Collaborative Learning Techniques : A Handbook for College Faculty [2 ed.] 9781118761267, 9781118761557

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Praise for Collaborative Learning Techniques, Second Edition “Using group work to promote learning depends on well-designed group activities. I’d give the collection offered in this book an A+. These are activities you can use with all kinds of content and in many different instructional settings. Detailed descriptions ensure successful implementation, and a clear organizational structure makes it easy to find activities of interest.” —Maryellen Weimer, editor, The Teaching Professor newsletter •

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“So you have flipped your classroom, or decided to make your lectures more interactive, now what? CoLTs provides the answer with 35 specific, research-proven, and clearly described ways to promote positive interdependence, individual accountability, and teamwork skills. This is a potent cocktail of student learning that will only increase in value. As always, the authors’ work rewards faculty who need either a quick idea for tomorrow or a guide for a complete course redesign.” —José Antonio Bowen, author of Teaching Naked and president of Goucher College •

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“I’ve presented over 100 faculty development workshops and conference plenaries across the country in recent years. From here on out everywhere I go I will be recommending this new updated version of CoLTs. It is a must-have resource for faculty who wish to engage modern learners!” —Christiane Price, professor of psychology and founding director of the Center for Academic Excellence, Dalton State College and CASE •

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“This book should be required reading for anyone teaching in higher education. This new edition of Collaborative Learning Techniques is filled with just the kind of sound research, practical advice, and useful strategies faculty members need to effectively include collaborative learning strategies both within and outside their classes in online settings.” —Larry Gallagher, director of Faculty Professional Development, Northern Arizona University

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Collaborative Learning Techniques A Handbook for College Faculty Second Edition

Elizabeth F. Barkley Claire Howell Major K. Patricia Cross

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Cover design by Lauryn Tom Cover image : © iStockphoto/Pavel Khorenyan Copyright © 2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Published by Jossey-Bass A Wiley Brand One Montgomery Street, Suite 1200, San Francisco, CA 94104-4594—www.josseybass.com/ highereducation

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400, fax 978-646-8600, or on the Web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, 201-748-6011, fax 201-748-6008, or online at www.wiley.com/go/permissions.

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor author shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages. Readers should be aware that Internet Web sites offered as citations and/or sources for further information may have changed or disappeared between the time this was written and when it is read.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data has been applied for and is on file with the Library of Congress. ISBN 9781118761557 (paper); ISBN 9781118761267 (ebk.); ISBN 9781118761670 (ebk.)

Printed in the United States of America FIRST EDITION

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Contents

PART ONE

Preface

ix

About the Authors

xv

ESTABLISHING THE CONTEXT

1

1

Collaborative Learning: Coming to Terms with the Term

3

2

The Case for Collaborative Learning

14

IMPLEMENTING COLLABORATIVE LEARNING

35

3

Designing the Learning Task

39

4

Orienting Students

58

5

Forming Groups

76

6

Facilitating Student Collaboration

90

7

Grading and Evaluating Collaborative Learning

101

8

Avoiding and Resolving Common Problems

118

COLLABORATIVE LEARNING TECHNIQUES

137

Techniques for Discussion

151

10

Techniques for Reciprocal Teaching

187

11

Techniques for Problem-Solving

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12

Techniques Using Graphic Information Organizers

261

13

Techniques Focusing on Writing

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14

Techniques Using Games

330

PART TWO

PART THREE 9

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Contents

Appendix A

Useful Tools for Implementing Collaborative Learning in Online Courses

373

Appendix B

Key to Classroom Environment in CoLT Examples

377

Appendix C

Key to Professor Names from CoLT Examples

384

References

386

Name Index

403

Subject Index

407

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Preface

The twenty-first century continues to pose a paradox for higher education. At a time when students and parents consider a college education a necessity and getting into a “good” college is more important and more competitive than ever before, legislators, accrediting agencies, the American public, and educators are raising questions about what students are learning in college—and they are asking for evidence. Widespread concern has spawned more research, more publications, more legislation, and more exhortation for improvement focused on teaching and learning than at any time in history. The scrutiny has even generated what many consider a whole new field: the scholarship of teaching and learning. The major questions driving this attention concern how to improve the quality of student learning, how to improve the effectiveness of teaching, and how to do both affordably and efficiently. While opinions differ on how much progress we have made in this quest thus far, there is virtually unanimous agreement on the enduring need for improvement. Collaborative learning attracts interest because it addresses several major preoccupations related to improving student learning. First, the predominant conclusion from a half-century of research is that teachers cannot simply transfer their knowledge to students. Students must build their own minds through a process of assimilating information into their own understandings. Meaningful and lasting learning occurs through personal, active engagement. The advantages of collaborative learning for actively engaging students are clear when compared with more traditional methods—such as lecture and large group discussions—in which only a few students typically can, or do, participate. Second, many employers consider willingness and readiness to engage in productive teamwork a requirement for success. For some companies

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and professions, it is a prerequisite for employment. Collaborative learning offers students opportunities to learn valuable interpersonal and teamwork skills and dispositions by participating in task-oriented learning groups; thus, even beyond enhancing the learning of content or subject matter, collaborative groups develop important skills that prepare students for their careers. Third, our increasingly diverse society requires engaged citizens who can appreciate and benefit from different perspectives. At the same time, most local, national, and global challenges require long-term, collective responses. Learning to listen carefully, think critically, participate constructively, and collaborate productively to solve common problems are vital components of an education for modern-day citizenship. Finally, colleges and universities want to provide greater opportunities for a wider variety of students to develop as lifelong learners. In traditional lectures, students generally are treated as a single, passive, aggregated entity. Collaborative learning engages students of all backgrounds personally and actively, calling individuals to contribute knowledge and perspectives to the education of all developed from their unique lives as well as academic and vocational experiences.

Background and Audience It is in this context that we came to this work, which is a collaborative endeavor in itself. We share some characteristics: we are educators seeking to make higher education better, we are researchers seeking evidence about how to accomplish that, and we are teachers with a vested interest in improving practice. We came to this project with the following questions about collaborative learning: • How will collaborative learning improve learning? What is the theoretical basis and pedagogical rationale for collaborative learning? • What is the evidence that collaborative learning promotes and improves learning? And how convincing is that evidence? • Which students are most likely to benefit from collaborative learning? And for which learning tasks is it most appropriate? • How can discipline-oriented college teachers organize effective learning groups in their classrooms? How are groups formed and learning tasks structured?

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• What are some imaginative and creative strategies and techniques for challenging students? How can teachers adapt collaborative learning techniques (CoLTs) to their courses and teaching goals? In this handbook, we address these questions as well as many others. While preparing the first edition of this book, we considered the evidence for collaborative learning sufficiently compelling to add a new question: Given the evidence demonstrating that most students learn more and more deeply when teachers employ collaborative methods effectively, why didn’t more teachers use collaborative learning? We believed the answer probably lay in the following reasons: many teachers were unaware of the evidence about the benefits of collaborative learning, and many teachers did not know how to implement group learning activities effectively. The primary purpose of this handbook therefore was and continues to be to provide college and university teachers—regardless of prior knowledge and experience with instructional design or pedagogy—a resource for implementing collaborative work successfully. A second purpose of this handbook is to encourage faculty to experiment with collaborative learning methods in well-informed and reflective ways. It is no more possible to learn to teach effectively by reading alone than it is to learn to practice medicine by studying only books. Both are part art and part technique. Both take practice. For that practice to be most effective, however, it should be well informed and reflective. Informed teaching requires making instructional decisions based on the collected wisdom from scholarship and practice. Reflective teaching implies assessing and documenting its efficacy. Without this, it is difficult to know whether even well-informed innovations actually make a positive difference in student learning or there is enough difference to justify the effort invested. To that end, we have included advice on assessment techniques that can help document and determine the effectiveness of collaborative learning activities. A third purpose emerged as we started revising the handbook for this new edition. During the ten years since it was first published, there has been a significant growth in online learning. While instruction in higher education has traditionally taken place during a meeting between an instructor and a group of students at a shared location, online learning, in which teachers and students are separated by distance and quite possibly by time, has become an increasingly mainstream form of higher education. A recent survey of 2800 institutions of higher education indicated that as

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of fall 2011 6.7 million students, representing 32% of total enrollment, were taking courses online (Allen & Seaman, 2013). Whereas early online instructors typically focused on transmitting information to students in a manner similar to onsite lecture courses, today they are adopting a range of instructional methods, many of which prioritize learning “through interactions among students” (Stahl, Koschmann, & Struthers, 2006, p. 2). The methods they are choosing seek to contribute to the development and practice of student teamwork skills and dispositions. In short, online instructors are moving away from using content delivery as the primary instructional format and are looking for ways to create opportunities for collaboration between learners (Dirkx & Smith, 2004). In addition to searching for strategies to enhance the effectiveness of online learning, college teachers are also experimenting with other curricular approaches. For example, in the flipped classroom, students study material independently first and then work in class in more meaningful ways with the content, including interacting with their peers. Collaborative learning activities are ideal in the onsite classroom sessions of flipped courses, so we provide examples of how to implement them throughout Part Three of this handbook. Finally, due to the increased cost of providing higher education combined with the rising demand for it, large lecture classes, in which several hundred students are enrolled, is also becoming a more common course structure. Professors who have been asked to take a lead role in developing these high-impact classes often have demonstrated particular effectiveness as teachers. Many of them recognize the value of collaborative learning and are looking for ways to implement it effectively in classes with a large number of students. A primary purpose of this second edition, therefore, is to provide guidance on implementing collaborative learning effectively in the online classroom and other alternative classroom environments. This handbook is written for current and aspiring college and university teachers. However, we hope it will be read and used in collaborative ways—not just by individual teachers but also by faculty developers, instructional designers, department chairs, and other academic administrators interested in promoting teaching and improving learning. Teaching circles, seminars, departments, and other educator groups also can employ the material presented in this handbook to provide participants with opportunities to try out, discuss, and get feedback from each other on collaborative learning techniques before transferring them to the classroom.

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How to Use This Book Effectively This handbook is divided into three parts that attempt to address the what, why, and how questions of collaborative learning. Part One: Establishing the Context provides the framework by defining collaborative learning and explaining the epistemological underpinnings that differentiate cooperative and collaborative learning. It also provides a brief but comprehensive review of the theoretical and research bases for collaborative learning. Finally, to answer the question of why we should use collaborative learning, it summarizes current learning theory, presents the pedagogical rationale for collaboration, and synthesizes the research regarding the effectiveness of collaborative learning. Part Two: Implementing Collaborative Learning offers the experience of many teachers, across many types of colleges and disciplines, who have used collaborative learning in their classrooms. It addresses the issue of how to use collaborative learning effectively in the classroom. This part contains practical advice for specific topics such as how to design the learning task, how to form groups, how to assess and grade collaborative work, and how to avoid and resolve problems. Part Three: Collaborative Learning Techniques (CoLTs) contains detailed descriptions of thirty-five techniques for creating effective group work assignments. It offers answers to the question, How can we, in a practical way, engage students actively in collaborative learning? Organized into categories based on task, the CoLTs are simple and flexible tools that can be adapted to fit a wide variety of disciplines, instructional goals, and learning contexts. In this revised edition, we have added an exciting category that takes advantage of the rise of gaming among college-aged students. While we typically think of gaming as a competitive activity, when games are team based they require a high level of collaboration among participants. We have therefore chosen to include five new CoLTs that we believe help students develop knowledge while also creating opportunities for collaboration and camaraderie. We are deeply indebted to many colleagues, past and present. The literature of collaborative learning is large, and the number of practitioners quietly using collaborative learning in their classrooms is even larger. Researchers, practitioners, workshop facilitators, and even students have been generous in sharing their knowledge with us—contributing and reviewing CoLTs, revising techniques, critiquing chapters, and talking with us about their experiences and experiments in collaborative learning. Very little in this handbook is new. Our contribution is to pull together the

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vast resources that exist in collaborative learning and cast it in a format accessible to discipline-oriented faculty. Since the format of Classroom Assessment Techniques (Angelo & Cross, 1993) proved enormously popular with college teachers, we have adapted that practical format here. This is not a book that must be read in a linear fashion. Readers may start at the point that is most useful and appealing and look at the rest of the text out of order. Thus, experts at collaborative learning may want to skip directly to Part Three to find new techniques. Those familiar with the theory and research regarding collaborative learning but with little classroom experience with it may benefit from starting with Part Two. The majority of teachers, however, will find it most useful to begin with Part One.

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About the Authors

Elizabeth F. Barkley is professor of music at Foothill College, Los Altos, California. In over three decades as an innovative and reflective teacher, she has received numerous honors and awards, including being named California’s Higher Education Professor of the Year by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, formally recognized by the California state legislature for her contributions to undergraduate education, selected as Innovator of the Year in conjunction with the National League for Innovation, presented with the Hayward Award for Educational Excellence, and honored by the Center for Diversity in Teaching and Learning in Higher Education. Additionally, her Musics of Multicultural America course was selected as Best Online Course by the California Virtual Campus. She was also named a Carnegie Scholar in the discipline of music by the Carnegie Foundation in conjunction with the Pew Charitable Trusts. Beyond her academic discipline of music history, her interests include engaging students through active and collaborative learning; transforming onsite and online curriculum to meet the needs of diverse learners, especially those from new and emerging generations; and connecting learning goals with outcomes and assessment. Barkley holds a BA and MA from University of California, Riverside, and a PhD from University of California, Berkeley. She is author of Student Engagement Techniques: A Handbook for College Faculty (Jossey-Bass, 2010) and several music history textbooks, including Crossroads: The Music of American Cultures (Kendall Hunt, 2013), World Music: Roots to Contemporary Global Fusions (Kendall Hunt, 2012), and Crossroads: The Roots of America’s Popular Music (Prentice Hall, 2d ed., 2007), as well as coauthor with Robert Hartwell of Great Composers and Music Masterpieces of Western Civilization (Kendall Hunt, 2014).

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About the Authors

Claire Howell Major is professor of higher education at University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa. She teaches courses on college instruction, technology in higher education, reading research in the field of higher education, and qualitative research methods. Her research interests are in the areas of faculty work, pedagogical approaches, technology for teaching, and online learning. She also focuses on issues of higher education in popular culture and as a field of study. She typically draws on qualitative methods to answer her research questions. Major has authored and coauthored several books, including The Essential Guide to Qualitative Research: A Handbook of Theory and Practice (Routledge, 2012), An Introduction to Qualitative Research Synthesis: Managing the Information Explosion (Routledge, 2010), and Foundations of Problem-Based Learning (Open University Press, 2004), all with Maggi Savin-Baden, as well as the forthcoming Teaching Online: A Research-Based Guide to Instructional Change. Major also publishes work in leading education journals and presents at both national and international conferences. She holds a PhD in higher education from University of Georgia, an MA in English from University of Alabama, Birmingham, and a BA from University of South Alabama. K. Patricia Cross is emerita professor of higher education at University of California, Berkeley. In a career spanning forty years in higher education, she has served as dean of students at Cornell, distinguished research scientist at Educational Testing Service, and professor of higher education and chair of the Department of Administration, Planning, and Social Policy at the Harvard Graduate School of Education. Author of eight books, including Beyond the Open Door (Jossey-Bass, 1971), Accent on Learning (Jossey-Bass, 1976), Adults as Learners (Jossey-Bass, 1981), Classroom Assessment Techniques (with Tom Angelo, Jossey-Bass, 1993), and Classroom Research (with Mimi Steadman, Jossey-Bass, 1996), her interest is primarily in the improvement of teaching and learning in higher education. Cross has been recognized for her scholarship by election to the National Academy of Education and receipt of the E. F. Lindquist Award from the American Educational Research Association, the Sidney Suslow Award from the Association for Institutional Research, and the Howard Bowen Distinguished Career Award from the Association for the Study of Higher Education. Elected chair of the Board of the American Association of Higher Education twice (1975 and 1989), she has received many awards for her leadership in education, most recently the 2004 PBS/O’Banion Prize for

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inspiring significant change in teaching and learning. She has been awarded fifteen honorary degrees and is listed in Who’s Who in America, International Who’s Who of Women, and Who’s Who in American Education. An electronic archive containing 250 of her speeches and papers is available at https://diva.sfsu.edu/collections/kpcross. Cross received her BS in mathematics from Illinois State University and MS and PhD in social psychology from the University of Illinois.

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Collaborative Learning Techniques

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Part One

Establishing the Context

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Collaborative Learning Coming to Terms with the Term Interactive group learning has received wide attention and usage in higher education for decades. There are a number of terms for this kind of activity, each with particular elements that are thought or are demonstrated through research to enhance learning. Cooperative learning and collaborative learning are the most commonly used two terms, and each has a rich history and extensive theoretical and research base. Because our primary goal is to help college teachers implement group work effectively in a wide range of contexts, we drew from all approaches to provide the advice and activities in this handbook. We chose collaborative learning as an overarching term for our broad, integrated approach to group learning, a decision that we describe more fully later in this chapter. The challenge with selecting this single term is that it may not help us understand differences among our instructional practices, some of which are deeply philosophical and some of which are simply practical in nature. Thus, in this first chapter, we offer an introduction to the extensive literature on interactive group learning to develop a more detailed description of the term collaborative learning that is still general enough to be useful yet specific enough to be definitional. In so doing, we address the following questions: • What is collaborative learning? • What is the difference between cooperative and collaborative learning? • How might we use the terms cooperative and collaborative learning in practice? • How did we decide to retain the term collaborative learning for this text? The purpose of this chapter, therefore, is to establish the context for the rest of this handbook by first providing a definitional framework.

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What Is Collaborative Learning? Collaborative learning is used in the literature as a general expression for group learning. Smith and MacGregor (1992, p. 10), for example, note: “‘Collaborative learning’ is an umbrella term for a variety of educational approaches involving joint intellectual effort by students, or students and teachers together. In most collaborative learning situations students are working in groups of two or more, mutually searching for understanding, solutions, or meanings, or creating a product.” While we believe that a broad, flexible definition is best, some features are indispensable. The first of these is intentional design. All too often, teachers simply tell students to get into groups and work. In collaborative learning, however, faculty members create intentional learning activities for students. They may do this by selecting from a range of prestructured activities, such as those included in Part 3 of this text, or by creating their own activities and assignments. In both approaches the focus is on intentional group activities carefully structured to provide opportunities for learning. Also crucial to collaborative learning is co-laboring, a characteristic underscored by the literal meaning of the Latin-based term. In collaborative learning, all participants in the group must engage actively in working together toward the stated objectives. If one group member completes a group task while others simply watch, then it is not collaborative learning. Whether all group members receive the same task or complete different tasks that together constitute a single, large project, all students must contribute more or less equally. Equitable engagement is still insufficient, however, for true collaborative learning. In collaborative learning, meaningful learning must also take place. As students work together on a collaborative assignment, they must increase their knowledge or deepen their understanding of course curriculum. The task assigned to the group must help them accomplish the learning objectives of the course. Shifting responsibility to students and having the classroom vibrate with lively, energetic small-group work are attractive, but it is educationally meaningless if students are not achieving intended instructional goals. Collaborative learning, then, is two or more students laboring together and sharing the workload equitably as they progress toward intended learning outcomes. See Exhibit 1.1 for an overview of how these defining features manifest in online classes.

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Collaborative Learning

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EXHIBIT 1.1

What Is Collaborative Learning in the Online Environment? Online collaborative learning comprises the same indispensable features as onsite collaborative learning, but they typically unfold differently. The first feature of onsite collaborative learning, intentional design, is arguably even more essential in online courses. Online instructors have the extra component of technology within that design, which requires an additional layer of planning. Indeed, researchers have found that online instructors believe that online design requires more planning and structure than onsite to be effective (Major, 2010). The second feature of collaborative learning is the co-laboring of individuals: all students must contribute to the group processes and products. Accomplishing equitable workload distribution is challenging in onsite classes but even more so online, where students must collaborate without physical communication cues such as eye contact and body language to help them make sense of each other and their shared tasks. Additionally, communication is often asynchronous online, and thus planning time for co-laboring can be more challenging for these students. Moreover, they typically do not have as much experience working in collaborative groups online as they do onsite, and therefore how to go about co-laboring may not be as readily apparent to them (Major, 2014). The third and final feature of collaborative learning is meaningful learning, which requires students to assume some authority and control over their learning. Measuring this goal and knowing that it has been met can be particularly challenging to achieve in an online environment where much of the learning is emergent. That is, learning happens on its own, without direction and without control. Because this creates additional obstacles in measuring its efficacy (Williams, Karousou, & Mackness, 2011), online instructors must find new ways to document the attainment of planned goals and be flexible, recognize, and account for both planned and emergent learning.

What Is the Difference Between Cooperative and Collaborative Learning? Although to most educators—and indeed to the lexicographers who compile dictionaries—the terms collaborative and cooperative have similar meanings, there is considerable debate and discussion as to whether they mean the same thing when applied to group learning. Some authors use the words interchangeably to mean students working interdependently on a common learning task. To others, cooperative learning is simply a subcategory of collaborative learning (Cuseo, 1992). Likewise, Pascarella and Terenzini (2005, p. 103) stress that the two terms are not synonymous, but they “regard cooperative learning as a distinct and highly structured version of collaborative learning.” Still others hold that the most sensible approach is to view collaborative and cooperative learning as positioned

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on a continuum from most structured (cooperative) to least structured (collaborative) (Millis & Cottell, 1998). Certain authors, however, insist on a sharp distinction between the two. In an article for Change magazine, subtitled “Cooperative Learning versus Collaborative Learning,” Bruffee (1995) contends, “Describing cooperative and collaborative learning as complementary understates some important differences between the two. Some of what collaborative learning pedagogy recommends that teachers do tends in fact to undercut some of what cooperative learning might hope to accomplish, and vice versa” (p. 16). The essence of Bruffee’s position is that, whereas the goal of cooperative learning is to work together in harmony and mutual support to find the solution, the goal of collaborative learning is to develop autonomous, articulate, thinking people, even if at times such a goal encourages dissent and competition that seems to undercut the ideals of cooperative learning. Given the different epistemological reasons some scholars have for making a sharp distinction between the two forms of group learning, it helps to clarify the nature of their arguments for doing so.

Cooperative Learning Cooperative learning arose primarily as an alternative to what was perceived as the overemphasis on competition in traditional education. Emerging as a formalized pedagogy in K–12 under the leadership of Karl Smith and brothers David and Roger Johnson, cooperative learning, as the name implies, requires students to work together on a common task, sharing information and supporting one another. The most straightforward definition of cooperative learning is “the instructional use of small groups so that students work together to maximize their own and each others’ learning” (Smith, 1996, p. 71). After spending many years leading the cooperative learning movement in K–12, Smith and the Johnson brothers brought the term with them when they turned their attention to higher education. Cooperative learning experts Johnson, Johnson, and Smith draw directly from behavioral and cognitivist learning theory to describe how cooperative learning promotes higher achievement than competitive or individualistic learning (1998b). Thus, cooperative learning is based in sound epistemological positions that are derived from important theories about the ways individuals learn. Much of the research on and discussion about cooperative learning is based on the assumption that the teacher has acquired knowledge about a given subject matter and is more expert in that subject matter than the students. Our responsibility as teachers is to design learning activities that

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guide our students in obtaining and deepening their own knowledge and expertise. Because different students will have knowledge about different aspects of the task, a synergy happens in group work that results in a process and product greater than the sum of the individual student contributions. The literature also largely assumes that the teacher, as the content expert, is the authority in the classroom and is responsible not only for designing and assigning structured learning tasks but also for managing time and resources, monitoring students’ learning, and checking to see that students are on task and that the group process is working well (Cranton, 1996; Smith, 1996). We find that most teachers using interactive student learning in their classrooms and writing about their experiences are talking about cooperative learning. There is substantial agreement in the literature on what cooperative learning is as well as what it is not. Smith addresses nicely some common misunderstandings about cooperative learning by identifying what it is not. Cooperative learning, for example, is not having students sit side by side at the same table to talk with one another as they do their individual assignments. Cooperative learning is not assigning a report to a group of students on which one student does all the work and the others put their names. Cooperative learning is not having students do a task individually and then having the ones who finish first help the slower students. Cooperative learning is not just being physically near other students, discussing material with other students, or sharing material among students, although each of these is important (Smith, 1996, p. 74). In contrast to what cooperative learning is not, many authors agree on some common essential characteristics, in particular structure. Davidson and Worsham (1992), for example, suggest that Cooperative learning procedures are designed to engage students actively in the learning process through inquiry and discussion with their peers in small groups. The groupwork is carefully organized and structured so as to promote the participation and learning of all group members in a cooperatively shared undertaking. Cooperative learning is more than just tossing students into a group and telling them to talk together. (pp. xii–xiii) Kagan (1989–90) goes further in his focus on structure, proposing that it stands independently of content: The structural approach to cooperative learning is based on the creation, analysis, and systematic application of structures, or content-free ways of

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organizing social interaction in the classroom. Structures usually involve a series of steps, with proscribed behavior at each step. An important cornerstone of the approach is the distinction between “structures” and “activities.” (p. 12) In addition to the structured activity, Smith (1996, pp. 74–76) lists five elements that he considers essential for successful cooperative learning groups (see also Johnson, Johnson, & Smith, 1998a, pp. 21–23): 1. Positive interdependence: The success of individuals is linked to the success of the group; individuals succeed to the extent that the group succeeds. Thus, students are motivated to help one another accomplish group goals. 2. Promotive interaction: Students are expected to actively help and support one another. Members share resources and support and encourage each other’s efforts to learn. 3. Individual and group accountability: The group is held accountable for achieving its goals. Each member is accountable for contributing his or her share of the work; students are assessed individually. 4. Development of teamwork skills: Students are required to learn academic subject matter (task work) and also the interpersonal and small-group skills required to function as part of a group (teamwork). Teamwork skills should be taught just as purposefully and precisely as academic skills. 5. Group processing: Students should learn to evaluate their group productivity. They need to describe what member actions are helpful and unhelpful and to make decisions about what to continue or change. Virtually all cooperative learning methods emphasize the importance of these elements. Thus, to learn cooperatively, students must not only work together but also be held responsible for both their own and their teammates’ learning. Cooperative learning advocates agree that the teacher holds great responsibility in ensuring the presence of these elements, although they have various ways by which to accomplish them. Slavin, for example, is insistent that successful groups must endorse individual accountability and team rewards. “It is not enough,” he says, “to simply tell students to work together; they must have a reason to take one another’s achievement seriously” (1996, p. 21).

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Collaborative Learning Collaborative learning as a pedagogical method was brought into higher education in the same time period as cooperative learning. Although collaborative learning is also a group work pedagogy, it is based on different epistemological assumptions. Collaborative learning has its home in social constructivism, which assumes that knowledge is socially produced by consensus among peers. Social constructivists believe that reality is not entirely external and independent of individual conceptions but rather is produced and understood through interchanges between people, shared objects, and activities as individuals make and experience meaning together. Constructionists argue that knowledge and the knower are interdependent and embedded within history, context, culture, language, and experience. “The conception of knowledge as a ‘mirror of reality’ is replaced by the conception of the ‘social construction of reality’ where the focus is on the interpretation and negotiation of the meaning of the world” (Kvale, 1996, p. 41). Thus, social constructionists suggest that instead of focusing on the mind (the cognitive approach) it is important to recognize that groups construct knowledge by creating a culture of shared artifacts with shared meanings. Bruffee, who has made something of a brand name of collaborative learning in higher education, reflects this perspective when he states that knowledge is “something people construct by talking together and reaching agreement” (1993, p. 3). Knowledge at the college level, Bruffee says, is “likely to address questions with dubious or ambiguous answers, answers that require well-developed judgment to arrive at, judgment that learning to answer such questions tends, in turn, to develop. . . The authority of knowledge taught in colleges and universities should always be subject to doubt” (p. 15). He wants to avoid having students become dependent on the teacher as the authority on either subject matter content or group process. In his definition of collaborative learning, it is not up to the teacher to monitor group learning but rather it is the teacher’s responsibility to become a member, along with students, of a community in search of knowledge. Matthews captures the essence of the philosophical underpinnings of this stricter definition of collaborative learning: “Collaborative learning occurs when students and faculty work together to create knowledge. . . . It is a pedagogy that has at its center the assumption that people make meaning together and that the process enriches and enlarges them” (1996, p. 101).

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Using Cooperative Learning and Collaborative Learning in Practice While different epistemological assumptions underpin both cooperative and collaborative learning, and each method’s advocates have delineated distinctions about features and elements, we view them as distinct yet useful with a significant amount of common ground. For this reason, we offer the following advice for choosing which term, and consequently which method, to apply in practice.

Recognize that the methods are not rigid but that both are in fact flexible and fluid.

Advocates for distinguishing between cooperative and collaborative learning approaches suggest that cooperative learning’s use of groups supports an instructional system that maintains the traditional lines of classroom knowledge and authority (Flannery, 1994), whereas collaborative learning intentionally subverts such traditional lines of authority (Bruffee, 1995). Weimer (pers. comm.) challenges the validity of this premise, pointing out that although cooperative learning proponents propose that teachers provide structured processes for students to proceed through group activities, this isn’t a truly traditional, authoritative teacher-centered approach as teachers aren’t really controlling (indeed, are unable to control) what actually happens in the group. Furthermore, it is hard to imagine that even college instructors who subscribed strongly to the collaborative approach would find their group learning activities very effective if they completely abandoned providing students with any structure. Additionally, while Bruffee (1995) assumes that cooperative learning does not involve conflict, Johnson and Johnson (1994, p. 67) assert that “within cooperative learning groups, intellectual conflict should be encouraged and nurtured, rather than suppressed or avoided.” We speculate that many advocates on both sides would endorse a statement that college-level teaching aims at helping students become rational and autonomous thinkers who are able to subject various claims (including those made by their teachers) to critical scrutiny before deciding what to believe or do. Thus, few always or never statements can be applied to either term to signal a sharp or definitive distinction.

Recognize that you don’t have to be a pedagogical purist but may select the term (or method) you think best given the specific situation.

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We propose that an instructor’s choice of term and approach is best based on the interaction of several factors. Weimer (pers. comm.), for example, indicates that a more highly structured cooperative approach may be a better place for teachers to start using groups. It may also be better for students who are resistant to group work, since the prescribed process can increase students’ confidence that they know what they are supposed to do, thus avoiding the uneasiness and anxiety some students feel in more open-ended, exploratory discussion. Weimer (pers. comm.) also observes that due to their different views on the nature of knowledge, collaborative learning approaches have been more popular with the humanities whereas cooperative approaches have worked better in science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM). She notes that much of the knowledge in STEM courses isn’t “up for discussion. . . . Students can’t construct their own meaning or make new meaning for differential equations, for the periodic table or the principles of accounting.” Indeed, in these fields, “The construction of knowledge that is unique and done by individual students has to do with the connections that they make between what they know and the new knowledge they are learning, but they don’t get to decide what differential equations are or mean in the way students can decide what they think a piece of literature might mean.” Bomstad (pers. comm.) suggests that the choice of one approach over another is situational rather than disciplinary. In areas where there is the possibility of doubt or multiple viewpoints (e.g., the morality of using robots in combat, the interpretation of the Star Wars trilogy, the explanation of sociological data that correlate viewing violence and committing violence, the reality versus arbitrary construction of number in math theory) a more collaborative model may be best. But in areas of settled judgment in whatever discipline (e.g., interval identification in music, rules of logic in philosophy, addition in math) a cooperative model may be more appropriate. Thus, the context—what do we want students to learn, both in terms of content and process—is worthy of consideration when deciding which term and method to choose.

Recognize that, for better or worse, the terms collaborative and cooperative often are used interchangeably.

In practice, scholars and researchers alike seem to use the terms collaborative and cooperative learning interchangeably. At times, they do so within the same written work. It is our view that when using either term, most faculty will mean group work that has the essential features

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we described earlier in this chapter. Indeed, we believe that as a practical matter in planning and operating college classroom learning groups, most teachers will not be much concerned with the philosophical and semantic distinctions between the two. Instead, they will select learning activities that make sense to them and that accomplish their goals, and they will adopt the level of structure, authority, and control that feels comfortable for them within their particular teaching context, regardless of what the activities are called or how they are classified.

Our Decision to Retain the Term Collaborative Learning for This Edition When we wrote the first edition of this handbook and struggled with what to call the techniques we describe in Part Three, we decided we wanted a single broad term to encompass a wide range of group learning activities. Searching through the extensive literature on group learning at the time, we found dozens of brand-name types of learning groups. Slavin (1996), for example, describes in detail five methods that have been developed and extensively researched. Approaches to group work have continued to evolve in the literature of higher education over the last decade. More recent discipline-based pedagogical scholarship has led to new names for group work such as process-oriented guided inquiry learning (POGIL) and peer-led team learning (PLTL). The evidence acquired through empirical inquiry associated with these newer permutations continues to make a compelling case for the benefits of group learning (Eberlein et al., 2008), but no proof has emerged in favor of a single, overarching term. While inventing a new term would free us from the baggage accumulated by the advocates of both cooperative and collaborative learning, it would also add to the jargon of education, so we chose to avoid doing this. Our analysis a decade ago of the trend in clarifying the nomenclature of interactive group learning seemed to be in the direction of using the term collaborative learning in higher education and cooperative learning in K–12 education. Bruffee’s (1999) advocacy for the term collaborative learning in higher education contributed an argument for our choice of the term. Since our intended audience for this book was teachers in institutions of higher education, collaborative learning at that time seemed the best choice. In revisiting the labeling conundrum while preparing this second edition, we have decided to continue to use collaborative as the overarching term. We acknowledge that while there are distinctive differences in the purposes and philosophies guiding the formulation and operation

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of group learning activities, we also believe that all approaches share two fundamental purposes: to engage students actively in their own learning and to do so in a supportive and challenging social context. Moreover, the three conditions that we identify as indispensable features of effective group work (intentional design, co-laboring, and meaningful learning) are epistemologically neutral and apply equally well to all approaches. Thus, rather than getting entangled or sidetracked in definitional details, we hope that the collaborative learning techniques (CoLTs) label is sufficiently inclusive and that it honors both the collaborative and cooperative learning approaches since Co can stand for either cooperative or collaborative or some amalgamation of both. In an attempt to remain true to the literature, we acknowledge the distinctions that various authors have made by using whichever term they used when discussing their work.

Conclusion We use collaborative learning as an umbrella term for interactive group work that has three essential elements: intentional design, co-laboring, and meaningful learning. It is a theoretically defensible instructional approach that has received wide attention and use in higher education. Indeed, in our next chapter, we survey the ample evidence that supports its efficacy in both onsite and online higher education settings.

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Chapter 2

The Case for Collaborative Learning Ten years have passed since we first reviewed the literature on interactive group learning. In that intervening decade, researchers have continued their examination, producing a substantial number of studies. Indeed, the number of items listed in the Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC) under the descriptors cooperative learning or collaborative learning has more than doubled since our first edition.1 This extensive research has generated so many positive reports about the benefits of intentionally designed group learning that we once again find making the case for it almost too easy. Educators can feel confident that there is ample evidence supporting group learning as an effective—even essential—instructional approach in today’s onsite and online college classrooms. In this chapter, using the broad, integrated definition of collaborative learning we established in Chapter One, we provide an updated review of the literature on interactive group learning. Our goal is to share useful and relevant information with college teachers who are evaluating whether this pedagogical approach will be effective in accomplishing their particular teaching goals. In making our case, we address the following questions for both the onsite and online environments: • What is the theoretical and pedagogical rationale for collaborative learning? • What is the evidence (and how credible is the evidence) that collaborative learning promotes and improves learning? Thus, while Chapter One provided a definitional framework, here we update the theoretical and research bases for collaborative learning.

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What Is the Theoretical, Pedagogical Rationale for Collaborative Learning? The question of what knowledge is and how it is acquired has occupied philosophers’ attention for centuries. More recently, scholars operating in many different disciplines, fields, and specialty areas have developed theories of learning that offer explanations of how and why individuals learn. Knowing about these various perspectives can provide teachers with their own frameworks for understanding whether or how collaborative learning could work for them and their students. Following is a brief description of some of these perspectives as well as suggestions on how they justify collaborative learning.

Students Learn by Integrating New Information into Their Existing Understandings Much instruction is erroneously based on the old image of the mind as an empty vessel, in which the teacher opens the heads of students and pours in new information that adds to their knowledge. Paulo Freire (1970) refers to the banking model of education, in which the teacher deposits information that students store to withdraw later. Much as we would like to think that we as teachers can tell students what we have learned, thus transferring our knowledge ready-made into their minds, the evidence from cognitive science is clear that this is simply not possible. Research by neuroscientists suggests that we do not come into the world with a brain that is hard-wired like a computer. Rather, throughout life, our brains grow by constantly making circuitry connections through experience and learning. Alternatively, “through a process that resembles Darwinian competition, the brain eliminates connections or synapses that are seldom or never used” (Nash, 1997, p. 50). Use it or lose it appears to be quite true when applied to the brain work of learning. Researchers find that children who are deprived of sensory stimulation develop brains that are 20–30 percent smaller than normal for their age. Although much remains to be learned about the neurological growth of the brain, some scholars believe that people quite literally build their own minds throughout life by actively constructing the mental structures that connect and organize isolated bits of information. Cognitive theory suggests that students learn by actively making connections and organizing them into meaningful concepts. Furthermore, what

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students have the ability to learn depends, to a larger extent than previously assumed, on what they already know. It is easier to learn something when we already have some background than it is to learn something completely new and unfamiliar. If a learner’s knowledge of a subject is very sparse, the learner finds that connections are hard to find and make, whereas if the learner already has a dense network of vocabulary, terms, and concepts, it is easier to make the connections that constitute learning. Thus, we have come to understand that students are not empty vessels waiting to be filled; instead, they learn best when they actively integrate new information and experiences into their existing understandings. Instructional methods such as lecturing tend to constrain students as passive observers, which may result in surface learning that is easily forgotten. Well-crafted collaborative learning activities challenge students to be active participants in the acquiring and organizing of knowledge that results in reformatted neuronal networks, thereby promoting deeper learning.

Students Learn Through Scaffolded Activities Vygotsky created the term zone of proximal development to indicate “the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers” (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 86). In short, the zone of proximal development is the difference between what a learner cannot do and what the learner can do with help. For students to learn, teachers must develop meaningful activities that are within students’ zones of proximal development. Well-designed collaborative learning activities expose students to concepts and understandings that are within their ability to grasp but are not yet part of their personal understanding. Then, by working within their zone of proximal development with their more capable peers (which, at least in theory, may vary from assignment to assignment), individual students may learn concepts that are just beyond their current level of development.

Students Learn Through Imitating Others Albert Bandura’s (1977) notion of social learning provides another interesting perspective on learning as well as a rationale for collaborative learning. He conceived of learning as a social act and believed that individuals learn behaviors and attitudes through direct or indirect observation. Learners watch another person who acts as a model and then imitate

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what they are watching. It is through watching others that one adopts attitudes or forms an idea about how to perform new behaviors, and thus learning occurs by way of interaction between behavioral, cognitive, and environmental influences. Collaborative learning activities provide students with opportunities to take turns modeling and imitating different knowledge and skills as they observe and learn from each other.

Students Learn Through Interacting with Others Some scholars believe that knowledge is developed through interactions with others. Social constructivists believe that groups construct knowledge, collaboratively creating a culture of shared meanings. Rather than knowledge being held by individuals, it is socially held and is a socially based phenomenon. Students come to group learning with diverse backgrounds, but their knowledge overlaps enough to allow for a common base for communication. Thus, theoretically at least, students can pool and share knowledge such that they know more as a group than they do as individuals. It is in a sense a form of collective intelligence. Because of this, such scholars believe that individuals best acquire knowledge through social or group interactions in which peers collectively engage in knowledge construction (Palinscar et al., 1989). That is, through negotiation of meaning with others, individuals may build knowledge and deepen their own comprehension as they work in the group toward a common understanding. Social constructionists, who extend the constructivist perspective, propose that individuals learn better when they create or construct something to share it with others. Students may learn about sand castles, for example, but it is through construction of the sand castle, which also communicates what they have learned with others, that they come to own knowledge in new ways. In other words, through constructing knowledge from practical experience and from sharing it with others, they deepen their own understandings of what they know. At least in theory, students who work collaboratively have more opportunities to articulate and thus to own their individual learning. Some argue that better students are wasting their time explaining things that they already know; however, evidence suggests that peer tutors gain a great deal from formulating and explaining their ideas to others. Thus, from the perspective of social constructionists and constructivists, instructional approaches that support collaborative learning may be the only effective way to teach because it is only through social interaction that we learn (Topping, 1996, pp. 321–345).

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Students Learn When They Seek Understanding Some researchers refer to deep and surface learning to distinguish between learning that makes the connections that lead to deeper understanding versus information, which rests lightly on the surface, inert and unassimilated (Ramsden, 1992). Säljö (1979) made a finer distinction and asked adult learners what they understood by learning (cited in Ramsden, 1992, pp. 26–27). Säljö categorized their answers in a hierarchical pattern, observing that each higher conception implied all that preceded it: • Learning is acquiring information or knowing a lot. • Learning is memorizing or storing information. • Learning is acquiring facts and skills that can be used. • Learning is making sense or making meaning of the various parts of information. • Learning involves comprehending or understanding the world by reinterpreting knowledge. Collaborative learning activities that challenge students to interact with peers as they make meaning of information and reinterpret knowledge they have acquired can help students move to deeper levels of understanding. To conclude, the last several decades have been exceptionally rich in producing theories about how individuals learn. This brief review of the most significant models provides insights into how and why collaborative learning is an appropriate and effective method for promoting learning in today’s college classroom. That said, collaborative learning is not an educational panacea. In most cases, we see collaborative learning not as a replacement for other instructional methods but rather as a useful complement. Please see Exhibit 2.1 for an overview of how these theoretical perspectives are demonstrated in online learning. EXHIBIT 2.1

The Theoretical Rationale for Online Collaborative Learning? As with collaborative learning in onsite courses, we can draw consistent principles from across various theories of learning to provide a strong rationale for collaboration in the online environment. •

•

•

Online Students Learn by Integrating New Information into Their Existing Understandings Students come to any activity with prior knowledge and prior experiences, and when they learn they add to their existing knowledge bases. During an online collaborative process, learners rely on each other as they

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do in onsite classes, but online classes potentially add technological tools that hold their collective knowledge. Thus, in online classes students not only build knowledge stores internally but also have opportunities to build knowledge externally.

Online Students Learn from Observing and Imitating Others When online, individuals develop new knowledge and skills such as learning how to evaluate online sources for credibility or how to communicate effectively online with their peers. Students may find guidance on how to do activities such as these by observing and imitating others who are online. Indeed, lurking is a common practice in online communities in which newcomers spend time observing others before joining in discussions and activities. (See Lave and Wenger’s 1991 discussion of legitimate peripheral participation.)

Online Students Learn Through Intentionally Scaffolded Activities When Supported by Others Learners in an online environment, particularly novices, can benefit from scaffolding, in which learners are provided with support until they are able to complete an activity on their own. Instructors who have participated in interviews about their experiences teaching online have found scaffolding to be especially important in online environments (Major, 2010, 2015). Collaborative learning is one way to provide such scaffolding. For example, online reciprocal peer tutoring activities provide mechanisms for students with high academic achievement to partner with those with lower achievement to provide them with additional support.

Online Students Learn Through Pooling Knowledge and Creating New Knowledge Online environments are rich with opportunities for students to pool knowledge and produce new knowledge. Groups of students may, for example, pool information through the online implementation of Collaborative Learning Technique 28 Collaborative Writing (WIKI), which allows them to contribute individually in a central location to a collaborative writing assignment. The product created through this activity may be shared to contribute to the entire class’s knowledge base, and it can also be retained in subsequent semesters so that new students add to the existing store of knowledge rather than starting from the beginning.

Online Students Learn When They Seek Understanding The Internet is an extensive, global information network consisting of interlinked information and resources that provide learners with many opportunities for seeking understanding. Furthermore, Thomas and Brown (2011) argue that learning involves a process called situated learning, in which students seek to learn course, disciplinary, and institutional norms to situate themselves within a group. Because it is a vast network, online learning is often associated with situated learning.

Online Students Learn in a Situated, Social Process in Which Knowledge Is Co-Constructed People work together in communities, sharing interests, ideas, information, and experiences. It is through this process of interaction that people learn. Furthermore, knowledge is built and held by the group. Lave

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and Wenger’s (1991) and Wenger’s (1998) notions of communities of practice have been particularly influential in discussions of online learning, as advocates of this perspective see the potential for online learners to form such communities.

Online Students Learn Through a Distributed Process of Human Agents Interacting Dynamically with Artifacts Learning is a process in which people interact with each other and with technological agents and tools in communities of common interest, social networks, and group tasks (Siemens, 2005). Online courses provide the context for learners to be active agents in a sociocultural and sociotechnological environment that creates learning distributed among humans and technological tools (Major, 2014). •

•

•

In summary, online collaborative learning, like onsite learning, enjoys strong theoretical grounding from the varied perspectives on individual learning. Moreover, it also can be well situated within many of the new social theories of learning.

What Is the Evidence That Collaborative Learning Promotes and Improves Learning? To answer this question, we looked at a wide range of research. Unlike much research in higher education, which is often reported in unrelated studies, scholars studying interactive group learning, particularly cooperative learning, have conducted helpful meta-analyses and systematic research reviews that synthesize findings across topics and institutions. These studies are exceptionally useful in providing evidence of the effectiveness of this approach in higher education classrooms, so wherever possible we looked for evidence from these large studies. We have grouped our findings into five broad areas: (1) cognitive learning outcomes; (2) outcomes related to student engagement, persistence, attitudes, and personal development; (3) good educational practice; (4) impact on different types of students; and (5) teacher and student opinions about collaborative learning. Given that researchers often use collaborative and cooperative learning interchangeably without making hard, fast distinctions between the two, in most instances we report the results of such studies together under the name we have selected: collaborative learning. In studies in which the authors used distinctively cooperative approaches, we use that term instead.

Collaborative Learning Correlates Positively with Cognitive Learning Outcomes Springer, Stanne, and Donovan (1999) conducted an impressive metaanalysis of the effects of cooperative learning. The researchers examined the

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effects of small-group learning on student achievement, persistence, and attitudes in classes in undergraduate science, mathematics, engineering, and technology (STEM). They located 383 reports related to small-group learning in postsecondary STEM from 1980 or later. Thirty-nine of the studies met their requirements for providing adequate research data. Their first major conclusion about student achievement is that SMET students who learned in small groups demonstrated greater achievement than students in traditional instruction (d = .51, which is roughly equivalent to moving a student from the 50th to the 70th percentile on a standardized test). Second, the effects of small-group learning on achievement were significantly greater when measured on instructor-made exams or grades than on standardized instruments. In addition, out-of-class meetings (typically study sessions) have greater effects on achievement than in-class collaboration. In a succinct summary of their meta-analysis, the researchers offer this conclusion: “Students who learn in small groups generally demonstrate greater academic achievement . . . than their more traditionally taught counterparts. The reported effects are relatively large in research on educational innovation and have a great deal of practical significance” (Springer et al., 1999, p. 42). A more recent meta-analysis supports the findings of Springer et al. (1999). Romero (2009) conducted a systematic review of 2,506 published and unpublished citations of cooperative learning in secondary (the last years of high school) and early postsecondary science classrooms (community colleges and the first two years of college and university instruction) published between 1995 and 2007. Thirty of these studies met the criteria for inclusion in a meta-analysis. The author found that cooperative learning improves student achievement in science, with an overall mean effect size of .308 (a medium effect). The structure of the learning task influenced the effect size, with more structured interventions having a greater effect (Romero, 2009). Three research syntheses that collectively examine studies spanning several decades also have shown that interactive group learning is effective in improving student learning outcomes. In 1969, Feldman and Newcomb synthesized the findings of more than 1,500 studies in their now classic book, The Impact of College on Students. In 1991, Pascarella and Terenzini set for themselves the ambitious task of updating the research that had accumulated since Feldman and Newcomb. In a nearly one thousand–page treatise titled How College Affects Students, they reviewed more than 2,500 publications, deducing basically that “students not only make statistically significant gains in factual knowledge and in a range of general cognitive and intellectual skills, they also change on a broad array of values,

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attitudinal, psycho-social, and moral dimensions” (p. 557). A large part of this documented change, Pascarella and Terenzini conclude, is determined by the extent to which students interact with faculty members and student peers in and out of the classroom (p. 620). In Pascarella and Terenzini’s follow-up volume, How College Affects Students: A Third Decade of Research, they synthesize research conducted in the 1990s. Commenting on the broad spectrum of research on group learning, they state that “the weight of evidence from this research is reasonably consistent in suggesting that collaborative learning approaches can significantly enhance learning” (2005, p. 103). While cognitive gains are important, in higher education we have seen increasing emphasis on the development of higher-order thinking skills. Research suggests that there is a correlation between participation in collaborative learning and gains in these skills. In an intensive study of a special program for ethnically diverse calculus students at the University of Wisconsin, Millar (1999) reported positive findings on the effectiveness of learning in groups. The Wisconsin learning groups emphasized three factors: intensive group work, carefully chosen and very difficult problems, and instructors who function as guides. Students learning under these conditions were about twice as likely as other students to receive a B or above in calculus, and they “showed higher levels of confidence in their mathematical ability and greater comfort in performing calculus problems; learned to value multiple and creative ways of problem solving; and developed the interest and ability to acquire a deeper, more conceptual understanding of calculus” (pp. 8–9). Similarly, Karabenick and Collins-Eaglin (1996) gathered data from over one thousand students in fifty-four classes and found that the greater the class emphasis on group learning and the lower the emphasis on grades, the more likely students were to use higher-order learning strategies of elaboration, comprehension monitoring, and critical thinking.

Collaborative Learning Correlates Positively with Student Engagement, Attitudes, Persistence, and Personal Development The effect of the social impact of college has stimulated sophisticated theory building on student development as well as further research on learning in the classroom, including the effect of cooperative and collaborative learning. Many institutions are collecting data using instruments such as the National Survey of Student Engagement (NSSE) and the Community College Survey of Student Engagement (CCSSE) (Community

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College Leadership Program, 2003; Kuh, 2000). These surveys ask students to report the frequency with which they have participated in group activities, with the assumption that the larger the number, the more engaged they are. These assumptions appear to have some credibility, as research has intimated a relationship between group learning and student engagement. In a forthcoming meta-analysis of 305 studies, Johnson, Johnson, and Smith (2014) found that cooperative learning improves a range of outcomes including knowledge acquisition, retention, accuracy and creativity of problem-solving, and higher-level reasoning. The authors found three factors that may contribute to these impressive results: quality of relationships (cooperative learning promotes increased liking among students); psychological adjustment (cooperative learning improves, for example, self-efficacy, self-concept, integration into the environment, and ability to manage difficulties); and positive attitudes toward the university experience (cooperative learning tends to promote more positive attitudes toward learning, the subject area, and the university). The authors conclude that: The higher achievement promoted by cooperative learning may be hypothesized to decrease the number of students who are dismissed from university due to academic failure and the resulting academic success may decrease the uncertainty students may feel about the relevance of their university experience. When students achieve, increases may be expected in the quality of their intellectual membership in institution, intellectual adjustment to university, integration into academic life, commitment to completing their studies at the university, and perception of the relevance of the curricula to their needs. Finally, higher achievement may mean greater eligibility for financial aid that may reduce the financial cost of university. Alexander Astin conducted one of the larger individual statistical studies of the effectiveness of interactive group learning. In data collected across hundreds of colleges and thousands of students using twenty-two measures of student learning outcomes, Astin concluded that two factors had a special potency in academic achievement, personal development, and student satisfaction with college: interactions with fellow students and interactions with faculty members. “Research has consistently shown that cooperative-learning approaches produce outcomes that are superior to those obtained through traditional competitive approaches, and it may

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well be that our findings concerning the power of the peer group offer a possible explanation: Cooperative learning may be more potent than traditional methods of pedagogy because it motivates students to become more active and more involved participants in the learning process” (1993, p. 427). In a substantive qualitative study, Light and his colleagues (2001) interviewed more than two thousand Harvard students to see what learning experiences they valued most in their college years. One of their key findings was that interactive relationships organized around academic work are vital. In particular, they need to be more than social: they need to also include focus on content. Light found that students who study outside of class in small groups composed of four to six students benefit enormously. These group participants, and their discussions of classwork and of homework, were more engaged, were better prepared for class, and learned more (Light, 2001). The evidence is strong and quite consistent across a broad array of these educational research studies that students who study under various forms of peer interaction, including class discussion (versus lecture), have more positive attitudes toward the subject matter, have increased motivation to learn more about the subject, and are better satisfied with their experience than students who have less opportunity to interact with fellow students and teachers (Astin, 1993; Light, 2001; Springer, Stanne, & Donovan, 1998). Data also indicate that students working in learning groups like the instructor better and perceive the instructor as more supportive and accepting academically and personally (Fiechtner & Davis, 1992). Data suggest that in-class collaborations have more favorable effects on student attitudes than out-of-class meetings (Springer et al., 1998.) In addition to these other learning outcomes, cooperative learning is correlated with student persistence. In the Springer et al. (1998) meta-analysis, student persistence was significantly higher in small-group learning classes than in traditional classes (d = .46, which is enough to reduce attrition from STEM classes by 22 percent). This finding supports an earlier study by Lan and Repman (1995) that documented interaction effects between collaborative learning and student persistence following failures. Similarly, Treisman (1985) found that the five-year retention rate for African American students majoring in mathematics or science at Berkeley was 65 percent for those who were involved in collaborative learning groups compared with 41 percent for those not involved. Finally, interactive group learning appears to support outcomes such as personal development. In a study of more than 2,000 students completing

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their second year of study at twenty-three campuses, for example, Cabrera (1998) established that participation in cooperative learning groups was positively related to perceived gains in personal development, appreciation for fine arts, analytical skills, and understanding of science and technology as measured by the College Student Experiences Questionnaire (CSEQ).

Collaborative Learning Is Good Educational Practice Research studies of good practice in college and university teaching point to collaborative learning as an effective method of instruction. A widely cited and important synthesis of research on learning in college is the Seven Principles for Good Practice in Undergraduate Education. The principles “rest on 50 years of research on the way teachers teach and students learn, how students work and play with one another, and how students and faculty talk to each other” (Chickering & Gamson, 1987). The first three principles are (1) good practice encourages student–faculty contact; (2) good practice encourages cooperation among students; and (3) good practice encourages active learning. These three principles apply to both the college environment and the classroom, and they are the backbone of collaborative learning. Similarly, in How Learning Works: Seven Research-Based Principles for Smart Teaching (Ambrose et al., 2010), the authors distill research and draw on their combined twenty-seven years of experience working one-on-one with college faculty to provide instructors with an understanding of student learning that can help them see why certain teaching approaches are or are not supporting student learning. They do not specify any particular pedagogical approach, but instruction that encourages collaborative learning may support at least two of their principles. Principle Three, for example, is, “Students’ motivation determines, directs, and sustains what they do to learn” (Ambrose et al., 2010). Stressing that the “importance of motivation, in the context of learning, cannot be overstated,” Ambrose et al. identify “subjective value of a goal” as the first of two concepts central to understanding student motivation (p. 69). Studies by goal theorists and other motivational researchers have contributed a great deal of information about the situational characteristics that predict students’ tendencies to adopt different goals. Brophy (2004), who synthesizes the research on motivation in the classroom, proposes that to apply goals theory to the classroom, teachers establish supportive relationships and cooperative/collaborative learning arrangements that encourage students to adopt learning goals as opposed to performance goals (p. 9).

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Principle Six is “Students’ current level of development interacts with the social, emotional, and intellectual climate of the course to impact learning” (Ambrose et al., 2010). Educational research studies have generated strong evidence that students feel more positively about the subject matter, are more satisfied by their experience, and perceive the instructor as more supportive in classes that use various forms of cooperative and collaborative work (Fiechtner & Davis, 1992; Johnson, Johnson, & Smith, 1991; Light, 1992; Springer et al., 1998). Comments by students in one of the author’s own classes offer direct, personal evidence: following participation in various collaborative learning activities, one student shared, “the more people you get to know in a class, the more comfortable you feel and the more willing you are to speak up,” while another commented, “[these collaborative learning activities] help me overcome my own shyness” and yet another that the collaborative activities “make learning fun” (Barkley, 2004).

Collaborative Learning Is Beneficial for a Wide Range of Students While the evidence is strong that interactive group learning can indeed improve a wide range of student learning outcomes, the question remains as to whether it does so for all kinds of students to the same degree. Researchers have considered this question, and the resulting research follows two streams: academic preparation and demographics. One concern about collaborative learning has been that students who are less well prepared may benefit whereas well-prepared students may be harmed by their participation. Ample research and experiential evidence suggest, however, that in peer tutoring students doing the teaching learn more, especially at a conceptual level, than students receiving the tutoring (Annis, 1983; McKeachie, Pintrich, Lin, & Smith, 1986). Teachers who have spent many hours preparing a lecture or designing a learning exercise know firsthand that organizing knowledge to explain it to others is a powerful learning experience. Thus, there should be considerable value to good students in having to organize and articulate their own learning to make it understandable to others. Indeed, Slavin found in his review across hundreds of research studies that “students who give each other elaborated explanations (and, less consistently, those who receive such explanations) are the students who learn the most in cooperative learning” (1996, p. 53). Taken as a whole, then, the research appears to substantiate the claim that both underprepared and well-prepared students benefit from group learning, but perhaps for different reasons. Good students may benefit from having to formulate

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their thoughts and knowledge into concepts understandable to others, while academically poorer students may benefit from the explanations of their peers. In addition, there is high interest in any group that has been underrepresented in higher education in the past. Obtaining diversity in student populations is appealing to colleges for pedagogical as well as social reasons. The evidence is strong—for a variety of reasons—that students who might be considered nontraditional college students prefer cooperative group learning and stand to gain more from it than traditional students. Women, members of underrepresented racial and ethnic groups, adult and reentry students, commuters, and international students have been identified as students for whom peer and group learning seem especially valued and valuable. Research documents that group work enhances and enriches the goal of learning from diversity. Cuseo notes, “Cooperative learning has the potential to capitalize on the contemporary wave of student diversity— converting it from a pedagogical liability (which instructors must somehow adapt to or accommodate) into a pedagogical asset—by capitalizing on the multiple, socio-cultural perspectives that can be experienced when students from diverse backgrounds are placed in heterogeneously-formed cooperative learning groups” (1996, p. 24). The Springer et al. (1999) meta-analysis supports this perspective and further suggests that underrepresented students may benefit from their participation in collaborative learning. The findings of increased academic performance based on participation in collaborative groups were equally positive for women and men, STEM majors and nonmajors, first-year and other students, and underrepresented minorities (African American and Latino). In short, almost everyone seems to benefit from group learning situations.

Collaborative Learning Is Valued by Both Students and Teachers Some researchers have investigated student and teacher opinions about collaborative learning. In general, these opinions seem to be positive. Teachers over the generations have searched for the best method of teaching, and a considerable amount of literature has compared the various approaches. Psychologists at the University of Michigan reviewed more than five hundred research studies pertaining to teaching and learning in college classrooms. When asked what is the most effective teaching method, McKeachie and his colleagues answered that it depends on the

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goal, the student, the content, and the teacher—but the next best answer is, “Students teaching other students” (McKeachie et al., 1986, p. 63). Fiechtner and Davis (1992) sought student reactions to cooperative learning experiences in upper-division classes at two universities. Asking students to rate the effectiveness of their group experiences on an eighteenitem survey, they found, in four different administrations of the survey, that 74–81 percent of respondents rated their cooperative learning experience significantly or somewhat more effective than traditional college instruction in general academic achievement; 70–82 percent felt that their group experience was superior in promoting higher-level thinking skills; and 75–86 percent claimed it promoted greater interest in the subject matter. A striking 83–90 percent claimed better class morale under conditions of group learning. Some students may prefer collaborative learning more than others. Cabrera’s study of 2,051 students at twenty-three institutions revealed that minority students expressed a greater preference for learning in groups than did majority students (1998). (See Exhibit 2.2, “What Is the Evidence for Online Collaborative Learning,” for an overview of research findings regarding collaborative learning in online classes.)

The Quality of the Evidence As we have noted, the research on collaborative learning is extensive. It also has a long history, which documents the effectiveness of collaborative learning over time. But just how good is this evidence? Our review indicates that this body of work has strengths as well as weaknesses. The sheer number of studies on collaborative learning that have produced positive reports, especially the syntheses and meta-analyses, provides us with some confidence that the evidence is valid. Research on instructional methods is sometimes criticized, however, for comparing carefully designed experimental methods with average, across-the-board, traditionally taught classes. This is, in a sense, stacking the cards in favor of the experimental method. It may be that the reason for the generally positive findings in the published reports of the contributions of group learning to achievement is that the groups studied are usually carefully structured to accomplish student learning. Research on lectures that were carefully planned to raise questions and involve students in actively thinking about what was being said would also show more positive results than across-the-board studies of the efficacy of active lecturing.

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EXHIBIT 2.2

What Is the Evidence for Online Collaborative Learning? Scholars have now conducted hundreds of studies on whether online instruction is as effective as onsite instruction. Some studies have found that online learning is less effective, others that it is more effective, and still others that it is the same. Clearly there is variation among the ways online courses are designed and taught, and just as there are less effective onsite courses, there are also less effective online courses. Meta-analyses, which compile the results from several published studies, can perhaps provide a clearer answer. Taken together, these studies suggest that online courses are as effective as or slightly more effective than onsite courses (see, e.g., Bernard et al., 2009; Means et al., 2009). What conditions improve the quality of learning in online courses? There is solid and growing evidence that collaborative learning does. In Chickering and Ehrmann’s (1996) adaptation for the online environment of Chickering and Gamson’s seven principles of good practice, their second principle suggests that collaborative learning is essential for good practice, and this principle has been broadly construed as also applying to online distance learning. Does empirical evidence support this position? The short answer is: yes, it does. Many quantitative studies point to the fact that interaction and meaningful work among peers is an important component of an effective online learning environment and that it has the potential to influence student learning in online courses. Additional qualitative studies that address student experience in online courses also highlight several important ways collaborative learning can help online learning. A summary of some of these findings follows. •

•

•

Collaborative Learning Can Improve Student Learning in Online Courses In a 2009 meta-analysis of more than two hundred studies, Means et al. (2009) found that effect sizes of learning gains were larger for studies in which the online instruction was collaborative or instructor directed than in those where online learners worked independently. Similarly, in their meta-analysis of 74 studies, Bernard et al. (2009) found that student-to-student interactions and student-to-content interactions were more effective than student-to-instructor interactions at producing positive learning outcomes. In short, instructional methods are more important than technological affordance, and working and talking with other students through either discussions or collaborative work improves student learning outcomes in online courses (Bernard et al., 2004; Çavu¸s, Uzonboylu, & Ibrahim, 2007).

Collaborative Learning Can Help to Eliminate Feelings of Isolation Students May Feel in an Online Course Several qualitative studies have indicated that some students can feel isolated in online courses (see, e.g., Lyall & McNamara, 2000; Zembylas, Theodorou, & Pavlakis, 2008). These feelings of isolation can stem from the fact that students are working independently, separated from each other by both time and space. Feelings of isolation have the potential to lead to poor attitudes and course performance. Collaborative learning requires students to work with each other, which can help reduce these feelings. Indeed, one student interviewed in Melrose and Bergeron’s (2007) study, suggested the following remedy to the isolation problem: “Maybe the instructor could pull people together in the groups. Newer students don’t have the background,

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help us share some little personal thing and then we can build on it to get to know each other” (p. 7). Online collaborative learning can help students feel as though they are valued members of a learning community.

Collaborative Learning Can Help Students Forge Relationships with Their Peers Online students appear to value interacting and forming relationships with peers. Several studies have found that getting to know other students in an online environment can improve their overall experiences (see Blackmon & Major, 2012; Motteram & Forrester, 2005). Moreover, students in some studies have suggested that their relationships with students in online courses were stronger than those in onsite courses (Zembylas et al., 2008). These relationships form the basis of positive student experiences, and online collaborative learning provides a solid foundation on which such relationships may be founded.

Collaborative Learning Improves Outcomes in Online Courses One well-known model of collaboration in online learning is Anderson et al.’s (2001) model of community of inquiry. The authors describe such a community as a group of individuals who engage in a purposeful discourse and reflection collaboratively. The goal of a community of inquiry is to construct personal meaning and confirm mutual understanding. The model is made of three interdependent and overlapping elements: teacher, cognitive, and social presence. Teacher presence involves the design, facilitation, and direction of course processes (Anderson et al., 2001). Cognitive presence involves learner ability to construct and confirm meaning through sustained reflection and discourse (Garrison, Anderson, & Archer, 2001). Social presence is “the ability of participants to identify with the community (e.g., course of study), communicate purposefully in a trusting environment, and develop inter-personal relationships by way of projecting their individual personalities” (Garrison, 2009). All three of these elements are essential for a community of inquiry, and clearly collaborative learning supports the achievement of social presence in an online course. •

•

•

To conclude, just as is the case with onsite classes, there is ample evidence that collaborative learning is effective in promoting learning in online classes. In Part Two of this text, we turn to a more practical discussion of how online collaborative learning may be done, and in Part Three we provide specific online collaborative learning techniques that instructors may use in online courses.

To answer the criticism of comparing well-designed collaborative learning methods with average, across-the-board traditional teaching, Wright and colleagues (1998) conducted an interesting and powerful comparison of the best lecture/discussion classes with the best cooperative learning classes in analytical chemistry at the University of Wisconsin. They placed considerable emphasis on careful assessment of the learning that was taking place. In their words, their assessment strategy “emerged from an ad hoc committee of skeptical chemistry faculty who met prior to the 1995 course. They concluded that the only type of assessment data they would find credible would be faculty-conducted oral examinations of all students. It was important that

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the assessment be done orally in order to probe student understanding and problem-solving ability. It was also important that the assessment involve external faculty who are independent of the course faculty” (p. 987). Wright et al.’s findings left little doubt that students in the cooperative learning classes “had quantifiably better reasoning and communication skills” than students taught in lecture/discussion classes. Moreover, both student and faculty questionnaires showed “very significant differences in the perception of the students’ preparation for future science courses” (1998, p. 989). This study, published in the Journal of Chemical Education, is one of the most carefully designed research studies of instructional methods that we found in our search of the research on collaborative learning in higher education. Moreover, research support for the relationship between learning with peers and positive outcomes in student learning is extensive, and it comes from broad-scale studies of college environments as well as from studies directed more specifically to the effects of collaborative learning in the classroom. To date, then, there is an impressive amount of research, and it comes from highly credible sources.

