p ossible t ypes o f s ample u nits: p o int, l ine, a nd q uadrat. T heoretically, q uadrats ( of w hatever g eometic s hape), s ince t hey d ef ine a reas, g ive t he m ost r e liable o vera ll a rea l c overage. H owe ver, f or I nuit g roups t hroughout t he c entra l A rctic, c oastlines a nd m ajor r iver/valley s ystems h ave h istor ica lly b een t he l ocus o f t he v ast m ajor ity o f t rave l r outes a nd c amp ing l ocations. F urthermore, c oast lines e specially c onstitute t he l ine o f i nterface b etween t he m ar ine a nd t errestr ial ( and i n m any i nstances r iver ine) e nvironm enta l r eg imes, a nd i n m any i nstances w ill r epresent t he m ost e ff ic ient l ocation f rom w hich t o e xp lo it t he r espective r esources. A ccording ly, l inear s urvey u n its w hich f o llow c oast lines a nd/or r iver/va lley s ystems w ill m ost c lose ly a pproximate a ctua l l and u se i n t erms o f s ite l ocation. T his i s n ot t o s uggest t hat i nland s ites a re n ot e xpected; h owever, t hey w ill b e r e lative ly r are r elat ive t o c oasta l a nd r iver/valley s ites, a nd i n a ddition c an b e e xpected t o b e p r imar ily s tations a nd l ocations w hich, a s s uggested p reviously, w ill i n m ost i nstances b e c haracter ized b y e xtreme ly l ow a rchaeol goica l v isib ility. G iven f in ite t ime a nd l ogistical r esources, a c oncentrated e ffort t o l ocate s uch s ites s ystematically w ould b e i mpractical. A n i ndication o f t he s carc ity o f s uch s ites c an b e o btained b y c ompar ing t he c oasta l a nd r iver/va lley s ite d ensity w ith i nland s ite d ensity i n t he C reswe ll B ay, B rentford B ay, a nd N etsilik L ake r egions a s d eterm ined d ur ing t he 1 977 P o lar G as s urvey i n t he s tudy r egion ( Sch ledermann 1 978 :116, 1 28, 1 45, 1 81, 1 95). F urtherm ore, d ur ing e xtensive g eo logica l r econnaissance i n t he i nland r egions o f s everal p ortions o f S omerset I s land, i nc luding C reswe ll B ay i n 1 971-1975 ( see e .g. S ave lle 1 978, 1 979), n o a rchaeo logica l s ites w ere n oted. I deally, s urvey l ine d istance s hou ld b e s uch t hat t he c oasta l a nd r iver/va lley s egments s amp led a llow f or t he r ecognit ion o f a t l east o ne c omp lete p otential c o llecting r adius, i .e. f ifteen-twenty k m. U nder c ertain c onditions, a f ifteen-twenty k m l ine d istance w ill n ot b e p ossib le : h owever i f l ine s egments i n s uch c ases i nc lude p robable f oraging a nd/or c o llecting t erm inii s uch a s a s pecif ic r ecognized l ocation, c ompar ison o f t he t wo s trategies w ill s till b e p ossible.

7 6

b ) S amp ling P rocedure. A reas s elected f or s urvey l ines w ithin t he t wo m ajor s tudy r egions s hould i dea lly e ncompass m ajor p otential w haling g rounds o r m ajor c ar ibou c rossing l ocalities, a nd m ajor a reas o f s econdary r esource c oncentrations. I t s hould b e s tressed t hat s econdary r esources c an a lso i nc lude r aw m ater ials, e ither n aturally o ccurr ing ( e.g. w ood, s teatite ), o r i ntroduced ( e.g. a bandoned e xp lorers ' s hips a nd c aches - s ee H ickey 1 979, 1 984, a nd S ave lle 1 985 f or d etailed d iscussions). G iven t he a bove c onsiderations a nd r equirements, s urveys i n t he s tudy r eg ion w ere d esigned s uch t hat e xtended l ine s urvey s egments i ncorporated b oth p rimary a nd s econdary r esource l ocalities. I f t he r esources d id n ot c o inc ide w ithin a c ommon s urvey l ine s egment, t hen a dditiona l l ine s egments w ere i ncorporated i n t he r esearch d esign t o e nsure l ocations o f b oth r esource c ategor ies w ere e xam ined. L ocat ions o f t he s elected s urvey a reas a re i nd icated i n F igure 2 5, a nd i nc lude C reswe ll B ay a nd A ston B ay i n t he n orthern " wha le" a rea, a nd K ing W illiam I s land a nd a djacent S herman I n let a nd O 'Re illy I sland, a nd t he L ord M ayor B ay-Netsilik L ake d istr ict i n t he s outhern " car ibou" a rea. D etails o f t he i ndividua l s urveys, w h ich w ere c onducted i n 1 980, 1 981, a nd 1 982, a nd l ocations a nd/or o ther d ata p erta in ing t o t he v ar ious c ontained r esources a re r epres ented i n F igures 2 6-31. W ith t he e xcept ion o f O 'Re illy I sland a nd t he V ictor ia H arbour a rea o f L ord M ayor B ay, a ll l ine s urvey s egm ents w ere i nitia lly p lanned t o b e a t l east 2 0 k m i n l ength. I t s hould b e s tressed t hat f or a ll t he s urvey r eg ions e xcept t he L ord M ayor B ay a rea, s urvey r outes a re p r imar ily a long g enerally w ide c oasta l r a ised b each z ones o ffer ing c ontinuous p otential c amp ing s ites a nd e xtreme ly h igh a rchaeo logica l s ite v isib ility ( see f or e xamp le P late 7 c). P hysiography a nd t opography c ou ld p otentia lly s kew s ite p atterns i n t he L ord M ayor B ay s urvey a rea, a s t he a rea c onsists o f g enera lly r ugged P recambr ian u p lands. H owever, t here a re s uff icient c oves a nd l ow h ead lands a long t he e ntire s urvey r oute s uch t hat w hile l ocal s ite p lacement p atterns w ou ld b e a ffected, r egiona l p atterns s hould n ot b e o ther t han t hat s tr ict ly c ontinuous s eries o f s ites w ill n ot o ccur. I n land s ites, e ven t hose w ithin s evera l h undred m etres o f t he c oast, w ould b e d iff icult t o l ocate i n t his a rea. H owever, b ased o n a n a dm ittedly r estr icted i nland h e lic opter s urvey i n t he r eg ion ( see F igure 3 0), s uch s ites a re p robab ly r are. S urvey l ines l ess t han 2 0 k m ( the n orthern p art o f T hom B ay, U nion R iver, a nd S herman I nlet) r esulted f rom d iff icu lties r e lated t o f ie ld l og istics. I n a ddit ion t o t he s urveys d escr ibed a bove, d uring t he s ame p eriod a dditional s urveys w ere c onducted o n C ornwa llis I s land, D evon I s land, n orthern P r ince o f W a les I s land, n orthern a nd e astern S tefansson I sland, a nd t he S tarvat ion C ove a nd M ontrea l I s land r eg ions o f A de laide P eninsula a nd a t F ury B each o n S omerset I sland. T hese l atter i nvestigations w ere s pec if ically d esigned t o l ocate 1 9th c entury I nuit a nd E uropean e xp lorers ' s ites, a nd h ave b een d iscussed i n d etail e lsewhere ( Save lle 1 981; B eattie a nd S ave lle 1 983; S ave lle 1 985; H ickey e t a l. n .d.). F ina lly, d ur ing t he c ourse o f t he f ie ld i nvestigations, s evera l e thnoarchaeol ogica l s tud ies w ere u ndertaken i n c onjunction w ith t he a rchaeol ogica l s tudies ( see e .g. S ave lle 1 984), a nd t he r e levant r esults

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S ite L eve l. B ecause o f t he h igh a rchaeo log ica l v isib ility o f m ost T hule a nd l ater I nuit a rchaeo logica l f eatures, s ampling a t t he s ite l eve l f or f eature t ypes c an b e c onsidered t o p rovide e ssentia lly a 1 00% s amp le o f t he t arget p opulation ( c.f. C henha ll 1 975:5) o nce t he s ite i s r ecognized. I n a ddit ion, i n m any i nstances t he f eature t ype a nd s tyle, a ssoc iated s urface m ater ia ls, a nd t he n ature o f t he l ichen c over p rovide i nformation o n a ge, a nd c ultural a ff iliation. F urthermore, s urface b one c ounts c an p rovide g enerally a ccurate a nd c omparab le d ata ( McCartney 1 979), e specia lly i n t he c ase o f b owhead w hales. M ost t raditiona l T hule s ite i nvestigations t yp ically i nclude t he e xcavation o f m ost d we llings ( or a s m any a t a ny o ne s ite a s i s p ossib le w ithin a g iven t ime p er iod). F or t he p resent s tudy, h owe ver, e xcavations a re r equired p r imar ily t o d eterm ine t he n ature o f t he a ssoc iated s ma ller ( i.e. s ma ller t han b owhead w hale) f aunal r ema ins, a nd s econdar ily, a rtifacts a nd/or r adiocarbon d ates f or d eterm inat ion o f c u ltura l a ff iliation. H istor ica lly, t here i s l itt le r eason t o s uggest p robab le s ignif icant d ifferences i n c ontemp orary s ubsistence p ractices b etween m embers o f a ny g iven r esident ia l g roup . I n t his r egard, S taab h as s tudied i n d eta il t he f aunal r ema ins f rom s even c ontemporary T hule d we llings a t S ilum iut a nd a ssoc iated m iddens a nd o bserved t hat " ...the t ypes o f a n imals, s ke letal e lements, a nd g eneral d istr ibution r ema ined e ssentially t he s ame" b etween d we llings ( 1979:353). S imilar ly, S tenton n oted t hat " Striking s imilarities e xist i n t he c omposition o f h ouse a ssemb lages" o f f auna l r ema ins b etween s ix T hule d we llings a nd a ssociated m iddens h e e xcavated a t t he P ea le P o int T hule s ite ( 1983: 1 35). F inally, R ick, i n d iscussing t he s amp ling t echnique f or f aunal r ema ins f rom t wo T hule s ites o n S omerset I s land n oted t hat M cCartney ( the e xcavator ) c onsidered t hat t he r ema ins f rom o ne d we lling a t e ach s ite w ere " ...representative o f t he ir r espective s ites..." ( 1980:99). A ccordingly, t he c omplete e xcavation o f a d welling a nd a ssoc iated m idden s hould, a t l east f or c omparative p urposes, p rovide a c lose a pproximation o f t he r ema ins a t c ontemporary d wellings. F urthermore, t he a na lysis b y S taab ( 1979) a nd e thnoarchaeo log ical s tud ies u ndertaken i n c onnection w ith t he p resent s tudy s uggest t hat, f or t he d etermination o f c ulling s trategies, f auna l r emains f rom b oth e xterna l m idden a reas a nd i nterna l d we lling a reas s hou ld b e r ecovered a nd c ombined f or c ompar ison ( see e .g. F igures 3 2 a nd 3 3). G iven t he c haracter istics o f T hule a nd H istor ic I nuit a rchaeol ogica l s ites i n t he s tudy a rea, t he e xtensive n ature o f t he s urv eys, a nd t he c oncomitant l og istica l a nd t ime c onstra ints, s ite e xam inat ion w as c onducted o n t hree l eve ls. A t t he m ost d eta iled l eve l, i nd ividual s ites w ere m apped a nd c lear ing e xcavations a nd/or t esting o f s e lected f eatures w as c onducted. A t t he n ext l eve l, s ites w ere m apped a nd s urface m ater ials n oted, a nd o ccasionally

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c o llected. A t t he l east d etailed l eve l, s ites w ere n oted a s t o f eature t ype a nd n umbers, a nd c ultura l a ff iliation e st imated f rom f eature c haracter istics, s urface m ater ia ls, a nd/or t he n ature o f t he a ssociated v egetation. W h ile, a s n oted, s urface a rtifacts w ere o ccasionally c o llected, m ost a rtifact c o llections w ere r estr icted t o m apped a nd e xcavated s ites. L arge f aunal e lements s uch a s w ha le b ones a nd m ost o ther e lements n oted d ur ing f oot s urveys w ere i dentif ied i n t he f ie ld. E xcavated f auna l m ater ia l f rom a r ecent s ite a t t he U nion R iver i n C reswe ll B ay ( see S ave lle 1 984) a nd f rom t he M a lerua lik T hule s ite ( s ite 8 1-61) o n K ing W illiam I s land w as i dentif ied i n t he l aborat ory, w hile t hat f rom o ther s ites w as i dent if ied i n t he f ie ld. S ided c ar ibou a nd s ea l m andib les r epresenting t he m aximum M NI f rom a ll s ites w ere r etained f or d enta l a nnuli a na lysis, a nd f or a ll T hule s ites w ith s em isubterranean d we llings w hich w ere e xcavated a nd/or t ested, s uff icient f auna l m ater ia l f or r adiocarbon d ates w as r etained.

9 4

C HAPTER S IX :

A SSIGNMENT O F A GE A ND C ULTURAL A FFILIATION

A s d iscussed p reviously, s ite a nd f eature a ge c an b est b e e stablished b y r ad iocarbon a nd c ross-dating o f a rtifacts a nd/or f eatures, t he p resence o f E uropean m aterials, a nd, a lthough p revious ly u ntested, l ichen c ommunity c haracter istics.

F eature t ype : T he t erm " C lassic T hule" a s i ntroduced b y M cCartney ( 1977:21) r efers t o t he p er iod o f m ax imum b owhead w hale d istr ibution a nd a bundance i n t he e astern a nd c entral A rct ic r egions, d ur ing w hich r e lative ly m assive s od, s tone, a nd l oca lly w ood o r w ha lebone, s emisubterranean d we llings w ith c o ld t rap e ntrances w ere u tilized a s t he m ajor w inter r esidentia l s he lter. S ch ledermann ( 1975, 1 976a) a nd S abo ( 1981) h ave d emonstrated a s hift f rom t hese m ore m assive s tructures t o t he s hallower, c l armang s tructures l acking t rue c o ld-trap e ntrances a nd s o lid r oofs d uring t he C lassic-Modif ied T hule t ransition o n B aff in I sland, a nd M cGhee ( 1972) h as s uggested a s im ilar t ransition i n t he A mundsen G ulf r egion. A lthough M cCartney d id n ot e xcavate a ny c l armang-like s tructures, h e d id a llude t o t he ir p robab le, s hort-term, u tilization i n t he n orthwest H udson B ay r egion p r ior t o t he e xtensive u se o f s now d we llings ( 1977:29). A ssum ing t hat t he s ame m assive s em isubterranean d we lling-c larmang t ransition t ook p lace i n t he s tudy a rea, a nd a ssum ing t hat e xtensive c l armang u tilization w as a lsä a r elative ly s hort-term p henomenon i n t his a rea, t hen a f urther d istinction w ithin t he T hule p er iod c an b e s uggested: e ar ly C lassic T hule - t hat p er iod d ur ing w hich m assive s em isubterranean d we llings w ith t rue c o ld-trap e ntrances w ere i n u se, a nd l ate C lassic T hule - t hat p er iod d uring w hich l ess m assive, c ormang-like s tructures l acking t rue c o ld-trap e ntrances w ere i n u se. F or t he s tudy a rea, r adiocarbon d ates f or e ar ly C lassic T hule a nd l ate C lassic T hule f eatures a ccording t o t he a bove d istinction a re g iven i n T ab le 4 . T he c ompar isons s uggest t hat t he a ssumption t hat t he d irection o f c hange o f d we lling s ty les, a nd t he a pproximate t ime p er iod d ur ing w hich t he t ransit ion t ook p lace, a re c onsistent w ith tp t ransition e lsewhere. T he o n ly n otab le a noma ly i s t he d ate o f 9 40-50 A .D. f or a c l armang f eature a t s ite 8 2-17 o n t he N etsilik R iver. T his d ate i s t oo e ar ly f or t he l ate C lassic p er iod, a nd s ince n one o f t he a rtifacts e xcavated f rom t his s ite i n 1 982 i n c onnection w ith t he p resent s tudy o r i n 1 977 d ur ing t he P o lar G as A rchaeology P roject ( Schledermann 1 978:316) s uggest s uch a n a ff il iation, i t i s a ccording ly r ejected. A lthough t he d ate o f 1 375-75 A .D. f rom t he l ate C lassic T hule s ite a t C ape W a lker i s g enera lly c onsistent, i t m ay n everthe less b e t oo e ar ly, s ince t he r ema ins o f a t l east 2 0 s ea ls, o ne w alrus, a nd o ne p o lar b ear w ere f ound i n a ssoc iat ion ( Ramsden 1 981:18), a nd f at c ontam inat ion c annot b e r uled o ut ( see e .g. M cGhee a nd T uck 1 976; A runda le 1 981). R e lative t o t he C reswe ll B ay d ates, a l ater d ate f or C ape W a lker c an b e e xpected. T he o nly o ther r adiocarbon d ate o btained f rom t he s tudy a rea i s o ne o f 1 750 + 1 05 ( NMC 1 245) o n c ar ibou b one f rom C ache 2 a t s ite 8 1-61 o n K ing W illiam I s land. H owever, s ince t his

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c ache a lso c ontained C lassic T hule a rtifacts i n d irect a ssociation, i t i s a ccordingly r ejected. T he e arly C lassic-late C lassic d istinction i n s em isubterranean d we lling t ypes i s s upported b y t he c ontained a rtifacts ( see b e low ). I t s hould b e s tressed h ere t hat t he c lassif icat ion o f s em is ubterranean d we llings i s n ecessar ily s ubjective, a nd t hat f or t he m ost p art f ie ld d esignations o f ' heavy ' v s. ' l ight ' w ere m ade w ithout t he b enefit o f e xcavations. A lthough m ost i dentif ications a re t hus t entative, c omp lete o r n ear ly c omp lete e xcavations o f f our s emisubterranean d we llings, t esting o f a n a dditiona l e leven, a nd e xam ination o f a pproximate ly f ifteen p reviously e xcavated d we llings i n t he s tudy a rea b y R asmussen ( 1931) a nd M cCartney ( 1979a), s uggest t hat s urface a ppearances a re r easonab ly r e liab le i ndicators. O ther f eature t ypes d o n ot a llow s uch r e lat ive ly f ine t empora l d istinctions, s ince w hile r espective f requencies o f t he v ar ious t ypes m ay c hange t hrough t ime ( e.g. t ent r ing s ty le), w ithout f urther d etailed s tud ies t hey c annot b e p resumed t o b e i nd ividua lly t empora lly s ensit ive.

A rtifact t ype : T he a na lysis o f f orma l a nd s ty list ic a ttr ibutes o f a rtifacts h as t raditionally f igured p rominently i n N eoeskimo a rchaeo logical r esearch, p r imar ily i n r esponse t o t he n ecessary c ultural-histor ica l c hrono logy b uilding o ver s uch a v ast a rea. A lthough l arge n umbers o f l ithic a nd w ell-preserved o rganic a rtifacts a re t raditiona lly e xcavated f rom N eoeskimo s ites ( see e specially M athiassen 1 927a,b; H oltved 1 944), e ssentially a ll a ttempts a t c ultura l p lacement o f v ar ious s ites a nd/or c omponents h ave r e lied h eavily o n t he c ompar ison o f a ttr ibutes o f h arpoon h eads. M ason ( 1902) a nd W issler ( 1918) w ere a mongst t he f irst t o e xam ine h arpoon h ead r e lationsh ips, b ased o n t he f ew c o llections a vailab le t o t hem, b ut M athiassen w as t he f irst t o e xam ine t hem w ith t he b enefit o f p rovinience d ata, n oting t hat " ...they a re b etter t han a ny o ther e lement o f E sk imo c ulture f or s how ing c ultural c onnection a nd c hrono logy i n t he E skimo c u lture" ( 1927b :11). L ater, C o llins n oted t hat h arpoon h eads " ...form t he m ost d ependab le s ing le c r iter ion o f c ultura l c hange a t o ur d isposal." ( 1940:550), w hile F ord r emarked t hat " It i s w e ll r ecogn ized t hat i n t he s tudy o f E skimo p rehistory h arpoon h eads s erve m uch t he s ame f unction a s ' key f ossils ' a s d o c eram ics f or c ultures i n a N eo lith ic s tate o f d eve lopment" ( 1959:93). A n e xtreme, b ut n everthe less c onsistent, v iewpo int w as e xpressed b y Y amaura, w ho s uggested t hat " ...harpoon h eads a re...basic c ultura l t raits, a nd t he ir s tudy t o e xplain o r igins a nd t ype d eve lopment r epresents t he s tudy o f c ultures t hemse lves. I n o ther w ords, t he h arpoon h ead t ypes a re c onsidered t o b e s ymbo lic o f t ota l c u ltures" ( 1979:476). A lthough o ther a rtifact c lasses s uch a s a rrowheads ( Stanford 1 976) a nd p ottery ( Arno ld a nd S timme l 1 983; b ut s ee a lso S ave lle 1 986b) h ave o ccasiona lly b een n oted a s p otentia l t emporal m arkers, t hey h ave t raditiona lly r ece ived v ery l ittle e mphasis. C onseq uent ly, m ost e astern A rctic T hule s tud ies h ave t ended t o c oncen

9 8

t rate t o v ary ing d egrees o n h arpoon h ead t ypo logies 1 972, 1 984; S ch ledermann 1 975; M cCartney 1 977; J ordan a nd M cGhee 1 979, 1 981; M orr ison 1 983a,b).

( e.g. 1 979;

M cGhee T ay lor

A ccording ly, t he g enera lly e stab lished h arpoon h ead t empora l s equence a s e stab lished i n t hose, a nd o ther, w orks i s f o llowed i n t he p resent s tudy . F or e xamp le, S icco, S icco-like a nd o ther e ar ly T hule II f orms ( "wedged" a nd/or s harp-ang led), T hule I w ith a s ing le p air o f b arbs a nd l acking e nd-b lade s lots, l ashing s lots, s ideblade s lots, v estig ia l s purs, s harp-ang led s purs, a nd s tepped e xterna l r idges a re a ll c onsidered f orms a nd/or a ttr ibutes p rimar ily a ssoc iated w ith t he e ar ly C lassic T hule p er iod, w hile l ater T hule II f orms ( "smooth"), T hule I v ar iants, T hule V , d rilled l ashing h oles, a nd s mooth-angled s purs, a re f orms a nd/or a ttributes p r imar ily a ssoc iated w ith l ate C lassic a nd M odif ied T hule p er iods ( see e .g. S tanford 1 976 a nd S ave lle 1 980 f or a d etailed r eview ). O therw ise, M cGhee 's c autionary n ote t o t he e ffect t hat " ...the p rudent a rchaeo logist i s p robab ly w ise t o f orego a ny a ttempt a t m aking a n o bjective j udgement, a nd t o i nstead r eport a n o vertly s ubjective o pinion o n t he s tylistic r elationships b etween t he a ssemblages w ith w hich h e i s d ea ling" ( 1984:87-88) w ould a ppear t o b e a pp licab le t o t he s tudy a rea. T he r ecovered a rtifacts w ill n ot b e t reated i n d etail i n t he p resent w ork, b ut w ill b e p resented i n as ubsequent r eport. B efore d iscussing o ther d ating t echniques, h owever, i t s hou ld b e n oted t hat t he e ar ly C lassic-late C lassic d istinction n oted f or d we lling f eatures c orre lates w e ll w ith a rt ifact a ttr ibutes. F or e xamp le, T hule I h arpoon h eads w ith l ashing s lots, s imp le b arb s ystems, a ngular s purs a nd s tepped e xterna l r idges, a nd " ear ly" T hule II f orm w ith s ide b lade s lots ( Math iassen 1 927:312), a nd a n " ear ly" p ottery f orm ( Mathiassen 1 927a:318) a ll o ccur i n a ssociation w ith e ar ly C lassic s ites, w hile " later" T hule II f orms, w ith s mooth-ang led s purs a nd l ashing h o les ( a lthough n ot r estr icted t o l ate C lassic, t hey a re t he o nly l ash ing t ype o ccurr ing d ur ing t his p er iod) a re a ssoc iated w ith l ate C lassic s ites. F urthermore, M athiassen n oted t hat t he s ite o f K angerarf igssuaq o n K ing W illiam I sland ( site 8 1-54 i n t his s tudy), w h ich c ontains l ate C lassic g enerally " lightly" c onstructed s em isubterranean d we llings, w as " for b oth g eo logica l a nd a rchaeo logica l r easons...later t han [ the e ar ly C lassic c omponent] a t M a lerua lik [ s ite 8 1-61 i n t his s tudy]." ( 1927a:322 - s ee a lso M athiassen 's F igure 1 09, p .323).

E uropean m ater ia l: T hree b asica lly d ifferent c ategor ies o f a rchaeol ogically r ecognizab le E uropean m ater ia l w ere i ntroduced i nto t he s tudy a rea d ur ing t he h istor ic p er iod; a ) t rade g oods s uch a s b eads a nd n eedles w h ich w ere i ntroduced d ur ing t he e ar ly h istor ic p er iod d irectly b y v arious e xploring p arties ( e.g. R oss 1 835:249; M cClintock 1 859:209 ; A mundsen 1 908 :120), b ) e xotic " raw" m ater ial s uch a s i ron, c opper, t in, h ardwoods, e tc., i ntroduced t hrough t he a bandonment o f s h ips a nd c aches a ssoc iated w ith t he R oss e xpedition

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o f 1 829-33 ( Ross 1 835) a nd t he F rank lin e xpedition o f 1 845-48 ( Cyr iax 1 939), a nd f ina lly c ) f o llow ing t he e stab lishment o f t he v arious t rading p osts i n t he a rea b eg inning i n 1 923, i mported f inished t oo ls, g lass b ottles, c anvas t ents, t obacco t ins, P r imus a nd o ther s tove t ypes, a lum inium ( pr imar ily f rom a ircraft w recks), a nd m ost i mportant ly, r if les a nd a mmunition ( see e .g. B alikc i 1 964). U n less t here w ere i nd ications o therw ise, s ites a nd/or c omponents c onta ining o n ly i tems o f t he f irst t wo c ategor ies w ere a ssumed t o r e late t o t he e ar ly H istor ic p er iod, w hile s ites a nd/or c omponents c onta ining ( but n ot r estr icted t o ) i tems o f t he t h ird c ategory a re a ssumed t o r e late t o t he l ate H istor ic p er iod. " Recent" p er iod s ites ( post g overnment-housing e ra) a nd/or c omponents c ontaining s uch i tems a s d iapers, v ar ious p lastics ( sung lasses, r ecords), m agazines, a nd/or o ther a pparent ly m odern m ater ia l f rom l oca l s tores o r m a il-order f irms w ere i dentif ied b ut a re n ot i nc luded i n t he p resent s tudy. W hile u nmodified o r s lightly m odified i tems o f E uropean/ E uroamer ican m anufacture a re g enerally r eadily p laced w ithin t he e ar ly o r l ate H istor ic p er iod, h eavily m odif ied m ater ial f rom t he a bandoned e xpedit ion s hips a nd c aches w as i dentif ied t hrough s uch m ethods a s m etal t hickness ( and c ompared w ith u nmodif ied m etal i tems i n v ar ious m useums a nd f rom u ndisturbed o r m inimally d isturbed e xp lorers ' c aches), r ecognizab le m anufacture c haracter istics s uch a s s quare o r r ectangular c ross-sections o f c opper a nd i ron n a ils ( e.g. H ume 1 970; N e lson 1 968), e arthenware ( e.g. H uges, i n N icks 1 969: 1 58), l id p lugs a nd s o ldered s eams o n t inned a nd o ther c ontainers ( Busch 1 981; D rummond a nd L ew is 1 937), a nd c ompar ison w ith " unique" i tems s uch a s t he e ng ine a nd e ngine m ounts o f R oss ' V ictory, p arts o f w hich w ere a bandoned a t F e lix a nd V ictor ia H arbours i n L ord M ayor B ay.