Issues Needing Further Investigation The aggregated evidence from the literature appears highly positive, but we found student criticism or dissatisfaction with group work strangely lacking in the research reports. The research just did not seem to report on or take cognizance of the student criticisms that every instructor who has tried group work hears. Instead, we found that criticisms of learning groups were enumerated primarily in the work of practitioners. For example, Miller and her colleagues reported their experiences in teaching a biology class: “Some groups literally crackle with excitement and creativity. All members seem to live, breathe, eat, and sleep the current project and are ecstatic with their working arrangements. . . . At the opposite end of the spectrum, there are groups in which one or more members cannot be reached by telephone, do not show up for meetings, break commitments to their group and in the worst case disappear for several weeks with the entire group’s work in their possession” (Miller, Trimbur, & Wilkes, 1994, p. 34). Cathy Middlecamp (1997) reported on negative as well as positive student reactions by asking two hundred students in a chemistry class for nonmajors at the University of Wisconsin to give advantages and disadvantages of the group work she had used from time to time in the class. While she disavows a systematic research approach to the collection of data, her

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posting on the Web of a sample of student comments regarding cooperative learning groups will ring true to many practitioners. The advantages listed by students consist of those that appear commonly in the literature of cooperative and collaborative learning. They include recognition that different members of the group bring different knowledge and talents to bear, that deeper learning results from the discussion, that students are less hesitant to speak or raise questions in small peer groups than in a large class or with the instructor, and that working in groups is more fun and gives students an opportunity to know their fellow students better. Some students, especially business majors, were also likely to mention the career value of learning to work on teams. The disadvantages listed by students included recognition that people need to go at different speeds, that some students dominate the group while others are slackers who fail to pull their fair share, that discussion gets off the topic and wastes time, and that some groups just don’t get along. The advantages listed by students appear to represent the outcomes of groups that are productive, well planned, and carefully monitored. The disadvantages represent groups that are dysfunctional for one or more reasons, most of which are probably correctable. The purpose of this handbook is to help faculty capitalize on the advantages and defuse the disadvantages inherent in group work in both the onsite and online environments (see “Avoiding and Resolving Common Problems”). While there are a substantial number of articles on student attitudes toward group work (which includes negative perceptions) and the problems students identify with group work (e.g., inequitable participation and social loafers), there is almost no research on groups that fail. Thus, more research could be conducted on whether collaborative learning carries risks if done poorly. We assume so, but we just don’t know what students learn from a poorly run group. The evidence, however, is so strong that interactive group learning has multiple advantages if done well that it would be folly not to learn how to operate collaborative learning groups productively. We also found no attempt to systematically study the impact of collaborative learning on teachers. Does it take more time? Does it sacrifice coverage of material? Does it result in greater satisfaction in the profession of teaching? What are the intrinsic and extrinsic rewards? We just don’t know the answers to these questions via systematic research. There are scattered testimonials to the satisfaction of working closely with colleagues, and many college professors offer anecdotes on their increased interest in teaching via collaborative learning. Certainly centers established on campuses to improve teaching and learning are increasingly using

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workshops, faculty mentors, team teaching, and what could be called collaborative learning for teachers as the basic formula for their work.

Conclusion Collaborative learning seems to be an instructional practice that is very effective in today’s higher education classroom. It is theoretically defensible, and it is now a well-researched and extensively field-tested pedagogy. As more and more faculty in higher education incorporate interactive group learning into their classrooms, the accumulation of both the wisdom of practice and the documentation of research will continue to grow. Nevertheless, there is already plenty of information to help classroom teachers avoid the pitfalls and capitalize on the potential of collaborative learning. A major purpose of this handbook is to pull experience and research together to help teachers design creative, challenging, and effective group assignments in both onsite and online environments.

Note 1. As of June 2013, there were 17,241 items listed in ERIC under the descriptor “cooperative learning” (up from 6,887 in 2003 as noted in our first edition). While many of these studies relate to the extensive interest in cooperative learning in K–12 educational settings, 5,895 of the items on cooperative learning were indexed to higher education. In addition, 11,715 items were listed under “collaborative learning” (accessed June 14, 2013), with 5,108 indexed to higher education.

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Implementing Collaborative Learning Embarking upon collaborative learning should be a reasonable adventure— stimulating, challenging, and requiring thoughtful advanced planning. It is neither a high-risk venture, an abandonment of all things familiar and comfortable about the traditional classroom in favor of total commitment to the unknown, nor something to introduce spontaneously on a slow day to see what happens when the responsibility for learning is turned over to students. For collaborative learning to be successful, the instructor must give thoughtful consideration to a host of factors. Thus, the purpose of Part Two of this book is to collect and synthesize the wisdom from practice and scholarship about how to create productive learning environments through the use of collaborative learning groups. Central to considering how to implement collaborative learning are philosophical positions regarding the role of the college teacher in the classroom, as views of these positions have a major influence on how teachers choose to implement collaborative learning. In general, the role of college teachers has shifted dramatically over the last two decades, stimulated in part by the assessment movement with its assumptions of institutional accountability for student learning and in part by major advances in our understanding of the learning process. As Part One indicates, research on learning demonstrates convincingly that learners must actively engage in the learning process; teachers cannot simply pour

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knowledge into students’ heads and hope that they will assimilate it into the understandings that we call learning. Advances in knowledge about how students learn coupled with demands for institutional accountability for student learning make new demands on teachers. Today’s teachers must know not only their subject matter but also how to get students actively involved in working with the concepts of the discipline to make the knowledge their own. Creating a stimulating learning environment where students challenge and motivate fellow students to get involved in learning is a substantial undertaking, requiring a depth of knowledge about the subject and about teaching, and it constitutes part of what we know as the scholarship of teaching (Boyer, 1990). With the growth and increasing popularity of collaborative learning, there are honest differences, forcefully expressed in the literature of collaborative learning, about the appropriate roles for instructors in creating this learning environment. Opinions run the gamut from convictions that instructors should play a minimal role in shaping and directing the work of student learning groups to beliefs that instructors have the responsibility to structure the learning tasks, monitor group progress, and intervene if students get off track. Kenneth Bruffee, for example, contends that students must be “clearly and unequivocally on their own to govern themselves and pursue the task in the way that they see fit” (1995, p. 17). He takes his position on the grounds that shifting responsibility for learning from instructor to students “helps students become autonomous, articulate, and socially and intellectually mature, and it helps them learn the substance at issue not as conclusive ‘facts’ but as the constructed result of a disciplined social process of inquiry.” Others encourage more traditional roles for instructors, contending that they have the responsibility to make assignments, monitor the group process to assure that all are participating and that the group is staying on task, intervene if students get off track, and evaluate group process and effectiveness (Johnson, Johnson, & Smith, 1998a). The different positions derive from epistemological convictions about the nature of knowledge and learning as described in Chapter One, but as a practical matter, most instructors probably fall somewhere in the middle or cruise along the continuum, depending on the discipline, course objectives, personal style and comfort of the instructor, student experience, and a host of other variables involved in any given classroom. Some instructors see themselves as coaches, observing, correcting, and working with students to improve their performance; some prefer the concept of facilitator, which implies arranging the learning environment to encourage self-directed learning; some use the term manager, emphasizing a sequential process of

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setting the conditions and managing the process to produce the desired outcomes; and some prefer the concept of co-learner, highlighting the social role of constructing knowledge.1 The terminology is more than semantics; it reflects a variety of selfperceptions of the new faculty role in the classroom. On one matter, however, there is virtually universal agreement. The new college teacher is more than a dispenser of information. If there is any convergence in advice offered in the literature by experienced teachers of group learning, it is toward flexibility coupled with enough structure to assure those two stalwarts of the collaborative learning movement—positive interdependence and individual accountability. In this book, we suggest that the role of the instructor in collaborative learning includes the following responsibilities: designing the task; orienting students to the goals and purposes of collaborative learning; making decisions about size, duration, and operation of the learning groups; assigning the task in ways that support efficient accomplishment; assuring active, constructive participation; and assessing and evaluating learning.

Note 1. Roles teachers adopt in the classroom are reflections of teaching style. Several inventories of teaching styles exist, one of which is available online: Grasha’s (1996) Teaching Style Inventory (http://plato.ftr.indstate.edu/fcrcweb_old/ tstyles3.html). Grasha identified five teaching styles, which converge into clusters and comprise characteristic ways professors design instructional settings. These clusters range on a continuum from Expert/Formal/ Authority (a teacher-centered approach in which instructors present information and students receive knowledge) to Delegator/Facilitator/Expert (a student-centered model that involves designing complex tasks that require student initiative, and often group work, to complete.) One’s preferred teaching style shapes the type and degree of collaborative learning one chooses to implement.

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Designing the Learning Task College professors appear to approach teaching on a continuum. On one end, they match Fink’s (2013) description of putting together courses by creating a list of eight to twelve topics—drawn either from their own understanding of the subject or from a textbook’s table of contents—and then developing a series of lectures to go with it. With the addition of a midterm or two and a final exam, the course is good to go. We suspect that these teachers are finding it increasingly difficult to keep their students engaged and that they are hoping to find in this handbook a technique or two to help improve their (and their students’) classroom experience. But we are also encountering a rising number of professors who are at the other end of the continuum. These teachers are much more intentional about their students’ learning. In an approach that Weimer (2002) describes as learner centered, they identify what they want students to learn in their course and then carefully craft activities, assignments, and assessments that will best help their students achieve the learning objectives. Some of these professors are constructing their courses entirely around action-oriented pedagogies, such as service- or problem-based learning. Others are taking advantage of technology and creating dynamic online, hybrid, or blended classes (Bonk & Zhang, 2008). A considerable number are using technology outside the classroom to flip their classes (i.e., teach “naked”), thus freeing up their time inside the classroom for more meaningful interaction and for helping students apply knowledge acquired in preparatory work (Bowen, 2012). A few professors, recognized for their effectiveness as teachers, are being asked to teach high-impact courses with large enrollment. Regardless of where you are on this continuum or in what type of classroom you are teaching, central to implementing collaborative learning

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effectively is creating the learning task itself. While in collaborative activities students are charged with taking responsibility for their own learning, the responsibility for designing the learning task so that they can do so lies with the instructor. Designing effective learning tasks requires careful thought and planning, starting with a broad perspective (identifying what the learning task is) and then moving to a more specific one (selecting the right tool and structuring the procedures to best complete it). The collaborative learning techniques (CoLTs) we describe in Part Three provide the tools and procedures, but identifying the actual task is course specific and hence the responsibility of the teacher. Because this design work is so important and choices regarding the activity also inform other aspects of implementation such as group size and type, we start Part Two with guidance on this important and complex process. We focus our attention on three key areas: (1) identifying the learning task’s underlying problem and prompt; (2) selecting a technique that responds to the problem or prompt and correlates to broader course learning goals; and (3) structuring the task to address student needs and abilities.

Identifying the Learning Task’s Underlying Problem and Prompt What is it that we want students to learn? Most learning tasks start with a question to be addressed or a problem to be solved. Modern research is confirming John Dewey’s basic premise that meaningful learning starts with the learner’s active engagement with a problem. These vary by discipline, of course, but Bean (1996, p. 152) advises that, generally speaking, learning tasks should be open-ended, requiring critical thinking with supporting evidence or arguments. They should promote controversy, result in some type of group product, and be directed toward a learning goal of the course. Good task prompts are open-ended and generate multiple responses. Exhibit 3.1 provides a number of question or problem stems for crafting task prompts that can be adapted to a variety of learning activities.

Selecting CoLTs That Correlate to Course Learning Goals One way to ensure that collaborative learning tasks are relevant and do not feel like superfluous busywork is to make sure that the assignment is integral to achieving course objectives. Fink’s (2013) description of

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EXHIBIT 3.1

Sample Task Prompt Stems Question Type

Purpose

Example

Exploratory Challenge

Probe facts and basic knowledge Examine assumptions, conclusions, and interpretations Ask for comparison of themes, ideas, or issues Probe motives or causes Call for a conclusion or action

What research evidence supports ____? How else might we account for ____?

Relational Diagnostic Action Cause and Effect Extension Hypothetical

Priority Summary

Ask for causal relationships between ideas, actions, or events Expand the discussion Pose a change in the facts or issues

Seek to identify the most important issue Elicit syntheses

Problem

Challenge students to find solutions to real or hypothetical situations

Interpretation

Help students to uncover the underlying meaning of things

Application

Probe for relationships and ask students to connect theory to practice Require students to assess and make judgments Require students to examine the validity of statements, arguments, and conclusions and to analyze their thinking and challenge their own assumptions

Evaluative Critical

Sources: Davis, 1993, pp. 83–84; McKeachie, 1999, pp. 51–52.

How does ____compare to ____? Why did ____? In response to ____, what should ____ do? If ____occurred, what would happen? What are additional ways that ____? Supposing ____ had been the case, would the outcome have been the same? From all that we have discussed, what is the most important____? What themes or lessons have emerged from ____? What if ____? (To be motivating, students should be able to make some progress on finding a solution—and more than one.) From whose viewpoint or perspective are we seeing, hearing, reading? What does this mean? or, What may have been intended by ____? How does this apply to that? or, Knowing this, how would you ____? Which of these are better? Why does it matter? and, So what? How do we know? and, What’s the evidence and how reliable is it?

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approaching course design by putting together lectures based on a list of topics from one’s own understanding or a textbook’s table of contents is fast and efficient, but he argues that it focuses on the organization of information and pays little or no attention to how that information will be learned. Furthermore, it emphasizes coverage of information, which tends to support superficial learning that is quickly forgotten. In an alternative learner-centered approach, teachers determine what constitutes high-quality learning in a given situation and then design “that quality into the course and into the learning experience” (p. 61). In practice, most teachers probably blend elements of both approaches when they organize their courses. But Fink’s (2003) distinction between a content-coverage and a learning-centered approach is useful. While incorporating collaborative activities into a content-coverage approach may help deepen student learning, it is possible that the activities will feel as though they are simply add-ons. Collaborative learning tasks will most likely be more compelling and effective if they are integrated into a course that has been intentionally designed to be learner centered. There are several models for creating a learner-centered course, but most incorporate the common elements of (1) determining the learning goals and objectives, (2) identifying activities that help students achieve the objectives, and (3) creating formative assessment strategies to ascertain how well students are achieving the objectives to make adjustments. Following are three examples of learner-centered approaches that correlate collaborative learning tasks to larger course goals. The first uses Anderson and Krathwohl’s revision of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives (2001), the second uses Wiggins and McTighe’s Understanding by Design (1998), and the third uses Fink’s Creating Significant Learning Experiences (2013).

Anderson and Krathwohl’s Revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (2001) Bloom’s taxonomy was created by a group of educational psychologists in the late 1950s to classify levels of behavior important in learning. It includes three overlapping domains: cognitive, affective, and psychomotor. The cognitive taxonomy is referred to most frequently and consists of six kinds of learning arranged, from basic to advanced, in a hierarchical sequence: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis,

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and evaluation. Curriculum frameworks and individual teachers have, for decades, referred to Bloom’s taxonomy for guidance on creating learning activities and assessment strategies that address multiple levels of learning; thus, it is a useful starting place. In 2001, a new group of cognitive psychologists led by Anderson (a former student of Bloom’s) and Krathwohl (one of the members of the original team) published a revision because they believed that many of the ideas in the original taxonomy were still valuable. They also wanted to incorporate new knowledge and thought about learning into the framework (pp. xxi–xxii). Their revision can be used as the basis for designing effective collaborative learning tasks. Proposing that learning occurs at the intersection of cognitive process and knowledge, Anderson and Krathwohl modified Bloom’s original taxonomic levels to create what they call the cognitive process dimension, with the following levels: remember, understand, apply, analyze, evaluate, and create (Exhibit 3.2).

EXHIBIT 3.2

Anderson and Krathwohl’s Cognitive Process Dimensions Taxonomic Level

Description

Sample Prompt Verbs

Remember

Retrieving relevant knowledge from long-term memory Determining the meaning of instructional messages, including oral, written, and graphic communication Carrying out or using a procedure in a given situation Breaking material into its constituent parts and detecting how the parts relate to one another and to an overall structure or purpose Making judgments based on criteria and standards Putting elements together to form a novel, coherent whole or make an original product

Recognize, recall

Understand

Apply Analyze

Evaluate Create

Interpret, exemplify, classify, summarize, infer, compare, explain Execute, implement Differentiate, organize, attribute

Evaluate, assess, appraise Generate, plan, produce

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Anderson and Krathwohl propose that these cognitive processing dimensions be addressed in conjunction with four knowledge dimensions. Factual Knowledge: The basic elements that students must know to be acquainted with a discipline or solve problems in it. Conceptual Knowledge: The interrelationships among the basic elements within a larger structure that enable them to function together. Procedural Knowledge: How to do something; methods of inquiry, and criteria for using skills, algorithms, techniques, and methods. Metacognitive Knowledge: Knowledge of cognition in general as well as awareness and knowledge of one’s own cognition. To develop a learning objective, a teacher identifies the knowledge dimension nouns (what is to be learned) and the cognitive process verbs (the level at which it is to be learned) (Exhibit 3.3). For example, a learning objective that represents the intersection of Factual Knowledge and Understand in an American History course would be, “The student will be able to explain the consequences of the Parliamentary Acts (e.g., the Sugar, Stamp, and Townshend Acts) for different colonial groups” (Krathwohl, 2002, p. 216). Using the taxonomy as a guiding framework involves (1) identifying the most important learning objectives (the intersection of the knowledge and cognitive processing dimensions), (2) crafting learning activities that focus on each learning objective, and (3) creating evaluation strategies

EXHIBIT 3.3

Anderson and Krathwohl’s Grid for Developing Learning Objectives The Cognitive Process Dimension The Knowledge Dimension

Remember

Factual Knowledge Conceptual Knowledge Procedural Knowledge Metacognitive Knowledge Source: Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001.

Understand

Apply

Analyze

Evaluate

Create

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that assess learning at the appropriate cognitive process dimension for that learning objective. Arguably, the most effective courses tend to reflect multiple knowledge and cognitive processing dimensions in their goals, activities, and assessment. Even in an introductory course students should be applying and analyzing, just as in an advanced course students should be remembering and understanding, and in both courses students should be acquiring and processing multiple dimensions of knowledge. Also, attempting to include the entire span of thinking and learning levels addresses student diversity. As Davis points out, “If assignments and exams include easier and harder questions, every student will have a chance to experience success as well as challenge” (1993, p. 197). One of the primary benefits of collaborative learning is that each activity can achieve multiple objectives. For ease of illustration, however, suggestions for CoLTs (described fully in Part Three) with examples of tasks that focus on learning at several intersections of the taxonomy follow.

Using Anderson and Krathwohl’s Revised Taxonomy to Design Effective Collaborative Learning Tasks Remember/Factual Knowledge CoLT 2: Round Robin Form small groups and ask students to generate a list as they recall important pieces of information from a recent lecture. For example, after a lecture on the determination of national income in an economics course, ask students to List and define as many concepts regarding the determination of national income as you can recall from today’s lecture. Students in each group speak, moving from one student to the next, so that each student has an opportunity to contribute. Remember/Conceptual Knowledge CoLT 23: Word Webs Ask students to demonstrate their recall of the components of a course-related concept such as clinical depression or networking technology by generating a list of related ideas and then organizing them in a graphic, identifying relationships by drawing lines or arrows to represent the connections. Understand/Factual Knowledge CoLT 20: Group Grid Form groups and provide students with pieces of information that they place in the blank cells of a grid. For example, Sort this list of authors, genres, time frames, and quotes into the appropriate rows or columns of this grid. Understand/Conceptual Knowledge CoLT 1: Think-Pair-Share After lecturing on a topic, present a prompt such as Explain the main idea behind ____

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or How does what I just talked about (or demonstrated) exemplify ____ or Summarize in your own words ____ . Ask students to think individually for a few minutes, and then pair up with a classmate to discuss and compare their responses in pairs before sharing with the entire class. Apply/Conceptual Knowledge CoLT 10: Role-Play Create a scenario and ask students to act out or assume identities that require them to apply their knowledge, skills, or understanding as they speak and act from a different, assigned perspective. For example, in a business sales class, pair students and ask one to be the salesperson and the other the potential client as they apply their conceptual understanding of a structured sales technique. Apply/Procedural Knowledge CoLT 13: Think-Aloud Pair ProblemSolving (TAPPS) Form student pairs and ask students to take turns solving problems aloud as their partners listen. For example, in a music fundamentals class, distribute a handout containing a variety of different intervals and ask students to take turns following a given procedure for identifying quantity and quality for each interval. Analyze/Conceptual Knowledge CoLT 6: Critical Debates Form teams and ask students to examine an issue in preparation for a debate. For example, in a biology class, ask students to consider the statement, Individuals should be allowed to sell one of their kidneys to a wealthy person in need of a kidney. Ask students to develop arguments and determine evidence that support the side of the issue that is in opposition to their personal views. Analyze/Factual Knowledge CoLT 17: Analytic Teams Form teams and ask individuals to perform component tasks of an analysis of a reading assignment, video, or presentation. For example, in an introductory science course, assign tasks such as summarizer, supporter, and critic to individuals in small groups and then ask them to read an article that attempts to nullify evolutionary theory. Ask students to use their understanding of scientific facts as they integrate their perspectives into a composite essay. Evaluate/Factual Knowledge CoLT 21: Team Matrix Form pairs or small groups and ask students to discriminate between similar concepts by noticing and marking on a chart the presence or absence of important, defining features. For example, To demonstrate your understanding of the differences between modernism and postmodernism, put a check mark in the column indicating which of the two is most clearly defined by the following list of features.

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Evaluate/Conceptual Knowledge CoLT 5: Three-Step Interview Have student pairs take turns interviewing each other, asking questions that require them to assess the value of competing claims and then to make a judgment as to the best. For example, Which of these recorded performances of Bach’s Prelude and Fugue in C Minor do you find most historically accurate, and why? Create/Conceptual Knowledge CoLT 24: Dialogue Journals Ask students to record their thoughts in a journal that they exchange with peers for comments and questions. Occasionally ask students to respond to specific prompts. For example, In your journal tonight, craft five examples of similes, five examples of analogies, and five examples of metaphors that you could use to clarify the difference between assimilation and acculturation. Create/Metacognitive Knowledge CoLT 11: Jigsaw Form small groups and ask students to develop knowledge about a given topic and to formulate the most effective ways of teaching it to others. For example, in a survey of international business course, ask groups to Develop your best strategies for teaching fellow students about the trade opportunities in different Third World and developing nations.

Wiggins and McTighe’s Understanding by Design (1998, 2005) Wiggins and McTighe advise teachers to strive to help their students achieve understanding, as distinguished from simply knowing. They explain that deep, enduring understanding remains with students long after they have finished the class and forgotten the details. It results from grappling with the big ideas and core processes that are at the heart of the discipline, and these ideas are abstract, sometimes counterintuitive, and often misunderstood. They propose designing learning activities that incorporate the information, skills, and activities required to develop enduring understanding of these big ideas and core processes. Teachers will know if students have achieved this enduring understanding if they can demonstrate the six facets of learning displayed in Exhibit 3.4. Wiggins and McTighe also propose what they call a backward design approach to selecting the course’s learning tasks that will help achieve the goals of enduring understanding. This involves deciding what one wants students to learn and then identifying what would be valid assessment evidence that the desired learning has been achieved before designing learning tasks. They believe that determining acceptable evidence focuses and clarifies what the teaching and learning activities should be and helps

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EXHIBIT 3.4

Wiggins and McTighe’s Six Facets of Understanding Explain Interpret Apply Demonstrate Perspective Empathize Demonstrate Self-Knowledge

By providing thorough, supported, and justifiable accounts of phenomena, facts, and dates By telling meaningful stories and offering apt translations that provide a revealing historical or personal dimension to ideas and events By effectively using and adapting what they know in diverse contexts By showing that they can see and hear points of view through critical eyes and ears By finding value in what others might find odd or implausible By showing that they perceive the personal style, prejudices, projections, and habits of mind that both shape and impede their understanding

Source: Wiggins & McTighe, 1998, p. 44

uncover any problems or issues with the goals. Their backward design approach to planning and structuring learning tasks involves a three-stage sequence: 1. Determine Goals: In the first stage, determine what students should know, understand, and be able to do. Because college instructors are typically challenged by the large amount of content they want to cover and insufficient time to address the content adequately, Wiggins and McTighe suggest using a framework of three concentric circles to prioritize content. In the large, external circle, identify the content that is worth being familiar with. Within this large circle is a medium-sized circle, and within this identify the more important knowledge and skills required to consider student learning to be complete. In the center is the smallest ring, in which we must identify the selected “enduring” understandings that anchor the course and that we want students to remember long after they’ve forgotten the details. 2. Determine Evidence: One can assess student learning of the content in the largest, external circle relatively easily through traditional knowledge-based quizzes and exams. However, measuring learning in the middle circle—and especially in the small enduring understanding circle—is more challenging. To determine evidence at these deeper learning levels, Wiggins and McTighe developed a continuum for evaluating evidence of each of the six facets. For example, Explanation is evaluated on

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a continuum from naive to sophisticated, and Application is evaluated on a continuum from novice to masterful. 3. Design Learning Tasks: After determining the understanding goals and identifying how to assess the depth at which understanding has been achieved, design the academic prompts, performance tasks, or projects that will help students achieve the goals. Collaborative learning techniques are well suited for creating the kinds of active, participatory, authentic tasks that achieve the enduring understanding associated with the inner two circles. Such tasks require students to think critically (not just recall knowledge) and to struggle with complex challenges that mirror the issues and problems faced by scholars in the discipline. Following is a description of a college-level course on the history of the Vietnam War that uses Wiggins and McTighe’s model to structure the collaborative learning task.

Using Collaborative Learning Techniques with Wiggins and McTighe’s Model in a History of the Vietnam War Course The professor for this course established curricular priorities by distributing information regarding the war’s dates, events, policies, and so forth between the outer circle (worth being familiar with) and middle circle (essential information). For the small internal circle, he identified four enduring understandings. First, he wanted students to be aware of the complexity of the war and appreciate why even the greatest efforts could not produce a victory. Second, he wanted students to understand how Vietnam unraveled the national consensus of the 1950s and early 1960s by deeply dividing Americans along a continuum of those who supported the war and those who opposed it. Third, he wanted students to see how the war continues to influence individual lives, national politics, and international policy. Fourth, he wanted students to experience how historians make meaning out of complex information. The professor then followed the backward design process of determining assessment criteria first and then identifying learning tasks. For purposes of clarity here, the activity will be presented and followed by assessment strategies. Explanation and Application To acquire a thorough knowledge of basic information regarding the war and to develop awareness of the complexity of the war, students listened to lectures, watched film documentaries, read a variety of primary and secondary sources, and participated in the following collaborative techniques. The professor used the CoLTs in combination with objective and subjective exams to assess student learning.

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CoLT 26: Dyadic Essays On a weekly basis, students individually wrote an essay question and a model answer based on the week’s activities. On Friday in class, student pairs exchanged questions, wrote a response to the partner’s question, and then traded, read, and compared model and in-class answers. This activity helped ensure that students had done the assigned reading, attended and taken notes on lectures, and paid attention to the films. It also helped students identify the most important features in these activities and build upon each other’s understandings. The professor collected the essays, evaluated and graded them, and selected exemplary questions for inclusion in the midterm and final exam. CoLT 12: Test-Taking Teams Two weeks prior to each of the two exams, the professor organized students into teams and distributed a study guide. He set aside thirty minutes in class for teams to organize how they wanted to help each other study outside of class time and also one hour of class time for them to work together. On the day of the exam, students took the exam individually during the first half of class and then retook the exam as a team during the second half of the class. He assigned grades by giving individual scores twice the weight of the group scores. The professor felt that this strategy not only emphasized individual accountability but also gave students the benefit from the collective knowledge of the group. Application, Interpretation, Perspective, and Empathy To help students understand how Vietnam deeply divided America and to see how it continued to influence lives, he wanted a task that would help students get inside various stakeholders’ feelings and views regarding the war. To experience how historians make meaning, he decided to make the task and assessment product an actual history document. CoLT 18: Group Investigation He organized students into small groups and told them that they would be creating a term-long project called Views on the Vietnam War from Those Who Experienced It. He asked each group to identify and interview three adults with different backgrounds in relation to the Vietnam era and create an oral history based on their interviews. Students were given options for how they wanted to present this history: for example, written narrative, book, audio, video. To accompany their project, students wrote a group essay that compared their oral history with the history in their readings. Projects were assessed on rubrics, which ranged from superficial to profound and revealing (a powerful and illuminating analysis of the importance, significance, and meaning of the war). Empathy and Self-Knowledge To help students gain insight and understand more deeply a Vietnamese perspective on the war, he had students

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read Andrew Pham’s Catfish and Mandala. This is an autobiographical work of a college-aged Vietnamese American who returns to Vietnam to find himself and to reconstruct the events that had drastically changed his family and his life. To help students recognize their own patterns of thought and action, the professor wanted to create a task that required students to connect Pham’s experiences with their own lives. CoLT 24: Dialogue Journals As students read Pham’s book, they maintained a record of their thoughts in a journal that they then exchanged periodically with peers for comments and questions. The journal was generally unstructured, and students were encouraged to write about whatever in Pham’s story was relevant to them. The journal concluded with an explicit assignment: Identify one specific incident in Catfish and Mandala where author Andrew Pham’s life changed forever, a turning point in his story. How and why did he change? Compare and contrast Pham’s experience with a turning point experience in your own life. The professor believed that by using a combination of collaborative learning techniques with Wiggins and McTighe’s learning-centered course design model, he had created a course that was far superior to his prior efforts. Teachers who find Wiggins and McTighe’s approach to curricular and learning task design appealing are advised to read the original sources. Understanding by Design (Wiggins & McTighe, 1998) provides the conceptual foundations. The Understanding by Design Handbook (Wiggins & McTighe, 1999) and its follow-up edition, Understanding by Design, expanded 2d edition (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005) provide the practical templates, worksheets, exercises, design tools, and a peer review process for learning and applying the ideas in Understanding by Design.

Fink’s Significant Learning Experiences (2013) This model, described in Creating Significant Learning Experiences (2013), was inspired by Fink’s beliefs that there are two widespread problems in higher education. First, he thinks that the majority of college teachers do not seem to have learning goals that go much beyond an understand-and-remember type of learning—the kind of learning that is superficial and usually temporary. Second, he has observed that “most teachers seem to have difficulty figuring out what teaching activities they might use besides the two traditional standbys: lecture and discussion” (p. xi). To help solve these problems, he suggests a new taxonomy of significant learning that offers teachers a framework for formulating learning goals (Exhibit 3.5). These goals then guide the creation of learning experiences that engage students, promote high energy (as opposed to boredom), and result in significant and lasting

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EXHIBIT 3.5

Fink’s Taxonomy of Significant Learning Foundational Knowledge

Application

Human Dimension

Caring

Learning How to Learn

Understanding and remembering specific information and ideas. This knowledge provides the basic understanding that is necessary for other kinds of learning. Engaging in some new kind of intellectual, physical, or social action; developing certain skills and learning how to engage in various kinds of thinking (critical, creative, practical). Application learning allows other kinds of learning to be useful. Learning important things about oneself and others; discovering the personal and social implications of what one has learned. This kind of understanding helps students understand how and why others act the way they do or how the learner can interact more effectively with others. Changing the degree to which students care about something that is reflected in the form of new feelings, interests, or values. When students care about something, they have the energy they need for learning more about it and integrating that information into their lives. Learning about the process of learning to become a better student and knowing how to engage in a particular kind of inquiry or to become a self-directing learner.

change that continues long after the course is over (pp. xii–xiii). Fink also believes that educative, formative assessment is essential to integrated and effective learning task and course design. Fink constructed a new taxonomy guided by his perspective that learning can be defined in terms of change: If there is no change, there is no learning. The taxonomy also reflects his belief that higher education is expressing a need for new kinds of learning: learning how to learn, leadership and interpersonal skills, ethics, communication skills, character, tolerance, and the ability to adapt to change (p. 29). Rather than hierarchical, his taxonomy is relational and interactive and consists of the categories displayed in Exhibit 3.5.

Using Collaborative Learning Techniques to Implement Fink’s Model in a Physics Course Fink includes a detailed case study of a physics course redesign by a colleague of his, John Furneaux, which implements the significant learning framework. The course is a sophomore-level, two-semester Electronics Lab course for physics majors intended to help students understand and then construct some of the electronic measuring devices that they would

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use in the research aspects of their upper-division physics courses. The case study is a comprehensive description of the questions and discussions between Furneaux and Fink as they engaged in a joint effort to redesign the two-semester course. Here, we will use their design for the first semester and add suggestions for how to structure learning activities that incorporate CoLTs. Furneaux used the significant learning taxonomy to focus his learning goals. For example, he wanted students to learn to solve authentic, meaningful kinds of problems rather than typical end-of-chapter kinds of problems; thus, it was evident that application learning for him was a critical learning goal. He also wanted to focus on the human dimension and help students understand that even a “hard-core science” like physics is fundamentally a human enterprise: scientists have both noble and petty personalities; physicists need to be able to interact effectively with others on intellectual projects because much of today’s major scientific research takes place collaboratively; and students needed to develop self-images of themselves as people capable of doing serious science. Furneaux also wanted students to learn how to learn physics, specifically how to use electronic equipment to create knowledge, which in turn required clarifying what physicists mean by knowledge. With this framework in mind, Furneaux and Fink identified the following specific course learning goals as well as corresponding teaching and learning activities (Fink, 2003, pp. 178–179). We have used this initial course design to adopt, adapt, or add learning activities to fit within a CoLT structure. Goal 1: Develop Familiarity with Electronic Techniques This goal was for students to know the terminology, operate the technology, and be able to describe how the technology works. CoLT 1: Think–Pair-Share At critical points in the lectures on electronic techniques, students reflected individually for a few minutes and then turned to a peer to share, compare, and check their understandings. CoLT 8: Learning Cell Students partnered with a peer to quiz each other using questions they had developed individually about readings, lectures, or lab exercises. Goal 2: Use the Technology to Generate Knowledge This goal was for students to be able to use technology to answer questions; design technology for real projects; assess validity of data techniques and information and answers; and identify and assess their own assumptions.

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CoLT 18: Group Investigation Small groups designed and built a series of measuring devices. This assignment was both challenging and openended, unlike traditional textbook exercises. Furneaux also incorporated into the assignment an aspect of CoLT 10: Role-Play to simultaneously give it playfulness and reality: he created a simulated company that functioned as the students’ employer. This company sent the students project requests for equipment that could conduct certain measuring tasks. The Group Investigation assignments were to figure out how to respond to these requests by designing, constructing, and assessing an instrument that would measure certain properties (p. 180). Goal 3: Understand What Knowledge Is This goal was for students to create a model of knowledge as well as test complex questions. CoLT 19: Affinity Grouping Furneaux formed groups of four to six members and asked students to individually generate ideas about knowledge. Working with other group members, students identified clusters of ideas and information and used this to build a model of knowledge. CoLT 11: Jigsaw To help students learn about electronic measuring devices, the relationship between these devices, and the process of generating knowledge in physics and to connect this in turn to the structure of their own learning experiences in the course, Furneaux crafted an assignment that was a variation of Jigsaw. This assignment required students to design a teaching and learning unit for new physics students. To do the assignment, students were asked to think through what freshman physics students should learn, what activities would help them learn, and what kind of feedback they should receive (Fink, 2003, p. 181). As students developed the goals, activities, and assessment strategies to teach their peers, they enhanced their own comprehension not only of the content but also of the issues and processes in their own learning. Goal 4: Understand the Personal and Social Nature of Science This goal was for students to understand the individual nature of science and to understand how social dynamics work in scientific work. CoLT 24: Dialogue Journals Students recorded their thoughts in a journal and shared their individual reflections with a peer. In addition to unstructured, free-form reflections, students responded to specific prompts that asked them, for example, to reflect on the individual and social nature of their own small groups or to read accounts of the work of scientists. A concluding assignment in the journal for the entire course was to write an essay in the form of a learning portfolio.

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Goal 5: Learn How to Learn This goal was for students to be able to identify what they would like to learn and how would they go about learning it. This goal was accomplished through CoLT 11: Jigsaw and CoLT 24: Dialogue Journals (see Goal 3). Connecting tasks to a larger framework and ensuring that they are directed toward achieving course learning goals is an important strategy for making collaborative learning effective. Taxonomies such as Anderson and Krathwhol’s (2001) A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching and Assessing: Revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Wiggins and McTighe’s (1999, 2005) Six Facets of Enduring Understanding, and Fink’s (2013) Taxonomy of Significant Learning can provide useful frameworks for designing learning tasks. The previous summary represents a few ideas for using these taxonomies as learning frameworks for incorporating collaborative techniques into a course. Readers are encouraged to go to the original sources for more information or to investigate other available learning frameworks and course design models.

Structuring the Task to Address Student Needs and Abilities There are five considerations to keep in mind when structuring the specific task (adapted from Davis, 2009, pp. 193–194). While some are general to all good learning tasks, some are unique to the collaborative environment. First, make sure that the assignment is relevant so that it does not feel like busywork. For example, authentic, challenging tasks that provide real-world relevance motivate and engage students. Likewise, connecting tasks to larger course goals is also helpful for ensuring that collaborative learning activities are meaningful and hence are valued by students. Second, take care to match the task to students’ abilities in both academic skills (task work) and small-group skills (teamwork). For example, don’t assign a complex CoLT 6: Critical Debate if students have low-level speaking, analysis, investigation, presentation, and group work skills. Third, design the task to promote interdependence so that each member is responsible to and dependent on the others to succeed. One way to help achieve this is to make the task sufficiently complex so that it provides opportunities for broad participation and perhaps even requires students to divide up the labor to complete it. Try as well to structure the task so that each member can contribute equally and the work can be divided fairly. Fourth, try to ensure individual accountability. Individuals need to know that they must do their share of the work. This can be accomplished by implementing a grading structure that assesses and evaluates

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individual student performance as well as group performance. Individual accountability can also be promoted by giving impromptu quizzes, calling on individuals to present their group’s progress, or providing students with a mechanism to deal with uncooperative or apathetic students. See Chapter Seven for additional ideas to ensure accountability. Fifth, plan for each phase of how students will engage with the activity, from how to form groups to how students will be evaluated both in terms of product and group process. See the introduction to Part Three for specific elements in each phase.

Conclusion College professors organize their courses in many ways and will incorporate collaborative learning to different degrees. Some will continue to use a primary teaching strategy such as lecture/discussion, employing CoLTs simply to break up the time or vary the activities. Others will organize their entire course around collaboration and will want to find multiple avenues to incorporate collaborative activities. Regardless of how teachers approach the organization of their courses, designing the learning task is central to implementing collaborative learning effectively. The two critical aspects in this construction are designing an appropriate task and structuring procedures to engage students efficiently in performing the task. The CoLTs in Part Three will provide detailed guidance on the procedural aspect, but this chapter outlines the elements to keep in mind during the design process: sample question stems to guide you in crafting good task prompts, ideas for using learning taxonomies to integrate tasks into a broader course framework, and considerations for structuring the task to address student needs and abilities. Exhibit 3.6 provides additional tips on designing collaborative learning tasks for online courses. EXHIBIT 3.6

Ten Tips for Designing Collaborative Learning Tasks for Online Courses Designing collaborative learning tasks requires two critical elements: defining an appropriate task and determining the procedures that will engage students in performing that task efficiently. Attending to these two components is vital in an onsite class, but it is arguably even more essential in an online class due to the additional complicating factors of technology and the fact that students must collaborate in a virtual environment. The advice provided in the body of this chapter applies equally to onsite and online courses, but we also offer the following ten tips for online classes drawn from our own experience as well as suggestions adapted from a variety of sources that focus on online teaching (Wicks, Lumpe, & Denton,

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2012; Roby, 2007). Because onsite and online classes are two different sides of the same coin, many of these are also applicable to onsite classes. 1. Begin with a realistic audit of class characteristics. Considering context factors (e.g., size, level in curriculum, experience of students, learning goals, available technology tools) is especially important for making good instructional design decisions in an online class. For example, in a fast-paced quarter system/lower division/online class of 50+ students, you may be more successful focusing your efforts on creating effective discussion-based collaborative learning activities rather than designing complex project-based activities. 2. Balance being realistic with keeping an open mind. Technology is changing rapidly, and new tools are continually emerging, which now make possible collaborative learning activities that were inconceivable in an online class when the first edition of this book was published. Therefore, abandon preconceptions about what kinds of activities can or cannot be done online. 3. Make collaboration a stated course-learning outcome. Include this in the syllabus along with clear information on how this outcome will be assessed. 4. Require an orientation. Meet onsite or create an online module that provides students with class-specific guidance on how to collaborate effectively, including descriptions and training for any technology tools collaborative assignments will require. 5. Adapt and adopt existing successful collaborative activities. With a bit of creativity, most onsite exercises can be modified effectively for the online environment. 6. Minimize demands for synchronous activities. Many students who choose online classes wish to work independently or their time constraints and schedules do not permit them to commit to specific dates or times for interaction. Be sensitive to their needs and, instead of requiring synchronous participation, take advantage of the benefits of asynchronous activities. 7. Start at a manageable level. Incorporate a few well-planned exercises at first so that you can identify solutions to problems. If you are going to do a very sophisticated group project in the class, try to introduce a simple exercise earlier in the course to allow groups to develop a group process that will support the more complex project that comes later. 8. Allow groups to choose how they wish to collaborate. Students can communicate via a variety of social networking tools as well as live chat, face-to-face, e-mail, telephone, and threaded discussions. Let them decide how best to work together. 9. Organize complex projects into stages. Design both individual and group work deliverables that are completed in phases, with identified milestone deadlines to serve as check-in points for feedback and potential regrouping if necessary. Consider including reflection points after each milestone (e.g., How can I become a better group member? How can we improve our group’s productivity? Do we need to alert the instructor to problems?). 10. Create a collaborative script. A document that provides detailed instructions in a single source on the assignment’s goals, phases, technology tools, deliverables, and assessment can reduce anxiety and frustration as well as solve problems before they occur. (See http://tinyurl.com/collab-script for a model.)

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Chapter 4

Orienting Students Students come to college classrooms with a wide range of preconceptions about how teaching and learning occurs. Building upon first-hand knowledge acquired from their experiences in K–12 classroom settings, incoming freshmen may have watched movies set in college contexts or heard siblings or older friends describe what it is like to be a college student. As they continue in college, their front-row, or perhaps back-row, observations in various courses further shape their thinking about what college teaching and learning should be. Many students today have had lots of experience in collaborative learning and expect that their classes will include some form of group work. Indeed, these students might feel disoriented in a traditional lecture course. If their experiences with group work have been positive, they will be primed and ready to collaborate effectively. However, if students have had negative experiences with group work, they may be reluctant to engage with their classmates in this manner again. Other students will be expecting a more traditional format, in which students sit alone, spend a significant amount of time passively listening to the sage on the stage, and are expected not to talk because this distracts attention that is supposed to be focused on the instructor. These students may not anticipate working with others. Entering a class that does not fit with their expectations can engender feelings of bewilderment and foster fears that they are unprepared. An appropriate orientation can help all students—but especially students who are resistant to group work—understand and appreciate the value of working together with their peers and prepare them for success. In this chapter, we offer ideas for introducing students to collaborative roles and skills early in the course to better orient them to a learning environment in which collaboration is an important component of the pedagogy. Our

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suggestions are organized in three categories: introductions and icebreakers, course policies and procedures, and orientation to collaborative learning.

Icebreakers and Introductory Activities In the collaborative classroom, the instructor purposefully creates a learning environment in which students interact with each other. One way to encourage students to interact is to provide class members with an opportunity to get to know each other. Structured activities called icebreakers for introductions and greetings are good getting-acquainted techniques. Icebreakers ease the tension and awkwardness of the initial classes, helping students develop feelings of comfort. They also create an expectation of interaction and are therefore useful entrees into meaningful, ongoing collaboration.

Social Icebreakers Just as instructors who learn their students’ names show their students that they value them as individuals, instructors who help students learn each other’s names and identify shared interests and experiences as well as intriguing differences demonstrate the value they place on students knowing each other.

Name Game If possible, arrange desks or chairs into a circle. Have the first student state her name, the second student state his name and the first student’s name, the third student state her name and the previous two students’ names, and so on. If the class is small, do this as a whole class. If the class is large, consider forming groups of eight to twelve students so that at least subsets of students will learn each other’s names. Consider repeating this activity for a few minutes at the beginning of several class sessions, either to reinforce recall of names or to give students in larger classes a chance to learn everyone’s names.

Interviews Create and distribute a handout with a few questions such as, What is your name? Your academic major? How long have you been a student here? Why are you taking this class? Do you know what you plan to do when you finish school? Form pairs and ask students to alternate interviewing each other. Consider expanding this activity by implementing CoLT 5: Three-Step Interview.

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Connections This icebreaker, effective in both small and large classes, gives students the opportunity to see the things that they have in common. • Version 1 (works best in large classes): Ask students to form groups of four to six. Have each group list as many things as they can that they all have in common, and then ask them to report back to the rest of the class. • Version 2 (works best in smaller classes): Arrange chairs in a circle, and then explain to students the process: the first student stands and begins talking about himself, telling his name, academic major, personal interests, favorite music/movies/television shows, and so forth. Once someone else has something in common with him, she also stands up and shouts, “Connection!” She then gives her name and starts describing herself. When someone else discovers that he has something in common with the second person, he stands and says, “Connection!” This continues until everyone in the room is standing. The only rules are that (1) a connection, such as the same major, cannot be repeated twice; (2) everyone must say their name before they start talking about themselves; and (3) if two or more people jump up at the same time with the same connection, the person talking about himself must choose who gets to go next.

Ball Toss Inflate a beach ball or obtain any type of lightweight ball that can be tossed easily. With a permanent marker, write questions on the ball that pertain to the course or a topic of discussion. Have the students toss the ball from student to student and, upon receiving the ball, read the question closest to the thumb of their right hand and then answer it.

Whodunit? For small classes, this can be done in one group; for larger classes, form groups of six to eight students and adapt the procedure accordingly. Give all students an index card and ask them to write down something interesting they have done, encouraging them to identify something that most people don’t already know. Collect all cards, or if students are in groups ask one student in each group to collect the group members’ cards, shuffle them, and then pass them back out. Each person (or team) takes turns reading aloud his or her card, and then the reader must guess whose fact he or she read. After he or she guesses, the guessed person simply says

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yes or no. If the person guesses correctly, the guessed person can briefly explain what he or she wrote (if desired). Continue in this manner until the author of each card has been identified. (This activity can be found at http: //www.icebreakers.ws/get-to-know-you/who-done-it-whodunit.html.) While social icebreakers can be fun for many students, some students may be uncomfortable sharing personal information with each other or feel that the activity seems too touchy-feely. Don’t ask questions or solicit information that is too personal; as an alternative, consider using collaborative activities that introduce course policies and procedures or course content.

Activities That Focus on Students as Learners Few students have given any serious consideration to how they learn. Encouraging students to think about learning gives them the opportunity to begin the process of metacognition, which Flavell (1979) describes as follows: Metacognition refers to one’s knowledge concerning one’s own cognitive processes or anything related to them, e.g., the learning-relevant properties of information or data. For example, I am engaging in metacognition if I notice that I am having more trouble learning A than B; if it strikes me that I should double check C before accepting it as fact. (p. 232) Being more aware of themselves as learners can help students understand what it is they are doing, how they prefer to do it, and how they learn in relation to others. Following are several approaches that use interactive activities to encourage students to reflect on themselves as learners and begin to develop metacognitive skills.

Personal Definition of Learning Ask students to develop a formal statement outlining their views about learning. Consider offering them prompts such as: What is knowledge? What skills do individuals need to access and share knowledge? What is learning? How do individuals in general learn? How do you specifically learn? Use the Write-Pair-Share variation of CoLT 1: Think-Pair-Share, and ask students to share their ideas with another student and then to create a new and formal statement that integrates any additional ideas that emerged from the discussion with their partner. Consider using this approach at the beginning of the term and again at the end of the term, asking students to consider whether their definitions of learning have changed.

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Self-Assessment of Ways of Learning Select a personality or learning style inventory (e.g., Meyers-Briggs Type Indicator, Firo-B, Kolb LSI, Grasha and Reichmann Student Learning Styles, Soloman and Felder Learning Styles, Fleming’s Visual, Auditory, Reading/Writing, Kinesthetic—VARK) to help students identify their general learning styles. When students have selected or been identified as possessing a specific learning style profile, organize students into small groups with the same or similar styles. Use CoLT 20: Group Grid and ask students to identify the pros and cons of their particular learning style or the advantages and disadvantages of collaborative learning for their particular styles. Alternatively, use CoLT 3: Buzz Groups and ask students to respond to questions such as, How would someone who fits in Learning Style X approach this particular task?

Focused Autobiographical Sketches Ask students to each write a one- or two-page autobiographical sketch focused on a successful (or unsuccessful) past learning experience that is relevant to learning in the current course. This provides information about the students’ self-concepts and self-awareness as learners within a specific field (Angelo & Cross, 1993, pp. 281–284). Pair students to share and discuss responses before submitting essays. Or consider implementing CoLT 24: Dialogue Journals, asking that these essays be the first entries into journals that individuals will maintain and exchange with peers throughout the semester.

Goal Ranking and Matching Use CoLT 1: Think-Pair-Share or CoLT 2: Round Robin and ask students to jot down three to five of their learning goals for the course and to rank them by importance to their lives, from 1 (most important) to 5 (least important). Explain that a goal such as “to complete a requirement” or “I want to do well in this course” is a general goal shared by many students and that you are asking them to focus on a goal that is specific and individual to them. Ask students to share their responses with their partner or group, looking for ways their responses compare or contrast. Consider asking pairs or groups to report out and write their responses on the board. Alternatively, collect the responses, and let students know when you will discuss the tallied results. After collecting the information, look for patterns and organize data into groups with common ideas and tally how many students have similar goals. In providing feedback to students, discuss areas of common ground and areas where the goals don’t coincide. If

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willing, adjust the course goals to accommodate the students’ goals; if not, explain why not (Angelo & Cross, 1993, pp. 290–294).

Activities That Introduce Course Content Collaborative activities can be used to introduce students to the content of the course, thus helping them get to know each other as they also learn the subject matter. These activities can help students identify useful prior knowledge as well as clarify learning gaps. Students may feel reassured knowing that others are at a similar starting place, and they may be able to identify exceptional knowledge or abilities of future group members. Using course content also underscores the academic rather than social purposes of collaborative learning activities. The following techniques are useful for this purpose.

Common-Sense Inventory Use a variation of CoLT 21: Team Matrix and assemble an inventory of five to fifteen interesting true-or-false statements related to the discipline or course. Ask students to form pairs or small groups and mark statements T or F. In a follow-up whole-class discussion, project a blank matrix on an overhead and ask groups to report out and explain their decisions, recording responses by placing tally marks in the T/F columns. After discussion of each statement or at the end of the activity, either give the correct responses or leave them as cliffhangers, telling students they will learn the answers as the course unfolds (Nilson, 2003).

Course-Concept Mapping Use CoLT 23: Word Webs and ask students to map out a concept that is central to the course, such as, How do we learn about the past? (for history) or What is art? (for art appreciation). In a follow-up whole-class discussion, ask team spokespersons to show and explain the ideas and associations in their group’s web, and use these reports as the basis for explaining the purpose or organization of the course.

Problem Posting Use CoLT 1: Think-Pair-Share or CoLT 2: Round Robin and ask students to identify problems (or, e.g., topics, questions, issues, information) that they think the course should address. As students report out in a follow-up whole-class discussion, use their responses to reinforce or clarify course goals and content. Consider augmenting planned course content to include

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modules or activities on student-generated ideas if their suggestions seem appropriate (McKeachie, 1994).

Course Policies and Procedures Developing shared understandings of course policies and procedures is important for class cohesiveness. Following are ideas for collaborative activities that can help students learn important course information and establish group norms.

Syllabus Review Course information is typically provided to students in the syllabus, but reading over a syllabus can be boring for students and faculty alike. Using collaborative activities to engage students in learning course information is important for several reasons. First, the syllabus is often the initial point of contact and connection between and among all of the class participants, and thus it helps set the tone for the remainder of the course. Second, it is the teacher’s opportunity to describe beliefs about educational purposes and identify how instructional methods (especially collaborative learning activities) help accomplish those purposes. Third, it can outline the new roles and responsibilities of both the instructor and the students, thus clarifying expectations and reducing the potential of future problems with individuals or groups.

Basic Syllabus Review Activity Form groups of four to six students, identify a recorder, and use CoLT 2: Round Robin to ask students to generate a list of questions about the course. Distribute the syllabus, and ask students to read the syllabus to determine which of their questions have been answered and which have not. Ask them to note any course information that the syllabus provided but they had not thought to ask. Close with a whole-class discussion on the syllabus based on their unanswered questions and their discoveries about the course. • Variation 1: Pass out the syllabus first, use CoLT 3: Buzz Groups, and ask students to read together and generate questions about the syllabus. Initiate class discussion of the syllabus by starting with these student-generated questions. This variation has the advantage of providing structure and focus to the first-day discussion.

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• Variation 2: Create a quiz with common questions regarding the course, such as, How do I get an A? What is the first deadline? and What is the make-up policy? Distribute these questions to small groups along with the syllabus. Have student groups work together to find the answers to the questions in the syllabus (Millis & Cottell, 1998). The course syllabus contains elements essential for students to understand, such as academic honesty policies and safety practices. Therefore, if the collaborative activity does not cover topics such as these, make sure to cover them when addressing the full group at some point during the class session. (See Exhibit 4.1 for policies and procedures related to collaborative learning to consider including in the syllabus.) Even if teachers choose a predominantly lecture- and discussion-based delivery, incorporating a few icebreaking or introductory activities can help students feel comfortable with each other and significantly improve their willingness to speak up in whole-class discussions. If, on the other hand, instructors plan to implement a considerable amount of group work, they may wish to add more comprehensive activities to orient students more specifically to collaborative learning. EXHIBIT 4.1

Including Collaborative Learning Policies and Procedures in the Syllabus or Orientation Course syllabi typically include general course policies such as those regarding attendance, grading, and academic honesty. Classroom procedures (e.g., attendance monitoring) may be included in the syllabus or may be covered in the first-day orientation. Consider incorporating one or more of the following elements into either the syllabus or orientation to help manage collaborative learning.

Collaborative Learning Policy A statement that summarizes why, how, and in what ways collaborative learning will be a part of the course as well as plans for assessing and grading group work; this statement can help to make plans and expectations clear to students.

Three Before Me Statement Students often expect instructors to jump in and provide them with the answers. When choosing to implement an extensively collaborative class in which students will work as independently as possible, establish guidelines in advance. For example, Kagan (1992) asks students to consult three resources before asking him for a response.

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Classroom Setup Teams With extensive use of small groups, the classroom needs to be set up accordingly. Consider conserving time by assigning students to teams that are responsible for setting up the room as soon as they get to class (Cohen, 1986).

Entry/Exit Ticket Taking attendance can be time-consuming, and in courses in which students do considerable group work it can delay or interrupt group interaction. Consider as an alternative having students complete and turn in tickets as they walk in the door for each class session. These entry tickets consist of slips of paper on which students write their names as well as questions, comments, topics that they would like to cover, problems regarding group work, or other course-related information or questions. If desired, these tickets can be used later to record attendance on a roster. It is also important to respond to student remarks to show students that their comments are important. Similar to the entry ticket, students can turn in exit tickets instead, submitting the slips of paper with their questions and comments at the end of class rather than at the beginning (Bender et al., 1994).

Signal to Stop Group Work Before starting group work, prearrange a signal that lets students know that it is time to turn their attention to you. It should be something that students will easily recognize even if they are actively involved in group work, such as flashing the lights or ringing a desktop bell. When they see or hear this signal, students should respond by stopping the conversation and making eye contact with you (Millis & Cottell, 1998). By establishing the signal the first time groups meet, students will likely observe it for the entire term.

Student Folders/Folios Student groups may keep a folder of their work that contains attendance sheets, assignments, and group feedback forms. Instructors can spot-check the folders to make sure that groups are completing the assigned work. Passing out folders and explaining their use early in the semester establishes their importance, and random checking throughout the terms ensures their continued use.

Orienting Students to Collaborative Learning In collaborative learning, students, like teachers, have new and different responsibilities from what they may be accustomed to in traditional education. MacGregor (1990, p. 25) defines seven shifts that students have to make, as shown in Exhibit 4.2. These are major changes for students involving new roles and requiring different skills. Bosworth (1994) contends that we must teach students these skills just as we would teach any other set of skills and proposes a taxonomy of collaborative skills that includes interpersonal skills, group

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management skills, inquiry skills, conflict resolution skills, and synthesis and presentation skills. In some cases, instructors can model the requisite skills, but the primary method for teaching collaborative learning skills lies in the structuring of the learning task so that the practice of the skill is essential to the accomplishment of the task. Although best taught within the context of content-based learning tasks, teachers can help students learn their new roles and develop collaborative learning skills beginning the first day of class. Exhibit 4.2 lists activities designed to help orient students to participate in group work effectively.

Establishing Group Ground Rules If you plan to use collaborative activities extensively throughout the course, establishing group ground rules early in the course can be a productive use of time and help improve group functioning. Although instructors can develop these rules, involving students in determining group work policies allows them to assume ownership and responsibility for observing and enforcing them.

Group Ground Rules Form groups, and ask one person in each group to serve as recorder. Use a combination of CoLT 2: Round Robin and CoLT 20: Group Grid, asking students to take turns answering the following questions: What behaviors do you think will be most helpful for groups? What behaviors will be least

EXHIBIT 4.2

Comparing Student Roles in the Traditional Versus Collaborative Classroom Traditional Classroom Students Shift from …

Collaborative Classroom to …

Listener, observer, and note taker Low or moderate expectations of preparation for class Private presence in the classroom with few or no risks Attendance dictated by personal choice Competition with peers Responsibilities and self-definition associated with learning independently Seeing teachers and texts as the sole sources of authority and knowledge

Active problem solver, contributor, and discussant High expectations of preparation for class Public presence with many risks Attendance dictated by community expectation Collaborative work with peers Responsibilities and self-definition associated with learning interdependently Seeing peers, self, and the community as additional and important sources of authority and knowledge

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productive in groups? The recorder writes student responses in the appropriate Helpful or Not Helpful column of the grid. Using their completed grids, groups may either develop a list of ground rules for group behavior or report out in a whole-class discussion and create a general list of ground rules. Consider developing a completed grid in advance to ensure that all productive and counterproductive behaviors have been identified in the full discussion. Alternatively, provide teams a list of several ground rules, and ask students to discuss and select a number of them from the list that they think are the most important. Or use an adaptation of CoLT 5: Three-Step Interview and solicit a small number of volunteers to interview groups of six to eight students. Ask the interviewers to report their findings to the class, and use their reports as the basis for a whole-class discussion to develop general group ground rules (Silberman, 1996).

Group Learning Contract Once ground rules are set, it may be useful to have students sign a group learning contract. Either the teacher or the students draw up and both sign a formal agreement that outlines policies, procedures, and penalties regarding group work. The contract serves as a formal record and adds emphasis and legitimacy to the group ground rules. If the students draw up the contract, consider having them submit the contract for review to allow suggestions for revision where appropriate before the final signing. Since it is likely that students will not know how to draw up a contract, it may help to have a sample form, like the one in Exhibit 4.3. Consider including other items of information such as names of group members, required tasks, and evaluation criteria. EXHIBIT 4.3

Sample Group Learning Contract For the next several class periods, I will be participating in a group to learn. I am committed to participating effectively in this group learning activity and will strive to do the following. Students supply their agreed upon ground rules, such as: ___Come to class regularly and on time ___Come prepared and ready to share in my group ___Listen actively to what others have to contribute ___Be supportive of the efforts and initiatives of others

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If I do not follow these rules, I will do the following to compensate. Students supply their own ideas or penalties, such as: ___If I miss a class, I agree to ask a group member ahead of time to take notes for me. If it is an unintended absence, I will get the notes from a group member and make up any group work I missed. ___If I am unable to prepare for a group assignment, I will make up for and do an additional proportional share of the work on the next assignment. ___If I notice or if someone points out that I am not listening, I will stop what I am doing and immediately give my full attention to whomever is speaking. ___If someone notices that I am too critical or am otherwise unsupportive, I will make efforts to watch my words and interactions in the future. Signed______________________________Date_______________

Team Agreements Provide groups with a handout that poses questions such as the following (Shank, 2006): • Will you have a leader? If so, who will this be, and will this role be rotated? • How will work be distributed? Who will do what? Who is the designated backup? • Do you know of any problems or problematic dates or times that need to be factored in? • When and how will you meet and communicate with each other? How often? • How will iteration and version control get handled? • Who will post the team deliverables? • How will you provide constructive feedback to each other? • How will you handle work that is subpar, incomplete, or not done? The group’s written responses to the questions create a draft for their formal agreement, which is reviewed by the instructor to ensure the agreement is complete and sufficiently specific. Teams do not work further on collaborative assignments until they have signed a solid and workable agreement that all members support (Shank, 2006, p. 4).

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Activities That Focus on the Benefits of Collaborative Learning To reinforce positive views of collaborative learning and to redirect students who may have negative feelings about collaborative work, consider activities that focus on the value of collaborative learning.

Collaborative Learning Pro and Con Grid Use CoLT 20: Group Grid, and ask students to complete a grid in which they identify the advantages and disadvantages of collaborative learning. Consider adding a column next to the Con column, and after students have completed identifying the pros and cons ask them to review the problems in the Con column to see whether they can identify a solution. For example, if students have stated that some individuals do most of the work while others get away with minimal work, groups might offer a suggestion for ensuring equity and individual accountability. In a follow-up whole-class discussion, make sure to address the cons. Reassure students with negative attitudes that their concerns have been heard and implement strategies for eliminating or ameliorating that con up front.

Individual Versus Group Knowledge Quiz Use a variant of CoLT 12: Test-Taking Teams, and give students a quiz that contains introductory questions regarding course content. Questions should be challenging but ones for which it is conceivable that students could answer from prior knowledge. For example, in a history course, a question might be: Who were the presidents in office during the following critical events? Or in geography: Draw a map of the world. Give students time to take the quiz individually, and then ask them to retake it as a group to demonstrate that their collective knowledge is superior to the knowledge possessed by an individual.

Group Résumé Use a variation of CoLT 20: Group Grid, with the left column containing group members’ names and the remaining columns including relevant student skills and background, such as in Exhibit 4.4. This activity allows students to interact and get to know each other better as they discover the talents and skills of other group members. It also helps students to see the benefit of collaborative work as they learn to value what their peers have to offer. • Variation 1: Ask students to name their groups, preferably with a name that is relevant to the class (e.g., a business class might have groups form an entertainment consulting company called Show Biz).

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EXHIBIT 4.4

Sample Group Résumé Student Name

Educational Background and Academic Major

General Knowledge of Course Content

Specialized Knowledge (Web Page Construction, Presentation Software, Graphic Software)

Skills (Writing, Presenting, Drawing, Acting, Facilitating)

Student 1 Student 2 Student 3 Student 4 Student 5

• Variation 2: Give student groups a specific purpose that relates to the class. For example, if student groups will complete a service-learning component with a local business, have the groups put together the résumé to send as a means of introduction to those who will serve as their supervisors. • Variation 3: Use the group résumé as the first component of a comprehensive portfolio that will evolve and include products or artifacts that groups generate during the class (Silberman, 1996, pp. 38–39).

Trust Me! Arrange students in a circle and give one student a large ball of twine. This student begins by stating, “Group work is good for____” (completing the sentence stem with a positive attribute of group work). She then tosses the ball of string to the other side of the circle, hanging onto her end of the string. The student that catches the ball then states an additional positive attribute of group work and tosses the ball of string to another student while holding onto his end of the string. The class continues in this manner until all the string has been used and a web has been formed. Consider explaining how groups are stronger when held together with a purpose. Elaborate by pointing out that initially the string was weak and lacked purpose but how held in a group it is strong. Place a heavy object on top of the

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web to demonstrate how the connections between the individual sections of string have resulted in increased strength. Finally, pull the end of a section of the string and explain how one person’s actions (such as failing to participate on time) affects everyone in the web.

Future Employer Use CoLT 2: Round Robin or CoLT 3: Buzz Groups and ask students to generate a list of skills they believe a future employer (either generic or for a representative career in the discipline) will be looking for. Common responses include mastery of the subject area, ability to work in teams, written and oral communication skills, problem-solving ability, and ability to learn on my own. Use this as the basis for a discussion of the learning objectives and goals for the course (Miller, Groccia, & Wilkes, 1996).

Course Commercial/Infomercial Students work in teams to develop a commercial advertising the importance of collaborative learning that they present or act out to the class. Alternatively, have teams create a brochure, newspaper advertisement, or other written form of advertisement. As students sell collaborative learning to others, they increase their understanding of the value of it to themselves. After teams have presented their commercials, hold a whole-class discussion on the benefits—as well as the challenges—of collaborative learning (Silberman, 1996, p. 41). In addition to the activities just mentioned, a host of other general team-building games and activities help develop positive group dynamics or demonstrate that groups are more likely to make better decisions than individuals. Activities such as tag team tic-tac-toe (Zakon, 2002), winter survival (Johnson & Johnson, 1975), and lost on the moon (Bang, 2001) show students the benefits of collaboration and illustrate the detriments of competition. Additional resources for group games are available and may be located using a Web search with keywords such as “team building” or “group games.” When planning extensive collaborative work or anticipating significant resistance to collaborative work, consider including one of these kinds of activities as part of the orientation strategy.

Conclusion Collaborative learning requires students to assume new roles and develop skills that are different from those they are accustomed to using in traditional classrooms. Although learning these roles and skills may be best

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achieved on an ongoing basis in content-focused learning tasks, it is helpful to introduce students to the shift in expectations early in the class. In this chapter, we offered ideas for activities to help orient students to varying degrees of collaboration. Setting aside sufficient time for students to get to know each other, to build trust, to develop a sense of class community, and to establish group rules can ensure that the course gets off to a positive start by helping orient students to effective collaborative learning. EXHIBIT 4.5

Orienting Students to Collaborative Learning in Online Courses Following are ideas for adapting or supplementing the strategies described in the body of this chapter for online courses. As a general guideline for all of the following strategies, the activity can be done in one group if your course is small. For classes with larger enrollment, consider forming base groups that will stay together throughout the academic term (see Chapter Five).

Create and Require an Orientation Online students must collaborate in the absence of the other group members’ physical presence. Without typical communication cues such as eye contact and body language, it can be difficult for them to make sense of each other and their shared tasks. Because of these added challenges, it is important to provide guidance early in the course on how to interact, solve problems, criticize constructively, divide and assume responsibilities, organize their work, manage their time, and provide an end product that is representative of their collaborative efforts. If possible, an onsite meeting that addresses these issues can help students get to know each other and minimize later problems. Alternatively, create an online module that introduces students to collaboration in the online environment. Consider the following components (adapted from Morris, 2005): 1. Define group work and identify how online groups are unique (e.g., members are physically separated and primarily interact electronically). 2. Suggest specific roles (see Chapter Five). 3. Identify the characteristics of productive teams. 4. Offer advice on resolving conflicts. 5. Include success stories from previous students in which they offer recommendations on how to do collaborative work online successfully. 6. Ask each student to write and submit a personal reflection to a prompt such as, Think about when you have been part of a learning group and list things you did that worked well and things that you could have done better or After reading the success stories from previous students, list two to three suggestions that you will try in your group this semester. 7. Create an initial group activity such as establishing group ground rules (see below).

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Icebreakers Creating specific activities that help students get to know each early on can assist students in feeling more comfortable and provide the tools for them to interact more effectively in online group work. Most of the icebreakers described in the previous section can be adapted for an online course. For example, introductions can be done online by creating a threaded discussion titled Introductions and asking students to write and post an introduction according to a structured framework. In their introductions, ask them to describe their experience with technology or online classes as well as their experiences with collaboration in these environments. But the following are icebreakers that are particularly effective in an online setting. Vita Trading: Ask students to upload their vitas via document sharing to share with the whole class. Assign students to pairs or small groups. Students read the other students’ vitas, come up with five words to describe each student, and post the words in a threaded discussion. Miscommunication E-Style: In a threaded discussion or chat, ask the class to share an embarrassing mishap involving online communication, for example, replying to the wrong person in an e-mail or replying to all instead of an individual. This approach can help to lighten the mood as well as to draw attention to some potential mishaps that might be avoided in the future. Mapping for Meeting of the Minds: Many online classes include students from different locations and even cultures. Ask students to do the following: (1) identify their location (where they live at the moment); (2) identify how far that location is from a preidentified location, such as the geographic location of the institution offering the course (students use a mapping site such as Google maps); and (3) identify one interesting highlight of their location. This activity works well on a blog, in which images of the map can be embedded. YourNameExplain.com: Ask students to generate a hypothetical URL that involves at least part of their name (first, middle, or last) and that tells other students something interesting about them. For example, a student named Sarah might choose Sarah’sKarateBlog.com to indicate a hobby, whereas a student named George might choose something like GeorgeMBA.com to indicate his chosen degree path. This activity works in a chat session or in a threaded discussion.

Introductory Collaborative Activities Syllabus Review Create a threaded discussion titled Syllabus Review, and initiate the discussion with a prompt such as, After reading the syllabus, what questions do you still have about the course? or Is there anything about the course that surprises you or that is different from what you had expected? Ask students to respond both to the prompt and to at least one other student’s posting. Some instructors have found it useful to develop a required syllabus quiz to ensure that online students take the time to read the syllabus carefully. This can also provide a record to show that students were aware of the deadlines, grading procedures, academic honesty policy, and so forth should problems arise later in the course.

Group Ground Rules Create a threaded discussion titled Group Ground Rules, and ask students to use the forum to respond to prompts such as, In this online course, what behaviors do you think will be most helpful for working in groups? What behaviors will be least productive? What rule would you recommend that you think could help ensure your

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group works together in this class productively? and What penalty would you recommend for group members that break the rule? At the discussion deadline, ask the groups to select the rules or penalties they wish to adopt and to post these in a separate thread to which each group member can indicate his or her willingness to comply.

Common-Sense Inventory (Nilson, 2003) Identify a few commonly misunderstood true-or-false statements related to the discipline or course, and then post these as topics on a threaded discussion. Ask group members to share their views in their group’s forum as to whether the statements are true or false, and then come to a consensus along with a statement explaining their decision to post on the whole class forum. When the forum closes, either give and explain the correct response or tell them that they will learn the answers later in the course.

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Chapter 5

Forming Groups Groups are a basic social structure, and both within and outside the academic world they form and reform in a variety of ways for multiple purposes. On a college campus, students gather together in groups for all sorts of reasons ranging from clubs and committees to athletic teams and sororities. While students form groups naturally and easily outside the classroom, forming groups within a course can be an unnatural process. Yet for collaborative learning to be successful, it is important to form groups that can effectively and efficiently accomplish the goals of the assignment. In this chapter, we provide advice about group formation in three key topic areas: group types, group size, and group membership.

Group Types Collaborative learning groups exist in many sizes and forms and work together to achieve an array of objectives. Groups vary according to the goal, the activity, and the length of time students will work together, although these different aspects are interrelated. With these attributes in mind, groups can be classified as informal, formal, or base (Johnson, Johnson, & Smith, 1991). Informal groups are formed quickly and randomly and are primarily used in onsite classes as a break out to a longer class activity. A teacher might, for example, take a break during lecture and ask students to work with others to respond to a question, solve a problem, or brainstorm ideas. These groups may be formed frequently and have new members each class session. Many of the collaborative learning techniques (CoLTs) in Part Three, such as CoLT 1: Think-Pair-Share and CoLT 25: Round Table, and CoLT 3: Buzz Groups, are intended for informal groups. Formal learning groups are created to achieve a more complex goal. They may last from one class period to several weeks, whatever it takes

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to complete a specific task or assignment such as writing a report or developing a presentation. Because the purpose of formal groups is to accomplish shared goals, capitalize on different talents and knowledge, and maximize the learning of everyone in the group, it is usually better to be more thoughtful and intentional regarding group membership. CoLTs such as CoLT 6: Critical Debate, CoLT 15: Case Studies, or CoLT 18: Group Investigation are examples of techniques that work best in formal groups. Base groups are long-term groups that work on a variety of tasks. They stay together for the entire term or even the academic year, and their purpose is to offer members support and encouragement as together they achieve an overarching goal (Johnson et al., 1991). An example of a base group is a learning community, which typically involves integration of curricula, team teaching, and institutional support (Gabelnick, MacGregor, Matthews, & Smith, 1990; Matthews, Smith, MacGregor, & Gabelnick, 1997; Tinto, Love, & Russo, 1994). Within a course, base groups might be formed either to accomplish a term-length project—such as CoLT 24: Dialogue Journals—or they may be assigned a series of learning tasks that incorporate a sequence of CoLTs. For example, each base group might first participate in CoLT 2: Round Robin to generate ideas for a semester-long research project. They can then sort the ideas and identify themes in CoLT 19: Affinity Grouping, conduct and write up their research in CoLT 28: Collaborative Process Writing, and then share their findings in CoLT 30: Paper Seminar. Thus, the type of group you choose to form—whether informal, formal, or base—depends on the purpose of the group, the type of assignment, and the time it will take to complete the assignment. You may wish to use a combination of different types of groups in a given term. For example, you may choose to form base groups but occasionally change to informal groups with different members to create variety. Alternatively, you may choose to use primarily informal groups for quick breakouts but create formal groups for longer projects. The key is to match the type of group to what it is you want the groups to accomplish and the length of time required for the group to do the work.

Group Size Onsite collaborative groups typically range in size from two to six students. Many times pairs work best, especially in quick exchanges such as an interrupted lecture where minimal disruption is desired. Small groups also may work best early in the term as they can maximize involvement and make it easier for members to plan meetings (Smith, 1996, p. 77). In the

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onsite classroom, group size may also be dictated by the physical facilities or the learning task. For example, groups of two or three might be the only practical arrangement for large-enrollment classes or science or computer laboratory assignments. While size may be dictated by any number of factors and preferences, Bean (1996, p. 160) gives a cogent rationale for settling on five as the most effective size. He observes that groups of four tend to divide into pairs and groups of three split into a pair and an outsider. Groups of six work almost as well, but as groups get larger they dilute the experience and increase the logistical challenges. Generally, collaborative learning advocates suggest that the group be small enough so that students can participate fully and build confidence in one another yet large enough to have sufficient diversity and the necessary resources to accomplish the learning task.

Group Membership There are many ways to constitute groups: membership can be random, student selected, or teacher determined; membership can be based on interests, abilities, attitudes, or a host of other characteristics; and groups can be heterogeneous or homogeneous. Broadly speaking, research supports heterogeneous grouping because working with diverse students exposes individuals to people with different ideas, backgrounds, and experiences. This is a major educational value of collaborative learning. There is also some evidence that diverse groups are more productive and better suited for multidimensional tasks (Aronson, Blaney, Stephan, Sikes, & Snapp, 1978; Cranton, 1998; Johnson et al., 1991; Sharan & Sharan, 1992). There are, however, some disadvantages in heterogeneous groups. Students can be uncomfortable with the diversity of opinion and the possible tension that results from disagreement. Distributing minority or female students among groups to achieve heterogeneity can isolate them, putting them into the position of being the sole representative of their group. This separation can be detrimental to their academic success because they can become marginalized, placed in stereotypical roles, and not permitted to flourish (Felder, Felder, Mauney, Hamrin, & Dietz, 1995; Rosser, 1997; Sandler, Silverberg, & Hall, 1996). Finally, when academic achievement is used to create a heterogeneous group, there may be insufficient opportunities for low achievers to show leadership (if a high achiever dominates) and not enough contact between high achievers (who may miss academic stimulation).

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Homogeneous grouping offers advantages for some kinds of learning activities. For example, students who share common characteristics may feel sufficiently at ease with each other to discuss or explore highly sensitive or personal issues (Brookfield & Preskill, 1999). Homogeneous groups may also master most efficiently highly structured skill-building tasks, since students can communicate with each other starting from a similar level of knowledge. Homogeneous groups may be good for language learning or other specific content mastery in which group reinforcement of similar knowledge or skills is important (Cooper, Prescott, Cook, Smith, Mueck, & Cuseo, 1990; Johnson & Johnson, 1984). Additionally, students tend to prefer working with students similar to themselves, and hence satisfaction with collaborative learning often increases when groups are homogeneous. The greatest disadvantage to homogeneous groups is that students do not experience the rich interactions and exchange that can occur working with a diverse group of peers. How groups are constituted depends on the goals of the course and the learning tasks that are assigned. In the absence of any clear rationale for assigning group membership, instructors may simply opt for random assignment or choose to mix groups throughout the term such that sometimes groups are homogeneous and other times they are heterogeneous.

Selecting Group Members There are basically three methods for assigning group membership: random, student selection, and instructor determined.

Random Instructors can form groups quickly and efficiently using a variety of random selection techniques. Random selection is ideal for most informal groups organized for short-term assignments, and it is also useful for breaking up longer-term formal or base groups to create variety. Students perceive this selection process as fair, and although random selection does not guarantee heterogeneity, if used often, random grouping gives students opportunities to work with most or all of their classmates. Several techniques can help randomly form groups (McKeachie, 1994; Millis & Cottell, 1998; Silberman, 1996).

Free-Form Walk among the students and form groups as you go, simply pointing and saying, “You five are a group,” “You four are a group,” and so forth. If you point to students sitting next to each other, this method will tend to

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form homogeneous groups. Online, simply use the class roll as a way to free-form. Splitting the roll into roughly equal parts, assign by last names: for example, students with last names beginning with A–G form a group; last names H–M form a group; and last names N–Z form a group.

Odd–Even Walk up classroom aisles alternatively calling odd and even aloud for each row, and then ask students in the odd row to turn around to talk to students in the even row behind, forming themselves into groups of four to six. Similar to free-forming, use the class roll to odd–even groups. Split the list into equal-sized parts, and label each group odd or even (you may have to add numbers, e.g., odds group one, evens group two, odds group two). Ask even and odd groups to work together.

Count Off Ask students to count off in class. The first student starts with saying one, the second two, and so on, counting up to the number of groups one wishes to have and then starting the cycle again. Then all students with the same numbers form a group. This method tends to break up cliques of students sitting together. For online groups, use the class roll and assign and begin numbering from the top. When you reach the desired number of students in each group, restart the numbering sequence. Thus, number the students 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and when the desired number is reached—in this case 5—continue numbering the list with the next student but restart the list at 1, continuing again through 5 before restarting with the next student at 1.

Numbered Slips of Paper Distribute numbers written on slips of paper or have students select a number out of a hat or other container. This works well for large classes in which the number of students in the class could cause confusion in a count-off procedure.

Playing Cards Give a playing card to each student, distributing four cards of each kind (e.g., four aces, four kings, four queens). Students find the other students with the same card rank to form groups of four. If you wish to form groups of five, add cards taken from another deck. If the class does not divide evenly, the one to three remaining students receive a wildcard (the joker) and may choose a group to join, but no more than one student with a wildcard may join any one group.

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Create Cards Make your own cards. Write on each card A-1 (for Group A, Member 1), A-2, B-1, B-2, and so forth, or use different discipline-based team names, colored dots, or decorative stickers to identify teams.

Line Up and Divide Ask students to line up in order of their birthdays (or in alphabetical order of their first or last names, or by height, and so forth). Break the line to form groups with the number of students needed for an activity.

Jigsaw Matchups Find a number of pictures or graphics, tear or cut each into pieces, and ask students to find others with matching pieces. This technique works well in geography, art, landscape design, or other courses where visual images are important.

Text Matchups Use a line from a poem or other text and have students find students with other lines from the same poem or text. This approach works particularly well in a course where recognition of language, literature, or other text passages is important.

Student Selection Allowing students to choose their partners or group members can be a fast, efficient group-forming technique. Students may feel more comfortable and be more motivated to work together if they are permitted to choose their own group members (Brookfield & Preskill, 1999). They also may perceive this member selection process to be fairer. For this reason, occasionally allowing students to choose their own group members can be a good idea. Following are techniques in which students select group members.

Free-Form Have students form groups with minimal instructions. You may wish to set an approximate number of students to work in each group. Ensure that every student is able to find a group. This also works well in online groups: instructors simply ask students to find a group; chat or instant messaging works well, but e-mail will also do if time permits.

Team Hiring Set up a team-hiring method (Hughes, 1996, cited in Millis & Cottell, 1998). Identify students who will function as employers. These students are responsible for identifying the characteristics that will contribute

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best to the success of their team. Depending on the assignment, these characteristics might include content knowledge, a specific group work skill (e.g., facilitation, research, or presentation skills), or certain demographic characteristics. Other students draw up résumés that identify their qualifications in terms of these characteristics. Team leaders are given equal amounts of money and a hiring budget to submit bids for the members they desire. After tabulating the bids, the instructor forms teams. This will work well in a class where hiring is related to the subject matter, such as in business or personnel management. This technique can also be effective in online courses. Instructors can provide students with space to post advertisements as well as résumés. Student choice of group members, however, tends to create groups based on friendships, thus leaving some feeling like outsiders and risking that students will stray off task. Student choice also tends to reinforce homogeneity and may fail to expose students to a rich diversity of ideas, values, and perspectives (Fiechtner & Davis, 1992). Unless there is some specific reason for allowing students to choose their own groups, it is probably better to use random assignment or to assign students to specific groups.

Instructor Determined For formal or base groups, instructors often determine membership in groups. Organization can be based on student interests or student characteristics. Interest grouping is useful for motivating students and for assigning students to roles based on a particular viewpoint, such as in CoLT 10: Role-Play or CoLT 6: Critical Debates. The disadvantages of interest grouping are that it may reinforce homogeneity and students may not be comfortable having their views on certain topics aired publicly. Selecting membership based on student characteristics is known as stratification. In stratified groups, instructors organize student characteristics (e.g., demographics or level of academic achievement) into similar layers and then use this information to create groups. Although this approach is generally used to create heterogeneous groups (with groups formed by choosing individuals from different strata), the same data can be used to create homogeneous groups. The following techniques are useful for sorting groups by interest or characteristics (Cooper et al., 1990; Fiechtner & Davis, 1992; Millis & Cottell, 1998; Nurrenbern, 1995; Silberman, 1996).

Show of Hands Have students raise their hands to respond to a series of questions and assign groups based on responses. In a synchronous online environment, such as Blackboard Collaborate, students can also raise their hands in the chat area.

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Student Sign-Up Choose topics for students to investigate, write these on a sign-up sheet or post these on several signs around the room, and ask students to sign up for their preferences. Predetermine the number of slots available for each group, and allow students to sign up on a first-come, first-served basis, or leave the number of slots open and organize into groups after everyone has indicated their preference. Google Docs (http://docs.google.com) provides an ideal area for students to sign up for online groups.

Single-Statement Likert Scale Rating Prepare a statement that encapsulates an important or controversial issue in the field on which attitudes and opinions will vary. Ask students to select from a five-point Likert scale the number that best describes their positions (1 = strongly agree to 5 = strongly disagree). Form groups based on the numbers they chose. For homogeneous groups, ask students to form groups of four with students who selected the same number. For heterogeneous groups, ask students to form groups with a 1, 2, 3, and 4 in each group. Survey technologies such as SurveyMonkey (http://www.surveymonkey .com) can allow online instructors to accomplish the same task; simply create a brief survey and ask students to respond to prompts on a Likert scale.

Corners Designate a type of characteristic or a specific interest for each of the four corners of the room. For example, the corners might represent clusters of academic majors or answers to a multiple-choice question like, The greatest value of college life comes from (a) academic subjects studied; (b) social skills acquired; (c) networks formed with peers and professors; (d) the opportunity to interact with people of differing backgrounds, cultures, and views (Millis & Cottell, 1998, pp. 83–84). For homogeneous groups, assign students within each corner to the same group; for heterogeneous groups, assign one student from each corner to the same group.

Essay Ask students each to write an essay on a controversial statement or question, and form groups based on qualitative analysis of their comments. This approach to group formation is also a good one for an online environment. Students simply write an essay as before and submit it through a learning management system assignment area, e-mail, or by posting it to their own blogs. The instructor then assesses qualitatively to form groups, based on either perspective similarities or differences.

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Data Sheet Develop a data sheet that can be distributed with the syllabus to elicit demographic characteristics, skills, or academic information such as expertise in technology, academic major, the number of courses taken in the major, and job-related experience. Use this information to form either homogeneous or heterogeneous groups. Consider asking for telephone number, e-mail address, and schedule of availability to provide groups with information to facilitate communication. Allow students to indicate whether they are willing to have this information shared with other students.

Course-Based Test Scores Use pretest or recent test scores to form groups based on levels of knowledge.

Discipline-Related Products Form groups based on an example of discipline-related achievement, such as a writing sample or painting.

College-Based Achievement Ranking If the information is available, use past grades, standardized exams, or entrance examinations to list students by ranking and form groups based on demonstrated academic achievement.

Learning Style Select a personality or learning style inventory (e.g., Meyers-Briggs Type Indicator, Firo-B, Kolb LSI, Grasha and Reichmann Student Learning Styles, Soloman and Felder Learning Styles, Fleming’s Visual, Auditory, Reading/Writing, Kinesthetic—VARK) and form groups based on learning style profiles. The choice of selection method can be varied throughout the term, depending on the learning activity. For example, random techniques work best for quick formation of informal groups, and instructor-determined techniques work better for formal and base groups. Alternatively, elements of different selection techniques can be combined, such as allowing students to identify three classmates with whom they would like to work and then making an effort to assign one identified classmate to the requesting student’s team.

Changing Group Members Questions often arise over whether to change group membership frequently (to give students a chance to work with more people) or rarely (to give

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groups a chance to form strong working relationships). Most experienced teachers who use group work come down on the side of keeping groups intact for as long as possible. Even when groups appear to be deteriorating, as they sometimes do, Miller and colleagues argue that “teachers must have faith that in time they will pull out of their tailspin. Intervening immediately to shuffle the groups can set them back, lose hard-won experience, and force them to start all over again” (Miller, Trimbur, & Wilkes, 1994, p. 40). Groups take time to mature, and some of the most valuable learning experiences come from learning to work through difficult disagreements. Exhibit 5.1 offers ideas for how to form groups in different types of classrooms.

EXHIBIT 5.1

Forming Groups Within Various Classroom Settings Some types of classrooms are more conducive to group work than others, but faculty can include collaborative activities in any kind of classroom. The following are suggestions for achieving collaborative work in specific types of classrooms (adapted from Silberman, 1996, pp. 10–16).

Fixed-Seat

Students seated next to each other on the same level can form pairs or trios. Although pairs

Auditorium or

can turn around in their seats for a limited period of time to work with a pair behind

Lecture Hall

them, activities may best be limited to short brainstorming or brief discussions. Since groups are unable to work together for long periods in uncomfortable conditions, more complex collaborative assignments should be done outside of scheduled class time.

Laboratories

Laboratories most often contain workstations where groups of students can work together. Depending on the kind of laboratory, groups of different sizes can form and reform throughout the class session. For example, in a computer laboratory, pairs might work best for an assignment, but for brief periods another pair could gather and look over their shoulders, forming a quad.

Movable Desks

Students can form pairs or small groups. Because students do not have a single shared workspace, writing together or manipulating pieces of paper (such as in a graphic organizer CoLT) may be challenging.

Movable Tables

The flexibility offered by this type of setting makes it ideal for a variety of group activities. In addition to pairs and pair-cluster arrangements, larger student teams can work together at a table. The tables can be pulled together to create one large conference table. The tables and chairs may also be arranged in a U-shape. Almost any kind of collaborative activity can be accomplished in this type of classroom.

Seminar

Organize the class into two or three teams; one team can work at the middle of the table, and the remaining teams can take different corners or ends of the table.

Large Classroom

Students can come together for a large session and then spread out for teamwork. This

with Breakout

classroom allows for groups to work independently on projects without disturbing other

Space or Rooms

groups and is ideal for medium- or long-term groups.

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Assigning Roles to Group Members Many instructors choose to assign (or allow students to select) students’ specific roles within their group, which gives them a purpose for participating and ensures that various aspects of a learning task are addressed. It also encourages interdependence among group members and thus helps improve group processes. Commonly used roles (e.g., facilitator or recorder) quickly communicate the expected function and can get groups working fast and efficiently. Millis and Cottell (1998, pp. 54–55) define six common role assignments, shown in Exhibit 5.2, that work well in college-level collaborative learning groups. There are also other kinds of roles, such as those that emerge out of a specific learning task. For example, in CoLT 15: Case Study, students might be asked to assume a role and view the case from the perspective of a chief executive officer, chief financial officer, board member, or stockholder. In CoLT 17: Analytic Teams, students might be asked to assume roles that

EXHIBIT 5.2

Six Common Group Roles Facilitator

Recorder

Reporter

Timekeeper

Materials Manager

Wildcard

Moderates all team discussions, keeping the group on task for each assignment and ensuring that everybody assumes their share of the work. Facilitators strive to make sure that all group members have the opportunity to learn, to participate, and to earn the respect of the other group members. Records any assigned team activities. Recorders take notes summarizing discussion, keep all necessary records (including data sheets such as attendance and homework check-offs), and complete worksheets or written assignments for submission to the instructor. Serves as group spokesperson and orally summarizes the group’s activities or conclusions. Reporters also assist the recorder with the preparation of reports and worksheets. Keeps the group aware of time constraints, works with the facilitator to keep the group on task, and can also assume the role of any missing group member. The timekeeper is also responsible for any set-up and for ensuring that the team’s work area is in good condition when the session ends. If the instructor has created group work folders, the manager picks up the team folder, distributes all material other than data sheets, and returns all papers, assignments, or notes to team members. Materials managers ensure that all relevant class materials are in the folder at the end of the class session. Assumes the role of any missing member or fills in however needed.

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focus on the analytic process, such as proponent, critic, summarizer, or example giver. Not every group member needs to be assigned a role for every task. For example, a straightforward task such as an informal group generating a list using CoLT 2: Round Robin might require only one student to assume a recorder role. For long-term formal or base groups, rotating assigned roles gives all students opportunities to practice various social, communication, and leadership skills and discourages domination by one person. Millis and Cottell summarize Miller’s (1996) rationale for rotating role assignments, observing that students often “opt for tasks that come easily” and “circumvent tasks that challenge them. Assigning rotating roles in a group, a practice perceived as equitable, allows all students to be stretched by a variety of tasks” (Millis & Cottell, 1998, p. 54). Millis and Cottell (1998) also offer suggestions for identifying role assignments at the same time groups are formed. Using Count-Off to Assign Roles If using the count-off method for group formation, then all ones are assigned the same role. Playing Cards If using playing cards in which the rank of the card has determined the group, then the suit of the card determines the role. The joker becomes the wild card role assignment.

Conclusion Teachers make various decisions as they form groups. They must choose the type, the environment, and the size and determine whether they want group membership to be homogeneous or heterogeneous. They must then choose a method for selecting group members. The issues that attend these choices are important. While we want students to learn course concepts, we also want them to develop collaborative skills. While we want students to be motivated and comfortable, we also want to challenge thinking and promote diversity. While we want students to forge long-lasting relationships and give them sufficient time to cohere as groups, we also want them to meet new people. Thus, many factors influence how teachers form groups, and the various decisions should be made on a case-by case basis. Because forming groups in online environments involves further considerations, we provide additional advice in Exhibit 5.3.

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EXHIBIT 5.3

Forming Groups in Online Classes Forming and using groups in online courses is different than in onsite courses. In onsite courses, groups interact at the same time and within the same space, demonstrating groupness through proximity to each other and distance from others. These factors provide students with a sense of being in the moment and part of the instructional event. In contrast, online groups do not typically share the same physical space; instead, group members connect with each other from their own space, and although members in online courses may share the same time if they are meeting synchronously, technology allows for students to work quite well in asynchronous groups. These fundamental differences pose unique challenges in forming groups in online courses. For example, online groups do not have the same facility as onsite groups for forming and reforming quickly. In addition, it typically takes members longer to begin to work together efficiently and to bond as a group (Major, 2014). On the other hand, because technology can eliminate logistical challenges of scheduling face-to-face meetings outside of class time, groups can actually start working together more efficiently and quickly online. Furthermore, synchronous meetings can be scheduled no matter where group/team members are located, using teleconferencing tools such as Elluminate, WebEx, or Google Hangouts. Assign each base group an initial name (e.g., Group A), and create separate, private forums in which they can interact throughout the semester.

Group Types As with onsite courses, it is useful to think in terms of informal, formal, or base groups. Informal groups can be formed for brainstorming or responding to a question simply by creating different discussion forums or threads. For most classes, however, it is better to create base groups that will work together for several weeks or throughout the term.

Group Size In most online classes, especially those that combine different types of activities, instructors use a range of group sizes to accomplish their goals. Although group size may be similar to those in onsite classes, without the constraints of physical space effective group size can be much larger for certain kinds of tasks. For example, brainstorming or sharing opinions can be very effective using large groups of ten to twenty in an online class, since more student participation equates with more ideas and more reactions from others. Indeed, groups in massive open online courses (MOOCs) may consist of thousands of members. In formal groups that will be working together on a complex project, smaller groups of three to five tend to be more effective because they make coordinating logistics easier and reduce the opportunities for social loafing. So while a brainstorming group might have ten to twenty members, a peer editing group (see CoLT #27) might have two, three, or five members. In short, just as with onsite groups, the size of an online group depends on what an instructor wants to accomplish, the type of group, the nature of the assignment, and the duration of the task.

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Group Membership As in onsite courses, many factors can be considered when selecting membership. Do you want the groups to be random, student selected, or instructor determined? To be based on interests, abilities, or attitudes? To be heterogenous or homogeneous? Once you have decided, you can adapt the ideas for onsite group formation to the online environment. For example, if you are forming random groups, adapt count-off and form groups based on number (dividing the class list into groups of twelve) or alphabetical by last name (A–H, I–P, Q–Z). If, instead, you want the groups to be based on characteristics such as background, interests, abilities, or attitudes, and even think you want to use these as a basis for creating heterogeneous or homogeneous groups, then consider one of the onsite instructor-determined strategies. For example, adapt the single-statement Likert scale technique, and create an online survey in which you have students select from the scale the number that best describes their positions (1 = agree to 5 = strongly disagree) to a statement that you have prepared. Also, some learning management systems have built-in tools for forming groups randomly or by various characteristics. Regardless of group size, identify groups (e.g., Group A, Group B), assign membership, and provide groups with their own space to discuss their work (e.g., a discussion board) as an adjunct to the whole-class area. Depending on the nature of the assignment, consider providing only group members access to their group’s discussion area. Alternatively, consider allowing other spaces for online learners in groups to interact, such as Google Hangout, WebEx, Elluminate, or Skype.

Group Roles The roles that work in an onsite class may not be as appropriate for an online one. The role of recorder, for example, is often obsolete in an online environment, particularly in a text-based one. Similarly, the role of timekeeper may not be suitable for an asynchronous class. Thus, the teacher needs to develop new roles that are appropriate for the task as well as for the environment. Each situation will be unique, but some options follow: Data Gatherer: The individuals who scout out important information (from, e.g., data sets, journals, reports) necessary to complete the task. Multimedia Specialist: The individuals who collect new information, in the form of, for example, photos, recordings, and interviews. Data Manager: The individuals who make meaning of the information that has been collected. Community Manager: The individual who ensures that the work group is functioning appropriately and is meeting deadlines. Curator: The individual who manages the technology and ensures that it is working correctly and that information is being uploaded appropriately. Editor: The individual who is responsible for making sure that the final product, whether video, audio, or text, is produced cleanly and error free. Note: Students may change roles at different times and occupy many roles simultaneously.

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Chapter 6

Facilitating Student Collaboration In a lecture-based classroom, teachers typically know what to do: present information to the students, answer their questions, and perhaps try to engage them in a whole-class discussion. In a discussion-based classroom, teachers also typically know what to do: ask questions, probe students to deeper thinking and responses, and perhaps encourage conversation among peers. When it comes to collaborative learning, the teacher’s roles and responsibilities while in the classroom are not as readily apparent. After learning tasks have been designed and assigned, the instructor’s task is to help groups work effectively, yet it is not always easy to know what to do to facilitate group work. In this chapter, therefore, we focus on how to facilitate student collaborative sessions. We provide advice about introducing the collaborative activity, observing and interacting with groups, structuring reporting-out processes, and helping groups achieve closure.

Introducing the Activity The manner in which teachers introduce the task sets the tone for the activity. Instructions may be presented orally or in video, outlined on a presentation slide (perhaps with a flow chart or sequential diagram), written on the board, or distributed in a handout. Providing written instructions is helpful to all students but particularly to some kinds of learners, such as hearing-impaired or nonnative English speakers. Written instructions are essential if the activity is complex or long-term or if the groups will leave the room. Following are some suggestions for information to include when introducing the activity so that students understand the task clearly (Johnson et al., 1998a; University of Waterloo, 2000): • Explain the activity. Providing students with a basic overview helps students see the big picture.

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• Clarify the objectives. Telling students the purpose of the activity offers an opportunity to relate the task to larger class goals and prior knowledge or to suggest new concepts that will be addressed, thus helping students see the benefit of the activity. • Outline the procedures. Describing exactly what students are going to do in a step-by-step format minimizes or eliminates confusion during the activity itself. • Present examples if needed. Providing a concrete example that illustrates the process or shows a model final product can help students get a clearer idea of what they need to do. • Remind groups of the rules for group interaction. Reviewing or establishing ground rules helps prevent future problems. Particularly if groups will work together for a long period of time, review policies and procedures for working with each other, mentioning, for example, aspects such as mutual respect, active listening, the signal that will be used to indicate a shift from group work to whole-class work, and techniques for group decision making. (See Chapter Four for suggestions on how to involve students in developing rules.) • Set time limits. Establishing a time limit helps students pace themselves. If the estimate is on the low side, students may work quickly and efficiently, and the time limit can always be extended if needed. On the other hand, if the estimate is on the high side, some students may take time to be more reflective. If many groups finish more quickly than you had anticipated, shorten the time. Be prepared for groups to finish at different times, however, and have in mind extension activities such as additional questions (perhaps for bonus points) that keep groups occupied until all groups finish. • Provide the prompt. Including a prompt with the activity introduction may be appropriate. Most often, prompts will come in the form of questions or problems, but they may also include short topics or statements for exploration or debate (See Chapter Three Exhibit 3.1 for ideas for prompt stems.) • Query the students for understanding. Asking students whether they have questions before they begin the activity will provide an opportunity to clarify any aspects of the activity that may still be confusing.

Observing and Interacting with Groups Observing student groups can help teachers acquire information about group interaction, identify problems, and determine if students are achieving learning goals. As teachers observe, they might notice, for example,

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whether students are staying on task, whether one student is dominating, or whether tensions are brewing. Observation provides information about when things are going well; it also creates opportunities to redirect students or to probe them with questions to promote deeper learning. Knowing such information can help teachers organize groups or modify tasks for future collaborative activities. Observation should be as unobtrusive as possible so that it does not interfere with natural group processes: circulate among the groups, but don’t lurk or hover. In collaborative learning, students assume responsibility for their work. If the teacher is readily available, students tend to seek direction. Furthermore, faculty presence can have unintended consequences, such as stifling group discussion. It may be appropriate to leave the working space, whether the physical classroom, chat room, or discussion area, for a short time so that students have the opportunity to share uncertainties and disagreements without having the faculty member present (Jaques, 2000). While most often students should work on their own, there are times when they will want and need teacher interaction, and it should be supportive rather than directive. In supportive interaction, the instructor and the students are mutually responsible for the learning that occurs in the classroom. Johnson and Johnson (1984) and Silberman (1996, pp. 24–26) suggest several strategies instructors can use to provide supportive rather than directive supervision. • Be available to clarify instruction, review procedures, and answer questions about the assignment. Students may believe they understand the assignments and instructions but, upon working with other group members, find that they have different interpretations about what they should do. The instructor should be able to clarify these points for students early on so that they do not spend time struggling with the wrong assignment. • Paraphrase or ask a question to clarify what a student has said. Students sometimes state ideas in a way that other students may not immediately get. If group members look puzzled by a student’s comments, ask a question that can help the student restate the point and clarify it for the group. Alternatively, paraphrasing what the student has contributed can be reinforcing for the student, demonstrating that his or her idea has been transmitted and understood and helping make it clearer for others. • Compliment the student on an interesting or insightful comment. Students need reinforcement, and complimenting a student can be a powerful motivator.

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• Elaborate on a student’s statement or suggest a new perspective. Stopping to share with the group a new perspective on an idea can help the group delve into deeper levels of thinking about a topic. • Energize by using humor or by asking for additional contributions. This approach can be particularly helpful when students are struggling with complex material and have become frustrated. It can help students put things into perspective and make class fun. However, humor can be more challenging to convey through some mediums, such as e-mail or discussion boards. • Disagree with a student comment, but be gentle. Instructors are sometimes hesitant to correct students for fear of stifling their creativity and causing students to be more reluctant to speak the next time. However, if you overhear misinformation, it is important to correct it. If done gently and tactfully, students will appreciate that they got the correct response. It is also important for them to recognize that there is a difference of opinion or another side to the issue. Pointed questions are also a good way to redirect the conversation. • Mediate between students. If students are having trouble working together, try to let them work it out, but if the conflict is escalating and the discussion is becoming heated, intervene to prevent a permanent breach. Statements like, “These are both very good points,” or “You can see why there is so much controversy about this issue,” or “Both sides have very good arguments” can help ease tensions. • Pull together ideas by pointing out relationships. Students do not have the same familiarity that instructors do with course concepts. If groups are struggling with making connections between ideas and information, remind them how the task they’re performing relates to something they studied previously or to something current in the news. • Summarize the group’s major views. Ascertain the group’s major views to note the connections between group ideas and prepare for moving to a full-class discussion. This will also validate the work that students have been doing, and it can help them mentally review the major points of discussion. It may also be useful to share these strategies with group leaders so that they have guidelines for interacting effectively with team members. Group work sometimes requires members to make a decision, and students with little background may struggle trying to reach consensus. See Exhibit 6.1 for descriptions of common approaches to group decision making that you may want to consider sharing with groups.

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EXHIBIT 6.1

Group Decision-Making Techniques Groups sometimes make important decisions, but because many students have had little training in reaching a group decision, arriving at a decision can be challenging. Explaining to groups some common approaches to decision making can improve the process (University of Waterloo, 2000).

Authority

In this method, the group generates ideas and holds open discussions, but one person such as the group leader makes the final decision. This method is a quick decision-making technique; however, it does not maximize the strengths of the individuals in the group, and the group may not be motivated to implement a decision made by one person.

Majority

After a period of discussion, the group holds a vote on the issue at hand, and the majority wins. This method has the advantage of relying on the democratic process, but the majority often overwhelms minority views and may have the effect of encouraging factionalism.

Negative Minority

The group holds a vote for the most unpopular idea, eliminates it, and votes again until only one idea is left. This method has the advantage of being democratic and can build consensus when there are many ideas and few voters. However, it is time-consuming, and some group members may feel resentful if their ideas prove unpopular.

Consensus

The group discusses and negotiates a discussion until everyone affected by it understands and supports the decision. This technique has the advantage of allowing all members to feel that they have had an opportunity to express themselves and to influence the decision. Group members will be likely to support a decision made by consensus. However, it may be difficult to reach a consensus, and the method can be extremely time-consuming.

Using Criteria

For this method, participants explore, identify, and agree on criteria for a successful solution, and then they evaluate alternatives against these criteria. This method has the advantage of giving an objective measure of the quality of a solution, but it can be difficult to come up with appropriate criteria.

Compromise

In this method, rather than making a single decision that excludes other decisions, groups create a compromise decision, perhaps combining multiple solutions into one. In this way, groups avoid either/or decisions, but implementation may take longer as more than one idea is being considered.

Structuring Reporting-Out Approaches Group reporting is a valuable closing stage for collaborative activities. First, providing opportunities for groups to share their learning can enhance the learning of all students in the class. Second, as students articulate their experiences and outcomes, they begin to own knowledge in

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new and different ways. Third, reporting can help students reinforce ideas as they hear from others who have come to similar findings or conclusions. Fourth, hearing recurring themes provides students with the sense that they are on the right track. Fifth, reporting out can reveal omissions, helping both the teacher and students identify—and fill—learning gaps. The following activities are useful reporting-out techniques (Davis, 2009; Johnson et al., 1998a; Millis & Cottell, 1998; Tiberius, 1995).

Stand Up and Share A selected representative from each group shares ideas from the group. After the first round, the representatives share only new ideas and information.

Symposium, Colloquium, Panel, Seminar Students make a series of brief presentations to the class, followed by discussion in which panel participants receive questions from the audience.

Simulated Business Meeting Students present as if they are at a business meeting to a board. These presentations may involve multimedia, such as presentation software and websites. Groups may present to an audience of external experts or volunteers. Using professionals from the field can increase authenticity and importance of the report and can remove the teacher from being the only evaluator.

Team Rotation Team A presents its ideas to Team B while members of Team B listen and ask questions. Teams then reverse roles.

Three Stay, One Stray A person from Team A is designated to move to Team B to report while the other team members remain behind to hear from a traveling team member from Team C.

Rotating Trios From a group of four, one member stays behind as the group expert or group reporter. The other three members move to a new station to learn from another group. If this procedure is repeated, the student who stays behind rotates so that the student stays behind for only one rotation.

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Poster Session Students meet in small groups to develop a visual product (e.g., a concept map, graphic organizer, collage, or poster). Each group posts its product, such as by using trifold poster displays. One student is assigned the role of spokesperson while other group members view other groups’ posters. Students rotate roles so that all have the chance to be spokesperson. After a specified period of time, students return to their groups to discuss what they have learned, and the instructor may wish to have a full-class discussion about the representations.

Small-Group Stations The instructor sets up several workstations in which different questions or issues are posted, whether virtually or on newsprint or a whiteboard. Teams circulate, view the issue, and discuss their responses for a designated time period and post their response, leaving it behind for the next team to view. Teams use the preceding team’s comments as a starting point for their discussion. At the end of the exercise, individual students recirculate from station to station to view all responses.

Helping Groups Achieve Closure Closure can be an important part of the collaborative learning experience. Without it, students may not see the interesting connections between different aspects of content or between their group work and prior learning. This can reinforce negative student perceptions of collaborative activities as being busywork and a way for instructors to avoid teaching responsibilities. Well-done closure can be motivating and prepare students for their next phase of learning. Therefore, after groups have completed their activities, consider implementing opportunities to synthesize information and celebrate accomplishments.

Helping Groups Synthesize Lessons Learned and Conclusions Reached It is important to provide students with an opportunity to combine, integrate, and synthesize their small-group responses and understandings into a coherent whole that applies to the entire class. Many of the collaborative learning techniques (CoLTs) in Part Three are useful for providing groups the opportunity to synthesize information, such as CoLT 1: Think-Pair-Share, CoLT 7: Note-Taking Pairs, CoLT 12: Test-Taking Teams, CoLT 22: Sequence Chains, CoLT 23: Word Webs, and CoLT 24: Dialogue Journals. Yet even

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when students have multiple opportunities to synthesize information, they may not fill in all of the learning gaps or make all of the interesting connections. They may go into too much depth in some areas and treat other areas superficially. Instructor synthesis can be effective and may take several forms, including the following (Ventimiglia, 1995): summarize salient points and recurring themes from the group reports; clarify details; point out misconceptions or inaccurate reports; add information where omissions occurred; address any unanswered or nagging questions; point out implications; help make connections to previous content and content yet to be addressed; and review objectives with the group. However, it is important that the teacher refrain from taking control of the classroom at this late stage of the game. It is tempting to launch into an impromptu lecture to fill in what the groups missed. This could undermine the good effort thus far in enabling students to assume responsibility for their learning. In addition, if students anticipate that the teacher will save them in the end, they will be less likely to take the group work seriously and may instead wait until the real teaching gets started to become engaged in active listening and note taking. Thus, it is important to find the balance that helps students achieve their own synthesis of the lessons they’ve learned.

Helping Students Celebrate Their Achievements Celebration is part of a debriefing process that recognizes positive experiences and gains in learning that occurred during the collaborative experience. It is an important—but frequently ignored—aspect of closure. Celebrating group accomplishments honors students’ achievements, holds successes up for public notice, and serves as a sincere signal of appreciation for hard work well done. There are a variety of ways to help groups celebrate. One way is to throw a good old-fashioned class party. Ask everyone to bring something to contribute such as punch, cookies, chips, paper plates, cups, or napkins. Or just order pizza. Another strategy is to create a gallery of achievement in which groups list their accomplishments (or the most important things they learned) on flip chart paper that is then posted on the walls. Ask students to walk around and look at the lists and place a check next to achievements other than their own that apply to themselves as well. Survey the results and note the most popular, unusual, or unexpected accomplishments. Yet another way to celebrate is to take a photo of each group. Right before snapping the picture, consider expressing appreciation for the group’s hard work and offer any specific observations about their accomplishments. Have the developed pictures available for students to pick up on the final day of

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class, and keep and post copies of all group photos as a portrait gallery for future classes (Silberman & Clark, 1999, pp. 289–300). Because students often remember praise long after a particular course has ended, celebrating and recognizing group successes can reinforce learning by helping to further cement ideas, concepts, and processes. Celebrating can be particularly effective when long-term, base groups have worked together over multiple sessions or even a semester.

Conclusion Facilitating collaborative sessions is a complicated task. It involves putting into practice the ideological role of teachers in the collaborative classroom, which means providing supportive rather than directive supervision, having high expectations of students, and helping and trusting groups to manage themselves. It also involves sharing authority and control with students, which is perhaps the most significant characteristic that defines the collaborative classroom. In this chapter we offered ideas for how to facilitate student collaboration that apply generally to all teaching contexts. Please see Exhibit 6.2 for additional ideas for facilitating collaborative learning in the online environment. EXHIBIT 6.2

Facilitating Collaborative Learning Online Introducing the Activity In an online class, introducing the activity clearly is very important since teachers do not have visual cues that let them know if students are confused. Whether using video or text to introduce the activity, use the fewest words possible to address at minimum the following: Explain the activity. Use text or video to provide a succinct explanation of what students are to do. Clarify the objectives. Explain content objectives as well as what online skills they will acquire or practice. Outline the procedures. Provide a step-by-step overview of what they are to do and how they will do it. Present examples. Provide examples or products from previous classes, which can be of great comfort to online students; if this is your first time teaching a course, however, consider developing an example yourself. Remind groups of the rules for group interaction. Consider including a section on or reference to netiquette. Set time frames. Providing students with guidelines or estimates for how long each task should take will be particularly useful for online students.

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Provide the prompt. Consider including the prompt with the activity introduction so that it is immediately visible and so that students do not have to search backward for the information. Query the students for understanding, and let students ask questions. Instruct online students to ask questions; doing so can help motivate them to ask for clarification, which can help to avoid potential confusion and later problems. Or consider creating a collaborative script, a document that provides detailed instructions in a single source that can include the aforementioned elements as well as information on the assignment’s phases, technology tools, deliverables, and assessment. (See http://tinyurl.com/collab-script for a model.)

Observing and Interacting with Groups Anderson, Rourke, Garrison, and Archer (2001) conducted a content analysis of instructor communication with students in online courses and identified three main areas indicating the ways instructors interact with students online. Their indicators combined with the examples they provide for each type of interaction offer ideas for effective facilitation of collaboration in online courses.

Instructional Design

Indicators

Examples

Setting curriculum

“This week we will be discussing _____.”

Designing methods

“I am going to divide you into groups, and

Establishing time parameters

“Please post a message by Friday.”

Utilizing medium effectively

“Try to address issues that others have raised

and Organization you will debate _____.”

when you post _____.” Facilitating Discourse

Establishing netiquette

“Keep your messages short.”

Identifying areas of agreement/

“Joe, Mary has provided a compelling

disagreement

counterexample to your hypothesis. Would you care to respond?”

Seeking to reach consensus/understanding

“I think Joe and Mary are saying essentially

Encouraging, acknowledging, or

“Thank you for your insightful comments.”

the same thing.” reinforcing student contributions Setting climate for learning

“Don’t feel self-conscious about ‘thinking out loud’ on the forum. This is a place to try out ideas after all.”

Drawing in participants, prompting discussion Assessing the efficacy of the process

“Any thoughts on this issue? Anyone care to comment?” “I think we’re getting a little off track here.”

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Direct Instruction

Indicators

Examples

Present content questions

“Bates says _____. What do you think?”

Focus the discussion on specific issues

“I think that’s a dead end. I would ask you to consider _____.”

Summarize misunderstanding

“The original question was _____. Joe said _____. Mary said _____. We concluded that _____. We still haven’t addressed _____.”

Confirm understanding through assess-

“You’re close, but you didn’t account for

ment and feedback

_____. This is important because _____.”

Diagnose misconceptions

“Remember, Bates is speaking from an administrative perspective, so be careful when you say _____.”

Source: Anderson et al. 2001, pp. 6–10.

Structuring Reporting-Out Approaches: Many of the reporting-out techniques we describe in the body of this chapter may be adapted to an online setting. Online Share: Stand up and share may be done through a CoLT 2: Round Robin in a chat room or alternatively in a threaded discussion. Symposium, Colloquium, Panel, Seminar Online: Students may present their ideas through video online and others can respond with questions through a medium such as VoiceThread, which allows for video or audio comments. Simulated Business Meeting: Online, such meetings can occur through various technologies such as Blackboard Collaborate or Google Hangouts. Team Rotation: Online students can accomplish this approach through immersive environments such as Second Life. Three Stay, One Stray or Rotating Trios: Online students can use this approach if the instructor sets up a series of chat rooms through which students may move freely. Poster Session: Each group posts its product perhaps in a synchronous session so that all students can circulate and view each team’s report. Helping Groups Achieve Closure: This is particularly important online, as activities can feel incomplete without some wrap-up of the collaborative activity. Synthesizing what they have learned. Have students take turns leading this activity. For example, if instructors have students participate in threaded discussions each week, students can each take a turn synthesizing a particular thread by summarizing main ideas and pointing out interesting points. Celebrating achievements. Just as in onsite courses, celebrating achievement in online courses can help students feel a sense of accomplishment and pride in what they have done. Create a gallery of achievement online, or consider awarding students badges to indicate that they have accomplished a specific task (e.g., a badge for completing all journal entries for the term) or alternatively that they have accomplished it with merit (e.g., best journalist).

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Chapter 7

Grading and Evaluating Collaborative Learning Although most teachers hope to develop and capitalize on students’ intrinsic motivations for learning, they also recognize that grades are the “coin of the realm.” Grades determine who gets admitted into institutions, who graduates from them, who plays on athletic teams, and who qualifies for scholarships. It is partly because grades are so powerful that assigning them is a challenge. McKeachie observes the “heated discussion and cries of dismay” that surround grading (2002, p. 103). Millis and Cottell point out, “When teachers are asked what they most dislike about teaching, a majority of them answer, ‘Grading’” (1998, p. 187). Walvoord and Anderson note, “Grading is the topic faculty most frequently choose when asked which issues they want to discuss in future workshops” (1998, p. xv). The problems and paradoxes of grading in general can be exacerbated when evaluating collaborative learning. This chapter, therefore, provides advice on how to evaluate group work and assign grades in the collaborative classroom.

General Principles of Evaluation From Astin et al. (1993) we adapted a list of general principles for successfully assessing and evaluating student learning. First, it begins with educational values. Assessment and evaluation should not be considered an end but rather a means to an end. That is, evaluation should be aimed at investigating what we hold dear as educators. These values should guide not only what we measure but also how we measure it. Second, good assessment recognizes learning as multidimensional, integrated, and revealed in performance over time. Learning is complex, and

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student learning may be assessed on a number of levels, from dispositions to outcomes to habits of the mind. Moreover, while educational goals and objectives are important, at times they can mask larger issues. Additionally, inflexible adherence to planned goals can result in not taking into account unplanned, emergent learning. Thus, effective evaluation has space for honoring that learning. Third, assessment works best when the object to be assessed has clear, explicitly stated purposes. In higher education classrooms, effective evaluation begins with both the teachers’ and the learners’ values, goals, and objectives stated explicitly with evaluation aimed at measuring whether or not those have been met. Good assessment also requires attention to experiences as well as outcomes. In collaborative learning classes, the process is part of the intended outcomes, and thus the process as well as the products should be assessed. Good assessment is ongoing, not episodic, particularly among educators who hope to promote the kinds of outcomes that collaborative learning can help to engender. It also illuminates questions that people really care about. Assessment and evaluation generate data that should be used to improve educational practice. We noted in Chapter Three that creating good collaborative activities typically begins with identifying an important question or prompt. How well learners answer these questions or solve the problems posted in turn generates more interesting and meaningful evaluation data.

Important Decisions in Grading Collaborative Work There is no single answer to the question of how to grade collaborate learning because faculty, institutions, and courses have widely divergent value systems. Following are choices to consider as teachers make their decisions regarding the what, how, why, and who of evaluating collaborative learning and assigning student grades.

Deciding What to Evaluate In collaborative learning, there are two things to evaluate: student achievement of course content and student participation in group process.

Product Most teachers want to know how well students learned the disciplinerelated content of the course. When a group product is the documentation of such output, this requires evaluating the product itself. Faculty go about assessing and evaluating these in a number of ways, but they are increasingly turning to rubrics to provide a structure to their evaluations.

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EXHIBIT 7.1

Basic Online Discussion Rubric Low Performance

Meets Expectations

Exceptional

Knowledge

(0 Points) Posting does not demonstrate understanding of topic; does not incorporate week’s readings

(1 Point) Posting displays basic understanding of topic; incorporates only personal experience or connection to readings

Responding

(0 Points) Does not respond to classmates responses OR response is vague without any real contribution to the discussion (e.g.,, “I agree”) OR all posts made on same day (0 Points) Reads few posts; makes all posts on same day; does not respond to questions posed by instructor or other students

(1 Point) Responds to one or two classmates; offers additional explanations or elaboration to classmates’ response; responds in timely manner

(2 Points) Posting displays good/ excellent understanding of the readings/topic; incorporates personal experience and connection to reading (2 Points) Responds to at least three classmates; offers additional explanation or elaboration; responds within forty-eight hours

Conversation

(1 Point) Responds to one or two classmates; response offers additional explanations or elaboration to classmates’

(2 Points) Reads multiple posts; checks back to respond to comments; engages other students in a conversation over several days

Source: Adapted from Cleveland State University, 2007.

In Exhibit 7.1 and Exhibit 7.2, we offer samples of rubrics for evaluating an online discussion session and a course project.

Process Teachers emphasizing collaborative learning also believe that it is important to grade group process. The teamwork and social skills that constitute group process may be considered so important that they are part of the content goals of a course, such as in a business management or intercultural communication course. When group work skills become course content, grading group process is essential. Furthermore, as more faculty recognize the importance of collaborative skills for the workplace and good

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EXHIBIT 7.2

Collaborative Digital Project Rubric Total Points = __/50

5 Beginning

6 Developing

7–8 Accomplished

Curriculum Connection

Content does not connect to any curriculum objectives in a meaningful way. Does not meet page minimum requirement.

Content is curriculum related but it is not clearly laid out. Attempts # of pages but may appear somewhat incomplete.

Appeal

Presentation makes use of graphics, color, and special effects, but in the manner these are used it has a negative impact on the content.

Presentation makes use of some graphics, color, and special effects, but their use may have a negative impact on the content.

Organization

Content is not organized. The project lacks structure and contains only bits of information.

The project content is structured and organized for the most part in a reasonable fashion.

Curriculum objectives are clearly laid out and there is a definite link between material and task that achieves these objectives. Theme is clearly understood with a wide variety of reliable information presented throughout all pages. Presentation makes Presentation exemplary use of contains a wide graphics, color, variety of ways fonts, and special the information is effects that greatly presented on all enhances both the pages. Color look and the choices, font sizes content of the add to the overall project. effect. The project content The project content is very well is organized well, organized. It is utilizing lists or well structured headings to and laid out. It provide a properly utilizes coherent thought headings or lists to process. give it direction. There is a clear meaningful connection between curriculum objectives and content. All pages are completed.

9–10 Exemplary

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EXHIBIT 7.2

Collaborative Digital Project Rubric (Continued) Total Points = __/50

5 Beginning

6 Developing

7–8 Accomplished

9–10 Exemplary

Collaboration

One or more group members contribute minimally to the development of the project. Little collaboration apparent. Little sense of analysis and evaluation happening.

One or more group members contribute a moderate amount to the project. Ideas from all are used, but the project is managed by only a portion of the group. Students evaluate and analyze only when prompted to do so.

Group members are all active in the development of the wiki. Contributions are noticeable on the project. There is a sense of teamwork and collaboration. Students attempt to evaluate and analyze work.

Hyperlinks

At least two The project Hyperlinks are not appropriate links contains some integrated on any per page are hyperlinks, but of the pages. integrated. they are not Accurate and consistently used functioning links. throughout. Links Attempts to presented may explain value of not appear to be the links to the connected to the project. task at hand.

Group members bring their strengths to the development of the project and are engaged in its development. Contributions are important to the wiki. There is a strong sense of teamwork and collaboration in class on a regular basis (e.g., three times weekly). Students are evaluating, analyzing their information collaboratively. The project contains a wide variety of appropriate links on each page. All hyperlinks are accurate and functioning. Very detailed explanations given to explain the value of the links.

(Adapted from EC&I 834 Online Education, retrieved July 20, 2013).

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citizenship, these skills are becoming part of the teaching goals in many disciplines. Ways to grade achievement of content are well understood and accepted in higher education, but teachers are still developing effective ways to grade group process.

Deciding Who Does the Evaluating Evaluating students via grades is one of an instructor’s chief responsibilities, but students can provide useful insight, as they have had a firsthand view of the collaborative experience. In addition, involving students helps develop students’ abilities to evaluate their own and others’ work—important goals in collaborative learning. Student participation in evaluating themselves and others also underscores the importance of teachers and students sharing responsibility for learning in the collaborative classroom.

Instructor There are many ways instructors can approach grading either individual achievement of course content or participation in group process. McKeachie (2002) for example, identifies two main approaches: contract grading and competency-based grading. In contract grading, students and instructors develop a written contract that specifies the tasks a student will do to achieve different grade levels. Contract grading individualizes the process and empowers students because they can be directly in control of whether or not they complete the work requirements for any given grade level. McKeachie suggests that instructors should ensure not only that points are awarded for doing the activity but also that the activity is linked to appropriate standards; otherwise contract grading can reward quantity rather than quality. In collaborative learning, contracts can be used to specify the content and group process learning activities to be undertaken, the criteria by which the work is to be evaluated, and the grade or amount of credit to be assigned upon completion. In competency-based grading, students’ grades are based on achievement of specified competencies. Instructors develop an appropriate definition of the competencies desired and then develop adequate criteria for assessing achievement of each competency. Competency-based grading is a large category that includes mastery, performance-based, and criterion-referenced systems. This approach ties grades to course goals, but it may be difficult to operationalize (McKeachie, 2002, pp. 107–108). One way to implement this approach is known as primary trait analysis (PTA). To construct a PTA, the teacher (1) identifies the factors or traits

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that will count for the scoring, (2) builds a scale for scoring the student’s performance on that trait, and (3) evaluates the student’s performance against those criteria. Walvoord and Anderson (1998) and Fink (2003) describe this approach in detail and provide numerous examples using different kinds of traits and criteria to evaluate and grade both individual and group work. Davis (1993) would add at least one more approach: assigning a grade based on the amount of improvement a student has made in the class. Grading on progress avoids competition and emphasizes individual learning, but it can produce inequities: a student who enters a course with the least background can still be the poorest student at the end but might get an A for progress. Conversely, an outstanding student with little growth may get a C for progress. As Davis notes, “‘Improvement’ grades are also difficult to interpret within established grading norms: does a B mean that a student’s work is above average or that his or her improvement is above average?” (p. 290). In terms of collaborative work, using improvement in teamwork and group process skills may be an appropriate approach to evaluating learning. Just as teachers can use any of these three approaches to grade work in the traditional classroom, so can they use any of the three approaches to grade collaborative work. It is often most effective to use a hybrid approach, or a combination of approaches throughout the term, to emphasize advantages while minimizing disadvantages of a single approach.

Student Self-Evaluation Self-evaluation encourages students to take stock of their own efforts, weighing their work against their own goals and against the work of other students. Embedded within self-evaluation is the concept of reflection. This is important in collaborative learning because it gives students opportunities to think about what they have learned and how they have learned it. As Berthoff (1990) reminds us, “Our job as teachers is to devise sequences of assignments which encourage conscientization, the discovery of the mind in action” (p. 25). Reflection, whether written or oral, provides a nice balance with the activity of collaborative learning, building the bridge between experiences and learning. Reflection helps students be more self-aware as they discover their thinking processes and develop patterns of self-regulated learning (Paris & Ayers, 1996). Reflection is mostly used for formative assessments, but many of the same questions could be asked as part of a self-evaluation for grades. The questions may be presented as open-ended, such as, “In what ways did

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you help/hinder the group?” or they may be modified such that students answer based on a Likert scale rating. For example, “On a scale of 1 to 5, how would you rate how well you helped the group?” Self-evaluation can focus on subject matter, such as, “What did you learn about course content in this collaborative activity?” or process, such as, “What did you learn about how you interact with others?” A list of possible questions for reflection or self-evaluation follows: • What have you learned about yourself as a learner? As a team player? • How can you apply what you learned in this activity to new situations? • Describe your most successful (or least successful) interaction with your peers. • How did collaborative learning contribute to learning course content? What were the advantages and disadvantages? • What connections do you see between this experience and your other college courses? • How did this experience challenge your assumptions and stereotypes? • How would you do this differently next time? • What was the best/worst/most challenging thing that happened? Although self-evaluation can help promote deep learning, students may be reluctant to negatively evaluate themselves, particularly if they believe they will be penalized for it. When using self-evaluation, it is important to establish trust in the classroom, to explain the benefits of the evaluation, and to make clear whether the evaluation will be used for formative or summative purposes. If the responses are used for grading purposes, self-evaluations might be compared or averaged with instructor or peer-evaluations. Exhibit 7.3 shows an example of a form that might be used for self-evaluation.

Student Peer Evaluation Peer evaluation can be an integral part of the assessment process for collaborative learning because peers have a firsthand view of what is going on during collaborative activities. Peers are therefore well positioned to identify each other’s levels and degrees of competence. Although peer evaluation is primarily used to assess group process at either the group (see Group Evaluations section) or individual levels, teachers are increasingly using peer evaluation for content as well (such as in calibrated peer

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EXHIBIT 7.3

Sample Self-Evaluation Form Name______________________________________________ Group Number or ID__________________________________ Project Title_________________________________________ Rate yourself on your performance on the project using the following scale: 5 = Always

4 = Frequently

3 = Sometimes

2 = Rarely

1 = Never

I was prepared to contribute to the group. I stayed on task. I listened to others. I participated in discussion. I encouraged others to participate. Overall I felt my performance in the group should be rated __________.

review). There are challenges inherent in using peer evaluation. It is not a skill that students have had experience with, and faculty must devote time to instructing the students on what and how to effectively assess the product or presentation. Students may lack confidence in evaluating other students and may not be prepared to be critical. Like the other kinds of evaluations, peer evaluation can be used for either formative or summative purposes. In either case, it is perhaps most effective if instructors work with students to develop a set of evaluation criteria and then ask students to rate their peers according to those criteria. A sample peer evaluation form appears as Exhibit 7.4 (see also Chapter Four).

Group Evaluation Group evaluations are a subset of peer evaluations and focus on group process. Using them can help reveal conflicts early so that they can be addressed and resolved and can also aid members in identifying and then capitalizing on their group’s strengths while minimizing disadvantages. Group evaluations, however, can open up doors for students to undermine the collaborative learning process. For example, students may try to get the instructor involved in conflict resolution instead of working to negotiate the conflicts themselves. Or they may use the activity as an opportunity to bash the group work process itself. If used for summative assessment purposes, students may choose to answer dishonestly in hopes of obtaining a more favorable grade. Providing structure to the evaluation can help deter

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EXHIBIT 7.4

Sample Peer Evaluation Form Needs Improvement = 1

Adequate = 2

Outstanding = 3

The team member … Prepares Listens Contributes Respects others Demonstrates the following skills … Critical thinking Problem-solving Communication Decision making Subtotals Total

unproductive negative responses to the process. Angelo and Cross (1993, p. 350) provide the sample form shown in Exhibit 7.5.

Deciding Whether to Evaluate for Formative or Summative Purposes Evaluating students can be formative or summative. Formative assessments are intended to provide teachers and students with information on how well students are learning to help both improve. They are almost never graded. The aim of formative assessment is primarily to educate and improve student (or teacher) performance, not to audit it (Wiggins, 1998, p. 7). Most of the CoLTs in Part Three provide suggestions for formative assessment in each technique’s Observations and Advice section. Summative assessments gather evidence to assign grades that will combine to form a course grade, becoming part of a student’s official transcript. Formative and summative assessments reflect different primary purposes, but many of the same questions, tools, or strategies can be used in the evaluations. See Angelo and Cross’s Classroom Assessment Techniques (1993), Grant Wiggins’s Educative Assessment (1998), and Walvoord and Anderson’s Effective Grading (1998) for further discussion and techniques for evaluation.

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EXHIBIT 7.5

Sample Group Evaluation Form 1. Overall, how effectively did your group work together on this assignment? Poorly

Adequately

Well

Extremely Well

2. Out of the five group members, how many participated actively most of the time? None

One

Two

Three

Four

Five

3. Out of the five group members, how many were fully prepared for the activity? None

One

Two

Three

Four

Five

4. Give one specific example of something you learned from the group that you probably wouldn’t have learned working alone. 5. Give one specific example of something the other group members learned from you that they probably wouldn’t have learned otherwise. 6. Suggest one change the group could make to improve its performance.

General Guidelines for Grading Collaborative Work As with grading in the traditional classroom, grading collaborative work is most effective when a teacher approaches grading as a process rather than isolated artifacts. Walvoord and Anderson (1998) sum up their view of grading as a process by which a teacher assesses student learning through classroom tests and assignments, the context in which good teachers establish that process, and the dialogue that surrounds grades and defines their meaning to various audiences. Grading, then, includes tailoring the test or assignment to the learning goals of the course, establishing criteria and standards, helping students acquire the skills and knowledge they need, assessing student learning over time, shaping student motivation, feeding back results so students can learn from their mistakes, communicating about students’ learning to the students and to other audiences, and using results to plan future teaching methods. (p. xi) Not every activity needs to be graded, and not every activity needs to be collaborative. Fink (2003) offers a few simple rules to help guide decisions in putting together a course’s grading system. First, make the list of graded items diverse since students learn in different ways and differ in how they

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best show what they know. Second, ensure that the list reflects the full range of learning goals and activities. For example, if a teacher wants students to learn decision-making skills, then teachers should create an activity that requires students to make decisions. Finally, the course grade should reflect the relative weight of each component activity (pp. 142–143). To help guide teachers in their overall approach to grading, Walvoord and Anderson (1998, pp. 10–16) suggest that teachers: • Appreciate the complexity of grading and accept that any grading system will have flaws and constraints, so focus instead on grading as a tool for learning. • Recognize that there is no such thing as absolutely objective evaluation and that instead a teacher’s responsibility is to render an informed and professional judgment to the best of his or her ability. • Distribute time effectively, understanding that other aspects of student learning also require time. Spend enough time to make a thoughtful, professional judgment with reasonable consistency and then move on. • Be open to change and recognize that grade inflation is a national problem and must be addressed by institutions in concert at the national level. Individual teachers cannot address the problem in isolation. • Listen to and observe students to understand and manage the meaning of grades to various students, as it is the meaning students attach to grades that will most affect learning. • Be very clear and explicit about the meanings attached to grades and the standards and criteria on which grades are based. • Communicate and collaborate with students, and try to build in the classroom a spirit of working together toward common goals. • Integrate grading with other key processes such as planning, teaching, and interacting in the classroom. • Seize the teachable moment and be alert and stay focused on what students should learn, especially in emotionally intense moments that may be the most powerful teaching opportunities all semester. • Make student learning the primary goal. Grading is a powerful lever, capable of influencing the learning, and this should be its primary purpose. • Be a teacher first, a gatekeeper last: School is the bridge between learning and gatekeeping. • Encourage learning-centered motivation, and work against negative attitudes toward grading. Instead, help students learn that they are

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empowered to affect what happens to them, that if they work hard it will pay off, that success comes from hard work rather than just luck, and that success is within their control. Crucial to good grading is establishing clear criteria and standards. Walvoord and Anderson (1998, p. 65) point out that taking the time to clarify explicitly how students will be graded can • Save time in the grading process • Allow you to make that process consistent and fair • Help you explain to students what you expect • Show you what to teach • Identify essential relationships between discipline information and processes • Help students participate in their own learning, because they know what they are aiming for • Help students evaluate their own and each other’s work • Save you from having to explain your criteria to students after they have handed in their work (often as a way of justifying the grades they are contesting) • Help student peers give each other constructive feedback on plans and drafts • Help team teachers or teaching assistants grade student papers consistently • Help teachers of sequenced courses communicate with each other about standards and criteria • Form the basis for departmental or institutional assessment Therefore, regardless of the specific evaluative approach you use, identify your grading standards clearly and make the criteria by which students can achieve the standards explicit.

Grading Individuals and Groups The fundamental challenge in collaborative learning is ensuring individual accountability while simultaneously promoting positive group interdependence. We offer three models for consideration.

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Model 1: Assign Individual Grades Individual grades provide a mechanism to ensure individual accountability, and thus many faculty choose to rely strictly on individual grades. Giving grades to individuals for their contributions, however, may minimize the importance of group effort. Individual grades can also be difficult to determine, as individual contribution and achievement within a group project is not always easy to identify.

Model 2: Assign Group Grades An alternative model is assigning a collectively earned grade to each member of the group. Group grades ensure that the group is held accountable and that members support each other’s learning. The drawback is that individuals are not held accountable and hence that group grades create opportunities for easy riders to avoid responsibility, which in turn has the potential to make high-achieving students more resistant to group work. Kagan (1995) identifies the problems with group grades, saying that they are unfair and unwise because (1) students may be penalized or rewarded by the performance of other students on their teams, (2) group grades that partially reflect the ability of other students undermine the validity of report cards (college transcripts), (3) students who are evaluated on forces beyond their control (the work of their teammates) may be frustrated, (4) group grades foster resistance to cooperative learning, and (5) undifferentiated group grades may be illegal (lawsuits have emerged when the grades of honor students were pulled down by less able teammates) (in Millis and Cottell, 1998, p. 191).

Model 3: Assign Combination Individual and Group Grades Since achieving individual accountability while still promoting group interdependence is a primary condition for collaborative learning, it is most effective if grades reflect a combination of individual and group performance. In this model, the combination of individual and group grades is weighted as appropriate for the assignment (e.g., 75% individual grade, 25% group grade for high-stakes assignments, percentages reversed for low-stakes assignments). Many collaborative activities can be implemented in ways that ensure individual effort and group effort are differentiated and reflected in a product that can be evaluated on both levels. The following examples present three CoLTs for achieving this.

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CoLT 12: Test-Taking Teams There are three stages to this activity. First, student teams study a unit together. To help students prepare for studying together, consider asking them to bring a list of questions that they expect to be on the exam. Second, individual students take the teacher-prepared exam for individual grades. Third, teams discuss and submit team responses on the test for a group grade. The group response is generally superior to any individual scores. Thus, individuals receive a combination of individual and group scores, such as two-thirds individual and one-third group. The individual test taking emphasizes individual accountability. Studying together, retaking the exam as teams, and receiving the group score as part of the individual grade encourages group interdependence. There are many variations that place greater emphasis on either the individual or the group components. For example, the focus on group effort can be increased if groups with highest scores, highest combination of individual scores, or greatest collective improvement receive bonus points.

CoLT 20: Group Grid A group grid is a graphic-organizer CoLT intended to help students organize and classify information visually. Groups of students are given a grid in which the columns and rows are labeled with superordinate concepts, but the cells are left blank. Teams receive scrambled lists of subordinate pieces of information that belong in the cells, and students complete the grid by sorting the items into the correct grid categories. No item can be repeated. To emphasize individual accountability, each student is given different-colored sticky notes or colored pens to indicate his or her contributions. To grade the activity, teachers count the number of correct answers per individual for an individual score and the total number of correct answers for the team score. Again, different weights, such as two-thirds individual and one-third group, are used to determine a composite individual grade.

CoLT 24: Dialogue Journals Individual students keep a journal in which each page is divided by a vertical line. On the left side of the journal, students record their thoughts about a reading assignment, lecture, task, or experience. They then exchange journals with a partner, who writes comments, suggestions, or questions on the right side of the journal. Both the original writer’s and the peer’s comments can be evaluated and grades assigned for each student. Thus, individual accountability is maintained in the original writer’s grade, but the peer’s

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comments are also graded, which encourages the peer to read carefully and comment thoughtfully. By crafting the task to result in a product that includes differentiated individual and group components, teachers can help ensure individual accountability as well as promote group interdependence. The CoLTs in Part Three come from the existing literature and the wisdom of practice, and many have built-in strategies for combining group and individual grades.