L ichen c haracteristics: T he d ating o f f eatures u sing l ichen c haracter istics i s b ased o n t he a ssumpt ion t hat t he d isturbance o f s tones r esults i n t he e xposure t o p otentia l l ichen c olonizat ion o f p arts o f t he s tone p revious ly i mbedded i n b each s ands o r g rave ls, v egetation p atches, o r o therw ise n ot e xposed i n a p osition f avoura b le f or l ichen c o lonizat ion u ntil t he t ime o f f eature c onstruction. A ccording ly, i f t he l ichen c haracter istics o n a s er ies o f f eatures o f k nown a bso lute a nd/or r e lative a ge c an b e d eterm ined, t hen a c a libration c urve c an b e c onstructed s uch t hat t he a ge o f o therw ise u ndated f eatures c an b e e st imated. I n c onstructing t he v ar ious c alibration c urves, t hree v ar iab les m ust b e c onsidered i n a ddition t o f eature a ge : l ichen t ype, h ost m ater ial, a nd m acro- a nd m icroenvironment. 1 . L ichen t ypes: A l arge n umber o f l ichen s pec ies o ccur i n t he A rctic r egions, w ith T homson ( c ited i n N . M cCartney 1 978) e stimating a t ota l o f 2 000. O f i nterest i n t he p resent s tudy, h owever, a re t hose i ndividua l t ypes o r c ommunities t hat o ccur c onsistent ly i n a g iven e nv ironment a nd o n ag iven s ubstrate. S evera l l ichen s tudies h ave d emonstrated s uch c onstant a ssoc iat ions, w ith H ansen ( 1978a,

1 00

1 978b) f or e xamp le, n ot ing f ourteen m ajor e nvironment/substrated ependent c ommunities i n s outhern G reenland, a nd R ichardson a nd F inegan ( 1977) n oting s evera l d istinct c ommunit ies a ssoc iated w ith d iffer ing b each a nd i nland o utcrop e nvironments o n D evon I s land. I n t he s tudy a rea, t hree d istinct l ichen g roups ( tentative ly i dentif ied o n t he b asis o f c ompar ison w ith t hose i l lustrated i n M cGrath 1 977) w ere n oted a ssociated w ith a rchaeological f eatures; a ) t hose c omposed p redominant ly o f b r ight r ed o r o range X anthor ia s p., b ) t hose c omposed p redom inant ly o f t he m inera l g rey P hyscia s p., t he d ark g rey-b lack U mb ilicar ia s p. a nd t he b lack P arme lia s p., a nd c ) t hose c omposed p redom inant ly o f X anthor ia s p. a nd U mbilicar ia s p.. M any o ther l ichen t ypes w ere n oted o n a rchaeo log ical f eatures ( e.g. H aematomma s p., P ertusaria s p.), b ut i n v arying, a nd l esser, c oncentrations. 2 . H ost m ater ial: L ichen h ost m ater ia l, t hat i s, t he c omposition o f t he s tructura l m ater ia l, f a lls i nto t wo m ajor m ater ia l t ypes; r ock a nd w ha lebone. W ith f ew e xceptions, s tructura l w halebone s erved a s h ost t o a v arying b ut p redominantly X anthoria s p. c ommunity. L ichen c ommunities o n r ock, o n t he o ther h and, v ar ied c onsiderab ly a nd a ccord ing t o r ock t ype. T wo m ajor g eo logica l b edrock s uites o ccur i n t he s tudy a rea; a ) d o lom ite, l imestone, a nd l ocally s andstone, a ssoc iated w ith A rctic P latform s edimentary r ocks, a nd b ) g ne iss, g ranite, a nd l ocally d iabase a nd/or g abbro a ssoc iated w ith t he P recambr ian S hield a nd B oothia A rch ( B lackadar a nd C hr istie 1 963; T horste insson a nd T ozer 1 970). T he f ormer s edimentary r ock s uites o ccur p r imarily o n n orthern a nd e astern S omerset I sland, t he c oasta l f lanks o f B oothia P eninsula, a nd K ing W illiam I sland, w hile t he l atter m etamorphic a nd i gneous r ock s uites o ccur p rimar ily o n c entra l B oothia P en insula a nd w estern S omerset I sland. E xtensive t ill s heets b lanket m uch o f t he l ow-ly ing c oasta l a reas u nder la in b y s edimentary r ocks, r esulting i n t he i ntroduction o f s ignif icant q uantities o f g ranite a nd g ne iss b oulders w ithin t hese a reas ( see e .g. D yke 1 983, 1 984). X anthor ia s p. c ommunities a re g enerally r estr icted t o d o lom ite a nd l imestone s tructural c omponents, w hile p rimarily P hysciaU mbilicaria-Parmelia c ommunities, a nd s econdarily X anthoriaU mbilicaria c ommunities, a re g enerally r estricted t o g ranite, g niess, a nd/or d iabase/gabbro s tructural c omponents. T hese d iffer ing c ommunity-host m ater ia l a ssoc iations a re c onsistent w ith s im ilar a ssoc iations f ound o n " do lom itic" v s. " granite/sandstone" s ubstrates o n D evon I s land ( R ichardson a nd F inegan 1 977), a nd o n " calcareous" v s. " granitic" s ubstrates i n s outhern G reenland ( Hansen 1 978a, 1 978b). 3 . M acro- a nd m icroenvironments: D ifferences i n l ichen c ommunity c omposition a s a f unction o f p hysiographic a nd c limatic v ar iables h ave b een n oted b y H ansen ( 1978a, 1 978b), L indsay ( 1977), a nd H a le ( 1954), a mong o thers. I n t he s tudy r eg ion, t wo m ajor c limaticallyi nfluenced v egetation z ones o ccur; p o lar d esert i n t he n orthern " wha le" a rea a nd p o lar s em idesert i n t he s outhern " car ibou" a rea ( B liss 1 977:3). S ince s urveys i n t hese a reas w ere c onducted a long e xposed c oast lines a nd, i n t he N etsilik L ake a rea, e xposed r iver/

1 0 1

l ake c oast lines, c ompar ison w ithin e ach z one a ccording c ommunity a nd s ubstrate m ater ia l s hould b e v a lid.

t o

l ichen

A t t he m icroenvironmenta l l eve l, t he m ost i mportant f actor, a ssum ing o therw ise g enera lly c onstant c onditions, i s t he d egree o f e xposure o f t he f eature t o w ind s cour ( see e .g. L indsay 1 977). A ccording ly, g enera lly p rotected a reas o f i ndividua l f eatures ( e.g. t he l ower p arts o f t he i nner s tones o f t ent r ings, p rotected a reas o f c aches, e tc.) p rovide t he m ost s tab le c o loniz ing p latforms.

M ethods: I n v iew o f t he a bove c onsiderations, f or e ach f eature o r s er ies o f f eatures e ncountered d ur ing t he s urveys, p redominant l ichen t ypes c o lonizing p rotected a reas t hat, o n t he b asis o f f ie ld i nspection, a ppeared t o h ave b een i nitially e xposed ( or i nitially p rotected i n t he c ase o f i ntensive ly s coured s tones) a t t he t ime o f c onstruct ion w ere n oted, t he d egree o f c over o f t he l ichen c ommunity e stimated ( the s urface l ichen c over e xpressed a s ap ercent), a nd t he r ock t ype i dent if ied. C a librat ion c urves f or e ach o f t he t wo m ajor r eg ions a ccording t o r ock t ype a nd l ichen c ommunity a re r epresented i n F igures 3 4 a nd 3 5. I f t he f eatures t hat w ere a pparent ly u sed a s b ird r oosts, c haracter ized b y s ignif icant q uantities o f n utr ients a nd a ccompanied b y r e lative ly l uxurious l ichen g rowth, a re o m itted, t he e xpected o verall i ncrease i n l ichen c over w ith i ncreas ing a ge i s a pparent. I n t he n orthern a rea, t he c urve i s u sefu l f or a T hu le v s. e ar ly o r l ate H istor ic d istinction o n ly, s ince t he p r imary h ost m ater ia l, l imestone a nd d olom ite, i s c haracter ized b y r elative ly l ow c oloniz at ion l eve ls, a nd t here i s a l ack o f f irm ly d ated M odif ied T hu le f eatures, d ue t o t he a pparent a bandonment o f t he a rea d ur ing t he M odif ied T hule p er iod. I n t he s outhern a rea, t he r e lative ly l arge n umber o f d ated s ites, t he f avourab le c o lonization m ater ia ls a nd c limate, a nd t he a pparent c ontinuous o ccupat ion f rom t he i nitial T hule e xpansion i nto t he a rea u p t o t he H istor ic p er iod, e nables a m ore p rec ise a ge e stimation ( that i s, C lassic T hule-Modif ied T hule/ e arly H istor ic-late H istor ic). I t s hou ld b e s tressed t hat d egree o f l ichen c over i n e ach c ase i s n ecessar ily e stimated, a nd t he t echnique a s e mp loyed i s t herefore s ubjective. N everthe less, a t t he " coarse-grained" l eve ls e mp loyed, d ifferentiation i nto t wo m ajor t emporal g roups, e ach s panning a pproximate ly 4 00-500 y ears, i s p ossib le.

1 02

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F igure 3 4. D egree o f l ichen c over o n v ar ious s ubstrate t ypes i n f eatures o f k nown o r e st imated a ge i n t he C reswe ll B ay, A ston B ay, a nd n e ighbour ing a reas i n t he n orthern p art o f t he s tudy a rea.

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F igure 3 5. D egree o f l ichen c over o n v ar ious s ubstrate t ypes i n f eatures o f k nown o r e st imated a ge i n t he K ing W illiam I slandA de la ide P en insula a nd L ord M ayor B ay-Netsilik L ake a reas i n t he s outhern p art o f t he s tudy a rea.

1 04

C HAPTER S EVEN :

S URVEY R ESULTS A ND S ITE S UMMARIES

T he r esults w ill b e d iscussed i n d etail i n C hapters 8 a nd 9 a ccording t o t he p reviously e stab lished h ypotheses a nd t est i mp lic ations, a nd a s s uch w ill n ot b e s ummar ized i n t he t radit iona l s ite r eport f ormat. S ite l ocations a re r epresented i n F igures 3 6-41, a nd s ite s ummar ies i n T ables 5 -10. A s d iscussed p reviously, f ie ld c amps a re d esignated a ccording t o t he n umber o f t ent r ings ( i.e. o ne o r t wo) w h ile s pr ing-fa ll r esidentia l c amps c ontain t hree o r m ore t ent r ings. S everal o f t he l arger r esidentia l s ites a lso c ontained l arge t ent r ing s tructures i nterpreted a s t he s ummer e quiva lent o f k ar igi ( P late 4 c). W inter a nd/or l ate f all r esidentia l s ites c onsisted o f b oth ' heavy ' a nd ' l ight ' s em isubterranean d we llings ( P late 5 a,b), s now d we lling s catters ( P late 5 c), a nd p robable k ar ig i ( P lates 6 a,b). R ecognized c aches w ere o f t hree o f t he f ive e thnograph icallyr ecorded t ypes. T hese i nc lude a bove g round b oulder c aches, e xcav ated g rave l c aches ( Plate 7 c), a nd s ma ll, d eep s em isubterranean s tructures l acking p latforms o r o ther f eatures a nd w hich a re i nterpreted a s i ce c ellars. R ecognized l ocat ions i nc lude b oth " h igh-bu lk" a nd " low-bu lk" l ocations. H igh-bulk l ocations w ere o f t wo t ypes: b owhead w ha le b eaching a nd p rocessing l ocalities, i dentif ied b y t he p resence o f s ingle o r m ultip le b owhead w hale c rania a nd/or s ignif icant a mounts o f o ther a pparent ly c ulled e lements ( see P late 7 a); a nd m ajor c ar ibou d r ive s ystems ( Plate 7 b). L ow-bu lk l ocations i nc lude s ma ll h unting b linds, d r iftwood p rocurement l oca lities, m etal p rocurement l oca lities ( Plate 8 a), s tone f oxtraps, a nd r aw l ithic m ater ia l p rocurement l oca lities. I ndividual s ite a nd/or c omponent c haracter istics a ccording t o c ultura l a ff iliation f or t he v ar ious s urvey r egions a re r epresented i n F igures 4 2-55. C omponent i n t his i nstance r efers t o a ll t hose f eatures c onsidered t o r e late t o e ar ly C lassic T hule, l ate C lassic T hule, M odif ied T hule, e ar ly H istor ic, o r l ate H istor ic p er iods a t a ny o ne s ite. S ites 8 1-107 a nd 8 1-108 l isted i n T ab le 8 , f or e xamp le, b oth h ave C lassic T hule a nd l ate H istor ic c omponents, e ach o f w hich a re l isted s eparate ly, A lthough a s ubstantia l n umber o f l ate H istor ic s ites a nd/or c omponents r e lating t o t he r ecorded 2 0th C entury I nuit o ccupation w ere r ecorded i n t he C reswe ll B ay a rea, a nd t wo a pparently e ar ly H istor ic s ites w ere r ecorded i n t he A ston B ay a rea, t hey a re n ot i nc luded i n t he p resent s tudy . T he f ormer a re e xcluded b ecause t here i s n o a pparent p receding M odif ied T hule-ear ly H istor ic o ccupat ion, a nd t hus n o b asis t o a ssess d irection o f c hange o f t he p arameters u nder c onsideration. T he l atter, o n t he o ther h and, a re e xc luded s ince t hey a pparent ly r epresent b r ief f orays b y s ma ll f ie ld a nd/or r esidentia l g roups o ut o f N etsilik a nd/or I glulik I nuit h istor ically-documented ' core ' a reas ( see S ave lle 1 981).

1 05

1 06

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1 62

SOMERSET I SLAND

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F igure 3 7.

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L ocation o f s ites r ecorded i n t he A ston B ay a rea.

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F igure 3 8.

L ocation o f s ites r ecorded i n t he K ing W illiam I s land a rea.

10

K ING W ILL IAM I SLAND

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W i l l e r s t ed I n l e t

1 6

1 9 2 0 2 1

F igure 4 1. L ocation o f s ites r ecorded i n t he N etsilik L ake a rea. S ites p ref ixed w ith ' B ' w ere o r igina lly r ecorded d ur ing t he P o lar G as A rchaeo logy P roject ( see S ch ledermann 1 978).

16

T ab le 5 . S ite N o.

S ite D ata S ummary - C reswe ll

S em isubterr anean D we llings

S now D we lling S catters

T ent R ings

B ay. C aches

L ocations

B oulder P it

B u lk

H eavy L ight

8 0-28

H igh- L ow-

1

1

S ite/ C ompo-

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B ulk

H B

A ge

C T

8 0-29

6

C T

8 0-30

1

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8 0-31

2

8 0-32

H B

C T

F T

C T

8 0-33

6

1 3

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8 0-34

1 5

1 0

C T

8 0-35

3

2

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8 0-36a

7

5

C T

8 0-36b

2

9

8 0-37

1

8 0-38

3

3

8 0-39b

1 4

1 5

8 0-43

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F T

C T C T C T

F T

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B -2

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8 0-44

1

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8 0-45a

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8 0-45b

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8 0-46a

1

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8 0-46b

1

C T

8 0-47

1

C T

8 0-48

1

C T

B -3

B W1

C T

B -4

B W1

C T

B W1

C T

B -5

B W1

C T

B -6

B W1

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8 0-49

2

1

8 0-50a

3

8 0-50b

1

2

8 0-50c

9

4

3

C T

17

C T B W2

C T

T ab le 5 . S ite N o.

C ontinued.

S emisubterr anean D wellings

S now D welling S catters

T ent J UL9_ s

C aches

L ocations

B oulder P it

H eavy L ight 5

H igh- L owB ulk B u lk B W1

S ite/ C ompon ent A ge

8 0-51a

1 9

8 0-51b

1

C T

8 0-51c

1

C T

8 0-52

1

C T

B -7 8 0-53

2 1

1 0

8 0-54

4 5

1 0

B W1

C T

B W5

C T

1 5

8 0-55a

C T

C T B W1

C T

8 0-55b

1

B W1

C T

8 0-55c

1

B W1

C T

8 0-56

1

C T

8 0-57a

6

C T

8 0-57b 8 0-58a

1

C T 7 5e

2 6

B -8 8 0-60

6

5

8 0-60a

C T B W1

C T

B W2

C T

B W1

C T

8 0-61

2

5

C T

8 0-62

7

5

C T

2 4

C T

8 0-63 B -9 8 0-64

2

8 0-65

1

2

B W1

C T

B W1

C T C T

B -10

B W1

8 0-67

1

8 0-70

1

2

C T C T

8 -11

B W1

8 0-71

2

8 0-73

4 3(2)

C T

C T C T

1 0e

C T

8 0-75

1

8 0-76

2

C T

8 0-77

1

C T

18

B W1

C T

T ab le 5 . S ite N o.

C ontinued.

S em isubterr anean D we llings

S now D we lling S catters

T ent R ings

C aches B oulder P it

H eavy L ight 8 0-80a

1

8 0-80b

7

8 0-80c

1

8 0-81

1

8 0-81a

1

L ocations H igh- L owB u lk B ulk

C T 3

C T C T B W1

C T C T

B -12

B W1

8 0-82

1

8 0-83

1 0

S ite/ C ompon ent A ge

C T C T

5

C T

B -12a

B W4

C T

B -13

B W1

C T

B -14

B W3

C T

8 0-85 8 0-86

1

C T

1 1

8 0-87

6

8 0-88

7

8 0-89

6

3 5e

C T

2 5e

C T

3 4

B -15 8 0-90

4 0e

8 0-91

1

5

8 0-92a

3 5

1 08

B W10

C T

B W9

C T

B W4

C T

B W1

C T C T

2 00e

B W36

C T

8 0-92b

3 00e

B W9

C T

8 0-92c

2 00e

B W8

C T

8 0-93

2 0e

3 0e

8 0-94

2

8 0-95 8 0-96

C T

3 9

F T

C T

5 0e

7 0e

1 00e

C T

1 0e

1 0e

2 0e

C T

8 0-101

1

2

C T

8 0-102

1

2

C T

8 0-105

1 0

6

C T

8 0-107

4 0e (1) 1 0e

C T

8 0-108

1 0e

1 0e

C T

8 0-109

1 2e

4 e

C T

19

T ab le 5 . S ite N o.

C ontinued.

S emisubterr anean D wellings

S now D we lling S catters

T ent R ings

C aches B oulder P it

H eavy L ight 8 0-110a

2 0e

1 0e

8 0-110b

3 0e

6 0e

5 0e

8 0-110c

5 0e

2 00e

5 0e

8 0-111

1 2

1 0e

L ocations H igh- L owB u lk B ulk

S ite/ C ompon ent A ge

B W3

C T

B W6

C T C T C T

8 0-112

5 e

1 0e

C T

8 0-113

1 0e

2 0e

C T

8 0-113a

5 e

1 0e

C T

C T=Classic T hule; M T=Modified T hule ; E H=Ear ly H istor ic; L H=Late H istoric; B W3=Minimum N umber o f b owhead w ha les r epresented a t l ocation; C DS=Car ibou D r ive S ystem ; F T=Fox T rap ; H B=Hunting B lind; A EM=Abandoned E xp lorers ' M ater ia l; D W=Dr iftwood; S TT=Steatite Q uarry; e =estimate; ( 1) = T ent r ing i nterpreted a s K ar ig i.

1 20

T ab le 6 . S ite N o.

S ite D ata S ummary - A ston B ay.

S em isubterr anean D we llings H eavy

8 0-126

S now D we lling S catters

T ent R ings

C aches

L ocations

B oulder P it

L ight 5

9

1

H igh- L ow-

S ite/ C ompon ent

B ulk

A ge

1

8 -20

B ulk

C T B W1

C T

8 0-127

1

2

C T

8 0-128

1

1

C T

8 0-129

3

2

C T

4

C T

1

C T

1

C T

7

C T

8 0-130

3

8 0-131

7

8 0-132 8 0-133 8 0-134

5 3

8 0-135 8 0-136

1 2 5e

5

C T 4 5e

2 5e

B W5

C T

6

C T

8 0-137

6

C T

8 0-138a

5

8 0-138b

2

C T

8 0-139

1

C T

8 0-140a

5

4

C T

8 0-140b

7

2

C T

8 0-141

3

4

C T

C T

8 -21

B W1

C T

8 0-143b

1 0

C T

8 0-143d

1 0

8 0-144

1

C T

8 0-145

7

C T

8 0-146a

6

8 0-146b

1 3

8 0-147

1

1

B W1 2

8 0-150

C T

B W1 5

C T C T

2

8 0-151 8 0-153

C T

C T

B -22 8 0-149

C T

C T 3

3

1 21

C T C T

T ab le 6 . S ite N o.

C ontinued

S emisubterr anean D wellings H eavy

S now D welling S catters

T ent R ings

C aches B oulder P it

L ight

L ocations H igh- L owB ulk B ulk

8 0-154

1

8 0-157a

7

C T

8 0-157b

1

C T

8 0-160

4

3

C T

8 0-161

2

2

C T

8 0-162

5

B -23

1

S ite/ C ompon ent A ge C T

C T B W1

8 0-164a

9

7

K ey a s f or T able 5 .

1 22

C T C T

T ab le 7 . S ite N o.

S ite D ata S ummary - K ing W illiam I sland.

S emisubterr anean D we llings

S now D we lling S catters

T ent R ings

C aches B oulder P it

H eavy L ight

L ocations H igh- L ow-

S ite/ C ompon ent

B u lk

A ue

B ulk

8 1-4

8

3

C T

8 1-5

5

1 0

1

8 1-6a

1 4

1 2

8 1-6b

3

1 0

C T

8 1-7

4

5

M T

8 1-8a

3

1

C T

8 1-8b

2

4

C T

8 1-9

1 4

L H

8 1-9a

3

M T

8 1-9b

6

M T

8 1-9c

3

M T

8 1-9d

2

C T

8 1-10

1

C T H B

C T

1

L H

8 1-10a

1

L H

8 1-10b

1

L H M T

8 1-11

5

2

8 1-12

6

2

8 1-13

2

1

8 1-14

1

L H

8 1-15

1

L H

8 1-16

1

L H

8 1-18

1

L H

8 1-19

1

L H

8 1-20

1

L H

8 1-20

3

C T

8 1-21

1

C T

8 1-22

1

L H

8 1-23

5

8 1-24

3

8 1-24

1

2

C T

8 1-26

1

1

M T

8 1-27

2

5

H B

L H L H

M T L H

M T

1 23

T ab le 7 . S ite N o.

C ontinued.

S emisubterr anean D wellings

S now D welling S catters

T ent R ings

C aches B oulder P it

H eavy L ight

L ocations H igh- L owB ulk B ulk

S ite/ C ompon ent A ge

8 1-28

1

C T

8 1-29

5

3

M T

8 1-30

4

5

M T

8 1-30

1

8 1-30a

2

8

E H

8 1-31

2

3

C T

8 1-31

1

8 1-31a

4

8 1-31a

1

L H

L H 4

8 1-32 8 1-33

5

8 1-35

4

M T F T

L H

F T

L H M T

1 0

M T F T

8 1-35

L H

8 1-36

2

2

C T

8 1-37

2

1

E H

8 1-38

2

8 1-40

1

2

L H

8 1-41

3

5

C T

1

M T

8 1-41a

E H

1

8 1-42

M T

8 1-42

7

M T

8 1-43

2

M T

8 1-44

5

2

M T

8 1-45

4

3

M T

8 1-46

6

2

L H

8 1-47

1

1

M T

8 1-48

1

8 1-48a 1

8 1-49 8 1-50

2 0

C T

3

M T

4

E H

3

8 1-51 8 1-52

C T

1 0

1

1 24

E H 7

C T

T ab le 7 . S ite N o.

C ontinued.

S em isubterr anean D we llings

S now D we lling S catters

T ent R ings

C aches B oulder P it

H eavy L ight 8 1-53

1 5

8 1-53

3

8 1-54

1 0

1 0

L ocations H igh- L owB u lk B u lk

S ite/ C ompon ent A ge C T L H

1 0

3

C T

8 1-55a

2

8 1-55b

8

8 1-55c

2

C T

8 1-56

3

L H

8 1-57

1 0

L H

8 1-58

1 0

L H

8 1-59

3

4

L H

8 1-60

6

1

L H

4 0e

5 0e

C T

8 1-61

1 5e

5 e

M T/EH

8 1-61

1 0e

1 0e

L H

8 1-62

2 0e

1 2

M T

8 1-63

6

C T

8 1-63a

1 2

C T

8 1-63b

4

M T

2

L H

8 1-61

2 0

1 5

L H 1 0

E H

8 1-64

6

8 1-65

3

8 1-66

5

3

L H

8 1-67

2

2

L H

8 1-67a

5

C T

8 1-67b

1 0

L H

M T

8 1-68

2

4

M T

8 1-69

3

5

M T

8 1-69a

2

1

C T

8 1-70

3

5

L H

8 1-71

1

2

M T

8 1-72a

1

8 1-73

1

7

1 25

L H 2

C T

T ab le 7 . S ite N o.

C ontinued.

S em isubterr anean D we lling s

S now D we lling S catters

T ent R ings

C aches B oulder P it

H eavy L ight 8 1-74

1

8 1-75

2

K ey a s f or T ab le 5 .

1 26

L ocations H igh- L owB ulk B ulk

S ite/ C ompon ent A ge L H

1

M T

T ab le 8 .

S ite N o.

S ite D ata S ummary - S herman I nlet a nd O 'Re illy I s land, A de laide P eninsula.

S em isubterr anean D we llings

S now D we lling S catters

T ent R ings

C aches B oulder P it

H eavy L ight 8 1-97

1

2

8 1-98

2 2

2 1

8 1-99a

1

8 1-99b

2

8 1-99c

2

L ocations H igh-

S ite/ C ompoL ow- n ent

B u lk

B ulk A ge A EM A EM D W

E H M T/EH L H

3

8 1-100

D W

L H

D W

C T

H B

M T

8 1-102

1

2

L H

8 1-103

1

2

L H

8 1-104

1

4

C T

8 1-104a

1

2

C T

8 1-107

9

1

L H

8 1-107a

1

8 1-108

8

8 1-108

2

8 1-109

5

8 1-110

1

M T

8 1-111

1

C T

8 1-112

1

C T

8 1-113

2

L H

8 1-114

2

C T

8 1-115

1

3

L H

8 1-116

1

1

L H

3 50e

1 50e

C T

8 2-11

1 0e

1 0e

M T/EH

8 2-11a

1 0

1

M T

8 2-12

3 0e

7 0e

8 2-13

7

2

8 2-11

1 9

2 9

K ey a s f or T ab le 5 .

1 27

C T 5

C T L H

4

A EM D W

C DS

L H

C T F T

L H

T ab le 9 . S ite N o.

S ite D ata S ummary - L ord M ayor B ay.

S em isubterr anean D we llings H eavy

8 1-80

S now D we lling S catters

T ent R ings

C aches B oulder P it

L ight

H igh- L ow-

S ite/ C ompon ent

B ulk

A ge

B u lk

5

2 0e

C T

8 1-80

5

2 0e

M T/EH

8 1-80

7 5

7 5e

L H

2 8

1 0e

L H

8 1-82

2

8

M T

8 1-83

2

2

M T

8 1-84

9

L H

8 1-84a

1

C T

8 1-84a

1

8 1-81

8 1-85

6

L ocations

2

1 5e

1

L H

2

C T

8 1-88

1

E H

8 2-27

1 0e

5 e

M T

8 2-28

6

3

C T

8 2-30

4

L H

8 2-31

2

L H

8 2-32

1 0e

M T

8 2-33

3

C T

8 2-33

5

8 2-34

3

8 2-34

5

5

L H M T

7

8 2-35

L H S TT

L H

8 2-36

1 0e

1 0e

L H

8 2-36

2 0e

1 0e

M T

8 2-37

2

1

M T

8 2-37

2

2

L H

8 2-38

2

1

M T

8 2-39

1

8 2-40

3

2

L H

8 2-41

2

1

L H

8 2-42

5

C T

8 2-42

2

L H

8 2-43

2

M T

1 28

M T

T ab le 9 .

S ite N o.

C ontinued.

S emisubterr anean D we llings H eavy

S now D we lling S catters

T ent R ings

C aches B oulder P it

L ight

L ocations H igh- L ow-

S ite/ C ompon ent

B ulk

A ge

B ulk

8 2-43a

2

M T

8 2-44

1

L H

2

L H

8 2-45

2

C T

8 2-46

3

1

M T

8 2-46

2 6

7

L H

2 7

1 1

L H

8 2-47b

8

1 0

L H

8 2-47c

3

1

L H

6

3

E H

8 2-45

8 2-47a

8 2-48

1 0

9

3

8 2-49

A EM

E H

8 2-50

A EM

E H

8 2-50

2

8 2-50

2 8

2 5

L H

8 2-51

4

1

L H

8 2-52

5

4

L H

8 2-53

7

4

C T

8 2-54

1

5

L H

8 2-54

3

3

C T

8 2-54a

2

C T

8 2-56

3

C T

8 2-56

1 2

L H

8 2-57

4

E H

8 2-57

3

8 2-57

2

8 2-57a

3

8 2-58

1

8 2-59

2 7

1 2

L H

8 2-60-1

1

3

L H

8 2-60-2

2

8 2-60-3

1 7

8 2-60a

1 29

M T

1

C T L H

1 0

L H L H

L H 3

L H

3

M T

T ab le 9 .

S ite N o.

C ontinued.

S em isubterr anean D we llings H eavy

S now D we lling S catters

T ent

E l19 5 _

B oulder P it

L ight

8 2-61 8 2-61a

C aches

L ocations H igh- L ow-

S ite/ C ompon ent

B u lk

A ge

B u lk

4

L H

1

C T

1

8 2-63

F T

M T

F T

C T

8 2-64

1

8 2-65

2

8 2-65

2

8 2-65

2

8 2-66

2

1

L H

8 2-67

3

7

L H

8 2-68

6

1

8 2-69

1

1

L H

8 2-70

7

6

E H

8 2-70

3

8 2-73

1 7

1 5

C T

8 2-75

8

6

M T

8 2-75

3

C T

1

L H L H

F T

M T

L H

E H

8 2-76

A EM

E H/LH

B -39

1

B -40

1

B -40

1

B -41

1 0e

1 0e

C T

B -42

7

5

M T

B -43

M T 3

C T L H

2

2 FT

M T

B -44

5

6 -47

1 2

9

M T

B -48

5

8

M T

B -49

1

1 2

B -50

5

7

L H

B -51

1 5

3

L H

B -113

3

3

L H

B -114

5

C T

B -115

4

C T

1 30

M T

3 HB

C T

T ab le 9 .

S ite N o.

C ontinued.

S emisubterr anean D wellings H eavy

S now D welling S catters

T ent R ings

C aches B oulder P it

L ight

L ocations H igh- L ow-

S ite/ C ompon ent

B ulk

A ge

B ulk

B -117

4

M T

B -122

1

C T

6 -124

1

L H

6 -125

3

L H

6 -126

1

L H

B -127

1 0e

B -129

2

L H

6 -130

4

L H

6 -135

1 5e

6 -136

5

C T

B -137

2

C T

6 -138

3

B -139

1

M T

6 -140

5

M T

K ey a s f or T able 5 .

1 31

5 e

1 0e

1

C T

C T

L H

T ab le 1 0.

S ite N o.

S ide D ata S ummary - N etsilik L ake.

S em isubterr anean D we llings

S now D we lling S catters

T ent R ings

H eavy L ight 8 2-16

S ite/ C ompoB oulder P it H igh- L own ent B u lk B ulk A ge C aches

L ocations

4

C T 2 2

8 2-17-1

M T

2

8

C T

8 2-17a

2

L H

8 2-17a

2 5

9

M T

8 2-18

1

5

M T

8 2-19

2

2

L H

8 2-20

1

1

E H

8 2-21

7

1

8 2-22

4

1

8 2-17-2

8 2-23

1 0

6

F T

E H M T

8

C T

8 2-23

2

1

L H

8 2-23-1a

5

1

C T

8 2-23-lb

1

C T

8 2-23-1c

1

C T

8 2-24

1 0

L H

8 2-24

6 0

8 2-25a

1

L H

8 2-25a

5

E H

8 2-25b

1 2

6

E H

8 2-26

2

1

M T

B -66

1 2

1 0

L H

B -75

3

7

L H

B -153

4

M T

6 -154

1 0

M T

K ey a s f or T ab le 5 .

1 32

5

C DS

M T/EH

0 . 1

. 4 -) C

a )

+ )

c▪

• r-

•

4 . . ) 4 -)

c

( 1 ) 4 )

C ‘ . 1 I 1 1

CD q r 4 1 C Y,

4

o

C

a ) 4 )

CD r e ) I e • • . 4

;

Cn = , r -r --

a )

• rS .

Ti

4 )

r c s

4 . )

•r • •

1 : 7 1 C

CD

▪ + . 1

r t j .0

C

a ) c r o s _ S . .

a ) 4 ) _ a = t n

C

4-)

•-

4 -)

L a ) 1 -) ( a

C D V )

a )

CD L t 'l I 1 .4 01

0

a )

L . C Y )

0

E

CD r 4 I r I

v )

v s

a) C • . r r a )

01 C * , -, -r --

-0

-0

C

C

r ö C I )

a )

n o ( 1 )

V )

a ) = . 4 ) r 1 3

( 1 ) 4 -

c n o S . s .

c n o s s -

c n c • ‚ -

4 ) _ a = L i , • , -

4 ) _ c : = i n

, a ) 3 1 : 2

( I )

E ( 1 ) v :

CD C Y " ) I r I r I

( 1 )

. -

E

a . )

L r :

CD in I r . . 1 CO

I )9 9

1 33

. -

3

o

C V )

CD r 1 I i r I

X 0

4 . ,

s tt) . - s teat ite q uarry

0

0 _ r c s S . 4 )

d w» - d r iftwood

1

o f 6 + b owhead w ha les

c ar ibou d r ive

z

1-30 s now

c

E ar ly C lass ic

1 -5 b owhead w hales

l ocations:

c aches

13 1-50

1-30 c aches

1 -10 c aches

s ite c haracter ist ics,

r i l 0)

c n

_ c t r ) • r 4 Ä

v s

( 1 )

• r -

1 34

1 35

BARRO W STRAIT

C ape A nne

bw l »-

SOMERSET I SLAND

bw l» . -

bw1I P P-

b w5 V

b w l e

ASTO N BA Y 0

F igure 4 3. L ate C lassic L egend a s f or F igure 4 2.

T hule

s ite

1 36

c haracter istics,

Km

A ston

1 0

B ay.

G ladman P o in t

Ma lerua l ik

ADELA IDE P EN INSULA

F igure 4 4. C lassic T hule s ite c haracter istics, K ing W illiam I sland. L egend a s f or F igure 4 2.

1 38

K ING W ILL IAM I SLAND

D oug l a s

K oka L ak e B ay

h b

ui l och P o in t

% \ ‘ S IMPSO N STRAIT , % .

B oo th P o in t r c o

\ * ., . ` . 1 0 Km

0

1

M II I IMM I C I II II I I I I II

D

A. I L

1 39

G ladman P o in t

% t h . Q ,

Ma lerua l ik

T i

ADELA IDE P EN INSULA

4 F igure 4 5. M odif ied T hule-ear ly H istor ic s ite c haracter istics, K ing W illiam I s land. L egend a s f or F igure 4 2.

1 40

R

K ING W ILL IAM I SLAND

D oug l a

K oka L ake

B ay . 1l och

,\ 1

‘

P o in t B oo th P o in t d o , z 2

S IMPSO N S TRAIT g

i

0

D

1 4 1

1 0 Km

G ladman P o in t

Ma le rua l ik

ADELA IDE P EN INSULA

F igure 4 6. L ate H istoric s ite c haracter istics K ing W illiam I sland. L egend a s f or F igure 4 2.

1 4 2

K ING W ILL IAM I SLAND

f j f t f t

D oug l a s

d e ,

B ay

K oka L ak e 0

i loch P o in t h b B oo th P o in t

S IMPSO N S TRAIT

0

1 43

1 0 Km

f or F igure 4 2. r • • • ' K t C I ) S . =

o )

• f U . .

1 44

1 45

1 46

1 48

1 49

1 50

e -I

•

L C)

1 5 1

M odif ied T hule-ear ly H istor ic

1 52

• CM e• C D L . = CI • e LL C . 0 4V " ) r C i 7 : 3 C C D c c , C D -J • >3 nj

c haracter istics,

CO

15 3

F igure 5 3. C lassic T hule L egend a s f or F igure 4 2.

s ite

1 54

c haracter istics,

N etsilik

L ake.

l , " 7 7 9 : 7 BOOTH IA P EN INSULA

f r cs

NETSILIK W i l l e r s t ed I n l e t

F igure 5 4. M odif ied T hule-ear ly H istoric N etsilik L ake. L egend a s f or F igure 4 2.

1 55

s ite

c haracter istics,

V7 . _r < 2 BOOTH I A P EN INSULA

N e t s / l i kR i v e

i

NETSILIK

W i l l e r s t ed I n l e t

F igure 5 5. L ate H istor ic L egend a s f or F igure 4 2.

s ite

1 56

c haracter istics,

N etsilik

L ake.

C HAPTER E IGHT :

H YPOTHESIS I :

T EST I MPLICATION R ESULTS

H YPOTHESIS I : A d ecrease i n t he d istr ibution a nd a bundance o f b owhead w ha les i n t he n orthern p art o f t he s tudy a rea, a nd i n b arren g round c ar ibou i n t he s outhern p art o f t he s tudy a rea, w ill b e a ccompanied b y a t ransformation o f s ubsistence-settlement s ystems b ased p rimarily o n c o llecting s trategies t o s ubsistence-settlement s ystems b ased p r imar ily o n f oraging s trateg ies.

S ince, a s p revious ly d iscussed, d ef in ite M odif ied T hule o ccupat ions h ave n ot b een r ecognized o n S omerset I s land, f or p urposes o f c ompar ison f or t his a rea e ar ly C lassic T hule i s c ompared t o l ate C lassic T hule f o llow ing t he e ar ly v s. l ate d istinction m ade i n C hapter 6 . S ince a l l b ut o ne o f t he e ight s em isubterranean d we lling s ites a t C reswe ll B ay a re c onsidered ' ear ly ' C lassic T hule, a nd a ll s ix s em isubterranean d we lling s ites a t A ston B ay a re c onsidered ' late ' C lassici a ssoc iated t ent r ing, c ache, a nd o ther s ite t ypes i n t he r espective a reas, f or t he p urposes o f a rea l c ompar ison, c an b e c onsidered ' ear ly ' a nd ' late ' C lassic r espective ly. T his i s n ot t o s uggest t hat n one o f t he f eatures i n A ston B ay c ould b e e ar ly C lassic T hule, o r t hat n one o f t he f eatures ( w ith t he e xception o f t he o ne i dent if ied s ite ) i n t he C reswe ll B ay a rea c ould b e l ate C lassic T hule. H owever, i t c an b e e xpected t hat n orthern h unterg atherer g roups, e specia lly t hose w ith p ermanent r esident ia l b ase c amps, w ill, f or t he m ost p art, o perate i n c ultura lly o r e co logic a lly d ef ined z ones. C ertain ly a ll h istor ic C entra l E skimo g roups d id s o, a lthough b oundary d ef inition w as n ot u niform. I n s uch i nstances, t he p ermanent r esidentia l b ases c an b e e xpected t o o ccur w ithin, a nd i n l arge p art d ef ine, t err itor ial b oundar ies. S ince i dentif ied e ar ly C lassic T hule s em isubeterranean d we lling s ites a re c oncentrated a t C reswe ll B ay, a nd l ate C lassic T hu le s em isubt erranean d we lling s ites a re c oncentrated a t A ston B ay, a ssociated f eatures w ithin t hese t wo a reas l ogically s hould r e late t o t he r esidential b ase o ccupations. K eeping i n m ind t he p robable t rave lling d istance f rom C reswe ll B ay t o A ston B ay i s a pproximate ly 2 00 k m, i t w ould s eem h igh ly u nlike ly t hat l and u se o ver lap w ou ld b e m ajor. A ccording ly, i t c an b e s uggested t hat a n o ver lap m ay a lter s light ly, b ut n ot s ignif icant ly, e ar ly a nd l ate C lassic T hu le s ett lement p atterns i n t he r espective a reas.

T est I mp lication I

" There s hould b e as trong f unct ional s eparation o f C lassic T hule s ites i nto r esidential b ases, " high-bulk" l ocations, f ield c amps, c aches, a nd s tations, a nd t his f unctional s eparation s hould d ecrease i n M odif ied T hule a nd e ar ly H istor ic s ites."

1 57

C omparison o f f requenc ies o f v ar ious s ite a nd/or c omponent t ypes a ccording t o c ultura l a ff iliation f or t he t hree m ajor s urvey r egions a re p resented i n F igures 5 6-58. C omponent i n t his i nstance, a nd i n a ll f o llow ing t est i mp lications, r efers t o t hat p hysica l c omponent o f as ite c onsisting o f ag iven f eature t ype. F or e xamp le, a s ite c onsisting o f o nly f our l ate H istor ic c aches i s r eferred t o a s a c ache s ite. A s ite c onsist ing o f f our l ate H istor ic c aches a nd f our l ate H istor ic t ent r ings h as t wo c omponents : a c ache c omponent a nd at ent r ing c omponent. T here i s ac lear t rend i n b oth t he n orthern w ha le a rea a nd t he K ing W illiam I sland-Ade laide P eninsula r egion o f t he s outhern c ar ibou a rea t oward d ecreasing r e lative p roportions o f t he l ogistically-re lated f ie ld c amps a nd h igh-bu lk l ocat ions a nd a c orresponding i ncrease i n r esidential s ites. O n t he o ther h and t he t rend i s v ery p oor ly d eve loped i n t he L ord M ayor B ay-Netsilik L ake r egion o f t he s outhern c ar ibou a rea. T he l ogistical-residentia l d istinction f or t he S omerset I sland a nd K ing W illiam I sland-Ade laide P en insula r egions i s e specia lly e vident i f t he f requenc ies o f t ent r ing n umber p er s ite/component a re c ompared ( F igures 5 9-60), w ith f ie ld c amps f requencies b e ing c onsiderab ly h igher f or e ar ly C lassic T hule a nd C lassic T hule, r espect ive ly. C onverse ly, t here i s v ery l itt le d ifference i n t he L ord M ayor B ay-Netsilik L ake a rea ( Figure 6 1). A lthough t he r e lative p roportions o f c ache s ites a nd/or c omp onents r emain r e lat ive ly c onstant, i n e ach o f t he s urvey a reas, i f a bso lute c ache s ite/component s ize i s c onsidered i nstead, t here i s a d ef inite d ecrease i n t he r e lat ive p roportions o f l arger s ites/ c omponents i n t he S omerset I sland a nd K ing W illiam I s land-Ade la ide P eninsula r egion ( Figures 6 2 a nd 6 3). I n t he L ord M ayor B ayN etsilik L ake r egion, o n t he o ther h and, t he t rends a re g enerally s imilar a lthough t he l argest i nd ividua l s ites a re a ssociated w ith M odif ied T hule-ear ly H istor ic o ccupations ( Figure 6 4).

T est I mp lication 2

" Intersite v ar iab ility s hould b e r e lative ly h igh f or C lassic T hule s ites a nd d ecrease f or M odif ied T hule a nd e ar ly H istor ic s ites."

A ssum ing, a s p reviously d iscussed, t hat i ntersite v ar iab ility i s r eflected b y c hanges i n c ache/tent r ing r atios w ith c hanges i n s ite s ize, t he p redicted p attern f or c o llectors ( low r atios f or s maller s ites, h igh r atios f or l arger s ites) a re e vident f or b oth e ar ly a nd l ate C lassic T hule o ccupat ions o n S omerset I s land ( F igures 6 5). T hat i s, s ma ller c ache s ites t end t o b e a ssociated w ith p roportiona te ly s ma ll n umbers o f t ent r ings, w hile l arger c ache s ites t end t o b e a ssociated w ith p roportionate ly l arger t ent r ing s ites. F or t he K ing W illiam I sland-Ade la ide P en insula r egion, t he t rend f rom a ' co llecting ' p attern t o a ' foraging ' p attern o ccurs a s p redicted ( Figure 6 6). T hat i s, t he i ncreasing c ache/tent r ing r atio w ith i ncreasing t ent r ing s ite s ize ( i.e. c o llecting p attern) i s r eplaced

1 58

8 093-

ASTON BAY - L ATE C LASS IC T HULE

7 0-

C RES WELL B AY - E ARLY C LASS IC T HULE 6 0

F REQUENCY

5 0-

4 0-

3 0-

/ 2 0

1 0

1 F I ELD CAMPS

I R ES IDENT IAL S ITES

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r

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B ULK

L OCAT IONS

L OCAT IONS

F igure 5 6. C ompar ison o f e ar ly C lassic T hule ( Creswe ll B ay) a nd l ate C lassic T hule ( Aston B ay) s ite/component t ype f requencies i n t he S omerset I sland a rea.

1 59

MOD IF IED T HULE -EARLY H ISTOR IC

F REQUENCY

C LASS IC T HULE

F I ELD

R ES IDENT IAL

CAMPS

S ITES

CACHES

H IGH

L OW B ULK

B ULK

L OCAT IONS

L OCAT IONS

F igure 5 7. C ompar ison o f C lassic T hule a nd M odified T hule-ear ly H istoric s ite/component t ype f requencies i n t he K ing W illiam I slandA de laide P en insula a rea.

1 60

8 093,

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MOD IF IED T HULE -EARLY H ISTOR IC

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F igure 5 8. C omparison o f C lassic T hule a nd H istor ic s ite/component t ype f requencies i n N etsi l ikL ake a rea.

1 6 1

M odified T hule-ear ly t he L ord M ayor B ay-

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NUMBER O F T ENT R INGS P ER S ITE ICOMPONENT - A LL S ITES

F igure 5 9. C ompar ison o f f requencies o f e ar ly C lassic T hu le ( Creswell B ay) a nd l ate C lassic T hule ( Aston B ay) t ent r ing s ites/component f requencies a ccording t o s ite/component s ize i n t he S omerset I s land a rea.

1 62

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9 1-100 > 100

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NUMBER O F T ENT R INGS P ER S ITE /CONPONENT - A LL S ITES

F igure 6 0. C ompar ison o f C lassic T hule a nd M odified T hule-ear ly H istoric t ent r ing s ite/component f requencies a ccording t o s ite/component s ize i n t he K ing W illiam I sland-Ade la ide P eninsula a rea.

1 63

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MOOFED T HULE -EARLY H ISTOR IC C LASS IC T HULE

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NUMBER O F T ENT R INGS P ER S IT E/COMPONENT - A LL S ITES

F igure 6 1. C ompar ison o f C lassic T hule a nd M odif ied T hule-early H istoric t ent r ing s ite/component f requencies a ccording t o s ite/component s ize i n t he L ord M ayor B ay-Netsilik L ake a rea.

1 64

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3 1-40

4 1-50

5 1-60

6 1-70

7 1-80

8 1-90

9 1-100

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NUNEER OF CACHES P ER S rTE/CONFONENT

F igure 6 2. C ompar ison o f e ar ly C lassic T hule ( Creswe ll B ay) a nd l ate C lassic T hule ( Aston B ay) c ache s ite/component f requencies a ccording t o s ite/component s ize i n t he S omerset I sland a rea.

1 65

1 00%

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MOOFED T HULE-EARLY H ISTOR IC C LASS IC THULE

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NUMBER O F CACHES P ER S ITE/CON IPONENT

F igure 6 3. C ompar ison o f C lassic T hu le a nd M odif ied T hule-ear ly H istoric c ache s ite/component f requencies a ccording t o c ache s ite/component s ize i n t he K ing W illiam I sland-Ade laide P en insula a rea.

1 66

.1 1 1 . 1 1. 1 1 M 1 1 .

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5 1-60

6 1-70

7 1-80

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NUNEER O F CACHES P ER SUE/CON IPONENT

F igure 6 4. C ompar ison o f C lassic T hule a nd M odif ied T hu le-early H istoric c ache s ite/component f requencies a ccording t o c ache s ite/component s ize i n t he L ord M ayor B ay-Netsilik L ake a rea.

1 67

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NUMBE -R O F T ENT R INGS P ER S ITE /COMPONENT

F igure 6 5. C ompar ison o f a verage p roportion o f c aches/tent r ings a ccording t o t ent r ing s ite/component s ize f or e ar ly C lassic T hule ( Creswe ll B ay) a nd l ate C lassic T hule ( Aston B ay) s ites i n t he S omerset I sland a rea. O nly s ites c onta ining b oth f eature t ypes a re i nc luded.

1 68

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NUMBER O F T EN T R INGS P ER S ITE/COMPONENT

F igure 6 6. C ompar ison o f a verage p roport ion o f c aches/tent r ings a ccording t o t ent r ing s ite/component s ize f or C lassic T hule a nd M odified T hule-early H istoric s ites i n t he K ing W illiam I s land-Ade laide P eninsula a rea. O nly s ites c onta ining b oth f eature t ypes a re i ncluded.

1 69

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NU MBER O f T ENT R INGS P ER UTE/CON IPON E NT

F igure 6 7. C ompar ison o f a verage p roportion o f c aches/tent r ings a ccording t o t ent r ing s ite/component s ize f or C lassic T hule a nd M odif ied T hule-ear ly H istor ic s ites i n t he L ord M ayor B ay-Netsilik L ake a rea. O n ly s ites c ontaining b oth f eature t ypes a re i nc luded.

1 70

b y o ne i n w hich t here i s e ssentia lly a c onstant c ache/tent r ing r atio r egardless o f t he s ite s ize ( i.e. f orag ing p attern). F or t he L ord M ayor B ay r egion, h owever, t here i s r e lative ly l ittle c hange i n t he r atio w ith i ncreas ing s ite s ize f or b oth C lassic T hule a nd M odif ied T hule-ear ly H istor ic ( Figure 6 7). B oth p atterns, i n f act, e xhibit g enera lly d ecreasing r at ios w ith i ncreasing s ite s ize.

T est I mplication 3

" Classic T hule s ite p atterns s hould e xhibit r ecognizable f oraging a nd l og istica l z ones, a nd t he f oraging z ones ( def ined f rom r esident ia l b ases) s hould b e a ssoc iated p r imar ily w ith h igh-bulk l ocat ions a nd c aches. M odif ied T hule a nd e ar ly H istor ic s ite p atterns s hould e xhibit f ewer l ogistica l z onations a nd i nstead a pproximate a c ontinuous s er ies o f f oraging z ones."

A s d iscussed p revious ly, f orag ing z ones c an b e d efined b y a n a pproximate ly t en k m r adius f rom r esidentia l b ases, w hile l og istical z ones c an b e d efined b y a n a pprox imate ly 1 5-20 k m r adius f rom r esidential b ases. T he f ollowing d iscussion w ill b e l imited p r imar ily t o t hose s urvey a reas w hich i ncorporate a t l east o ne 2 0 k m s urvey s egment: C reswe ll B ay, A ston B ay, K ing W illiam I sland, a nd L ord M ayor B ay. At rend f rom s ite p atterns i ncorporating f oraging a nd l og istical r adii t o p atterns i ncorporating p r imar ily f orag ing r adii i s c lear ly e vident i n b oth t he S omerset I s land ( Creswe ll B ay a nd A ston B ay) a nd K ing W illiam I sland r egions ( Figures 6 8-71). I n t he C reswe ll B ay a rea, a lthough t here i s c onsiderab le o ver lap i n f oraging r adii f or s pring-fa ll r esidentia l s ites, t he o ver lap i s c oncentrated i n t wo p r imary a reas: i mmediate ly n orth o f C ape G arry a nd n ear H azard I n let ( Figure 6 8). F urthermore, t he m ajor ity o f f ie ld c amps a re l ocated o utside o f t hese m a in f oraging r adii c oncentrations, b ut w ithin l ogistica l r adii. I n t he A ston B ay a rea, o n t he o ther h and, t he f oraging r ad ii a re l ess p o lar ized, m ore e venly d ispersed, a nd f or t he m ost p art o ver lapp ing ( Figure 6 9). I n t he K ing W illiam I s land a rea, t here i s a s im ilar p attern c hange f rom C lassic T hule t o M odif ied T hule-ear ly H istoric. T hat i s, C lassic T hule f oraging r adii a ssociated w ith s pring-fall r esident ia l s ites e xhibit c omparative ly l itt le c ontinuous o ver lap, b ut i nstead a re c oncentrated i n t wo a reas: t he n arrows o f S impson S trait a nd a t B ooth P o int ( Figure 7 0). B y c ontrast, t he M odif ied T hule-ear ly H istor ic p attern i s l ess c oncentrated, a nd e xhibits a lmost c ontinuous o ver lap ( Figure 7 1). I n t he L ord M ayor B ay a rea, t he t rend i s v ery w eakly d eve loped, w ith b oth C lassic T hule a nd M odif ied T hu le-ear ly H istoric r esid ential s ites c oncentrated a t S agvak I n let a nd n ear F e lix H arbour, a nd t he l atter o n ly s light ly m ore d ispersed t hroughout t he i nterv ening c oastline ( Figures 7 2 a nd 7 3). W hile

t he

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r esident ia l 1 71

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( A V I a 1 4 > • rt . n

1 73

SOMERSET I SLAND

0

Km

1 0

F igure 6 9. F oraging z ones a ssoc iated w ith l ate C lassic T hule t ent r ing r esidentia l s ites, A ston B ay, S omerset I sland.

1 74

Ma lerua l ik

ADELA IDE P EN INSULA

F igure 7 0. r esident ia l

F oraging z ones a ssociated w ith C lassic T hule t ent s ites, K ing W illiam I sland.

1 76

r ing

K ING W ILL IAM I SLAND

1 77

G ladman P o in t

ADELA IDE P EN INSULA

F igure 7 1. F oraging z ones a ssociated w ith M odif ied T hule-early H istor ic t ent r ing r esidentia l s ites, K ing W illiam I s land.

1 78

e

K ING W ILL IAM I SLAND

1 80

r esident ia l Cn C • r L .

1 8 1

1 82

1 83

S omerset I s land a nd K ing W illiam I sland-Ade laide P en insula, s upport t he c o llecting-foraging t ransition, c ertainly t he m ost s tr iking p atterns a re t hose a ssociated w ith t he C lassic T hule w inter r esid entia l s ites. I n t he C reswe ll B ay r egion, m ajor s emisubterranean d we lling s ites a re c oncentrated i n t hree r egions: H azard I nlet a nd C ape G arry ( this s tudy ), a nd a long t he n orth c oast o f C reswe ll B ay i mmediate ly n orth o f I d lout P o int ( McCartney 1 979a; T ay lor a nd M cGhee 1 979). E ach o f t he t hree c enters i s s eparated b y a lmost e xactly t wo l ogistica l r adii ( Figure 7 4). F urthermore, a ll m ajor c ache a nd h igh-bulk l ocations l ie w ithin t he f oraging r adii o f t he t wo c enters s urveyed ( Hazard I nlet a nd C ape G arry ), a nd o n t he b asis o f l arge c ache s ites a nd h igh-bu lk l ocations i dentified b y C larke ( 1979), a nd M cCartney ( 1980), a s im ilar s ituation a pparently o btains o n t he n orth c oast o f C reswe ll B ay. S ignificantly, t he o nly l arge s pring-fall r esidential s ite b etween t he m ajor c enters o f C ape G arry a nd H azard I n let l ies a t t he a pproximate p o int o f i ntersection o f t he ir r espective l og istical r adii, a nd c ontains i n a ddition t o t he 4 3 t ent r ings t wo l arge f eatures i nterpreted a s k ar ig i. T he p attern f or t he l ate C lassic w inter r esidentia l s ites a t A ston B ay, a lthough e xhib iting a s eparation o f r esidentia l c enters a long t he A ston B ay c oast p roper a nd C ape A nne, n everthe less d o n ot i ncorporate w e ll d ef ined l ogist ica l z ones ( Figure 7 5). I nstead, t he w inter r esidential s ites a re m ore c lose ly s paced, p r imar ily w ithin o ver lapp ing f oraging z ones. S ignif icant ly, t he l argest h igh-bulk l ocation a nd l argest c ache s ite o ccur t ogether a t o ne s ite e xactly o ne f oraging r adius f rom e ach o f t he t wo e xtremes o f t he f ive w inter r esidential s ites i n A ston B ay p roper, a nd a lmost a ll o ther c ache a nd h igh-bu lk l ocations o ccur w ith in t he f oraging r adii o f t he r espective s ites. I n t he K ing W illiam I sland a rea, t he p attern f or C lass ic T hule i s s imilar t o t hat f or C reswe ll B ay i n t hat w inter r esidentia l s ites a re l ikew ise c oncentrated a t t hree c enters ( G ladman P oint, t he n arrows o f S impson S trait, a nd B ooth P o int), n one o f w h ich a re w ithi n t he f oraging r adii o f t he o ther t wo ( Figure 7 6). F urthermore, t he l argest t wo o f t he t hree c enters ( S impson S trait n arrows, B ooth P oint) a re s eparated b y a lmost e xactly t wo l ogistical r adii. F ina lly, a ll m ajor c ache a nd c ar ibou c rossing l ocations a re w ith in t he f oraging r adii o f t he r espective c enters. I n t he L ord M ayor B ay-Netsilik L ake a nd S herman I n let a reas, n one o f t he T hule w inter s ites w ere i ncorporated w ithin 2 0 k m s urvey s egments. H owever, t hose t hat w ere r ecorded i n t hose a reas w ere n ot c oncentrated i n c enters b ut n everthe less o ccurred w ithin f oraging r adii o f t he p r imar y c ar ibou c rossing a nd/or c ache l oca lit ies ( see F igures 7 7-79). O n ly o ne w inter r esidential s ite a ssociated w ith t he M odif ied T hule-ear ly H istor ic i n t he s outhern s tudy a rea w as r ecorded, t h is b e ing a g roup o f t hree s now d we lling s catters a t F e lix H arbour i n L ord M ayor B ay, a nd t herefore d irect c ompar ison w ith C lassic T hule w inter r esidential p atterns i s n ot p ossib le. H owever, e xpected p atterns c an b e o btained f rom t he e xamination o f l ocations o f e ar ly

1 84

1 86

1 87 s em is ubterranean

SOMERSET I SLAND

F igure 7 5. F oraging z ones a ssoc iated w ith l ate C lassic T hu le s em is ubterranean d we lling r esidentia l s ites, A ston B ay, S omerset I s land.

1 88

G ladman P o in t

%

a le rua l ik

T u

ADELA IDE P EN INSULA

F igure 7 6. F oraging a nd l ogistica l z ones a ssociated w ith T hule s emisubterranean d we lling r esidentia l s ites, K ing I sland.