Conclusion Grading collaborative learning—like grading learning in the traditional classroom—can be challenging. In the collaborative classroom, where students are empowered to take responsibility for their learning and are encouraged to work collaboratively rather than competitively with their peers, a natural tension exists between the collaborative learning goals and having an instructor assign a final, individual grade. It is important to minimize this tension. In this section we provided a variety of strategies for assigning grades that help ensure both individual accountability and group interdependence. This advice applies to both onsite and online classes, but we offer additional suggestions for grading in the online classroom in Exhibit 7.6. If approached thoughtfully, teachers can create grading systems for collaborative learning that are fair, contribute to the learning process, and are still educationally valid. EXHIBIT 7.6

Grading in the Online Classroom Grading collaborative work in the online classroom contains the same challenges that exist in the onsite classroom; therefore, the guidance provided in the body of this chapter also applies online. Following is some additional general advice that, while also applicable in onsite classes, is geared especially toward grading online (adapted from Northern Arizona University, n.d. a). • Use online tools to provide a list or calendar that shows all deadlines in a single place so that students don’t have to hunt for the information. • Communicate expectations and provide explicit grading criteria in writing for each assignment. Provide annotated examples of high-quality discussion postings and completed assignments, explaining why they were successful. • Tell students how quickly you will post grades for assignments and exams. • Give students detailed feedback that is both informational and evaluative early in the term.

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• Use online tools to prepare at least some classroom exercises and problems that give students immediate feedback on performance (e.g., self-tests). • Use a variety of assignments, quizzes, and tests for feedback and in determining final grades. • Give students frequent comments and support via e-mail, chat, and discussion postings. In both environments, a critical challenge is how to ensure individual accountability while promoting positive interdependence. Individual grades, while ensuring individual accountability, are difficult to determine because it can be hard to identify individual contributions to a group project. Group grades guarantee group accountability but create opportunities for the social loafing that can make collaborative learning so frustrating for some students. Thus, it is most effective to have grades reflect a combination of individual and group performance. See Exhibit 7.1 and Exhibit 7.2 for rubrics that balance individual accountability and group interdependence in grading two kinds of online collaborative assignments.

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Chapter 8

Avoiding and Resolving Common Problems While collaborative learning has many benefits to students and student learning, it also has some challenges. These problems range from issues with individual behaviors to problems with group functioning. In this chapter, we outline some of these common problems and identify a range of potential solutions for solving them.

Designing and Facilitating Courses to Avoid Problems Some common problems may be avoided, and in the previous chapters we have described sound approaches for ensuring that problems don’t develop in the first place. In Chapter Three, for example, we give guidance on how to create an effective collaborative learning task that is relevant and does not feel like busywork. Advice includes how to identify the learning task’s underlying problem and prompt, how to select a technique that correlates to broader learning goals, and how to structure the task to address student needs and abilities. Because students find well-designed collaborative learning tasks engaging and motivating, most student resistance to collaborative work is ameliorated. In Chapter Four, we provide information about preparing students for group work that includes suggestions in three categories: introductions and icebreakers, course policies and procedures, and an orientation to collaborative learning specifically. Doing orientation activities early in the course helps students develop the skills they will need to be successful, better prepares them to participate effectively, and sets policies that will ensure good participation. All of these things set the stage for individuals to function well together in groups. In Chapter Five, we describe in detail how to form effective groups. We do this by providing advice about group formation in three key topic

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areas: group types, group size, and group membership. The collective information on forming (and reforming) groups can guide you through the crucial steps that certify better functioning groups and a purpose for each student within the group. Effective group formation is indeed one of the best ways to ameliorate potential problems In Chapter Six, we propose a process for introducing collaborative activities so that students understand the task clearly. Additionally, we offer advice on how you, as the instructor, can observe and interact with groups not only to determine if students are achieving learning goals but also to identify and solve problems before they become significant. We also offer ideas for helping groups come to decisions and suggest interesting ways for them to report out the results of their work. Your role as a teacher in helping curb potential problems is essential; it is one of the main reasons that simply telling students to get into groups and work doesn’t in fact work. Finally, in Chapter Seven, we provide general ideas on effective evaluation as well as advice on important decisions in the grading process, including deciding what to evaluate and who should do the evaluating. We also give suggestions for how to ensure individual accountability while still promoting group interdependence, thereby curtailing the opportunities for social loafing that generates resistance to collaborative learning. Planning for grading, and letting students know that they will be graded on both process and product, provides a structure that minimizes problematic behaviors. All of these chapters in which we lay out the nuts and bolts of collaborative learning should help teachers design and implement collaborative courses most effectively. In short, the previous chapters provide a wealth of information to support sound instructional design and planning for collaborative work. This, in turn, can help to curb problems before they arise.

Encouraging Groups to Solve Their Own Problems In addition to your efforts to design good courses and assignments, you can encourage and support students’ efforts to negotiate any difficulties they might encounter. Indeed, one of the hallmarks of collaborative learning is sharing authority with students and providing them with opportunities for learning skills such as problem-solving and conflict resolution in a safe environment. Much of the responsibility of ensuring effective group work, then, lies with the group members themselves, and much collaborative learning can run smoothly and without incident with self-facilitation. Challenges can arise, however, and it can be difficult to watch groups struggle. Nevertheless, it is important to remember not to jump in too hastily to try to solve problems, particularly since the issue may just be a normal stage of group development. Tuckman’s (1965) classic article on the stages of

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group work suggests that groups go through five stages of development. In the forming stage, group members get to know one another and shape mutual expectations. In the storming stage, learners test out their relationships with one another and struggle with individual members’ level of commitment. When they proceed to norming, students clarify group norms, members’ roles, and relationships among people. As they engage in the performing stage, the work takes place. Finally, in the adjourning phase, the group’s work is done and people part from each other. Although no group will follow these steps exactly, awareness of these stages may help you recognize where students are in the group development process so that you avoid subverting natural group progression. Allowing groups to resolve problems on their own is the ideal solution, as doing so provides them with invaluable experience as well as a sense of accomplishment. When groups experience problems that seem to exceed normal group functioning and can’t seem to resolve them on their own, it is important to give appropriate time and attention to a good resolution. During these times, be prepared to intervene to address problems as needed. A good first step is to identify the problem to determine the best way to address it. General interventions include not taking individual student behavior personally, getting to know students at a personal level, ignoring mild behaviors, forming groups to maximize personality strengths and minimize weaknesses, discussing extreme problems in private or suggesting students seek professional assistance, and varying group size and composition (Johnson & Johnson, 1987; Silberman, 1996). To this list, we add the following: establishing teacher presence, praising groups that are working well, talking with groups and with individuals, and, when necessary, reforming groups. Acknowledging that good design and planning can prevent many problems (and if they still occur there are general strategies to resolve them), in the remaining body of this chapter we describe common problems and share ideas for addressing them. The information in the following sections comes from a variety of sources (Culbertson, 2000–2001; Johnson & Johnson, 1987; McKeachie, 2002; Millis & Cottell, 1998; Silberman, 1996; University of Waterloo, 2000), our own experiences, and the experiences of faculty with whom we have worked throughout the years.

Specific Common Problems and Potential Solutions Several problems are common to group work and may arise for many different reasons, such as lack of student motivation and interest, appropriate collaborative skills, and tools for effective group functioning.

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There are several strategies, however, for helping to address and resolve these problems.

Resistance to Group Work Some college students are resistant to group work. Often these students are good students, but they may simply not enjoy group work and thus voice their opposition to it, even becoming belligerent when assigned to groups. These students may feel like they have learned well how to succeed in a traditional, lecture-based class and don’t want to jeopardize their academic achievements by potentially having their grades dragged down by others. Student resistance to collaborative work may manifest in several ways: complaining about it, undermining the group’s work, or demonstrating anger or hostility to group members. Problem-solving strategies include the following: • Find out the reason for the resistance so that you can identify an appropriate solution. For example, if it is due to previous bad experiences with group work, ask students to identify problems and then suggest solutions. Involve students in establishing group ground rules, and incorporate these into a learning contract. Make sure that you have built into the task interdependence and individual accountability and that the rewards (and penalties) are clear. Make every effort to craft good tasks and implement appropriate structure so that the potential pitfalls of collaborative work are minimized or eliminated. • Build in group interdependence and individual accountability. Many students will feel more comfortable with group work if they are at least in part responsible for themselves and if others are accountable for their contributions as well. See Chapter Seven for ideas on how to accomplish this. • Plan an extensive orientation. A thorough orientation to the benefits of collaborative learning can help frame expectations and lower resistance to group work. Examples of effective orientation activities include involving students in establishing group ground rules and encouraging them to assume ownership and responsibility for observing and enforcing their rules, having students participate in a game that demonstrates the value of group cooperation over individual competition, emphasizing the importance of collaborative skills for future employment, or using one or more icebreakers to help students build trust (see Chapter Four). • Praise highly functioning groups, pointing out effective behaviors. Students who are new to collaborative learning often have very little idea of what

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an effective group looks like. Pointing out models of good practice can be helpful. Individuals who see a group working efficiently and successfully and who have a direct example of what a productive group can accomplish will be less likely to resist group work. • Help students develop and use collaborative skills. Knowing what skills students will have to demonstrate ahead of time can help lower their resistance, as it can clarify for students expectations while simultaneously providing them with the tools they need to be successful. • Speak with the group about the problem. Talking with the group and asking students to help identify a solution empowers members and also provides them with an opportunity to develop important problem-solving skills. Confronting students and giving students a chance to explain their behavior can also build the basis for a good discussion about the importance of group work. • Speak with the individual about the problem. If the problem of resistance to group work comes from one student alone, speaking with the student can provide you with an opportunity to understand the problem and address it at an individual level.

Poor Interpersonal Skills Some students simply have poor interpersonal skills, and this presents a problem when they are asked to work in groups. They may have low self-monitoring or self-awareness, they may criticize others, they may not be able to negotiate conflict, they may not be effective with verbal communication, they may participate too much or not enough, they may indeed have mental illness, or a whole host of other issues. Students with poorly developed interpersonal skills may not make good group members and may end up disrupting group processes or be ignored or criticized by members of the groups. • Develop an authentic learning task. A good task can address many issues. Techniques like CoLT 1: Think-Pair-Share or CoLT 19: Affinity Grouping that build into the activity quiet reflection time, for example, can ensure that domineering students must be quiet and receding students get a chance to prepare their comments. Moreover, activities like CoLT 4: Talking Chips or CoLT 2: Round Robin structure participation so that everyone contributes more or less equally. • Help students develop and use collaborative skills. Helping students develop their skills in advance may provide them with the tools they

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need to be successful. Help groups learn the communication, problemsolving, and conflict resolution skills they need to manage difficult situations. • Make careful selection of group members. Students who have poor interpersonal skills may do well in smaller groups since they may find them less threatening. If the interpersonal issue is related to shyness or minimal English language skills, consider forming pairs or smaller groups to increase students’ comfort level. • Assign roles. Assuming a specific role may help students to understand how to perform in appropriate ways. For example, assign the domineering student largely silent task roles such as recorder, timekeeper, or end-of-activity summarizer; assign the quiet student a task that requires speaking, such as spokesperson, facilitator, or group leader. Alternatively, select a role suitable for someone with strong academic skills, such as explaining how answers are derived, observing and analyzing data, and integrating materials. They may begin to see their own shortcomings or their own strengths and to learn ways they might interact more effectively. • Speak with an individual about the problem. A person who is dominating group conversation may not be aware of it, and letting him or her know privately can provide the student with information to self-correct without causing embarrassment. • Reform group. Teachers experienced in group learning generally recommend keeping groups intact for as long as possible. Even when groups appear to be deteriorating, as they sometimes do, Miller and colleagues argue that “teachers must have faith that in time they will pull out of their tailspin. Intervening immediately to shuffle the groups can set them back, lose hard-won experience, and force them to start all over again” (Miller, Trimbur, & Wilkes, 1994, p. 40). However, reforming groups can be appropriate and necessary at times. Indeed, doing so frequently can ensure that no one suffers an excessively domineering or underparticipating student for long. • Provide an alternative assignment. There are some students with extremely poor interpersonal skills, and their impact on a group is deeply disruptive. Although learning to work with students such as these may provide other group members with a valuable learning experience, sometimes the detriments exceed the benefits. Consider providing really problematic students with an alternative assignment.

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Off-Task Behavior The behavior of two or more students together, particularly when it involves some sort of social relationship, can be detrimental to collaborative learning. These relationships may result in students chatting, arguing, joking around, or engaging in other off-task behavior. Problem-solving strategies include the following: • Assign groups If you assign group membership, you can prevent having best friends, worst enemies, or couples from working together in the same group or reassign often so that they don’t work together for long. • Set a hard-to-reach time limit. If groups are assigned tasks that require efficient use of their time, they may be less inclined toward off-task behavior. If students do not seem to be making timely progress on a large task, divide the task into smaller tasks and ask for reports on these subtasks throughout the class period. • Physically move closer to the students. Sometimes the physical presence of the teacher can deter off-task behavior. • Speak with students individually and together. Remind students of how this behavior would be viewed in a work environment. • Confront students. Give students a chance to explain their behavior; there may be a good reason for their off-task behavior, even if it is not immediately apparent. • Consider ignoring it. Some off-task behavior may accomplish other learning goals, such as helping develop a sense of community. If off-task behavior is not extensive or disruptive, it may be best to just ignore it.

Groups That Don’t Get Along At times, some members of a group just can’t (or won’t) get along. They may have different values or philosophies, different interests, or different personality styles, or they may simply dislike each other for no apparent reason. A potential result of such issues is that conflict is so strong that the entire group begins to engage collectively in negative behavior and fails to progress in the learning task. Problem-solving strategies include the following: • Give students time to work it out on their own. Jumping in too soon prevents students from learning or practicing valuable problem-solving skills, so do not intervene until it is clear that students are unable to solve their problems.

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• Plan an extensive orientation. A good orientation can help to underscore the talents and abilities of group members so that students better value what their peers have to contribute to their learning. • Help students develop and use collaborative skills. Having students learn the skills they will need helps them get along better; moreover, it gives them important tools for negotiation and conflict resolution • Plan a sponge activity. Personality differences and disagreements often arise when students have downtime. A sponge, or short additional activity to occupy groups who finish early, can keep students active and engaged during a class session so that they are less likely to have time to bicker. • Praise high-functioning groups. Individuals who see an effective group in action may be inspired to put aside differences to accomplish the learning goals. • Establish teacher presence. At times, being present and having students aware of that presence can help to suppress behaviors that can lead to problems among group members. Students might be less likely to be overly critical of each other if they are aware that the instructor is present and attentive to what they are saying and doing. • Speak with the group as a whole (or take individual students aside). Ask them to identify and articulate why they are not getting along. Once the problem has been identified, work with them (or have them work with another group) to identify a solution. As a last resort, reorganize groups. • Reform group. Reforming groups gives students the opportunity to work with many of their peers, and dysfunctional groups can be disbanded so that new, better functioning ones can be formed.

Groups in Which Several or No Students Want to Assume Leadership Having several students who want to be group leaders is not an uncommon occurrence; however, if these individuals engage in a power struggle and no one is willing to compromise, the group can suffer due to an oversupply of leaders. Alternatively, a group may struggle because no one seems willing to stand up and take responsibility. Without someone working to energize and unite the group and move it forward toward a common goal, the group can flounder. Problem-solving strategies include the following: • Make careful selection of group members. Teachers who are concerned about mismatch between membership and leadership may wish to use a

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leadership inventory or survey to assess student leadership preferences or alternatively to get to know students prior to assigning groups. • Help students develop and use collaborative skills. Students who develop collaborative skills learn strategies for taking turns in being leaders as well as participants in groups. Consider assigning and rotating roles (e.g., facilitator, recorder, spokesperson) so that everyone participates in different ways. • Praise high-functioning groups. Few students, particularly those new to higher education, have particularly effective leadership skills. Having a solid example of what a leader, and alternatively a good follower, does and says may encourage members to take on similar behaviors. • Speak with the group about the problem. Talking to the group provides an opportunity to explain the importance of leading and following effectively. Explain to students that being an effective leader means being able to share leadership and help others succeed. Acknowledge that it is also important to be a good follower. If the problem is too few leaders, consider assigning additional points for leadership roles. Or suggest that students flip a coin or draw straws to determine who will assume the leadership role. • Assign challenging roles to high-achieving students. Select a role suitable for someone with strong academic skills, such as explaining how answers are derived, observing and analyzing data, and integrating materials. Use some of the reciprocal teaching CoLTs such as CoLT 9: Fishbowl or CoLT 11: Jigsaw to give these students an opportunity to help others learn. • Match high-achieving students with other academically high-achieving students and assign them more demanding tasks. Consider partnering these kinds of students with someone who has similar skills. Alternatively, assign a task that requires different skills to present him or her with new challenges. • For students requiring more processing time, choose CoLTs that have this time built in. Students with low-level skills or physical or learning disabilities require more time to process information, so consider using activities such as CoLT 1: Think-Pair-Share that allow for processing time. Also consider forming smaller groups. This type of student may have trouble keeping up with the rapid-fire exchange that can happen in larger groups and may work better in small groups that allow more one-to-one conversation. Consider using reciprocal teaching CoLTs so that another

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student can assume a tutoring role with them. Finally, use different kinds of activities. The graphic organization CoLTs or techniques such as CoLT 10: Role-Play may help these students demonstrate their best skills. • Explain the importance of being a good leader and follower. Clarify for students that being an effective leader means being able to share leadership and help others succeed. Acknowledge that it is also important for a good leader to be able to be a good follower. • Consider assigning additional points for leadership roles. A small reward such as additional points may motivate reluctant students to assume this responsibility. • Suggest that students flip a coin or draw straws to determine who will assume the leadership role. This identifies a leader without putting pressure on reluctant students who may simply feel shy or awkward about stepping forward. • Consider assigning and rotating roles. By identifying roles such as facilitator, recorder, and spokesperson, everyone is able to participate in different ways.

Different Ability Levels Howard Gardner’s (1983) work on multiple intelligences confirms teachers’ longtime observations that students come to the classroom with different skills and abilities. According to Gardner, for example, students may be linguistically intelligent, logistically-mathematically intelligent, spatially intelligent, bodily-kinesthetically intelligent, musically intelligent, interpersonally intelligent, intrapersonally intelligent, or naturalistically intelligent. Gardner suggests that in higher education we tend to place value primarily on the first two types of intelligence. The collaborative classroom creates opportunities as well as challenges for multiple intelligences, as students are placed into situations in which they must work with students who have different gifts than theirs. This can become problematic when, for example, a high-achieving student by standard academic measures does not feel adequately challenged by the group or, alternatively, students with low-level skills or physical or learning disabilities require more time to process information than other group members. Problem-solving solutions include the following: • Choose appropriate learning tasks. A good task is effective across different ability levels. CoLT 1: Think-Pair-Share, for example, allows for

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processing time. Reciprocal teaching CoLTs such as CoLT 9: Fishbowl or CoLT 11: Jigsaw allow high-achieving students to assume a tutoring role and help others learn. Finally, graphic organization CoLTs or techniques such as CoLT 10: Role-Play may help students with different abilities demonstrate their best skills. • Craft tasks that stress group interdependence. When tasks are carefully constructed to promote interdependence, high-achieving students may not feel that they are being penalized by the performance of others, and low-achieving students may not feel that they are dragging others down. • Carefully select group members. Teacher-determined groups can help pair students with different ability levels at times so that less prepared students can work with and learn from better prepared students; in addition, it can allow for students of equal ability levels to be paired with each other at times. Consider partnering the student with someone who has dissimilar skills or assigning a task that requires different skills to present him or her with new challenges. Or form smaller groups. Lower-ability students may have trouble keeping up with the rapid-fire exchange that can happen in larger groups and may work better in small groups that allow more one-to-one conversation.

Groups That Work at Different Rates It is a given that groups will work at different speeds. To address different work rates, consider setting a time limit and making it public, as having a time frame will help students monitor their progress. Assign someone in the group the role of taskmaster or timekeeper. This individual can help the group pace itself. A sponge or extension activity can also be planned for students who complete the task early. An extension activity can discourage groups from rushing through an activity and doing it superficially. But avoid punishing groups who finish early simply because they are efficient and capable. Consider assigning bonus points to reward their good work.

Poor Attendance or Participation Outside of Class Sessions Attendance or participation issues can be a major source of contention among groups. If a group member does not show up or complete the assigned work, the rest of the group suffers, particularly if the task is structured appropriately so that interdependence is required for successful completion. This

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can cause considerable stress and frustration among the rest of the group members. Problem-solving strategies include the following: • Set appropriate attendance and participation policies at the beginning and then enforce them. If an attendance or participation policy is included in group ground rules or a group learning contract (see Chapter Four), you will have penalties in place. • Find out the reasons for individual students’ excessive absences. Let this guide your response. For example, if illness is the reason, work with the student to determine whether he or she can continue in the course. Or consider encouraging alternative communication methods such as e-mail or conference calls. If the student is struggling and discouraged, you may wish to invite former students to come to class to share their experiences and strategies for success. You may also find it helpful to suggest additional support services at your institution, such as counseling, if the case warrants it. • Build in individual accountability. If students know that they will be penalized for failure to show up or complete their tasks as well as rewarded for their attendance, they may try harder to fulfill their responsibilities, including those related to attendance. • Reform group. Reforming groups ensures that students are not overly disadvantaged by a group member’s absence.

Inequitable Participation Among Group Members Unequal participation is a challenge in the collaborative learning environment. Some students want to dominate, monopolizing conversations and taking over the group project. This issue can have the effect of shutting down other students and decreasing overall satisfaction. Other students say little or nothing, come unprepared, or contribute little to the activity. They are the object of students’ most common complaint in group work, since group members must do additional work to make up for their lack of motivation, which decreases their satisfaction and quite possibly their grades. Problem-solving strategies include the following: • Choose an appropriate learning task. A good task can promote equitable participation in the structure itself. For example, some tasks require all to participate fairly evenly, such as CoLT 17: Analytic Teams or CoLT 30: Paper Seminar.

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• Build in interdependence. Students who understand that they will reap the reward or penalties appropriate to their own individual efforts will be more likely to carry their weight. Additionally, knowing that a student who is not doing their share will be penalized accordingly can reduce the frustration of those who are doing their share. • Speak with an individual about the problem. Explain to an overeager student that while you are pleased that he or she has much to contribute and is so engaged with the task, other members of the group should have time to participate as well. When talking to the underparticipating student, explain the importance of participation and making meaningful contributions to the group task.

Academic Dishonesty Academic dishonesty is receiving increased attention in higher education, and there are many suggestions in the literature and on the Internet for how to address it. In some ways, collaborative activities can help discourage cheating. For example, McKeachie (2002, pp. 172–173) observes that when students are required to write a paper they seem to face three alternatives: (1) copy a paper from the Web, a friend, or a fraternity or sorority file; (2) find a book in the library that covers the material and copy it with varying degrees of paraphrasing; or (3) (what teachers actually hope happens) review relevant resources, analyze and integrate information, and write a paper that reveals understanding and original thinking. McKeachie notes that in his experience students often cheat because they feel trapped with no other way out. Either because of lack of planning or self-perception of lack of ability or background, they have arrived at the due date feeling that it is impossible to write a paper that will achieve a satisfactory grade. Their only solution is to find an already written paper. He also points out that cheating sometimes results from student frustration and desperation and may be even a way of “getting back at an unreasonable, hostile teacher” (p. 98). McKeachie’s general strategies for preventing cheating apply to both individual and collaborative work. First, reduce the pressure by providing a number of opportunities for students to demonstrate achievement so that their entire grade isn’t dependent upon a single activity. Second, address academic honesty in the syllabus so that students know what constitutes cheating. Third, create interesting assignments that make reasonable demands on students. Fourth, develop group norms that encourage academic honesty. For example, use a discussion CoLT (such as

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CoLT 2: Round Robin or CoLT 3: Buzz Groups) to have students talk about why cheating is bad and to develop their own policy in their group ground rules or learning contract (see Chapter Four). Fifth, if groups are not doing well, talk to them and try to help them find ways to improve so that they don’t feel compelled to resort to cheating (McKeachie, 2002, pp. 98–99). In terms of collaborative learning, here are some additional strategies: • Make sure students understand that there is a difference between cheating and collaborating. The distinction should be explained and understood, perhaps when you orient students to collaborative learning (see Chapter Four). Consider reinforcing this in each assignment’s instructions by outlining the constraints and making it very explicit when an assignment should be done collaboratively and when it should be done individually and independently. • Carefully construct the collaborative task. A thoughtfully constructed task such as CoLT 18: Group Investigation can (1) relieve the pressure on a single student and emphasize instead students supporting each other and capitalizing on the special talents of the group members; (2) make the task manageable because the assignment is broken up into chunks with interim due dates that help teams structure the investigation process and learn from each step; (3) make it difficult to find an available product (e.g., paper, presentation) that adequately addresses the assignment; and (4) help foster personal relationships with other students so that students realize others care and that they will not get away with cheating because they are not anonymous members of a crowd. Still, groups may use several strategies that qualify as cheating: group work from previous years, work shared between and among groups without instructor permission, or failure to properly acknowledge sources or authorities used in developing a group product. • Consider changing assignment prompts on a regular basis. • Ensure individual accountability. Have students turn in individual work along with the group product. • Allow time to work on the assignment in class. Monitor their projects and ensure that, if different groups should not work together, the groups are physically separated. Consider making the assignment a friendly competition between groups. Finally, have groups document their work, perhaps using a classroom assessment technique such as documented problem solutions (CAT 21, Angelo & Cross, 1993, pp. 222–225).

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Conclusion Both teachers and students are familiar with the problems that can attend collaborative learning. Collaborative leaning can be even more challenging in online courses, so we provide additional discussion of the problems and potential solutions in Exhibit 8.1. In both onsite and online courses, however, if teachers design effective learning environments and construct good tasks, many of the problems can be avoided. If difficulties do occur, however, teachers experienced in implementing collaborative learning have developed a wealth of strategies that can help address and resolve them. EXHIBIT 8.1

Avoiding and Resolving Common Problems in the Online Classroom Teaching online requires engaging with students and having them engage with each other in a unique learning environment. Because of this, problems common to collaborative learning have different dimensions when they appear in an online environment. While many of the problem-solving strategies that teachers may employ in an onsite classroom are still effective, the way we use them online sometimes is different. Following are ideas for solving some of the most common problems implementing collaborative learning in the online classroom.

Resistance to Group Work Many students who take online courses do so because they are unable or unwilling to be somewhere at a fixed time and place and they prefer or enjoy working at their own pace. In short, they appreciate the schedule flexibility that online learning affords them. These students may feel particularly put upon to learn that they must work with others and are dependent upon others for completing a specific task at a specific time. If they have encountered difficulties in the past or if they anticipate difficulties, they may be resistant to group work, which can deter their satisfaction and ultimately their performance. Problem-solving strategies include the following: Make sure to build interdependence and individual accountability into the task and that the rewards (and penalties) are clear. Many students will feel more comfortable with online group work if they know that they will be graded for what they contribute to the effort. For example, they may be comfortable with writing a group paper if they complete it in a wiki (CoLT 28: Collaborative Writing), in which their own contributions will be abundantly clear and thus appropriately rewarded. Take time to extensively orient students to the benefits of collaborative learning. Just as it does onsite, a proper orientation to the benefits of collaborative learning can help frame expectations and can lower resistance to group work. Teachers may wish to stress the growing importance of online collaboration in the workplace and thus the benefits of having experiences that can help them develop skills they will need in the future.

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Speak with an individual student privately to explain the problems. If one member seems to be showing particular resistance, it can be important to talk with him or her to find out the issue; it may be a real issue of scheduling, and if so, you may need to help the individual work out the issues with other group members or find other, asynchronous ways to complete the work.

Poor Interpersonal Skills The online environment (at least for instructional purposes in a college or university setting) may be new for some students and they may not have yet developed the interpersonal skills that they need for effective online communication. They may not realize, for example, how they are coming across when they are overly critical of someone (e.g., they flame them). Lack of these skills can cause problems for the effective functioning of groups, particularly if disagreements among members escalate. Problem-solving strategies include the following: Make every effort to choose an appropriate learning task. A good task can help with student online collaborative skills. CoLT 2: Round Robin, for example, could be used to structure chat room participation so that everyone takes a turn during communication, which makes it less likely that someone will dominate or not contribute. Help students develop the skills they will need for collaboration. Because online learning requires some additional interpersonal skills, helping students learn these skills can improve the collaborative learning experience. Providing them with information about the netiquette you expect (e.g., no flaming, respect privacy, and practice forgiveness) can go a long way toward improving the online learning experience. Speak with an individual student privately to explain the problems. Students with poor online communication skills may not be aware of the deficit, and letting them know privately can provide them with information to self-correct without causing embarrassment.

Group Members Not Getting Along When group members do not get along online, the result can be amplified, as their intent may not be as clear online and their words have more permanence (Major, 2014). Thus, the problem can be particularly damaging to online groups. Problem-solving strategies include the following: Praise groups publicly that are performing well together, pointing out effective behaviors. Students in an online course often have few guides for good behavior of effective online groups. Point out what one group is doing well to provide a model so that students can learn from their online observations of others. For example, if one group has had particularly effective communication (e.g., members praise each other more frequently, use parentheticals or emoticons to better express meaning, have requested clarification from each other when necessary), then pointing that out can help other groups observe and thus learn what they need to do. Establish teacher presence. In the online environment, teacher presence is difficult to accomplish, yet it is one of the most critical factors for course success (Major, 2014). Students who believe that a real, live teacher is available in the course will likely self-monitor and avoid being overly critical of other students (i.e., flaming).

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Different Ability Levels Students in online courses tend to have a wide variety of skills and abilities, much like their onsite counterparts. The online learning environment, however, can exacerbate the problem of different ability levels, particularly if those ability levels involve skills such as writing, which typically is on prominent display in an online course. Students can be intimidated by others with better written communication skills, or alternatively they can feel like others are not up to par. This disparity can lead to tension among group members and thus to lower levels of satisfaction and performance. Problem-solving strategies include the following: Choose an appropriate learning task. The online environment is rich with opportunities for students to demonstrate different skills and abilities. A student with high verbal abilities, for example, might be partnered with a student with high technical abilities in an activity like CoLT 10: Role-Play or CoLT 23: Word Webs for a dynamic partnership in which both students can make significant contributions toward their success. Reform groups. While online groups tend to need more time to reach the performing stage of group development (Major, 2014), leaving students together for too long can prove difficult, particularly when ability levels differ dramatically. For this reason, reforming groups occasionally can allow for different students to work with each other at different times.

Too Many (or Too Few) Leaders in a Group While in an onsite course it may become quickly apparent who wishes to be involved in a leadership role, in an online one it may not be as immediately obvious. In particular, online groups and communities take longer to form than onsite ones, and group leadership is oftentimes one of the last aspects of community to be formed (Major, 2014). Without a clear leader, online groups can flounder. Problem-solving strategies include the following: Choose an appropriate task. Using CoLTs that outline specific jobs to be performed, such as CoLT 19: Affinity Grouping or CoLT 11: Jigsaw can be a good way to help students learn the different kinds of roles they might assume online. Assign roles. Since group leadership can take longer to develop online than it does onsite, teachers can assign roles so that students can understand their designations. In addition, teachers can rotate roles online so that students take different roles over time.

Poor Attendance Lack of attendance or participation in outside work is one of the most frequent problems in online courses. Given the potential for procrastination or stopping out of online courses, this issue is not particularly surprising. It does, however, create a serious problem for remaining group members who find themselves stuck with all the work. Indeed, if the task has been structured appropriately, they should not be able to complete it without the active engagement of all of the group members. Thus, it is a real problem for groups (and consequently instructors) when a group member is not participating. Problem-solving strategies include the following: Make sure to build interdependence and individual accountability into the task and that the rewards (and penalties) are clear. If students know that they will be penalized for failure to participate in online

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group meetings or to complete their assigned online group tasks, they are more likely to show up. For example, if students know that the instructor will check the login times of members assigned to different discussion areas and that they will be rewarded or penalized for participation (or lack thereof ), they will be more likely to participate appropriately. Set policies at the start of the course that encourage good participation. Group ground rules or a group learning contract (see Chapter Four) would be particularly useful in an online course by allowing groups to self-govern. An area of the learning management system could be dedicated to these policies, or a course website could be created to post the different group rules or contracts to make them easy for members to reference and cite. You may also wish to consider encouraging alternative communication methods such as e-mail or conference calls. Establish teacher presence. In online courses in particular, if students do not see that the teacher is there they are unlikely to be there either. Establishing a strong online presence can improve student participation and engagement as well. Reform groups. Reforming groups ensures that students are not overly disadvantaged by a group member’s absence.

Off-Task Behavior During Work Sessions Just as their onsite counterparts, online group members can engage in off-task behavior. Such behavior is more likely to be found during synchronous group sessions, such as those held in chat rooms or those with audio and video features (e.g., Blackboard Collaborate or Google Hangouts), but the result is the same. While some social behavior is fine and even desirable, when it exceeds an appropriate level then students are unable to complete their work. Problem-solving strategies include the following: Take advantage of technology tools and make every effort to choose an appropriate learning task. A real task can clarify and underscore the value of working efficiently in the virtual environment. Students may also be more engaged in a session, for example, when a notable speaker attends a virtual session live and they can ask questions than when they are simply watching a video with no interaction. Speak with the group as a whole about the problem. If a group is not functioning well during times they should be working together, whether synchronously or asynchronously, talking with them can provide an opportunity to clear the air and can help them understand and address the issue. New synchronous technologies such as Google Hangouts and Blackboard Collaborate can allow for small group real time conversations, which may be necessary to get to the heart of the issue.

Groups Working at Different Rates Just as with an onsite class, some groups will necessarily finish earlier than others. This may not be as much of an issue in an asynchronous environment where students do not have to wait around, but it may become an issue in a synchronous session. Problem-solving strategies include the following: Plan a sponge or extension. Just as onsite, online you can plan a sponge, or short additional activity, to occupy groups that finish early. The task, however, must be a meaningful one, or students will see it as filler. Asking the group that finishes early to support lagging groups can be beneficial. A group that

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completes CoLT 31: Team Scavenger Hunt online before the other groups might be enlisted to provide a struggling group with clues to help them complete the assignment. Assign roles. Students taking an online course likely may have few opportunities for synchronous interactions, yet research indicates that such opportunities can improve social presence, or the feeling that other real people are involved in teaching and taking the course. It is imperative to make good and efficient use of any synchronous sessions. Assigning one group member the role of timekeeper can help to ensure that the group meets its goals. If group members are participating in a synchronous version of CoLT 6: Critical Debate, for example, and have fifteen minutes to prepare their arguments, the timekeeper can give ten-, five-, and one-minute warnings.

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Part Three

Collaborative Learning Techniques The thirty-five techniques included in Part Three of this handbook provide teachers with specific, practical tools for engaging students in collaborative learning. In some ways, they are like a collection of well-tested recipes. Our goal was to make each collaborative learning technique (CoLT) clear and comprehensive so that teachers new to collaborative learning could follow the procedures precisely and be reasonably guaranteed good results. We hope, though, that teachers will use the recipes more as would accomplished chefs and will consider the techniques as guidelines, as starting points that spark their own creativity. In this way, teachers are encouraged to substitute, combine, or add elements to adapt the CoLTs to best meet their unique instructional needs. The CoLTs are similar to recipes in other ways. If teachers have been predominantly lecturing, adding even a few of these techniques can vary and enrich the menu of learning opportunities instructors provide their students. Alternatively, even a CoLT that was once a refreshing, new activity can become stale if used excessively. Finally, the CoLTs resemble recipes in that they give only directions; like cooks, teachers must provide the actual ingredients. These ingredients comprise the learning task itself, and just as flawed ingredients can ruin the best recipe, so can an ill-conceived learning task undermine the effectiveness of even the most basic CoLT. We recommend, therefore, that teachers refer to Chapter Three for additional ideas

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on how to construct creative prompts that can be used in conjunction with the CoLTs presented in this part of the handbook.

Origin of the CoLTs We have drawn from the existing literature and the wisdom of practice to collect techniques that have already been both time and classroom tested. For further information, we have included in each CoLT a Primary Resources section that contains two to three important references to works describing the CoLT, with varying degrees of explication. For example, in CoLT 14: Send-a-Problem, we cite Millis and Cottell (1998), who fully explicate the CoLT, while in CoLT 30: Paper Seminar, we cite Habeshaw, Habeshaw, and Gibbs (1984), who include more broad, general descriptions. The Primary Resources section is not intended to provide the original source; in some cases, the techniques have been shared among practitioners for decades, and thus it is impossible for us to confidently identify an original source. In other cases, the original sources are not readily available should readers wish to examine them. Nor is this section intended to provide the sole sources available that describe the technique, since multiple sources exist for several of the CoLTs—many of which it can be argued are of equal importance. Rather, the section provides resources we found to be the most useful in our synthesis.

How to Use the CoLTs The easiest approach to incorporating collaborative learning is to look at what you do now and see if one or more activities could be done collaboratively. The CoLTs are organized into six categories of general learning activities: discussion, reciprocal teaching, problem-solving, information organizing, collaborative writing, and gaming. An introduction for each category describes its unique pedagogical benefits and provides a table with a brief description of each CoLT. Thus, if you are already using class discussion as a teaching strategy, you might look at the discussion CoLTs and choose one or two techniques that can help make class discussions more collaborative and effective. For example, CoLT 1: Think-Pair-Share is a very simple but useful method for increasing the quantity and quality of discussion participation. If your course requires students to engage in a significant amount of problem-solving, look in the Problem-Solving CoLTs for ideas on how to use collaborative learning to help students learn these skills. For example, CoLT 13: Think-Aloud Pair Problem-Solving

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(TAPPS) provides a structure for students to help each other practice specific problem-solving strategies. A brief review of the descriptive tables introducing each CoLT category might lead you to incorporate additional techniques such as CoLT 7: Note-Taking Pairs or CoLT 12: Test-Taking Teams. Approached in this way, incorporating collaborative learning may require only minor adaptations of activities you already do. As you plan the activity, take time to think through all of the stages: Before: First spend time on designing the task, as this is a critical step in ensuring the activity’s success and it informs your other decisions. Then decide how to form the groups and how many students will be in each group. Gather adequate materials. Estimate the amount of time that the activity will take and then plan accordingly. Groups, like individuals, will complete tasks at different rates. Prepare extension activities (e.g., additional questions) to keep groups occupied if they finish early. Beginning: Carefully explain the objectives of the activity and tell students how the groups will operate. Make sure that the task is clearly defined, with directions or prompts presented in a written handout or on an overhead transparency. Set up the expectation that cooperation is essential, and make sure that students know how both the groups and individuals will be evaluated and held accountable. During: If it takes more than one class session to accomplish a task, check in with groups regularly to monitor progress. If a group is not working well, don’t simply break it up but rather try to help groups learn to solve their own problems so that they can become productive and learn valuable teamwork skills. Ending: Structure closing activities so that groups present their findings to an interested and critical audience. This activity may be structured in a way that different student groups contribute their findings to achieve a bigger learning outcome. After: Consider incorporating a reflection stage in which students analyze what they have learned, identify strengths and weaknesses in the collaborative learning processes, and offer constructive ideas on how their learning can be improved. The CoLTs described in Part Three assist instructors in their planning for all these phases of the learning task, but if you would like additional information or ideas, refer to Part Two. Each chapter of Part Two examines various aspects of implementing collaborative learning. For example,

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Chapter Three contains a thorough discussion on designing the task, and Chapter Five offers many suggestions on how to form groups.

CoLT Categories To reduce the effort required to locate an appropriate CoLT, we have organized the techniques into six broad categories:

Discussion

Student interaction and exchange is achieved primarily through

Reciprocal Peer Teaching

Students purposefully help each other master subject matter

Problem Solving

Students focus on practicing problem-solving strategies.

Graphic Information

Groups use visual tools to organize and display information.

spoken words. content and develop discipline-based skills.

Organizers Writing

Students write to learn important course content and skills.

Games

Students work together in teams to participate in a competitive activity that is guided by a preexisting set of rules.

These categories represent our best attempt at sorting the techniques into sets that share fundamental commonalities, yet the dividing lines are not precise. For example, in the writing CoLTs we include CoLT 27: Peer Editing. This is a technique in which students critically review and provide editorial feedback on each other’s essay, report, argument, research paper, or other writing assignment. One could make a case that this technique might be better included in reciprocal peer teaching, but we included it in the writing section because students write a response to another student’s paper and thus learn to evaluate their own work.

Format Used to Present the CoLTs Each CoLT is presented in a format that includes the following elements.

Number and Name The thirty-five CoLTs are numbered sequentially and, within each category, appear in order from least to most complex. We identify each CoLT by a simple, descriptive name. In some cases, we have changed a name from how it appears in the literature. For example, we modified Team Word Webbings to Word Webs because it seemed simpler and Dyadic Essay

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Confrontations to Dyadic Essays because one of our faculty colleagues asked, “For techniques intended to promote collaboration, why use the word confrontation?” Sometimes a technique appears in the literature under multiple names. Where possible, we have identified alternative names, usually in the Variations and Extensions section of that CoLT. For example, a variation of CoLT 6: Critical Debate appears in Millis and Cottell (1998) as Structured Academic Controversy (pp. 140–143).

Characteristics At the top of each CoLT, we provide a quick overview of important attributes: • Group size: This indicates the number of group members we believe is optimal for that technique. Some of the CoLTs are designed for pairs or quads; most work best in small groups that range from four to six members. • Time on task: Although the time on task can vary widely based on the learning activity, we provide the estimated average length of time the activity requires. Some CoLTs can be completed in a few minutes; others take several hours. • Duration of groups: Most CoLTs can be done by an ad hoc group within a single class session. Others take longer and are best accomplished using base groups that work together for multiple sessions or throughout the entire academic term.

Description and Purpose This element includes a brief explanation of what the CoLT is, identifying its key characteristics and distinguishing features. It also contains an explanation of why the CoLT is useful.

Preparation In this element, we describe what activities should be done, or materials acquired, prior to implementing the CoLT. This advice most often centers on what the teacher should do, but occasionally we provide information about what steps students should take to be ready to actively participate in the CoLT.

Procedure This part contains simple, step-by-step directions for conducting the CoLT.

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Online Implementation In this section we describe how to implement the CoLT for the online environment given current technology. Several factors made writing this component challenging. First, technology changes rapidly, and this speed is in direct conflict with the enduring nature of print. We recognize that information that is cutting edge at this moment will soon be out of date, and advances that may eventually become commonplace are not yet even imagined. Second, the sophistication of online courses and the level of assistance provided online instructors vary widely across institutions. Third, readers will have different levels of students (lower division or graduate seminar?) and sizes of class (12 or 120?). These factors make it difficult to provide concrete suggestions for application as well as specific online variations for collaborative activities. But because of the growing importance of technology and the significant increase in online teaching, we believe it is critical to offer some ideas in an Online Implementation section. We have therefore drawn from our own as well as colleagues’ experience as online instructors and have consulted with experts to offer general guidelines for adapting the CoLT to the online environment.

Examples Here we include examples that illustrate use of the CoLT in a wide range of disciplines and classroom contexts (see Using CoLTs in Different Classroom Environments). They have been pulled from the literature, shared with us by faculty colleagues, or drawn from our own experience as teachers. We hope that readers will learn from examples in all fields and adapt the ideas for their own academic areas. They are presented usually in order of simplest to most complex.

Variations and Extensions This section includes ideas for ways the CoLT can be adapted, extended, or modified.

Observations and Advice In this section, we include additional information we believe will help readers implement the CoLT successfully, such as caveats, ideas for closure activities, and suggestions for assessment and grading.

Primary Resources As we have described already, this element contains the two or three sources we hope will be most helpful for further information on that technique.

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Using CoLTs in Various Educational Environments In the decade since the first edition of this book was published, collaborative learning has proven to be a highly adaptable instructional approach. Faculty members have used the techniques that we describe in Part Three to good effect in many different educational environments. Indeed, many educators argue that collaborative learning is essential to the success of learners in a range of different educational contexts, and scholarly evidence supports this assertion. (See Chapter Two for evidence about the influence of collaborative learning on student learning outcomes.) Because of the importance of collaborative learning in different environments, in this section we describe four different educational environments: traditional classrooms, flipped classrooms, online courses, and large lecture classes. Within the CoLTs themselves, we provide examples of CoLTs used in these different environments.

Traditional Onsite Classrooms The term traditional classroom is a strangely nebulous one. Educators use it to describe a variety of educational activities and environments, ranging from class size (smaller classes of fifty or fewer students) to a specific instructional method (lecturing) to an institutional type (expressed in the image of a brick-and-mortar, ivy-covered university). In the context of educational environment here, we use the term traditional onsite classroom as a proxy for class size (fifty or fewer students) and face-to-face classroom. All of the CoLTs we describe in Part Three are ideal for use in a traditional onsite classroom, and in each CoLT we provide at least one example of how it can be used in this environment.

Flipped Classrooms The term flipped classroom is an instructional model in which the order of elements common in some courses is reversed. Instead of reading and completing activities outside of class before hearing a lecture in class, students typically watch short video lectures or do other preparatory work outside of class and before the class session. During the class session, they spend time actively engaging in discussions, exercises, or projects. All of the CoLTs we describe in Part Three are ideal for use in a flipped classroom because they can provide form and structure for the learning activities during the face-to-face class sessions. We provide examples in most of the CoLTs of how they can be used in a flipped classroom.

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Online Courses Due to the increasing popularity and prominence of online courses, we have given considered attention throughout this book to the use of collaborative learning in the online environment. In each CoLT in Part Three, we provide at least one example of how it can be used in an online classroom. We acknowledge that there is no one way to teach online, and indeed, the variety of ways faculty teach online is constantly growing. One of the primary changes we have seen is in the timing of communication within online courses. In addition to asynchronous communication, which means that teacher and students post and respond to comments as they are able without the constraints of time, more and more professors are using synchronous communication tools as well, which means that faculty members and students communicate with each other simultaneously. We also recognize that the number of environments in which online courses occur is on the rise, as are the tools by which students access these environments. For example, many students are now accessing their course environments (and communicating with each other) through cellular phone apps or handheld devices. Acknowledging the increasing variety of tools, we see the four environments described in Exhibit Intro 3.1 as the primary ones in which most online courses currently take place. Most of the CoLTs that we describe in Part Three can be adapted to one or more of the various environments. The effort that faculty must employ in the different environments, however, varies. We suggest the following levels: Ease: This CoLT can be taught in this environment with ease, assuming you are familiar with the environment already. It is nearly a direct transfer from the traditional learning environment. Enterprise: This CoLT can be taught in this environment with enterprise. Assuming you are familiar with the environment already, with a bit of ingenuity and careful planning you can make this activity work in the specified environment. (We describe the effort in the Online Implementation section of these CoLTs.) Effort: This CoLT might be carried off in the particular environment if undertaken with effort. It will take considerable time and energy to make the CoLT work in this environment, and you would be wise to weigh whether implementing it in this environment is indeed worth the effort. Exhibit Intro 3.2 displays our assessment of the effort teachers will need to employ implementing each CoLT in the four primary online environments.

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Exhibit Intro 3.1

Primary Online Learning Environments Environment

Description

Learning Management System (LMS)

An LMS is software that facilitates the administration, documentation, tracking, reporting, and delivery of online courses.

Typical Tools

Sample Current Options

Course content over WebBlackboard Collaborate, based interface, including Sakai, Moodle, discussion forum, Desire2Learn, assessment, gradebook, ETUDES student tracking, chat, messaging, announcements, e-mail, blog, and wiki Web Conferencing Web conferencing is real-time Video, whiteboard, chat, Blackboard Collaborate, System communication in which multiple attendance Illuminate, Adobe users are connected to the Connect, Elluminate, Internet and can see the screen at WebEX, Wimba all times in their individual Web Classroom browsers. Allows for synchronous communication and involves video and audio. Thus, users can see and hear each other as they talk together in real time. Web conferencing may combine features of other tools, such as chat, voiceover Internet protocol, and video. (Note: Some LMS have Web conferencing capabilities.) Immersive World An immersive environment is an Voice chat, instant messaging Second Life, Tixeo, artificial and interactive world in Messaging OpenSpace3D which a user participates, often by way of an avatar. Immersive environments can give participants a sense of being there and can allow time for creativity and play as they participate in a learning experience. Open Environment In an open environment, instructors Blogs, microblogs, social Internet teach openly on the Web, bookmarking sites frequently adopting social tools. Courses taught in the open can range from small to massive, and indeed massive open online courses (MOOCs) have become an increasingly recognized form of offering online instruction. (Note: By the term open we do not mean openly licensed.)

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Exhibit Intro 3.2

Effort Needed to Implement CoLTs in the Four Primary Online Environments CoLT No. CoLT Name Discussion CoLTs

Reciprocal Teaching CoLTs

Problem-Solving CoLTs

Writing CoLTs

Games CoLTs

Web Conferencing Virtual World Open

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Think-Pair-Share Round Robin Buzz Groups Talking Chips Three-Step Interview Critical Debate Note-Taking Pairs

Ease Enterprise Ease Enterprise Ease Enterprise Ease

Effort Effort Effort Effort Ease Enterprise Effort

Ease Enterprise Ease Enterprise Ease Enterprise Effort

Effort Effort Enterprise Effort Enterprise Effort Effort

8 9 10 11 12 13

Learning Cell Fishbowl Role-Play Jigsaw Test-Taking Teams Think-Aloud Pair Problem-Solving Send-a-Problem Case Study Structured Problem-Solving Analytic Teams Group Investigation Affinity Grouping

Ease Enterprise Effort Ease Ease Effort

Ease Effort Effort Effort Effort Ease

Ease Ease Ease Enterprise Effort Enterprise

Enterprise Effort Ease Ease Effort Effort

Enterprise Effort Ease Effort Ease Enterprise

Enterprise Enterprise Enterprise

Effort Enterprise Enterprise

Ease Ease Effort

Enterprise Effort Enterprise

Enterprise Enterprise Effort

Ease Effort Ease

Group Grid Team Matrix Sequence Chains Word Webs Dialog Journals Round Table Dyadic Essays Peer Editing Collaborative Writing Team Anthologies Paper Seminar Team Scavenger Hunt Quizo Friendly Feud Team Jeopardy Team Games Tournaments

Ease Ease Enterprise Effort Ease Ease Ease Ease Ease Ease Enterprise Ease Effort Effort Effort Enterprise

Enterprise Enterprise Enterprise Enterprise Effort Effort Effort Effort Effort Effort Enterprise Effort Enterprise Effort Enterprise Enterprise

Effort Effort Effort Effort Effort Enterprise Effort Effort Effort Effort Enterprise Enterprise Enterprise Enterprise Enterprise Effort

Effort Enterprise Ease Ease Ease Ease Open Effort Ease Ease Effort Effort Effort Effort Effort Effort

14 15 16

Graphic Organizer CoLTs

LMS

17 28 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35

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In the Online Implementation section of each CoLT, we state which form of communication (synchronous or asynchronous) is most appropriate for the specific CoLT, and we describe which environments we believe are best suited for it. In many instances we also recommend specific current collaborative tools that may be used to accomplish each CoLT. In Appendix B we provide a table that outlines some of the currently available tools for faculty attempting to implement collaborative learning in online courses.

Large Lecture Classes With the rising demand for higher education coupled with increasing financial pressures, the large lecture class has become a more common course structure. Taught frequently in auditoriums, these courses usually enroll several hundred students, and the lead instructor typically lectures. The challenge with such courses is managing students and keeping them engaged and involved in their own learning. Faculty members who have used collaborative learning in large lecture classes have described a range of benefits, including improved learning outcomes (see Mazur, 2009). Many of the CoLTs that we describe in Part Three can work in the large lecture course. Several of them can be done without any additional equipment or personnel, while others require modifiable physical space, such as movable tables and chairs, to be accomplished effectively. Some of them likely require additional help from individuals such as teaching assistants or colleagues to help observe, facilitate, and answer questions. In Exhibit Intro 3.3 we offer an overview of what kinds of resources we believe teachers will most likely need to implement each CoLT in a large lecture setting. While it may well be possible to adapt any of these techniques to a large classroom environment—and we have heard about the use of most of these CoLTs in large class settings—for us some CoLTs work better than others. In the following section, we offer our take on the best CoLTs for large lecture settings to accomplish four different purposes: lecture breakout, study partners/groups, test preparation, and projects.

Top Techniques for Lecture Breakout in the Large Classroom Lecture breakout means just what the term implies: the professor lectures for fifteen to twenty minutes and then employs a short collaborative activity to give students a break from the lecture so that they can actively consider or apply the content and can reset their attention spans. The professor then resumes lecturing. The following are our top choices for lecture breakout in the large class:

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Exhibit Intro 3.3

Adapting CoLTs to Large Class Settings CoLT #

Name

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35

Think-Pair-Share Round Robin Buzz Groups Talking Chips Three-Step Interview Critical Debate Note-Taking Pairs Learning Cell Fishbowl Role-Play Jigsaw Test-Taking Teams Think-Aloud Pair Problem-Solving Send-a-Problem Case Study Structured Problem-Solving Analytic Teams Group Investigation Affinity Grouping Group Grid Team Matrix Sequence Chains Word Webs Dialog Journals Round Table Dyadic Essays Peer Editing Collaborative Writing Team Anthologies Paper Seminar Team Scavenger Hunt Quizo Friendly Feud Team Jeopardy Team Games Tournaments

No Additional Requirements

Requires Moving Tables and Chairs

Requires Assistance from Others

X X X X X X

X X

X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

X

X

X X

X

X X X

X X X X X X

X X X X X X

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CoLT 1: Think-Pair-Share. Student pairs discuss briefly a content-related question or issue and then the professor asks for responses from a few pairs. CoLT 3: Buzz Groups. Students have quick impromptu discussions on a question related to course content with students sitting near them. CoLT 2: Round Robin. Students take turns brainstorming ideas about a topic or issue.

Top Techniques for Study Partners/Groups One challenge of the large lecture class is that students can feel alone in the crowd, as all too often they don’t have an opportunity to form and build real academic relationships. Assigning ongoing partners can help combat feelings of loneliness and can improve student performance by strengthening their knowledge and skill bases. Following are our top choices for study partners: CoLT 7: Note-Taking Pairs. Students can compare lecture notes to ensure accuracy and completeness. CoLT 8: Learning Cells. Students can develop questions and alternate asking and answering them. CoLT 13: Think-Aloud Pair Problem-Solving. Students can try out their problem-solving abilities in a low-threat situation, with someone they know and trust.

Top Techniques for Test Preparation One challenge for the large lecture instructor is developing interesting and engaging ways for students to review prior to a test. Collaborative learning can help professors accomplish this important goal: CoLT 14: Send-a-Problem. This method can help students move into a problem-solving frame of mind, giving them practice solving problems and allowing them to see multiple solutions. CoLT 35: Team Games Tournaments. This CoLT gives students an opportunity to prepare and review in a competitive and fun atmosphere. CoLT 12: Test-Taking Teams. This technique gives students a chance to work together to prepare and then to rely upon each other for performance. Because many students do better on the group tests than the individual ones, this technique can also help build appreciation for collaboration.

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Top Techniques for Class Projects Many professors are looking for alternatives to traditional testing to find new ways to have students demonstrate what they have learned. Collaborative learning provides unique opportunities for class projects. Following are our top suggestions for collaborative class projects in a large lecture setting: CoLT 11: Jigsaw. This approach can allow students to develop creative ways of teaching each other that can result in a product that can be shared with the whole class. CoLT 18: Group Investigation. Students work together on solving a complex problem and demonstrating how they have gone about it. CoLT 29: Team Anthologies. Students put together a list of resources, often indicating their criteria for selecting them.

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Chapter 9

Techniques for Discussion Exchanging information, ideas, and opinions in open and provocative discussion lies at the heart of collaborative learning. McKeachie describes discussion as the prototypic teaching method for active learning and one of the most valuable tools in the teacher’s repertoire (2002). Davis notes, “A good give-and-take discussion can produce unmatched learning experiences as students articulate their ideas, respond to their classmates’ points, and develop skills in evaluating the evidence of their own and others’ positions” (1993, p. 63). Use of discussion as an effective teaching tool is well established: class discussion has been the single most popular instructional method in higher education, with 88 percent of all college teachers reporting that they use it in all or most of their classes (Higher Education Research Institute at UCLA, 2012). Why is discussion so popular? Perhaps it is because teachers recognize that it helps students learn in many ways: Discussion helps students formulate their ideas and learn to communicate them clearly. It encourages students to think in the language and habits of the discipline. It exposes students to multiple perspectives, increases their awareness of ambiguity and complexity, and challenges them to recognize and investigate assumptions. It teaches students to be attentive, respectful listeners. It helps students learn more deeply and remember longer by requiring them to connect what they hear and what they say to knowledge that they already possess. Yet getting students to participate in a really good discussion is difficult. If they have been sitting passively listening to a lecture, many are content to continue sitting passively when the lecture shifts to discussion, quietly listening to a few others contribute comments. Good discussion requires participants to speak and say what they truly think, feel, and believe, and many students are reluctant to take this risk. They are afraid of being publicly embarrassed if their comments are viewed as incorrect or stupid. If a student’s first language is not English, or alternatively if a student is struggling to become acculturated to modes of appropriate

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college classroom behavior, speaking in class is even more threatening. Whatever the reasons for student reticence to speak, many instructors find it challenging to generate stimulating classroom discussion. The six discussion collaborative learning techniques (CoLTs) are good strategies for improving class discussion. Used as a small-group alternative or as a warm-up to whole-class participation, they address many of the general problems of discussion by (1) dividing the class into pairs or small groups so that each individual has the opportunity to participate in the discussion; (2) establishing a framework (e.g., giving each student a meaningful role) that requires every student to be engaged and to contribute; (3) reducing the risk associated with speaking and saying what one really thinks because the discussion is occurring within a small group of peers rather than publicly in front of the whole class and teacher; (4) allowing students to clarify their thoughts and rehearse their comments before speaking in front of the whole class; and (5) providing individual students the opportunity to find others who may agree and support them in their opinion before they go public. Although the CoLTs in this section are joined by the commonality of communicating through spoken words, they also have unique attributes and functions. A brief description and the primary purpose of each of the discussion CoLTs is provided in Exhibit 9.1.

EXHIBIT 9.1

Discussion CoLTs This CoLT …

… is a technique in which students:

It is particularly useful for:

1 Think-PairShare

think individually for a few minutes, and then discuss and compare their responses with a partner before sharing with the entire class. generate ideas and speak in order moving from one student to the next. discuss course-related questions informally in small groups of peers.

preparing students to participate more fully and effectively in whole class discussions.

2 Round Robin 3 Buzz Groups

4 Talking Chips 5 Three-Step Interview 6 Critical Debates

participate in a group discussion and surrender a token each time they speak. interview each other and report what they learn to another pair. assume and argue the side of an issue that is in opposition to their personal views.

structuring brainstorming sessions and ensuring that all students participate. generating lots of information and ideas in a short period of time to prepare for and improve whole-class discussions. ensuring equitable participation. helping students network and improve communication skills. developing critical thinking skills and encouraging students to challenge their existing assumptions.

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1

Think-Pair-Share Characteristics Group Size

PAIRS

Time on Task

5–15 MINUTES

Duration of Groups

SINGLE SESSION

Description and Purpose

In this simple and quick technique, the instructor develops and poses a question, gives students a few minutes to think about a response, and then asks students to share their ideas with a partner. Think-Pair-Share is particularly effective as a warm-up for whole-class discussion. The Think component requires students to stop and reflect before speaking, thus giving them an opportunity to collect and organize their thoughts. The Pair and Share components encourage learners to compare and contrast their understandings with those of another and to rehearse their response first in a low-risk situation before going public with the whole class. This opportunity to practice comments first with a peer tends to improve the quality of student contributions and generally increases willingness and readiness to speak in a larger group.

Preparation

Prior to coming to class, spend time developing an engaging question or problem that has many potential responses. Try responding to the question yourself. Decide how you are going to present the question (e.g., worksheet, presentation slide, or whiteboard) and how you are going to have students report out. (See Chapter Six for reporting-out suggestions.)

Procedure

1. Pose the question to the class, giving students a few minutes to think about the question and devise individual responses. 2. Ask students to pair with another student nearby. 3. Ask Student A to share his or her responses with Student B and then Student B to share ideas with Student A. Suggest that if the two students disagree, they clarify their positions so that they are ready to explain

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how and why they disagree. If useful, request that pairs create a joint response by building on each other’s ideas.

Online Implementation: Think-Pair-Share Timing: Synchronous and asynchronous Tools: Texting, instant messaging (IM), or telecommunication and discussion Implementing this CoLT online provides students with the opportunity to practice online communication skills and allows two students to make a direct connection with each other, which can improve their experiences in online courses. Two advantages to online implementation are that students have a greater opportunity for reflective thought before responding to each other and that archived written transcripts of students’ responses

to each other are readily available. However, in the absence of the synchronous, physical proximity that makes this CoLT such an easy impromptu strategy in an onsite class, effective implementation in an online class requires preassigned peers who work together frequently and over an extended period of time. Ask students to share their ideas in response to the prompt first with their work partners by way of IM, texting, or a telecommunications tool such as Skype, and then one student posts the joint response to a discussion board used by the full class or a student blog.

Examples

African Art and the Diaspora (Traditional Onsite) In this class for art majors, the professor lectured on themes such as abundance, status, royalty, and prestige. To provide an active learning exercise as a break to her lectures, she often used a modified form of Think-Pair-Share. She projected an image on screen, such as a pottery bowl, and asked student to think about what the object conveys about the themes. She thus used the object as a tool to help students think about larger social and political issues. She then asked students to partner with another student sitting nearby to share their ideas, after which pairs shared their thoughts with the full class. She ended the exercise with a brief discussion before returning to a closing lecture. •

•

•

Introduction to Chemistry (Large Lecture) In this Introduction to Chemistry, the professor regularly lectured to a large audience of students. He noticed, however, that about halfway through his lectures student attention started to wander. The students diverted eye contact and started shuffling, and he could see them check the clock. He decided he wanted to use a collaborative learning technique to help them refocus their attention on the lecture.

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He chose Think-Pair-Share in combination with a quick poll. He found an application in which students could use their smartphones to call in their votes. He delivered a twenty-minute lecture, asked students a question about the content, and then allowed students to pair to discuss a joint answer to the question. He asked students with phones to access the number of the poll and call in their votes. He was able to integrate a link into his presentation software and thus could give students real-time results, which he discussed before giving another twenty-minute lecture. •

•

•

Introduction to Physical Anthropology (Flipped Course) In this flipped course, students attended some onsite classes on campus, but they also did a considerable amount of work online. In this adaptation of Think-Pair-Share, Professor Sara McShards organized students into pairs and then quads at the beginning of the semester. On Thursday of each week, she posted four questions online that required students to understand and apply concepts from online readings and videos that would prepare them for the next week’s in-class activities. Before the class met on Monday, partners must have worked together to create, whether through IM or telecommunications (the decision is theirs), and have documented joint responses to the questions. They then shared their responses in an online discussion forum, and the two sets of partners discussed, compared, and contrasted their responses in the forum; other students were encouraged to comment as well. •

•

•

English Composition (Online Course) An instructor of English Composition to freshmen planned to have students write argument essays throughout the semester. He wanted students to work together both in pairs and in larger teams, so he first formed base pairs and then combined the base pairs into base teams. At the beginning of the term, the professor shared several passages from arguments for students to read, and he used Think-Pair-Share in conjunction with the writings to help students examine features of a compelling written argument. The professor began by posting the following question to the class discussion forum: What makes a written argument effective? He asked students to think about the assigned passages individually and to consider the features that made those arguments effective. He then asked individuals to communicate their answers with their partner in the base pair and develop a consensus answer. Base pairs were then asked to share their answers with their base teams.

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The instructor called on each team to post their responses to the discussion forum. He then posted his own list of features of effective arguments against which students compared their lists. Overall, the lists were similar, and the instructor commended the students for their ability to identify qualities of a good argument. The students and the instructor then worked together to combine and refine a set of criteria, with the instructor guiding the discussion by asking questions on the forum. Together, they developed a strong set of argument evaluation criteria used both by students in peer assessment of each other’s writing and by the instructor in grading. Variations and Extensions

• Export the Think step by posing a question for students to consider outside of class. When they return to class, ask students to pair and share their homework responses. • Give students time to write their responses down before pairing; this variation is called Write-Pair-Share (Johnson, Johnson, & Smith, 1991; Lyman, 1981). • Ask each pair to share and compare their paired ideas with those of another pair before, or instead of, the whole-class discussion; this variation is called Think-Pair-Square (Lyman, 1981). • Think-Tweet-Share: Students think of response and then generate a Tweet or a 140-character representation of a Tweet (Perret, 2012). • Think-Text-Share: If students are allowed to use cell phones in class, rather than verbally pairing their ideas they could text each other and then share with the full group (Perret, 2012). • Think-Pair-Wordle-Share: Wordles are images that display words (word clouds) generated from source text. The images use font size to give greater prominence to words that appear more frequently in the source text. This variation requires the Wordle application. The instructor poses a question such as, “What are all the words you can think of to describe ________ [e.g., a character in book, a historical figure]?” Students think individually and then share ideas with partner to develop one Wordle between the two of them that will demonstrate the words they had in common through greater prominence. Students then share with group (Perret, 2012).

Observations and Advice

• See Chapter Three for ideas on developing and presenting good prompts.

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• Give students sufficient time to think before pairing and responding; the time required will depend on the nature, scope, and complexity of the question as well as on the students’ level of familiarity with the topic. For a conceptual question, allow at least a minute for individual responses. Doing so provides students time to formulate and rehearse ideas before sharing them. In addition to think time, plan enough time for both students to express and compare their responses. This share time will give students the opportunity to discuss well-thought-out answers with peers and to refine their answers before speaking to the whole class. • Announce a time limit, but gauge time needed by decibel levels as well. If the pairs are all still actively engaged, consider extending that limit by a minute or two. • If one student seems to be dominating the other in the pair, set time limits for each student response. • The simplest reporting out strategy is to have each pair share its most important point with the whole class. Limit the number of responses, repetition, and time required in the report out by asking each pair after the first to share only ideas not yet mentioned. Following the reports, conclude with a synthesis to validate student responses by highlighting the good points that students brought out. Gently correct any responses that are incorrect, and add any points that weren’t covered. If appropriate, provide learners with an expert response, allowing them to check and revise their individual and pair responses. If time is limited or the class is large, randomly call on student pairs or collect a written version of the pair responses and review them outside of class. • To promote active listening during the report-out phase, randomly call on students and ask them to summarize what the reporting student just said. • The reporting out usually provides instructors with sufficient feedback to assess student understanding. However, in cases where student pairs have exhibited a great deal of difficulty or confusion in their responses, it may be useful to do additional assessment. Consider using Minute Paper (CAT 6, Angelo & Cross, 1993, pp. 148–153), and ask students to write a half-sheet response to a question such as, “What aspect of the prompt question was most difficult for you to answer?” or “On what points did you and your partner agree, or disagree?” • Think-Pair-Share is typically used as an informal strategy to stimulate discussion and is not generally used for grading purposes.

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Primary Resources

Lyman, F. (1981). The responsive classroom discussion. In A. S. Anderson (Ed.), Mainstreaming digest. College Park: University of Maryland College of Education. Lyman, F. T. (1992). Think-Pair-Share, Thinktrix, Thinklinks, and weird facts: An interactive system for cooperative learning. In N. Davidson & T. Worsham (Eds.), Enhancing thinking through cooperative learning (pp. 169–181). New York: Teachers College Press. Millis, B. J., & Cottell, P. (1998). Cooperative learning for higher education faculty. American Council on Education, Series on Higher Education. Phoenix, AZ: Oryx Press, pp. 72–78, 115–116.

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2

Round Robin Characteristics

Description and Purpose

Group Size

4–6

Time on Task

5–15 MINUTES

Duration of Groups

SINGLE SESSION

Round Robin is primarily a brainstorming technique in which students generate ideas but do not elaborate, explain, evaluate, or question the ideas. Group members take turns responding to a question with a word, phrase, or short statement. The order of responses is organized by proceeding from one student to another until all students have had the opportunity to speak. This CoLT is especially effective for generating many ideas because it requires all students to participate and because it discourages comments that interrupt or inhibit the flow of ideas. Round Robin also ensures equal participation among group members. The ideas that students generate can be compiled into a list that serves as the basis for a next-step assignment.

Preparation

The purpose of a brainstorming session is to create an extensive list of ideas. Crafting a prompt that can generate a sufficiently rich array of responses that can be expressed quickly and succinctly is particularly important. Practice ahead by thinking of and listing as many possible responses as you can. You can use the length of your list to predict the duration of your in-class exercise and to decide whether or not groups should rotate through Round Robin more than once.

Procedure

1. Ask students to form groups of four to six. 2. Explain that the purpose of brainstorming is to generate many ideas. Group members will take turns, moving clockwise, and respond to the question. Inform students that to prevent interrupting or inhibiting the flow of ideas they must refrain from evaluating, questioning, or discussing the ideas.

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3. If it would be beneficial for students to assume a role (e.g., recorder or rule enforcer), allow a few moments for role assignment. 4. Tell students whether or not they will go around the group once or multiple times, announce a time limit, and pose the prompt. 5. Ask one student to begin the activity by stating an idea or answer aloud. The next student continues the brainstorming session by stating a new idea. The activity continues, moving from member to member in sequence, until all students have participated.

Online Implementation: Round Robin Timing: Synchronous and asynchronous Tools: Texting, Web conferencing, IM, discussion forum Students don’t always know how to participate in online discussion, and a structured discussion technique can provide them with guidance and working skills they can use in the future. In a Round Robin, students also know when it is their turn to contribute, which can prompt more reserved students to make a contribution and help overly eager students to know when it is time to wait. When implemented online, the controlled participation in a Round Robin may feel artificial. Indeed, for teachers trying to encourage natural participation, this technique can be stifling. For these reasons, use this technique sparingly and early in the term to help ensure that every student participates or to intervene if students are participating inappropriately (e.g., not observing netiquette). Ask small groups of students to meet in a Web conferencing session (preferably one with voiceover

Internet protocol [VoIP]) or chat room. The order of participation can be structured by login time or another organizing strategy such as alphabetical order. Each student contributes in sequence before the cycle can begin again. An adaptation that retains some of the Round Robin characteristics is to use an asynchronous environment like a threaded discussion and establish ground rules such as (1) Each posting must present new ideas; (2) Students should not agree, disagree, or question what is already posted; and (3) Every student in the class or a base group should post a response before posting a second comment or response. Alternatively, students could tweet their contributions to the brainstorming session by using a hashtag in Twitter that has been created specifically for the class or an online whiteboard. You could also consider using an online tool such as Wridea (http://wridea.com) that is specifically designed for brainstorming activities.

Examples

Survey of International Business (Traditional Onsite) Professor Mark Etting decided to use Round Robin to generate ideas and enthusiasm for a unit on risk analysis. He organized students into groups of five to six and assigned one person in each group to be the recorder. He then asked the students to respond to the prompt, Identify a force that influences the competitive business environment. Students took turns responding, each student adding a

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new idea. After groups generated ideas for about ten minutes, the professor moved from group to group asking the recorder to share one new idea, which he then wrote on the board under the rubrics of political, cultural, and social influences. The many ideas on the board led to a stimulating, whole-class discussion on the relative importance and risk each of the factors might play in affecting the global commercial community. •

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Conversational French (Traditional Onsite) In this language course, students engaged in intensive oral practice to increase their ability to apply the grammatical and syntactical structures they studied in a previous course. The professor used Round Robin sessions to engage students in fun, fast-paced activities to increase communicative competency and vocabulary. Responding to prompts such as, Say words for different kinds of food, individual students in succession contributed a French word, and the next student translated it into English. Students who could not respond within a few seconds lost a turn. The groups continued until they had exhausted their vocabulary, and then they moved on to another word prompt. As students became more fluent, the professor expanded the prompts to require responses in full sentences, such as, Describe your favorite restaurant. •

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Legal Writing 1 (Large Lecture) In this large lecture course, there were 120 students in a classroom with fixed tables and movable chairs. In one session, the instructor lectured about contracts and in so doing introduced a hypothetical new client. She then asked students to review a sample contract that needed to be improved. Using a Round Robin, she had teams of five to six students generate a list of potential improvements to the draft. She continued her lecture about principles of the common law, after which she asked students to rewrite the contract to suit the needs of a new client. •

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Developmental Math (Online Course) This professor noticed that students were having difficulty completing word problems correctly. Their mathematical processes were not necessarily wrong, but students were having difficulty identifying the relevant information within the problem to set up the correct equation. She wanted to help students strengthen their problem-solving strategies and decided to use a Round Robin

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within a synchronous environment. She formed four groups and set up a chat room for each group. At the beginning of the session, she explained the Round Robin process, telling students that they would all be required to respond in the ordered sequence she presented, taking turns brainstorming a list of suggestions for strategies to approach different phases of the problem-solving process. Phase 1: Ideas for reading the problem Phase 2: Ideas for developing a plan for solving the problem Phase 3: Ideas for solving the problem Phase 4: Ideas for reviewing your work Students worked together for approximately twenty minutes, roughly five minutes per phase. She then reviewed the transcripts of the chat session and developed a composite list from the best suggestions that she titled, “Good Ideas for Solving Word Problems,” which she shared with the full class. Next, she posted a word problem and asked students to choose at least one strategy for each phase from the list and use these as they approached solving the problem. Variations and Extensions

• Although Round Robin works best for brainstorming, its circular response organization can structure regular group discussion to ensure equal participation. To do this, explain to students that their discussion must move clockwise around the group with each student giving an opinion or sharing an idea until all students have participated. Decide whether each student should be able to respond to a prior student’s comments or whether each student should express only new ideas until everyone has contributed to the discussion. • Use this structure for learning activities other than brainstorming that still benefit from structured practice of quick responses. For example, organize Round Robin activities to recite words, phrases, or formulae until they become habitual (e.g., for English as a second language courses or foreign languages) or are memorized (e.g., for science or mathematics).

Observations and Advice

• When the activity is simple (e.g., asking students to list answers in a word or short phrase), it also is fast moving and may be conducted in as few as five minutes. If the prompt is too complex and requires students to contribute longer responses, this CoLT can move slowly and lack energy, resulting in boredom and wasted time. Therefore, rather than asking students to engage in complex thinking and reasoning tasks, use this technique

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for straightforward tasks such as helping students generate lists, review material, or identify obvious applications of ideas. • Once several ideas are on the table, students may find themselves stumped and feel pressured if they cannot come up with new ones. Ideally, team members should not skip turns, but it is better to pass than hold up the process. Set a time limit and establish some ground rules, such as allowing a student who has nothing to contribute to pass. When only a couple of students are left participating, the procedure should end. • Some students will find this activity difficult if they have trouble expressing themselves. Specify the type of responses expected to help alleviate anxiety. Also consider using written rather than oral responses (see CoLT 25: Round Table). • Controlling participation in this way has advantages and disadvantages. Requiring people to participate when they have nothing to contribute—or limiting the participation of those who want to contribute something additional until all others have participated—can be counterproductive. On the other hand, this strategy can address problems of inequitable participation as it provides the structure to ensure that everyone participates. • Brainstorming sessions generate ideas, but they are not evaluated, sorted, or discussed. It is essential to use the students’ ideas so that they see the value of their work and input. Therefore, decide how ideas will be used to structure an appropriate follow-up activity. Whole-class discussion is one option, but Round Robin is particularly effective linked with another CoLT. For example, students may prioritize the ideas, sort the ideas into categories using CoLT 19: Affinity Grouping, or graph the relationship of the ideas to each other, using CoLT 23: Word Webs. Primary Resources

Kagan, S. (1992). Cooperative learning, 2nd ed. San Juan Capistrano, CA: Resources for Teachers, pp. 8:3, 8:9, 10:12, 12:1. Sharan, S. (Ed.). (1994). Handbook of collaborative learning methods. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, pp. 117–118, 228, 237, 257–258.

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Collaborative Learning Technique

3

Buzz Groups Characteristics Group Size

4–6

Time on Task

10–15 MINUTES

Duration of Groups

SINGLE SESSION

Description and Purpose

Buzz Groups are teams of four to six students that are formed quickly and extemporaneously to respond to course-related questions. Each group can respond to one or more questions, and all groups can discuss the same or different questions. Discussion is informal. Students do not need to arrive at consensus but instead simply exchange ideas. Typically, Buzz Groups serve as a warm-up to whole-class discussion. They are effective for generating information and ideas in a short period of time. By dividing the whole class into small groups, more students have the opportunity to express their thoughts. Because students have had a chance to practice their comments and to increase their repertoire of ideas in the Buzz Group, the whole-class discussion that follows is often richer and more participatory.

Preparation

Prior to coming to class, decide what the Buzz Groups will discuss. Craft one or more engaging discussion prompts that tend toward the conceptual rather than factual and that will stimulate an open-ended examination of ideas. Try responding to the questions yourself so that you are confident that they will generate a variety of responses. Choose the manner in which you are going to present the prompt questions, such as on a worksheet, presentation slide, or whiteboard.

Procedure

1. Form groups and announce the discussion prompts and time limit. 2. Ask group members to exchange ideas in response to the prompts. 3. Check periodically to see whether groups are still actively engaged and focused on the assigned topic. If off topic, shorten the time limit. If on topic but the time has ended, consider extending the limit for a few minutes.

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4. Ask the students to return to whole-class discussion and restate the prompt to begin.

Online Implementation: Buzz Groups Timing: Synchronous Tools: IM, text, teleconference In the online environment, the impromptu, spontaneous, low-threat character of Buzz Groups can encourage normally shy students to participate. Moreover, since all comments appear to be of equal weight, students who might normally over participate are less likely to appear to be dominating the discussion. Buzz Groups require synchronicity and speed of response, so to implement this CoLT online create

several chat rooms, divide students into groups, and assign each group to a room. Announce the time limit, post the prompt, and ask students to exchange ideas informally without trying to come to consensus. When the time limit is up, close the activity. Just as in an onsite classroom, Buzz Groups online can get out of control with students getting off task or contributing inappropriate responses. Therefore, make sure you are monitoring groups by moving among the different chat rooms and be prepared to intervene if necessary.

Examples

The Nature and Origin of Major Social Problems (Traditional Onsite) Professor Jen Derr was frustrated with the superficial quality of discussion in her lower-division sociology class. Despite her efforts to engage students in meaningful dialogue about significant social problems, students avoided controversy and offered only safe, predictable comments. In an attempt to move a discussion on gender issues to a more meaningful level, she decided to experiment using Buzz Groups as a warm-up to whole-class discussion. To introduce the topic of gender discrimination, she divided the room into male and female students and then asked them to subdivide into groups of four of the same gender. Her hope was that at least some students might have personal experiences related to this topic and that they would feel safe sharing these experiences in a small group of same-sex peers. On a presentation slide, she posted the prompt: Can you recall a situation in which you experienced or observed gender-based discrimination? What did you do? After about eight minutes, she posted an additional prompt: What strategies and techniques could you use to confront and combat gender-based discrimination? The groups were soon engaged in spirited discussion. After fifteen minutes, she stopped the Buzz Groups and shifted the focus back to the whole class but asked students to remain in the male or female sides of the room. She alternated between male and female groups, asking a volunteer from each group to report out to the whole class one or two of the experiences their group found most

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compelling. Following each report, she invited comments from students on the other side of the room. Professor Derr found that students felt empowered and supported by the presence of their same-sex peers. The whole-class discussion proceeded at a level of depth and with a sense of immediacy that had been lacking when she had tried to generate whole-class discussion on this topic in previous semesters. •

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Leadership Issues in Community Colleges (Traditional Onsite) A professor of a graduate-level seminar containing students who were primarily upper-level college administrators had been accustomed to lecturing about a topic first and then moving to whole-class discussion. She decided to reverse this order and to use Buzz Groups to introduce students to the topic of mergers and consolidations in the community college sector. Among the list of questions she prepared for each group to discuss were: What is the difference between a consolidation and a merger? Have you had any experience with consolidations or mergers? What are some of the issues that would attend a consolidation or merger? These were open-ended questions, and she hoped that students would be able to draw on their own experiences in college administration to respond to them. It soon became apparent that several students within each Buzz Group had experienced consolidations and mergers on their campuses and had strong opinions. When Buzz Groups reported out, the professor used group comments as the basis for a whole-class discussion. She was able to integrate the information that she had intended to cover in the lecture by offering comments such as, What Carol is describing is an example of what is called _____. In the whole-class discussion, students explored the political issues, organizational problems, and personnel dilemmas associated with consolidations and mergers at a level that was deep and engaging. The Buzz Group discussions had provided a good introduction to the topic by allowing students to connect theoretical constructs to work-related situations that had occurred in their professional lives. Furthermore, by integrating what would have otherwise been her lecture on theory into the whole-class discussion, the professor was able to offer students a framework for understanding their personal experiences that illuminated the importance of connecting theory to practice. •

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Introduction to Organic Chemistry (Online Course) A professor decided to use Buzz Groups during a prescheduled synchronous session to introduce students to volatile organic compounds. He asked students

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to meet in chat rooms, posted a list with the order of participation (he chose alphabetical order), and presented three prompts, one at a time, over the course of the activity: (1) Name some common chemical compounds in your household. (2) Why is it important to know about these compounds? (3) What are some of the potential health effects of exposure to these compounds? (4) How can individuals limit exposure to these compounds? He allowed the discussion to run for about five minutes per prompt. He then gave them an introduction to the main topics they would study throughout the term. •

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Introduction to Media Studies (Large Lecture) This class enrolled 175 students and was taught in an auditorium-style lecture hall. The instructor began each semester with a lecture titled “Popular Culture as a Window for Understanding American Society.” To engage students and start developing a sense of classroom community, the instructor used a Buzz Group. He did a quick count-off of the rows (A-1, A-2; B-1, B-2; C1- C2, and so forth) and then instructed the students to pair with the students sitting next to them and then work with the pair sitting either in front or behind them in the like-lettered row to share ideas in response to the prompt, Which influence is stronger, and why? The public’s influence on the media? Or the media’s influence on the public? He kept the activity short, approximately five minutes, and then asked for volunteers to summarize the group’s views. Variations and Extensions

• Assign the groups a task other than responding to questions. Instead, ask them to generate questions or ideas, share information, or solve problems. • Hold the discussion without formal or structured questions but rather as an opportunity to discuss the course texts in general or a specific assigned reading. This variation, called relaxed Buzz Groups, is simply a conversation, and students do not report out. Students are required, however, to keep the discussion focused on issues from the readings. They can question, highlight passages, look for the thesis, and identify flaws (Brookfield & Preskill, 1999). • After each Buzz Group has completed an initial discussion, have two Buzz Groups join together and continue the conversation as a single, larger group. Groups can combine again, with each group doubling in size at successive iterations. This variation, called Snowball Discussion (Brookfield & Preskill, 1999), is good for allowing students to network with their

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peers and to hear many diverse views and opinions. Furthermore, students generate additional ideas at each new combination, so the conversation becomes more complex. Observations and Advice

• This is a good technique for introducing a topic and having students engage in semistructured conversations about important issues in the field. However, the informal, minimally structured nature of Buzz Groups can allow students to get off task and discussions to degenerate into aimless chitchat. Avoid this problem by creating engaging, open-ended, multiple-response discussion prompts and by enforcing a time frame. Walking around the room monitoring group progress and offering procedural guidance as needed may also help to keep discussion focused. • Because of the unstructured nature of Buzz Groups, students might miss important issues (Brookfield & Preskill, 1999), so be prepared to offer these ideas during the closure period. • In the Snowball variation in which students combine groups multiple times, adding new students and new ideas each time, students may feel shaken up or disjointed by the process (Brookfield & Preskill, 1999). Ameliorate this by alerting students to this in advance and by emphasizing that the purpose is to meet many students and to generate lots of information in a short period of time. • For the reporting out stage, go around the room and ask a representative from each group to share one of the group’s most important points with the whole class, contributing only ideas that have not yet been mentioned. Invite students to comment on how different groups’ ideas compare and contrast. • If the Buzz Groups responded to different questions, an alternative report-out strategy is to have each group serve as a panel. Each student who serves on the panel can share one of the major themes or discussion points generated in his or her Buzz Group. The whole class is then invited to ask panel members questions. • When Buzz Groups report out, instructors typically receive sufficient insight into how much or what students have learned in their discussions. To gain additional feedback, consider using Directed Paraphrasing (CAT 23, Angelo & Cross, 1993, pp. 232–235). Ask students to summarize and restate the most important ideas or information from their Buzz Group discussion, imagining that the paraphrase would provide a succinct summary for a student who was not able to attend class that day. These paraphrases will illustrate how deeply students have understood and internalized the

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information generated in the discussions. These written summaries may be used for grading purposes. • If the Buzz Groups were conducted in online chat groups, then the instructor could copy and paste the chat transcripts into word clouds (e.g., using Wordle), which give greater prominence to words that have been used more frequently to give everyone a quick overall sense of each discussion. Current links to word cloud–generating software include Tagul (http://tagul.com/), Wordle (http://www.wordle.net/), and Tagxedo (http://www.tagxedo.com).

Primary Resources

Brookfield, S. D., & Preskill, S. (1999). Discussion as a way of teaching: Tools and techniques for democratic classrooms. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, pp. 104–105. McKeachie, W. J. (1994). Teaching tips: A guidebook for the beginning college teacher, 9th ed. Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath, p. 44.

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Collaborative Learning Technique

4

Talking Chips Characteristics Group Size

4–6

Time on Task

10–20 MINUTES

Duration of Groups

SINGLE SESSION

Description and Purpose

In Talking Chips, students participate in a group discussion, surrendering a token each time they speak. The purpose of this CoLT is to ensure equitable participation by regulating how often each group member is allowed to speak. Because it emphasizes full and even participation from all members, this technique encourages reticent students to speak out and talkers to reflect. Talking Chips is useful for helping students discuss controversial issues and also for solving communication or process problems, such as dominating or clashing group members.

Preparation

Determine a question or problem for group discussion. Bring poker chips or playing cards, or simply gather a sufficient number of paper clips, pencils, chalk, or other available items to serve as tokens.

Procedure

1. Form student groups. 2. Give each student three to five tokens that will serve as permission to share, contribute, or debate in the conversation. 3. Ask students to participate equally in the group discussion, specifying that as they contribute comments they should surrender a token and place it in view of the other group members. 4. When all students have contributed to the discussion and all tokens are down, ask students to retrieve and redistribute the chips so that the procedure repeats for the next round of discussion, or end the discussion if the activity is complete.

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Online Implementation: Talking Chips Timing: Synchronous or asynchronous Tools: Web conferencing or discussion thread Talking Chips is a useful tool in online classes to promote and teach skills for equitable synchronous discussion participation or to correct inappropriate patterns of behavior. However, because the structured nature of this can stifle natural conversation, use it sparingly. To implement this CoLT online, use Web conferencing. Begin the session and ask all students to click the button that allows them to virtually raise their hands (their raised hands can serve as a symbolic physical chip). Invite students to participate in a synchronous discussion, virtually putting

their hands down when they have made a contribution. Ask students to contribute again only when all hands are down. While the raised hand is not a physical artifact, it is still a visual reminder about who has participated and who has not. Alternatively, if the main purpose is to address inequitable participation in online discussion forums, consider instead simply establishing discussion ground rules regarding number and length of comments. If a student repeatedly violates the ground rules, send him or her a private message to discuss, for example, the importance of providing other students with an opportunity to contribute or the difficulty of reading lengthy text.

Examples

Introduction to Social Welfare (Traditional Onsite) This course was a historical overview of social problems and welfare, focusing on sociological theory to explain the development of social service systems. The professor wanted groups to discuss the pros and cons of various programs that had been established to deal with unwanted pregnancies. These programs varied in terms of their support of adoption, abortion, or birth mothers keeping and raising their babies. He felt that all students should speak so that groups could explore the issues thoroughly, evaluating the programs from the perspective of society, mother, and the unborn child. The professor knew that many students would have strong feelings about the topic and possibly even personal experience. He wanted to create a discussion structure that encouraged equitable participation and decided to implement Talking Chips. After he had formed groups and given students the discussion prompt, he explained the process and gave each student four poker chips to use as tokens. •

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Calculus (Traditional Onsite) Professor Anna Log decided to form groups to work together for the entire semester. About two weeks into the semester, she noticed that while most of the groups were working well, a few were not. For example, in one group,

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one student seemed to dominate the discussion, while other members were often silent. The quiet members seemed to accept the dominant member’s responses regardless of the quality of the response. In another group, two students consistently challenged each other’s comments and the discussion frequently deteriorated into a debate on who was right. To address group process problems, she decided to structure the next discussion using Talking Chips. Professor Log posed a problem for group work. She told groups that to ensure full participation from all group members she was giving each student one poker chip. After students had made a suggestion, posed a question, or supported or refuted a point made by another member of the group, they should surrender the chip, placing it in the center of the table. Once students’ chips were gone, they should wait to speak again until all chips had been placed in the center, collected, and redistributed. Professor Log instructed the groups to begin their discussions. She found that students soon became accustomed to the tokens and observed that they were participating in all groups more equitably. As part of her closure comments, she asked students to use the discussion as a model for future discussions. •

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Nursing Care for Older Adults (Online Course) Professor Jerry Attricks noticed that one student responded frequently and voluminously in both discussion forums and chat sessions. The professor could see that the student had fast typing skills and surmised that the student was extroverted. He also sensed that the student’s excessive participation was creating tension among the other students. Given his teaching experience, he also suspected he needed to intervene for the benefit of classroom community. Professor Attricks decided to use Talking Chips. In the next scheduled synchronous session using the chat feature, he informed students of the ground rules: (1) all students would start with raised hands; (2) students should limit their responses to four lines of text; (3) as students made a comment, they should put their hands down; and (4) once students had finished commenting, they were not to post an additional comment. He then posted a prompt that related to holistic approaches to promoting health and independence in older adults. When it was evident that all students had participated because all hands were down, he resumed discussion continuing the same pattern. Professor Attricks was relieved to see that the overparticipating student seemed to recognize the need for equitable participation, and in subsequent discussions and chat sessions the student allowed others more opportunity to contribute and even encouraged others by asking their opinions.

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• Give each student several chips of the same color: for example, Student A receives blue chips; Student B receives yellow chips. Allow the conversation to proceed for a while. Ask students to examine the surrendered chips and to reflect on how the conversation has gone. Ask them to continue with their discussion but to try to work toward an equal number of chips from each group member. • To regulate the length of time each student speaks more than the number of times they speak, give each student several chips and instruct them to surrender a chip every three to five minutes that they have the floor. • Give each student only one chip. When everyone has contributed, retrieve the tokens and start the process again. This variation could be useful in brainstorming or listing items. • Instead of using chips, assign a group member the task of recording individual contributions to a conversation. Do this by creating a grid sheet with one column for student names and an additional column or columns for the recorder to note down when each individual speaks. The recorder can place a check mark or simply keep a tally by each person’s name. Explain that recorders will use the sheet for a set period of time and that the aim is to promote an even level of participation among group members. When time is up, ask group members to review the sheets and analyze the interaction.

Observations and Advice

• Talking Chips can help to build listening and communication skills because students who tend to spout off consider more carefully what they have to say since it will require their surrendering a token. Reticent students feel encouraged to speak because the ground rules have created an environment that promotes participation by all (Millis & Cottell, 1998, p. 98). • Controlling participation in this way has advantages and disadvantages. It can inhibit the natural flow of conversation, making discussions feel stilted and artificial, and hence this CoLT should not be overused. On the other hand, helping students to see how they participate during group work develops teamwork skills and self-awareness. In addition to providing a structure to discuss controversial items, this CoLT is probably best used to give students insight into effective teamwork and to solve problems of inequitable participation. • Consider asking students to engage in a closing activity in which they write a short reflective essay describing their participation in the discussion, their comfort during this activity, and their plans for improvement. This CoLT may be most effective if students reflect personally on

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how their involvement in the discussion changed because of the use of tokens. Individual essays could be followed by a group assignment in which students discuss, write, and submit a group report on how they plan to improve group communication.

Primary Resources

Millis, B. J., & Cottell, P. G. (1998). Cooperative learning for higher education faculty. American Council on Education: Series on Higher Education: Oryx Press, pp. 98–99. Sharan, S. (1994). Handbook of cooperative learning methods. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, p. 119.

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5

Three-Step Interview Characteristics

Description and Purpose

Group Size

2 THEN 4

Time on Task

15–30 MINUTES

Duration of Groups

SINGLE SESSION

In Three-Step Interview, student pairs take turns interviewing each other and then report what they learn to another pair. The three steps (Interview-Interview-Report) are Step 1: Student A interviews Student B; Step 2: Student B interviews Student A; and Step 3: Students A and B each summarize their partner’s responses for Students C and D and vice versa. The type of questions used depends on the course goals and may probe for values, attitudes, prior experience, or comprehension of course content. Three-Step Interview creates the opportunity for students to network and improve specific communication skills. Interviewers must listen carefully, concentrating on the interviewee’s responses and encouraging elaboration but refraining from imposing their own thoughts and opinions. Interviewees practice expressing their thoughts succinctly. Because the spotlight is solely on them and they are not exchanging comments as in a discussion situation, their responses require a high degree of personal commitment. Finally, the interviewers must understand and incorporate the information gathered from their interviewees’ responses at a deep enough level to be able to summarize and synthesize the responses effectively for other students.

Preparation

Develop a list of interview questions prior to the class session. Interview questions that are particularly effective involve opinions or experiences related to course content. Examples of this type of question are, What was the most powerful scene for you from the film Lincoln that we watched in class, and why? or Describe a situation in which you were faced with an ethical dilemma involving your personal ethics and group pressure.

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1. Students divide into groups of four, and quads subdivide into pairs A–B and C–D. 2. Student A interviews B and student C interviews D for a predetermined time. The interviewer asks questions, listens, and probes for further information but does not evaluate or respond. 3. Partners reverse roles and interview each other for the same amount of time. 4. Students A and B introduce each other with synthesized summaries of their partner’s interview responses to Students C and D. Students C and D do the same for Students A and B.

Online Implementation: Three-Step Interview Timing: Synchronous or asynchronous Tools: E-mail, IM, voiceover Internet protocol (VoIP), or immersive environment Creating a sense of community in online classes is a challenge many instructors face. Implementing a three-step interview can be an effective strategy to help students get to know other students in the class. To implement this CoLT online, have students work in pairs using a mutually agreed upon tool (consider Skype or Google Hangouts) and then report out in a standard format such as a discussion

forum or an immersive environment. To do this, divide students into base groups of eight to twelve and subdivide each base group into pairs A–B, C–D, and so forth. Create a private forum for each group. Give partners a designated amount of time to interview each other through instant messaging, e-mail, or VoIP. Give students additional time to synthesize responses and post an introduction of their partner on the forum to the other students in the base group. You may wish to retain these base groups and partnerships throughout the semester for other kinds of collaborative activities.

Examples

Introduction to Music (Traditional Onsite) On the first day of a general education music appreciation class, Professor Clara Nett wanted students to participate in an icebreaker, but she wanted the interaction to focus on course content rather than simply hobbies or how students spent their summer vacation. Before the class started, she wrote on the whiteboard: Welcome to Music 1. What musician recording today (from any style) do you think people will still be listening to in 50 years, and why? She asked students to reflect on the prompt as she was calling attendance. She then formed quads, instructing students within each quad to pair up to participate in a three-step interview. She asked students to interview each other to learn names and academic majors and to share their responses to the question on the whiteboard. After the report out within the quads, Professor Nett asked each quad to share

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the names of their artists with the whole class, and she wrote the names on the board. She asked students to look at the cumulative list and to identify characteristics the musicians had in common. Professor Nett used their comments to illustrate the distinction between classic and popular, closing by explaining that in this class they would be studying music masterworks from a variety of genres that had stood the test of time and were now universally acknowledged as classics. •

•

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Calculus (Traditional Onsite) In this calculus class, the professor knew that a majority of students had had difficulty with the most recent homework assignment. He also knew that some of the students struggled with math and were becoming increasingly anxious because they believed that they were falling far behind the other students in the class. Historically, this had been a point in the semester when a significant number of students dropped, and he was trying to improve course retention. He asked students to engage in a three-step interview using the following prompt question: What homework problem did you find most difficult and why? He asked the quads to report out to the whole class which of the problems had been identified in their groups, and he then wrote the numbers of the problems on the board. It became evident that the majority of students had had difficulty with the same few problems, and he knew that this would be reassuring to the struggling students. He used the information generated in the quads to review the most challenging problems and to focus on the issues and steps that had been most troublesome. To help students help each other for the next homework assignment, he reserved the last few minutes of class and suggested that if they wished they could use the time to make arrangements with one of the other students to work together for peer tutoring and support. •

•

•

Patient Care in Radiation Oncology (Traditional Onsite) The instructor of an advanced course in radiologic technology wanted to prepare students for their clinical practicum. She decided to use a Three-Step Interview to help students anticipate and solve problems they might encounter in the clinics. She hoped that this preparation would increase students’ confidence, reduce their anxiety, and help them transition to the professional world more successfully. She created a series of What would you do if … ? questions drawn from her medical experience that addressed the kinds of difficult situations students were most likely to encounter. After partners had interviewed each other and summarized responses for the quad, she gave quads a few minutes to choose the question that had concerned them most.

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She used their responses as the basis for a whole-class discussion on how best to handle the most anxiety-provoking scenarios. •

•

•

Survey Marketing (Online Course) Professor Pauline O’Pinions wanted to create a sense of community in her online class and start familiarizing students with the immersive environment technology that she planned to use throughout the semester. She chose Three-Step Interviews to accomplish both goals. She organized the class list into student pairs, and at the first synchronous session she asked students to arrange a time to meet independently with their partner during the next week to interview each other according to a worksheet of questions she provided. Professor O’Pinions also informed them that they would be presenting a synthesized introduction of their partner to the whole class at the second synchronous session. Doing so gave students the opportunity to become more familiar with the technology, and it also helped students get to know each other more quickly than they might otherwise have done. Variations and Extensions

• Decide on a general topic, and ask each student to develop interview questions themselves. • Rather than asking questions that generate new information, use Three-Step Interview as an activity for students to review what they learned from a lesson. • Have three teammates interview the fourth in depth; this variation is called a Team Interview (Kagan, 1992). • Consider having interviewers write up their findings in a format appropriate for the course (e.g., in an executive summary, descriptive essay, newspaper article).

Observations and Advice

• Three-Step Interview is an effective strategy for drawing out students’ experience and knowledge from outside of class. Used in this way, it can help motivate students because it bridges the gap between the academic and the real world. • Try to create interview questions that are likely to generate a wide array of interesting responses. If interview questions have predictable and similar answers, the interviews will lack energy and the reporting out within the quads will be boring. • Generally, students should interview students whom they do not know well so that the interview is fresh and generates information that is

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new to the interviewer. This CoLT also helps achieve the goals of exposing students to several views and ideas and of meeting other students in the class. • Establish a time limit so that student discussion does not drift into socializing that has nothing to do with course content. • An initial level of reporting out will have already occurred when student pairs introduce their partner to the next pair. If there is enough class time and the interview questions elicit responses that are important for everyone to hear, have quads report out to the whole class. First give each quad a few minutes to choose a spokesperson and to select one or two responses from their group that they think were most imaginative (or comprehensive or humorous). As each quad’s spokesperson reports out, validate the groups efforts by commenting on what was particularly informative about their contribution. • As with many of the other discussion CoLTs, the built-in reporting feature gives faculty on-the-spot information about how students are connecting with course content. If additional assessment information is desired, conduct a variation of RSQC2 (CAT 46, Angelo & Cross, 1993, pp. 344–348). This assessment technique provides a five-step structure for students to recall, summarize, question, connect, and comment on either the three-step interview or the follow-up whole-class discussion. Use the entire sequence of assessment activities, or select one step. For example, ask students, Recall the most important response from the interview you conducted of your partner, or Now that we have had a chance to discuss this as a whole class, what questions on this topic do you think would be interesting to ask students to use in next semester’s interviews? Ask students to write their responses in an essay that they submit for evaluation. • If the interview activity was particularly important, consider having students take notes or even record and transcribe the interview. Students could then analyze the interview or use the information to write a biographical essay about the person that they interviewed. Written assignments of this nature can be submitted for evaluation. Primary Resources

Millis, B. J., & Cottell, P. G. (1998). Cooperative learning for higher education faculty. American Council on Education: Series on Higher Education: Oryx Press, pp. 85–86.

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Collaborative Learning Technique

6

Critical Debate Characteristics

Description and Purpose

Group Size

4–6, THEN 8–12

Time on Task

1 TO 2 HOURS

Duration of Groups

SINGLE SESSION

In a Critical Debate, individual students select the side of an issue that is contrary to their own views. They then form teams and discuss, present, and argue the issue against an opposing team. Preparing for, participating in, and listening to debates offers many benefits to students. Debates can increase motivation, enhance research skills, promote critical thinking, and develop communication proficiency. Debates expose the class to a focused, in-depth, multiple-perspective analysis of issues. Because Critical Debates have the added dimension of requiring students to assume a position opposite to their own, they encourage students to challenge their existing assumptions. This CoLT can move students beyond simple dualistic thinking, deepen their understanding of an issue, and help them to recognize the range of perspectives inherent in complex topics. In this way, Critical Debate may also build appreciation for diversity and develop tolerance for other viewpoints.

Preparation

Critical Debate is a fairly complex CoLT and thus requires ample preparation. First, spend sufficient time selecting a controversial topic in the field with two identifiable, arguable, and opposing sides that are appropriate to debate. Carefully craft the debate proposition into a one-sentence statement, such as Universities should use affirmative action policies to determine student admission. Proposition statements should avoid ambiguity yet be general enough to offer students flexibility in building arguments. Second, determine whether students need any background information to address the proposition. Prepare students for the debate through lecture, assigned reading, discussion, or student research on the topic.

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Third, identify ground rules. For example, allow students to use as many arguments as they wish, or have students spend five to ten minutes brainstorming all possible arguments supporting their position and then select their five best arguments. Consider whether each team should select one person as spokesperson or whether each member of the team will be responsible for presenting at least one of the arguments. Thinking about ground rules ahead of time will also provide the opportunity to decide whether to assign team members specific roles, such as team leader or timekeeper. Procedure

1. Propose the motion and ask students to identify which side of the proposition they most support. They can indicate a preference by raising their hands or by writing their names and choice on a sign-up sheet or piece of paper. 2. Explain to students that they will argue the side that is contrary to their own beliefs, stressing the benefits of arguing against their personal views (e.g., it helps them to clarify their own ideas and to deepen their understanding of the issue). 3. Divide students into four- to six- member teams, with half the teams assigned to one side of the argument and the other half assigned to the opposing argument. Try to get as many students as possible arguing for the side they disagree with, realizing that especially with complex issues students will likely not divide evenly. A large group of students who don’t know or who gravitate toward a middle position will provide a fair amount of flexibility during group formation. 4. Explain ground rules and give students time to assign roles and organize how they will prepare for and conduct the debate. 5. Give students time to prepare their arguments (e.g., fifteen to thirty minutes). 6. Pair teams representing opposing sides. 7. Announce and allow time to present arguments (e.g., five minutes each side, ten minutes total). 8. Give teams time to prepare rebuttals (e.g., ten minutes). 9. Announce and allow time to present rebuttals (e.g., five minutes each side, ten minutes total). 10. Hold a whole-class discussion to summarize the important issues and to give students the opportunity to discuss the experience of arguing opinions they do not hold.

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Online Implementation: Critical Debate Timing: Synchronous or asynchronous Tools: Immersive environments, Web conferencing, discussion forum Implementing this CoLT online has the advantage of providing students with an opportunity to learn how to argue a point effectively in an online environment, an increasingly important skill. Debates are typically held in real time and in a shared space, characteristics that contribute to the sense of immediacy that is so important to the process. To maintain the sense of spontaneity, a tool such as http://debate.fm would be a very efficient and effective way to conduct an online debate. Other current online debate tools include: Tricider (https://tricider.com/en/t/), Proconit (http://www .proconit.com/), ForAndAgainst (http://www.forand against.com), CreateDebate (http://www.create debate.com/), and Debatewise (http://debatewise .org/).

Alternatively, use synchronous tools such as Web conferencing or immersive environments and a combination of group chat and full-group discussion. Or consider implementing this in an asynchronous environment via discussion forums (see Sociology: Contemporary Issues example that follows). Although an asynchronous debate may lack the sense of immediacy achieved in an onsite debate, the essential characteristics of requiring students to assume, investigate, and debate a contrary perspective are preserved. Additionally, student responses may be more reflective. Consider posting a follow-up threaded discussion in which students can share how it felt to assume a position contrary to their beliefs and inviting them to say whether participating in the debate changed their viewpoints.

Examples

Philosophy of Law (Traditional Onsite) Due to an increase in illegal immigration, terrorist attacks, and Internet sabotage, Professor Lex Rex was starting the semester amid heightened publicity on the need to improve national security. One solution that received significant media attention was a proposal to implement an expanded, federally maintained and integrated individual-identification system. Professor Rex believed that it was important for law students to understand the complexity of the issues regarding individual versus national rights underlying proposals such as this. He therefore decided to add to his course a unit on privacy rights. To introduce the unit, he had students complete a survey in which they rated from one to five their level of agreement with a series of statements on the national collection, maintenance, and disposal of personal records. During the weeks that followed, he took care to cover a wide range of examples of the basic conflict from several perspectives, including real-life scenarios concerning everything from financial and medical records to confidentiality

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of opinions expressed in e-mail and on the Internet. By the completion of the unit, students had at least a basic knowledge of the challenges from both the individual’s and the government’s perspectives. To help students synthesize the information presented in the unit and to help them clarify their personal views, he closed the unit with a Critical Debate. Using the initial survey as a guide, he organized students into two groups based on their overall tendency to support individual or national rights. Professor Rex then assigned individual students to a team charged with arguing for or against the proposal: The government is justified in collecting and maintaining personal information on private citizens. Wherever possible, he assigned students to a team asked to argue the side contrary to their general beliefs. After the debate, he had students retake the original survey. He then had students compare their individual pre- and post-responses to the survey, noting any areas of change. As a final activity, he had students write an essay responding to the prompt by summarizing the issues using concrete examples and concluding with their personal viewpoints. •

•

•

Sociology: Contemporary Issues (Online Course) This instructor decided to use Critical Debate to explore issues related to gun control. He first asked students to rank their opinions from strongly in favor of changes to gun control laws to strongly opposed. Next, he posted a paragraph that explained the rationale behind Critical Debate, provided the discussion proposal, and gave assignment directions. He then announced that students would positions in the debate opposite to their personal views, explaining to them that the exercise was intended to help them investigate the contrary position and that they would have the opportunity to share their real views at the close of their debate. He organized the students into Pro or Con teams of eight students each and created a forum for each team. He made the forums protected access so that only team members could access their forum. On the whole-class discussion board, he informed students of their team assignments and gave team members one or two weeks to research and post their arguments on the appropriate forum. After the deadline, he opened forums to all students, required students to read through the arguments on a forum from the side opposed to their own, and allowed an additional week for students to formulate and post rebuttals. He then summarized and synthesized the debate. He developed a follow-up threaded discussion, in which students could share how it felt to

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assume a position contrary to their beliefs, and he invited them to say whether participating in the debate changed their viewpoints. Variations and Extensions

• Instead of forming teams, ask students to work in pairs to present opposing sides to each other. • Identify a topic that has three clear sides and set up a three-way debate. • Use a within-team debate in which a team researches the topic. One student presents an argument for one side, and then another student presents an argument from the opposing side. The debate continues as various members within the team alternate between additional arguments and rebuttals. • In a variation called Structured Academic Controversy (Millis & Cottell, 1998, pp. 140–143), student partners review material on an issue and then synthesize the information to support their position. Two pairs with opposing positions form a quad, and each pair presents the arguments supporting their position to the other pair. Pairs then reverse their positions and argue for the opposing position. The pairs work together to synthesize their findings and to prepare a group report. All four students must agree with the summary. To close the activity, teams make a presentation to the whole class. • For a more comprehensive assignment, have students research the topic in preparation for the debate. • If it is not necessary to have students do their own research on the topic, prepare background materials for them that can be distributed in advance or covered at the beginning of the class. This will allow teams to move quickly into the debate. • Add a writing component by requiring students to work together to draft the four best arguments for their side. After the groups have had time to write out their arguments, ask groups to share their arguments supporting or opposing the proposition. • Ask students to write a follow-up paper describing issues that they clarified or confirmed, surprises they encountered, new information they gained, or the sources they used to validate new information.

Observations and Advice

• This technique works best if students have a reasonably deep knowledge or understanding of the topic so that they can make better arguments and rebuttals. Critical Debate is therefore best used after students have had

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time to investigate a topic beforehand either through lecture, discussion, or reading assignments. Use this CoLT to introduce a new topic only if the topic can be addressed through common knowledge. • Try to pick a topic that has two appealing sides. Part of the purpose of this CoLT is to help students carefully consider a side of an argument that is contrary to their own beliefs. It is therefore best if the instructor does not have strong feelings of support for one or the other side themselves. • The topic must be one that is engaging. It is especially effective when topics address issues that are contemporary and connected to students’ lives. • Try to select a topic that will generate opposing viewpoints. One way to determine this in advance is to use a preliminary assessment technique such as Classroom Opinion Polls (CAT 28, Angelo & Cross, 1993, pp. 258–262) to determine attitudes ahead of time. Consider using an online polling service for fast and anonymous results. Examples include PollDaddy, Surveygizmo, and SurveyMonkey. • In some contexts, students will tend to have similar opinions about issues or want to assume the side that they perceive is popular or politically correct. They may not feel safe to argue a side that is in opposition to their own or that they know is generally unpopular. If you are careful to set up a nonthreatening environment and explain the purpose of Critical Debate, however, students can enjoy role reversal, and the activity can take on the qualities of a fun game. • To encourage original thinking by students, you may want to word the debate topic with a unique spin or local (state) reference because students can easily find existing debates on well-known topics via Google search. • Depending on the importance of this CoLT to overall teaching goals, choose an additional follow-up activity. For example, use Pro and Con Grid (CAT 10, Angelo & Cross, 1993, pp. 168–171) and require students to list each argument and balance it with a competing claim or rebuttal. This assessment technique provides a quick overview of each student’s final analysis and understanding of both sides of the issue. A more complex assignment for use after the debate is Analytic Memo (CAT 12, Angelo & Cross, 1993, pp. 177–180). For this activity, ask students to write a one- or two-page analysis of the issue, being careful to provide equitable coverage of both sides. Suggest that they select a role such as policy analyst for a legislator or consultant for a corporation’s chief executive officer. Taking

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on such a role may make it easier for them to assume a position, and it also establishes the writing audience. • Consider using online collaboration sites such as Classroom Salon (http://www.classroomsalon.org/) where students can engage in deep reading of content and share their insights about specific passages with each other. Primary Resources

Bean, J. C. (1996). Engaging ideas: A professor’s guide to integrating writing, critical thinking, and active learning in the classroom. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, pp. 6–7, 176–177. Brookfield, S. D., & Preskill, S. (1999). Discussion as a way of teaching: Tools and techniques for democratic classrooms. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, pp. 114–115. McKeachie, W. J. (1994). Teaching tips: A guidebook for the beginning college teacher, 9th ed. Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath, p. 44.

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Chapter 10

Techniques for Reciprocal Teaching In answer to the question, “What is the most effective method of teaching?” McKeachie and his colleagues answered that it depends on the goal, the student, and the teacher. But the next best answer is, “Students teaching other students” (McKeachie et al., 2002). In reciprocal peer teaching, students serve as both teacher and learner, and the collaborative learning techniques (CoLTs) in this section emphasize mutual exchange through these dual student roles. Reciprocal teaching puts into practice what researchers and scholars are finding about effective learning. It is active rather than passive, requiring students to both give and receive as they help each other gain knowledge or understanding. Students also enhance their own learning as they attempt to understand the subject well enough to coach others. Reciprocal teaching encourages interdependence. Students must make good use of the knowledge, skills, and understandings of their peers. They must cooperate rather than compete, as each student has a stake in the successful learning of others. Reticent or lazy students have a role to play; free-riders are discouraged since their peers depend on their performance as peer teachers. Reciprocal teaching also helps students retain information because students synthesize, clarify, and rehearse ideas and receive immediate reinforcement of course concepts. The five CoLTs in this section provide frameworks for students to purposefully help each other master subject matter content and develop discipline-based skills—major instructional goals for most teachers. The Reciprocal Teaching CoLTs are summarized in Exhibit 10.1.

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EXHIBIT 10.1

Reciprocal Peer Teaching CoLTs This CoLT …

… is a technique in which students:

It is particularly useful for:

7 Note-Taking Pairs

pool information from their individual notes to create an improved, partner version.

8 Learning Cell

quiz each other using questions they have developed individually about a reading assignment or other learning activity. form concentric circles with the smaller, inside group of students discussing and the larger, outside group listening and observing. assume a different identity and act out a scenario. develop knowledge about a given topic and then teach it to others.

helping students acquire missing information and correct inaccuracies in their notes and learn to become better note takers. engaging students actively in thinking about content and encouraging them to challenge each other to pursue deeper levels of thought. providing opportunities for students to model or observe group processes in a discussion setting.

9 Fishbowl

10 Role-Play 11 Jigsaw

12 Test-Taking Teams

prepare for a test in working groups, take the test individually, and then retake the test in their groups.

asdlfk jsflkj

engaging students in a creative activity that helps them learn by doing. motivating students to learn and process information deeply enough to teach it to their peers. helping students assess and improve their understanding of subject matter as they also teach each other test-taking strategies

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7

Note-Taking Pairs Characteristics Group Size

2

Time on Task

5–15 MINUTES

Duration of Groups

SINGLE SESSION OR MULTIPLE

Description and Purpose

In Note-Taking Pairs, student partners work together to improve their individual notes. Working with a peer provides students with an opportunity to revisit and crosscheck notes with another source. Partners help each other acquire missing information and correct inaccuracies so that their combined effort is superior to their individual notes. Being able to take good notes is an important learning skill, yet many students are poor note takers; their notes are incomplete and inaccurate. The purpose of this CoLT is to provide students with a structured activity to pool information, fill in gaps, check for and correct mistakes, and help each other learn to be better note takers. Although Note-Taking Pairs was originally designed to improve lecture notes, teachers now also use it to help students improve their notes on reading assignments and other kinds of learning activities.

Preparation

Consider providing students with guidance about how to take good notes in either a mini lecture or a handout or with examples of effective notes. Also, present material in class in ways that encourage students to take detailed notes. For example, speak slowly, provide handouts of complicated graphs and figures so that students can keep up, and use the whiteboard or presentation slide to show overall structure by using titles and headings (Davis, 1993, p. 182).

Procedure

1. Students individually take notes of the major points from a body of content, such as a lecture or a text chapter.

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2. Students form pairs, at your direction or by choosing partners. 3. Partner A begins by summarizing the main points from a section of the content to Partner B, who offers corrections and additional information. 4. Partner B summarizes the next section, and Partner A offers corrections and additional information. 5. The partners continue to alternate sharing summaries, corrections, and additional information until they have completed checking their notes.

Online Implementation: Note-Taking Pairs Timing: Asynchronous Tool: Learning management system (LMS) Students who receive content in new ways in online courses, such as through videotaped lectures, often do not know the best way to organize and synthesize the information. Using Note-Taking Pairs can help students to clarify their notes and can allow them to develop effective note-taking strategies for online courses. Using the CoLT asynchronously also allows students to have more time to digest as well as to reflect upon the notes. The challenge in an online environment is to have students who are separated by distance compare a physical set of notes, particularly when there may be additional challenges of persistence and regular attendance. Instructors in online classes can assign Note-Taking Pairs using the appropriate

tools if the class is relatively small and enrollment is stable. To implement this CoLT online, an effective approach would be to use documents and a wiki. Ask students to develop a set of notes using Google Docs or a wiki, which have capabilities for showing who contributed what. You can simply review the documents to see how strong the notes are and how complete each student’s contribution is. Alternatively, you can ask students to use e-mail to compare and improve their notes. Divide students into pairs and ask them to use word processing attachments. If you wish students to consolidate notes into a single partner version, different font styles or colors can distinguish individual contributions. If you wish to review these notes, however, be prepared for multiple e-mails from students sending you their assignments.

Examples

General Physics (Large Lecture) A professor teaching a large introductory course knew that he would lecture frequently and that most students would not have good note-taking skills. At the beginning of the semester, he assigned students to pairs. He told students that the pairs would work together for ten minutes at the end of each major lecture to ensure that all students would have as complete and accurate a set of notes as possible. The professor reassigned pairs after each of the four major

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course examinations to give students the benefits of working with a number of their peers. •

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Statics (Traditional Onsite) Professor Alec Tricity covered extensive information in his lectures that was not yet available in print. It was critical that students take excellent lecture notes. Professor Tricity decided to require students to work with a partner to compile notes and submit both their individual and their collaborative notes as an in-class portfolio. The portfolio was due at the midterm and again at the end of the semester, and it constituted a significant proportion of the final grade. The professor organized the students into pairs, creating new pairs after the midterm. The pairs were told to take notes individually and then to work collaboratively outside of class to combine their notes into a synthesized and typed single version. The synthesized version would serve as each student’s exam study guide, and students were told to (1) create a subsection that included a lexicon of terms and definitions, (2) search out additional resources and expand upon any topics that they found particularly intriguing or unclear, and (3) write down questions or make any comments about the individual lectures or class in a feedback section. The professor also created an in-class portfolio cover sheet that the students filled out and attached when they submitted their work for evaluation. It included the rubrics by which the portfolio would be judged (e.g., thoroughness, clarity, followed directions, additional research), along with a space for assigning points. Professor Tricity found a marked improvement on exam grades. The portfolio also provided him with an easy and useful class assessment since it included both individual and collaborative notes and a cover sheet with assessment rubrics. The portfolio had the unintended positive effect of creating a better sense of community as each student now had a friend in class. •

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Geriatrics (Flipped) Because many students were not scoring well on the weekly quizzes, Professor Penny Cillen believed that students had not been reviewing their online video assignments thoroughly and critically. Her first solution was to ask students to take notes on their online assignments and to submit these to her for review. As

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she reviewed the notes, she noticed that some students were much better note takers than others. She decided to use Note-Taking Pairs so that the better note takers could help the poorer note takers develop more effective note-taking strategies. She made a quick list to organize student names into two columns based on the quality of their notes. She formed pairs based on her lists and asked students to take out the notes they took the night before. Without formalizing the tutoring process by asking the better student to help the poorer student, she simply asked students to compare notes, with each person adding something to his or her notes from the other student’s notes. She used this technique for the next several weeks, noticing that students’ notes gradually improved, as did the overall student performance on the quizzes. •

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History of Western Civilization (Online Course) Professor Meg Nacarta had been posting text lectures in her online class, and students were required to complete worksheets covering the information in the lectures as one of their weekly assignments. She discovered that a significant percentage of students were simply electronically copying segments of the lectures and pasting them in their assignments as the answers to the worksheet questions. For the next semester, she removed the posted lectures and published her lectures as a separate document that was sold along with the textbook in the college bookstore. This prevented students from simply copying and pasting the material. She also modified and expanded her worksheets to include questions requiring more critical interaction with the information as well as questions asking for simple summaries of various portions of the readings. She organized students into pairs and asked them to work first individually and then to e-mail each other to compare notes and to complete each worksheet. Students were given an initial deadline for their individual assignments and a second deadline for a collaborative version of their assignment. •

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Physics (Online Course) A professor teaching a general physics course decided to use Note-Taking Pairs to ensure that students in the online section of the course were fully grasping the content from his video lectures. He began announcing the pairs; he intentionally assigned high-achieving and low-achieving partners based on previous quiz scores. He told them that each pair would have a student one and a student two and that assignment would be determined by alphabetical order of last

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name. He created Google Docs for each pair (which they would use throughout the term) and a very basic Google Docs template for students to collaborate and organize their work together:

Student One Notes

Student Two Corrections

Notes

Corrections

Video 1[insert due date]

[insert due date]

[insert due date]

[insert due date]

Video 2[insert due date]

[insert due date]

[insert due date]

[insert due date]

Video 3[insert due date]

[insert due date]

[insert due date]

[insert due date]

Video 4[insert due date]

[insert due date]

[insert due date]

[insert due date]

He then invited the students to join. Students were informed that one student would share notes on the first two videos and the other student would offer corrections. The second student would summarize the second two videos and the other student would offer correction. He next posted four five-minute video lectures on the subject of electromagnetic induction. He gave students three days to complete the task. Variations and Extensions

• Ask student pairs to sit together during the lecture. At various times throughout the lecture, stop and ask partners to participate in this CoLT. You can offer specific prompts, such as Ask each other what was the major point so far and make sure that that point is clear in your notes. This technique keeps students’ attention focused on the lecture and allows students to rehearse the information and to correct any misinformation or perceptions. • Give students overnight to revisit their notes to make revisions and corrections and to add information before sharing the notes with a peer. This will allow students to clarify their own thoughts and to make their writing more legible before sharing their notes with another. • Consider making your lecture notes available to student pairs after using this CoLT for students to recheck and thus revisit their notes a third time. • If you do not wish to use in-class time for students to compare notes, tell students to share their notes outside of class through e-mail attachments. Students can copy and paste notes into a single partner version, using different font styles or colors to distinguish individual contributions.

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• Use this CoLT for students to review homework assignments, to check answers to homework problems at the beginning of class, or to review for a test. Observations and Advice

• This technique can help reinforce course concepts, but it can also reinforce inaccuracy if both students in a pair have faulty information. Repeat and emphasize the main concepts frequently, and review and assess the notes periodically to make sure that students are learning the correct information. • It is important that each student take something from the other student’s notes to improve his or her own notes. If only one student is taking good notes, that student will probably resent helping the student who is taking poor notes. • To assess learning, using the Minute Paper method (CAT 6, Angelo & Cross, 1993, pp. 148–153) ask students to respond in writing to two questions: What is the most important suggestion you got from your peer? and What do you think is the most helpful suggestion you gave to your peer? If the major purpose of the exercise is to improve written note-taking skills, occasionally collect notes before the peer conversation and again after. Or to simplify your review, ask students to highlight or indicate what changes they made as a result of discussion with a peer. If you are more interested in assessing the quality of the peer suggestions, ask students to hand in one set of their notes with suggestions by their peer made in a different-color pencil.

Primary Resources

Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R., & Smith, K. (1998). Active learning: Cooperation in the college classroom. Edina, MN: Interaction Book Company, pp. 2:28, 3:21–3:22. Millis, B. J., & Cottell, P.G., Jr. (1998). Cooperative learning for higher education faculty. American Council on Education, Series on Higher Education. Phoenix, AZ: Oryx Press, pp. 113–114.

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8

Learning Cell Characteristics

Description and Purpose

Preparation

Group Size

2

Time on Task

15–30 MINUTES

Duration of Groups

SINGLE SESSION, MULTIPLE, OR ALL TERM

In Learning Cells, students individually develop questions about a reading assignment or other learning activity and then work with a partner, alternating asking and answering each other’s questions. The purpose of this CoLT is to engage students actively in thinking about content, to encourage students to generate thought-provoking questions, and to teach students how to check their understanding. Creating questions about an assignment requires students to think about the content in a way that is different from simply taking notes on it. It provides an opportunity for students to think analytically, to elaborate as they put material into their own words, and to begin to use the language of the discipline. Responding to the questions of peers provides a platform for discussion based on student levels of understanding. Exchanging questions and answers with a peer can motivate students and challenge them to pursue deeper levels of thought. In addition to developing content mastery, this technique motivates students to practice interpersonal skills such as giving feedback in nonthreatening ways, maintaining focus, and developing and sustaining mutual tasks. Students learn to question, explain, admit confusion, and reveal misconceptions—something that they are more likely to do with a peer than with the instructor. Finally, an effective partner can act as a role model for useful learning strategies. Teach students how to write good questions.

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1. Ask students to individually develop a list of questions and answers dealing with the major points raised in a reading or other learning assignment. 2. Form student pairs or simply ask students to partner with a student sitting nearby. 3. Explain the process by which you want partners to alternate asking and answering each other’s questions. 4. Student A begins by asking the first question and Student B answers the question. Student A offers corrections and additional information until a satisfactory answer is achieved. 5. Student B asks the next question and Student A answers, and the process repeats until all questions have been asked and answered.

Online Implementation: Learning Cell Timing: Synchronous or asynchronous Tools: LMS messaging, Web conferencing, immersive environment, e-mail, VoIP The advantage of implementing this CoLT online is that it gives students some physical distance from each other, which may make them more comfortable. At the same time, a learning cell provides online students, who can feel isolated, with an immediate connection to another real student. It also allows them to make such a connection while developing a deeper understanding of course content by creating and then answering questions. The challenge to implementing this CoLT online is that it requires a relatively quick turnaround time from students, and if one student does not hold up his or her end of the Learning Cell it will not be an effective activity. To implement this CoLT online, use your LMS’s messaging system or e-mail. Organize students

into pairs, and ask them to exchange questions and then to respond to each other with answers. Alternatively, use telecommunications, voiceover Internet protocol (VoIP), or an immersive environment. Ask students to use a tool such as Skype to alternate asking and responding to each other’s questions. Provide a firm timeline for students to submit their questions and responses to each other. Ask them to record their partner’s responses to the questions and submit to you to ensure individual accountability. Finally, immersive environments provide another tool that can be effective for this CoLT. Students simply meet in the immersive environment and ask and answer questions just as they would in an onsite course. Other options include robust student-centered collaboration tools such as VoiceThread and Classroom Salon.

Examples

Human Anatomy and Physiology (Traditional Onsite) Professor Tish Oosells chose this CoLT to break up her three-hour class sessions and to deepen students’ understanding of the content she was presenting. She

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lectured on her first topic and then distributed a handout with a set of questions based on the lecture that were samples of the kind she would use on an exam. She next engaged students in a class discussion in which she guided them through the process of creating similar questions. After she lectured on her second topic, she asked students to write a set of questions on their own that addressed the material she had just covered. She then asked students to find a partner and take turns asking and answering the questions. She used this technique throughout the semester, and as students became more proficient with practice the activity took less time. Professor Oosells believed that the process of creating the questions provided a clear framework for focusing students’ attention on the lecture. She also thought that responding to another student’s questions provided the opportunity for each student to recall, rehearse, and check their understanding of key concepts in a way that kept students engaged and motivated during the long class session. •

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Introduction to Art (Flipped Course) In this art appreciation course, the instructor prepared a series of online videos on major schools, including cubism, Dada, expressionism, Fauvism, futurism, impressionism, postimpressionism, and surrealism. The instructor used Learning Cells to help students review these major schools of art to prepare for an upcoming examination. In class, the instructor asked students to develop two questions for each of the schools: one to address a defining feature and the other to be more thought-provoking and emerging out of some aspect of the school that they found particularly intriguing. After students finished asking and responding to each other’s questions, they turned in their questions and answers to the instructor. He reviewed the questions, added a few questions that had not been addressed by the students, and then selected five questions for each school, transcribing them into a single document. At the next class meeting, the professor distributed the handout as a study guide, explaining to students that he would draw his exam questions from the guide. •

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Race and Ethnic Relations (Online Course) This professor organized his online class into three segments. At the beginning of the semester, he assigned students to work in pairs for the first course segment and then reassigned new pairs for the next two segments. For each of the three segments he asked students to prepare two questions that particularly intrigued or puzzled them. Since the course focused on racial

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relations, he encouraged students to use the assignment to ask questions that were appropriate to segment topics but that they might otherwise feel uncomfortable about asking. For example, one student asked, “Should I be using the terms ‘Black’ or ‘African American?’ Partners then exchanged questions. This format gave students permission to pursue answers outside of class (e.g., “I’m in a class and was asked to find out whether ‘Black’ or ‘African American’ was the preferred term. Can you help me?). Students returned their answers to the partner who had created the questions. The partner added any comments or follow-up questions and submitted it to the professor. The professor evaluated both partners’ contributions, added his own comments, and assigned each student a grade that took into consideration the thoroughness and thoughtfulness of their work. For each segment, he selected several of the best questions and answers and posted them in a forum on the course’s discussion board. •

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Chemistry (Large Lecture) The professor of this large lecture course, comprising three hundred students with auditorium-style seating, used Learning Cells at the beginning of each class period. He allocated approximately five minutes at the start of each class session. The night before each class, students were to read an assignment and to develop a list of five questions from it. In class, they partnered with a student sitting next to them, asking and answering their questions. •

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Introduction to Business (Online Course) In this class the professor decided to use Learning Cells to help students study for an upcoming test. He formed pairs and gave them the following instructions for the week leading up to the examination: Day 1: Each student develops a list of five short study questions that could conceivably be asked on the test. Day 1: Each student develops a model answer to the questions that he or she has written. Day 1: Each student e-mails his or her partner with questions only. Day 3: Each partner responds to the questions he or she received. Day 3: Each student e-mails responses to the question writers. Day 5: Each question writer uses his or her model answer to provide suggestions to the answering student’s response, copying him on the final e-mail.

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• Instead of using this activity only sporadically, use the technique regularly as an opening activity for class sessions (McKeachie, 2002). • Vary this CoLT by having each student in the pair read different materials. Rather than asking questions about the reading, have them teach the essentials of their reading to the second student (McKeachie, 2002). • Provide students with generic question stems to guide their question writing (e.g., Explain why ____. Why is ____ important? Compare ___ and ___. Summarize ___.). This variation is called guided reciprocal peer questioning, and a fuller list of generic question stems may be found in Chapter 3, Designing the Learning Task. • Vary the type of question. On one assignment, have students create an essay question. On the next assignment, have students create five multiple-choice questions or five true/false questions. Or ask students to create one of each kind for the assignment. • Rather than having students asking and answering questions orally, have students write out questions and answers. • Have long-term student pairs meet frequently to administer questions under test-like conditions. This variation is called reciprocal peer tutoring (Fantuzzo, Dimeff, & Fox, 1989; Fantuzzo, Riggio, Connelly, & Dimeff, 1989). • Ask students to write more open-ended questions that may not have a single right answer. Students may then pose questions that interest, puzzle, or inspire them.

Observations and Advice

• The time this CoLT takes up in class can vary widely depending on the kinds of questions students will develop (questions that can be answered in a word or phrase or questions requiring more elaborate responses). Asking students to prepare questions in advance can save class time. • Both students must prepare and participate for this activity to work well. If students are not prepared with thoughtful questions, time is wasted and nonproductive. Therefore, consider using an entry-ticket approach (see Chapter Four), requiring students to be prepared to participate and allowing pairs to reform if a student comes unprepared. Students who are unprepared lose participation points. • To assess this CoLT, ask students to write out, on a single sheet of paper, two questions that their peer should be able to answer, leaving space on the page for their peer to provide brief written answers. Collect the papers. This assessment should be used sparingly, perhaps once in the

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beginning of the term to alert students to the importance of the exercise and again later to note improvement in questions and answers. Or in a report-out to the class, ask a few students to volunteer an especially interesting, creative, or provocative question posed by their peer. Ask other students in the class to respond to the question. Primary Resources

Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R., & Smith, K. (1998). Active learning: Cooperation in the college classroom. Edina, MN: Interaction Book Company, pp. 2:28, 3:21–3:22. McKeachie, W. J. (2002). McKeachie’s teaching tips: Strategies, research, and theory for College and University Teachers. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, pp. 190–191.

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9

Fishbowl Characteristics Group Size

3–5 INSIDE, REMAINING STUDENTS OUTSIDE

Time on Task

15–20 MINUTE DISCUSSION 10–15 MINUTE DEBRIEFING

Duration of Groups

SINGLE SESSION

Description and Purpose

In Fishbowl, an outer circle of students sits around a smaller, inner circle of students. Students in the inner circle engage in an in-depth discussion, while students in the outer circle consider what is being said and how it is being said. This CoLT has also been called Inside Outside Circles. Inner circle students are challenged to participate in a high-level discussion while the outer circle is able to listen to the discussion and critique content, logic, and group interaction. This technique therefore serves two purposes: to provide structure for in-depth discussion and to provide opportunities for students to model or observe group processes in a discussion setting.

Preparation

Decide whether you want to facilitate the inner-circle discussion, sit with the outer circle, or separate yourself so that you can observe both circles. In class, preparation time involves having students move into the circles and giving students instructions. You will need movable chairs and sufficient classroom space to form the circles. If the physical constraints of the classroom do not allow movement of chairs into circles, consider having the inner circle of students simply sit in chairs and participate in the discussion at the front of the classroom.

Procedure

1. Ask a small group of students (generally three to five) to form a circle in class, and ask the remaining students to form a larger circle around the first circle. 2. Give students the following guidelines: only inner-circle students will speak; outer-circle students will be observers and take notes on both content and group process; although observers will not speak during

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the Fishbowl discussion, they will have the opportunity to address any issues that arise in the follow-up discussion. 3. Give students the prompt question for discussion. 4. Ask students to report out in a whole-class discussion, requesting that they address the content issues that arose and that they comment on group processes.

Online Implementation: Fishbowl Timing: Synchronous and asynchronous Tools: LMS, immersive environment, instant messaging This CoLT is effective online for teaching students how to develop effective online communication skills. This is accomplished by providing them with an opportunity to observe and then participate in a discussion on what is effective and what is not. Moreover, because whole-class discussions can become unwieldy and often repetitive, Fishbowl is a useful technique for structuring and reducing the volume of postings in online discussions. The biggest challenge of this CoLT is designing an authentic discussion activity that is worth having students observe and discuss. Another challenge is that an online Fishbowl can feel forced and unnatural, particularly for the discussants who are being observed. To implement this CoLT online, use a discussion forum. Create the prompt, explain the grading criteria, identify which students will participate in the inner circle, and determine the time frame. (For example, inner-circle students will discuss for one week; outer-circle students will discuss the following week.) Create two forums, one labeled Inner Circle and the other Outer Circle. If the forum

software allows it, consider making the inner circle a protected forum such that only inner-circle students can post responses. If students in the inner circle need prodding or if the discussion needs redirecting, send the participants a private message. During the outer-circle discussion segment, leave both forums open so that students can switch back and forth to read postings. Alternatively, use instant messaging (IM). Assign individual students to virtual inner or outer circles. Inner-circle students participate actively, responding to the prompt, while outer-circle students lurk and observe the discussion. After the inner-circle discussion is finished, outer-circle students are invited (or required) to comment. If you use IM, ensure that discussion posts are sufficiently challenging to require students to concentrate on what they are saying rather than worrying about others watching them. Immersive environments can be a particularly effective tool for using a Fishbowl. Simply assign students to inner or outer circles. Next tell members of the inner circle whether to use voice or text and then announce the prompt. Consider having the inner circle and outer circle reverse roles and continue the discussion.