1 90

C lassic W illiam

K ING W ILL IAM I SLAND

D oug l a s

K oka L ake

B ay

h b

H och P o in y = ORAG ING RAD IUS

B oo th P o in t

L OG IST ICAL RAD IUS

S IMPSO N STRAIT

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1 9 1

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a ssoc iated w ith v ) c i ) C 0 N

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1 92

• 4 ) C U r— C b 4

1 94

a ssoc iated

T hule s em isubterranean d we lling

• rt n

1 95 L ord M ayor B ay.

F igure 7 9. F oraging z ones a ssoc iated w ith t erranean d we lling s ites, N ets ilik L ake.

1 96

C lassic T hu le

s em isub-

H istor ic w inter r esidential s ites a s o bserved b y 1 9th c entury e xplorers. F or t he s tudy a rea, R oss ' ( 1835) d escr iptions o f N etsilik m ovements i n L ord M ayor B ay i n t he w inter a nd s pr ing o f 1 830 a re t he m ost d eta iled, a nd t he a pprox imate l ocations o f t he v ar ious c amps a re r epresented i n F igure 8 0. A ll l ocations r epresent s ealing c amps, a nd t he f oraging a s o pposed t o c o llect ing p attern i s r eadily e vident.

T est I mp lication 4

" Classic T hule s ite p lacement p atterns s hould e mphas ize, a nd b e r e lated t o, b owhead w ha le p rocurement l ocat ions i n t he n orth a nd c ar ibou p rocurement l ocations i n t he s outh, a nd s econdar ily t o o ther " cr itica l" r esources i n t he r espective a reas. L ater s ite p lacement p atterns s hould t end t o e mphas ize, a nd b e r e lated t o, s econdary r esources."

I n t he n orthern r egions, t he p resence o f C lassic T hule h igh-bu lk b owhead w ha le c ach ing a nd p rocessing l ocations a nd l arge w inter a nd s pr ing-fa ll r esidentia l s ites i n t he w ha ling " corr idor" a s d efined b y i ce p atterns a nd l ack o f m ajor s ites i n o ther a reas s trongly s upports t he w ha ling e mphasis ( see a lso M cCartney a nd S ave lle 1 985). A t rend t oward s ite p lacement p atterns r elated t o s econdary r esources i s s een i n t he r e lative ly d ramatic s h ift i n p r imary T hule o ccupation f rom C reswe ll B ay t o A ston B ay b y t he l ate C lassic T hule p er iod. O n ly o ne l ate C lassic T hule s ite o ccurs i n t he C reswe ll B ay a rea, t hat b eing P eJr-2 o n t he n orth c oast o f t he b ay ( McCartney 1 979a; T ay lor a nd M cGhee 1 979 - s ee a lso F igure 7 4). I n a ddition, a s econd c l armang s ite h as b een r ecorded a t t he h ead o f N udlukta I nlet, i mmediate ly s outh o f t he C reswe ll B ay s urvey a rea ( Sch ledermann 1 978; p ersona l o bservation 1 977). B oth a re s ituated i n t he v icinity o f m ajor p o lynyas ( Sm ith a nd R igby 1 981; W enze l 1 979) a nd t o t he t wo m ajor a nadromous f ish l ocalities i n t he r egion ( McCart a nd B este 1 979). I n t he s outhern s tudy r egion, t he s h ift t o s econdary r esources i s m ost e vident i n t he K ing W illiam I sland a rea. E ar ly C lass ic T hule w inter r esident ia l s ites a re l ocated o nly a t t he m ajor c ar ibou c rossing l ocations ( the n arrows o f S impson S tra it a nd C rescent H arbour ( see F igures 4 4 a nd 4 7). L ate C lassic T hule s ites, o n t he o ther h and, a t l east i n t he s outhern K ing W illiam I sland a rea, w hile s till l ocated a t t he m ajor c ar ibou c rossings, a re m ore d ispersed a nd c loser t o s econdary r esources s uch a s s ea ls a nd a nadromous f ish ( Figure 4 5). F ina lly, M odif ied T hule a nd e ar ly H istor ic s pr ing-fa ll r esidentia l s ites, w h ile o ccurr ing a t p r imary c ar ibou c rossings, s how a m ore s ubstantia l c oncentration a djacent t o s ea ling l ocalities ( e.g. D oug las B ay). R ecorded e ar ly H istor ic w inter r esidential s ites w ere c oncentrated o n t he s ea i ce a t t he p r imary s ea ling l ocalit ies i mmediate ly w est o f B ooth P o int a nd a t t he e ntrance t o S herman I nlet ( McC lintock 1 859; A mundsen 1 908; S tackpo le 1 965).

t he

I n t he L ord M ayor B ay a rea, t here i s l itt le d ifference b etween p lacement o f C lassic T hule a nd M odif ied T hule-early H istor ic

1 97

1 98

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s pr ing-fall r esidentia l s ites, m ost b e ing c oncentrated i n t he i nner p art o f t he b ay a nd n ear F e lix H arbour ( F igures 4 0 a nd 5 1). I n t he N etsilik L ake r egion, t here i s a gain l ittle d ifference ( F igures 5 3-54). W inter r esidentia l s ite p lacement, h owever, d oes d iffer. A lthough C lassic T hule s ites o ccur, a s a nticipated, a t t he c ar ibou c rossing i n t he N etsilik L ake a rea ( Figure 5 3), a ll r e late t o l ate C lassic T hule o ccupations. T he o n ly e ar ly C lassic w inter r esid entia l s ite o ccurs i n t he n orthern T hom B ay a rea, a djacent t o s ea ling a nd a nadromous f ish l ocations ( F igure 5 0). T he o n ly w inter r esidential s ite a ssociated w ith t he M odified T hule-ear ly H istor ic p hase c onsists o f t he r ema ins o f t hree s now d we llings a t F e lix H arbour, a nd, f rom t he n ature o f t he a ssociated a rt ifacts, a ppears t o h ave b een d irect ly a ssociated w ith m eta l p rocurement f rom t he r ema ins o f t he V ictory 's e ngine ( see P late 8 a). D ocumented e ar ly H istor ic N etsilik w inter r esidentia l s ites i n t he a rea w ere l ocated i n m ajor s ea ling a reas i n t he n orthern p art o f L ord M ayor B ay a nd i n S pence B ay, a nd, a t l east o ccasiona lly, n ear N etsilik L ake ( see e .g. R oss 1 835).

T est I mp lication 5

" C lassic T hule r esidentia l s ites s hould b e r e lat ive ly p ermanent o r s em i-permanent, a nd s hould b e a ssociated w ith h igh-bulk l ocations. M odif ied T hule a nd e ar ly H istor ic r es ident ia l s ites, o n t he o ther h and, s hould b e o f am ore t emporary n ature a nd s how l ess a ssociation w ith h igh-bulk c ache s ites a nd/or h igh b u lk l ocations."

P ermanent o r s em i-permanent s emisubterranean d we lling f eatures r ecorded i n t he s urvey a reas w ere r estr icted t o C lassic T hule o ccupations. F urthermore, a s n oted p reviously, t he d eeper, m ore h eavily c onstructed f orms t hat w ere e xcavated b y M cCartney ( 1979a) a nd T aylor a nd M cGhee ( 1979) o n S omerset I sland, a nd b y R asmussen o n K ing W illiam I sland ( Mathiassen 1 927a), a nd t he t wo e xcavated d ur ing t he p resent s tudy ( at s ites 8 1-80, 8 2-12), h ave b een d emonstrated t o b e o f e ar ly C lassic T hule a ffiliation, w hile t he t wo s ha llow, r e lative ly l ightly c onstructed s em isubterranean d we llings e xcavated ( sites 8 1-61, 8 2-17), a nd t wo o thers t ested ( s ites 8 1-52, 8 1-73), h ave b een d emonstrated t o b e o f l ate C lassic a ff iliation, s upporting t he s uggested t rend t oward l ess p ermanent s ettlements t oward t he e nd o f t he C lassic T hule p er iod. O ther C lassic T hule d welling f eatures r ecorded w ere r estr icted t o t ent r ings, c haracter ist ic o f t emporary s pr ing-fa ll o ccupations. A lso a s d iscussed p reviously, n o M odified T hule o r e arly H istor ic s ites c onta ining f eatures t hat c ould b e c lassif ied a s r epresentative o f p ermanent o r s emipermanent o ccupations w ere r ecorded d ur ing t he s urveys. A ll d we lling f eatures r ecorded w ere t ent r ings, a nd a t o ne s ite ( Fe lix H arbour ) s now d welling f eatures. W ithin t he " tent r ing" c ategory, h owever, s evera l s ites c ontained r e lative ly h eavily c onstructed f orms, o ccasiona lly w ith t wo o r t hree c ourses o f w all s tones, s uggesting c onsiderab le p ermanency c ompared t o m ore l ightly c onstructed t ent r ings ( see F igure 8 1). T hese

2 00

F igure 8 1. ' Heavy ' e ar ly H istor ic t ent r ing e xcavated a t s ite 8 2-24 i n t he N etsilik L ake a rea. D otted l ine m arks l im its o f c ontinuous s tone a ggregation b order ing i nner s tone c irc le.

2 0 1

s tructures w ere r ecorded a t b oth c ar ibou c rossing l ocations i n t he N etsilik L ake s urvey r egion, s uggesting r e lative ly e xtended o ccupat ions a t t hese l ocations, b ut n ot a pparent ly a pproaching t hose a ssociated w ith s em isubterranean d we llings. T he v er y c lose a ssociation o f h igh-bu lk l ocations a nd c aches w ith C lassic T hule w inter r esidential s ites h as b een p reviously b riefly d iscussed i n c onnection w ith f oraging r adii. T his a ssoc iation i s p erhaps b etter i llustrated i n c ompar ing t he s ize o f C lassic T hule w inter r esidentia l s ites w ith t he n umber o f c aches w ithin a n a rb itrary t wo k m r adius ( since i t i s u nlike ly r esidential s ites w ould b e p laced a t t he e xtreme f oraging r ange ) ( Figure 8 2). T he a ssoc iation i s s trongest f or e ar ly C lassic T hule a nd d ecreases f or l ate C lassic T hule. S ince e ar ly H istor ic w inter r esidentia l s ites t ended t o b e l ocated o n t he s ea i ce g enera lly a way f rom t he m ajor l and-based c ache s ites, i t i s a pparent t hat t he d ecreasing a ssociation c ontinued i nto t he M odif ied T hule a nd e ar ly H istoric p er iod.

T est I mp lication 6

" Ear ly C lassic T hule s ites s hould b e i nternally r e lative ly h igh ly s tructured w hile l ater s ites s hou ld s how a t rend t oward d ecreasing i nterna l s ite s tructure."

T he i nterna l s ite s tructure o f w inter r esidentia l s ites c an b e e xpected t o m ost c lose ly a pproach t he a ctua l c ommunity p attern, s ince, a t l east f or T hule o ccupations, t hey r epresent t he s ite t ype w ith t he m ost u se o ver lap o f f eatures, a nd, f or a ll p er iods, w inter r epresents t he s eason o f e xpected m aximum g roup a ggregation. T here i s a v ery d efinite t rend o n S omerset I sland f rom r e lative ly h igh ly s tructured s ites d ur ing t he e ar ly C lassic T hule p er iod t o m ore l oose ly s tructured s ites d ur ing t he l ate C lassic T hule p er iod ( see F igures 8 3-9 1 a nd t he s ummary F igure 1 00: S ites 8 0-93 a nd 8 0-164a a re n ot r epresented, a s l ogistica l p rob lems p revented a n a nticipated r eturn t o t hese s ites d uring l ater h e licopter s urveys, w hen d etailed e xaminations w ere i ntended). W h ile t he t rend m ay b e i n p art d ue t o t he g enera lly c orresponding d ecrease i n s ite s ize, t he s ing le l arge s ite o n t he n orth c oast o f C reswe ll B ay ( PeJr2 - s ee F igure 8 9) s uggests t he t rend i s r eal. I t c ould f urther b e a rgued t hat s ite p atterns m ere ly r eflect p referred d we lling l ocations a ccording t o l oca l t opography ( for e xamp le, m ultiple r ows o f d we llings m ere ly r eflect m ultiple r a ised b eaches). R a ised b each t opography e specia lly w ill i nfluence s ite p atterning, b ut o n ly t o t he e xtent t hat i t c onstrains i t. R aised b each t opography c annot e xp lain m ultiple v ersus s ing le r ow s ites, n or c an i t e xplain s pacing w ithin i ndividua l r ows ( i.e. c ontinuous v ersus i solated o r c lustered). F urthermore, e ven t hough t here a re c onstra ining l and f orms a t S herman I n let ( Site 8 2-11), t here a re d ifferences b etween e ar ly a nd l ate C lassic T hule d welling p atterns. I n

a ddition,

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F igure 9 9. S ketch m ap o f s emisubterranean d we llings a t t he l ate C lassic T hule s ites a ) 8 2-16, a nd b ) 8 2-23, N etsilik L ake. T he e xact n umber a nd d istribution o f t he d wellings a t s ite 8 2-16 c ould n ot b e d etermined d ue t o t he e xtreme d isturbance o f t he s ite.

2 21

a

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C LASS IC

T HULE

F igure 1 00. S ummary o f i nternal s tructure o f t he v arious s emisubterranean s ites i llustrated i n F igures 8 3-99, b ased o n s ubjective a ssessments. S ee F igure 2 0 f or c ategor ies o f i nterna l s ite s tructure. a -Somerset I sland; b -King W illiam I sland-Ade laide P eninsula; c -Lord M ayor B ay-Netsilik L ake.

22

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a

b

d

C 0 * a mm

5 0M o

,

F igure 1 01. S ketch m ap o f s now d we lling s ites i n t he N etsilik L ake a rea i llustrated b y: a ) R oss 1 835:249; b ) S chwatka 1 883:110; c ) S chwatka 1 883:252, a nd d ) A mundsen 1 908:274.

2 23

2 24

8 2-11, S herman

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F igure 1 03. S ketch m ap o f f eatures a t t he C lassic T hule s ite 8 1-61 ( Ma lerualik), K ing W illiam I sland.

2 26

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27

F igure 1 04. S ketch m ap 8 2-24, N etsilik L ake.

o f

f eatures

2 28

a t

t he

e ar ly

H istor ic

s ite

T here i s am arked d ecrease i n s ite s ize f rom e ar ly C lassic T hule t o l ate C lassic T hule i n t he S omerset I sland r egion i n b oth s emis ubterranean d we lling a nd t ent r ing r esidentia l s ites ( Figures 1 05 a nd 1 06), a nd i n t he K ing W illiam I sland r egion, f rom e ar ly t o l ate C lassic T hule w inter r esidentia l s ites ( a lthough t he l argest s ite s izes a re a pprox imate ly e qua l f or b oth p er iods - F igure 1 07), a nd f rom C lassic T hule t o M odif ied T hule-ear ly H istor ic s pr ing-fa ll r es identia l s ites ( Figure 1 08). I n t he L ord M ayor B ay-Netsilik L ake r egion, o n t he o ther h and, t here i s v ery l itt le d ifference i n s ize t rends b etween C lassic T hule a nd M odif ied T hu le-ear ly H istor ic s pr ing-fa ll r esident ia l s ites ( Figure 10). T he t rend f or w inter r esidentia l s ites i s t oward a d ecrease i n s ize ( F igure 1 09), b ut i t i s a dmitted ly b ased o n a c omparative ly s ma ll s amp le ( i.e. o nly o ne f or e ar ly C lassic T hule a nd f our f or l ate C lassic T hule). E ar ly H istor ic m aximum r esident ial ( w inter ) p opulations a verage a pprox imate ly 1 00 i nd ividua ls ( Damas 1 969a ; B alikci 1 984; s ee a lso R oss 1 835), a nd a ssum ing t he 2 0 a nd 2 1 s now d we llings r eported b y M cClintock ( 1859) t o b e a m aximum f or 1 00 i nd ividua ls, a nd t he t we lve d we llings r eported b y R oss ( 1835) t o b e a m inimum f or 1 00 i ndividuals ( Ross a ctually r eported 9 9 f or t he s ite: R oss 1 835:243), t hen t he a verage n umber o f i ndividua ls p er d welling d ur ing w inter o ccupations i s a pprox imate ly f ive t o e ight. I t s hould b e n oted, h owever, t hat t he h igher e stimate m ay b e t oo g reat, s ince i n a n u npub lished l etter d ea ling w ith h is e xpedit ion, R oss s tates t hat t he n umber o f s now d we llings w as 1 8 r ather t han 1 2 ( Ho lland a nd S ave lle 1 987). T he p rob lems a ssoc iated w ith d we lling c ontempora neity i n e stimat ing a rchaeo logica l s ite p opulations h ave b een d iscussed p reviously. H owever, f or p urposes o f c ompar ison, i f a n 8 0% c ontemporaneous o ccupation r ate i s a ssumed a nd i f a rchaeo logica l s ite s ize i s t aken t o r epresent t he m ax imum o ccupation f or a ny g iven s ite, t hen t he p rehistor ic p opulation s ize s hould b e c omparab le o n a g enera l l eve l. A ccording ly, t he d ecreasing t rend i n w inter r esid entia l p opulations f rom e ar ly t o l ate C lassic T hule i s r eversed b y t he e ar ly H istor ic p er iod i n t he K ing W illiam I sland r egion. I n t he L ord M ayor B ay a rea, w hile t here i s n o c lear t rend f rom e ar ly t o l ate C lassic T hule t here i s n everthe less a n o verall i ncrease i n w inter r esidentia l p opulations f rom t he C lassic T hule t o t he e ar ly H istor ic p er iod ( Figure 11). T he l argest p opulations d ur ing e ither t he p rehistor ic o r h istor ic p er iod i n t he s tudy a rea, h owever, a re r epresented b y t he C reswe ll B ay e ar ly C lassic T hu le o ccupations.

T est I mp lication 8

" Diet b readth a s r eflected b y f auna l r ema ins s hould b e r e lat ive ly n arrow a t e ar ly C lassic T hule s ites a nd r e lative ly w ide a t M odified T hule a nd e ar ly H istor ic s ites."

N o d etailed e xcavations o f C lassic T hule s ites w ere u ndertaken i n t he n orthern p art o f t he s tudy a rea s ince b oth M cCartney ( 1979a) a nd T aylor a nd M cGhee ( 1979) h ad p reviously c onducted e xtensive e xcavations i n t he C reswe ll B ay a rea, a nd R amsden ( 1981) h ad c onducted e xcavations o n P r ince o f W a les I sland a djacent t o t he

2 29

/

/

8 0•

i I 1 I 1 I 1 1 i , / /

7 0 -

60 .

5 0 . . .

4 0 .

/

/ / / /

-

-

-

L ATE C LASS IC T HULE EARLY C LASS IC T HULE

/

/ / / 1

2

3

1

1

1

I

1-

4

5

6

7

8

-1 -

9

1 0

' .

1-15 1 6 -20

NUMBER O F

-I -

1-

2 1 -25

1

I

3 1-40

2 6 -30

T

r

5 1-60

4 1-50

u

m

7 1-80

6 1-70

9 1-100

8 1-90

S EM ISUBTERRANEAN DWELL INGS P ER S I TE /COMPONENT

F igure 1 05. C ompar ison o f f requenc ies o f e ar ly C lassic T hu le ( Creswe ll B ay ) a nd l ate C lassic T hu le ( Aston B ay ) s em isubterranean d we lling s ites/components a ccord ing t o n umber o f d we llings i n t he S omerset I s land a rea.

2 30

> 100

1 00e .

9 0 -

8 0-

6 0-

4 0-

3 0-

—

—

—

L ATE C LASS IC THULE EARLY C LASS IC ' T HULE

1 0-

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

1 0

H-15

2 1 -25 1 6 -20

NUMBER O F

T ENT R INGS P ER

3 1-40

2 6 -30

S ITE /CO MPONENT —

5 1 -60

41-50

R ES IDENT IAL

7 1-80

6 1-70

9 1-100

8 1-90

> 100

SI TES ONLY

F igure 1 06. C ompar ison o f f requenc ies o f e ar ly C lassic T hule ( Creswe ll B ay) a nd l ate C lassic T hule ( Aston B ay) a nd l ate C lassic T hule ( Aston B ay) r esidentia l t ent r ing s ites/components a ccording t o n umber o f t ent r ings i n t he S omerset I sland a rea.

2 31

1 00% -

9 0-

8 0

1 7 0

4 0

—

3 0-

a A s s e c T Hu _ E

L ATE

EARLY C LASSI C T HULE

T

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

• II15

f

i 620

T AART n o

i

2 1 -25

rmr . ti r kT f llA I ¼ JF AN f l wr i

t-

1

3 1-40

2 6 -30

1

4 1-50

! Nos N R S IT F

1

5 1-60

1

1

7 1-80

6 1-70

1

1

9 1-100

8 1-90

> 10 0

CO M N)N r- N1

F igure 1 07. C omparison o f f requenc ies o f e ar ly C lassic T hu le a nd l ate C lassic T hule s emisubterranean d welling s ites/components a ccording t o n umber o f d we llings i n t he K ing W illiam I sland-Ade laide P eninsula a rea.

1 00%

/-

90

--

/ 7 0

/ /

/

/

50

2 0

1 0

/

/— —

/

60

3 0

/

‚ •

/

8 0

4 0

-- 7

/ / / 1

/ - -

- -

MOD IFED THULE-EARLY H ISTOF I IC C LASS IC T HULE

/

v 3

1 4

5

6

7

8

I

I

I

9

1 0

1-15

I

1 6 -20

NUMBER O F

T ENT R INGS P ER

I

I

2 1 -25

I

I

3 I40

2 6 -30

S ITE /COMPONENT -

I

I

5 I60

4150 R ES IDENT IAL

I

7 14

6 1-70

S ITES

I f

3 0

I

I

9 1'100

8 1-90

> 100

CNY

F igure 1 08. C ompar ison o f f requencies o f C lassic T hule a nd M odif ied T hule-ear ly H istoric r esidential t ent r ing s ites/components a ccording t o n umber o f t ent r ings i n t he K ing W illiam I slandA de laide P eninsula a rea.

2 33

t 0 0% —

I I

/

9 0-

/

/ / I

8 01

7 0 -

/

i

6 0-

I

/

I

i

/

5 0-

/ /

4 0-

- - - -

/ / / I /

3 0-

L ATE C LASS IC T HULE EARLY C LASS IC T HULE

/

2 0-

/

/

t o -

/

/

r 1

2

I

r

I

I

I

I-

1

1

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

1 0

1

r

1-15 1 6 -20

NUMBER O F

I

I

2 1 -25

r

T

3 1-40

2 6 -30

i r

I

5 1-60

4 1 -50

I

I

7 1-80

6 1 -7 0

I

8 1-90

S EM ISUBTERRANEAN DWELL INGS P ER S I TE/COMPONENT

F igure 1 09. C ompar ison o f e ar ly C lass ic T hule a nd l ate C lass ic T hule s emisubterranean d we lling s ite/component f requenc ies a ccording t o s ite/component s ize i n t he L ord M ayor B ay-Netsilik L ake a rea.

2 34

I

9 1-100 > 100

1 00% -

9 0-

8 0-

7 0-

60-

4 0

3 0-

-

-

- -

MOD IFED THULE-EAR LY H ISTOR IC C LASS IC

2 0-,

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

1 0

1-15

2 1 -25 1 6 -20

NUMBER O F

T ENT R INGS P ER

THULE

3 1-40

26 -30

S ITE /CONPONENT -

5 1-60

41 -50 R ES IDENT IAL

7 1-80

6 1-70

9 1-100

8 1-90

> 100

S ITES ONLY

F igure 10. C ompar ison o f C lassic T hule a nd M odified T hu le-ear ly H istor ic r esidentia l t ent r ing s ite/ c omponent f requencies a ccording t o s ite/component s ize, i n t he L ord M ayor B ay-Netsilik L ake a rea.

2 35

E ARLY C LASS IC T HU LE

L ATE C LASS IC T HU LE

1 4»

4 1 /». 1 1 M,

_ W M M M I»

. 4 1

0

.•

• , -

•••••

«NB •••••

( f )

—

E t o

. 0

// W M ,

: . 1 .» •

. I mm o mme l m

1

1 . 1.» . 1 1

« . .

..» . . .

r -C . )

i

• •

• • •••• •• 1»

a )

•

4 >

•

( C I r—

Ml m, • Im m

—

4M IM

/ 1 I m I m • • ••• •M Im ••••••

•

m a m m•• •

M MN I M I M» ... ».

c o C 0

• r4 -, M S • — • = 0 0 P )

0 0

0

o NO I1Vir ldOc i CI LVV V IIS3

0

0

. 5Z

L ) , . v . •• L- • r r i 0 r. 4 . 1 _ , • , . . e 4 V I i j I r r - 4 3 ( 1 ) -C a ) C . = = -C I • r - • r m a L L - X CO

2 36

A ston B ay a rea. T ime a nd l ogistica l c onstraints ( i.e. e xtens ive f oot-based s urveys) a lso p rec luded i ntensive e xcavations. H owever, d ur ing t he s urvey a ll v isib le w ha le b one w as r ecorded ( or a t l east e stimated), a nd s erves a s a n a ddit ional c omparative b ase. T he u se o f w ha le b one a s s tructura l m ater ial i n T hule d we llings ( see P late 5 a) h as t ended t o r estr ict a na lysis o f c ontained f auna l m ater ia ls, g iven t he d ifficulty i n d istinguish ing b etween s tructural a nd s ubs istence r e lated r ema ins. I n t his r egard, t he q uestion o f b owhead w hale h unting v s. b owhead w hale b one u tilizat ion h as b een p reviously d iscussed. T he i mp lication w as a dvanced t hat, i f t he l atter o ccurred, t hen " culled" w hale b one e lements p resent a t T hule d welling s ites s hould b e c orrespondingly u nderrepresented a t " beached w hale" l ocations, w h ile e lements a t t he l atter s ites s hould b e u nderrepresented a t d we lling s ites. B owhead e lements a t t he v ar ious " beached w hale" l ocations a nd r esidentia l s ites i n C reswe ll a nd A ston B ays a re p resented i n T ab le 1, a nd c ompar isons b etween l ocations a nd d we llings e xcavated b y M cCartney ( 1979a) r epresented i n F igure 12. T he e lement d istr ib ut ion i s c haracter istic o f a " wha le h unting" a s o pposed t o a " bone c o llecting" p attern. T hat i s, t here i s n othing a pproaching a 1 :1 a rticulation o f o verrepresented e lements w ith u nderrepresented e lements b etween " beached w ha le" a nd r esident ial s ites. T here i s, h owever, c onsiderable v ar iation i n m andib les a nd c rania i n r e lative e lementa l a bundances b etween t he t wo r esidentia l s ites. M uch o f t his v ar iation m ay b e d ue t o w hale b one r emova l b y r ecent I nuit c arvers ( see e spec ia lly M cCartney 1 979a) a nd/or, a t l east f or c rania f rom P eJr-1, s ubsequent r emova l f or q armang c onstruction a t n earby P eJr-2 ( McCartney 1 978). T wo a dditiona l a spects o f t he b owhead w ha le b one i n t he s tudy a rea l end a dditiona l s upport t o t he c haracter ization o f C lassic T hule E skimos o n S omerset I sland a s a ctive w hale h unters. F irst, b ased o n a s er ies o f m easurements o n 1 97 c rania, 3 27 m andib les, 4 7 c ervical v ertebrae, a nd 10 s capulae, M cCartney ( 1978) e stimated t hat a lmost a ll ( 97%) o f t he b owhead w ha les r epresented i n t he s amp le w ere i mmature a nd b etween 3 -6.5 m etres i n l ength ( adu lt b owheads a verage 1 0-12 m etres i n l ength), s uggesting d e liberate s e lection o f y ounger a nima ls. H istor ica lly, a nd d ur ing r ecent t imes, A laskan E sk imos s e lected s ma ller w ha les o ver m ature w ha les, s ince t he f ormer w ere l ess d angerous t o h unt, " tasted b etter", a nd w ere e asier t o t ow t o s hore ( see e .g. R a iney 1 947:26 ; L aughlin 1 963:76; M cVay 1 973:28; B isset 1 976:106; W on l1 980:308; M cCartney 1 984). S econd, o f t he 9 6 b owhead w hale c rania r ecorded d ur ing t he p resent s tudy i n w h ich t he b ase o f t he o ccip ita l b one w as v isib le, 9 4 o r 9 8% e xh ib it c ultura l m odif ication i n t he f orm o f a h o le i mmediate ly a nter ior o f t he f oramen m agnum ( P late 7 a). M cCartney ( 1980) w as t he f irst t o r eport o n t his m odification, a nd s uggested i t t o b e t he r esult o f b rain e xtraction o r s ymbo lic " re leasing" o f t he w ha les ' s ouls. W h ile t his e vidence ( p lus t hat d iscussed e lsewhere i n t he p resent s tudy) s trong ly s upports t he i nterpretation o f T hule E sk imos

2 37

T ab le 1.

1 .

S ummary o f B owhead W hale B one E lements a t C reswe ll B ay a nd A ston B ay, S omerset I sland.

C reswell B ay : S ites.

S ite

B -1

C ran ia

L ocations, F ie ld C amps, S pr ing-Fall R esidential

M andib les M ax illae

3

8 0-44

C erv. V ert.

O ther V ert.

S cap.

4 2

8 0-45

1

8 0-46

1 1

8 0-48

1

B -2

3

B -3

2

B -4

2

8 0-49

2

B -5

R ibs

2

2

4

1 2

2

2

1

B -6

1 7

8 0-50b 8 0-50c

2

8 0-51a

1

8 0-52

2

1

2

1

1

B -7

1

8 0-53

5

8 0-54

2

1

1

1

8 0-55a

1

8 0-55b

1

8 0-55c

1

2

1 0

8 0-56

7

B -8

1

8 0-60

2

8 0-60a

2

2 1

8 0-62

4

2

8 0-63

2 1 0e

B -9

1

8 0-64

1

8 0-65

2

2 38

1 0e

1

T ab le 1.

C ontinued

S ite

C rania

B -10

1

8 -11

1

8 0-75

1

M andib les M ax illae

C erv. V ert.

O ther V ert.

8 0-76

2

8 0-80

9

8 0-80c

2

8 0-81

1

8 0-81a B -12

R ibs

2 1

1

8 0-82

1

8 0-83

2

B -12a

4

B -13

1

B -14

3

8 0-85

1

3

2 1

0 -88

1 0

8 0-89

9

8 -15

4

8 0-90

1

8 0-92a-c

5 3

1 0e

5 e

5 e

5 e

5 e

1 0e 5 e

3 0e

1 0e

8 0-102

3

8 0-105

3

8 0-110a

3

1 0e

1 0e

8 0-110b

6

1 0e

1 0e

2 39

S cap.

T ab le 1. 2 .

C ontinued.

A ston B ay: S ites.

S ite

C ran ia

L ocations, F ie ld C amps, S pr ing-Fa ll R esident ia l

M andib les M axillae

C erv. V ert.

8 0-126a

O ther V ert.

S cap.

1

B -20

1

1

8 0-128

1

8 0-132

1

8 0-135

5

3

2 0

8 0-140

2

B -21

1

8 0-146

2

8 0-147

1

B -22

1

B -23

1

3 .

R ibs

1 0e 1

C reswell B ay : E xcavated S em isubterranean D we lling S ites ( Data f rom M cCartney 1 978, 1 979a)

S ite

C rania

8 0-58 ( tota l

2 0

M andib les M axillae

C erv. V ert.

O ther V ert.

R ibs

S cap.

2 8

6 8

7

5 2

1 84

1 8

19

1 07

4

3 7

1 01

5

f or

3d we llings )

P eJr-1 ( tota l

4 f or

4d we llings)

2 40

T ab le 1. 4 .

C ontinued.

C reswe ll B ay : T ota l S urface a nd V isib le I mbedded M ajor W hale B one E lements a t R esidentia l S ites ( Pr imar ily F rom M cCartney 1 978, 1 979a; S econdar ily F rom T his S tudy).

S ite

C rania

M andib les M axillae

C erv. V ert.

O ther V ert.

R ibs

S cap.

8 0-58*

7 8

9 7

1 69

7

8 5

2 92

2 4

8 0-86

4 9

6 3

?

3

?

?

1 3

8 0-93

2 3

?

?

?

?

?

?

8 0-96

2 2

14

?

?

?

?

1

8 0-111

1 2

2 0

?

?

?

?

6

P eJr-1

1 2

2 16

1 89

4

7 3

5 50

7 8

P eJr-2**

8 6

4 6

?

3 3

?

" few "?

0

P eJq-1*

3 1

2 51

?

?

?

?

1

* I nc ludes t otals f rom e xcavations ( see T ab le 1.3 a bove ) * * I nc ludes 1 5 c rania i n a l ate H istor ic c ormang

5 .

A ston B ay : B owhead W ha le M NI a t R esidentia l S ites B ased o n E lement I ndicated.

S ite

C rania

8 0-126

M and ib les M axillae

1

8 0-130

1

8 0-134

4

8 0-136

7

8 0-149

1

8 0-164a

1

2 41

C erv. V ert.

O ther V ert.

R ibs

S cap.

WHALE BONE ON B EACHES

WHALE BONE

S ku l l

• S ku l l

Max

Max

> Au ld

Mend

C o ry

Co ry

AT R ES IDENT IAL

S ITES

L umrb> R ibs S cap

8 0 -5 8

ASTON BAY CRES WFLL BAY

MN ! :1 9

P eJ r 1

MN ! :3 4 — NM I= 5 9

F igure 12. C ompar ison o f r e lative b owhead w hale b one e lement f requenc ies ( as p ercent M NI) f rom s em isubterranean d we lling s ites a nd b owhead w ha le p rocessing l ocat ions. D ata f or d welling s ites f rom M cCartney 1 978 a nd 1 979.

2 42

o n S omerset I sland a s a ctive w ha le h unters, t he d eterm ination o f t he i mportance o f b owhead w ha les t o t he s ubsistence e conomy a t t he i ndividua l d we lling l eve l i s r estr icted b y t he d ua l s tructure-diet r o le, s ince s tructura l m ater ia l m ay b e a cquired f rom p reviously a bandoned a nd/or r ebu ilt d we llings a t t he s ite a s w e ll a s f rom o ld b eached c arcasses. F urthermore, a s s uggested p reviously, h igh s tatus c ommunity m embers ( e.g. w ha ling c rew l eaders) m ay, a s a n i ndication o f t he ir s tatus, h ave a cquired p roportionate ly m ore s tructura l w hale b one t han o ther c ommun ity m embers. A t t he s ite l eve l, h owever, t he s tructure v s. d iet d ist inction i s n ot a s r estr ictive, s ince t he t ota l w hale b one r emoved f rom p rocessing s ites t o r esident ia l s ites m ust b ear s ome r e lation t o t he t otal n umber o f w ha les a ctua lly o bta ined d ur ing t he p er iod o f s ite o ccupation. A ccording ly, i n t he f o llow ing a na lysis t he a verage m inimum n umber o f i ndividua ls f or b owhead w ha les p er d we lling/per s ite i s u sed a s a n a pprox imation o f t he r e lative a bundance o f h arvested i ndividua ls. I n a ddition, a nd f o llow ing R ick ( 1980) a nd S taab ( 1979), t he p otentia l e dible p ortion o f l and m amma ls i s t aken t o b e 5 0%, a nd f or s ea m amma ls 7 0%. F ish a nd f ow l a re e stimated a t 7 5%. A ssuming a pproximately s imilar o ccupation s pans f or b oth C reswe ll B ay a nd A ston B ay, t he d ecrease i n t he i mportance o f b owhead w ha les f rom e ar ly C lassic t o l ate C lassic i s p ronounced ( see F igure 13). T he v a lue o f 4 .5 f or t he n orthern C reswe ll B ay q armang s ite ( PeJr-2) i s a pparent ly a rtif icia lly h igh, i n t hat i t i s b ased o n b owhead w hale e lements ( pr imar ily c rania a nd m andib les) w h ich w ere p robab ly o btained f rom s ites P eJr-1 a nd P eJq-1 f o llow ing t he ir a bandonment ( McCartney 1 978). F urthermore, a lthough t he M NI f or o ther f auna a t t he C reswe ll B ay L earmonth s ite ( PeJr-1) i s n ot g iven b y T ay lor a nd M cGhee ( 1979), r elat ive p roportions o f e lements o f i ndividua l s pecies, w hile n ot a ccounting f or c ulling o r l arger s pecies, n everthe less s uggest a n i ncrease i n d iet b readth f rom t he e ar ly C lassic T hule o ccupat ion t o t he t ermina l o ccupationa l p hase ( F igure 14), w hich c an b e e xpected t o a pprox imate t he b eginn ing o f t he l ate C lassic T hule p hase. I n t he s outhern r egion, e ar ly C lassic T hule w inter d we llings w ere e xcavated a t S herman I nlet ( site 8 2-11) a nd a t n orthern T hom B ay ( site 8 1-80); l ate C lassic T hule s ites a t M a lerualik ( s ite 8 1-61) o n t he S impson S trait n arrows, T ulloch P o int i mmediate ly w est o f D oug las B ay ( site 8 1-52), G ladman P oint o n t he w estern e xtreme o f S impson S trait ( site 8 1-73), a nd a t t he N etsilik R iver ( site 8 2-17); M odif ied T hule-ear ly H istor ic t ent r ings w ere e xcavated a t N etsilik L ake ( site 8 2-24), N etsilik R iver ( sites 8 2-20, 8 2-21), F e lix H arbour ( s ite 8 2-50), V ictoria H arbour ( site 8 2-70), S her iff H arbour ( s ite 8 2-57); a n e ar ly H istor ic s now d we lling s ite ( site 8 2-48) a t F e lix H arbour ; t wo C lassic T hule c aches a t M a lerualik ( site 8 1-61) a nd M odif ied T hule-ear ly H istor ic c aches a t D oug las B ay ( site 8 1-26) a nd N etsilik L ake ( s ite 8 2-24). R esults o f t he f auna l a na lyses a re s ummar ized i n T ables 1 2 a nd 1 3. I n t he K ing W illiam I sland a rea, t here i s a p ronounced t rend t oward i ncreasing d iet b readth a s r eflected a t w inter r esidential s ites f rom e ar ly t o l ate C lassic T hule ( Figure 15). C ontinuation o f t he t rend t hroughout t he M odified T hule a nd e ar ly H istor ic p er iod

2 43

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2 44

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2 45

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2 48

i s d iff icu lt t o d eterm ine, s ince o n ly s pr ing-fa ll c amps w ere r ecogn ized i n t he a rea. H owever, t he e ar ly H istor ic p er iod s ubsistence p atterns i n t his r egion a s d escr ibed b y S chwatka ( Stackpo le 1 965) a nd A mundsen ( 1908) c lose ly a pproach w hat B inford ( 1980) d escr ibes a s a " ser ia l" f oraging s trategy, i n w hich d ifferent r esources a re c onsecut ive ly " phased i n" a s t hey b ecome a va ilable a lthough t here i s s till a n e mphasis o n ag enera list s trategy. I n t he L ord M ay B ay-Netsilik L ake a rea, t he t rend i s e ssentia lly t he o pposite, w ith t he o nly e ar ly C lass ic T hule s ite ( Thom B ay) e xhibiting a r e lat ive ly w ide d iet b readth, w h ile t he l ate C lassic T hule s ite a t t he N etsilik R iver e xh ibits a n arrower d iet b readth ( Figure 16). T he e ar ly H istor ic p attern f or t he s outhern a rea, s im ilar t o t hat i n t he K ing W illiam I sland a rea, a nd a s d escr ibed b y R oss ( 1836), R asmussen ( 1931) a nd B a likc i ( 1964, 1 970, 1 984), i s c haracter istic o f a ' ser ial' f oraging s trategy, a nd t he r ema ins a ssoc iated w ith t he e xcavated t ent r ing s ites a nd t he s ing le s now d we lling s ite a re c onsistent w ith t his c haracter ization ( F igure 17). A ccording ly , t he o vera ll d iet b readth h as n ot c hanged s ignif icantly i n r e lat ion t o t hat a ssociated w ith e ar ly C lassic T hule o ccupations i n t he a rea.

T est I mp lication 9

" H igh-bu lk r esources a t r esidentia l s ites s hould s how g reater c u lling o f l ow u tility e lements a t C lassic T hule s ites a nd l ess a t M odified T hule a nd H istor ic s ites. L ocations a nd c aches s hould s how p rogressive ly g reater c ulling o f h igh a nd m edium u tility e lements f or t ransfer t o r esidentia l s ites."

S ince i ndividua l b one e lement a bundances o r p roportions a re n ot a vailable f or t he n orthern w haling r egion, t he a nalysis i s r estr icted t o t he s outhern c ar ibou r egion. R e lat ive p roportions o f c ar ibou b one e lements f rom e xcavated r esidentia l d we llings, u tilizing t he m ethod s uggested b y B inford ( 1978a:69-72) t o c ompare c ulling s trategies, a re r epresented i n F igures 18 a nd 19. A lthough t he p atterns a re r emarkab ly s im ilar f or t he e ar ly a nd l ate C lassic T hule s ites i n t he K ing W illiam I s land a rea, t here a re n everthe less s evera l i mportant d istinguish ing f eatures. I n p art icular, t he g reatest d ifferences i n r e lat ive p roportions o f e lements a re i n s kulls, d ista l h umer ii, p roxima l r ad io-ulnae, a nd p rox ima l m etacarpa ls, a ll o f w h ich a re o verr epresented i n t he l ate C lassic T hule a ssemb lage, a nd w h ich r ank 2 1st, 1th, 1 8th, a nd 1 7th r espect ive ly ( from a t ota l o f 2 7) i n g eneral u tility a ccording t o B inford ( 1978a:74). T his w ould c ertainly s eem t o s upport t he s uggestion o f d ifferent ia l c ulling o f c ar ibou b etween e ar ly a nd l ate C lassic T hule, w ith t he m ore r adical c ulling c haracter ist ic o f t he f ormer. T he p attern f or t he L ord M ayor B ay a rea i s d iff icu lt t o d eterm ine, s ince t wo o f t he t hree s ites e xcavated y ie lded r e lat ive ly s m a ll n umbers o f c ar ibou ( Thom B ay 2 .5 a nd N etsilik L ake 3 .0 v s.

2 49

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F igure 18. R e lative e lemental a bundances f or c aribou f rom c omp lete d we lling a nd m idden e xcavations a t t he e ar ly C lassic T hule c omponent a t s ite 8 2-11 a t S herman I nlet a nd t he l ate C lassic T hule c omponent a t s ite 8 1-61 o n K ing W illiam I sland.

2 52

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F igure 19. R e lat ive e lementa l a bundances f or c ar ibou f rom c omp lete d we lling a nd m idden e xcavations a t t he e ar ly C lassic T hu le c omponent a t s ite 8 1-80 i n t he L ord M ayor B ay a rea, t he l ate C lassic T hu le s ite 8 2-17, a nd t he e ar ly H istor ic s ite 8 2-24, b oth i n t he N ets ilik L ake a rea.

2 53

2 2.5 f or t he l ate C lassic T hule s ite a t t he N etsilik R iver). C onsequently, l itt le m ore c an b e s uggested t han t hat t he i ndividual p atterns a re g enera lly c onsistent w ith r es identia l s ite p atterns n oted e lsewhere ( compare w ith F igure 3 2 a nd B inford 1 978a:327,397). O f t he f our u ndisturbed o r a pparently m inimally d isturbed c aches e xcavated d ur ing t he s tudy, a ll c ontained e xc lusive ly c ar ibou b one, o f w h ich r e lative e lementa l a bundances a re r epresented i n F igures 1 20 a nd 1 21. T he l ong b one d istal a nd p rox ima l e nds a ssociated w ith t he M a lerua lik c aches o ccurred t ogether w ith a n umber o f l ong b one f ragments, a nd a ppear t o r e late t o t ent-based o ccupations p r ior t o t he c onstruction o f t he c aches, a s s uggested b y t he c ache f orms. T hat i s, f ollow ing t he a bandonment o f t ents a t t he l ocality, t he r esulting t ent r ing s tones w ere u tilized i n t he c onstruction o f c aches. A s im ilar u tilization s equence w as o bserved d ur ing t he e thnoarchaeo logica l s tudies a ssociated w ith t he p resent s tudy ( see P late 8 b,c). T here i s n everthe less s till a d ef inite t rend t oward t he s torage o f a n arrower r ange o f e lements i n t he M odified T hule a nd e ar ly H istor ic p er iod c aches. I n p art icu lar, t here i s ag reater p roportion o f " middle" r anked e lements ( scapulae, p e lves, a nd l umbar a nd t horacic v ertebrae u nits, r anked 6 th, 9 th, 8 th a nd 1 3th r espect ive ly b y B inford 1 978a:74) i n t he C lassic T hule c aches, w hereas t here i s a g reater p roportion o f ' lower ' r anked e lements ( at lases a nd a xes, r anked 2 5th o f 2 7th b y B inford 1 978a:74) i n t he M odif ied T hule a nd e ar ly H istor ic c aches. A lthough a r e lative ly s mall s ample, t he d ata n everthe less d o s uggest t hat " insurance" s torage a mongst M odif ied T hule a nd e ar ly H istoric g roups w as m ore e xtreme, a nd t hat c orresponding i nitia l p rocessing f or c aching u nits w as a lso m ore e xtreme.

T est I mp lication 1 0

" Fauna l r emains a t C lassic T hule r esidentia l s ites a ssociated w ith h igh-bu lk r esources s hould i ndicate r e lative ly e xtended s easona l o ccupations, w hile t hose a t M odified T hule a nd e ar ly H istor ic r esidential s ites s hould i ndicate r elative ly s hort s easona l o ccupations."

D etermination o f s eason o f d eath f or c ar ibou a nd s ea l a ssoc iated w ith e ar ly C lassic T hule p ermanent o r s emipermanent w inter r esid entia l d we llings a nd l ess p ermanent l ate C lassic T hu le w inter r esidentia l d we llings a re r epresented i n F igures 1 22 a nd 1 23. N ot s urpr ising ly, a lmost a ll c ar ibou t eeth p rocessed r epresent p r imar ily f all, a nd s econdar ily s ummer, k ills. T he o nly e xception t o t h is p attern i s a s ing le i ndividua l f rom t he S herman I nlet e ar ly C lassic s ite i nterpreted a s a s pr ing k ill. P rocessed s ea l t eeth, o n t he o ther h and, w hile f ew i n n umber, r epresent p r imar ily w inter-spring k ills, s uggesting w inter b reathing-ho le s ealing t echniques s im ilar t o H istor ic C entral I nu it g roups, b ut b ased o ut o f t errestr iallyb ased c oasta l l ocations. T his d iffers m arked ly f rom t he s ummer-fa ll o pen w ater t echniques a pparent ly f avoured b y T hu le E skimos f urther w est i n C oronation G ulf ( Morr ison 1 983a, 1 983b).

2 54

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55

F igure 1 20. R e lat ive e lementa l a bundances f or c ar ibou f rom t wo c aches e xcavated a t t he C lass ic T hu le s ite 8 1-61, K ing W illiam I sland.

2 55

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j

F igure 1 21. R e lat ive e lementa l a bundances f or c ar ibou f rom a M odif ied T hule-ear ly H istor ic c ache e xcavated a t s ite 8 1-26, K ing W illiam I sland, a nd a n e ar ly H istor ic c ache e xcavated a t s ite 8 2-24, N etsilik L ake.

2 56

1 00% -

L ATE C LASS IC T HULE 8 2-17 8 1 -61 8 1 -54

5 0-

SUMMER

FA LL

WINTER

N = 16 N = I6 N =5

S PR ING

1 00%

EARLY C LASS IC T HULE 8 1-80 8 1-61 8 2 -11

5 0

SUMMER

F ALL

WINTER

N =3 N =3 N= I0

S PR ING

F igure 1 22. S ummary o f r esults o f c ementum a na lys is o f c ar ibou t eeth f rom e ar ly a nd l ate C lassic T hule s ites i n t he s outhern p art o f t he s tudy a rea.

2 57

L ATE C LASS IC T HULE 1 00%

8 1-61

h k3

5 0

SUMMER

F ALL

W INTER

S PR ING

1 00% E ARLY C LASS IC T HULE - -

8 1-80 8 2 -11

N =6 N =2

5 0

SUMMER

F ALL

W IN T ER

S PR ING

F igure 1 23. S ummary o f r esults o f c ementum a nd d ent ine a na lysis o f r inged s ea l t eeth f rom e ar ly a nd l ate C lassic T hu le s ites i n t he s outhern p art o f t he s tudy a rea.

2 58

C ompar ison w ith t he e thnographically d ocumented N etsilik I nuit i n t he r egion w ho a veraged a w inter r esident ia l m ove e very 3 0 d ays ( Ke lly 1 983:180-181), c lear ly d emonstrates t he o vera ll t rend f rom m ultiseasona l t o s ingle s eason ( or p art s eason) o ccupat ions.

2 59

C HAPTER N INE: H YPOTHESIS 2 :

T EST I MPLICATION R ESULTS

H YPOTHESIS 2 :

T he i ntroduction o f t he r if le w ill b e a ccompanied b y a t ransformation o f a s ubsistence-sett lement s ystem b ased o n a f oraging s trategy t o a s ubsistence-sett lement s ystem b ased o n a c ollecting s trategy, b ut o ne w hich l acks s pecialized p rocurement t echn iques.

T est I mp lication 1

" There s hould b e a g reater f unctional s eparation o f l ate H istoric p eriod s ites i nto r esidential b ases, " high-bulk" l ocations, f ie ld c amps, c aches a nd s tations t han d ur ing t he p receding M odified T hule a nd e ar ly H istor ic p er iods."

S ince a s ubstantia l, d id n ot t ake p lace d ur ing t he c ompar isons f or t his, r estr icted t o t he s outhern

c ontinuous o ccupation o f S omerset I s land t he M odif ied T hule/ear ly H istor ic P er iod, a nd s ucceeding t est i mp lications w ill b e " car ibou" a rea.

I n b oth r egions w here M odified a nd e arly H istoric p eriod o ccupations w ere d ocumented ( that i s, K ing W illiam I sland-Ade laide P en insula a nd L ord M ayor B ay-Netsilik L ake), t here i s ac lear t rend t oward a n i ncrease i n l ogistically-related f ield c amps a nd a c orresponding d ecrease i n r esidentia l s ites, w ith t he t rend m ost p ronounced i n t he K ing W illiam I sland-Adelaide P eninsula a rea ( Figures 1 24 a nd 1 25). T h is t rend i s m ore r eadily a pparent i f f requencies o f t ent r ing s ite s ize a re c ompared ( Figures 1 26 a nd 1 27), a lthough a ga in t he t rend i s s tongest i n t he K ing W illiam I s land-Ade laide P eninsula r egion. O n t he o ther h and, t here i s v ery l itt le d ifference i n h igh-bu lk l ocations, w hile l ow-bu lk l ocations s how a s light i ncrease i n b oth a reas. C ache s ites i ncrease s lightly i n r e lative a bundance i n t he L ord M ayor B ay r egion, b ut, o pposite t o t he p redicted t rend, d ecrease s ubstantially i n t he K ing W illiam I s land r egion. S imilarly, i f a bso lute c ache s ite/component s ize ( i.e. n umber o f c aches p er s ite o r c omponent) i s c onsidered, t here i s a d ef inite i ncrease i n t he r e lative p roport ion o f l arger c aches d ur ing t he l ate H istor ic p er iod i n t he L ord M ayor B ay a rea ( Figure 1 29), b ut i n t he K ing W illiam I s land a rea t here i s ad ecrease ( Figure 1 28).

2 60

8 011-

L ATE H ISTOR IC

7 0_ _ — —

MOD IF IED T HULE -EARLY H ISTOR IC

6 0-

F REQUENCY

5 0-

4 0-

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3 0-

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R ES IDENT IAL

CAMPS

S ITES

CACHES

H IGH

L OW B ULK

B ULK

L OCAT IONS

L OCAT IONS

F igure 1 24. C ompar ison o f M odif ied T hule-ear ly H istor ic a nd l ate H istoric s ite/component t ype f requencies i n t he K ing W illiam I s land-Ade la ide P eninsula a rea.

2 61

8 09 3"

L ATE H ISTOR IC

7 0-

MOD IF IED T HULE -EARLY H ISTOR IC 6 0-

F REQUENCY

5 0-

4 0-

3 0-

2 0-

1 0-

F I ELD

R ES IDENT IAL

CAMPS

S ITES

CACHES

H IGH

L OW B ULK

B ULK

L OCAT IONS

L OCAT IONS

F igure 1 25. C omparison H istoric s ite/component N etsilik L ake a rea.

o f M odified T hule-early H istor ic a nd t ype f requencies i n t he L ord M ayor

2 62

l ate B ay-

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4 1-50

I

7 1-80

6 1-70

9 1- 1 0( 3

8 1-90

NUMBER O F T ENT R INGS P ER S ITE/ COMPONENT - A LL S ITES

F igure 1 26 . C omparison o f f requencies o f M odif ied T hule-early H istoric a nd l ate H istoric t ent r ing s ites/components a ccording t o n umber o f t ent r ings i n t he K ing W illiam I sland-Adela ide P eninsula r eg ion.

2 63

> 100

. , . ._ . ,_ _ ___ _ . .,

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NUMBER O F

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S ITES

F igure 1 27. C ompar ison o f f requencies o f M od ified T hule-ear ly H istoric a nd l ate H istor ic t ent r ing s ites/components a ccord ing t o n umber o f t ent r ings i n t he L ord M ayor B ay-Netsilik L ake r eg ion .

2 64

I

9 1-100 > 100

9 0

8 0

7 0

6 0

5 0

I 3 0 L ATE H ISTOR IC -

2

-

MOD IF IED T HULE-EARLY H ISTOR IC

1 0 1

0 -5

6 -10

1-20

2 1-30

3 1-40

4 1-50

5 1-60

8 1-70

7 1-80

8 1-90

9 1-100

> 100

NUMBER O F CACHES P ER SnE/COMPONENT

F igure 1 28 . C ompar ison o f f requencies o f M odified T hule-ear ly H istoric a nd l ate H istoric c ache s ites/components a ccording t o n umber o f c aches, i n t he K ing W illiam I sland-Ade la ide P eninsula a rea .

2 65

1 00%

9 0

8 0

7 0

6 0

5 0

4

3 0

L ATE H ISTOR IC -

2

1 0

-

MOOF IED T HULE-EARLY H ISTOR IC

I 0 -5

6 -10

1-20

2 1-30

3 1-40

4 1-50

5 1-60

NUMBER O F CACHES P ER

6 1-70

7 1-80

8 1-90

9 1-100

> 100

s n f /c ommew

F igure 1 29 . C omparison o f f requencies o f M odif ied T hule-early H istor ic a nd l ate H istor ic c ache s ites/components i n t he L ord M ayor B ay-Netsilik L ake a rea .

2 66

T est I mp lication 2

" Intersite v ar iability s hould b e r e lative ly h igher f or l ate H istor ic p er iod s ites t han f or t he p receding M odif ied T hu le a nd e ar ly H istor ic s ites."

A ga in a ssum ing t hat i ncreasing s ite v ar iab ility i s r ef lected i n c hanges i n c ache/tent r ing p roportions w ith c hanges i n s ite s ize, t he p redicted c hanges d o n ot o ccur i n e ither o f t he t wo s outhern s urvey a reas. T he l ate H istor ic p roportions r emain r e lative ly u nchanged i n r e lat ion t o M odif ied T hule-ear ly H istor ic p roportions i n t he L ord M ayor B ay-Netsilik L ake a rea ( Figure 1 31), w hile f or t he K ing W illiam I sland-Adelaide P eninsula r egion t he t rend i s t oward d ecreasing p roport ion w ith i ncreasing s ize ( i.e. o pposite t o t he p redicted t rend) ( F igure 1 30).

T est I mplication 3

" There s hould b e a t rend f rom s ite p atterns e xhibiting a c ontinuous s er ies o f f oraging z ones d ur ing t he M odif ied T hulee ar ly H istor ic p er iod t o s ite p atterns e xhib it ing r ecogn izab le f oraging a nd l ogistica l z ones d ur ing t he l ate H istoric p er iod."

T he M odified T hule-early H istoric s ite p attern h as b een d iscussed p revious ly, a nd t he t endency t oward c ontinuous f oraging r adii d emonstrated ( see F igures 7 1 a nd 7 3). B y c ontrast, t here i s a d ef inite t rend t oward t he d eve lopment o f l ogistica l a nd d iscont inuous f orag ing r adii i n b oth a reas w here l ate H istoric s ites o ccur a nd i n w hich c ontinuous s urvey o f s egments o f f ifteen t o t wenty k m o r m ore o ccur ( see F igures 1 32 a nd 1 33). R esidentia l s ite c oncent rations a re e spec ia lly w e ll d eve loped i n t he L ord M ayor B ay a rea n ear F e lix a nd S her iff H arbours. T hese c oasta l c oncentrations, w h ich a lso i nclude l ate f all a nd w inter f eatures ( qam lang a nd s now d we lling f eatures), a re c onsistent w ith B a likci's ( 1964 d escr iption o f t he p ost-r ifle c hanges o f t he s ettlement p atterns o f N etsilik I nuit o n B oothia P eninsula, w hich i nc luded a s hift t o c oastal s ett lements t o t ake a dvantage o f i nland c ar ibou h unting d ur ing b oth s ummer a nd w inter, a nd s ummer o pen w ater s ea l h unting.