Examples

General Biology (Large Lecture) Professor Ann Virement structured her large lecture class to include regular small group breakout sessions. As she observed the small-group discussions, she noticed that student participation was uneven: some students within

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each group contributed while others remained silent. She decided to use a Fishbowl discussion to model effective group interaction as well as bring together all of the elements of a unit that the course had just covered on the causes and effects of ozone depletion. She selected a group of five students she believed would be comfortable in the spotlight and asked them before class if they would be willing to participate in a discussion while other students observed. She then had them move chairs to form a circle at the front of the room, prompting discussion with the following question: Why are we worried about changes in the ozone layer? The five students engaged in a discussion of the topic while the other members of the class listened and observed. When the group had completed its discussion, she asked the observers to volunteer any additional insights about the content. She then asked the inner-circle students to comment on their interactions, inquiring about what went well with the process and what could have been improved. She also asked the observers to comment on the group process. To close the activity, all students reflected on their own participation in groups and jotted down in their notes the good discussion practices they learned from the Fishbowl activity. Professor Virement requested that they put a star next to at least one strategy they planned to implement in future group work. •

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Administration of Higher Education (Flipped Course) In this graduate-level seminar, the professor delivered some of the course content online and used active learning activities in class. The professor engaged students in whole-class discussion on a regular basis, but she wanted to vary the form of the discussion to keep the course interesting. After several weeks exploring the origins and purposes of higher education, the professor divided the class in half and asked the students in one half of the room to form pairs and participate in CoLT 1: Think-Pair-Share, responding to the prompt, In what ways is higher education an industry? She had the students in the other half of the room also form pairs, but they responded to the prompt, In what ways is higher education not an industry? After students had shared and discussed their ideas, she selected four students (two students from each side) to participate in a Fishbowl discussion in the center of the room while the remaining students critiqued discussion content and group processes. The professor then engaged the class in whole-class discussion, asking observers to contribute additional insights on either content or process. •

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American Cinema (Online Course) In an online undergraduate film history course, the professor required students to participate in weekly threaded discussions, but he was frustrated with the superficial level of most of the postings. He found that only a few students posted insightful, thorough responses to the prompts; the majority of students seemed to be in a hurry, posting quick comments such as “I agree” or “Good point,” without seeming to read all the preceding remarks and without contributing in such a manner as to move the discussion forward. The large number of cursory comments in between more thoughtful comments tended to dilute the quality of the whole discussion. Several students complained that reading the discussion was a waste of time. The instructor therefore decided to use a series of Fishbowls to ensure more focused, in-depth discussions. As a culminating exercise for a unit on the role of music in films, he selected five of his best students and told them that he would like them to participate in—and model—a thoughtful discussion, responding to the prompt, In what ways do film score composers use music to support plot development? He asked the remaining students to lurk and read the postings but not respond to them. When the discussion had unfolded to a satisfactory level, the professor gave the lurkers an opportunity to post any comments that they might like to contribute that were significant and new. Using the film score discussion as a model, he selected a new group of five students to participate in the inner-circle discussion of the next unit’s threaded discussion and another five students for the following week’s discussion, systematically moving through the remaining students. This technique helped to create threaded discussions that were thoughtful, thorough, and focused. Additionally, it helped make the discussions more manageable and easier to read. To ensure that lurkers read the discussion thoughtfully, he added questions to his worksheet assignments that asked students various synthesis and evaluation questions on the discussion postings. Variations and Extensions

• Instead of one large Fishbowl, consider multiple small Fishbowls of four to six students, with two to three in each of the inner and outer circles. • After the initial Fishbowl discussion, ask students to switch places, with the outer circle assuming the inner-circle role and vice versa. • Allow students from the outer circle to join the inner circle by tapping a student on the shoulder and exchanging places with him or her. This is a fun strategy for creating enthusiasm, and it keeps more students active and engaged. Be aware, though, that some students and some cultures and religions are not comfortable with being touched, so consider

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as an alternative telling students who wish to join or exit a group to simply raise their hands. Or give an entry/exit token such as a slip of paper. • Have students perform a task, such as solving a problem or learning a new skill, instead of discussing an issue. • Bring in a group of experts to form the inner circle. Observations and Advice

• Because you are putting students on the spot, it is important to have established a level of trust in the classroom and to know that students are ready and prepared to be the center of attention. Ensure that students are prepared for this task by giving them an out-of-class reading assignment, by using this technique at the end of a unit, or by allowing them a few minutes in class to think before beginning the technique. • Since some students are more comfortable than others speaking in a public forum, ask for volunteers or solicit participation from students that are likely to be at ease in this format. On the other hand, this strategy may continue to reward the same students who always speak in class; instead, try to provide less verbal or vocal students an opportunity to share their thoughts. • Participate in the discussion only if it becomes necessary to stimulate conversation or to steer discussion back on target. • Consider creating a handout with specific questions for observers to answer either during or after the Fishbowl activity. For example, ask students to track the order, type (new information or elaboration), and duration of student participation. Follow-up questions could ask students to contribute their own insights or to synthesize the discussion, pretending the audience is a student who was not able to attend class that day.

Primary Resources

Tiberius, R. (1995). Small group teaching: A trouble-shooting guide. Toronto: OISE Press, p. 25. Kagan, S. (1990). The structural approach to cooperative learning. Educational Leadership, 47(4), 12–15.

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10

Role-Play Characteristics

Description and Purpose

Group Size

2–5

Time on Task

15–45 MINUTES

Duration of Groups

SINGLE SESSION

A Role-Play is a created situation in which students deliberately act out or assume characters or identities they would not normally assume to accomplish learning goals. Role-playing provides an action environment for students to experience the emotional and intellectual responses of an assumed identity or imagined circumstance. At its essence, Role-Play is an example of learning by doing. The word role indicates that students must actively apply knowledge, skills, and understanding to successfully speak and act from a different, assigned perspective. The term play indicates that students use their imaginations and have fun, acting out their parts in a nonthreatening environment. Role-Play thus engages students in a creative, participatory activity that requires them to apply course concepts as they assume fictional identities or envision themselves in unfamiliar situations.

Preparation

It is critical to spend thoughtful time designing the scenario for your Role-Play. Appropriate scenarios require interaction from stakeholders with multiple perspectives. Therefore, identify the perspectives and define the type and number of characters and the framework for their actions. In addition to the roles for persons who are participating in the action, consider assigning group process roles such as moderator (who can, e.g., intervene if a person is falling out of character) or observers (who interpret and comment on the action). When crafting the basic story line, it is best to initiate the action through a critical event that the players must respond to, such as a comment by one of the actors or an incident that has just occurred. Identify resources (if any) for each of the playing roles, and decide how the activity will end. For example, will you set a time limit, or will you let the scenario end naturally?

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1. Ask students to form groups with enough members in each group to assume each stakeholder role. 2. Present the scenario and allow time for discussion of the problem situation. It is important to allow sufficient time for students to ask questions on any aspects of the scenario that are unclear. 3. Assign or ask students to each assume a stakeholder role. If assigning group process roles such as moderator or observers, make sure students are clear on their tasks. 4. Inform students of the time limit or other parameters that will signify the end of the activity. 5. Instruct students to enact the Role-Play. It should run only until the proposed behavior is clear, the targeted characteristic has been developed, or the skill has been practiced. 6. Follow the Role-Play with a discussion within the small groups or with the whole class that should focus on the students’ interpretations of the roles and the motivations for and consequences of their actions. 7. Consider asking students to reenact the Role-Play, changing characters or redefining the scenario and then holding another discussion.

Online Implementation: Role-Play Timing: Synchronous and asynchronous Tools: Immersive environments, open environment Role-Play is perhaps even more effective in an online than an onsite environment as students are provided with some anonymity, which can free them of some of their anxiety and selfconsciousness with assuming different identities. This benefit is also a potential challenge, as students may feel so uninhibited by their assumption of a different role that they act inappropriately. One of the best tools for implementing RolePlay online is an immersive environment. Students can even create their own avatars as they interact with each other online. If this technique fits with your approach, it is best if you are already using

the immersive environment as part of regular class activities, as it can take a while for students to master the technology and learn to interact smoothly. Role-Plays may also be done online by way of microblogs. Ask students to assume an identity on Twitter, such as a past or current leader in your field, post a prompt, and then ask students to respond as if they were that assumed identity. Animation is another good tool for engaging in Role-Play. Students can collaborate online to create animated Role-Plays, developing them collaboratively through animation tools such as Animoto, Vokii, or Blabberize. When implementing a Role-Play in an online course, provide a set of ground rules for interaction to let students know what kinds of actions and communications are appropriate.

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Psychology of Prejudice (Traditional Onsite) The purpose of this course was to help students understand the complex psychological patterns that develop among different majority and nonmajority groups resulting from the effects of overt and covert discrimination. To increase students’ awareness of the nature of prejudiced interactions as well as help them to identify appropriate ways to respond, Professor Watts D. Matta used Role-Play frequently in his class. Professor Matta typically organized students into groups of three and assigned group members one of three roles: prejudiced speaker, responder, or social observer. Throughout the academic term, he crafted a variety of simulated situations and created characters representing multiple perspectives that students assume (e.g., ethnic, racial, gender, socioeconomic background, physical disabilities). For example, in one situation he created a business meeting scenario in which the speaker was a manager who made an offending racist remark, the responder was a subordinate representing the targeted race who must determine an appropriate response, and the social observer described her feelings when watching the scene. At the end of the activity, the students shared their reactions first with their groups and then with the whole class, critiquing the response and the reaction. The class then participated in a postexercise discussion that focused on a range of topics emerging from the exchange (Plous, 2000). •

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ESL Oral Communication Skills I (Traditional Onsite) Professor Ann Glish knew that many of her students were self-conscious about speaking in her beginning English as a Second Language (ESL) class. As nonnative speakers, they came from countries around the world and feared that they would make mistakes and that other students would not understand them. Yet it was essential that students practice extensively to develop vocabulary, grammatical accuracy, and clear pronunciation. She discovered that if she asked students to pretend they were someone else it ameliorated some of their anxiety. Furthermore, if they assumed a role in a scenario that she created based on everyday situations, it motivated them because they immediately saw the usefulness of the exercises. She created scenarios such as ordering dinner at a restaurant or asking for directions to the main campus library that emphasized everyday English. She then formed small groups so that students had more opportunities to practice speaking and so that the context would be less threatening than speaking in the whole class. •

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History of the Vietnam War (Flipped Course) In this flipped class on the Vietnam War, the professor believed it was important to use Internet technology for delivering lecture and class time to help students understand the war’s complexity and be able to empathize with the viewpoints of the war’s various stakeholders. This goal was particularly important to him since he knew that his class attracted many students who had strong feelings and preformed beliefs about the war’s issues. He worked with his institution’s technology department to establish an immersive environment for his class and then created scenarios that correlated with his lecture topics. Rather than giving each student a role, he developed generic role categories such as American Soldier and South Vietnamese Villager. Each student selected a role and then adopted an appropriate name. He retained for himself the role of Moderator so that he could intervene if exchanges become too emotional or inappropriate. He provided students with the option of entering the immersive environment anonymously, but if they wished to earn participation credit they were required to message him privately with the moniker they had assumed in the Role-Play. At regular, scheduled intervals throughout the term, he devoted class time to discussion of the themes that emerged. •

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Business Management Practices (Online Course) A professor teaching an online course decided to use a Role-Play game to teach concepts and content. He formed six groups with four students each, with each group representing a company and with each student assuming one of the following roles: chief financial officer, financial officer, operations chief, or marketing executive. The companies competed against each other completing the game that extended for three phases of the companies’ life cycles (start-up, growth, and independence). The game simulated nine years during nine weeks of the course. Each year the students employed in each company established crucial input data, such as price, advertising, purchase, production, and size of sales force. The instructor collected data and compiled them for the game, creating output data for each company that included units sold, backorders, market share, operating income, income tax, and net income. The professor evaluated the companies based on results after nine years. Each company met in regular conference, during which the employees discussed data. In another conference, called Managers’ Corner, the students participated in management-related discussions (adapted from Hsu, 1989). Variations and Extensions

• Allow students to help determine the scenario, identify the major stakeholders, and create the roles.

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• After practicing, have student groups perform the Role-Play in front of the class. Or, instead of having multiple groups participating in multiple Role-Plays, consider having one group perform in front of the rest of the class. Assign observers specific tasks for interpreting the action and dialogue. • Combine this activity with a Fishbowl by having one group perform the Role-Play while another group watches and then having the groups trade places. • Especially in virtual reality environments, consider creating roles for students to manipulate the environment. For example, a Prankster could set up obstacles and create challenges for the characters, or an Extender could create extensions to the scenario, adapting to unforeseen twists in the action. • Use Role-Play to help students develop speaking and listening skills in a technique called Triad Listening (Luotto & Stoll, 1996). Groups of three students take turns performing specific roles (speaker, reflective listener, and referee). Speakers talk first, trying to state their ideas as concisely as possible and then amplifying and clarifying the idea with an example. Reflective listeners say back to the speakers what the speaker has said, but using their own words. Reflective listeners try to be as thorough and accurate as possible. They try to avoid simply repeating the same words but instead use their creativity to capture the essence of what the speaker has said. Referees make sure that group members stick to the rules. If the referee (or the speaker) feels that the reflective listener’s summary is inaccurate, the referee interrupts and helps clear up the misunderstanding.

Observations and Advice

• Spend sufficient time prior to the activity to ensure that students understand the purpose of the Role-Play. If they don’t understand the learning goals, students may get off track or the Role-Play may fall flat and seem artificial. • Students must also understand the nature and character of the roles they are assuming. If they know who they are, then they will be more effective in the role. If the role is a complicated one, then they may need time to reflect or conduct research prior to enacting their role. • Although many students will be drawn to this CoLT with enthusiasm, others will feel self-conscious and uncomfortable about assuming a role. They may resist this activity, protesting that it seems silly. To reduce their discomfort, take care to create a nonthreatening environment and consider preparing students earlier in the term with icebreaker activities (see

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Chapter Four). Also, reassure students that while acting is important in this CoLT you are not trying to develop acting ability but rather to achieve specific learning goals. Finally, consider allowing these students to assume observer roles. • The closure stage of this activity is very important. Take time to debrief on the lessons learned through the experience. Don’t expect students to develop deep understanding of human situations after a limited exposure in a single Role-Play. Help students relate it to their own lives using an assessment technique such as Application Cards (CAT 24, Angelo & Cross, 1993, pp. 236–239). • The real value of Role-Play occurs when students form general opinions about course concepts that they developed and internalized as a consequence of assuming a new identity or acting in a new situation. • This CoLT can be effective, but as with any teaching strategy be careful not to use it excessively or it can become tedious and feel artificial or silly. • To assess or grade Role-Play, consider videotaping the activities or having students create their own videotape. Groups can view the recording and discuss the specific problems or general principles revealed in the tapes, perhaps summarizing and synthesizing their observations into an essay. Alternatively, the whole class can watch one or more of the films and discuss the critical issues or themes that emerge.

Primary Resources

Naidu, S., Ip, A., & Linser, R. (2000). Dynamic goal-based role-play simulation on the Web: A case study. Educational Technology & Society, 3(3), 190–202. Plous, S. (2000). Responding to overt displays of prejudice: A role-playing exercise. Teaching of Psychology, 27(3), 198–200.

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Jigsaw Characteristics Group Size

4–6; RECOMBINE TO 4–6

Time on Task

VARIES

Duration of Groups

SINGLE SESSION OR MULTIPLE

Description and Purpose

Students work in small groups to develop knowledge about a given topic and to formulate effective ways of teaching it to others. These expert groups then break up, and students move to new Jigsaw groups, each consisting of students who have developed expertise in different subtopics. Jigsaw is helpful in motivating students to accept responsibility for learning something well enough to teach it to their peers. It also gives each student a chance to be in the spotlight. When students assume the role of teacher, they lead the discussion, so even students who are reticent to speak in class must take on leadership roles. This CoLT is also an efficient strategy for extending the breadth, depth, and scope of learning because students learn and teach multiple topics simultaneously during the same class sessions.

Preparation

Spend sufficient time designing the learning task. The topic should be simple enough for students with a good grasp of the subject to teach it to their peers but complex enough to require discussion and the design of interesting strategies for instruction. The topic should divide usefully into a number of expert groups of equal numbers of students. Be aware that the number of subtopics dictates the number of students in the second Jigsaw group. Also, students who are not familiar with collaborative learning and are not comfortable in being so self-directed may complain that they are doing the teacher’s work. Explain the purpose of this collaborative technique to students before the exercise, and have a closure activity for reflection on what students have learned (see Chapter Seven).

Procedure

1. The instructor presents a list of possible topics for developing expertise, making the division of the material into component parts clear.

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2. Either through teacher assignment or by interest areas, students form groups charged with developing expertise on a particular topic. 3. Students work in these expert groups to master the topic. They also determine ways to help others learn the material, exploring possible explanations, examples, illustrations, and applications. 4. Students move from their expert groups to new Jigsaw groups in which each student serves as the only expert on a specific topic. In these groups, experts teach the material and lead the discussion on their particular topic. Thus, each new Jigsaw group consists of four to six students, whose members are prepared to teach their subject to their peers. 5. The whole class reflects on the group discoveries in a closure activity.

Online Implementation: Jigsaw Timing: Synchronous and asynchronous Tools: LMS or Web conferencing Advantages of implementing this CoLT online include the flexibility of teaching approaches and media available to students. In addition, having students teach each other online provides them with a good way of getting to know each other better while engaging with course content. The challenge of using it online is helping students coordinate a complex project among several different group members. A related challenge is ensuring that students have adequate technological skills to be able to create a good venue for teaching other students. It is important to know how many students possess the skills and resources to use content presentation tools effectively—and know whether or not the course management system or other tool allows you or students to share information relatively easily before offering this as an option for the teaching stage of this activity. To implement this CoLT in an LMS, use a discussion forum. Identify four to five specific topics students should teach each other. Identify each topic by letter (e.g., A, B), and create an expert group forum for each of these topics. Thus, expert group forum A will be for students who

will become experts in topic A. Divide groups into different forums. Reform groups with an expert member from each of the initial groups and reassign to different forums. Alternatively, use documents and wikis when implementing this CoLT in an LMS, and have students create instructional modules from text documents. These decisions and the size of the class will help determine the parameters to establish for the assignment. Provide sufficient time for expert groups to work on their assignments individually, to pool their ideas, to ask questions of each other, to become experts on that topic, and to determine and develop their teaching materials. Form Jigsaw groups that include one expert for each of the topics. Thus, individual members of expert groups A, B, C, D, and E will form into multiple Jigsaw groups, each with ABCDE membership. Create separate wiki pages for each group, and have each expert group teach its topic to other groups. To use this CoLT in an open environment, consider using video. Students develop video content as a part of the work of their base groups to teach their Jigsaw groups. Also, consider providing students with tools for creating and sharing their own lessons such as the currently available Sliderocket, Slideshare, Animoto, Brainshark, and Glogster EDU.

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Masterpieces of American Literature (Traditional Onsite) Professor Paige Turner taught a Southern writers course. Toward the end of the semester, she decided to have her class examine how Southern writers used people and events from their own lives as elements in their fiction. She selected five authors for the assignment: William Faulkner, Flannery O’Connor, Eudora Welty, Walker Percy, and Thomas Woolf. Each student selected one author to research for homework. At the next class, students worked in small expert groups organized by author to develop a list of biographical facts that appeared in the short stories of their author. Each group created a comprehensive list of information about its author and also determined how to present the material to other students so that it could be learned within a ten-minute small-group discussion. In the subsequent class session, Professor Turner formed new Jigsaw groups, each with one expert representative for each author, who took turns leading the discussion. For closure, Professor Turner conducted a whole-class discussion in which students compared the amount and type of biographical facts that they found in each of the author’s short stories. •

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Introduction to Cultural Anthropology (Flipped Course) As an introduction to the course, the professor of this class devised several video lectures introducing students to the concepts of culture and the field of anthropology. Wanting students to apply these concepts as they gained an understanding of several primitive cultures, this professor decided to have students participate in a Jigsaw. He believed that this collaborative technique would give students an opportunity to learn by engaging in research, by interacting with each other, and by teaching other students. He divided the class into six groups of six students each, informing them that they would be responsible for studying one culture and then teaching it to their peers. Groups would conduct follow-up evaluations of their peers’ understanding of the material by creating, administering, and correcting a practice quiz. At the conclusion of that segment of the course, all students would take a graded comprehensive examination that tested them on all six cultures. The professor advised students to consider the major religious beliefs, economic practices, governance structure, and class systems that produced each culture. To prepare them to assume the teaching role effectively, he led a class discussion about various teaching methods, including the use of outlines, definition pages, worksheets, and sample quizzes. After the groups became knowledgeable about their assigned culture, he reassigned students

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to new Jigsaw groups, with one member from each of the first teacher groups. Each teacher took a turn providing information and leading a discussion in which he or she asked and answered questions about his or her respective culture. To close the group activity, each teacher gave the practice quiz to the students in the Jigsaw group. After the teachers had evaluated the quizzes, they submitted them to the professor, who reviewed them and used them to guide the development of his study guide for the comprehensive exam. •

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Website Publishing Tools: Dreamweaver (Online Course) This online course is an introduction to website design and management, and one of the course objectives was for each student to create a professional functioning website using JavaScript, cascading style sheets, and techniques of authoring webpages for different browsers and different end-use platforms. Halfway through the term, the instructor assigned each student to an expert team and a Jigsaw team. There were six expert teams based on six features of the Dreamweaver website design software program that she had not covered in class: frames, templates, libraries, timeline, e-commerce, and extensions. Although it was possible for students to create fully functioning websites without these features, implementing them into their final sites would enhance their projects and add to the professionalism of their e-portfolios. Students could select which expert team they would like to join on a first come, first served basis, but she assigned students to the Jigsaw team so that she could ensure one expert on each team. Each expert team was given its own private forum on the course’s discussion board and one week to do a knowledge quest in which they researched their specific feature. Team members could use Web resources, books, or external Dreamweaver discussion boards or listservs to research their topic, using their expert team’s in-class forum to pool their information. At the end of one week, they took their shared knowledge and developed a strategy to teach their topic. Expert teams had one more week to create a learning unit to present to the Jigsaw teams that were required to include screenshots, the researched Dreamweaver feature, reference lists, and two best resources for further information. At the end of the third week, everyone on the Jigsaw team had learned basic information about each of the six features of Dreamweaver, and the professor opened up all forums and presentations to the entire class. Students were then required to include one of the new features they learned in the expert group and another feature they learned in the Jigsaw into their final projects. •

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Introduction to Geology (Large Lecture) In this class of approximately 120 students, the professor used Jigsaw as a way for students to study ingenious rocks. Once students were seated at their fixed tables, he passed out a box of rock samples to each table. Multiple rock samples in ziplock bags were contained in the box. Each group received a different type of rock. The groups studied their rock samples and wrote down any observations they had. The instructor then told them what type of rock they had and gave them time to research their specific rocks using their textbook and mobile devices. The instructor then numbered off each student and assigned a table a number. He sent students to their new tables with a ziplock and their notes. They then taught others about their rocks and made a list of similarities and differences across the different types. Variations and Extensions

• Consider using this technique for complex problem-solving tasks and have expert groups learn a skill necessary to solve the problem. • Increase student interest in this exercise by asking students to help generate the lists of topics. • Instead of calling students experts, call them teachers. • Instead of asking students to work in two different groups (the expert one for mastery and the Jigsaw one for teaching), have students work with only one group, with pairs forming and breaking off to develop expertise on a specific topic and then rejoining the full group for teaching. This variation is called Within-Team Jigsaw (Millis & Cottell, 1998, pp. 133–134). • Ask groups to choose a spokesperson for an all-class review. The spokespersons make a presentation to the whole class, and remaining group members can elaborate or contribute additional views. • Give students an individual quiz on the topics. Consider grouping individual scores into team scores. This variation is called Jigsaw 2 (Slavin, 1986). • One way of assuring preparation for Jigsaw group work is to test individually for content knowledge prior to the discussion in the expert group and to retest after expert group discussion. (See CoLT 12: Test-Taking Teams for a technique to implement this).

Observations and Advice

• Experienced teachers know that teaching something to others requires an understanding of the subject matter beyond surface learning. As students develop strategies for teaching to their peers, they may discover examples, anecdotes, or analogies that enhance their

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comprehension. They may design charts or graphs that illustrate relationships visually. They may create quiz questions or discussion questions that probe for new levels of meaning. These are learning activities that deepen the teacher’s understanding and also benefit the learners. • Acquiring expert knowledge also encourages interdependence. In the initial expert group assignment, students must take advantage of the knowledge, skills, understanding, and creativity of their fellow students since this will benefit them in their role as teacher. In their role as teachers in the Jigsaw group, peers reward their classmates for good teaching or rebuke students who don’t know their subject well enough to teach it. • If students are to realize the advantages of the peer-teaching role, they must take the challenges of teaching seriously. Consider engaging students in a preliminary, whole-class discussion about what good teaching entails: clear explanations, practical examples, visual aids, provocative questions, and the like. Take time to present the challenges of teaching explicitly so that students can come up with creative ideas for communicating effectively with their peers about academic subject matter. • Any peer-teaching technique depends on how well prepared students are for their assignment. The focus of Jigsaw is to learn something well enough to teach it. But the learning group may also need advance preparation. For many topics, a peer teacher cannot be expected to work with a group that has not done any background reading or preparation. Thus, it may be important to assign homework that prepares students for both teacher and learner roles. • Providing closure for this activity is essential. If a good closing activity is lacking, students may believe that the instructor is shirking his or her duty by making the students teach themselves and providing them with no feedback. One possible closing activity is to give students a list of the key points to address. Hold a whole-class discussion on how they fulfilled the assignment, where they fell short, and where they exceeded the learning requirements. An additional or alternative activity is to ask groups to reflect on and then share something members did that helped the group learn. Or give students a quiz or test on the material to stress its importance. • Jigsaw has been used effectively across a wide spectrum of levels, from K–12 to university. Because of its highly contrived structure, however, this technique should not be overused. Once or twice a semester preserves the novelty and freshness.

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• Since Jigsaw tends to be a time-consuming technique and includes a variety of purposes, it is important to evaluate the process. The most direct assessment might be to solicit student answers to a brief survey. Survey questions should be those that really concern you, derived from your experience in preparing the exercise and from your observations of the group process. Questions might be both specific and general. For example, On a scale of 1 to 10, how helpful was this exercise in deepening your understanding of _____? Did you find this an effective use of class time? How well was the teaching role performed in your group? What were the major advantages of Jigsaw to you? Major disadvantages? What did you learn from assuming the role of teacher? How could the exercise be improved? You will receive the most candid answers if survey responses are anonymous. • Directed Paraphrase (CAT 23, Angelo & Cross, 1993, pp. 232–235) is often used in applied fields such as marketing, public health, education, and law, where students are expected to be able to explain often complex or technical information to the public—basically a teaching function. Since Jigsaw is distinctive for its emphasis on students assuming the role of teacher for their area of expertise, an assessment technique such as Directed Paraphrase can focus on how well they perform the teaching function. Consider stopping after the first small-group session to ask a few students who will serve as experts in their next group to paraphrase briefly for the entire class their introductory statement. This should be brief, hit the high points of the past discussion, and be understandable to their peers new to the concepts. This CAT provides an opportunity for the instructor to make any necessary corrections as well as to gain insight into the discussions taking place in the groups. Primary Resources

Aronson, E. (2000). The jigsaw classroom. http://www.jigsaw.org/ Aronson, E., Blaney, N., Stephin, C., Sikes, J., & Snapp, M. (1978). The jigsaw classroom. Beverly Hills, CA: SAGE. Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R., & Smith, K. (1998). Active learning: Cooperation in the college classroom. Edina, MN: Interaction Book Company, pp. 2:24–2:25.

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12

Test-Taking Teams Characteristics Group Size

4–6

Time on Task

PROPORTIONAL TO EXAM

Duration of Groups

PROPORTIONAL TO EXAM

Description and Purpose

Students work in teams to prepare for instructor-created exams and then take the exams first individually and next as a group. This CoLT thus involves three steps: (1) the group studies for the exam together; (2) individuals take the exam; and (3) the group takes the exam. By working together to prepare for the exam, students help each other deepen their understanding of the content. Because each student first takes the test independently, this CoLT emphasizes individual accountability. By retaking the test as a team, individual students benefit from the collective knowledge of the group. Since the group score is generally superior to the individual scores, Test-Taking Teams is useful for demonstrating the value of collaborative learning. This CoLT may be used for short quizzes within a single class period or for tests covering larger amounts of material.

Preparation

Once you have determined the content that students should master and have presented it in lecture, reading assignment, or other activity, the preparation for this CoLT is the same as preparing a good examination for individuals. Refer to Davis (1993) or McKeachie (2002) for tips on developing a good test. Consider creating a test study guide to provide students with a focused framework for preparing for the test.

Procedure

1. Ask students to form groups of four to six. Consider one of the instructor-stratification methods for forming groups described in Part Two to ensure that each team contains diverse or ability-balanced membership. 2. Depending on the size and complexity of the material to be mastered, the groups may meet for fifteen minutes, a full class session, or longer.

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3. Administer the test for students to complete individually and to submit to the instructor for grading. 4. Before returning the graded individual tests, ask students to rejoin their groups to reach a consensus on the answers and submit a group response to the test. 5. Consider averaging individual test grades and group test grades to determine individual grades. Weight scores, for example, two-thirds for individual plus one-third for group.

Online Implementation: Test-Taking Teams Timing: Asynchronous Tool: LMS To implement this CoLT online, use a discussion forum or documents and a wiki. Organize students into groups of ten to twelve, identify them by letter (e.g., A, B), and create a forum for each group. Give groups time to work together to pool

information, resources, and ideas to prepare for the test. Have students take the exam as individuals and then submit it to you for grading. Before you return the graded version back to them, ask all students to work together in their designated forum or document to create collaborative exam responses to submit. Assign (or have students select) a group leader who will submit the group test for the group.

Examples

English Poetry of the Romantic Period (Traditional Onsite) In this graduate-level course, Professor Cole Ridge knew that students were anxious about the upcoming master’s degree comprehensive examination. He believed that this anxiety was distracting them from focusing on what they needed to learn specifically in his course. He decided to employ Test-Taking Teams to address both issues: he used the content of his course to help prepare students for the type of questions they would be asked on the comprehensive exam. Professor Ridge designed a sample test focusing on English Romantic poetry and explained to students that the test included identification and essay questions similar in style to the comprehensive exam. He then asked students to work in groups to share study strategies as they reviewed the material and prepared to take the sample test. He gave individual students the test first, and then he gave the groups the test. By working in groups, students were able to fill in their knowledge gaps regarding his course while they learned additional passage identification techniques that prepared them for the comprehensive exam. •

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General Psychology (Large Lecture) This large lecture class enrolled approximately one hundred students and was taught in a classroom with fixed tables and movable chairs. Following three class sessions on cognitive learning theories in which students had read assignments, listened to lecture, and participated in discussion, Professor Sara Bellum decided to use Test-Taking Teams. She informed students that in the next class session they would be reviewing for and then taking a short-answer test. They should come prepared with questions that they thought would be on the test and plan to discuss them in a group session with three other students from the class. At the beginning of the next class, Professor Bellum asked students to form groups of five and spend fifteen minutes working together to review for the test. She then administered the test she had created, telling students that they must take it individually within a twenty-minute time limit. Her two teaching assistants helped her proctor the test. After students handed in their test papers, Professor Bellum asked them to return to their original groups to prepare a group response to the test. As she expected, the group test scores were superior to individual test scores. She assigned individual grades by giving individuals grades a composite of two-thirds individual and one-third group score. •

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Introduction to Statistics (Flipped Course) The professor of this statistics course developed online animated videos of all of her lectures. She formed student pairs to work together until the midterm and then created new pairs to work together until the final. In class, pairs studied together for each of the weekly quizzes. They took each quiz individually during the first thirty minutes of the class and then retook it together during the last twenty minutes of class. The professor assigned each student a grade that was a combination of individual and partner scores. •

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Music Composition and Theory (Traditional) To transfer to a four-year institution and be placed at the junior level, community college music majors needed to pass a comprehensive exam at the receiving institution assessing their knowledge of music theory. Despite what many faculty and students felt should be appropriate preparation, students were not doing well and were often required to repeat second-year theory at the transfer institution. This was frustrating and discouraging, and the music theory faculty decided to work together to help students become more successful. They created an extensive bank of multiple-choice exam questions focusing on the kind

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of information they knew would be on the placement exam. They then worked with their college’s instructional technology department to set up a test bank that was self-grading and accessible online. During the last course of sophomore music theory, students were assigned to small groups to work together throughout the term. On a weekly basis, students went to the computer lab to take a practice exam first individually and then to retake it as a group. While taking the exams as a group, students helped each other review material, such as the steps they needed to take to identify intervals or the chords within a harmonic progression. The testing software maintained a record of both individual and group scores that faculty took into account for the course grades. The following autumn, the community college theory faculty contacted faculty members at the local university to track placement of that year’s transfer students. Scores and placement were so markedly improved that both institutions’ faculty decided to work together to enhance the breadth and depth of questions in the test bank and to develop strategies for improving articulation in the music history and music performance courses. Variations and Extensions

• Have students work as pairs rather than in a group. • Make two copies of the exam: one copy to distribute to the teams to use to review and the other copy to be submitted for grading. • Ask groups to submit the materials that they created to prepare for the exam. For example, they can turn in a brief summary of each answer they formulated, a copy of the outline and material they used to organize their discussion, or a description of the procedures they adopted to prepare for the exam. • Do a simple statistical analysis of test scores to show differences between individual and group test scores. Use the averages of all individual and all group scores, announcing to students, for example, The average individual scored X and the average team scored Y, or do this for each group.

Observations and Advice

• Test-Taking Teams can be a single activity (working together to prepare for and take one test during the semester), but it can also be effective when groups work together for several tests. This allows students to form strong bonds and to begin to feel responsible for each other’s successes. • If you believe students would benefit from group-to-group competition, consider announcing the highest-scoring group. Additionally, if comfortable with the concept of bonus points, consider rewarding bonus points to the most improved or highest-scoring teams.

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• Design a grade structure that integrates individual and group scores (e.g., average the individual and group scores, or assign two-thirds for the individual score and one-third for the group score). • To encourage individuals to make a best effort and to assess progress over time, have individuals take quizzes to score against their own previous averages; award points for the degree to which they meet or exceed their own performances. Primary Resources

Michaelsen, L. K., & Black, R. H. (1994). Building learning teams: The key to harnessing the power of small groups in higher education. In S. Kadel & J. Keehner (Eds.), Collaborative learning: A sourcebook for higher education, 2 (pp. 65–81). State College, PA: National Center for Teaching, Learning and Assessment. Michaelsen, L. K., Fink, L. D., & Knight, A. (1997). Designing effective group activities: Lessons for classroom teaching and faculty development. In D. DeZure (Ed.), To improve the academy: Resources for faculty. Instructional and organizational development, 16 (pp. 373–397). Stillwater, OK: New Forums Press Co.

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Chapter 11

Techniques for Problem-Solving Almost all teachers are interested in developing the ability of their students to solve problems. Although problems can be generally defined as puzzles—difficult matters that exercise the mind—the precise definition of problem varies widely across the academic disciplines. There are well-defined problems with correct answers and loosely defined problems, which Donald Schön described as “confusing messes incapable of technical solution” (1983, p. 42). These latter kinds of problems may include a huge array of relevant variables, both known and unknown. They may require exercising judgment, making trade-offs, and considering values. They may have alternative solutions. Whether problems are straightforward tasks designed to produce a specified result or seemingly insoluble quandaries posed for endless academic discourse, problem-solving is at the core of most disciplines. Presenting students with a problem to solve is also an effective teaching strategy. As McKeachie points out, “Problem-based education is based on the assumptions that human beings evolved as individuals who are motivated to solve problems, and that problem solvers will seek and learn whatever knowledge is needed for successful problem solving” (2002, p. 197). Presenting problems to students that offer a challenge but are still solvable can be an important motivating strategy. Additionally, students need to practice thinking to learn to think more effectively. McKeachie also notes, “ … Cognitive theory provides good support for the idea that knowledge learned and used in a realistic, problem-solving context is more likely to be remembered and used appropriately when needed later” (McKeachie, 2013, p. 211. Although McKeachie is referring to problem-based learning—a specific instructional strategy that uses complex problems as a catalyst for learning—the benefits he identifies apply to problem solving in general.

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The six collaborative learning techniques (CoLTs) in this chapter are designed to help students learn and practice problem-solving strategies. They provide frameworks for solving problems that range roughly in order from highly structured to loosely structured. CoLTs such as Structured Problem-Solving and Think-Aloud Pair Problem-Solving walk students through a set of procedures designed to teach students how to identify relevant information and apply it in the solution of the problem. At the other end of the continuum is Group Investigation, in which students select their own topic and work with fellow students to assign tasks, conduct research, and prepare a report. Although all six CoLTs deal with problem-solving, each CoLT is unique in that it focuses on different aspects of the process, concentrates on a specific type of problem, or offers a unique approach to teaching a problem-solving strategy. A brief description and the primary purpose of each of the Problem-Solving CoLTs is provided in Exhibit 11.1.

EXHIBIT 11.1

Problem-Solving CoLTs This CoLT …

… is a technique in which students: It is particularly useful for:

13 Think-Aloud Pair ProblemSolving (TAPPs) 14 Send-a-Problem

16 Structured Problem Solving

solve problems aloud to try out their reasoning on a listening peer. try to solve a problem as a group and then pass the problem and solution to a nearby group who does the same; the final group evaluates the solutions. review a written study of a real-world scenario and develop a solution to the dilemma presented in the case. follow a structured format to solve problems.

18 Group Investigation

plan, conduct, and report on in-depth research projects.

15 Case Studies

emphasizing the problem-solving process (rather than the product) and helping students identify logic or process errors. helping students practice together the thinking skills required for effective problem-solving and for comparing and discriminating between multiple solutions. presenting abstract principles and theories in ways that students find relevant.

dividing problem-solving processes into manageable steps so that students don’t feel overwhelmed and so that they learn to identify, analyze, and solve problems in an organized manner. teaching students research procedures and helping them to gain in-depth knowledge about a specific area.

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Think-Aloud Pair ProblemSolving (TAPPS) Characteristics Group Size

PAIRS

Time on Task

30–45 MINUTES

Duration of Groups

SINGLE SESSION OR MULTIPLE

Description and Purpose

In Think-Aloud Pair Problem-Solving (TAPPS), student pairs receive a series of problems as well as specific roles—problem-solver and listener— that switch with each problem. The problem-solver thinks aloud, talking through the steps of solving a problem. The partner listens to the problem-solver, following the steps, attempting to understand the reasoning behind the steps, and offering suggestions if there are missteps. Articulating one’s own problem-solving process and listening carefully to another’s process helps students practice what they have read about or heard in a lecture. This CoLT places the emphasis on the problem-solving process rather than the product, helping students diagnose errors in logic. Depending on the problems used, it can also help increase student awareness of the range of possible successful (and unsuccessful) approaches to problem-solving. TAPPS improves analytical skills by helping students to formulate ideas, rehearse concepts, understand the sequence of steps underlying their thinking, and identify errors in someone else’s reasoning. Since it requires students to relate information to existing conceptual frameworks and apply existing information to new situations, it can also promote deeper understanding.

Preparation

To prepare for this CoLT, spend sufficient time developing an appropriate set of field-related problems that students can solve within a limited time frame. The problems should engage students in basic problem-solving skills such as identifying the nature of the problem, analyzing the knowledge and skills required to reach a solution, identifying potential solutions, choosing the best solution, and evaluating potential outcomes. To be most effective,

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the problems should challenge students, requiring them to concentrate and focus their attention, whether they are solvers or listeners. Procedure

1. Ask students to form pairs and explain to students the roles of problem-solver and listener. The role of the problem-solver is to read the problem aloud and talk through the reasoning process in attempting to solve the problem. The role of the listener is to encourage the problem-solver to think aloud, describing the steps to solve the problem. The listener may also ask clarification questions and offer suggestions but should refrain from actually solving the problem. 2. Ask students to solve a set of problems, alternating roles with each new problem. 3. Call completion when students have solved all problems.

Online Implementation: TAPPS Timing: Synchronous or asynchronous Tools: Web conferencing or discussion Using this CoLT online provides students with the opportunity to share their thinking processes and to receive comments on their process, as thinking processes sometimes go undiscussed and unrecognized in an online environment. This CoLT typically requires synchronicity, and many of the technologies that allow for this would add an additional burden on faculty time in monitoring the interaction.

Examples

To implement this technique, use Web conferencing with voiceover Internet protocol (VoIP). Ask students to work in pairs, taking turns solving a problem and suggesting process revisions. To minimize the time burden from monitoring, ask students to write up and submit a summary of the pair exchange, indicating what they learned from it. As alternatives for those unable to do synchronous, use a discussion tool such as a wiki or VoiceThread, the latter of which makes student interactions easier to review.

Developing Language Skills for International Students (Traditional Onsite) This professor was teaching a course in grammar to English as a second language (ESL) students. He decided to use sentence diagraming to help students understand the relationship of the various parts of speech. First he explained diagraming to the students, demonstrating the process by parsing and graphing several sample sentences on the board. When students indicated that they understood the steps, he formed pairs and gave each pair a set of several sentences. He asked students to alternate taking turns diagraming the sentences, talking out loud to explain why they were making their choices

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while their partner listened and offered suggestions when necessary. The professor closed the activity by asking each pair to select a sentence from the set that was most challenging and then to go to the board, sharing both their diagraming and the reasoning behind it with the whole class. •

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Programming in BIOPERL (Large Lecture) The purpose of this large lecture course was to teach students to create utility software programs using a specific scientific programming language. The course regularly attracted 100–150 students. The professor had a goal of teaching students problem-solving necessary for effective programming. To achieve this goal, students needed to become competent in a complex problem-solving process of retrieving, manipulating, and analyzing sequences from a variety of databases. The instructor recognized from early test scores that some students caught on and were able to go through the steps relatively easily. Others made process mistakes resulting in programming errors that were time-consuming and frustrating to find later. Historically, these struggling students simply dropped the course at this point, so the instructor was searching for ways to reduce attrition and alleviate student anxiety. The professor decided to use TAPPS as a regular exercise to structure practicing the problem solving process with a peer and to use recent quiz scores to partner a student who was having difficulties with a student who was doing well. At the end of a class session, he announced the ongoing activity and named partners for the exercise. He asked the partners to find each other and to sit together at the next session. At the next session, some of the students were absent, so he had to recombine a few of the pairs. Most, however, were in attendance. He presented several problems and had students take turns reasoning through them. The result was that not only did students gain competence sooner than in the previous semester when they had worked independently but also student retention was significantly improved. •

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Introduction to Statistics (Flipped Classroom) Professor Marge N. O’Vera had many interesting statistics video lectures that students reviewed prior to class sessions. One in particular was a lecture about regression analysis. For her class session on this analytic approach, she decided to use TAPPS in an introductory statistics class to have students practice it. She prepared a handout that included problems with an attached printout of data. She then asked students to use these data to solve ten problems.

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Professor O’Vera asked students to pair with the student sitting next to them. She explained the roles of problem-solver and listener. The students worked on the problems, alternating between problem-solver and listener until all of the problems were completed. She then held a whole-class discussion to review the answers and to clarify questions regarding the problem-solving process. •

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Differential Equations (Online Course) This instructor asked students to use TAPPS to work together to prepare for an upcoming test that would require them to respond to problems based on the math analysis principles they had been studying in class. He suggested that students use VoIP, such as Skype, so that they could see each other as they worked through their problems together or to talk on the phone if they lacked VoIP technology. Variations and Extensions

• This CoLT is typically used for a series of problems with single answers, but it can also be used for more open-ended problem-solving. The activity may take more time, so plan for fewer problems. • If all pairs have worked on the same problem set, select pairs at random to report out their solution or take a vote on the most challenging problems and share and examine solutions along with tips for improvement as a class.

Observations and Advice

• Many students, especially new students, will not have highly developed problem-solving skills. Consider preparing students by having students practice problem-solving as a class prior to this activity. • Student problem-solvers may not be comfortable having their logic exposed to other students. Student listeners may not be trained in logic so they may not be able to note difficulties. Because of the level of risk students may feel, it is important to establish a high level of trust in the class prior to using this activity. Thus, it may also be a good idea to use this technique with pairs who work together throughout the term or at least over several sessions. • Students will solve problems at different speeds. In this CoLT, it is particularly important to have an additional problem (an extension or sponge) on hand for students who complete the problems quickly so that they do not sit around bored waiting for the other students to finish. Consider crafting a particularly challenging bonus question for extra credit.

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• We recommend using assessment techniques with TAPPS, since students can reinforce faulty—as well as correct—information and problem-solving processes. • Either to get a rough measure of students’ problem-solving ability prior to implementing TAPPS or as a follow-up activity to assess how much they have learned, consider using Problem Recognition Tasks (CAT 19, Angelo & Cross, 1993, pp. 214–217). Provide students with a few examples of common problem types and ask them to recognize and identify the particular type of problem each example represents. This CAT can help assess how well students can recognize various problem types, which is the first step in matching problem type to solution method. • If interested in assessing how students solve problems and how well they understand and can describe problem-solving methods, consider using Documented Problem Solutions (CAT 21, Angelo & Cross, 1993, pp. 222–225). After students have participated as partners in TAPPS, have them individually track the steps that they take in solving a problem and submit this for review. Angelo and Cross also suggest ideas for adapting and extending the assessment (pp. 224–225): • Use Documented Problem Solutions as a preassessment by giving students two problems: one of low and the other of medium difficulty. The results of their efforts to solve the problems can help to gauge the best level at which to begin whole class or small group instruction. • Ask students with elegant, well-documented responses to explain their solutions to a partner, a small group of students, or even to the whole class. • Since most students have little experience or no experience reflecting on their own problem-solving processes, students may need help learning how. To ensure that peers give each other thoughtful and thorough responses, give students credit for this activity. • To grade this CoLT, students can submit a record of the solutions with the solver for each problem identified, such as by initials. Consider identifying listeners and having them include their suggestions for problem-solving improvement. Primary Resources

Lochhead, J., & Whimbey, A. (1987). Teaching analytical reasoning through thinking-aloud pair problem solving. In J. E. Stice (Ed.), Developing critical thinking and problem solving abilities (pp. 72–93). New Directions for Teaching and Learning, No. 30. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

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MacGregor, J. (1990). Collaborative learning: Shared inquiry as a process of reform. In M. D. Svinicki (Ed.), The changing face of college teaching (pp. 19–30). New Directions for Teaching and Learning, No. 42. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Millis, B. J., & Cottell, P. G. (1998). Cooperative learning for higher education faculty. American Council on Education, Series on Higher Education. Phoenix, AZ: Oryx Press, p. 114.

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Send-a-Problem Characteristics Group Size

2–4

Time on Task

30–45 MINUTES

Duration of Groups

SINGLE SESSION

Description and Purpose

Each group receives a problem, tries to solve it, and then passes the problem and solution to a nearby group. Without looking at the previous group’s solution, the next group works to solve the problem. After as many passes as seems useful, groups analyze, evaluate, and synthesize the responses to the problem they received in the final pass and report the best solution to the class. Send-a-Problem thus involves two activity stages: solving problems and evaluating solutions. The purpose of the first stage is to provide students with an opportunity to practice together and learn from each other the thinking skills required for effective problem solving. The purpose of the second stage is to help students learn to compare and discriminate between multiple solutions.

Preparation

Determine the number of problems you will need to have all groups working simultaneously. Decide how to present the problem. Consider attaching each problem to the outside of a file folder or an envelope into which groups can then insert their solutions. Also think carefully about the instructions regarding time limits and the order in which students should pass the problem, such as clockwise. Being clear with students can help to reduce any confusion.

Procedure

1. Form groups of two to four students, and take time to describe the activity, give instructions, and answer questions. 2. Distribute a different problem to each group, asking each group to discuss the problem, generate possible solutions, choose the best solution, and record and place their response in the folder or envelope.

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3. Call time, and instruct teams to pass to the next group; each group receives a new folder or envelope. 4. Upon receiving new problems, students again brainstorm responses and record results until time is called and they again pass the problem to a new group. 5. Repeat the process for as many times as seems useful and appropriate for the problem. 6. Students in the final group review the responses to the problem, analyze, evaluate, and synthesize the information, adding any additional information they wish. The activity concludes as teams report on the responses contained in the folder they evaluated. As groups report out, add any points that groups missed and reinforce correct processes and solutions.

Online Implementation: Send-a-Problem Timing: Asynchronous Tool: Learning management system (LMS) This technique online allows for groups to connect to other groups rather than individuals connecting to each other. In this way, it gives students opportunities for developing online team skills. This CoLT can be unwieldy in an online environment because coordinating different groups can be challenging. For this reason, asynchronous communication provides the best approach to using it online. To implement this CoLT online, use a discussion forum. To begin, determine problems and organize students into as many groups as you have problems. Create a protected-access forum for each group. Post problem prompts and ask students to solve the

appropriate problem as listed in the following table for Stage 1.

Stage 1: Problem-Solving Time Frame 1

Time Frame 2

Stage 2: Solution Evaluation Time Frame 3

Group A Solve Problem 1 Solve Problem 2 Evaluate Solutions for Problem 3 Group B Solve Problem 2 Solve Problem 3 Evaluate Solutions for Problem 1 Group C Solve Problem 3 Solve Problem 1 Evaluate Solutions for Problem 2

During Stage 2, permit forum access to all students to respond to the solutions that were posted in the preceding two weeks.

Examples

Urban Planning (Traditional Onsite) This professor decided to use Send-a-Problem so that students could evaluate different groups’ solutions to a residential rezoning problem. She gave each

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group a manila envelope that included the data required to solve the problem and two 5 x 7 index cards. She asked students to discuss and agree upon a solution, write the solution on the card and place it in the envelope, and pass the envelope to the next group. The next group also discussed a solution, recorded its responses on an index card, and placed it in the envelope. This group sent its solution to a third group, which reviewed the responses from the first two groups, selected what it believed was the best solution and why, and then reported this to the class. •

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Advanced Pathophysiology and Patient Management (Flipped Classroom) While students in this flipped course had a series of lectures, podcasts, and text-based essays, to review assessment and treatment of patients with respiratory disease Professor Xavier Breath decided to used Send-a-Problem as a classroom activity. He divided the class of twenty students into three groups. He then gave each group an envelope with a patient’s specific symptoms written on the outside. Professor Breath asked groups to review the symptoms, diagnose the disease and recommend and write down appropriate treatment and therapy. After each group had discussed their first problem for fifteen minutes, the instructor asked students to put their responses in the envelope and pass it to a group sitting nearby, which repeated the process. After another fifteen-minute discussion, students sent the envelopes to a final group. When the final group received the envelope, it synthesized the responses from the two previous groups and added additional responses. It then selected the most likely disease causing the patient’s symptoms and chose the best treatment. The professor called on each group and wrote the best responses on the whiteboard, incorporating a review of diagnosis protocol, symptoms, diseases, and treatment. •

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English Literature (online course) In this online class, Professor Fitz William wanted students to think deeply about cultural and social conditions surrounding the development of the novel Pride and Prejudice. He decided to have students participate in an online adaptation of Send-a-Problem. He organized students into three groups and created a forum for each group. He then developed three questions relating the text to the historical context of the nineteenth century and posted one of the questions on each of the group forums. He gave students in each group one week to respond to their first question and a second week to respond to their second question.

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During the third week, he gave students access to all forums and asked groups to evaluate the responses to their final question. •

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Introduction to College Teaching (Large Lecture) When the university announced a new college teaching certificate program for graduate students, it did not anticipate the large enrollment of one hundred students. It was very happy with the interest and enthusiasm though, so to accommodate the increase it changed the course’s format from seminar to large lecture. The instructor did some mini lecturing and also incorporated a range of collaborative learning techniques. One of the most effective exercises was Send-a-Problem. She gathered together twenty colored index cards. On each one she wrote a different problem focused on issues such as student motivation and student social skills. She formed groups of five students each and distributed the cards around the room such that each group received one card. She asked each group to write one solution on each card before passing to the next group. She completed several rounds in a fairly fast-paced activity. At the end of the allocated time, she asked the groups holding the cards to report out. Variations and Extensions

• Consider allowing students to generate their own list of problems that they would like to see the class solve. For example, individuals may wish to have additional coverage of a certain type of problem that they find consistently confusing. Or perhaps they found certain issues in a reading assignment particularly intriguing and would like to hear what other students think. While you may have specific topics that you must cover, giving students some control over the problems/topics can generate more engagement and investment in this CoLT. • Consider using this CoLT as a review before an examination. Bring in copies of old tests for students to take and compare their answers. • For closure, have groups write the numbers of the problems on the board, and ask the evaluating teams to report which group’s solution they determined was best, recording the team’s name under the problem’s number. Then ask the evaluating team to summarize the winning team’s solution and state why it felt that solution was best. Offer the winning team the opportunity to add any additional comments.

Observations and Advice

• Interpret problem to include a variety of complex questions and issues (e.g., text, diagnosis, and identification of a physical element).

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• Send-a-Problem is most effective for developing several thoughtful solutions for more complex problems that do not have a single right answer. In some situations, it may be effective for single-answer problems that students just learned in a lecture or reading assignment. In this way, it can replace traditional drill-and-practice exercises by adding in higher-order thinking skills during the second solution evaluation stage. • Prepare the problems and work through the solutions to determine the amount of time it will take groups to solve the problems. Depending on the complexity of the problem, estimate how long each stage of this activity will take to allow enough time for thinking and reflection. Be sure to select problems that are roughly equal in complexity and that take approximately the same amount of time to solve. • If teaching a large class, consider having several groups work on the same problem, but this works better if groups with the same problems are not seated next to each other. • Be fairly specific about time limitations and be thorough in the instructions introducing the activity. This will give students an idea of how much thought they can give to their responses and will help ensure that the activity proceeds smoothly. Be prepared to extend the time limit if the majority of the groups seem to still be on task or to call time sooner than you anticipated if the majority of the groups seem to be wrapping up. • Despite efforts to develop comparable problems and setting time limits, groups may well work at different rates, and they need sufficient flexibility to do that. To prevent any group from having to sit idle or from having to pass the problem before they are ready, be sure to have several extensions (additional problems) ready to fill in. Final groups can report on more than one problem, or you can pick up the additional problems and respond. • Having participated in Send-a-Problem, students should be relatively skilled at solving specific problem types and evaluating problem-solving processes. If students have been working on different types of problems, What’s the Principle? (CAT 20, Angelo & Cross, 1993, pp. 218–221) is an especially useful assessment technique as it quickly gathers useful information as to how well they have accomplished this goal. Rather than emphasizing identifying the type of problem or solving the problem, this CAT focuses on the middle step: deciding the principle or principles needed to solve the problem. Provide students with a few problems and ask them to state the principle that best applies to each problem. This will help you to

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evaluate student ability associated with specific problems, with the general principles used to solve them, and to determine student skill at transferring what they have learned to new problem situations. Primary Resources

Kagan, S. (1992). Cooperative learning, 2nd ed. San Juan Capistrano, CA: Resources for Teachers, pp. 10–11. Millis, B. J., & Cottell, P. G. (1998). Cooperative learning for higher education faculty. American Council on Education, Series on Higher Education. Phoenix, AZ: Oryx Press, pp. 103–105.

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Case Study Characteristics Group Size

3–6

Time on Task

VARIES

Duration of Groups

SINGLE SESSION OR MULTIPLE

Description and Purpose

In this CoLT, student teams review a written study of a real-life scenario containing a field-related problem situation. These cases usually include a brief history of how the situation developed and present a dilemma that a key character within the scenario is facing. Team members apply course concepts to identify and evaluate alternative approaches to solving the problem. Although case studies originated in the fields of business, law, and medicine, they are now used in many disciplines. A major challenge to many teachers is how to present abstract principles and theories in ways that students find relevant. Case Studies are inherently appealing to students because they have a true-to-life feel; thus, they help to bridge the gap between theory and practice and between the academy and the workplace. Case Studies engage students in critical reflection, and because they typically involve multiple alternatives to solving problems they can help students develop analysis, synthesis, and decision-making skills.

Preparation

Writing a good case is an extremely complex task. Use research in your field or current events as stimulus ideas. The case can be real or hypothetical. Although classic or historical cases engage scholars, students are most intrigued by situations that deal with current issues. Whether creating your own or pulling from a collection, the case is usually written and distributed as a handout, often with a series of questions to guide students in their analysis.

Procedure

1. Form student groups and distribute identical or different cases to each team. 2. Allow time for students to ask questions about the process they are to use to clarify the problem presented in the case.

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3. Students work in groups (anywhere from one class session to a few weeks depending on the complexity of the assignment) to study the case in depth from the protagonist’s point of view and to become familiar with the issues and decision options. 4. Students sort out factual data, apply analytic tools, articulate issues, reflect on their relevant experience, draw conclusions, and recommend actions that resolve the dilemma or solve the problem in the case. McKeachie (2002, p. 200) suggests the following questions to guide students in their approach to the case: What is the problem? What might have caused the problem? What evidence can be gathered to support or discount any of the hypotheses? What conclusions can be drawn? What recommendations can be made? 5. Sometimes students prepare a written or oral statement describing their assessment of the case, the decision options as they see them, and their recommendations for a decision. 6. Students discuss the cases with the entire class as the teacher debriefs on the experience. If the case really occurred, students will want to know what happened, so be prepared to share this with them after they have reported and to allow a few more minutes for discussion of what actually transpired.

Online Implementation: Case Studies Timing: Asynchronous Tool: LMS

Case Studies provide an authentic activity. Using them online can allow students to draw from a range of resources to develop responses to them and also provides students with opportunities to reflect on their responses. The challenge of this activity is coordinating student schedules so that teams can work on the assignments together. Consider introducing students to Doodle as a very useful and easy-to-use tool for scheduling a meeting date and time that is convenient for all group members (http://doodle.com). Use tools that allow for asynchronous communication and contributing to the group response.

To implement this CoLT online, use a discussion forum. Organize students into teams, and create a closed-access forum for each team. Team members communicate through this forum to discuss and analyze the case. When they have completed and written up their analysis (or by a specific deadline), each group posts its analysis in a separate, whole-class Case Studies forum. Once every group has posted its analysis, open the forum up for comments. Alternatively, develop a different wiki for each team. You could also use Glogster (http://edu .glogster.com/) or Storybird (http://storybird.com/). Online whiteboards are a bit easier than wikis for students to present their own content. Post the Case Study and ask students to collaboratively develop a solution.

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Issues in Contemporary Art (Traditional Onsite) Throughout their undergraduate education, art department students concentrated on developing their personal artistic vision and style. Professor Neil Politan now wanted to help prepare them for the issues they would face trying to make professional careers as artists. He chose to use mini Case Studies, and in this example he drew upon the experience of one of the school’s recent graduates. The Chamber of Commerce had offered this graduate a commission to create a monument to honor the contributions of the eighteenth-century missionary Father Serra to the city’s heritage. The commission promised the young artist significant local and statewide exposure and a substantial payment. The artist accepted and spent considerable time thinking about and then creating a model to present to the committee for approval. Several community members attended his presentation and voiced opinions that Father Serra and the California missions had enslaved and brutalized the Indians. Others believed that the missionaries’ work had been essential in the effort to assimilate Indians into mainstream society. Both sides felt that the monument should reflect their views. Because the subject of the sculpture generated increasing debate and controversy, the committee members started to align along various viewpoints, and the commission was in danger of being canceled. The professor asked groups to discuss the case, asking each group to identify what steps this young artist might take to move the project forward while staying true to his own artistic vision. The professor used the teams’ recommendations as the basis for a whole-class discussion on the challenges artists face reconciling their personal artistic ideals with the need to compromise to earn a living. •

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International Relations (Flipped Classroom) Although Professor Warren Piece delivered many content modules by way of technological affordances such as video lectures, he wanted to provide students in his advanced course the opportunity to pull together different aspects of their academic studies in an engaging, real-world scenario. He prepared a Case Study in which conflict between two countries had escalated to the point that war was imminent. In a period of heightened world tensions, the pressure was strong to find a diplomatic resolution. Professor Piece divided the class into six groups of five to six students and assigned each group the task of providing support to an ambassador charged with resolving the conflict. He told the groups they would

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have three class sessions to analyze the historical, political, and economic roots of the conflict and to propose a solution. The professor informed groups that they would need to develop a learning plan (identifying knowledge gaps and determining how to fill them) and a work plan (identifying how they would formulate its diplomatic resolution). To facilitate the process, he distributed to each group a template of both plans that they could use or modify to suit their own needs. After all teams had completed their proposal, he asked each team to evaluate the proposals of two other groups and to select the most appealing one. An ambassador from each of the teams that had created the top three proposals presented his or her group’s proposal to the class, and the whole class voted on the most persuasive one. The team with the most votes won the Nobel Pizza Prize (a coupon for a free pizza). The students found the contextualized, realistic scenario compelling, and the professor found that the Case Study had significantly enhanced student understanding of the complexity of factors underlying international relations. •

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Introduction to Teaching Online (Online Course) This mini course was part of an online training program for community college faculty preparing to teach online courses. It was designed to bring teachers together to learn from each other, to explore teaching innovations, and to search for solutions to the unique challenges of the online learning environment. The course’s instructor frequently used scenarios posted on a threaded discussion forum to help faculty students discuss effective teaching strategies. For example, one scenario provided details about an actual case in which a student who had failed an online class complained to the dean that the grading procedure was unfair. The mini course instructor divided students into two groups, and their assignment was to look at the case from the perspective of either the student or the online instructor. After students posted their comments, the instructor asked them to look at the case from the perspective of the dean and to recommend how to resolve the dilemma and to suggest how the instructor might prevent similar problems in future classes. Variations and Extensions

• Instead of a written case study, use videotape or role-play to present a problem situation (McKeachie, 1999, p. 178). • Create a simpler mini case that can be presented orally and that teams can analyze and propose solutions for in a short period of time.

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• Present complex cases in several stages in a progressive disclosure format, asking teams to make decisions based on the limited information they have at each stage. • Partner with professionals in your field (e.g., nurses, educators, small business owners) to craft real cases from personal experience, and consider inviting these professionals to share with students their decisions and the consequences of their choices after students have analyzed the case. • Symposia and simulated business meetings are particularly appropriate for providing closure with case studies. (See Chapter Six for additional ideas and for further explanation of closure strategies.) • Pair Case Study with another CoLT for a more extensive collaborative experience. For example, use CoLT 28: Collaborative Writing and have students develop a formal paper containing their analysis of the case. Observations and Advice

• When writing or selecting cases, Davis (1993, p. 162) says that good cases tell a real story with an interesting plot, focus on an interest-arousing or thought-provoking issue, often contain elements of conflict, promote empathy with the central characters, lack an obvious or clear-cut right answer, encourage students to think and take a position, demand a decision, and are relatively concise. • As an alternative to creating your own Case Studies, consider selecting cases from a case bank if your field has such a resource. For example, Harvard Business School publishes cases in accounting, finance, general management, organizational behavior, marketing, and other areas in HBS Case Services. The National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science offers an extensive collection of science-based case studies online (http://ublib .buffalo.edu/libraries/projects/cases/case.html). Case studies are also provided by the IBS Center for Management Research (http://www.icmr india.org/), Urban Land Institute (http://casestudies.uli.org/), Digitalads.org (http://case-studies.digitalads.org/), and Marketing Campaign Case Studies (http://marketing-case-studies.blogspot.com/). • Christensen (1987) and Cross and Steadman (1996) present case studies depicting classroom teaching situations. These may be especially helpful for faculty workshops. • To make cases realistic, teachers often include so many details that students lose the principles or points the case was intended to demonstrate. On the other hand, one of the goals of the Case Study is to teach students to select important factors from a complicated mesh that includes

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less important factors. Although the factors are not critical, they still need to be considered to understand fully the context of the case. It is crucial, therefore, to match the cases and the amount of detail to your students’ abilities. As McKeachie observes, “one does not learn such skills by being in perpetual confusion, but rather by success in solving more and more difficult problems” (1999, p. 178). • Case Studies can be particularly motivating when they involve scenarios that seem real to students and that may have application beyond school. They produce discussions with a high level of student involvement. However, student learning can take many different directions, not all of which will be relevant. McKeachie offers this observation: “The major problem in teaching by cases involves going from the students’ fascination with the particular case to the general principle or conceptual structure. In choosing a case to discuss, the teacher needs to think, ‘What is this case a case of?’” (1999, p. 178). It is important, therefore, to provide teams with well-crafted case study assignments and to close the activity by summarizing the key points and ensuring that students are clear on the principle or principles involved. • When facilitating the whole-class discussion after this CoLT, be careful to adopt a nondirective role. Pose questions and guide the discussion toward points of major importance, but avoid telling students the right answers. Students should feel encouraged and comfortable to speak openly about what is on their mind (Davis, 1993, p. 164). • If your groups have prepared a written statement that includes their analysis of the case and their recommended solutions, this can be submitted for assessment and grading. Primary Resources

Christensen, C. R. (1987). Teaching and the case method. Boston: Harvard Business School. Herreid, C. F. (1994). Case studies in science: A novel method of science education. Journal of College Science Teaching, 23(4), 221–229. Olmstead, J. A. (1974). Small group instruction: Theory and practice. Alexandria, VA: Human Resources Research Organization, pp. 24–44, 96–102.

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16

Structured Problem Solving Characteristics Group Size

4–6

Time on Task

1–2 HOURS

Duration of Groups

MULTIPLE SESSIONS

Description and Purpose

Structured Problem-Solving provides students with a process for solving a complex, content-based problem within a specified time limit. All members must agree to a solution and must be able to explain both the answer and the strategy used to solve the problem. Students with poor problem-solving skills have difficulty at one or more stages of the problem-solving process. This CoLT helps students because it breaks the process apart into specific steps. Thus, students learn to identify, analyze, and solve problems in an organized manner. Rather than feeling overwhelmed by the magnitude of a problem, this activity gives students a format so that they have a place to begin. By providing them with a series of manageable steps, it keeps students from going astray or engaging in irrelevant steps.

Preparation

Create a problem that is complex enough to require students to use sophisticated problem-solving skills. Use research and current questions in the field as a resource. Identify a problem-identification and solving procedure that is appropriate to the type of problem selected. Solve the problem yourself using the appropriate problem-solving procedure to uncover any difficulties or errors. You may wish to create a handout that includes both the problem and the problem-solving steps.

Procedure

1. Organize students into teams and assign students a complex problem to solve. 2. Ask students to solve the problem using the specific steps you have identified as a problem-solving technique. Luotto and Stoll offer the Dewey six-step problem-solving technique (1996, pp. 91–92): (a) identify the problem; (b) generate possible solutions; (c) evaluate

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and test the various solutions; (d) decide on a mutually acceptable solution; (e) implement the solution; and (f) evaluate the solution. 3. Ask teams to report out their solutions, describing to the rest of the class the steps they took and the solution they developed.

Online Implementation: Structured Problem-Solving Timing: Synchronous or asynchronous Tool: LMS, instant messaging (IM) At times it can be challenging to demonstrate a problem-solving process online, and Structured Problem-Solving provides a template that allows the student learning process to be scaffolded. Team problem-solving online is a challenge even for paid professionals, and students often do not have the skills to do it. Moreover, they can also lack communication skills to work successfully together at a distance. Provide clear directions and a specific timeline for completing the assignment. To implement this CoLT online, use a discussion forum. Organize students into teams, and provide

each team with its own private threaded discussion forum. Ask them to discuss potential solutions in the forum and to develop a common solution. Post the solutions in a threaded discussion area so that the entire class can view the solutions and offer comments. Alternatively, use IM so that students can confer and solve the problem in real time. Consider having them post their solution to a common area. Additional online strategies would be to provide students with group management tools such as Wiggio (http://wiggio.com/) and Stormboard (https://www.stormboard.com/).

Examples

Introduction to Environmental Science (Traditional Onsite) This professor wanted to use Structured Problem-Solving to consider the issue of air quality and air pollution. He divided students into teams and asked them to evaluate the quality of the air directly near the college. He asked them to consider What do you know? What do you need to know? and Where can you go to find out? He then asked them to assess the air quality (recommending the environmental pollution scorecard) and to identify major and minor local and regional polluters. He also asked students to develop a presentation for community stakeholders that explained the problem and recommended specific actions. •

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General Chemistry (Flipped Course) In a chemistry class designed for nonmajors, Professor Molly Cule had a series of online modules aimed at content delivery. She knew, however, that many

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students did not see how chemistry could be useful in their everyday lives. She decided to use Structured Problem-Solving to help students understand chemistry’s application beyond the classroom. She organized teams and challenged the students to select the best antacid from a variety of products. To help students get started, she gave them a problem-solving strategy in which they responded to prompt questions. Using these prompts, they were able to identify that the problem was to evaluate the effectiveness of the antacids and that the initial information they needed to solve the problem was provided in the list of active ingredients displayed on the boxes. They were able to add information from a previous lecture on acids and bases to recognize that they needed to determine which tablets neutralized the most acid. The students then designed an experiment they would use to test the antacid. Teams presented their ideas at the next class session, including a list of the materials they needed to conduct the experiments, the procedure they would follow, and the data they would collect. The following session, the professor had the materials for them to conduct their experiments. Students used the data gathered from the experiments to solve the problem and to identify the best antacids available over the counter. •

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Music History and Literature (Online) In a course for music history majors, Professor Amanda Lin set up several content modules containing essays she had written on the various topics, short video lectures, and quizzes. Professor Lin wanted to design a collaborative activity that would require students to pull together and apply what they had learned throughout the course. She also wanted to prepare them for additional course work and to create an assignment that would help them experience the excitement of research. She decided to use Structured Problem-Solving as the basis for a game she called Musical Sleuth. Professor Lin divided the class into teams of five and used instructor-stratification methods to make sure that each team had at least one advanced student in it. Each team was given an instruction sheet with generic problem-solving steps along with the initial pages of a musical score with the title, composer, and opus number removed. The teams were charged with trying to discover the missing information and identifying the composition. Each team had a discussion forum set up devoted to the game, and members were also encouraged to communicate using text, e-mail, and phone. Although students were initially confused, they followed the problemsolving strategy and began to uncover clues. For example, in one team a student pointed out the unusual instrumentation, deducing that it probably must have been written in the nineteenth century or later. Another student

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noticed that the performance markings were in German as opposed to the earlier standard of Italian, and others looked for clues in the harmony and form. Additional clues helped them to propose a list of possible composers, and by combing through the detailed lists of works for those composers in library references and then the department’s collection of orchestral scores they were able to identify the work (in this case, the fourth movement of Gustav Mahler’s Symphony No. 4). Each team made a video presentation to the class revealing the name, composer, and opus number of its manuscript and explaining how it had discovered the composition’s identity. •

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Introduction to Biochemistry (Large Lecture) The professor of this course typically used traditional lectures but wanted to employ some small groups to help students develop better problem solving skills. The instructor decided to use Structured Problem-Solving. She created one handout outlining a problem-solving strategy for analyzing biochemical and physiological processes and another containing a series of medical case studies. She then divided the students into work groups of five to six students each and gave them both handouts. Student groups worked together to analyze the case studies to identify the processes involved. Variations and Extensions

• Structure a multilayer discovery task in which you provide the students with data, a variation called Discovery Learning (Bruner, 1966) or Discovery Method (Millis & Cottell, 1993). Students identify problems, generate hypotheses, test hypotheses, and apply conclusions to new situations. This method provides a framework so that groups working faster than others can delve more deeply into the problem. • Have students write responses to the What do you know? What do you need to know? and Where can you find out? steps so that they do not lose track of their logic. • Using CoLT 22: Sequence Chains, have students make a flow chart with the steps as they develop the plan to solve the problem. • Angelo and Cross (1993, pp. 213–230) offer several techniques for assessing problem-solving skills. Depending on what aspect or stage in Structured Problem-Solving will be assessed, consider one of the following variations: • CAT 19: Problem Recognition Tasks asks students to review examples of different kinds of problems and then identify the particular type of problem each example represents. This helps

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students to determine which kinds of problems are best solved by which methods. • CAT 20: What’s the Principle? focuses on the second step in problem-solving: it asks students to decide what principle or principles to apply to solve the problem. • CAT 21: Documented Problem Solutions asks students to keep track of the steps they take in solving a problem. This helps teachers to assess how students solve problems and how well students understand and can describe their problem-solving methods. • CAT 22: Audio- and Videotaped Protocols asks students to record their talking and working through the process of solving a problem. Although time-consuming and complicated, this technique can provide a wealth of useful information to teacher and students alike. Observations and Advice

• This CoLT can be an effective way to introduce new students to the problem-solving process within the structure of a disciplinary context. Students will be able to adapt and reapply these processes to new situations as well as carry problem-solving structures between and among disciplines. • By explicitly guiding students through the problem-solving steps, this activity also helps students to develop discipline-specific metacognitive skills. Students are required to step back and observe their own thinking processes and hence become more aware of how they solve problems. • Advise students that during the initial stages of brainstorming possible solutions they should allow creativity to flow by not evaluating, judging, or criticizing proposed solutions. • Written documents or audio- or videotapes that record group problem-solving processes provide teachers with an artifact for assessing and grading this CoLT.

Primary Resources

Millis, B. J., & Cottell, P. G. (1998). Cooperative learning for higher education faculty. American Council on Education, Series on Higher Education. Phoenix, AZ: Oryx Press, pp. 95–101–103. Bruner, J. (1966). Toward a theory of instruction. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

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17

Analytic Teams Characteristics Group Size

4–5

Time on Task

15–45 MINUTES

Duration of Groups

SINGLE SESSION

Description and Purpose

In Analytic Teams, team members assume roles and specific tasks to perform when critically reading an assignment, listening to a lecture, or watching a video. Roles such as summarizer, connector (relating the assignment to previous knowledge or to the outside world), proponent, and critic focus on the analytic process rather than the group process (which entails roles such as facilitator, timekeeper, and recorder). This technique is useful for helping students understand the different activities that constitute a critical analysis. It can be particularly effective when the teacher assigns roles that exist within the norms of the discipline. By dividing the process into parts and assigning them to individuals, students are able to focus on learning and performing one aspect at a time, thus preparing students for more complex problem-solving assignments in which they must assume multiple roles. Listening to a lecture, watching a video, or reading an assignment can be passive activities. Forming teams in which each member is assigned a distinct task to perform may increase engagement because each student can say, “My job is to be a critic” (or, e.g., to think of questions or to look for examples). Assigned roles can increase participation among all members and equalize participation between active and less active contributors.

Preparation

Select an assignment that requires use of a complex analytical process, and break the process down into component parts or roles. Although there are a variety of roles from which to choose depending on the specific analytic process and learning goals, the following examples can be applied to several kinds of assignments:

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Proponents

List the points you agreed with and state why.

Critics

List the points you disagreed with or found unhelpful and state why.

Example Givers

Give examples of key concepts presented.

Summarizers

Prepare a summary of the most important points.

Questioners

Prepare a list of substantive questions about the material.

To ensure that the assignment is appropriate for team analysis, take the time in advance to determine whether you could perform each of the assigned roles and that each role has a sufficiently challenging task. Procedure

1. Form student groups of four or five, assigning each individual in the team a specific role and job assignment. 2. Present the lecture, show the video, or assign the reading. 3. Give teams class time for individual members to share their findings and to work together to prepare to present their analyses in oral or written presentations. 4. Consider a closure strategy that emphasizes roles and component tasks. Having students stand up and share would be particularly appropriate for a fairly short activity, whereas a panel or poster session would be fitting for more complex assignments.

Online Implementation: Analytic Teams Timing: Synchronous or asynchronous Tools: LMS, instant messaging (IM), microblogs Students often lack effective online communication skills, and Analytic Teams can help them by identifying appropriate types of responses they can use. By giving them jobs to do in a conversation, shy students may be more likely to participate. However, this CoLT can feel overly artificial in an online environment, particularly if used often. Consider using sparingly in online courses, or alternatively ensure that the roles are authentic to the task. To implement this CoLT online, use a discussion forum. Form student groups, create a separate forum for each group with the posted prompt, assign individual roles, and have students respond

to the prompt from their respective roles. Consider having groups write a team analysis that presents their findings to be posted in a whole-class threaded discussion, or create a webpage for group viewing. Alternatively, have students interact synchronously in an IM session while assuming their specific roles or use a microblog such as Twitter or Tumblr where students take on different roles to comment on a topic or issue. Finally, you might consider providing students with group management tools like Wiggio (http://wiggio.com/) or Stormboard (https://www .stormboard.com/). Give students the option to post their findings online using tools such as Storify, Dropr (http://dropr.com/), Slideshare, Pinterest, Learnist, or Brainshark (http://www.brainshark.com).

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Examples

General Biology (Traditional Onsite) Professor Jenn Ettics wanted to help students think critically about the connections between biology and sociology, so she employed the Analytic Teams method. For each unit, she identified a particular topic and located three to five articles addressing the topic from different perspectives. For example, for a unit on development and reproduction, Professor Ettics gave students a collection of articles describing new technology that made it possible for doctors to save babies born sixteen weeks prematurely. She explained to students that babies born this early weighed about one pound and faced months in an intensive-care nursery at the cost of hundreds of thousands of dollars per infant. The articles came from a variety of sources (including religious, medical, and insurance organizations) and represented a range of viewpoints. Professor Ettics formed groups of four and assigned each student a specific analytic role while reading the articles. Each student was responsible for looking for errors in one of four categories: Perspective: Unwarranted assumptions, an either/or outlook, absolutism, relativism, and bias Procedure: Considerations of evidence, double standard, hasty conclusions, overgeneralization, stereotyping, and oversimplification Expression: Contradiction, arguing in a circle, meaningless statements, mistaken authority, false analogy, and irrational appeals Reaction: Changing the subject, shifting the burden of proof, creating a straw man, and attacking the critic During class, teams met for thirty minutes to discuss their analysis. Professor Ettics believed that using Analytic Teams helped students to read the articles critically and on multiple levels, laying the groundwork for a rich follow-up whole-class discussion. Team members rotated roles with each new set of readings. •

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Organizational Theory (Flipped Course) The professor of this graduate-level seminar had several online modules designated for introducing different decision-making models: rational choice, incremental bargaining, bounded rationality, and means-end hierarchy. He wanted students to be able to understand these models more fully, however,

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so he used Analytic Teams in class. He divided students into teams of four and gave each student a different model. He then handed out a case study detailing a complex situation that required a decision. He told students they were to serve in the role of consultants to the organization in the case. He asked each student to present his or her decision-making model, to describe how it might be applied to the case, and to suggest a solution based on the model. He asked students to argue for their models and to choose which model they would adopt to guide their own decision-making process. They then presented a rationale for why it was the best choice. •

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History of the Americas (Online Course) In this online class, Professor A. Joe Vexploration wanted students to understand different stakeholders’ perspectives on the European conquest of the Americas. He did not believe that he could achieve this effectively through narrative text alone, so he decided to assign students to watch the classic film The Mission. Professor Vexploration knew that because the film was readily available at most local libraries and at video retail and rental stores all of his online students would have access to it regardless of geographical location. The film, based on historical events that occurred in the borderlands of present-day Argentina, Paraguay, and Brazil around 1750, depicts the conflicts between the Spanish and Portuguese governments, the Roman Catholic Church, and the indigenous Guarani Indians. Based on his experience showing the film to students in his own campus classes, Professor Vexploration knew that the film engaged students on the dramatic level. But he wanted to deepen the learning by helping students to view the film more critically. He decided to structure the experience by creating Analytic Teams. He organized students into groups of five and created specific critical roles with assigned tasks: Visual analysts focused on how the film’s director used camera angles, European and Indian clothing, physical settings, and props to underscore the contrast in cultural views and social status. Music analysts paid special attention to how Enrico Morricone’s film score heightened viewers’ perception of the culture clash between the indigenous and European traditions and the tensions between the sacred and secular. Character analysts concentrated on how individuals within the drama changed throughout the film and how the changes mirrored changes in the relationships between Spain, Portugal, the Guarani, and the Roman Catholic Church.

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Historical researchers investigated the accuracy of the film’s representation of the conflicts and also provided additional historical context. Connectors looked for similarities between the film’s South American circumstances and the situation in North America and also connected the historical events to contemporary cultural and political events.

Each team was given a private discussion board to talk about the film in general and the specific findings of each task member. By a specific date, each team was required to send to Professor Vexploration its comprehensive analysis of the film. The professor read the reports, collated the important points, added points that students had missed, and posted his synthesis along with team reports for general class viewing. Variations and Extensions

• Assign the different roles to teams instead of individuals. • Give each group a different assignment to critique that is related to the same issue. The follow-up whole-class discussion will be particularly engaging if students read critiques that represent different sides of the issue. • Extend this activity for more than one class session. For example, teams can read an entire book with individuals rotating roles such as summarizer, character analyst, and question developer every chapter.

Observations and Advice

• The most challenging aspect in preparing for this technique is selecting an assignment complex enough to yield a useful analysis when divided into component tasks. If the task is not sufficiently complex, one or more of the individual team members will be bored or unable to participate fully. • Giving students structured roles can help them develop and expand their repertoire of analytic thought patterns. • To reduce the amount of time required for this activity in class, have the actual listening, viewing, or reading take place out of class. • One of the significant challenges of this CoLT is determining how to follow up on the group work in a way that will help students meaningfully synthesize the various information and opinions they have heard. Consider one of the closure strategies described in Chapter Six. • Students typically prefer some roles to others. They may even resist being assigned certain roles and request that they be assigned roles with which they have already developed both comfort and skill. Yet it is important that students develop their abilities in multiple roles.

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• To encourage students to develop their abilities and to move out of their comfort zone, consider adapting and implementing Self-Assessment of Ways of Learning (CAT 36, Angelo & Cross, 1993, pp. 295–299). In its original form, this CAT prompts students to describe their general approaches to learning, or their learning styles, by comparing themselves with different profiles and selecting the profiles that most closely resemble their own. It requires that faculty adopt specific theoretical frameworks describing learning styles and use this as the basis for creating their learning profiles. To modify this CAT to suit the needs of Analytic Teams, replace profiles of learning styles with profiles of analytic process roles. Each profile can consist of brief descriptions of the kinds of skills each role requires. Create two or three questions that will assess students’ affinity for the various roles, and ask each student to answer these questions for themselves. Awareness and class discussion of this may also motivate students to stretch and increase their analytical skills by working to develop their abilities in less comfortable or more challenging roles. Primary Resources

Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R., & Smith, K. (1998). Active learning: Cooperation in the college classroom. Edina, MN: Interaction Book Company, p. 3:23.

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18

Group Investigation Characteristics

Description and Purpose

Group Size

2–5

Time on Task

SEVERAL HOURS

Duration of Groups

MULTIPLE TO ALL TERM

Online Transferability

MODERATE

In Group Investigation, student teams plan, conduct, and report on in-depth research projects. These projects provide opportunities for students to study a topic intensely and gain specialized knowledge about a specific area. Allowing students to select topics of special significance to them, to form interest groups, and to carry out their own research can be very motivating. This CoLT also helps students recognize that research does not always follow the same series of steps but instead is context dependent. Students learn that good research is a logical, well-organized endeavor that differs from one discipline to another, from one project to another and even from one researcher to another. When students complete a Group Investigation, they enhance their understanding of the importance of discovery. When they participate in peer and teacher review of their projects, they gain practical experience both giving and receiving constructive criticism. Finally, because in conducting the investigation the group follows a series of steps and is working within a specific time frame, it discourages the plagiarism sometimes associated with the conventional term-paper assignment.

Preparation

Prepare for this CoLT as you would for assigning a term paper. Decide what parameters you want to establish in terms of topic choices. Decide what kinds of resources you will accept: popular and scholarly sources? Information retrieved online as well as from library books and periodicals? Interviews with experts? Select the methods for students to report their findings. For example, some teachers allow students to choose whether they will construct a model, act out a skit, give a presentation, create a video, build a webpage, and so forth. Other teachers specify the reporting method.

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Also, decide whether you want to assign individual group process or task roles or allow students to determine and distribute roles themselves. Procedure

1. Have students brainstorm potential topics that fit within your parameters. 2. Select the topics for investigation from the list that students have generated. You can make these choices, or you can have students participate in the selection. One method is to type out or write on the whiteboard all of the potential choices and then ask individuals to vote for their top three choices. 3. Form teams based on topic interest. 4. Give teams time to organize their efforts such as preparing a prospectus in which they formulate their research questions, identify goals and the resources they will need to carry out their investigation, choose their methods of investigation, and divide up and assign the tasks. 5. Ask groups to begin their investigation, gathering information, reviewing it, deciding whether more information is needed, and analyzing and interpreting the information. 6. Have groups prepare their final report.

Online Implementation: Group Investigation Timing: Asynchronous Tool: LMS Given our increasingly global workplace, it is possible, if not likely, that students will at some point have to engage in a complex group activity online. Group Investigation provides them with an opportunity for practice. Students may not come with adequate skills. This is a particularly complex activity that must be highly structured to be successful with online students. To implement online, use a discussion forum. Form groups and assign each group its own threaded discussion area so that members can communicate aspects of the investigation privately. Break down the research process into its various parts and outline tasks so that each student is clear on his or her responsibilities. Establish a time frame with clear deadlines. Have final text reports or webpages posted in a public forum for all members of the

class to view. For closure, create an assignment that requires all students to view the various reports and, for example, to answer specific content questions or compare and evaluate the investigation results. Alternatively, consider a tool such as Wikispaces (http://www.wikispaces.com), which provides structure for complex projects as well as assessment tools. Instructors may want to provide students with free and easy online project management tools such as Basecamp (http://www.basecamp.com; includes features such as to-do lists, file sharing, message boards, milestones, time tracking, project overviews, and commenting.), wiki site 14Dayz (http://www.14dayz.com; a time-tracking program specifically for teams that features day-by-day time sheets, exportable reports in both PDF and Excel formats, and drag-and-drop categories), or Trello (https://trello.com/tour) or CoMindWork (http://www.comindwork.com/).

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Examples

Introduction to Research Methods (Traditional Onsite) In her English course on argument, critical reading, research, and documentation, Professor Clara Fie decided to use Group Investigation. She explained to students that the purpose of the assignment was for teams to identify a policy problem and suggest a solution. This solution was to be a specific action or set of actions that the intended audience was capable of carrying out. Goals for teams included convincing an audience that there was a problem, getting the audience to agree that the proposed solution was the most effective means of solving the problem, and motivating the audience to implement the solution. Professor Fie formed teams and had students participate in CoLT 2: Round Robin to brainstorm ideas for problems. Each team then chose the one problem it wished to investigate. Teams investigated their problem and worked together to collect resources and develop a solution. Each team made a formal presentation to the class using whatever visual aids it felt would strengthen its proposal and also distributed an annotated bibliography of all the resources it had used. Teams provided students in the audience the chance to ask questions and to complete a brief peer evaluation form ranking various aspects of the group’s presentation. •

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Plant Biology (Flipped Classroom) Professor Phil O’Dendron, a technology whiz with a series of fascinating websites and online videos and quizzes about plant biology, wanted to use class time to have students investigate a contemporary issue related to plants, people, and the local environment. He decided to use Group Investigation in lieu of a traditional term paper and gave students several possible general topic areas from which to choose, including invasive weeds in California, fire management in California forests, pesticides in California agriculture, organic farming in California, laws protecting rare and endangered plant species, and native Californians’ access to traditionally used plants. Students communicated via e-mail to identify others with similar interests and schedules. They formed groups of three or four people and informed the instructor of their group’s membership. Groups worked together to focus their topic, identify goals, create an investigation plan, and determine the division of labor. They submitted an outline of their project to Professor O’Dendron and the teaching assistant for review and feedback. Groups determined references (including articles, books, and local experts) and then worked together to conduct the research. Individual team members were required to submit interim progress reports to the group leader, professor, and teaching assistant. Each group wrote a formal final report

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and gave a brief oral presentation of its investigation during the last week of classes. •

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Music of Multicultural America (Online Course) This online course was a comparative and integrative study of the multicultural music styles of the United States. It traced the development of uniquely American music genres such as blues, jazz, Cajun, Zydeco, Tejano, salsa, Anglo folk music, and hip-hop from their historical roots to their influence on contemporary American music. The professor was finding it increasingly challenging to keep informed about current music but wanted students to be able to recognize the influence of these historical genres in the popular music to which they listened. She also wanted students to understand how their favorite musicians’ individual styles had been shaped by the social, historical, racial, and ethnic context, in which they had grown up. To accomplish this, she decided to implement term-length Group Investigation projects. She worked with students to identify several popular musicians who had clear roots in ethnic music traditions. Students signed up for membership in the team assigned to investigate each artist or proposed an artist of their own and formed their own team. The Group Investigation project was a webpage portrait that would be part of the course’s online performing artists portrait gallery. The investigation needed to contain the following components: • Visual representation: A visual identity such as a copyright-free photo, a student drawing, or a photo that had been manipulated by the students to a significant enough level to constitute fair use. (She provided them with a good list of sources to find free photos at http://moocnewsandreviews.com/fifteenfantastic-sources-for-free-art-and-images-for-your-mooc-projects/) • Biography: A narrative section that addressed both the social/historical context in which the artist grew up, artist-specific information including ethnic/racial roots, the styles and artists that had influenced them, and their influence on subsequent artists. • Discography: An annotated list of recordings. • Music Examples: Three representative listening excerpts that had been recorded onto a CD and converted to MP3 for delivery on the Web. • Liner notes: Analysis of listening examples for structural components (e.g., rhythm, melody, harmony), genre or genre influences (e.g., blues, jazz, gospel, folk), and ethnic influences (e.g., Latin clave rhythms, African melodic ornamentation).

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• Lyrics: The lyrics and the team’s interpretation of the lyrics. • Personal significance: Each individual team member’s explanation of why the artist and music examples had been chosen. • Web search: Three to five websites that provide additional information on the artist, genre, or social context. The Group Investigation project engaged students, provided a framework for bringing together several aspects of the course, helped to keep the professor informed of current styles, and made a significant contribution to the learning repository for the class because the gallery was cumulative, with new artists added each term. Variations and Extensions

• Consider using CoLT 2: Round Robin to structure a collaborative activity in which students brainstorm ideas for investigation topics. • Keep the reporting out engaging by asking students to be creative in the way that they present their findings. For example, suggest that students use animation, videotapes, simulations, and role-plays as alternatives to traditional lecture presentations or written reports. • Consider creating a knowledge repository containing the results of consecutive terms’ students. Written reports can be collected and placed in binders. Webpages can be housed in a single location.

Observations and Advice

Davis (1993, pp. 219–221) offers some additional suggestions for assigning research papers that, with minor adaptation, also apply to Group Investigations: • Clarify what skills you expect students to develop. For example, do you want students to gain experience using the library and finding and retrieving information online? In locating and evaluating information to support a thesis? In synthesizing disparate material? • Check with your library to make sure it can support your research requirements. • Invite a librarian to make a presentation to your students on library skills, resources, and online search strategies. • Do not send an entire class in search of the same information. If certain sources are applicable to all projects, consider putting these materials on reserve or duplicating them and making them available to students for purchase.

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• Break the assignment into manageable chunks. Establish interim due dates to help teams structure the investigation process and learn from each step. The following critical points can have deadlines: 1. Identifying a topic 2. Preparing a prospectus that states the investigation’s title, purpose, intended audience, major points, and a schedule of group and individual tasks 3. Gathering sources, data, references 4. Developing an outline 5. Planning the presentation (e.g., skit, model, paper) 6. Revising the final report or presentation • It is important to keep track of group progress during this activity. Use the steps suggested in the preparation for this CoLT to establish deadlines and request interim progress reports. This will help groups pace themselves so that they are successful and don’t feel overwhelmed. It will also give you a chance to provide feedback so that students can adjust their investigations and revise their work if it is needed. • If your schedule permits, you can meet with each team (or a team spokesperson) to check on progress, discover and discourage any potential plagiarism or academic dishonesty, and provide encouragement, guidance, and advice. • Give students time in class for teams to discuss, plan, and implement their investigations. If all of the work is done out of class, students will see it as an add-on and not as an integral and essential part of the course. • Upon completion of the investigation and report, provide time so that each team may present its findings to the other teams. Rotating Trios (see Chapter Six) is an interesting technique for having multiple teams report out.

Primary Resources

Sharan, S., & Hertz-Lazarowitz, R. (1980). A group investigation method of cooperative learning in the classroom. In S. Sharan et al. (Eds.), Cooperation in education. Provo, UT: Brigham Young University Press, pp.14–46. Sharan, Y., & Sharan, S. (1994). Group investigation in the cooperative classroom. In S. Sharan (Ed.), Handbook of cooperative learning. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, pp. 97–114.

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Chapter 12

Techniques Using Graphic Information Organizers The idea that a picture is worth a thousand words underlies graphic organizers. These powerful tools convert complex information into meaningful displays. Because information can be arranged spatially, graphic organizers can help students discover the patterns and relationships among ideas that are sometimes impossible to convey in text alone. Because they can show the interrelationships among parts as well as the relationship of the parts to the whole, they help students view information on both holistic and detailed levels. Because they can compress and focus information, they can make interpretation, understanding, and insight easier. Finally, because graphic organizers use single words or short phrases and combine these with an illustration or diagram, they are ideal for many types of learners, including visual learners and those with limited English proficiency (Kim, Vaughn, Wanzek, & Wei, 2004; McKenzie, 1997; Novak & Cañas, 2008). Graphic organizers are flexible tools that can be used for many different instructional purposes. They can provide a focusing framework for gathering and sorting ideas for discussion, writing, or research. Graphic organizers can show different aspects of a concept and can reveal what information is known and highlight what is still missing. Graphic organizers can serve as study guides, providing structures that help students to summarize text or to sort and remember key facts and ideas. They can also be used for assessment and grading, efficiently displaying the order and completeness of an individual’s or group’s thought processes and the strengths and weaknesses of their understanding. The five collaborative learning techniques (CoLTs) in this section all use a graphic to organize information, but each technique is especially well suited to a specific conceptual task. Affinity Grouping is particularly useful for classifying ideas that have been generated in a brainstorming session. Group Grid and Team Matrix help to compare, contrast, and differentiate

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between closely related ideas. Sequence Chains focus on series of items or events. Word Webs—the group equivalent of an individually created Concept Map—can be simple or complex and may be best used to uncover and display composite, multifaceted relationships. The five Graphic CoLTs in this chapter are summarized in Exhibit 12.1.

EXHIBIT 12.1

Graphic Organizing CoLTs This CoLT …

… is a technique in which students:

19 Affinity Grouping

generate ideas, identify common themes, and then sort and organize the ideas accordingly. 20 Group Grid are given pieces of information and asked to place them in the blank cells of a grid according to category rubrics. 21 Team Matrix discriminate between similar concepts by noticing and marking on a chart the presence or absence of important, defining features. 22 Sequence analyze and depict graphically a series of Chains events, actions, roles, or decisions.

23 Word Webs

generate a list of related ideas and then organize them in a graphic, identifying relationships by drawing lines or arrows to represent the connections.

It is particularly useful for helping students: unpack a complicated topic and identify and classify its constituent parts. clarify conceptual categories and develop sorting skills. distinguish between closely related concepts.

understand processes, cause and effect, and chronological series, and organize information in an orderly, coherent progression. figure out and represent relationships. Like maps, they can show both the destination and the sites and sights along the way.

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19

Affinity Grouping Characteristics Group Size

3–5

Time on Task

30–45 MINUTES

Duration of Groups

SINGLE SESSION

Description and Purpose

Students individually generate ideas about a topic and write each item on a slip of paper. Groups sort and organize the slips into categories as they identify common themes. Affinity Grouping can help students unpack a complicated issue and build groupings from the separate pieces. Because students identify clusters of ideas and information shared by several people, this CoLT can help build group consensus.

Preparation

Think of a complex topic for students to explore. Do your own brainstorming to make sure the topic stimulates a sufficient number of ideas that can be organized into clusters. Identify an area where all groups of students have a flat surface with ample room to move slips of paper around: the whiteboard or wall space with taped-up flip chart paper works well for sticky notes; large tables can be used for slips of paper or index cards.

Procedure

1. Distribute enough 3 x 5 cards, slips of paper, or sticky notes so that each student can have several slips for brainstorming ideas. 2. State the category, issue, or problem to be explored and provide a time limit for the activity. 3. Organize the students into groups, but then ask each student to separately and silently brainstorm ideas, writing one idea per slip of paper. 4. When time is up, ask one team member to collect the cards or sticky notes, mix them up, and spread them out (or stick them) on a flat surface. 5. Instruct the teams to discuss and arrange the cards or sticky notes into related groups.

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6. Have students create a title or heading for each grouping that best describes the theme of each group of items.

Online Implementation: Affinity Grouping Timing: Asynchronous or synchronous Tool: LMS, pinboards, corkboards Affinity Grouping online provides students with a unique environment for brainstorming and capturing ideas. These are useful skills that will potentially serve students in many different ways throughout their lives. Students may have to learn new tools to complete this activity, as the necessary tools are not typically part of a learning management system (LMS). Choose the most user-friendly tool for the job, and use the technique more than once so that students have the opportunity to try it again without having to learn the technology. Consider using this technique online informally before using it as part of a graded assignment. For online Affinity Grouping, use pinboards such as Padlet (http://www.padlet.com) or Corkboard

(http://www.corkboard.it). Ask students to brainstorm on virtual sticky notes. Then ask groups to work together to organize the information, whether they do so synchronously at a previously agreed upon time or asynchronously, going to the space as individuals and making changes as their schedules allow. Or consider using DebateGraph (http://debategraph.org), another tool for students to share ideas and how the ideas relate to one another. Finally, depending upon the specific task, consider other online graphic organization tools such as Inspiration (http://www.inspiration.com), Creately (http://creately.com/), Mindomo (http: //www.mindomo.com/), exploratree (http://www .exploratree.org.uk/), or MindMeister (http://www .mindmeister.com/).

Examples

Orientation to Environmental Horticulture (Traditional Onsite) Professor Rhoda Dendron wanted to introduce students to the terminology used in the identification of plants. She formed groups and had students brainstorm lists of terms and ideas, and then she had groups organize the lists into categories. Groups came up with categories such as families of plants, characteristics of plants, habits of growth, and environmental requirements. The activity helped students develop a conceptual framework for starting to learn plant identification and taxonomy. •

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English Literature (Traditional Onsite) A professor teaching a composition course used Affinity Grouping to help students brainstorm and organize ideas for an upcoming writing assignment. All students were to write an essay responding to a work of literature, in this case Kate Chopin’s The Awakening. The professor asked students to form groups of five to six and individually brainstorm ideas about significant changes in the

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novel’s characters, conflicts between characters, and major developments in the plot and write each idea down on a separate slip of paper. She then asked three students from each group to sort the ideas into categories while others watched and eventually made suggestions. When students had completed the sorting step, she asked teams to create identifying phrases for each group of ideas. The phrases describing the categories of ideas fell naturally into the themes of the novel, such as the need for individual freedom, women’s roles in the nineteenth century, and the development of personal identity. As each team reported out their categories with a few examples of supporting ideas, she wrote their thoughts on the whiteboard and used this as the basis for a discussion on what constituted the novel’s various themes. By participating in this activity, she believed students were able to identify, explore, and select themes for their individual writing assignment. •

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Research Methods (Flipped Classroom) Professor Anna Littical taught an educational research course. She delivered much of the course content by way of online videos. She knew that most students understood general research design and data collection techniques but noticed, however, that many of them had difficulty with coding and analyzing qualitative data, no matter how good she felt her video lectures were. She decided to use Affinity Grouping to give students hands-on experience with coding qualitative data. She organized individuals into student teams and gave each individual a transcript of a recent interview with students regarding successful completion of the dissertation. She asked students individually to read through the transcripts, writing on sticky notes as many themes as they saw, one theme per note. Teams then worked together to sort the notes into categories and identify a category name. Professor Littical asked teams to write rules for what should be included or excluded in each of the categories and to develop category codes. When teams had finished the activity, she used their categories and rules as the basis for a whole-class discussion on the challenges to coding qualitative data. •

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Strategic Leadership (Online Course) A business professor teaching an online course on leadership decided to use Affinity Grouping. While he normally taught the class through an LMS, he decided to ask students to use a pinboard. He first had students brainstorm a list of qualities of an effective leader, using adjectives for the descriptors. He

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next asked teams to compile a composite list in a pinboard and to take turns moving the sticky notes around until the group came to a consensus. Variations and Extensions

• This CoLT can be especially effective when groups have a complex decision to make, such as determining a topic to research as a group, and are experiencing difficulty reaching consensus. Have students brainstorm ideas for the topic, write them on the slips of paper, and then sort them into categories. Then use a decision-making strategy, such as one described in Chapter Six, to select the final topic. • If there are multiple teams, have them review each other’s categories; sometimes a fresh eye can bring clarity. • Have only a few of the team members—instead of the whole group—arrange the cards or sticky notes into related groups while other team members observe without commenting. When they are finished, ask other team members to review the groups and make suggestions for any reorganization. • Extend this CoLT by using it as preparation for another CoLT, such as Group Investigation or Paper Seminar.

Observations and Advice

• Students will likely want to include multiple ideas on the pieces of paper. They need to limit their ideas to one per slip, but they need to include enough information so that the idea is understandable. Ask them to describe ideas with only a few words or short phrases. • Sorting is a complicated task. This phase should not begin until all team members are ready. • Teams may struggle with categories. The categories should generally be mutually exclusive. However, if an idea fits in more than one category or group and the group cannot reach consensus about placement, suggest that they make a separate card for each category. • Depending on the purpose for having students generate and organize ideas, consider moving to whole-class discussion with team spokespersons explaining their group’s categories of ideas, or have students wander around to view other teams’ efforts. • Teachers often use Affinity Grouping to generate and organize a large number of ideas that they then want students to prioritize. One strategy to help students reach consensus is to give each student three slips of five or so different-colored label dots and explain a color-coded system

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for prioritization of ideas (e.g., red highest priority; blue medium priority; yellow low priority). All students can wander among posted groupings and put a dot next to the item that reflects their personal assessment of its value. Primary Resources

Brassard, M. (1989). The memory jogger II. Methuen, MA: Goal/QPC, p. 12. King, R. (1989). Hoshin planning: The developmental approach. Methuen, MA: Goal/QPC, pp. 4–2–4–5.

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Collaborative Learning Technique

20

Group Grid

Description and Purpose

Group Size

2–4

Time on Task

15–45 MINUTES

Duration of Groups

SINGLE SESSION

This CoLT is probably most useful in introductory-level courses where students are building basic schema, learning a large number of new terms, and trying to understand the categorization rules of the discipline. Organizing and classifying information helps students to clarify conceptual categories and to develop categorization skills. By making students’ conceptual organization explicit and graphic, Group Grid also helps students remember the information. In this activity, students sort pieces of information by placing them in the blank cells of a grid. The grid’s columns and rows consist of superordinate concepts, and student groups receive scrambled lists of subordinate terms, names, equations, images, or other items that belong in the categories. Teams sort the subordinate items into the correct grid categories.

Preparation

Select two or more related categories that organize course information. The simplest grid sorts information into two or three columns. More complex grids have more columns, or they may contain a second level of sorting where the top horizontal row identifies one level of organization and the far left vertical column identifies another level of organization. The item placed at the point of intersection must meet both column and row classification criteria. Write out a list of items that belong in each category. Make a grid by drawing a large rectangle and dividing it into as many smaller rectangles as you have categories and items of information. Write the name of the categories in the top row or left column, leaving the remaining cells blank. List items that teams are to sort either in a scrambled list on the side of the grid or on a separate piece of paper, a presentation slide, or whiteboard. Check to make sure you can fill out the grid yourself. You

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may use your grid to evaluate students’ grids or to have students check the accuracy of their grids. Procedure

1. Form groups and distribute the blank grid as a handout, or have students copy it from a presentation slide that you project on or from the whiteboard. 2. Give students the list of scrambled items of information. 3. Have students fill in the blank cells of the grid. Groups can discuss and come to consensus about how the items should be sorted, and fill out the grid as a group project. Or individual students can fill in one cell at a time via round robin. Each person within the group, or each pair within a quad, can have his or her own writing style (cursive vs. printing) or colored markers to distinguish contributions. 4. Students submit completed grids for assessment and evaluation, or you post a correctly completed grid for them to check for accuracy.

Online Implementation: Group Grid Timing: Synchronous or asynchronous Tools: LMS or Web conferencing The Web has unique capabilities for displaying information, and thus Group Grids may be done creatively online. The challenge of this technique online is to give students the sense that they are actually collaborating, as opposed to working separately and at times against each other. Consider conducting a synchronous session if possible. If not possible, use asynchronous, but ask students to articulate rationales for their contributions. To implement this technique online, use documents or wiki. Give students blank grids in a

shared documents environment. Either have each individual member of a group complete a grid to compare with his or her teammates and reach consensus on a single grid, or assign each individual member responsibility for specific columns or rows. Completed grids can be uploaded as webpages into forums that can be viewed by other students. Alternatively, use whiteboards. Write a grid on the board in the videoconferencing session, and allow students to access the board, one at a time, to complete the grid.

Examples

Introduction to Art (Traditional Onsite) Professor Allie Gorical taught an introductory-level art appreciation course that was a survey of the major visual arts from the ancient world to the present day. The list of artist and artwork names was extensive, and students had traditionally felt overwhelmed trying to understand and remember who and what went where. Professor Gorical decided to use Group Grid as a technique

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to help students sort and remember the information. The course focused on four time frameworks: the Ancient World, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, and the Modern World. As a closing activity for each section of the course, she divided students into groups of four and gave each group a handout containing a blank grid and each individual student a scrambled list of the most important artworks of that period. For example, for the Middle Ages, she gave students a list of fifty terms such as the Utrecht Psalter, the Gero Crucifix, and the Bayeaux Tapestry and asked them to write the terms into a larger version of the following grid: The Middle Ages Two-Dimensional

Three-Dimensional

(e.g., Painting,

(e.g., Sculpture,

Mosaic, Tapestry)

Bas Relief)

Architecture

Early Medieval Romanesque Gothic

After sufficient time had passed for teams to fill in the grids, she projected her own completed grid onto a screen so that groups could check their own for accuracy. The grids were one of several tools students used as study guides for examinations. •

•

•

Physical Anthropology (Traditional Onsite) This professor used Group Grid periodically throughout the semester to help students organize critical units of information. For example, he wanted them to be able to distinguish between important anthropological finds of Homo erectus fossils in China. He created a grid and across the top row wrote five categories of characteristics: the name of the site where the fossil was found, the estimated age of the fossil, the material of the fossil, the year that it was found, and any comments that further described the fossil. In the left column, he wrote the fossil designation: for example, Hexian, Zhoukoudian, Yunxian, and Lantian. Students formed teams, received a scrambled list of elements of information (e.g., 1980–81 or mandible), and worked together to fill in the grid using the information provided and accessing their notes or text as needed. •

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Principles of Business (Flipped Classroom) Managerial decision-making is one of the key topic areas in this introductory business course taught by Professor Owen Cash. While presenting content through his institution’s LMS, Professor Cash uses mini case studies throughout the term to provide students with real-world scenarios that include problems teams must examine and for which they then propose a solution. To help students organize and evaluate the arguments for different decisions, Professor Cash asks teams to construct and fill out for each course of action a simple, two-column Pro and Con Grid (CAT 10, Angelo & Cross, 1993, pp. 168–171). •

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Developmental Math (Online Course) A math instructor for an online introductory course decided to use a group grid to review prime numbers. He announced teams (assigning each team member a number), created a grid in a Google Doc for each team, and gave all teams the following instructions, telling them they could work at their own paces as long as they completed their assigned tasks by Tuesday. 1

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Instruction: Student 1. Cross off number 1 in the first row by shading in the box with black, because all primes are greater than 1. Student 2. Omitting number 2 in the first row, which is a prime number, cross off the multiples of 2 (the even numbers). Student 3. Omitting number 3 in the first row, which is also a prime number, cross off the multiples of 3.

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Student 4. Omitting number 5 in the first row, which is a prime number, cross of the multiples of 5. Student 5. Omitting number 7 in the first row, which is a prime number, cross off its multiples. He announced that all of the surviving numbers (those colored in white) were prime numbers. He asked students to post ideas about how they could remember the number pattern in the future in a discussion forum. Variations and Extensions

• Provide students with grids that include only the categories and have them generate the items to write in the cells. • Provide students with grids that include only the cell items and ask them to identify category names. • Simple, two-column grids can be very effective using a variety of superordinate categories. Consider using the following: pros and cons, costs and benefits, advantages and disadvantages, problems and solutions, or cause and effect (Angelo & Cross, 1993, pp. 168–171). • Consider having students fill out a two-column Pro and Con Grid from different perspectives. For example, three separate grids can analyze the benefits and detriments of online course delivery from the student’s perspective, the teacher’s perspective, and the institution’s perspective.

Observations and Advice

If the grid is not complex enough in terms of either the categories or the cell items, this activity will feel like busywork. Group Grids are useful to help students prepare for more complex activities. For example, Pro and Con Grids can be used to organize arguments for debates or to evaluate decisions in case studies. Ask students to report out on their grids. Have them make comparisons between their grids, asking them to explain why they sorted the items as they did. Having groups report on their grids gives you immediate information about how clear students are on the organization of concepts. When groups have been given both the categories and a scrambled list of terms to sort, their completed grids are easily scorable.

Primary Resources

Angelo, T. A., & Cross, K. P. (1993). Categorizing grid. In Classroom assessment techniques, 2nd ed. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, pp. 160–163. Moore, D. W., & Readence, J. E. (1984). A quantitative and qualitative review of graphic organizer research. Journal of Educational Research, 78(1), 11–17.

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21

Team Matrix Characteristics

Description and Purpose

Group Size

PAIRS

Time on Task

10–20 MINUTES

Duration of Groups

SINGLE SESSION

In Team Matrix, students discriminate between similar concepts by noticing and marking on a chart the presence or absence of important, defining features. Unlike CoLT 20: Group Grid—which asks students to sort items by set criteria—Team Matrix asks students to differentiate between concepts by determining whether criteria are present or not. This CoLT is useful for tasks in which students mix up shared and uncommon attributes because it requires students to identify and make explicit critical distinctions of closely related concepts. Making the differences evident and graphic on a chart also helps students to understand the distinction.

Preparation

Choose two or three related concepts. Identify and make a list of the elements or the features that differentiate the concepts. Consider also making a list of the features that both concepts possess and that perhaps contribute to students’ confusion. Create a matrix with the concepts in the top row and either the categories for comparison or the identifying features in the left column (or vice versa). Check to make sure you can fill out the matrix yourself so that you can uncover and correct any problems. Create a blank matrix for students to fill in as groups.

Procedure

1. Form pairs and distribute the blank matrix as a handout, have students copy it from a presentations slide, or draw on the whiteboard. 2. If you want to grade completed matrices, ask individual students to select a way to distinguish their contributions, for example, colored markers or writing hand such as cursive, printing, or block. 3. Have partners come to consensus and complete the matrix.

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4. Move to whole-class discussion to compare group matrices with the instructor matrix, or ask partners to submit completed matrices for evaluation.

Online Implementation: Team Matrix Timing: Synchronous or asynchronous Tools: LMS or open This technique online allows students the opportunity to work with new online tools for organizing information. Like with Group Grids, the challenge of this technique online is to give students the sense that they are actually collaborating as opposed to working separately and at times against each other.

Consider conducting a synchronous session if possible. If not, use asynchronous but ask students to articulate rationales for their contributions. To implement this technique, use a whiteboard. Have students work in tandem with team members to complete it. Alternatively, use documents or a wiki. Consider giving the blank matrix to students in a shared document system. Once individuals or teams fill out the matrix, they can be uploaded to a forum to compare and discuss answers.

Examples

Music of Multicultural America (Traditional Onsite) To assist students who were consistently confusing blues and jazz, Professor Grace Note used a Team Matrix that required students to identify the shared and distinctive features of both genres. She organized students into pairs, gave them a chart listing various features, and asked them to decide whether each feature best described blues, jazz, or both. An excerpt from the matrix follows. •

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Team Matrix Put a checkmark in the column indicating the genre that is most clearly defined by this feature.

Defining Features Originated in urban areas Originated in rural areas Originated in the Mississippi Delta region Merged European and African traditions Developed earlier

Blues

Jazz

Both

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Defining Features

Blues

Jazz

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Both

Represented considerable interaction between Whites and Blacks from beginning Interaction between Whites and Blacks not pronounced until later Basis of rock ‘n’ roll Uses African-based melodic ornamentation and rhythmic traditions Improvisation in melody and in harmonic substitution Improvisation mainly in melody over standard progression Uses 3 main chords in a slow harmonic rhythm Uses many different chords, often fast harmonic rhythm Popular in Europe, especially France Imported back into America by British musicians

When they were finished and she had collected the matrices, she was able to use it to assess students’ level of understanding and to pinpoint topics that were still confusing. •

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School-Age-Child (5–12) Behavior and Development (Traditional Onsite) After students had read assignments and heard lectures, Professor A. B. Sieze used a Team Matrix to help students organize the characteristics, stages, and timing of normal development at various age levels. Later in the course, students observed children at different ages in play settings to better understand development needs and appropriate curriculum design. She formed student pairs and had partners design new matrices based on their original ones to use to record data of physical, social, emotional, intellectual, and language development in the children they observed. •

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Post–World War II Germany (Flipped Classroom) This course explored the historical, political, and cultural developments in Germany from 1945 to the present. While the professor had many interesting video lectures and films about the period that students watched before class, one of his primary goals was to help students develop perspectives on the challenges of constructing a unified German national identity following the existence of the two German states. In class, the professor uses Team Matrix frequently to help students differentiate and analyze the economics, politics, and formulation of policy from the two states’ viewpoints. •

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Masterpieces of World Literature (Online Course) A professor teaching an online introduction to world literature course decided to use a Team Matrix to review a module on great books. She wanted students to categorize a list of books by country and genre. She created the grid with a list of fifty book titles in the first column and Genre and Country across the top row in Google Docs. She organized teams with five members each and asked them to access the grid, to divide their lists into approximately ten books each, and to insert their marks as appropriate. She then asked the students to post to their discussion forums their rationale for their categorization of each book. Variations and Extensions

• Have teams create their own matrices by considering the following questions: What concepts (or items) do you want to compare? What features (or characteristics) do they have? How are the items similar and different based on the characteristics? • Ask teams to draw and fill out a grid using the information from their answers to these questions. • In addition to defining distinctions, include similarities by creating a column titled Both. To make the matrix even more challenging, consider including a Neither column. • Sometimes it is the level or degree of an element that distinguishes one concept from another rather than the presence or absence of a feature. To represent this, consider creating a matrix composed of a series of lines representing continuums, with the labels Low on one end and High on the other. Students place checkmarks or use numbers at relative points on the continuum.

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• Instead of a matrix, consider using the overlapping circles of a Venn diagram and have students write in the features in the appropriate parts of the circles. Observations and Advice

• Team Matrix is an adaptation of Angelo and Cross’s CAT 9: Defining Features Matrix (1993, pp. 164–167). Their examples (p. 165) provide further ideas for simple and effective ways to use this CoLT. For instance, they use a matrix in psychology to distinguish between Freudian and behaviorist views of human psychology and in political science to distinguish between the governments of the United States, Canada, and Germany. • Take time to think through your original matrix carefully. Focus on the concepts that are critical for students to be able to differentiate but with features that often confuse them because of the similarities. • Try to create categories whose interconnectedness is complex enough to require thought to identify. Simple, binary distinctions will feel like busywork. • After the group has completed the matrix and you have evaluated it to ensure that it is correct, suggest to individuals that they copy the matrix to assist them in recalling and understanding the defining features in their own study. • There are several ways you can close this activity. You can project a blank matrix and have students use the one they completed to guide you as you complete the projected one together; you can project your own completed matrix and have students compare and correct their own; or you can have students submit completed matrices to you for assessment and evaluation.

Primary Resources

Angelo, T. A., & Cross, K. P. (1993). Defining features matrix. In Classroom Assessment Techniques, 2nd ed. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, pp. 164–167. Cunningham, P. M., & Cunningham, J. W. (1987). Content area reading—Writing lessons. The Reading Teacher, 40, 506–512.

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Collaborative Learning Technique

22

Sequence Chains Characteristics Group Size

2–3

Time on Task

15–45 MINUTES

Duration of Groups

SINGLE SESSION

Description and Purpose

In this CoLT, groups analyze and depict graphically a sequence of events, actions, roles, or decisions. Sequence Chains require students to create a visual map of the logic within a series. Students identify specific points in a series and then apply knowledge and reasoning to arrange these points in an orderly, coherent progression Thus, this CoLT may help and promote logical, sequential thinking. It also produces a graphic that can be useful for remembering as well as for planning. Sequence Chains are perhaps best used in courses that require students to organize information to emphasize continuity or connections.

Preparation

Choose what students should organize into a sequence or series. Decide whether or not students will generate the items to be organized or whether you will provide them with a scrambled list of items. Decide as well whether or not students will do any additional work with the sequence such as explain the connection between the items in the series. Create a sample Sequence Chain to uncover potential problems and to have a model against which to compare student work.

Procedure

1. Organize students into groups, set a time limit, and either provide students with a scrambled list of items or have them generate their own list of items. 2. Ask students to work together to arrange the items into a sequence. If students will do an additional activity with the sequence such as explaining the relationship between items, give them directions and clarify your expectations.

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3. Close this activity with a group discussion, asking teams to use their Sequence Chain as the basis for helping you create a class-generated one. Alternatively, have students draw their sequences on flip-chart paper and then post these around the room and have students wander around to look at other teams’ solutions.

Online Implementation: Sequence Chain Timing: Synchronous Tools: Web conferencing or open Many tools available today allow for the creation of visually appealing and interactive timelines, giving sequence chains created online an extra dimension. The challenge of using this technique is getting students to work together on developing a joint product. Set specific rules for participation, such as whether it is to be done synchronously or asynchronously, how much each student should contribute, and ideas for editing.

To implement this technique online, use one of the collaborative mind-mapping tools; the timeline tools in particular will be effective for this approach. Ask students to each take a section of the sequence and complete their portions of the timelines to develop a full sequence chain. Alternatively, many synchronous tools such as video conferencing or instant messaging (IM) sessions that also have whiteboard tools offer one possibility for adaptation.

Examples

History of Western Civilization (Traditional Onsite) Professor Wes T. Ward used Sequence Chains to clarify and reinforce students’ understanding of the chronology of important historical events. Rather than having students simply memorize dates—which tends to strengthen students’ perception of history as a collection of isolated pieces of data—Professor Ward wanted students to understand how historical events unfolded as a complex series of causes and effects. He created a Sequence Chain activity in which teams worked together to organize a group of events in chronological order and then identified the connections. For example, on the unit The Fall of the Western Roman Empire, he pinpointed key events such as the division of Constantine’s empire into western and eastern parts, the Romans attempt to suppress a revolt of the Visigoths at Adrianople, and the Vandals cross into Italy from North Africa. He wrote each of these out on separate 3 x 5 index cards. Each group received a packet of cards, some with events written on them and some left blank. Students worked together first to place the events in sequence. Then they placed blank cards between each event and tried to determine and write on the card how the earlier event might have influenced the later event. When the activity

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was finished, they numbered the cards, placed them in order, and submitted them to the professor for assessment and evaluation. •

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World Regional Geography (Traditional Onsite) One of the fundamental themes in this survey of the world’s major culture regions and nations was the reciprocal interactive relationship between humans and their environment. Professor Al Luvial used Sequence Chains to help students organize both the progression of events and the interconnectedness of people and places through converging processes of geological, cultural, economic, and political change. For example, in studying the region of Oceania, Professor Luvial asked teams to fill in a flow chart on the sequence of events describing how a Pacific high island is created and then transformed into a low island. This sequence was connected to a parallel flow chart, in which he asked students to add information on how these environments produced distinctive settings for human settlement. To this he added a third parallel flow chart and asked students to fill in how changing patterns of settlement in turn affected the island’s ecology. •

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Masterpieces of Nineteenth-Century Russian Literature (Traditional Onsite) To assist students in tracking and understanding the complex developments in Leo Tolstoy’s War and Peace, this professor had students work in small groups to participate in a Sequence Chain. They first brainstormed a list of critical events in the novel and then organized these events sequentially, identifying where possible how one event might have affected a subsequent event. •

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Designing Webpages (Flipped Classroom) In this mini course of a small business management program, the instructor has a regular package of videos and other instructional materials related to designing webpages that students must complete prior to class sessions. The instructor wanted to use class sessions to teach students generally unfamiliar with computers how to create basic commercial webpages using a popular software program. Students consistently ran into problems because they skipped a critical step in the process, so she decided to have students participate in a Sequence Chain activity. She organized the class into pairs.

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While one partner worked through the steps of a portion of the design process on the computer, the other partner tried to write out the sequence of actions in simple, clear language. They then changed places and the other student checked and revised the directions. The partners continued in this manner through all phases of the design process until each pair had a sequential list of directions that was written in language that they understood. This became their personal set of directions that they could take with them to guide them in webpage design after the course was finished. •

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History of College-Level Curriculum (Online Course) In this online course, the professor wanted students to understand the history of curriculum. She organized a whole-class group (the class was small, with only ten students enrolled) assignment in which students used a mind-mapping program. She chose Timeglider (http://www.timeglider.com) for the project, and the students worked together for most of the semester as they collaborated to post events and pictures and to embed sources in creating the timeline. The professor was impressed with the extensive information students were able to find, analyze, and organize for their site. Variations and Extensions

• Organize the sequence according to specific parameters. For example, an Events Sequence Chain helps students organize a series of episodes or occurrences; a Human Interaction Sequence Chain helps students organize mutual or reciprocal actions; and a Cause and Effect Sequence Chain helps students organize information into antecedent and consequence. • Consider multiple, parallel graphics for more comprehensive or complex series. For example, Sequence A could contain a list of events, Sequence B the location of the event, and Sequence C the people involved in the event.

Observations and Advice

• Sequence Chains organize information into a linear series, but not all information is best organized in this fashion. You may find that certain information is better organized in the more flexible pattern of relationships created by CoLT 23: Word Webs. • If allowing students to generate the list of items they are going to organize, know—and communicate to students—the level of information upon which they should focus. Will they supply and organize main topics? Subtopics? Supporting details? Also let students know how the

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items should be labeled. Should they use words? Phrases? Full sentences? Providing teams with specific guidelines helps them to be more successful and eases the comparison between different teams’ products. Primary Resources

Kagan, S. (1990). The structural approach to cooperative learning. Educational Leadership, 47(4), 12–15. Kagan, S. (1996). Cooperative learning. San Clemente, CA: Kagan Cooperative Learning. Moore, D. W., & Readence, J. E. (1984). A quantitative and qualitative review of graphic organizer research. Journal of Educational Research, 78(1), 11–17. Hall, T., & Strangman, N. (1999–2004). Graphic organizers. Retrieved March 22, 2004, from http://www.cast.org/ncac/GraphicOrganizers3015.cfm

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23

Word Webs Characteristics Group Size

2–4

Time on Task

30–45 MINUTES

Duration of Groups

SINGLE SESSION

Description and Purpose

Word Webs are collaborative versions of a Concept Map. A central word, phrase, or question placed on a shared writing space serves as the stimulus. Students generate a list of related ideas and then organize them in a graphic, identifying relationships by drawing lines or arrows to represent the connections. This technique helps students analyze a complex concept by breaking it down into component parts and clarifying the relationships. It is also an effective starting point, helping students relate new information to prior knowledge or guiding groups to uncover current understanding of the associations between parts. Word Webs help students organize facts and principles into meaningful conceptual networks and to represent visually complex relationships that are difficult to understand from words alone.

Preparation

Choose a concept for students to map, and diagram it yourself to uncover potential problems and to create a model against which to assess group work. Map a parallel concept to demonstrate the process to students. Decide what to use as a shared writing space (e.g., flip charts, large-format paper) and bring this and colored markers or crayons to class.

Procedures

1. Describe and demonstrate the process to students. 2. Form teams and distribute paper and markers. 3. Present the central concept that students will graph.

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4. Ask student teams to brainstorm, writing a list of terms and phrases that express core concepts and supporting details. 5. Have students sketch out a diagram starting with the central idea and adding primary, secondary, and even tertiary associations. 6. Suggest that students determine the ways the items are related, drawing lines or arrows to show the connections. 7. Ask students to add new ideas and relationships as they construct the web.

Online Implementation: Word Webs Timing: Synchronous or asynchronous Tools: Web conferencing or open Word Webs are an effective tool for helping students understand the relationship between ideas, and doing them online can allow for easy sharing of the final product. Collaborating on Word Webs onsite can be challenging enough, as students can have different ideas about the way things are related and interrelated. Online this challenge can be exacerbated. The act of negotiating and compromise, however, is a useful skill that is at times worth the challenge. Consider having students develop maps individually and then compare them with others before developing a final joint product. Doing so can help them to clarify their own ideas and thus to identify how they are seeing things differently from their peers.

To implement this CoLT online, use one of the many collaborative mind-mapping activities to create their webs. Consider also purchasing a software package that assists in the development of Concept Maps, such as Inspiration (http://www .engagingminds.com/inspiration/descript.html) or DebateGraph (http://debategraph.org) as an easy way for students to build Word Webs. Alternatively, use presentation or document software that includes drawing tools, with each person adding links in different-colored fonts. You might also consider using a whiteboard tool during a synchronous session. The outcome can be captured as a screenshot to be uploaded onto a forum and shared with other students.

Examples

Basic Two-Dimensional Design (Traditional Onsite) This course introduced students to basic design concepts and their application. The instructor used Word Webs throughout the class to help students analyze ideas and represent them visually. As the term progressed and students became more adept at diagramming, he encouraged them to enhance the graphic by choosing various shapes, lines, and values and arranging these to create a unified visual statement. A copy of a Word Web students created the first day of class responding to the prompt, What is design? follows.

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NEED NATURE

INSPIRATION NATURE PEOPLE

ARCHITECTURE THINGS

VISUAL LANGUAGE ORGANIZATION

DESIGN TALENT TECHNIQUE SKILLS

PRESENTATION EXHIBITION MUSEUM

ARCHITECTURE INDUSTRIAL COMPUTER GRAPHICS INTERIOR PRODUCT DESIGN DISPLAY

COMMUNICATION BUSINESS OF DESIGN - ADVERTISING EMOTION < > IDEA RESPONSE

COMPOSITION THOUGHTS

285

ARTIST’S INTENT

EMOTION

VIEWER’S RESPONSE PLEASURE, DEPRESSION IMAGINATION MISSION, REVULSION IMPRESSION

CONTENT

FORM MEDIUM COLOR TEXTURE MOVEMENT—STILLNESS PERSUASION PROPAGANDA—POLITICS RELIGION SOCIAL CHANGE MANIPULATION

IDEAS PHILOSOPHY SEMIOTICS REAL MEANING CULTURE COLOR NATIONALITY HISTORY RELIGION OBJECTIVE/SUBJECTIVE

AESTHETICS FUNCTIONALITY NEED

Word Web Responding to Prompt: What Is Design? •

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History of the United States from 1877 (Flipped Course) In a freshman history course, Professor Rose E. Riveter wanted students to understand the complex effects of World War II on the United States. She had a sequence of video lectures that walked students through a chronological history of important events in the United States. In class, she organized students into groups of four and gave each group a large piece of newsprint paper and four different-colored markers. Using WWII’s effects on the continental U.S. as the central theme, she asked students to generate ideas and to show the relationship of their ideas in a web. For example, students in one group identified women, education, and the economy as core ideas, with each student who had the idea writing it on the paper with his or her marker. The next step was to identify and graph details and supporting elements. Under economy, students

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mentioned that World War II provided many jobs in defense, boosted American markets, and brought the United States out of the Depression. Again using their individual markers, students were able to demonstrate relationships (e.g., that jobs in defense offered opportunities for women). The groups turned in their webs, and since students used different-colored markers Professor Riveter could assign individual participation grades (adapted from Kagan, 1992). •

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Social Work (Online Course) This professor of social work wanted students to examine the topic of cyberbullying. She asked them to create a team Word Web using presentation software (in this case Prezi; http://www.prezi.com). Students collaborated online, both synchronously and asynchronously, to brainstorm topics related to cyberbullying and then to organize them into a mind map. Variations and Extensions

• Use different kinds of graphics to represent different relationships. For example, graphs may resemble a spoked wheel with the central idea at the hub, a solar system with the stimulus in the sun’s position, or a geographical map (Angelo & Cross, 1993, p. 200). There are many models for organizing information in various ways. For example, a Spider Map demonstrates a more layered approach to charting ideas related to a central concept. Spider Map

Detail

M

Topic Concept Theme

ain

ea

Id

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• Additional ideas include Network Trees to organize a hierarchical set of information; Fishbone Maps for nonredundant cause–effect relationships; and Cycle Maps for relationships that have no absolute beginning or ending. The URL from which the Spider Map graphic was copied provides other graphic organization examples. Or use a browser search engine, entering terms such as “Graphic Organizer” + “Teach” to find other examples on the Web. • Instead of having students brainstorm the list of ideas, provide them with a list and ask them to graph out the relationships between the items, adding any new ideas that they can contribute. • Organize Word Webs around specific themes. For example, ask students to focus on real or fictional characters, identifying attributes as well as specific examples that demonstrate those characteristics (McTighe, 1992, pp. 183–188). A Character Word Web on Martin Luther King, Jr., might include: Peaceful: Promoted nonviolent protests even within hostile and violent contexts. Selfless: Worked for freedom of oppressed people. Religious: Was a Baptist preacher and included religious references in his speeches. Brave: Led marches through angry crowds. Observations and Advice

Angelo and Cross (1993, pp. 197–202) offer the following considerations regarding use of Concept Maps that we’ve adapted for Word Webs: • Asking students to create Word Webs is supported by current research in cognitive psychology that recommends educators and students pay attention to the schemata—or conceptual networks—that we use to organize what we learn. • Because Word Webs organize information graphically, this activity will be appealing to students with strong visual learning skills. Conversely, students with well-developed verbal skills and weaker visual skills may find this activity frustrating. • Although some students may find it difficult to generate ideas or distinguish between levels of ideas, it may be even more difficult for them to identify relationships. Therefore, take sufficient time to introduce this activity so that you can demonstrate the process and clarify your expectations.

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• Comparing groups’ Word Webs can be difficult unless you limit items to a closed list of terms or phrases. Although comparisons will be easier, such a restriction may diminish student creativity. • How you close this activity depends on the purpose for having students construct the Word Webs. Teachers often use this CoLT to prepare students for a second, more extensive activity. For example, instructors may want teams to create Word Webs to generate and organize their ideas for the teaching stage in CoLT 11: Jigsaw or to create a topic overview for CoLT 28: Collaborative Writing. Or teachers may want to use the webs as the basis for a whole-class discussion, asking team spokespersons to show and explain the ideas and associations in their group’s web. If students are submitting their webs for evaluation and will receive a grade, have individuals use different-colored markers so that it is easier to assess individual participation.

Primary Resources

Angelo, T. A., & Cross, K. P. (1993). Concept maps. In Classroom Assessment Techniques, 2nd ed. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, pp. 197–202. Graphic Organizer. Retrieved December 7, 2003, from http://www.graphic.org/ goindex.html

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Chapter 13

Techniques Focusing on Writing “Writing is easy. All you do is stare at a blank sheet of paper until drops of blood form on your forehead” (attributed to George Fowler; Byrne, 1988, p. 46). Many students share a similar opinion of writing, yet it can be an invaluable tool for learning. Writing Across the Curriculum (WAC), created to reinforce writing skills in classes outside of English composition, brought attention to just that: writing as a means for learning. On a general basis, writing can teach critical thinking by helping students organize, summarize, and integrate and synthesize diverse elements into a coherent whole. Writing can also teach students to be aware of their own learning processes. Specifically, WAC advocates propose that writing can teach students to • Think clearly and express thoughts precisely; • Evaluate the adequacy of an argument; • Use, apply critically, and move easily among facts, inferences, and opinions; • Understand how truth claims are established in a discipline; • Deal with ill-formed problems and quandaries; • Give and receive criticism profitably; • Agree or disagree by measure; • Extend a line of thought beyond the range of first impressions; and to • Articulate a complex position in a way that adds nothing to its complexity. (Marshall University, n.d.) Thus, writing as a learning tool can help students deepen their understanding of disciplinary content as well as acquire important thinking skills. Educators also recognize the importance of writing for other purposes. It is through a student’s writing that teachers can often best assess the depth

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and breadth of student learning. As students progress in their academic majors, writing provides them entrée into the discourse community of their discipline. Finally, facility with writing transfers to their lives well beyond college, preparing them to be more effective in their careers and in their personal lives. The six collaborative learning techniques (CoLTs) in this section offer multiple ways to use writing in group work. Those on one end of the continuum emphasize writing’s role in facilitating learning and student awareness of their own learning. For example, Dialogue Journals and Round Table use writing informally. They focus on writing as a tool to support the learning process, such as to record group-generated ideas, to encourage reflection, or to direct and guide other activities such as reading or viewing. CoLTs on the other end of the continuum such as Peer Editing, Collaborative Writing, and Paper Seminar involve formal writing. They provide frameworks for pairs or small groups to help each other and critique final and graded written products. Although each CoLT thus has a unique, distinct function, they all emphasize the written word. The Writing CoLTs are summarized in Exhibit 13.1.

EXHIBIT 13.1

Writing CoLTs This CoLT …

… is a technique in which students:

It is particularly useful for helping students:

Dialogue Journals

record their thoughts in a journal that they exchange with peers for comments and questions. take turns responding to a prompt by writing one or two words, phrases, or sentences before passing the paper along to others who do the same. write essay questions and model answers for each other, exchange questions, and after responding compare their answers to the model answer. critically review and provide editorial feedback on a peer’s essay, report, argument, research paper, or other writing assignment.

connect coursework to their personal lives and to interact with each other in content-related and thoughtful ways. practice writing informally and to create a written record of ideas.

Round Table

Dyadic Essays

Peer Editing

identify the most important feature of a learning activity and formulate and answer questions about that activity. develop critical editing skills and give each other constructive criticism to improve papers before they submit them for grading.

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EXHIBIT 13.1

Writing CoLTs (Continued) This CoLT …

… is a technique in which students:

It is particularly useful for helping students:

Collaborative Writing Team Anthologies Paper Seminar

write a formal paper together.

learn and perform the stages of writing more effectively. experience the research process without writing a formal research paper.

develop a compilation of course-related readings with student reactions to the material. write and then present an original paper, receive formal feedback from selected peers, and engage in a general discussion of the issues in the paper with the entire group.

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engage in deep discussion about their research and provide individual students with focused attention and feedback on individual students’ work.

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Collaborative Learning Technique

24

Dialogue Journals Characteristics Group Size

PAIRS

Time on Task

VARIES

Duration of Groups

SINGLE TO MULTIPLE SESSIONS

Description and Purpose

In this CoLT, individuals keep a journal in which they write about a reading assignment, lecture, task, or experience. They then exchange journals with a peer, who reads and responds to the entry with comments and questions. Dialogue Journals offer a formal medium for students to record their thoughts, to connect coursework to their personal lives, and to ask each other questions. They can be particularly effective when writers know that someone who is also interested in the topic will read and respond to their entries.

Preparation

Decide journal parameters ahead of time. Determine the reader’s tasks and role (critic or coach?), and establish how and when partners will exchange journals. Select the medium (e.g., a computer file, a lined tablet, a formal bound booklet), and choose whether you will supply students with this or they will need to purchase it. Consider creating a handout that includes directions, clarifies your expectations, and provides examples.

Procedure

1. On a fresh page in the journal, students draw a vertical line about one-third of the page from the right margin. The writer writes on the left side; the responder writes on the right. 2. The writer enters comments or questions after reading an assignment, hearing a lecture, performing a task, engaging in an activity, or listening to a discussion and dates and signs the entry. 3. The writer gives the journal to the responder, who reads the entries and responds with comments, suggestions, answers, questions, also dating and signing the entry.

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4. The instructor may read the journals to clarify points, answer questions, and comment on or evaluate the quality of observations and responses.