T est I mplication 4

" Late H istor ic s ite p lacement p atterns s hould e mphasize, a nd b e r e lated t o, t he p r imary c ritical r esources o f c ar ibou, s ea l, a nd f ox, a s o pposed t o a m ore g enera l p attern d ur ing t he p receding M odif ied T hule a nd e ar ly H istor ic p er iods."

2 67

8 .0

7 .0

CACHES/TENT R INGS

L ATE H ISTOR IC MOD IF IED T HULE-EARLY H ISTOR IC

6 .0

5 .0

4 .0

3 .0

2 .0

1 . 0

1 -2

5 -6 3 -4

910 7 -8

1-12

1 3-15

2 1 -25 1 6 -2 0

3 1-40

2 6 -30

5 1-60

4 1-50

7 1-80

6 1-70

9 1-100

8 1 -9 0

>1 o o

NUMBER O F T ENT R INGS P ER S ITE /CONPONENT - A LL S ITES

F igure 1 30 . C ompar ison o f a verage p roportion o f c aches/tent r ings a ccord ing t o n umber o f t en r ings f or M od if ied T hu le-ear ly H istor ic a nd l ate H istor ic s ites i n t he K ing W illiam I sland-Ade la ide P en insula a rea .

2 68

8 .0

7 .0 L ATE H ISTOR IC

. . . . . .

MOD IF IED T HULE -EARLY H ISTOR IC

—

— —

3 .0

2 .0

1 . 0

\ A \ . ' . . . /\ . \ . / . . .. . X. . . \ / . . . , . . .. \ / . . . . 1 -2

5 -6 3 -4

910 7 -8

1 1-12

-. . ., . , . , . . , . ,. . ; ; .• . S . . 2 1 -25

1 3-15 1 6 -20

3 1-40

26 -30

5 1-60

4150

7 1-80

6 1-70

9 1-100

8 1-90

> 100

NUMBER OF T ENT R INGS P ER S ITE /CO MPONENT - A LL S ITES

F igure 1 31. C omparison o f a verage p roport ion o f c aches/tent r ings a ccord ing t o n umber o f t en r ings f or M odified T hule-early H istor ic a nd l ate H istoric s ites i n t he L ord M ayor B ay-Netsilik L ake a rea .

2 69

(

a l ik

T u

ADELA IDE P EN INSULA

2 70

K ING W ILL IAM I SLAND

2 71

2 72

2 73 a ssociated w ith l esidential ate H istor ic r

S ite p lacement p atterns d ur ing t he M odif ied T hu le-ear ly H istor ic p eriod h ave b een d iscussed p reviously ( see C hapter 8 , t est i mp licat ion 4 ), w here i t w as d emonstrated t hat t hey t end t o b e o r iented t oward a " generalist" d iet. W h ile t he l ate H istor ic p er iod s hows a d ef inite t rend t oward a n i ncreased e mphasis o n s ealing a nd f ox t rapp ing l ocations, t here i s a s urpr ising l ack o f e mphasis o n s ett lement i n p r imary c ar ibou a reas, a nd e specially a t c ar ibou c rossings ( see F igures 4 6, 4 9 a nd 5 5). W hile s everal s ites o ccur a t t he c ar ibou c rossings o n K ing W illiam I sland, S herman I n let a nd N etsilik R iver, t hey d o n ot a pproach t he c oncentration o r s ize t hat w ould b e e xpected, g iven t he e ase w ith w hich c ar ibou c an b e p rocured w ith a r if le a t s uch l ocations.

T est I mp lication 5

" Late H istoric r esidentia l s ites s hould b e r e lative ly p ermanent o r s emipermanent a nd s hould s how a g reater a ssoc iation w ith " high-bu lk" l ocations a nd c aches t han M odif ied T hule a nd e ar ly H istor ic s ites."

T he a rchaeo logical a nd h istor ical e vidence f or t emporary t ent e ncampments f or s pr ing-fall o ccupations a nd t emporary s now d we llings f or w inter o ccupations d ur ing t he M odif ied T hule-ear ly H istor ic p er iod h as b een d iscussed p reviously. A lthough t hese f orms w ere a lso t he p rimary d we lling f orms d ur ing t he l ate H istor ic p er iod ( see e .g. H arr ington 1 952; B a likc i 1 964 ; L arsen 1 967), t he o ccurrence o f c l arman9 a t t he m outh o f t he L ord L indsay R iver i n T hom B ay, a lthough a pparent ly a n i ntroduced f orm f rom e lsewhere i n t he e astern A rctic, n evertheless s uggests a d eveloping t rend t oward a t l east s em i-permanent d we lling f orms. A lthough f ew l ate H istoric w inter r esidential s ites w ere r ecognized, t he o ccurrence o f t he s now d we lling f eatures a nd l ate f a ll r ang a t F e lix a nd S her iff H arbours a nd t he L ord L indsay R iver a ll l ocations w ith l arge c ache s ites), s uggests a t endency t oward t he l ocation o f w inter r esidences a t p r imary c ach ing s ites. D ur ing t he e ar ly H istor ic p er iod, a nd p resumab ly, M odif ied T hule p er iod, o n t he o ther h and, w inter r esidential s ites w ere l ocated a way f rom c aching s ites a t p r imary w inter s ea ling a reas ( see e .g. F igure 8 0).

T est I mp lication 6

" Interna l s ite s tructure s hould r emain r e lative ly u nchanged f rom t he M odif ied T hule a nd e ar ly H istor ic p er iod t o t he l ate H istor ic p er iod."

A lthough o nly t hree w inter r esident ia l s ites w ere r ecorded i n t he s outhern a rea ( all i n t he L ord M ayor B ay r egion), c ompar ison o f

2 74

s ite p lans o f t wo o f t hese ( the t hird w as n ot m apped i n a ccurate ly) w ith t hose o f e ar ly H istor ic w inter r esident ia l s ites ( compare F igure 1 34 w ith F igure 1 01) s uggests t hat i nternal s ite s tructure r emained e ssentia lly u nchanged ( i.e. r e lative ly " unstructured"). S im ilar ly, l arge t ent r ing r esidential s ites, a s f or b oth C lassic T hule a nd M odif ied T hule-ear ly H istor ic s ites, e xhib ited p atterns a pproaching ' random ' ( see e .g. F igure 1 35).

T est I mp lication 7

" There s hould b e a t rend t o i ncreasing r esidential s ite f rom t he m odif ied T hule a nd e ar ly H istor ic p er iod t o t he H istor ic p er iod."

s ize l ate

A s d emonstrated i n F igures 1 36 a nd 1 37, t here i s a m arked t endency t oward g enerally l arger r esidentia l t ent r ing s ite s ize i n b oth t he L ord M ayor B ay a nd K ing W illiam I sland r eg ions, e ven t hough, a t l east i n t he K ing W illiam I sland a rea, t he l argest i ndividual s ites a re o f M odif ied T hule-ear ly H istor ic a ff iliation. S uff icient d ata a re n ot a vailable t o c ompare w inter r esidential s ites.

T est I mplication 8

" Diet b readth a s r eflected b y f aunal r e lative ly n arrow a t l ate H istor ic s ites M odif ied T hule-ear ly H istor ic s ites."

r emains s hould b e i n c ompar ison w ith

T he c haracterization o f t he M odified T hule-early H istoric s ubsistence s trateg ies a s t hat o f " ser ia l s pecia lists" h as b een d iscussed p reviously. D ur ing t he e ar ly H istor ic p er iod, t his s er ia l s pec ia lization i nvo lved t he h unt ing o f c ar ibou p r imar ily d ur ing t he l ate s ummer a nd e ar ly f all w hen t he m igrating h erds w ere h eading s outh ( a lthough s ma ll s cattered g roups w ere a lso o ccasionally h unted d ur ing t he s ummer), s ea ls d ur ing t he w inter a nd s pr ing, u sing t he i ce a s b oth a r esidentia l a nd h unt ing p latform, a nd f ish, a lthough c aught t hroughout m uch o f t he y ear, p rimar ily d ur ing t he m id-late s ummer r iver r uns. S econdary r esources i nc luded m usk-oxen, f ox, w olverine, h are, a nd d ucks, g eese, p tarmigan a nd o ther b irds ( Balikci 1 964, 1 984). A s p revious ly n oted, t his s easona l d ifferent iation o f a r e lative ly w ide v ar iety o f h arvested s pec ies i s r ef lected i n t he f auna l m ater ia l f rom t he e ar ly H istor ic p er iod ( see F igure 17 a nd T ab le 1 3). A lthough t he r ecovered f auna l r ema ins f rom l ater s ites s uggests t hat t he s er ia l s pec ia lizat ion w as m aintained t o s ome e xtent d ur ing t he l ate H istor ic p er iod, t here i s ad ef inite t rend t oward t he l ate s ummer-fall h unt ing o f s ea m amma ls a nd t he w inter h unt ing o f c ar ibou ( Figure 1 38 a nd T ab le 1 4). T h is c orroborates B a likc i's d escr iption

2 75

a

. • . : z 7 • :

• . •

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5 0M =

0

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F igure 1 34. S ketch m ap o f s now d we lling f eature r ema ins a t t he l ate H istor ic s ites a ) 8 2-45 a nd b ) 8 2-47.

2 76

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2 78

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F igure 1 36. C ompar ison o f f requencies o f M odified T hu le-ear ly H istor ic a nd l ate H istor ic r esidentia l t ent r ing s ites/components i n t he K ing W illiam I sland-Ade laide P eninsula a rea.

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F igure 1 37. C ompar ison o f f requencies o f M odified T hule-ear ly H istoric a nd l ate H istor ic r esidentia l t ent r ing s ites/components i n t he L ord M ayor B ay-Netsilik L ake a rea.

2 81

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W ith r if les s ea ls w ere m ore e ff ic ient ly h unted a t t he i ce e dge o r a long w ide i ce c racks [ while] i n s ummer s ea ls w ere s hot i n o pen w ater....[and f urther t hat] w ith r if les i n h and t he N etsilik c ould h unt c ar ibou a t a ny s eason a nd a ny p lace ( 1984:427). T h is w eakening o f t he s er ia l s pecialization s trategy w as n ot, j udg ing f rom t he r ecovered f auna l r ema ins a nd B a likci's d escr ipt ions, a ccompanied b y t he p redicted d iet b readth r eduction. R ather, t he d iet b readth w ould s eem t o h ave i ncreased w ith t he a ddition, a t l east i n t he L ord M ayor B ay a rea, o f s ma ll w hales a nd p erhaps a n i ncreased e mphasis o n t he l arge b earded s eal.

T est I mplication 9

" High-bulk r esources a t l ate H istor ic r esidentia l s ites s hou ld s how p rogressive ly g reater c u lling o f l ow u tility e lements i n c ompar ison t o t hose a t M odif ied T hule a nd e ar ly H istor ic s ites. T h is s hould n ot, h owever, b e a ccompanied b y a c orresponding i ncrease i n m edium-utility e lements a t c aches a nd l ocations."

D ea ling f irst w ith t he s econd a spect o f t he t est i mp lication, t hat c ulling i s r ef lected a t c ache a nd l ocation s ites, u nfortunate ly n o u ndisturbed o r m inima lly d isturbed l ate H istoric c aches o r l ocations w ere e xam ined, a nd t herefore d irect c ompar isons i n t his i nstance a re n ot p ossib le. R egarding t he c u lling o f l ow u tility e lements a s r ef lected a t r esidentia l s ites, c ompar isons o f c ar ibou e lements f rom a n e ar ly H istor ic r esidential t ent r ing s ite i n t he N etsilik L ake a rea ( site 8 2-24), a nd t wo l ate H istor ic r esidential s ites, o ne a t ent r ing s ite a t t he N etsilik R iver ( site 8 2-17a) a nd t he o ther a s now d we lling s ite a t F e lix H arbour ( site 8 2-45), a re p resented i n F igure 1 39. A s f or t he C lassic T hule-Modif ied T hule/ e ar ly H istoric t ransition, t he v ery s mall n umber o f c aribou r epresented a t e ach o f t he r espective s ites ( i.e. M NI's o f t wo o r t hree ) p rec lude a d etailed a na lysis, a lthough a ll t hree p atterns a re g enerally c onsistent w ith r esidentia l s ite p atterns n oted e lsewhere ( see e .g. B inford 1 978a :327, 3 97, 4 40). I t i s i nteresting t o s pecu late, h owever, o n o ne a spect o f t he e lementa l a bundances, s pecif ica lly t hose e lements w h ich s how t he g reatest d ifference b etween t he e ar ly H istor ic s ite a nd t he t wo l ate H istor ic s ites. T hese i nc lude t he a straga lus, c a lcaneous, p roximal a nd d ista l m etatarsals, a nd d ista l r adio-cubitus, a ll o f w hich a re c omparative ly u nderrepresented a t t he l ate H istor ic p er iod s ites. A ll f ive e lements h ave r e lative ly l ow m odif ied g enera l u tility i ndices, r anking 1 3th, 1 3th ( tied), 1 7th, 1 9th, a nd 2 0th r espect ive ly ( Binford 1 978a:74), a nd t hus o ffer s ome s upport o f m ore r adica l c ulling d ur ing t he l ate H istor ic p er iod. H owever , t hese s ame e lements h ave r e lative ly h igh g rease i ndices, r anked 1th, 4 th,

2 84

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F igure 1 39. R e lat ive e lementa l a bundances f or c ar ibou f rom t he e ar ly H istor ic s ite 8 2-24 ( a ), a nd t he l ate H istor ic s ites 8 2-17a ( b ), a nd 8 2-45 ( c), a ll i n t he L ord M ayor B ay-Netsilik L ake a rea.

2 85

5 th, 1 9th, a nd 9 th r espective ly ( Binford 1 978a:34). S ince d ogs t ypica lly p refer b ones h igh i n b one g rease ( Wh ite 1 954; B inford 1 978a), a nd s ince t he n umber o f d ogs i ncreased d ramatically f o llow ing t he i ntroduction o f t he r if le i nto t he N etsilik a rea ( from 1 .5 t o 3 .5 p er h unter : B a likc i 1 964:48), t he e lementa l p attern m ay b e r ef lecting t his i ncrease i n a ddition t o, o r o pposed t o, m ore r adica l c ulling.

T est I mp lication 1 0

" Fauna l r ema ins a t l ate H istor ic r esident ia l s ites a ssociated w ith h igh-bu lk r esources s hould i ndicate r e lative ly e xtended s easona l o ccupations, w hile t hose a t M odif ied T hule a nd e ar ly H istoric s ites s hould i ndicate r elatively s hort s easonal o ccupations." A s n oted p reviously, n o d etailed d enta l a nnuli s tudies w ere u ndertaken f or M odif ied T hule o r e ar ly H istor ic p er iod s ites. H owe ver, t he t emporary n ature o f a ll f eatures a ssoc iated w ith t hese p er iods, a nd t he a verage w inter r esidentia l c amp o f o ne m onth d uration ( Ke lly 1 983:180-181) c an b e c ompared w ith s ummer a nd f all e stimates r espective ly f or s eason o f d eath f or a s ingle r inged s eal a nd a s ingle c ar ibou f rom t he l ate H istor ic g armang s ite a t t he L ord L indsay R iver ( site 8 1-81), s uggesting a t endency t oward i ncreased d uration o f s ite o ccupation.

2 86

C HAPTER T EN :

S UMMARY O F R ESULTS A ND M ODEL E VALUATION

H YPOTHESIS 1 :

A d ecrease i n t he d istr ibution a nd a bundance o f b owhead w hales i n t he n orthern p art o f t he s tudy a rea, a nd i n b arren g round c ar ibou i n t he s outhern p art o f t he s tudy a rea, w ill b e a ccompanied b y a t ransformation o f s ubsistence-settlement s ystems b ased p rimarily o n c o llecting s trategies t o s ubsistence-settlement s ystems b ased p r imar ily o n f oraging s trateg ies.

T he o vera ll r esults o f t he t est i mplications o f H ypothesis 1 a re s ummar ized i n T ab le 1 5. T he p redicted t rends a re s ubjective ly c lassif ied a s b e ing s trong ly d eve loped ( SD), w eakly d eve loped ( WD), n ot p resent ( no c hange - u n less n o c hange w as p redicted) ( NC), o r o pposite ( OP). I mplications f or w hich d ata w ere n ot r ecovered o r c ould n ot o therw ise b e d etermined a re c lassif ied a s t hose w ith i nsuff icient d ata ( ID). I n s ome i nstances i t w as p ossib le a nd/or n ecessary t o c ompare t he t rends t hrough o nly t he i nitial p art o f t he t ransit ion ( i.e. e ar ly C lassic t o l ate C lassic T hule) a nd t hese a re i ndicated a ccording ly . T he s trongest c onf irmation o f t he h ypothesis i s i n t he n orthern w ha ling a rea, f or w hich t he p redicted t rends i n s even o f t he t en t est i mp lications a re s trong ly d eveloped ( Imp lications 1 , 3 -8), o ne e xhibited n o c hange ( Implication 2 ), w hile d ata w ere n ot a vailab le f or t he n on-whale c ulling s trateg ies o r t he s easonality e stimates ( Implications 9 , 1 0). I n t he s outhern c ar ibou r egion, c onf irmation o f t he h ypothesis w as a lmost a s s trong f or t he K ing W illiam I s landA de laide P eninsula r egion, w ith p redicted t rends b e ing s trong ly d eve loped f or s ix o f t he t en t est i mp lications ( Imp lications 1 -5, 9 ), w eak ly d eve loped f or t hree, ( Imp lications 6 , 8 , 1 0), a nd f or o ne, r esidentia l g roup s ize ( Imp lication 7 ), w eakly d eve loped f or e ar ly-late C lassic T hule w inter g roup s ize t ransition, s trong ly d eve loped f or t he t otal C lassic T hule-Modif ied T hule/ear ly H istoric s pr ing-fall r esidentia l g roup s ize, a nd o pposite f or l ate C lassic T hule-Modif ied T hule/ear ly H istor ic w inter r esidentia l g roup s ize. T he m ode l w as a r e lative ly p oor p redictor, o n t he o ther h and, f or t he L ord M ayor B ay r eg ion, f or w hich t he p redicted t rend w as s trong ly d eve loped f or o n ly o ne o f t he t en t est i mp lications ( Imp lication 5 ), w eakly d eve loped f or t wo ( Imp licat ions 1 , 4 ), a nd p arts o f t wo o thers ( Implications 7 a nd 1 0), n o c hange f or f our ( Imp lications 2 , 3 , 6 , 8 ), a nd p arts o f t wo o thers ( 7 a nd 1 0), a nd o pposite f or p art o f o ne ( Implication 7 ). D ata w ere i nsuff icient f or d eterm ining t rends i n c ulling p ract ices ( Imp licat ion 9 ).

2 87

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• CD . 4

2 89

T he s urprisingly l arge d iscrepancy i n t he o verall r esults o btained f rom t he n orthern w hale a rea a nd t he K ing W illiam I sland-Ade laide P eninsula r egion o f t he s outhern c ar ibou r egion o n t he o ne h and, a nd t he L ord M ayor B ay-Netsilik L ake r egion o n t he o ther h and, s uggests a n i nva lid a ssumption r egarding t he r esource b ase c hange i n t he l atter a rea r ather t han a ny i ntr insic i nadequacy o f t he m ode l i tse lf . S pec if ica lly, t he s imilar ities b etween t he C lassic T hule a nd M odif ied T hule/ear ly H istor ic p atterns, a nd t he t endency o f t hese s trateg ies t o m ore c lose ly a pprox imate f oraging r ather t han c ollecting s ystems, s uggests t hat t he a bundance a nd/or p red ictability o f c ar ibou, a nd t hus t he s ecur ity o f t he r esource, w as n ot a s g reat a s a ssumed. T here a re n o r e liab le e stimates o f t he a bundance o f c ar ibou t hat m ight h ave b een m igrating a cross t he B oothia I sthmus, b ut t he a pparent ly l arge n umber t hat o ccurred d ur ing t he H istor ic p er iod s uggests t hat u nder e ven m ore f avourab le c a lving c ondition a bundance p er s e w ou ld n ot h ave b een a l im iting f actor. T he s econd a spect r e lated t o r esource s ecur ity, h owever, i s t he p redictab ility o f m ob ile, b ut s easona l a ggregates. I n t he c ase o f c ar ibou, i t w as n oted t hat d ur ing t he e ar ly H istor ic p er iod C rescent H arbour i n S herman I n let, t he n arrows o f S impson S trait, a nd t he N etsilik R iver-Netsilik L ake a reas s erved a s t he p r imary c rossing l oca lities. I n R asmussen 's ( 1931:91-113) N etsilik E skimo T opography, o n ly o ne f all m igration i s i ndicated o n t he e ntire S impson S trait c oast ( the n arrows), a nd o ne o n S herman I n let ( Crescent H arbour). A t N etsilik R iver-Netsilik L ake a nd e nvirons, h owever, n ineteen f all c rossings a re i ndicated. A ccording ly, w hile f a ll c ar ibou i nterception o n K ing W illiam I sland a nd a t S herman I n let w as h igh ly p redictab le, i t i s p robab le t hat i t w as m uch l ess s o o n B oothia P eninsula, t o t he p o int t hat w e ll-deve loped c o llecting s trategies w ere n ot p ossib le ( c.f. B urch 1 972:359). I n t his r egard, i t i s s ignif icant t hat d esp ite a n o r ientation t oward a f oraging s trategy d ur ing t he C lassic T hule i n t he L ord m ayor B ay a rea, t rue ' heavy ' s em i-subterranean d we llings w ith t rue c o ld t rap-entrances w ere u tilized. T h is m ay i ndicate t hat, a t l east a t t he l oca l l eve l, d we lling f eatures w ere n ot a s s ensitive t o a daptive s trategy c hange a s t hey w ere t o o vera ll m ater ial c u lture c hange. F ina lly, i n t he K ing W illiam I sland-Ade laide P eninsula r egion, l ate C lassic w inter r esidentia l s ite s izes i ndicate c onsiderab ly s ma ller p opulation l eve ls t han b oth e ar ly C lassic T hule w inter r esidential s ites ( predicted) a nd l ater e thnographica lly d ocumented e ar ly H istor ic w inter r esidentia l g roups ( not p redicted). T his a pparent s harp p opulation d ecrease d ur ing t he l ate C lassic T hule p er iod c an b est b e e xplained b y t he p redicted s h ift i n t he r o le o f c ar ibou v s. s ea l i n t he s ubsistence e conomy. T hat i s, a s c ar ibou b egan t o p lay a l ess i mportant r o le, s ma ller w inter v illages w ere l ocated a way f rom t he c ar ibou c rossing a reas a nd c loser t o t he p r imar y s ea l a reas, w ith m embers o f i nd ividua l s ett lements p robab ly c o-operating i n s ea i ce-based m id-w inter s ea l h unting. A ccording ly, m aximum p opulation a ggregation w ould n ot b e a rchaeologically r ecognizab le, a nd t he p opulation d ecrease m ay b e m ore a pparent t han r ea l. A s im ilar a rgument c an b e a dvanced f or t he L ord M ayor B ayN etsilik L ake r eg ion, a lthough h ere i t i s p robab le t hat m id-w inter a ggregation t ook p lace d ur ing b oth e ar ly a nd l ate C lassic T hule p er iods.

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H YPOTHESIS 2 :

T he i ntroduction o f t he r if le w ill b e a ccompanied b y a t ransformation o f a s ubsistence-sett lement s ystem b ased o n a f orag ing s trategy t o a s ubsistence-sett lement s ystem b ased o n a c ollecting s trategy, b ut o ne w hich l acks s pec ia lized p rocurement t echniques. T he o verall r esults o f t he t est i mplications f or H ypothesis 2 a re p resented i n T ab le 1 6 w ith t he p redicted t rends s ubjective ly c lassif ied a s w as d one f or H ypothesis 1 . F or t he K ing W illiam I s land-Ade laide P eninsula r eg ion, p redicted t rends f or o ne o f t he t en t est i mp lications w as s trongly d eve loped ( Imp lication 3 ), t hree w ere w eakly d eveloped ( Imp lications 1 , 4 , 7 ), t here w as n o a pparent c hange i n t wo ( Implications 2 , 5 ,), a nd i nsuff ic ient d ata f or t he r ema ining f our ( Imp lications 6 , 8 , 9 , 1 0). F or t he L ord M ayor B ay-Netsilik L ake a rea, p redicted t rends f or t hree o f t he t en t est i mp lications w ere s trong ly d eve loped ( Imp licat ions 3 , 6 , 7 ), f ive w ere w eakly d eve loped ( Implications 1 , 4 , 5 , 9 , 1 0), t here w as n o a pparent c hange i n o ne ( Imp lication 2 ), w hile o ne w as o pposite ( Imp lication 8 ). C erta inly t he m ost c ritica l o f t he f ailed t est i mp lications i s t hat d ealing w ith d iet b readth ( Implication 8 ), a n a pparent i ncrease, a t l east i n t he L ord M ayor B ay r egion, i n c ontrast t o t he p redicted d ecrease. T hese r esults a re a lso i nconsistent w ith t he " emp ir ica lly o bserved" p ost-r if le N etsilik I nu it e conomy d escribed b y K eene ( 1979), a nd w ith t he l inear p rogramm ing m ode l h e d eve loped ( op. c it.). T he m ost p lausible e xplanation f or t his d iscrepancy, a nd c ertain ly o ne w h ich i s s till c onsistent w ith t he m ode l, i s t hat t he i ntroduction o f t he r if le c ontr ibuted t o t he d ep letion o f m igratory c ar ibou h erds e ar ly d ur ing t he l ate H istor ic p er iod t o t he p o int w here t hey w ere v ery q uick ly r e legated t o a s econdary r esource t hrough g reat ly i ncreased s earch t ime. T hat r apid d ec imation o f c aribou h erds t ook p lace h as b een w e ll d ocumented: W e s aw t he f irst g reat h erd o f c ar ibou c om ing t rott ing d own o ver t he h ills [ at S impson S tra it]...A ll t he m en s iezed t he ir g uns a nd b ags, a nd a m oment l ater t hey l ay c oncea led h ere a nd t here...Th is w as t he f irst r ea l m assacre o f t hat a utumn... s hot a fter s hot c racked, a nima l a fter a nima l t umb led o ver... u ntil t he w ho le c ava lcade s p lit u p...and g alloped b ack t o t he i nter ior o f t he i sland. ( Rasmussen 1 931:78). ..once m assive m igrations a t o r n ear t he t ree l ine P en insula a rea c eased i n T he m ain f actor b ehind

o f b arren-ground c ar ibou w inter ing a nd i nvading i n s pr ing t he B ooth ia t he y ears b etween 1 920 a nd 1 930. t his d rastic c hange i n c aribou

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T ab le 1 6.

S ummary o f R esults o f H ypothesis N o. 2 T est I mp lications.

T est I mplication N o. a nd d escription

K ing W illiam I sland M T/EH L H

L ord M ayor B ay M T/EH L H

1 .

I ncreasing f unctiona l s eparation o f s ites

W D

W D

2 .

I ncreasing i ntersite v ariability a s r ef lected b y c ache:tent r ing r atio

N C

N C

3 .

I ncrease i n r ecognizab le f oraging a nd l ogistica l z ones

S D

S D

4 .

S hift f rom s ite p lacement p atterns r elated t o s econdary r esources t o p atterns r e lated t o p r imary r esources

W D

W D

5 .

I ncreasing r esidential s ite p ermanency

N C

W D

6 .

N o c hange i n i nternal s ite s tructure

I D

7 .

I ncrease i n r esidential s ite s ize

I D ( W ) W D ( S)

I D ( W) S D ( S)

8 .

D ecrease i n d iet b readth

I D

O P

9 .

I ncrease i n c ulling o f l ow u tility e lements

I D

W D

I D

W D

1 0. L engthening o f s easonal o ccupations

S D ( i.e. n o c hange)

S D=Strong ly d eveloped; W D=Weakly D eve loped; N C=No c hange ; I D=Insufficient D ata; O P=Opposite; ( W )=Winter; ( S)=Summer.

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d istr ibution w as t he r egular s upp ly o f a rms a nd a mmunition t o t he E skimos...(Ba likc i 1 964:51). A ccordingly , a n i ncreased f ocus o n s ea ls a nd o ther l arge m ammals ( inc lud ing s ma ll w ha les w hen a va ilable) c an b e p redicted. T he t emporal d ivisions u sed i n t he p resent s tudy a re r elatively " coarse-grained" a nd d o n ot a llow f or s ubdivisions w ithin t he l ate H istor ic p eriod. H owever, a d etailed c ompar ison o f i mmediate p ostr if le ( 1920-1930) w ith l ater p ost-r if le s trategies, s hould i ndicate as hort-lived, b ut n everthe less r estr icted a nd i ntense c ar ibou-seal e conom ic s trategy . C ar ibou h erd d ec imation a lso e xp la ins t he r e lative l ack o f r esidentia l a nd o ther s ite t ypes a t m ajor c aribou c rossing l ocalities i n b oth t he K ing W illiam I sland-Adelaide P eninsula a nd L ord M ayor B ay-Netsilik L ake a reas. T he m ode l o f s ubsistence-settlement s trateg ies a s d eve loped a nd a pplied i n t his s tudy i s n ot m athematica lly r igorous. I nstead, e mphasis h as b een p laced o n t he l ogica l d eve lopment o f e xpectations o f h unter-gatherer b ehavior i n t erms o f r elat ive d egree a nd d irect ion o f r esponses t o a ) a c hange i n r esource s tructure, a nd b ) a c hange i n t echno logy. G iven t he p robab le c ircumstances l eading t o e ach o f t he i ncongruencies b etween t he e xpectations a nd t he r ecovered d ata, t he r esults s uggest t hat t he m odel i s a u seful t oo l i n t he d eve lopment o f a g reater u nderstand ing o f t he e co logical c ontext o f h unter-gatherer b ehavior. W hile i t d ea ls w ith o ne a spect o n ly - m obility - i t d emonstrates t hat v ary ing o rganizationa l m ixes o f t he t wo d ef ined t ypes o f m ob ility, r esidentia l a nd l og istical, r esult i n s ubstant ia lly d ifferent a rchaeo logica l " signatures" i n t he f orm o f s ettlement p atterns a nd f auna l c haracteristics. F urtherm ore, t he r ecogn it ion o f s uch m ixes a llows a b etter u nderstanding o f c hange i n l ong-term l and u se. I n t he n orthern w ha le a rea, f or e xample, s hort-term p erturbations i n w ha le a bundance o r d istr ibution d ue t o o ccasiona l s evere s ummer i ce c onditions w ou ld r esult i n s hort-term s hifts t o f orag ing s trategies. T his i n t urn w ou ld r esult i n a d ifferent a rchaeo log ical p attern t han t he c o llecting s trategy e mp loyed d ur ing s uccessfu l w ha ling y ears. O ver a l ong t ime p eriod, h owever, t he " palimpsest" e ffect w ould d im inish, b ut n ot e ntire ly c over, t he f orag ing p attern. A ccordingly, i t i s b y t rack ing t he d irection o f t he t rends i n t he a rchaeo logica l v ar iab ility, a s a ttempted i n t he p resent s tudy, t hat o rganizationa l r esponses t o r esource f luctuat ions a nd/or c hanges c an b e d eterm ined.

I mplications f or A rctic A rchaeo logy

F luctuations i n t he r esource b ase o f a rctic h unter-gatherers h ave l ong b een r ecognized a s ac r itica l v ar iab le i n t he e xp lanation o f t he a rctic a rchaeo log ica l r ecord ( e.g. G iddings 1 961; T ay lor 1 966; M cGhee 1 970, 1 972; M cCartney 1 977; D ekin 1 972; F itzhugh 1 972, 1 976; A rundale 1 976, 1 980; S ch ledermann 1 976a, 1 976b; M axwe ll 1 979), a nd i t i s o n ly r are ly t hat r eported r esearch d oes n ot i n s ome m anner s ubscr ibe t o t he o pinion t hat a n u nderstanding o f h unter-gatherer a daptat ion a nd r esponse t o e nvironmenta l c onditions a re c entra l t o

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a rctic a rchaeo logy 's g oa ls. F urthermore, a s a n a rchaeo log ica l l aboratory t he A rctic i s i n m any r espects u nique . T here a re f ew , i f a ny, r egions e lsewhere w here m ater ial r emains a re a s v isib le, a s w e ll p reserved, o r a s r e lative ly f ree o f n atura l a nd c ultural p ost-depositional d estruction. I n a ddition, a n e xce llent d ata b ase a llows d irect e xtrapo lation o f a n umber o f a spects o f e thnograph ic b ehavior t o t he p rehistor ic i nhab itants. F ina lly, t he e xtreme n ature o f t he c limate a nd c onsequent c onstraints o n t he n ature o f t he v arious r esource b ases a llow t he d efinition o f r elevant e nvironmenta l v ar iab les u nequalled i n m ost o ther a reas. I t i s s omewhat p aradox ica l, o n t he o ther h and, t hat w hile e thnohistor ica l, e thnographica l, a nd e thnoarchaeo logica l r esearch w hich f ocuses i n w ho le o r i n p art o n h istorica l a nd m odern a rctic h unter-gatherers, h as s erved, a nd c ontinues t o s erve, i n t he d eve lopment o f g enera l m ode ls o f h unter-gatherer a daptat ion a nd c ulture c hange ( e.g. S ervice 1 962 ; S ah lins 1 972 ; B inford 1 978a,b, 1 980; S mith 1 981, 1 983; R iches 1 982; H ickey 1 984), f or t he m ost p art a rctic a rchaeo logists h ave b een r e luctant t o a pp ly t hese m ode ls i n t he v ery a rea w here t hey w ould b e m ost a pp licab le. T he p resent s tudy d emonstrates t hat s uch m ode ls a re a pplicab le t o p rehistor ic ( and h istor ic) c ultural s equences i n t he A rctic. I n t his c ase, t he e xam ination o f t he a rchaeo logica l r ecord f rom t he p erspective o f p redicted " s ignatures" o f h unter-gatherer m ob ility s trateg ies s erves n ot o n ly a s a u seful t est o f t he m ode ls o f a daptation b ased o n s uch s trategies, b ut a lso, b y c oro llary, a s at est o f s everal a ssumptions m ade b y A rctic a rchaeo logists ( for e xamp le, t hat T hule E sk imos w ere a ctive w hale h unters a s o pposed t o w ha le c arcass s cavengers, o r t hat T hule E skimo s ocieties w ere u niversa lly o mniverous - s ee e sp. T ay lor 1 966; F reeman 1 979; M cCartney 1 980). I n a ddition t o i llustrating t he p otential o f a ppropr iate m ode ls f or i nvestigating T hule E skimo a daptative s trategies, t he s tudy a lso p o ints t o s everal t raditional w eaknesses o f T hule a rchaeo logy. F irst, a nd p erhaps m ost i mportant ly , i t h as s hown t hat t he d ata r ecovered f rom t he t raditional e xcavation o f s ing le w inter r esident ia l s ites a re n ot s uff icient t o f ully e va luate t he t ype a nd d egree o f a daptation t o a g iven r esource b ase, o r t o c hanges i n t hat r esource b ase. I nstead, s uch i nvestigations r equire t he i ntegration o f t hese d ata w ith c omparab le a nd a nc illary d ata f rom o ther s ite t ypes. T his i n t urn r equires a r egion a s o pposed t o as ite-specif ic a pproach a nd c oncomitant d ef inition a nd j ustif ication o f s urvey r egions a nd s urvey m ethods. S econd, t he n ecessity o f d ealing w ith o ther t han w inter r esidentia l s ites, w hich a re t ypica lly t he l argest a nd r ichest, r equ ires t hat " non-traditional" d ating m ethods b e g iven g reater e mphasis. W hile t he s tudy o f l ichen c haracter ist ics p resented h ere h as p roven p romising, i t i s n everthe less a " coarse-grained" i nitia l a ttempt, a nd i ts a pp lication e lsewhere, a nd m ore e xtensive a nd c ontrolled a pplication w ithin t he s tudy a rea, r emain t o b e d emonstrated. I n t his r egard, h arpoon h eads, w hile, a s n oted p reviously, o ne o f t he f ew r ecognized t emporally-sensitive a rtifacts, a re o bvious ly o f u t ility o n ly i f p resent. H owever, f ew

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c an b e e xpected a t n on-sealing s ummer-fa ll c amps, a nd p erhaps m ore i mportant ly, f ew c an b e e xpected a t " w inter" r esidentia l s ites a ssociated w ith " car ibou-co llecting" s trategies. I n t he s outhern c ar ibou r eg ion, f or e xamp le, t here w ere f ew r ecovered i n c ompar ison w ith H igh A rctic T hule s ites, a nd t here w ere n one r ecovered f rom t he w inter r esidentia l s ites a t S herman I nlet a nd N etsilik R iver. T hird, t he s tudy i llustrates t he p otentia l v a lue o f d ata d er ived f rom e thnoarchaeo logica l s tudies, w hich, a lthough o f i ncreasing i mportance i n a rchaeo logical a nd a nthropo log ical t heory ( see e .g. Y e llen 1 977; G ifford 1 978, 1 980 ; K ramer, 1 979; B inford 1 978a, 1 978b, 1 980; G ould 1 978, 1 980), h as o nly r ecently b een r ecognized a nd a pplied i n n orthern C anadian a rchaeo logy ( see e .g. J anes 1 983; H anks 1 983; S ave lle 1 984). F ourth, a nd a s p reviously d emonstrated b y B inford ( 1976), t he e xaminat ion o f " acculturated" H istor ic I nuit g roups n eed n ot b e c onsidered f rom t he p erspective o f c u ltures i n d ec line, b ut i nstead t hey c an b e c onsidered f rom t he p erspective o f g roups a dapt ing t o c hanges i n c ritica l r esources, w hether t hese c hanges a re d eterm ined b y t echno logy, r esource s tructure, o r d iffer ing e conom ic s ystems. I n d iscussing t he t raditiona l c u ltura l-histor ica l e mphasis T hule a rchaeo logica l s tudies, M cCartney r ecent ly o bserved t hat

o f

A s econd p hase o f T hule r esearch i s f ast a pproaching w here in s tudy o f s ett lement p atterns, a daptive s trategies, d emog raphy, a nd c arry ing c apacity, t o n ame o nly a f ew f oci, w ill r equ ire u s t o b roaden o ur p erspective t o s ummer a nd f a ll s easonal c amps a nd o ther s ma ll s ites m arked b y s urface f eatures o n ly. A ccording ly a s ensitive m ethodo logy m ust b e d eve loped t o c over s uch e xpanded r esearch ( 1980:537). W h ile t he p resent s tudy i s i n s evera l r espects a n a ttempt t o i n itiate t he d eve lopment o f s uch a " sensitive m ethodo logy", i t a lso o ut lines t he n ecessity o f d eve loping s uch a m ethodo logy w ithin a n e xp lic it t heoretica l f ramework.

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A rchiba ld C onstab le, L ondon.

A nderson, J . 1 940-41 C hief F actor J ames A nderson 's B ack R iver J ournal o f 1 855. C anadian F ie ld-Naturalist 5 4:63-67, 8 4-89, 1 07-109, 1 25-126, 1 34-136; 5 5:9-11, 2 1-26, 3 8-44. A ndrews, M . a nd J .T. A ndrews 1 979 B ib liography o f B affin I sland E nvironments O ver t he L ast 1 000 Y ears. I n T hule E skimo C ulture, A n A nthropo logical R etros pective, e dited b y A .P. M cCartney. A rchaeological S urvey o f C anada, M ercury S eries, P aper 8 8:555-569. A rnold, C . a nd C . S ti r ne ] 1 983 A n a nalysis o f T hule A rchaeo logy 7 (1):1-21.

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a C ase

S tudy

S outhwestern

F rom

t he

S er i

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G ifford, D .P. 1 980 E thnoarchaeo logical C ontributions t o t he T aphonomy o f H uman S ites. I n F ossils i n t he M aking, e dited b y A .K. B ehrensmeyer a nd A .P. H ill. U niversity o f C hicago P ress, C hicago. P p. 9 3-106. 1 981 T aphonomy a nd P aleoeco logy: AC r itical V iew o f A rchaeo logy 's S ister D isciplines. I n A dvance i n A rchaeological M ethod a nd T heory, V olume 4 , e dited b y M .B. S chiffer. A cademic P ress, N ew Y ork. P p. 3 65-438. G oodyear, A .C., L .M. R aab, a nd T .C. K linger 1 978 T he S tatus o f A rchaeo logica l R esearch D esign i n C ultural R esource M anagement. A merican A ntiquity 4 3:159-173. G ordon, B . 1 975 O f M en a nd H erds i n B arrenland P rehistory. S urvey o f C anada, M ercury S eries, P aper 2 8.

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1 980 E cological E xplanation i n A rchaeology. I n A dvances i n A rchaeo log ical M ethod a nd T heory, V o lume 3 , e dited b y M .B. S chiffer. A cadem ic P ress, N ew Y ork. P p. 1 58-187. H arpending, H . a nd H . D avis 1 977 S ome I mp lications f or H unter-gatherer E co logy D er ived F rom t he S patial S tructure o f R esources. W orld A rchaeology 8 (3):275-283. H assan, F .A. 1 978 D emographic A rchaeology. I n A dvances i n A rchaeolo9 ical M ethod a nd T heory, V ol. 1 , e dited b y M .B. S chiffer. A cadem ic P ress, N ew Y ork. P p. 4 9-103. H eff ley, S . 1 981 T he R elationship B etween N orthern A thapaskan S ettlement P atterns a nd R esource D istr ibution : A n A pplication o f H orn 's M ode l. I n H unter-gatherer F orag ing S trategies, e dited b y B . W interha lder a nd E .A . S m ith. U n iversity o f C hicago P ress, C h icago. P p. 1 26-147. H e lm, J . 1 968 T he N ature o f D ogr ib S oc ioterr itor ia l H unter, e dited b y R . L ee a nd I . D eVore. P p. 18-125.

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H ickey, C .G. 1 976 A n E conomic V iew o f A daptation. I n C ontributions t o A nthropo logy: T he I nter ior P eoples o f N orthern A laska, e dited b y E .S. H all. A rchaeological S urvey o f C anada, M ercury S er ies, P aper 4 9:235-298. 1 979 A rchaeologica l a nd E thnohistor ical E tudes/Inuit/Studies 3 :132-133.

R esearch o n B anks

I sland.

1 984 A n E xamination o f P rocesses o f C ultural C hange A mong N ineteenth C entury C opper I nuit. E tudes/Inuit/Studies 8 :13-35.

3 05

H ickey, C .G., S ave lle, J .M., a nd G .B. H obson n .d. T he R oute o f S ir J ohn F ranklin 's T hird A rctic E xpedition: A n E valuation a nd T est o f a n A lternative H ypothesis. M s. D epartment o f A nthropology, U niversity o f A lberta. H ill, J .N. 1 968 B roken K . P ueblo : P atterns o f F orm a nd F unction. I n N ew P erspectives i n A rchaeo logy, e dited b y S .R. B inford a nd L .R. B inford. A ldine, C hicago. P p. 1 03-142. 1 970 B roken K . P ueblo : A merican S outhwest. P apers, N o. 1 8.

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1 972 T he M ethodo logical D ebate i n C ontemporary M ode l. I n M ode ls i n A rchaeology, e dited M ethuen, L ondon. P p. 6 1-108.

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H o lland, C . a nd J . M . S avelle 1 987 M y D ear B eaufort: a P ersona l L etter f rom E xpedition o f 1 829-1833. A rctic 4 0: i n p ress. H o ltved, E . 1 944 A rchaeo logical I nvestigations i n M edde le lser o m G ronland 1 41(1-2).

t he

H oltzman, K .C. 1 979 M aximum L ikelihood E stimation C omposition. P a leobiology 5 :77-89.

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o f

J ohn

R oss 's

D istrict,

F ossil

I -II.

A ssemblage

H one, E . 1 934 T he P resent S tatus o f t he M uskox. S pecia l P ub lication o f t he A merican C ommittee o n I nternational W ildlife P rotection. N o. 5 . H orn, H .S. 1 968 T he A daptive S ignif icance o f C o lonial B lackbird. E co logy 4 9:682-694.

N esting i n

t he B rewers

H uish, R . 1 835 T he L ast V oyage o f C apt. S ir J ohn R oss t o t he A rctic R egions. J ohn S aunders, L ondon. H ume, I .N. 1 970 A G uide t o t he A rtifacts o f C olonial A merica. Y ork.

A .

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J anes, R .R. 1 983 A rchaeological E thnography A mong M ackenzie B asin D ene, C anada. A rctic I nstitute o f N orth A mer ica, T echnical P aper N o. 2 8. J enness, D . 1 922 T he L ife o f t he C opper E skimos. A rctic E xpedition, V ol. 1 2 P t. A .

3 06

R eport o f t he C anadian

J och im , M .A. 1 976 H unter-gatherer S ubsistence a nd S ettlement. N ew Y ork.

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P ress,

1 979 B reaking D own t he S ystem : R ecent E co logica l A pproaches i n A rchaeology. I n A dvances i n A rchaeological M ethod a nd T heory, V o lume 2 , e dited b y M .B. S chiffer. A cadem ic P ress, N ew Y ork. P p. 7 7-117. 1 981 S trateg ies f or S urv ival.

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J ordan, R .H. 1 979 I nugsuk R evisited: A n A lternative V iew o f N eo-Eskimo C hrono logy a nd C ulture C hange i n G reenland. I n T hule E skimo C u lture, A n A nthropo logica l R etrospective, e dited b y A .P. M cCartney. A rchaeo logica l S urvey o f C anada, M ercury S er ies, P aper N o. 8 8. P p. 1 49-170. K eene, A .S. 1 979 E conom ic O pt im ization M ode ls a nd t he S tudy o f H unter-gatherer S ubsistence S ett lement S ystems. I n T ransformat ions: M athem atical A pproaches t o C ulture C hange, e dited b y C . R enfrew a nd K .L. C ooke. P p. 3 69-404. 1 981 P rehistor ic F orag ing i n aT emperate F orest. N ew Y ork. K e lly, R .L. 1 983 H unter-gatherer M obility S trategies. p o logica l R esearch 3 9(3):277-306.

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K e lsa ll, J .P. 1 968 T he M igratory B arren-ground C aribou o f C anada. P r inter, O ttawa. K emp, W .B., G . W enze l, N . J ensen a nd E . V ol 1 977 T he C ommunities o f R esolute a nd K uvinaluk: E conom ic B ase line S tudy. P o lar G as P ro ject.

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K ennedy, W . 1 853 A S hort N arrative o f t he S econd V oyage o f t he P rince A lbert i n S earch o f S ir J ohn F ranklin. W .H. D a lton, L ondon. K ings ley, M .C.S. a nd N .J. L unn 1 982 T he A bundance o f S ea ls i n J ones S ound a nd i n t he W aters R ound C ornwa llis I sland, 1 982. C anadian W ildlife S ervice. K irch, P .V. T he A rchaeo logical S tudy o f A daptation. A rchaeo logical M ethod a nd T heory, V o lume 3 , S ch iffer. P p. 1 01-156.

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3 07

K ramer, C . ( editor) 1 979 E thnoarchaeology: I mplications f or E thnography A rchaeology. C o lumb ia U niversity P ress, N ew Y ork. K ristof, E . 1 973 T he L ast U .S. 1 43(3):346-353. L arsen, H .A. 1 967 T he B ig S hip.

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M cC le lland a nd S tewart, T oronto.

L aughlin, W .S. 1 963 T he E arliest A leuts. A nthropological U niversity o f A laska 1 0:73-91.

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L ee, R .B. 1 968 W hat H unters d o f or a L iving, o r H ow t o M ake O ut o n S carce R esources. I n M an t he H unter, e dited b y R .B. L ee a nd I . D eVore. A ldine, C hicago. P p. 3 0-48. 1 969

! Kung B ushmen S ubsistence : A n I nput-Output A nalysis. I n E nv ironment a nd C ultural B ehavior, e dited b y A .P. V ayda. N atural H istory P ress, G arden C ity. P p. 4 7-79.

1 972

! Kung S patial O rganization: A n E co logical P erspective. H uman E co logy 1 (2):125-147.

1 979 T he ! Kung S an: M en, W omen a nd W ork i n C ambr idge U niversity P ress, C ambr idge. 1 981

I s T here a F oraging M ode o f P roduction? A nthropology 2 :13-19.

a nd

H istorical

a F oraging S ociety.

C anadian J ournal o f

L ee, R .B. a nd I D eVore ( eds.) 1 968 M an t he H unter. A ldine, N ew Y ork. L evi-Strauss, C . 1 953 S oc ial S tructure. I n A nthropo logy T oday, e dited b y D .L. K roeber. U niversity o f C hicago P ress, C hicago. P p. 5 24-533. L indsay, D .C. 1 977 L ichens i n C o ld D eserts. S eaward. P p. 1 83-209.

I n L ichen E cology, e dited b y M .R.D.

L ongacre, W .A. 1 976 P opulation D ynam ics a t t he G rasshopper P ueb lo, A r izona. I n D emographic A nthropology, e dited b y E .B.W. Z ubrow. U niversity o f N ew M exico P ress, A lbuquerque. P p. 1 69-184. L yman, R .L. 1 982 A rchaeofaunas a nd S ubsistence S tudies. I n A dvances i n A rchaeological M ethod a nd T heory V ol. 5 , e dited b y M .B. S ch iffer. A cadem ic P ress, N ew Y ork. P p. 3 32-393.

3 08

M ann ing, T .H. 1 956 N arrat ive o f a S econd D efense R esearch B oard E xped it ion t o B anks I s land, W ith N otes o n t he C ountry a nd H istory. A rctic 9 :2-77. M ason, J .A. 1 902 A bor ig ina l A mer ican H arpoons: AS tudy i n E thn ic D istr ibut ion a nd I nvent ion. A nnua l R eport o f t he U .S. N ationa l M useum f or 1 900. 1 89-304. M ath iassen, T . 1 927a A rchaeo logy o f t he C entra l E skimos. R eport o f t he F ifth T hu le E xped ition 1 921-24, V o l. 4 . P t. 1 . C openhagen. 1 927b A rchaeo logy o f t he C entra l E skimos. R eport o f t he F ifth T hu le E xped ition 1 921-24, V o l. 4 . P t. 2 . C openhagen. 1 928 M ater ia l C u lture o f t he I glu lik E skimos. R eport o f t he F ifth T hu le E xpedition, 1 921-24, V o l. 6 (1). C openhagen. M axwe ll, M .S. 1 979 T he L ake H arbour R egion: E co logica l E quilibr ium i n S ea C oast A daptat ions. I n T hule E sk imo C ulture : A n A nthropo log ica l R etrospective, e dited b y A .P. M cCartney. A rchaeo log ica l S urvey o f C anada, M ercury S er ies, P aper N o. 8 8. P p. 7 6-88. 1 981 A S outheastern C haracter ist ics.

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R uin

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M cCart, P .J. a nd J .D. B este 1 979 A quatic R esources i n t he N orthwest T err itor ies. S c ience A dvisory B oard o f t he N orthwest T err itor ies, Y e llowkn ife. M cCartney, A .P. 1 977 T hule E skimo P rehistory A long N orthwestern H udson N at iona l M useum o f M an M ercury S er ies, N o. 7 0. O ttawa.

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1 978 S tudy o f W hale B ones f or t he R econstruction o f C anadian A rctic B owhead W hale S tocks a nd W hale U se b y P rehistor ic I nu it. R eport s ubm itted t o N orthern E nv ironmenta l P rotection B ranch, D epartment o f I ndian a nd N orthern A ffa irs, O ttawa. 1 979a A rchaeo log ica l W ha le B one : AN orthern R esource. o f A rkansas A nthropo logica l P apers, N o. 1 .

U niversity

1 979b A P rocessua l C onsiderat ion o f T hule W ha le B one H ouses. I n T hule E sk imo C ulture : A n A nthropo logica l R etrospective, e d ited b y A .P. M cCartney . A rchaeo log ica l S urvey o f C anada, M ercury S er ies, N o. 8 8. P p. 3 01-323. 1 980 T he N ature o f T hule E skimo W ha le U se.

3 09

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M cCartney, A .P. 1 984 H istory o f N ative W ha ling i n t he A rctic a nd S ubarctic. I n A rctic W ha ling, e dited b y H .K. S IJacob, K . S noe ijing a nd R . V aughen. A rct ic C entre, U niversity o f G roningen. P p. 7 9-111. M cCartney, A .P. a nd J .M. S ave lle 1 985 T hule E skimo W haling i n t he C entral C anadian A rctic. A nthropo logy 2 2(2):37-58. M cCartney, N . 1 978 L ichens F rom T hree A rchaeo log ical S ites, N .W.T., C anada. T he B ryo logist 8 1:610-613.

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1 979 E ffects o f T hule E skimos o n S o ils a nd V egetat ion a t S ilum iut, N .W.T. I n T hule E skimo C ulture: A n A nthropological R etrospective, e dited b y A .P. M cCartney. A rchaeo logical S urvey o f C anada, M ercury S er ies, N o. 8 8. P p. 4 95-527. M cC laren, I .A. 1 958 T he B iology o f t he R inged S ea l i n t he E astern C anadian A rctic. B ulletin o f F isher ies R esearch B oard o f C anada N o. 18. M cClaren, P .L., R .A. D avis, W .E. R enaud, a nd C . H o ldsworth 1 976 S tudies o f t he N umbers a nd D istribution o f B irds i n t he D istr ict o f K eewatin, N .W.T. J une-August 1 975. P olar G as P roject. M cC lintock, F .L. 1 859 T he V oyage o f t he ' Fox ' L ondon.

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M cGhee, R .J. 1 969/70 S peculation o n C limatic C hange D eve lopment. F o lk 1/12:173-184. 1 972 C opper E skimo P rehistory. P ub lications i n A rchaeo logy 2 .

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1 984 T he T hule V illage a t B rooman P oint, H igh A rctic C anada. A rchaeo logical S urvey o f C anada, M ercury S er ies, P aper 1 25. M cGhee, R . a nd J . T uck 1 976 U n-dating t he C anadian A rctic. I n E astern A rctic P rehistory : P a leoesk imo P roblems, e dited b y M .S. M axwe ll. S oc iety f or A mer ican A rchaeo logy M emo ir 3 1. 6 -16.

3 10

M cGrath, J .W. 1 977 D yes f rom L ichens T oronto.

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M edlock, R .C. 1 975 F auna l A nalys is. I n T he C ache R iver A rchaeological P roject, e dited b y M .B. S chiffer a nd J .A. H ouse. A rkansas A rchaeological S urvey, R esearch S er ies N o. 8 . M e ldgaard, J . 1 960 O rigin a nd E volution o f E skimo C ultures i n t he A rctic. C anadian G eographic J ournal 6 0(2):64-75. 1 962 O n t he F ormative P er iod o f t he D orset C ulture. I nsitute o f N orth A merica, T echnical P aper 1:92-95.

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M iller, F .L. 1 974 B iology o f t he K aminuriak P opulation o f B arren G round C ar ibou. P t. 2 . D entition a s a n I ndicator o f A ge a nd S ex C omposition a nd S ocialization o f t he P opulation. C anadian W ildlife S ervice, R eport S er ies N o. 3 1. M iller, F .L., R .H. R usse ll, a nd A . G unn 1 977 P eary C aribou a nd M uskoxen o n W estern Q ueen E lizabeth I slands, N .W.T. 1 972-74. C anadian W ildlife S ervice, R eport S er ies N o. 4 0. M iller, G .H. 1 973 L ate Q uaternary H istory o f N orthern C umber land P en insula, B aff in I sland, N .W.T. Q uaternary R esearch 3 :561-583. M itchell, E . a nd R .R. R eeves 1 981 C atch H istory a nd C umulative C atch E stimates o f I nitial P opulation S ize o f C etaceans i n t he E astern A rctic. T hirtyF irst R eport o f t he I nternational W haling C omm ission. P p. 6 45-682. M onks, G .G. 1 981 S easonality S tudies. I n A dvances i n A rchaeological M ethod a nd T heory, V ol. 4 , e dited b y M .B. S chiffer. A cadem ic P ress, L ondon. P p. 1 77-240. M orr ison, D .A. 1 983a T hule C ulture i n W estern C oronation G ulf, N .W.T. M useum o f M an M ercury S eries, P aper N o. 16. 1 983b

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1 978 T he K incaid S ystem : M ississipp ian S ett lement i n t he E nvirons o f a L arge S ite. I n M ississippian S ettlement P atterns, e dited b y B .D. S mith. A cadem ic P ress, N ew Y ork. P p. 2 69-292. M urdoch, G .P. 1 967 E thnographic A t las. N aro ll, R . 1 962 F loor A rea 2 7:587-589.

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N e lson, L .H. 1 968 N ail C hrono logy a s a n A id t o D at ing O ld B uildings. A mer ican A ssociation f or S tate a nd L ocal H istory T echnical L eaf let 4 8. N icho ls, H . 1 972 S ummary o f t he P alyno logical E vidence f or L ate-Quaternary V egetationa l a nd C limatic C hange i n t he C entra l a nd E astern C anadian A rctic. I n C limatic C hanges i n A rctic A reas D ur ing t he L ast T en T housand Y ears, e dited b y Y . V asari, H . H yvar inen, a nd S . H icks. A cta U niv. O u luensis, S er ies A ., N o. 3 :309-339. 1 975 P a lyno logical a nd P aleoc limatic S tudy o f t he L ate Q uaternary D isplacement o f t he B orea l F orest i n K eewatin a nd M ackenzie N .W.T., C anada. I nstitute o f A rctic a nd A lp ine R esearch O ccasiona l P aper 1 5. N icks, G .C. 1 969 T he A rchaeo logy o f T wo H udson 's B ay C ompany P osts : B uckingh am H ouse ( 1792-1800) a nd E dmonton H ouse II ( 1810-1813). U npub lished M .A. T hesis, U niversity o f A lberta, E dmonton. N ourse, J .E. 1 879 N arrative o f t he S econd A rctic E xpedition M ade b y C harles F . H a ll. U .S. G overnment P r inting O ff ice, W ash ington, D .C. P arker, G .R. 1 972 B iology o f t he K aminuriak P opulation o f B arren-ground C ar ibou. P art I : T ota l N umbers, M orta lity, R ecruitment, a nd S easonal D istr ibut ion. C anad ian W ild life S ervice R eport S er ies N o. 3 3. P arry, W .E. 1 824 J ournal o f aS econd V oyage f or t he D iscovery o f aN orth-West P assage. J ohn M urray, L ondon.

3 12

P er lman, S .M. 1 980 A n O ptimum D iet M ode l, C oasta l V ar iab ility, a nd H unterg atherer B ehavior. I n A dvances i n A rchaeolog ical M ethod a nd T heory, V o lume 3 , e dited b y M .B. S ch iffer. A cadem ic P ress, N ew Y ork. P p. 2 57-310. P log, F . 1 975 D emographic S tudies i n S outhwestern P rehistory. I n P opul ation S tudies i n A rchaeo logy a nd B io logica l A nthropo logy: A S ymposium, e dited b y A .C. S wed lund. S ociety f or A mer ican A rchaeo logy, M emo ir 3 0. P p. 9 4-103. R aab, L .M. a nd A .C. G oodyear 1 973 O n t he V alue o f M iddle R ange T heory i n A rchaeological R esearch S trategies. M s. i n P ossession o f t he A uthors. 1 984 M iddle-Range T heory i n A rchaeo logy : A C r itica l R eview o f O r igins a nd A pplications. A mer ican A ntiquity 4 9(2):255-268. R ae, J . 1 850 N arrative o f a n E xpedition t o t he S hores o f t he A rctic S ea i n 1 846 a nd 1 847. B oone, L ondon. 1 855 A rctic E xp loration, F ranklin's M issing J ournal 2 5:246-256.

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R amsden, P .G. 1 981 A S ummary o f A rchaeo logica l F ie ld W ork o n P r ince o f W a les a nd R usse ll I s lands, N .W.T. 1 980. M s. o n f ile, A rchaeo logical S urvey o f C anada. 1 982 A P re lim inary R eport o n A rchaeo logical F ield W ork o n P rince o f W a les I sland, 1 982. M s o n f ile, A rchaeo logica l S urvey o f C anada. R asmussen, K . 1 931 T he N etsilik E skimos. V o l. 8 . C openhagen.

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R athje, W .L. a nd M .B. S ch iffer 1 982 A rchaeo logy. H arcourt, B race, J ovanovich, N ew Y ork. R ead, D .W. 1 975 R eg ional S amp ling. I n S amp ling i n A rchaeo logy, e d ited b y J .W. M ue ller. U n iversity o f A r izona P ress, T uscon. P p. 4 5-60. R eeves, R ., E . M itche ll, A . M ansf ie ld a nd M . M cLaugh lin. 1 983 D istr ibut ion a nd M igration o f t he B owhead W hale, m ysticetus i n t he E astern N orth A mer ican A rctic. 3 6(1):5-64.

3 13

B alaena A rctic

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i n

A rchaeo logy.

R enouf, M .A.P. 1 984 N orthern C oasta l H unter-fishers: W or ld A rchaeo logy 1 6(1):18-27.

A n

A nnua l R eview o f

A rchaeo logical

R ecord.

R ichardson, D .H.S. a nd E . F inegan 1 977 S tudies o n t he L ichens o f T ruelove L ow land. I n T rue love L owland, D evon I sland, C anada: A H igh A rctic E cosystem, e dited b y L .C. B liss. P p. 2 45-262. R icherson, P .J. 1 977 E co logy a nd H uman E co logy : A C omparison o f T heor ies i n t he B iologica l a nd S ocial S ciences. A merican E thnologist 4 :1-26. R iches, D . 1 982 N orthern N omadic H unter-Gatherers.

A cadem ic P ress, N ew Y ork.

R ick, A .M. 1 980 N on-cetacean V ertebrate R ema ins F rom T wo T hule W inter H ouses o n S omerset I sland, N .W.T. C anadian J ournal o f A rchaeology 4 :99-117. R iewe, R . 1 976 I nu it L and U se i n t he H igh C anadian A rctic. I n I nuit L and U se a nd O ccupancy P roject. D epartment o f I ndian a nd N orthern A ffairs, O ttawa. V ol. 2 :173-184. R ogers, E .S. a nd M .B. B lack 1 976 S ubsistence S trategy i n t he F ish a nd H are P er iod, N orthern O ntario: T he W eagamow O jibwa, 1 880-1920. J ournal o f A nthropological R esearch 3 2(1):1-43. R oper, D .C. 1 979 T he M ethod a nd T heory o f S ite C atchment A na lysis: A R eview. I n A dvances i n A rchaeo logical M ethod a nd T heory, V olume 2 , e dited b y M .B. S chiffer. A cadem ic P ress, N ew Y ork. P p. 1 20-140. R oss, J . 1 835 N arrative o f a S econd V oyage P assage. A .W. W ebster, L ondon.

i n

S earch

o f

R oss, W .G. a nd A . M acIver 1 982 D istr ibution o f t he K ills o f B owhead W hales M ammals b y D avis S trait W halers, 1 820-1910. P roject.

a N orthwest

a nd O ther S ea A rctic P ilot

S abo, G . 1 981 T hule C ulture A daptations o n t he S outh C oast o f B affin I sland, N .W.T. U npublished P h.D. D issertation, M ichigan S tate U niversity.

3 14

S ahlins, M .D. 1 972 S tone A ge E conom ics.

A ldine, N ew Y ork.

S ahlins, M .D. a nd E .R. S ervice 1 960 E vo lution a nd C ulture. A rbor.

U niversity

o f

M ich igan

P ress,

A nn

S ave lle, J .M. 1 978 S ed imentary a nd F aunal F ad es o f a n U pper S ilurian M arine S uccession n ear C reswell B ay, S omerset I sland, N .W.T. U npub lished M .Sc. T hesis, U niversity o f O ttawa. 1 979 U pper S ilur ian S tromatoporo ids f rom S omerset I sland, A rctic C anada. C anadian J ournal o f E arth S ciences, 1 6:364-372. 1 980 A n A ppraisa l o f T hule A rchaeo logy. U niversity o f A rkansas.

U npub lished M .A .

T hesis,

1 981 T he N ature o f N ineteenth C entury I nu it O ccupations o f t he H igh A rctic I slands o f C anada. E tudes/Inuit/Studies 5 :109-123. 1 983 A rchaeological I nvestigations a t R oche B ay, N orthwest T err itor ies. M s. o n f ile, P r ince o f W ales N orthern H er itage C entre, Y e llowknife. 1 984 C u ltural a nd N atural F ormation P rocesses o f a H istor ic I nu it S now D we lling S ite, S omerset I sland, A rctic C anada. A mer ican A nt iquity 4 9 : 508-524. 1 985 E ffects o f N ineteenth C entury E uropean E xp loration o n t he D eve lopment o f t he N etsilik I nuit C ulture. I n T he F ranklin E ra i n C anadian A rctic H istory, e dited b y P . S uther land. N ational M useum o f M an M ercury S er ies, A rchaeo log ical S urvey o f C anada, P aper 1 31:192-214. 1 986a

1 986b

M ob ility a nd S ubsistence-Settlement: E xamp le f rom t he C entral C anadian A rctic. D issertation, U niversity o f A lberta. H istor ic I nuit P ottery i n t he P o lar R ecord 2 3(144):319-322.

E astern

a n A rchaeo logical U npub lished P h.D.

C anadian

1 987 T he A rchaeo logy o f a N etsilik I nuit c amp d epicted R oss i n 1 831. P o lar R ecord 2 3(145):427-436.

A rctic.

b y

J ohn

S ave lle, J .M. a nd O .B. B eattie 1 983 A nalysis o f D ental A nnuli i n M usk-oxen a s a n A id i n t he D eterm inat ion o f A rchaeo logica l S ite S easona lity. C anadian J ourna l o f A nthropo logy 3 :123-129. S ave lle, J .M . a nd R . W ill 1 982 D ental A nnuli A nalysis a s a n A id i n t he D etermination o f C opper I nuit S ubsistence S trategies. P aper p resented a t t he 1 5th A nnual M eeting o f t he C anadian A rchaeological A ssoc iat ion.

3 15

S chiffer, M .B. 1 972 A rchaeological C ontext A ntiquity 3 9(3):490-492. 1 976 B ehav ioral A rchaeo logy.

a nd

S ystemic

C ontext.

A merican

A cadem ic P ress, N ew Y ork.

1 977 T oward a U nified S cience o f t he C ultural P ast. I n R esearch S trategies i n H istor ical A rchaeo logy, e dited b y S . S outh. A cadem ic P ress, N ew Y ork. 1 3-50. 1 983 T oward t he I dentif ication A ntiquity 4 8(4):675-706.

o f F ormation P rocesses.

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S ch ledermann, P . 1 975 T hule E skimo P rehistory o f C umber land S ound, B aff in I sland, C anada. A rchaeo logical S urvey o f C anada, M ercury S er ies, P aper N o. 3 8. 1 976a T he E ffect o f C limatic/Eco logical C hanges o n t he S ty le o f T hule C ulture W inter D we llings. A rctic a nd A lpine R esearch 8 (1):37-47. 1 976b

T hule C ulture 2 9(1):27-37.

C ommunal

H ouses

i n

L abrador.

A rctic

1 978 D istr ibution o f A rchaeo logical S ites i n t he V icinity o f t he P roposed P olar G as P ipe line a nd S taging A reas, N .W.T. P o lar G as P ro ject. S eaward, M .R.D. ( ed.) 1 974 L ichen E co logy.

A cadem ic P ress, N ew Y ork.

S ervice, E .R. 1 962 P r im itive S ocia l O rganization: R andom H ouse, N ew Y ork.

A n E vo lutionary P erspective.

S ilberbauer, G .S. 1 972 T he G /w i B ushmen. I n H unters a nd G atherers T oday, e dited b y M .G. B icchier i. H o lt, R inehart a nd W inston, N ew Y ork. P p. 2 71-325. S impson, J . 1 855 O bservations o n t he W estern E skimo a nd t he C ountry T hey I nhabit. I n AS e lection o f P apers o n A rctic G eography a nd E thnology, e dited b y C .R. M arkham . J . M urray, L ondon. 2 33-275. S impson, T . 1 843 N arrative o f t he D iscover ies o n t he N orth C oast o f A merica. R ichard B ent ly, L ondon. S mith, E .A. 1 981 T he A pplication o f O ptima l F oraging T heory t o t he A na lys is o f H unter-gatherer G roup S ize. I n H unter-Gatherer F oraging S trateg ies, e dited b y B . W interhalder a nd E .A. S mith. U n iversity o f C hicago P ress, C hicago. 3 5-65.

3 16

S m ith, E .A. 1 983 A nthropo logical A pp lications o f O ptima l F orag ing T heory : C r itica l R eview. C urrent A nthropology 2 4(5):625-651. 1 984 A pproaches 8 (1):65-87.

t o

I nuit

S ocioecology.

A

E tudes/Inuit/Studies

S mith, M . a nd B . R igby 1 981 D istr ibution o f P o lynyas i n t he C anadian A rctic. I n P olynyas o f t he C anadian A rct ic, e dited b y I . S tir ling a nd H . C leator. C anad ian W ild life S ervice, O ccasional P aper N o. 4 5 P p. 7 -28. S m ith, T .G. 1 973 P opulation D ynam ics o f t he R inged S eal i n t he C anadian E astern A rctic. F isher ies R esearch B oard o f C anada, B ulletin 1 81. S mith, T .G. a nd H ammil 1 981 E co logy o f t he R inged S eal, P hoca h ispida, i n i ts F ast I ce B reeding H ab itat. C anadian J ournal o f Z oo logy 5 9(6):966-981. S mith, T .G., B . B eck a nd J . M emogana 1 978 R inged S ea l B reeding H ab itat S urveys i n t he V iscount M e lville S ound, B arrow S trait, a nd P eel S ound A reas: P reliminary R eport, 1 977. A rct ic I slands P ipe line P rogram. R eport N o. A I-14. S pencer, R .F. 1 959 T he N orth A laskan E skimo : A S tudy i n E cology a nd S ociety, D over P ub lications, N ew Y ork. 1 984 N orth A laska C oast E skimo. I n H andbook o f N orth A mer ican I ndians, V o l. 5 , A rctic, e dited b y D . D amas. S m ithsonian I nstitution P ress, W ashington, D .C. P p. 3 20-337. S peth, J .D. 1 983 B ison K ills a nd B one C ounts. C hicago.

U niversity

S p iess, A . 1 976 D eterm ining D eath o f A rchaeo logical T eeth. A rctic 2 9:53-55.

o f

F auna

C hicago

b y

P ress,

A nalysis

o f

S taab, M .L. 1 979 A na lysis o f F auna l M ater ia l R ecovered F rom a T hu le E skimo S ite o n t he I sland o f S ilum iut, N .W.T. I n T hule E skimo C u lture, A n A nthropo logica l R etrospective, e dited b y A .P. M cCartney. A rchaeo logical S urvey o f C anada, M ercury S er ies, P aper N o. 8 8. P p. 3 49-379. S tackpo le, E .A. 1 965 T he L ong A rctic S earch: T he N arrative o f L ieutenant F rederick S chwatka, U .S.A. 1 878-1880, S eeking t he R ecords o f t he L ost F ranklin E xpedition. M arine H istor ical A ssoc iation, I nc. M yst ic.

3 17

S tanford, D .J. 1 976 T he W a lakpa S ite, A laska: I ts P lace i n t he B irnirk a nd T hu le C ultures. S m ithsonian C ontr ibut ions t o A nthropo logy, N o. 2 0. S tefansson, V . 1 913 M y L ife W ith t he E skimo.

M acM illan C o., N ew Y ork.

S tenton, D . 1 983 A n A nalysis o f F aunal R emains F rom t he P eale P oint S ite ( KkDo-1) ? B aff in I sland, N .W.T. U npub lished M .A. T hesis, T rent U niversity, P eterborough. S teward, J .H. 1 955 T heory o f C ulture C hange: t he M ethodology o f M ultilinear E vo lution. U niversity o f I l lino is P ress, U rbana. T aylor, J .G. 1 974 N etsilik E skimo M aterial C ulture: C o llection f rom K ing W illiam I sland. f or laget.

t he R oald A mundsen O slo: U niversitets-

1 979 I nuit W ha ling T echno logy i n E astern C anada a nd G reenland. I n T hule E skimo C ulture : A n A nthropo logical R etrospective, e dited b y A .P. M cCartney. A rchaeo logical S urvey o f C anada, M ercury S er ies, P aper N o. 8 8. P p. 2 92-300. 1 984 H istor ica l E thnography o f t he L abrador C oast. I n H andbook o f N orth A mer ican I ndians, V o lume 5 , A rct ic, e dited b y D . D amas. S m ithsonian I nstitution P ress, W ashington, D .C. P p. 5 08-521. T aylor, W .E. 1 960 A D escr iption o f S adlerm iut H ouses E xcavated a t N ative P oint, S outhampton I sland, N .W.T. N ational M useum o f M an B ulletin 1 62:53-100. O ttawa. 1 966 A n A rchaeo logical 4 0:114-120.

P erspective o n E skimo E conomy.

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o f

1 972 A n A rchaeo logical S urvey B etween C ape P arry a nd C ambridge B ay, N .W.T. A rchaeo logical S urvey o f C anada, M ercury S eries, P aper N o. 1 . T aylor, W .E. a nd R . M cGhee 1 979 A rchaeo logical M ater ia l F rom C reswe ll B ay, N .W.T., C anada. A rchaeo logica l S urvey o f C anada, M ercury S er ies, P aper 8 5. 1 981 D eb licquy, A T hule C ulture S ite o n B athurst I sland, N .W.T., C anada. A rchaeo logical S urvey o f C anada, M ercury S er ies, P aper 1 02. T ener, J .S. 1 965 M uskoxen i n C anada: A B iological a nd T axonomic R eview. C anadian W ildlife S ervice, Q ueen 's P r inter, O ttawa.

3 18

T homas, D .C. a nd E . B roughton 1 978 S tatus o f T hree C anadian C ar ibou P opulations N orth o f 7 0° i n W inter 1 977. C anadian W ildlife S ervice, P rogress N otes, N o. 8 5• T homas, D .C., R .N. R usse ll, E . B roughton, E .J. E dmonds, a nd A . G unn 1 977 F urther S tudies o f T wo P opulations o f P eary C ar ibou i n t he C anadian A rctic. C anadian W ild life S ervice, P rogress N otes, N o. 8 0. T homas, D .H. a nd R .L. B ettinger 1 976 P rehistor ic P inyon E cotone S ett lements o f t he U pper R eese R iver V a lley, C entra l N evada. A nthropo log ical P apers o f t he A mer ican M useum o f N atural H istory 5 3(3). T horste insson, R . a nd E .T. T ozer 1 970 G eo logy o f t he A rctic A rchipe lago. I n G eo logy a nd E conom ic M inerals o f C anada, e dited b y R .J.W. D ouglas. E conomic G eo logy R eport N o. 1 , G eo logica l S urvey o f C anada, Q ueen 's P r inter, O ttawa. T r igger, B . 1 968 T he D eterm inates o f S ett lement P atterns. I n S ett lement A rchaeo logy, e dited b y K .C. C hang. N ational P ress, P a lo A lto. P p. 5 3-78. U rquhart, D .R. 1 982 M uskox.

N orthwest T err itor ies W ildlife S ervice, Y ellowknife.

V anstone, J .W. 1 962 A n A rchaeo logica l C o llection f rom S omerset I sland a nd B ooth ia P eninsula, N .W.T. R oyal O ntar io M useum A rt a nd A rchaeo logy D iv ision O ccasional P aper 4 :1-63. V ayda, A .P. a nd B .J. M cCay 1 975 N ew D irections i n E cology a nd E cological A nnua l R eview o f A nthropo logy 4 :293-306.

A nthropology.

V ita-Finz i, C . a nd E .S. H iggs 1 970 P rehistor ic E conomy i n t he M ount C arme l A rea o f P alestine : S ite C atchment A na lysis. P roceedings o f t he P rehistor ic S oc iety 3 6:1-37. W enze l, G . 1 979 A rchaeo logica l S urm ise a nd E thnohistor ica l S pecu lation: A n E xample F rom B arrow S trait. E tudes/Inuit/Studies 3 (2):121-128. W h ite, T .E. 1 953 A M ethod o f C a lcu lating t he D ietary P ercentage o f V ar ious F ood A nimals U tilized b y A boriginal P eoples. A merican A ntiquity 1 8 :396-399. 1 954 O bservations o n t he B utcher ing T echniques o f S ome A bor iginal P eoples N os. 3 , 4 , 5 , a nd 6 . A mer ican A ntiquity 1 9:254-264.

3 19

W iessner, P . 1 974 A F unctional E stimator o f P opulation A mer ican A ntiquity 3 9:343-350.

F rom

F loor

A rea.

W ill, R . 1 985 N ineteenth C entury C opper I nuit S ubsistence P ractices o n B anks I sland, N .W.T. U npublished P h.D. D issertation, U niversity o f A lberta, E dmonton. W illey, G .R. a nd J .A . S ab loff 1 980 A H istory o f A mer ican A rchaeo logy S an F rancisco.

( 2nd

E dition).

F reeman,

W illiams, L ., D .H. T homas, a nd R .L. B ettinger 1 973 N otions t o N umbers: G reat B as in S ettlements a s P o lythet ic S ets. I n R esearch a nd T heory i n C urrent A rchaeo logy, e dited b y C .L. R edman. W iley, N ew Y ork. P p. 2 15-23/. W ilmsen, E .N. 1 973 I nteraction, S pac ing B ehavior, a nd O rganization o f B ands. J ourna l o f A nthropo logica l R esearch 2 9:1-31.

H unting

W ing, E .S. a nd A .B. B rown 1 979 P aleonutr ition: M ethod a nd T heory i n P rehistoric F oodways. A cadem ic P ress, N ew Y ork. W interhalder, B . 1 981a O ptima l F oraging S trategies a nd H unter-Gatherer R esearch i n A nthropology: T heory a nd M odels. I n H unter-gatherer F orag ing S trategies, e dited b y B . W interha lder a nd E .A. S m ith. U niversity o f C hicago P ress, C hicago. P p. 1 3-35. 1 981b

F oraging S trategies i n t he B oreal F orest: A n A na lysis o f C ree H unting a nd G ather ing. I n H unter-Gatherer F oraging S trategies, e dited b y B . W interhalder a nd E .A. S mith. U niversity o f C hicago P ress, C hicago. P p. 6 6-98.

W interhalder, B . a nd E .A. S m ith 1 981 H unter-gatherer F orag ing S trategies. P ress, C hicago.

U niversity

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C hicago

W issler, C . 1 918 A rchaeo logy o f t he P olar E skimo. A nthropo logica l P apers o f t he A mer ican M useum o f N atura l H istory 2 2, P art 3 :105-166. W ood, J .J. 1 978 O ptima l L ocation i n S ettlement S pace : AM ode l f or D escr ib ing L ocationa l S trateg ies. A mer ican A ntiquity 4 3(2):258-270. W oodburn, J . 1 972 E co logy, N omadic M ovement, a nd t he C omposition o f t he L ocal G roup A mong H unter-gatherers: A n E ast A fr ican E xamp le a nd i ts I mp lications. I n M an, S ett lement a nd U rbanism, e d ited b y P .J. U cko, R . T r ingham, a nd G .W . W imbleby. D uckworth, L ondon. P p. 1 93-206.

3 20

W on , R . 1 980 T he N orth S lope I nup iat W haling C omp lex. I n A laska N ative C ulture a nd H istory, e dited b y Y . K otan i a nd W .B. W orkman. S enri E thno logical S tudies, N o. 4 . P p. 3 05-320. Y amaura, K . 1 979 O n t he O r igins o f T hule C ulture a s S een F rom t he T ypo logica l S tudies o f T oggle H arpoon H eads. I n T hule E skimo C ulture, a n A nthropo log ical R etrospective, e dited b y A .P. M cCartney. A rchaeological S urvey o f C anada, M ercury S er ies, P aper N o. 8 8. P p. 4 74-484. Y e llen, J .E. 1 977 A rchaeological A pproaches t o t he P resent: M odels R econstructing t he P ast. A cadem ic P ress, N ew Y ork. Y e llen, J .E. a nd H . H arpending 1 972 H unter-gatherer P opulations W or ld A rchaeo logy 4 :244-253.

a nd

A rchaeo logical

f or

I nference.

Y esner, D .R. 1 981 A rchaeological A pplications o f O ptimal F oraging T heory: H arvest S trategies o f A leut H unter-Gatherers. I n H unter G atherer F orag ing S trategies, e dited b y B . W interhalder a nd E .A. S m ith. P p. 1 48-170. Y orga, B . 1 979a W ha le B one I nvestigations o n S omerset I sland. I n A rchaeol ogica l W ha le B one : A N orthern R esource, e dited b y A .P. M cCartney. U niversity o f A rkansas A nthropo logica l P apers N o. 1 . P p. 2 86-291. 1 979b M igration a nd A daptation : AT hule C ulture P erspective. I n T hule E skimo C ulture, a n A nthropo logica l R etrospective, e dited b y A .P. M cCartney. A rchaeo log ica l S urvey o f C anada, M ercury S er ies, P aper N o. 8 8. P p. 2 86-291. 1 980 W ashout: A W estern T hule S ite o n H ersche l I sland, Y ukon T err itory. A rchaeo logical S urvey o f C anada, M ercury S er ies, P aper N o. 9 8.

3 21

P late 1

a )

R inged s eals a t t he p resent r esident ia l R iver, S omerset I sland. J uly 1 980.

b )

P rocessing c aribou a t a k ill s ite i n t he T hom B ay R egion o f L ord M ayor B ay, B oothia P eninsula. A ugust 1 981. S ee a lso F igure 2 3.

c )

S teatite q uarry, L ord M ayor B ay ( Site 8 2-35) d ur ing l ate H istoric a nd R ecent t imes.

3 22

c amp o f K uvinaluk, U nion

u tilized

a t

l east

P late 2

a )

R ema ins o f aD C-3 t hat c rashed o n n orthern B oothia P en insula i n 1 947. M ateria l f rom t he a ircraft w as u tilized e xtensive ly b y l oca l I nuit d uring t he s ucceeding a pproximate ly t wo d ecades.

b )

R ema ins o f a b eluga w ha le a t U nion R iver, S omerset I sland.

c )

S tone f ish w e ir o n t he S tan ley R iver n ear T hom B ay M ayor B ay a rea o f B oothia P eninsula. A ugust 1 981. S ee a lso F igure 2 3 .

a p rocessing s ite n ear K uvina luk, J u ly 1 980.

3 24

i n t he L ord

P late 3

a )

C onstructing f ish w e ir o n t he S tan ley R iver n ear T hom B ay i n t he L ord M ayor B ay a rea o f B oothia P en insula. A ugust 1 981. S ee a lso P late 2 c a nd F igure 2 3 .

b )

L ocation

o f

f ish w e ir

o ne y ear l ater. A ugust 1 982.

c )

s hown

i n P lates 2 c

a nd 3 a

a pproximate ly

A lmost n othing r ema ins o f t he o rig ina l w e ir .

C ar ibou o bservation s ite n ear T hom B ay a rea o f B oothia P eninsula. A ugust 1 981.

3 26

i n

t he

L ord

M ayor

B ay

P late 4

a ) A bove-ground s tone c ache c onta in ing 2 9 A rct ic c har p r ior t o t he f ina l c over ing s tone l ayer . A ugust 1 98 1. S ee a lso F igure 2 3 .

b )

A bove-ground c ache o f c aribou a t S herman I n let, A de la ide P eninsula . T he m eat p ort ions a re w rapped i n t he h ide , o nto w hich i s p laced t he s ku ll. J uly 1 982 .

c )

t C lassic L arge t ent r ing, i nterpreted a s p ossib le 1 . ( ar t B ia y ,a T hule r esident ia l s ite 8 0-107 n ear C reswe l1 a y , S omerset I sland .

3 28

P late 5

a )

' Heavy ' s emisubterranean s tone/sod/wha le 8 0-86, C reswe ll B ay, S omerset I s land.

b one d we lling

a t

s ite

b )

' L ight ' s emisubterranean W illiam I sland.

c )

R emains o f g rave l s leeping p latform i nsulation l ayer a nd a rtifacts a nd f auna l r ema ins a ssoc iated w ith s now d we lling a t s ite 8 2-45, F e lix H arbour, L ord M ayor B ay. T he r ema ins a ssociated w ith a s econd s now d welling f eature a re v isible i n t he c enter m iddle-ground .

s tone/sod d we lling a t s ite 8 1-52, K ing

3 30

P late 6 a )

S em isubterranean d we lling i nterpreted a s a p ossib le s ite 8 0-93, C reswe ll B ay, S omerset I s land.

b )

' Heavy ' s emisubterranean d we lling i nterpreted a s p ossib le k ar igi a t s ite 8 2-11, S herman I nlet, A de laide P eninsu la.

c )

C ircular r ing o f t en b owhead C reswe ll B ay, S omerset I sland.

3 32

w ha le

c rania

a t

k ar igi

s ite

a t

8 0-86,

P late 7 a )

B owhead w hale c rania ( Site 8 0-53) p erforations i mmediately a nterior o f C reswe ll B ay, S omerset I sland.

b )

C aribou d rive s ystem c onsisting o f i ntricate f ence-corral n etwork, s ite 8 2-12, S herman I n let, A de laide P eninsu la.

c )

C ircular 8 0-92).

g rave l

c aches,

C reswe ll

3 34

B ay,

s howing a rtificial t he f oramen m agnum.

S omerset

I s land

( S ite

P late 8 a )

P art o f t he r emains o f t he V ictory 's e ngine ( S ite 8 2-49), a bandoned i n 1 830 a t F e lix H arbour, L ord M ayor B ay, B oothia P eninsula. F ragments o f t he e ngine a nd r e lated m ateria l a re c ommon i n e arly a nd l ate H istoric s ites t hroughout t he N etsilik a rea .

b )

I nu it c anvas t ent a nd t he f ie ld c rew 's t ent a t t he m outh o f t he S tanley R iver i n t he L ord M ayor B ay a rea, B oothia P eninsu la. A ugust 1 981. ( Inuit t ent o n t he r ight, f ield c rew 's t ent o n t he l eft). S ee a lso F igure 2 3 .

c )

C ached s ea l i n c ache c onstructed o f t ent " ho ld-down" s tones a t t he o riginal t ent l ocation a nd i mmediately f ollowing t he d ismant ling o f t he t ent. A ugust 1 981. S ee a lso F igure 2 3 .

3 36