Online Implementation: Dialogue Journals Timing: Asynchronous Tools: Learning management system (LMS), blogs Using Dialogue Journals as an online technique, students can practice reflecting and responding digitally. This technique can also provide students with a broader audience for their ideas, particularly if the sharing is done outside a formal LMS. Some students may feel too exposed by sharing their writing on the Web, though, so for new student-authors, consider making the exchanges private and protected and for more experienced student-authors allowing responses to be more public. To implement this technique within an LMS, consider the LMS’s private messaging tool. Form student pairs at the beginning of the semester, and ask students to post and reply to their journal entries as a private message thread. Alternatively, have each student create a word processing document in which they post cumulative journal entries. Ask students to send their journal to their partner as an e-mail attachment. The partner adds comments, suggestions, answers, and questions, either in a different font or color or in capital letters

to differentiate their responses from the original journal entry. The collective journal entries with comments can be submitted to the instructor for assessment and evaluation. An alternative LMS tool is a discussion forum. Form teams (or partners), create private forums for each group, and ask students to post questions by a specific deadline. Students post their answers by a second deadline. Then the students who created the original questions post their model answers. Alternatively, have students send their essay question to a partner as an e-mail or website attachment. Students respond and then exchange model answers in the same manner. Students can then read their partner’s model answer, noting and messaging each other in which ways the two answers are similar or different. A tool that is growing in popularity and that is particularly well suited for this CoLT is a blog, which may be done within an LMS or out in the open. Ask students to use a blog, either one associated with the course LMS or one of their own, as the home of their dialogue journal. Students write in the main blog area, and readers leave responses in the comment section of the blog.

Examples

Shakespeare (Traditional Onsite) A professor of English used Dialogue Journals throughout her course for students to respond to in-class activities. For example, after showing a film of Shakespeare’s play As You Like It, she asked students to write in their Dialogue Journals that night for homework, focusing on how they felt the film enhanced their understanding of the drama. Students brought their entries to class the next day and exchanged journals. For that evening’s homework assignment, each student responded to the other student’s entry. The professor checked the journals to assess what students had learned from observing the film and

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what questions they had. She also evaluated the entries and responses for grading purposes. •

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Introduction to Political Science (Traditional Onsite) Professor Manuel Recount decided to use Dialogue Journals to encourage students to pay closer attention to current political events and to relate these events to course content. He formed long-term pairs to work together for the semester and required one exchange of entries and responses each week. He asked students to note any recent political activity in the news that particularly intrigued them and to try to explain or elaborate on the item using the language and theories of political science. Students were given the option of following either national or local political events and of focusing in-depth on one specific story or addressing whatever had caught their interest that week. Each Wednesday, students exchanged their journals with their partners, who made comments. Partners had until Friday to respond to the entries before turning them in. Professor Recount then read through the journals, also made comments, and returned the journals to their original authors the following Monday. Periodically, he reserved about ten minutes in class for pairs to read his comments together. •

•

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Introduction to Contemporary Mathematics (Flipped Classroom) Professor Anna Log designed an introductory course for nonmajors. She had several online assignments related to the different course topics and units. Students who took the course often were anxious about math, so one of the primary goals of the course was to introduce students to mathematical thinking in a low-stress classroom environment. Professor Log chose to implement Dialogue Journals as a method to assess student understanding of content, to provide peer support, and to gather feedback on individual student anxiety levels. She instructed students to bring a notebook to class and to line off one-third of the paper on the right-hand margin. Each week she assigned three prompts: one related to content (e.g., Sketch a balance scale to show the following: x +7 = 15); one related to process (What was the most important step in solving the problem?); and the other related to attitude (How challenging did you find this problem?). She gave students a certain amount of response time depending on the complexity of the problem and then had them exchange journals. Students then had ten minutes to comment on the entries before giving the assignments back to their peers. Professor Log collected the journals on a regular basis to read through

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them herself. She believed that the assignment had a casual, note-passing feel to it that helped reduce student anxiety and gave her valuable feedback while still developing student skills in mathematic problem-solving. •

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Mass Communication (Online) A professor teaching an online course focused on new media and culture decided to use Dialogue Journals using the blog function in her LMS. She formed pairs to work together throughout the term. She asked students to create blog posts based on course topics, including the decreasing value of privacy, the digital divide, and issues of race, gender, and socioeconomic class in cyberculture. She asked the student pairs to respond to each other’s blog posts in the comments and then encouraged other students to comment as well. Variations and Extensions

• Consider using a communal Dialogue Journal. ClassroomSalon (http: //www.classroomsalon.org/) would be a useful tool for this. Or keep the journal on a desk or table in the classroom or your office so that it is available for entries and responses by any class member. Suggested entries might include confusion about readings or assignments, announcements about upcoming events related to course content, and requests for study group members. This could be very useful in a hybrid course. • Consider using Dialogue Journals for students to record their experiences in group work. Depending on your goals, use within team breakouts or let students pair with partners from different groups. Regularly checking these journals will provide valuable insight about how the groups are working together. • Have students write letters about pertinent course content and exchange them with each other. This variation is called Reciprocal Letter Writing in the literature (Millis & Cottell, 1998).

Observations and Advice

• Students will come to class with preconceptions about journal writing; therefore, be clear on your parameters for their entries and responses. For example, will students be • Focusing on content-based analysis and criticism? Expressing primarily personal insights and concerns? • Writing about specific course activities? The course in general?

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• Recording reactions to instructor-provided prompts? Generating free-form responses? • Following an established format? Choosing their own layout? • Posting entries at prescribed intervals? Only when they wish? • Writing primarily in or out of class? • Maintaining journals for a course segment? The whole term? • Working with the same partner? Varying partners? • Journals and responses can become part of ongoing class activities. However, journaling can be fairly time-consuming, and some students will be able to concentrate and be more comfortable writing outside the classroom. For these reasons, consider assigning much of this activity outside of class so that in-class time may be used in other ways. • Students may suffer blocks in their writing and may be uncomfortable sharing writing that they have not revised and edited. To address this problem, use long-term partnerships that can build trust. Alternatively, allow students time to revise and edit out of class before sharing their work with others. • It is important for the instructor to respond to the students’ entries. If the instructor does not, or if there is a long time lag between the writing and the feedback, students will think that the assignment is busywork and will not take it seriously. However, one of the benefits of this assignment is that it does give students immediate deep and critical feedback—from a peer. In addition, it makes the teacher’s job a bit easier by having the peer response to also review. • It is important to have students turn the journals in regularly so that they do not wait until the last minute to do all of the entries. Primary Resources

Bromley, K. (1993). Journaling: Engagements in reading, writing and thinking. New York: Scholastic Inc., pp. 43–48. Cranton, P. (1998). No one way: Teaching and learning in higher education. Toronto, ON: Wall & Emerson, Inc., pp. 147–151.

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Round Table Characteristics

Description and Purpose

Group Size

3–4

Time on Task

10–20 MINUTES

Duration of Groups

SINGLE CLASS

In Round Table, students take turns responding to a prompt by writing one or two words or phrases before passing the paper along to others who do the same. This method is essentially the written version of the discussion technique CoLT 2: Round Robin. The benefits of having students write their ideas as opposed to speaking them are that writing helps students to focus their attention, gives students quiet time to think about their responses, and provides a cumulative record. Round Table also ensures equal participation among group members and exposes students to multiple viewpoints and ideas.

Preparation

Create a prompt that students can respond to with a few words or sentences. Write this at the top of a sheet of paper, leaving the remainder blank for student writing. Copy sufficient numbers to distribute to groups of four.

Procedure

1. Form groups of four students, and speak the prompt aloud or distribute the handout. 2. Identify (or have students identify) which group member will begin, and inform students that they will circulate the paper clockwise. 3. Ask the first student to write his or her words, phrases, or sentences as rapidly as possible and then to read the response aloud so that other students have an opportunity to think about and build upon each other’s responses. 4. Ask the student to pass the paper to the next student, who follows the same steps.

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5. Inform students when time is up, or tell them in your instructions that the process is complete when all members have participated and all ideas are on the paper.

Online Implementation: Round Table Timing: Asynchronous Tools: LMS or open Round Table is a highly structured technique, which can provide students with confidence about their participation in an online environment. The benefit of the technique is also the challenge. Round Table can feel overly structured, particularly in an online environment. Consider using it as a regular activity, in which students post information regularly throughout the term. To implement Round Table within an LMS, consider a discussion forum. Ask groups to generate responses in threaded discussions in such a way that each member posts one comment, cycling through the group until all members have posted. However, this is what often happens anyway in small-group

threaded discussions. The added value of imposing the Round Table structure is that it requires all students to post and limits some group members from posting too frequently. If this CoLT is an important component of your course, consider purchasing special story-building software that helps students build stories on the Web sentence by sentence with user information and time stamps. In lieu of a table, ask students to post one topic-related idea per week to a pinboard. Or consider using a collaborative writing tool such as Crocodoc (https://crocodoc.com), Meeting Words (http://meetingwords.com/) or TitanPad (http://titanpad.com). For more complex group projects, groups of five can use Teambox (http: //teambox.com/).

Examples

Principles of Macroeconomics (Traditional Onsite) In this team-taught course, Professors Penny Wise and L. B. Foolish had just covered an extensive unit on the determination of national income and employment. They knew from previous semesters that many students found the unit’s concepts confusing. They decided to use Round Table in combination with an adaptation of Muddiest Point (CAT 7, Angelo & Cross, 1993, pp. 154–158) to assess student learning and to guide them on whether or not students were prepared to move on to the next unit. They reserved fifteen minutes at the end class, formed groups of four, and asked students to respond to the prompt: Write down the muddiest point or the questions you still have regarding the determination of national income and employment. They told students that if a student had already written down a point or question that they also had, they should put a checkmark next to it. The professors found that by using the Round Table for this assessment technique students were able to build upon each other’s contributions. When students were finished, the professors collected the papers. The lists provided them with substantial feedback on which points were most difficult for students to learn and which points were still confusing. They used

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this information to organize a review session before moving on to the next unit and also filed the papers so that they could refer to them when they planned the next semester’s class. •

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Introduction to Scientific Principles (Flipped Classroom) Professor Al Kali was teaching an interdisciplinary science appreciation course in his institution’s core curriculum. He presented basic content outside of class through Web-based modules and spent class time asking students to engage in discussions and activities. Two weeks into the semester, he noticed that the science majors in the course were dominating whole-class discussions and that nonscience majors were not participating. One of the ways he decided to address the problem was by implementing Round Tables. Professor Kali assigned groups of four, gave each group one piece of paper, and asked students to brainstorm ideas responding to the prompt: Identify important scientific discoveries of the twentieth century in the field of medicine. The Round Table structure ensured that the nonscience majors participated and also demonstrated to them that they knew more about science than they thought they did. The professor asked groups to share ideas from their lists and used these ideas as the basis for a whole-class discussion. He believed that the activity improved the morale of the nonscience majors, and in the following whole-class discussion nonscience majors participated more than they had prior to the Round Table activity. •

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Technology in Higher Education (Online) In this online course devoted to the study of the growing influence of technology in higher education, the professor used a variation of a Round Table. She created an online pinboard, gave students access to posting, and asked them to post an item each week related to a given theme, such as policy, technology, and higher education; technological governance; faculty and technology; and students and technology. Students were able to post additional pins for bonus points, but not until each class member had posted an item. This helped the professor to ensure that eager students did not overwhelm the board before others had a chance to share. Variations and Extensions

• Consider using Round Table during another activity. For example, while lecturing, have the whole class participate in a single Round Table that responds to an idea presented in the lecture. Although it diverts each student’s attention for about a minute or so, it avoids potential boredom while everyone sits around waiting for the paper to pass.

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• In creative writing, a variation of Round Table is used to help foster imaginative storytelling. The instructor provides an introductory sentence or paragraph or a simple opening phrase such as It was a dark and stormy night. Each student contributes to the story, propelling the action forward by adding several sentences or even whole paragraphs. When conducted in this way, students can be at their desks doing other work until the paper is passed to them, or several stories can be going simultaneously so that all students are busy writing. • Teams can record ideas with a transparency pen on a piece of acetate. A group representative can then share the group’s ideas with the class using a projector. • In Davis’s section on leading discussions (1993, pp. 67–69) and on writing (p. 210), she offers several ideas that are well suited for adaptation to this CoLT. For example, ask students to: • Brainstorm, writing down a range of possible causes, consequences, solutions, reasons, or contributing factors to some phenomenon. Explain that in brainstorming, the rules are that anyone can write an idea (no matter how bizarre or far-fetched). Free association, creativity, and ingenuity are the goal. Therefore, no idea is questioned, praised, or criticized at this point. • Complete truth statements, finishing sentences that you have created beginning with phrases such as It is true that Marxism … or It is true that high-density housing … • Write out a list of key points or arguments that support a particular position. Or write down the points or questions that they have regarding that day’s discussion. • Respond to a prompt based on a shared experience such as a field trip, slide show, demonstration, music or drama performance, film, or exhibit. This can stimulate an exchange that reveals students’ different perceptions and reactions to the same event. • Jot down a few phrases that describe a critical incident in students’ lives pertaining to the topic. • Construct a storyboard. Divide a problem into several steps or subtopics, and give each group a piece of paper with one of these components written at the top. Each group circulates the paper as individuals within each group write their ideas on that topic. After ten minutes, the groups exchange papers and contribute new ideas on the next topic.

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• Identify evidence from either a pro or con position and write their ideas on a paper that has been divided in half accordingly. Ideas such as these can guide you to create prompts to start the Round Table. Observations and Advice

• Requiring students to write in the presence of other group members who must sit quietly limits the types of questions that can be asked. This exercise should be used for fairly simple tasks, such as helping students review material, making straightforward applications, or brainstorming lists. It should not be used for complex thinking and reasoning tasks because the activity moves too slowly. Time is wasted and students will likely get bored. Consider one of the aforementioned variations, in which this activity is done in conjunction with other student work, to address this problem. • Because everyone is required to contribute, Round Table can alleviate inequitable participation. • This CoLT encourages students to adjust their writing (in areas such as content, conventions, style, and vocabulary) as they respond and react to the comments of the writers that preceded them. • Students who have trouble expressing themselves in writing will find this activity difficult. On the other hand, students who have trouble speaking in a group or in front of their classmates may find that writing their thoughts first prepares them to express themselves orally. • Although ideally every team member should contribute, if a student cannot think of anything to write it is better to pass than to hold up the process. Set a time limit and allow students to pass if they have nothing to write. • This technique does not allow for group interaction or discussion. Depending on your purpose for implementing Round Table, you will most likely want to follow this activity with either group or whole-class discussion.

Primary Resources

Foyle, H. C. (1995). Interactive learning in the higher education classroom: Cooperative, collaborative, and active learning strategies. West Haven, CT: Excellence in the Academy, NEA Professional Library Higher Education Series. Kagan, S. (1992). Cooperative learning. San Juan Capistrano, CA: Resource for Teachers, Inc. Sharan, S. (Ed.). (1994). Handbook of cooperative learning methods. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.

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Dyadic Essays Characteristics

Description and Purpose

Group Size

PAIRS

Time on Task

30–45 MINUTES

Duration of Groups

SINGLE OR MULTIPLE SESSIONS

Students individually write an essay question and a model answer on a reading assignment, lecture, or other presentation of content. In the next class period, student pairs exchange questions, write a response to the partner’s question, and then trade, read, and compare model and in-class answers. This CoLT gives students practice identifying the most important feature of a learning activity and formulating and answering questions about that activity. It also gives students an opportunity to rehearse responding to essay questions with the added advantage of having a sample response with which to compare their answers.

Preparation

Writing a good essay question is a difficult task and one with which students are often unfamiliar. This CoLT will work best when you have spent some time teaching students how to write good essay questions and answers. Consider preparing a handout with guidelines and sample questions and responses that model the level of complexity and depth you expect.

Procedure

1. Outside of class, students reflect on a learning activity (e.g., reading an assignment, listening to a lecture, watching a film) and formulate and write an essay question. 2. On a separate sheet of paper, students prepare a model response to their own question (usually a couple of paragraphs). 3. Students bring a copy of their essay questions and model answers to class. 4. Student form pairs, exchange essay questions, and write responses.

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5. Students trade model answers and compare and contrast their in-class answer with their partner’s model answer. 6. Partners discuss their responses first for one essay question and then for the other, paying special attention to similar and dissimilar ideas.

Online Implementation: Dyadic Essays Timing: Asynchronous Tools: LMS or open The essay is a frequently used form of online communication, and Dyadic Essays are particularly effective in an online environment. Novice students, however, may not yet be comfortable sharing their ideas in an online environment. For new students, consider a closed forum, while for more advanced ones use an open forum. To implement this technique online, consider a blog, either one associated with the course LMS or students’ personal ones.

Alternatively, ask students to do an abbreviated variation of Dyadic Essays through a microblog, such as Twitter or Tumblr. If your field is a creative one, consider asking them to use a creative format, such as a haiku, for their contributions. An online tool that can easily provide images (supplied by students or faculty) would also be useful for prompts and support for the writing exercises. Ask student pairs to regularly respond to each other’s entries.

Examples

African American Literature (Traditional Onsite) This professor used Dyadic Essays throughout the semester following each major assignment. For example, after watching a videotape of Maya Angelou reading from her work I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings, each student formulated an essay question about the work and wrote a model response that evening for homework. The next day, students exchanged questions and answered the question they received in class. Students then compared their responses, and each student submitted a question, model response, and response to the professor. •

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General Biology (Flipped Classroom) Professor Jean Poole had taught general biology for twelve years. Over this time, she had developed an impressive array of online materials. Indeed, she had created unit lessons for each week of the course she taught, which included video introduction, activities such as crossword and word find puzzles, and concept quizzes. She decided that this semester, students in this introductory biology course would participate in her institution’s Writing

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Across the Curriculum program and thought it important to engage students in more writing activities. Professor Poole was also concerned that students tended to focus too much on detail and terminology, thus losing sight of the bigger picture. She believed that if students were to write information in the form of essay questions and answers, it would help them to better integrate, synthesize, and remember key concepts. She decided to incorporate Dyadic Essays to address both issues. For each major topic area, she asked students to formulate and answer an appropriate essay question. One of the first topic areas was the structure and function of cells, and she suggested that a sample essay question might be, Describe the structure of the two basic cell categories (prokaryotic and eukaryotic), and explain how the categories are similar and different. She set aside about thirty minutes in one class each week for students to exchange questions, to use their text and notes to answer the questions, and then to compare responses. Students submitted all work to her for participation points and Writing Across the Curriculum credit. As she scanned the questions and answers, she looked for very good questions to include in her midterm and final examination study guides. •

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Real Estate Principles (Online) In this popular online class, instructor Ona Holm used her course software’s automatic grading feature extensively, which required forced-choice tests in which students selected an item from several alternatives. Automatically graded tests offered Professor Holm and the students several advantages. For example, she did not need to score the tests, an important workload consideration since the class had over one hundred students. Automatically graded tests also provided students with instant feedback, helping students self-monitor work. Professor Holm valued the tests, but she was concerned that they were not promoting higher-order thinking skills. She therefore decided to supplement the tests with Dyadic Essays. She formed student pairs and posted a topic every two weeks that was coordinated with the assigned reading (e.g., duties and responsibilities between broker, salesman, and client; enforceability of contractual rights). For each topic, she asked students to formulate one good essay question and provide a model answer. Partners exchanged questions, wrote answers, shared model responses, and messaged each other on similarities and differences. They then sent their combined work along to her. Because student pairs had already provided each other with model answers and had discussed

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their responses, she did not feel the need to give additional feedback. She therefore simply spot-checked their work, assigned task completion points, and posted one or two exemplary questions and answers for all students to read. She believed Dyadic Essays helped her promote deeper learning without significantly increasing her workload. Variations and Extensions

• Ask students to synthesize their practice response and the model response to create a new response. • Have an external reader review both responses. • Ask students to do most of this CoLT as homework. First, students write questions and model answers as homework. In class the next day they exchange questions but take the questions home and write responses as homework. Comparisons to the model response can be done either in or out of class. • Consider having students evaluate each other’s responses. Provide them with a framework to do so. • Use this activity in conjunction with CoLT 12: Test-Taking Teams, such that students use Dyadic Essays to prepare for an upcoming examination.

Observations and Advice

• Guide students on how to write good essay questions. Davis (1993, pp. 275–77) suggests that good essay questions are written clearly and precisely and that they can be particularly effective if they include the words how or why. Consider distributing a handout containing generic question stems that students can adapt for this assignment. The following example is an excerpt from a chart provided by Millis and Cottell (1998, p. 138):

Generic Questions

Specific Thinking Processes Induced

Explain why (or explain how)____________?

Analysis

Why is ____________important?

Analysis of significance

How are __________ and ________similar?

Comparison–contrast

What is the best __________, and why?

Evaluation and provision of evidence

What do you think causes __________and why?

Analysis of relationship (cause–effect)

What is the solution to the problem of ______?

Synthesis of ideas

How does ________ tie in with what we learned

Activation of prior knowledge

before?

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• See Chapter Three for additional prompt ideas. • In addition to guiding students on how to write good essay questions, review with them the components of a good essay answer. Davis (1993, p. 275–77) notes that excellent answers state a position and provide support for the position, raise a counterargument and refute it, and avoid extraneous information. • This CoLT is an adaptation of Dyadic Essay Confrontations (Sherman, 1994), whose primary purpose was to integrate current reading material with material previously covered. Sherman asks students to formulate questions that compared present and past reading assignments, thus providing students with a mechanism to connect differing text materials. • One of the important uses of this technique is to help ensure that students complete and understand an assignment. Also, because students complete part or even most of the assignment out of class, it leaves in-class time for mastery and processing activities (Millis & Cottell, 1998, p. 134). • Because students ask the questions and provide model answers, they are relying on peers for learning. This has the potential disadvantage of having students learn information incorrectly. Although it is not necessary that the teacher read all of the questions and answers all of the time, checking occasionally will help measure overall accuracy. • To assess this activity, collect and read the essay questions, model answers, and partner responses. If you wish to evaluate student work, consider assigning separate grades or points for each of the three components (the question and both model and in-class answers). Sherman (1991) used a combination of peer and instructor evaluations, assessing on the basis of five attributes: overall general impression, importance, clarity, integration, and creativity. He and students used a five-point scale ranging from 0 (poor) to 4 (excellent) to rate each of the attributes (Millis & Cottell, 1998, pp. 135–136). • Peer-review techniques are receiving renewed attention lately due to massive open online courses (MOOCs). See Sadler and Good (2006) for a study of its use in the high school system. Primary Resources

Millis, B. J., & Cottell, P. G. (1998a). Cooperative learning for higher education faculty. American Council on Education. Phoenix, AZ: Oryx Press, pp. 134–138. Millis, B. J., Sherman, L. W., & Cottell, P. G. (1993). Stacking the DEC to promote critical thinking: Applications in three disciplines. Cooperative Learning and College Teaching, 3(3), 12–14.

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27

Peer Editing Characteristics Group Size

PAIRS

Time on Task

2 HOURS

Duration of Groups

MULTIPLE SESSIONS

Description and Purpose

In this CoLT, student pairs critically review and provide editorial feedback on each other’s essay, report, argument, research paper, or other writing assignment. Peer Editing helps teach students how to identify the features of good and poor writing in the work of others, thus developing critical evaluation skills that they can apply to their own writing. It also provides student authors with constructive criticism so that they can improve their papers before submitting them for a grade.

Preparation

Students are not always skilled at critiquing writing, so they will need training and guidance on what kinds of things to look for and how to make constructive editorial comments. To facilitate editing and to help monitor this activity, create a peer review form that lists the elements students should be looking for when they critique each other’s work.

Procedure

1. Students work in pairs, taking turns describing ideas for the paper that each individually intends to write. As each student describes his or her ideas, a partner takes notes, asks questions, and makes suggestions. 2. Each student conducts research for the individual paper, keeping an eye open for material that might prove useful to the partner. 3. Students write their papers individually. 4. Within each pair, students exchange paper drafts for peer editing. Student editors make proofing marks and comments directly on the paper and score or rate the paper with a peer review form. Student editors also complete and sign the peer review form, indicating their ratings of each of these elements.

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5. Each author revises his or her paper, taking the peer editing into consideration. 6. Authors attach the peer review form to the final draft and submit it to the professor for evaluation.

Online Implementation: Peer Editing Timing: Asynchronous Tool: LMS One of the challenges of doing Peer Editing in real time onsite is that invariably some students will finish before others. The benefit of using this technique online is that students can work at their own pace. Doing so gives them time to reflect and offer more thoughtful comments than they might have time for in an onsite environment. The challenge of using this technique online is that students may be more critical of each other’s work if they are not face to face. (Note: this may also be a benefit, as at times students onsite attempt to avoid hurting each other’s feelings.) To use this technique most

effectively, provide students with sample peer evaluations. This gives them guidelines not only for the kinds of critiques that are appropriate but also for the depth of evaluation you are expecting. To implement this technique online, ask students to use e-mail. Students can easily exchange papers for Peer Editing by sending their papers as e-mail attachments. Editors can make comments and corrections either in capital letters or different font color or style or using the tracking features available in standard word processing programs. Alternatively, ask them to upload their papers to documents or a wiki, and ask their editing partners to make comments within the document.

Examples

Introduction to Philosophy (Traditional Onsite) Professor Watts Itmene decided to use Peer Editing in conjunction with the paper he was assigning as a final class project. He formed pairs and asked students to consider the question, What is the difference between appearance and reality? He asked student partners to discuss and then each select one of the philosophers they had studied during the semester to write a paper on how that philosopher had addressed the topic. The students conducted research in the library and also accessed a website Mr. Itmene had created containing multiple links to philosophy websites. Whenever students came across a resource that they thought might be useful to their partners, they made a note of it. Professor Itmene set aside ten to fifteen minutes during class each week for student partners to check each other’s progress and share anything they believed would be helpful. Several weeks before the paper was due, he set aside the entire class session for students to edit and rate each other’s papers. By having students edit in class, he was available to answer

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questions, and he also believed that his presence ensured the task was taken seriously and done thoroughly. Students revised their papers based on the editorial feedback. They attached the earlier draft that included peer editing to their final draft and submitted them both to him for evaluation. •

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Introduction to Psychobiology (Traditional Onsite) An upper-level psychology professor who had captured much of the core content for the course in the form of video lectures decided to use class time to have students conduct an empirical study. Their final project was to write up the results in a formal research paper. He assigned students to Peer Editing groups so that they could give each other advice and feedback on their writing. He used a formal peer review form from a top-tier journal to guide student feedback. In particular, students were to look for items related to the form of the research article such as significance of the problem, research design and methods, significant results, and adequate conclusions and to provide advice about writing mechanics and style. The professor believed that Peer Editing improved significantly the quality of the papers students submitted to him and also gave students exposure to the review process that was standard in the field. •

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Composition, Critical Reading and Writing (Online) One of the main goals in this foundational English course was to help students develop techniques and practice expository and argumentative writing. A significant number of the students came to the course with poorly developed writing skills; many had just completed a preparatory English as a second language (ESL) or remedial class sequence. In the traditional on-campus version of the class, the instructor had students write in class during several sessions each week so that she could circulate among students, checking and providing formative feedback on each student’s work. When she noticed a recurring problem, she was able to interrupt the writing to discuss it with the whole class. This kind of interaction was not possible in the online version of the course. The instructor was concerned that if she were to give the amount of editorial feedback each individual student needed, the workload in the online course would be overwhelming. She decided to implement Peer Editing. She designed a peer review form that included a comprehensive list of the kinds of elements required in effective writing. For each of the writing assignments she formed pairs and had partners

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edit each other’s work using the word processing program’s tracking features. Students submitted the original draft and the peer-edited draft when they turned in to her their revised final draft. She assigned separate grades for each component and task. By giving substantial weight to the editing grade, she offered an incentive for students to do this task thoroughly. She believed that Peer Editing helped provide students with the substantive formative feedback they needed without overwhelming her. Additionally, by helping students to identify writing problems in the work of their peers, she knew students developed evaluation skills that they could apply to their own writing. Variations and Extensions

• Assign students to a base group of four students so that more than one person reviews each paper. • Have partners help each other in the overall organization of the paper. For example, in the initial discussion, the listening student produces an outline for the author to consider. Partners also draft opening paragraphs together. This may prove challenging for students; however, these two steps may help alleviate some of the writer’s block that can occur when students face a blank page (Millis & Cottell, 1998, p. 116). • Extend the procedures by having students do two edit and rating sessions for each paper, thus giving them the opportunity to revise their papers twice before final submission. • Consider having students submit both earlier and edited drafts so that you can assess and evaluate progress. • Use this technique less formally. Simply have students exchange written work with partners for feedback without completing a peer review form or spending a significant amount of time editing and correcting. • In addition to submitting the comments of peer reviewers, have student authors submit responses to the comments addressing why they did or did not follow the advice. • Grade each component of the project. For example, consider giving a grade on the initial draft, the Peer Editing, and the final composition. You might also evaluate students on how they responded to the review.

Observations and Advice

• Students may not be comfortable critiquing each other’s writing. They may simply state that the work is good and needs no improvement, which defeats the purpose of Peer Editing. To promote substantive and constructive feedback, make sure your students understand that Peer

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Editing consists of commentary on all aspects of effective writing, including a clear thesis, good support, well-constructed topic sentences, coherent transitions, a logical organization, plus surface corrections like grammar, spelling, and punctuation (Millis & Cottell, 1998, p. 116). A Peer Review Form containing a checklist with each aspect clearly identified will help guide student efforts. • Link part of students’ grades to the level of effort they put into the critique of another’s work. Grading the review itself will encourage students to give more thoughtful responses to their peers and discourage them from giving uniformly positive ratings that were not warranted. • Have students debrief on the process, telling them to consider how well they worked together and what actions they will take in the next Peer Editing situation. Also consider having them thank each other for the help and congratulating each other upon completion. • Self- and peer evaluation forms may be used to give you feedback on how helpful students were to each other. Primary Resources

Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R., & Smith, K. (1998). Active learning: Cooperation in the college classroom. Edina, MN: Interaction Book Company. Millis, B. J., & Cottell, P. G., Jr. (1998). Cooperative learning for higher education faculty. American Council on Education, Series on Higher Education. Phoenix, AZ: Oryx Press.

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Collaborative Writing Characteristics

Description and Purpose

Group Size

2–3

Time on Task

SEVERAL HOURS

Duration of Groups

MULTIPLE SESSIONS

In Collaborative Writing, student pairs or triads write a formal paper together. Each student contributes at each stage of the writing process: brainstorming ideas; gathering and organizing information; and drafting, revising, and editing the writing. Working together can help students to learn and perform the stages of writing more effectively. Additionally, students typically write better and take more pride in their writing when they are writing for an audience; the collaborative element of this CoLT gives them such an audience. Finally, since many professions require collaborative writing, this technique can help prepare students for tasks they will have in their careers.

Preparation

Prepare for this CoLT as you would to assign any writing project. Break the assignment into manageable chunks and establish interim due dates to help teams structure the writing process and learn from each step.

Procedure

1. Students form pairs or triads at your direction or by choosing partners and then generate ideas by brainstorming together or conducting preliminary research. 2. Together, students organize their ideas and create an outline. 3. Students divide up the outline, selecting or assigning sections for each student to write initial drafts individually. 4. Teams read first drafts and discuss and resolve any significant disparities in voice, content, and style. 5. Teams combine individual sections into a single document.

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6. Teams revise and edit their work, checking for content and clarity as well as grammar, spelling, and punctuation. 7. After the final edit, teams submit their papers to the professor for assessment and evaluation.

Online Implementation: Collaborative Writing (WIKI) Timing: Asynchronous Tool: LMS Collaborative Writing is particularly effective in an online environment, and indeed it may be more effective online than onsite. Working online gives students time to reflect and piece together their writing into a formal final product. If students don’t know each other well, however, they may feel like they shouldn’t edit each other, which may make it more difficult to develop an integrated final

product. Use Collaborative Writing when students have worked together on other activities. To implement this CoLT online, consider e-mail. As students work together to write, they can send their contributions as e-mail attachments and monitor individual contributions using the tracking features available in standard word processing programs or simply use different font styles. Alternatively, use documents or a wiki. These tools automatically show who made contributions and edits.

Examples

Introduction to Zoology (Traditional Onsite) Professor Ana Conda decided to implement Collaborative Writing assignments to encourage students to connect course content with the real world. For each of the assignments, she formed pairs and asked all students to write together a significant essay responding to the same prompt. For example, on the topic of the evolution of biological diversity, she asked students to write an essay responding to the following: Experts estimate that human activities cause the extinction of hundreds of species each year. The natural rate of extinction is thought to be a few species per year, but as we continue to alter the global environment, especially by cutting down tropical rain forests, the resulting extinction will probably rival that at the end of the Cretaceous period. Zoologists are alarmed at this prospect. What are some reasons for their concern? Consider that life has endured numerous mass extinctions and has always bounced back. How is the present mass extinction different from previous extinctions? What might be some of the consequences for the surviving species? She set aside about one hour of class time two weeks prior to each assignment’s deadline for student pairs to discuss the topic using their textbooks and

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lecture notes to brainstorm ideas for the essay. Students then organized the ideas into an outline and divided up sections for each partner to write initial drafts. They also worked out a schedule for completion and agreed upon a system of communication, such as e-mail, informal meetings, or telephone calls (adapted from Campbell, Reece, & Simon, 2004, p. 295) •

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Teaching College Courses Online (Flipped Class) The class was focused on helping future faculty learn to teach content online to students through blogs and Twitter, and a section of the professor’s LMS was devoted to content collection. In class, students were active, participating in a range of activities. The final assignment for the course was to participate in a collaborative writing project in which they created a class wiki aimed toward new teachers with information about online learning. The professor allocated thirty minutes at the start of each onsite session for students to talk with each other about what they needed to add to the wiki for it to be useful and to outline initial ideas. Out of class, students filled in the sections that they had outlined in class. •

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Comparative World Religions: West (Online) Professor Zeke N. Yeshallfind taught a course on the origin, history, and significant ideas of the world’s major Western religions. He believed that learning was an active, constructive process and that students learned best when they connected to course content through systematic classroom interaction. Professor Yeshallfind felt he had successfully established such a collaborative environment in his on-campus class, and he was trying to create a similar environment in his online class. To accomplish this, he combined and implemented several different CoLTs. For example, during the first half of the semester, he used a combination of CoLT 1: Think-Pair-Share and CoLT 3: Buzz Groups for students to reflect on and identify several universal ethical principles present in the world’s major Western religions. Through these learning tasks, students identified that all of the religions believe it is wrong to cheat, deceive, exploit, abuse, harm, or steal from others. He then formed student triads and assigned a comparative process writing activity. He asked student groups to (1) select two Western religions (e.g., Zoroastrianism and Judaism; Christianity and Islam) and find examples where these religions had justified slavery, racism, genocide, torture, or terrorism; (2) investigate how religious leaders covered up or justified such violations of

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their own fundamental ethical principles in self-serving and self-justifying ways; and (3) write their findings in a collaborative term paper. Professor Yeshallfind believed that the Collaborative Writing assignment provided a structure for students to interact together and to engage in a meaningful way with the course’s core concepts (adapted from Paul & Elder, 2003). Variations and Extensions

• This CoLT can be combined with many others to create a comprehensive collaborative experience. For example, students can brainstorm ideas in CoLT 2: Round Robin, organize them in CoLT 19: Affinity Grouping or CoLT 23: Word Webs, and explore the topic in CoLT 6: Critical Debate or through CoLT 18: Group Investigation. After the paper is complete, they can participate in CoLT 27: Peer Editing or CoLT 30: Paper Seminar. • Set up guidelines for authorship, considering allocating different points based on first authorship, second, and third, acknowledgment.

Observations and Advice

• Collaborative writing is challenging. Consider preparing students by having them engage in simpler collaborative work earlier in the semester. Also, if students have not had much writing experience, you may wish to have them individually complete smaller writing assignments first. • Students may resist this CoLT, as many people view writing as an isolated and individual activity. Therefore, spend sufficient time explaining the purpose of Collaborative Writing, such as by pointing out examples in the professional world so students understand how this activity can prepare them for future careers. Use this time to also answer student questions and address their concerns. • Writing is not an easy task, and Collaborative Writing is particularly difficult. Encourage students to proofread beyond a word-by-word level and review at the level of sentences, paragraphs, and whole sections. They should be checking for a clear thesis, good support, coherent transitions, and overall organization as well as grammar, spelling, and punctuation. Davis (1998, p. 223) suggests having students complete a self-evaluation form that guides them in their editing and indicates the extent to which they felt they followed good writing practices: • An opening that catches the reader’s attention • A strong thesis • A balance of fact and opinion • Selectively chosen examples

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• A conclusion that leaves the reader with a clear understanding of the writers’ point of view • Help students stay focused on the goal, which is to work together to produce a good written product. To achieve this, the group should be ready to synthesize and edit all contributions, making hard decisions about revisions. It is not always easy to accept criticism, but individuals need to be prepared to have their work edited or even deleted. This CoLT will be most effective if you help collaborators establish a high level of trust and strong group dynamics ahead of time. • Writing collaboratively can help prevent the academic dishonesty sometimes associated with the conventional term paper assignment; it discourages plagiarism because the group, rather than an individual, must do the writing. Also, since the group follows a series of procedural steps working within a specified time frame, students cannot simply copy or purchase a paper from another source. • Decide your grading strategy in advance and communicate it to students. Be aware that Collaborative Writing can be particularly difficult to grade. In addition to the general challenges of grading papers, distinguish between individual contributions and final group product. To do this, first identify a strategy for evaluating the writing itself. Davis (1998, p. 223) suggests developing a brief checklist of grading criteria but grading the paper holistically. She provides criteria adapted from McKeachie, Pintrich, Lin, and Smith (1986, pp. 132–134) and Morris and Tucker (1985, p. 6): Focus: Is the problem chosen focused enough to be covered adequately within the space of the paper? Organization: Is the paper’s structure apparent and easy to follow? Development: Does the paper adequately introduce the topic, present convincing evidence to support the writer’s position, summarize findings, and offer a reasonable conclusion? Sentence structure: Are sentences well formed, appropriately varied in length and style, and used for different effects? Mechanics: Is the paper generally free of spelling, typographical, and grammatical errors? Second, consider grading both individual contributions (to promote accountability) as well as the group product (to promote interaction) by collecting drafts along with the final paper and using self-, peer, and group evaluation forms.

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• The growing use of computers has greatly increased the occurrence of Collaborative Writing. Many websites and software are now devoted to Collaborative Writing. An Internet search using combinations of keywords such as “collaborative writing” “teaching” and “software” will provide you with the most current information, including product descriptions.

Primary Resources

Hillebrand, R. P. (1994) Control and cohesion: Collaborative learning and writing. English Journal, 83, 71–74. Reither, J. A., & Vipond. D. (1989). Writing as collaboration. College English, 51, 855–867. Tobin, L. (1993). Collaboration: The case for coauthored, dialogic, nonlinear texts. In Writing relationships: What really happens in the composition class. Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/Cook, pp. 128–140.

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Team Anthologies Characteristics Group Size

4 THEN 2 THEN 4

Time on Task

SEVERAL HOURS

Duration of Groups

MULTIPLE SESSIONS

Description and Purpose

Student teams compile, annotate, prepare, and print an anthology of course-related materials. This CoLT provides an organizational structure for students to investigate a topic, read and review the most valuable materials on that topic, and describe and print information in a useful collection of resources. Fundamentally, it allows students to experience the research process without writing a formal research paper.

Preparation

The amount of preparation involved in this CoLT depends on the level of the students. If students are new to the discipline and to research, provide examples of appropriate materials. If students have backgrounds in the field and have experience with doing research papers, simply create a time frame that sets deadlines to help you and students monitor the various steps.

Procedure

1. The teacher organizes students into base groups of four and guides groups as they determine an appropriate topic for research. 2. The group splits apart, and individual students research and identify five to ten of the most important resources on the topic. 3. The team rejoins and compiles all four team members’ bibliographies and makes initial decisions about the relevancy and currency of each entry, eliminating sources they deem to be of low value and aiming for a composite anthology of about ten citations. 4. The team subdivides into pairs and assigns half the bibliography to each pair. 5. Pairs divide their part of the bibliography, with each student taking half

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6. Individuals photocopy and write a brief reflective commentary on each source. 7. Pairs reform and exchange, read, and reflect on each other’s reviews, looking for divergent and convergent thinking and ideas, and together create a composite annotation for the sources in their half of the bibliography. 8. Pairs rejoin the base quad and prepare their work for submission by adding a cover sheet, introduction (with a statement of purpose and the anthology’s value to the intended audience), and a conclusion (with suggested applications of the anthology, unanswered questions, and suggestions for future research). 9. Teams submit their anthologies to the instructor.

Online Implementation: Team Anthologies Timing: Asynchronous Tools: LMS or open Using Team Anthologies online creates a durable record of the product and allows for easier information sharing. One challenge of using Team Anthologies online, however, is assessing who contributed which information. Consider using tools that track contributions or ask students to keep a record of their contributions. Implementing this CoLT in an online course will be most successful if it is assigned to mature students in advanced courses. To implement this CoLT online, use a discussion forum or a wiki. Students can use a designated discussion to communicate with each other as they identify sources, create a bibliography, and construct composite annotations. Annotation Tool (http://www.annotationtool.com/) is a

good resource. Although students can generate a hard-copy anthology, it will be most accessible and useful to other students if they create the anthologies as PDFs that can be posted online. Alternatively, consider using social bookmarking. Ask students to create a bookmarking group, such as Diigo (https://www.diigo.com), to develop an anthology of useful course content that students can annotate. A creative approach would be to use photo sharing. Ask students to create a collection or album of relevant photos. Pinterest (http://www.pinterest.com) and Learnist (http:/learni.st/category/featured) are pinboard-style social photo sharing websites. Students can also use Storify to tell stories using social media such as tweets, photos, and videos.

Examples

Composition and Reading (Traditional Onsite) Professor Anne O’Tate taught a freshman composition class and used Team Anthologies to help students develop topics for essays. She asked student teams to select a topic they would like to research. Each member gathered and submitted manuscripts related to the topic. The teams then followed the Team

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Anthology process to create a collection of readings from which to draw when writing their essays. She assigned five anthologies throughout the semester, each one corresponding to a paper. •

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Introduction to Photographic Expression (Traditional Onsite) Professor Matt Finnish designed this course to provide students with a survey of the contributions to the field of photography by artists of diverse ethnic and cultural backgrounds. He also intended to guide students in developing their personal approach to photographic expression. The professor believed that emulation was an important technique to help students accomplish both goals. He explained to students that to imitate an artist who had created something admirable was a tradition dating to the earliest educational institutions. He told students that in contemporary times there has been negative feedback to students about copying artwork. He clarified that, although emulation does require imitating, it is not copying and pretending the style as one’s own but rather is analyzing and extracting the essential qualities in the original and then striving to equal those qualities in one’s own work. He formed student teams and asked groups to select a photographer that they found particularly interesting or inspiring. Together students identified a list of the photographer’s most important works and then divided up the list for individuals to locate and photocopy the images. In class, students discussed each image, trying to identify the salient aspects of the image that enhanced the image’s expression (e.g., use of light, color, and composition; any specialized developing and printing techniques; unique subject matter). Teams wrote a summary of their analysis for each image. Students then individually took and developed their own photographs emulating that photographer’s style. They also wrote a paragraph on what they had learned, noticed, and experienced in the exercise. Students gathered back together into teams and collected all of their work into an anthology, adding a cover sheet, table of contents, and one-page biography of the artist they had emulated. •

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Health Education (Flipped Course) While he had several video lectures online, Professor Sal Monella knew that his students should learn to rely on more than a single source for information. In addition, he wanted students to read authors that make the field of health science exciting and interesting. He decided to have students develop a Team Anthology of newspaper and magazine articles written by renowned

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health science writers. Professor Monella formed teams of four students each and asked each to investigate and identify five famous scientists who had researched health-related issues. During the next class period, he asked groups to prioritize the list according to the scientists they were most interested in studying. When they were finished, he worked with the class as a whole, asking for each team’s top nominations, writing names on the whiteboard, and dividing up and assigning each scientist to a single team to study. He then shared with the teams the procedures for Team Anthology. When the teams had completed their anthologies, he put them on reserve in the library along with an assignment that required students to review all anthologies so they could answer worksheet questions. •

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Educational Foundations (Online Course) Professor Rita Booke determined that students in this online course did not have much prior exposure to writings in the field of multicultural education. She formed teams and asked each to use a social bookmarking site like Diigo to develop a bibliography of relevant writings, to provide links to free access chapters and articles to include in the anthology, and to respond to the writers’ main points by using the annotation function within the tool. Teams created brief introductions for their anthologies and made the anthologies available as resources for other groups throughout the semester. •

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Introduction to Cultural Anthropology (Large Lecture) In this large lecture course, the instructor spent some of the class time lecturing about Internet culture. He wanted students to come to their own understandings of technology and culture, so he employed Team Anthologies. He formed teams and asked them to create a Flickr account and to post images there that represented what the Internet means to them in their daily lives. He then asked them to write an introduction to their anthologies, describing how and why they selected the images that they did. He was impressed with the depth of their thought and of the breadth of content they included in their anthologies. Variations and Extensions

• If time is limited, disregard the anthology portion of this CoLT and have students simply create an annotated bibliography. Reduce student time and effort even further by putting the sources on reserve in the library. Either way, student pairs review the same articles, chapters, or content areas and exchange notes for reading and reflection. Students discuss key

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points and look for divergent and convergent thinking and ideas. Together students prepare a composite annotation that summarizes each article, chapter, or concept. • Instead of creating an anthology, have students use this process to develop an archive, catalog, chronicle, collection, digest, directory, fact file, glossary, handbook, photo essay, or relief map (Bull, Montgomery, & Kimball, 1999). • Extend this CoLT by combining it with others. For example, have student teams use their anthologies as the basis for writing a paper (CoLT 28: Collaborative Writing). Or have them create the anthology to support their teaching role in CoLT 11: Jigsaw. Observations and Advice

• Assign Team Anthologies so that they are used for a specific purpose such as resources for writing a paper, completing a project, or teaching their peers. If the purpose is not clear or if the class does not use the anthology in some way, students may perceive this task as busywork. • This CoLT can be an effective technique to help students learn the important sources and tools of the discipline. Additionally, it provides a structured alternative to the standard term paper for students to practice research skills. • To increase accountability, consider implementing both individual and group grades. To provide a basis from which to assign individual grades, have students submit their individual work at specific time intervals or as attachments to the final product. For example, students can give you a document that shows their initial individual identification of resources and retain a copy for their group work. Along the same lines, partners can submit their individual reflective commentary on each source as well as the composite annotation. • Consider assessing this activity using Group-Work Evaluations (CAT 47, Angelo & Cross, 1993, pp. 349–351) and create a questionnaire that collects feedback on students’ reactions to this assignment. For example, ask students to rate how effectively the group worked together as a quad and as partners and how prepared each group member was for each stage of this activity. Teachers can also include questions asking students to identify what they learned most from the anthology itself (as distinguished from the process of creating the anthology).

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Bull, K. S., Montgomery, D. L., & Kimball, S. L. (Eds.) (1999) Quality University instruction online: An advanced teaching effectiveness training program—An instructional hypertext. Stillwater: Oklahoma State University. Retrieved March 24, 2004, from http://home.okstate.edu/homepages.nsf/toc/EPSY521 3Reading3a Millis, B. (1994). Increasing thinking through cooperative writing. Cooperative Learning and College Teaching, 4(3), 7–9. Millis, B., & Cottell, P. G. (1998). Cooperative learning for higher education faculty. Phoenix, AZ: Oryx Press, pp. 120–121.

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Paper Seminar Characteristics Group Size

4–6

Time on Task

VARIES

Duration of Groups

MULTIPLE SESSIONS

Description and Purpose

In this CoLT, a student makes a formal presentation of an original paper to a small group of peers. Within the group, one or two students act as formal respondents to the paper. The entire group then engages in a discussion of the paper’s content, interpretation, and underlying assumptions and values. Paper Seminar provides a framework for groups to engage in deep discussion, exchanging and probing ideas that students have brought from their research and their individual readings of the paper. It also gives individual students focused attention and feedback on their work while avoiding having multiple student presentations to the entire class, which can be time intensive and tiresome.

Preparation

Assign and monitor the writing of the papers and determine a timeline that gives students adequate time to prepare for and conduct the seminar. Consider giving students guidance on how to read the paper critically and prepare a formal response. Plan for sufficient time, as this activity may need to be distributed over several sessions. For example, if each student’s paper may take approximately 40 minutes, then for a group of four that means 160 minutes. It is best to have one to two papers per class session. Presenters: Write the paper, distribute copies to group members, and organize comments for a five- to ten-minute verbal summary of the paper to the group. Respondent: Read the paper, take notes, and formulate significant questions for the group to discuss. Group member: Read the paper, marking the text for interesting passages, and jotting down questions and comments for the discussion.

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1. Assign students to groups and tell students that they will all be responding formally and informally to peers’ papers in their group. 2. Determine who will serve as formal respondent for each paper. For groups of four, assign one formal respondent; for groups of six, consider assigning two formal respondents. 3. Explain to students the time frame and tasks. 4. On the day of the Paper Seminar, give the first presenters time to formally present their papers to their groups, such as five to ten minutes. 5. Give respondents time to respond, such as ten minutes. 6. Give groups time to discuss the paper, such as twenty minutes. 7. Follow the same sequence of activities for the second presenters and so forth.

Online Implementation: Paper Seminar Timing: Synchronous or asynchronous Tool: Web conferencing In this CoLT, students learn skills they will need if they are in a situation in which they need to share original content online. Indeed, many professional conferences are inviting virtual participation, and many businesses are engaging in online presentations as well. Students often lack presentation skills for online presentations, however, which can lead to boring presentations that are difficult in which to stay engaged. To help mitigate this issue, provide students with a list of suggestions

for presenting online and consider sharing sample presentations. To implement this CoLT online, use Web conferencing, which allows for a range of tools, such as video, chat boards, and slides. This is an ideal environment for online presentations. Ask students to present their work during the session using presentation software. They can post their presentations and then hold discussions in a forum. Some presentation software, such as Prezi (http://www.prezi.com), allows multiple students to work on a presentation at once, which is useful if students have coauthored a paper.

Examples

Principles of Marketing (Traditional Onsite) Professor Sal N. Stuff wanted students to explore in depth a market planning strategy. She decided to use a combination of CoLT 28: Collaborative Writing and CoLT 30: Paper Seminar to give students an assignment applicable to the real world. She asked students to identify product lines to market (e.g., furniture, apparel, cooking equipment). As students generated ideas, she wrote them on the whiteboard. She then invited students to choose a product for which they were most interested in serving as a marketing consultant and organized students into pairs or triads accordingly.

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She gave each group the task of researching the advantages and disadvantages of online distribution for its chosen product. As students conducted their research, they were asked to consider the following: • The cost of designing and maintaining a website • The likelihood that target consumers are Internet shoppers • The industry trends in that product area—for example, whether other businesses are selling similar products online and, if so, how successfully • The opportunity to expand inventory without increasing the cost of retail space, catalog production, or mailing • The opportunity to have a store that never closes • The lack of trust about credit card purchasing on the Web • The difficulty shoppers have in finding a website when they do not know the store’s name and URL • Potential customer frustration and waste of time conducting Web searches • The certainty that the site will not reach customers who do not use computers or shop on the Internet Based on their findings, Professor Stuff asked students to write a persuasive memo to the company’s owner stating their position about expanding to an online distribution system (CAT 12: Analytic Memo, Angelo & Cross, 1993, pp. 177–180). She told students to include in the memo information that would counter expected objections. For the Paper Seminar, she told students to present their memo as if they were consultants hired by the business’s owner. She assigned two respondents for each Analytic Memo: one responding from the perspective of the business owner and another from the perspective of the chief financial officer or accountant. The entire group discussed the analysis and proposal and attempted to determine an effective marketing decision based on the memo. •

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Survey of World Geography (Flipped Course) Throughout this course, students studied the physical, cultural, and economic features of the world’s major culture regions and nations. They received most of the relevant content through online modules composed of video lectures, interactive maps, and readiness tests. Professor Cara Bean wanted to provide students with an opportunity to integrate and synthesize key concepts in class sessions. She decided to assign students a writing assignment in which they

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would be required to apply a range of ideas covered in class to a hypothetical situation and to present and discuss their essays in a Paper Seminar. An example of one prompt follows: Even though economic development can have many positive effects in a country, various development strategies can ignore or take away investment in social services, and even entrench wide income disparities. Define your conception of a good quality of life. Imagine that you have been elected the leader of a small tropical island. Write a paper describing the policies you would implement to make sure that the resources (including land, water, beaches, spices, and bananas) are not jeopardized by world cartels and trading blocks and that your citizens would enjoy a prosperous quality of life. For the Paper Seminar, Professor Bean organized students into groups of four and assigned one formal respondent for each paper. She asked respondents to pay particular attention to how well the author had applied course concepts and theories to the supposed scenario. Professor Bean felt that the seminar provided a structure for students to compare ideas and to probe more deeply the issues underlying the hypothetical situation. •

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Screenplay Writing (Online) The primary goal of this online course was to teach students how to write effective screenplays for film and television. The instructor used a variety of readings, threaded discussions, written assignments, and quizzes to help students learn the components and process of screenplay writing. The components included how to structure stories, develop characters, and craft dialogue; the process included conceptualization, organization, and execution. To help students synthesize the individual aspects of the course, the professor decided to implement a final project followed by a Paper Seminar. The final project was to write a one-act play. He allowed students to choose their medium and genre: for a teleplay, students could choose a situation comedy, a dramatic series, or a single event program; for screenplays, students could choose fiction or documentary. When students had finished writing the screenplay, the professor formed groups of six organized by medium (television or film), assigned a primary respondent per screenplay, and asked each student to e-mail his or her play to the other five group members. The professor created a private discussion area

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for each group and asked authors to introduce their screenplay’s thread of the discussion by explaining why they had chosen the medium, genre, and topic; their primary artistic goal for the one-act play; and any particular problems they had encountered. The professor asked primary respondents to post second-level comments, reviewing the screenplay from the perspective of a producer considering adopting the screenplay. The remaining group members then posted additional comments, focusing on how the screenwriter had handled the different components and process, with special attention on each author’s ability to take into account the visual nature and unique requirements of writing for television or film. The professor felt that Paper Seminar provided each screenwriter with substantive and constructive feedback without significantly increasing his workload, and it also gave students practice identifying effective and ineffective features in screenplays. Variations and Extensions

• Instead of writing a paper, have students read a collection of texts or journal articles. Ask each individual to prepare an oral presentation with their analysis or interpretation of one of the reading assignments for the seminar. The primary respondent can provide the initial feedback, and then the whole group can discuss the presenter’s comments. • Use this CoLT to provide students with feedback on other kinds of assignments, such as on drawings, paintings, and music compositions or performances. • Combine this CoLT with other techniques such as CoLT 15: Case Studies or CoLT 28: Collaborative Writing for a more extensive collaborative experience.

Observations and Advice

• Students may not be comfortable sharing their writing with others; therefore, give students time and support as they write their papers. Consider connecting this technique with CoLT 27: Peer Editing so that students receive feedback on their writing before it is presented to the larger group. • The Paper Seminar is a place for students to discover new ideas, to reexamine old ideas, or to develop insightful connections among ideas. The group is responsible for exploring the text and probing the ideas that people have brought from their individual reading of the text. It is a time to mine the text, to think aloud about it, and to test some ideas against the group. The exchange of ideas is focused and aimed at getting more deeply into the source. • The seminar works best when the respondent has prepared a thoughtful response and when all students have read the same text

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carefully. Therefore, provide students with guidance on how to read critically. Help them to understand that a critical reader tries to comprehend the literal meaning of the words, to relate the information to what they already know, to distinguish between fact and opinion, to draw inferences about the author’s viewpoint, and to evaluate and develop an informed opinion about the material. • Do not try to do all the papers in one session. Students will get overloaded or bored with the activity, and they will not continue to respond as well. This activity should be conducted over several sessions. Primary Resources

Habeshaw, S., Habeshaw, T., & Gibbs, G. (1984). 53 interesting things to do in your seminars and tutorials. Bristol, UK: Technical & Educational Studies Ltd. Harnish, J. (1995, December). What’s in a seminar? Washington Center for Improving Undergraduate Education. Retrieved April 20, 2003, from http://facweb .northseattle.edu/jreis/Seminars/what’s_in_a_seminar.pdf

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Chapter 14

Techniques Using Games When this book was first published, college students were already avid game players. In 2002, a Pew Research Center study determined that 70 percent of college students played video games and that, rather than separating gaming from the rest of their academic pursuits, students were playing both during and in between classes (Weaver, 2013). This predilection for games has continued. Indeed, recent data indicate that 58 percent of Americans of all ages play video games and that this number increases to an imposing 91 percent for the age group that will be our incoming students over the next two decades (Entertainment Software Association, 2013; Reisinger, 2011; Weaver, 2013). There are many reasons to take advantage of this passion for gaming and use games in higher education classes. Participating in games engages learners with content in a fun way that many students find motivating. Because games are a form of play, they may be less threatening than other forms of instruction. Yet even though entertainment is a primary characteristic of game playing, many games also offer instructors an additional option for promoting active learning through practicing and refining problem-solving skills. Some researchers suggest that through games students may even learn content at a deeper level, which improves long-term retention (Blakely, Skirton, Cooper, Allum, & Nelmes, 2009; Spires, 2008; Sugar, 1998). Games also have a built-in assessment mechanism: as students answer questions, find items, or perform tasks, they receive immediate feedback on whether or not they are meeting expectations. The instructor can also use this real-time demonstration of knowledge and skill to assess student understanding and thus to adjust future instructional activities. For instructors looking for ways to include collaborative learning in their courses, games are a natural choice. They can bring students into teams, provide rules and roles for working together, and often illustrate

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that interacting effectively as a team has distinct advantages. They also provide strong networking and bonding opportunities among team members. Thus, well-crafted games can underscore the value of collaborative learning while simultaneously facilitating peer interaction and helping students to develop collaborative skills. So what are the elements that make an activity a game? Hastie (2010) proposes that all games have four key elements. First, all games have a goal, requiring players to use their skills to achieve a particular end point. Second, all games have rules that provide both the descriptive and defining frameworks for how the goal is to be achieved. Third, all games have restrictions that determine what is not allowed while playing the game. The descriptive and defining frameworks, in combination with the restrictions, make up the game’s constitutive rules and serve to differentiate between different games. Finally, games require all participants to accept the game’s constitutive rules. This chapter offers five techniques for collaborative games that transfer these essential game characteristics to college classroom activities. The techniques represent well-established games used in higher education environments and include strategy, word, and quiz games. In each of the collaborative games, students work together in teams to participate in a competitive activity that is guided by a preexisting set of rules as they strive to achieve their common goal of winning the game. Whether you choose to use these specific games or design your own game, following are tips in four general areas for implementing collaborative education games: planning, choosing, facilitating, and closing games. A fifth area involves guidance for implementing games online.

Planning to Use Games Games tend to work best when you have a specific and somewhat narrowly defined body of content to consider. A math instructor teaching a developmental math class might, for example, select geometric figures as the key content area for the game (Todescan, Rody, & Schönwetter, 2011). It is important to have a clear educational purpose in mind when deciding to use a game. For example, games are a wonderful way to help students review for a test, to improve collaborative skills, or to practice specific problem-solving strategies. A math instructor might have a goal of helping students improve their understanding and recall of key terms related to geometric figures, such as parallel lines. Articulating goals in advance can help you determine which game is the best choice and can provide guidance for implementing it.

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In addition to articulating broad goals for the game, identify specific objectives that students should achieve at the end of playing a game. This can help you write questions and answers and can help students to be able to know whether they have achieved what you expect. For example, a math instructor might have as an objective that students should learn twenty-five key terms.

Choosing a Game Many students today have a sophisticated understanding of what is a good game and what is not. A game should be fun and challenging, as students will not engage with something that is inherently uninteresting. The game should be aligned with the learning objectives, as students will be able to see through any attempts to overlay game-like activities on unrelated tasks. The game should be well structured to require cooperation among team members and competition between teams. Thus, collaborative education games should be fun, purposeful, and well designed.

Developing the Game After choosing the form of the game, several tasks are necessary in developing a game. Most collaborative education games require formulation of a specific set of questions and answers (or other prompts and appropriate responses). These are the heart of the game and require instructors to consider issues such as how many question to develop, what kinds of questions to ask, and what kinds of responses will be considered correct,. For example, a math professor might determine that given the term parallel lines a student should be able to provide a definition or, given the definition, the student should be able to determine the correct term. Games by their nature have a built-in assessment: Is the answer correct or incorrect? Has the action been performed appropriately? Who scored the most points? The instructor, however, needs to determine whether the assessment will be formative (providing helpful feedback with the goal of improvement) or summative (final, and likely tied to a grade). A math professor doing a review might choose to use game results to provide formative assessment but might also choose to give bonus points that count toward the test score. Instructors need to determine how one team wins. This is often by scoring the most points in the game, but it also could be tied to a different kind of outcome, such as how creatively a team completes the task in a game.

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A math professor using a scavenger hunt, for example, might choose a winner who finds and photographs the most interesting example of parallel lines. Games require clearly defined and established rules that are communicated up front. The instructor is the rule maker and should customize the rules to take into consideration the level of competition or collaboration and the ways teams will be rewarded or penalized. Thinking through logistics ahead of time is critical. Among the considerations are how much time groups will have to complete the game (generally games will happen within a class session), what size group will participate (teams can range from two to five; larger teams become unwieldy), what supplies will be required, how the room will be set up, and what will be the reward for winning (e.g., prizes, bonus points).

Facilitating the Game Even when students are generally familiar with the workings of the game (they may have played or watched something similar on television) educational games necessarily differ according to context. This means that teachers need to provide students with rules in advance and review these rules and any associated guidelines for play with students before the game begins. Many teachers understand that gaming is a common activity for today’s students, yet many students are casual gamers. Thus, some students may have a better understanding of the game than others. Teachers may want to determine whether some students are familiar with the game and if so to match those that are familiar with those who aren’t to provide novices with important peer support. Teachers need to be vigilant about observing what is going on during a game-based activity. In particular, they should pay attention to how competition encourages or detracts from student learning. Doing so requires teachers to be present at the gaming sites to observe individual and team interactions carefully. Games can have an out-of-control feeling, and, if not carefully proctored, student behavior can work against collaboration (if, e.g., students become too competitive). For this reason, teachers need to be prepared to intervene in the game process if some students become unruly. Consider using a penalty system modeled after professional sports, with which many students are familiar, as a way of encouraging appropriate behavior and discouraging inappropriate behavior. For example, give a warning for the first infraction; deduct or add points as appropriate; give nonoffending teams free opportunities to participate in bonus rounds and gain additional

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points; require offending players or teams to sit out one or more rounds or, in the worst cases, expel them from the game. Some courses are designed completely around education games or have been structured fully as education games themselves. These are rare, however, as most instructors use games to provide a change of pace to traditional lecture and discussion. Thus, in most cases it will be effective to mix games with other forms of instructional and collaborative activities such as discussion, reciprocal teaching, problem-solving, graphic organizing, and writing.

Closing the Game Because games are a competition, it is important to consider whether to give awards and prizes and, if so, what. Among the common awards and prizes are bonus points, participation points, candy, acknowledgments for exceptional play (e.g., best captain, best member), and small trinkets intended to be symbolic of the win. One of the challenges with games is that some teams will lose, and some students will not be comfortable with a loss in an academic setting. Indeed, competition can make some students anxious (Henderson, 2005). Because of this, it is important to structure activities so that there is not only one losing team and to acknowledge failures for the rich learning experiences that the games provide. One strategy is to provide a fun award to the team that was the biggest loser as well as an award to the winning team. Because games are fun and have an element of play, students can fail to see the instructional value of the activity. For this reason, it is critical to spend time debriefing. Such debriefing can take the form of reviewing the content learned, or it can involve reflecting on team and collaborative processes. See Chapter Six for additional suggestions for debriefing. In the body of this chapter, we describe five collaborative education games that embody collaborative learning and that can be adapted to a variety of different subjects. Furthermore, they all have an intentional and purposeful design and a proven track record for engaging students. A brief description and the primary purpose of each of the game collaborative learning techniques (CoLTs) are provided in Exhibit 14.1.

Implementing Games Online Throughout the game CoLTs we offer suggestions for incorporating each game into online courses using conventional approaches such as learning management systems (LMS) and immersive environments. For teachers serious about integrating games into their classes, we recommend

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EXHIBIT 14.1

Games CoLTs This CoLT …

… is a technique in which students:

It is particularly useful for:

31 Team Scavenger Hunt 32 Quizo

find a set of items on a list.

introducing students to key artifacts and physical and visual examples associated with course content. introducing or reviewing factual content.

33 Team Jeopardy 34 Friendly Feud

35 Team Games Tournaments

answer questions correctly to receive a chip to place on a board as they strive to cover five sequential spaces. choose categories and point values to receive an answer for which they supply the question. provide multiple correct answers to a prompt question.

work in heterogeneous teams to learn content and compete in homogeneous teams to earn points for the home team.

requiring students to think about content in new ways by supplying the question rather than the answer. helping students to understand that there can be multiple answers to a question and that those answers can be more or less correct. helping assess student mastery of a specific body of content.

considering one of the online sites that are specifically designed as instructional games. These have robust and powerful features for customizing games and tracking student performance. For example, Quia (http://www .quia.com/findout.html) provides a wide variety of tools, including templates, a testing system, surveys for gathering feedback, a webpage creator for class announcements, and the ability to upload images, audio clips, documents and slide shows. Alternatively, sites like Nobelprize.com provide interesting, topic-specific educational games—with titles like DNA-Double Helix Game or Pavlov’s Dog Game—that can be included as an activity in your class. And there are many downloadable game apps, such as America 2049, a what if game set in a futuristic era in which human rights are in peril and democracy is in the dust. It challenges the player to assume the role of an agent of the Council on American Heritage to find and capture a mysterious fugitive. In the process, it challenges the player to assess how close we are already to the conditions in 2049. Online games such as these can provide exciting, current, technologically sophisticated activities that can be used in both onsite and online courses. The game CoLTs summarized in Exhibit 14.1 can provide you with ideas on how to adapt other kinds of games into collaborative and educational activities.

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Team Scavenger Hunt Characteristics Group Size

5–6

Time on Task

30 MINUTES TO 1 HOUR

Duration of Groups

SINGLE SESSION

Description and Purpose

A Team Scavenger Hunt is a strategic game in which student teams use problem-solving skills to try to be the first to find each item on a previously developed list and to record their finds by writing, photograph, video, or audio. Team Scavenger Hunts can introduce students to a new topic of study, help to build positive relationships among class members, and guide students in developing hands-on, working knowledge of key artifacts in a given field. A Team Scavenger Hunt can also help students learn about how teams function effectively.

Preparation

A good Team Scavenger Hunt requires ample preparation. Begin the preparation process by considering the activity’s primary purpose: What is the specific discipline or field-related topic that will be addressed? What level characterizes the search? For example, will it be an introduction to a topic or an opportunity for students to engage in more in-depth fieldwork? The answers to these questions guide development of the items that focus the hunt. Another important logistical issue to address is location: Will the hunt be limited to a given hall, building, the campus grounds, or someplace else? Once the location is identified, reconnoiter it to identify potential problems. For example, access to the location and resources may require getting permission. Prepare by developing a set of rules that set forth the logistics and are geared toward maximizing safety and minimizing potential problems. Among these logistics are the rules of the game, including appropriate

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sources for the answers, the form of documentation, the parameters of the search area, the time limit for completing the task, and ground rules such as the following: • Teams must stay together at all times. Individuals may not split away from their team to work independently. • Teams must follow the clues rather than following each other. • Teams may not sabotage each other. No hiding of items is acceptable. • Items must be collected in accordance with the spirit of the activity; items must be found rather than bought. • The time limit must be observed. The item list is the key component of the preparation phase. Determine what students will need to collect or what actions they need to perform and how students will record and document their completion of the objectives, such as by writing their responses or taking photos on their phones or tablets. Finally, assessment is an important consideration during the preparation phase. Decide how points will be allocated across items on the list, how teams will present their items, and whether and how awards will be given. Procedure

1. Form teams of four to six members. (Consider one of the random group formation techniques explained in Chapter Five.) 2. Explain the purpose of the Team Scavenger Hunt and the prize for winning. 3. Present teams with the game ground rules and logistics. 4. Ask for and respond to any questions students might have about the assignment. 5. Give each team a list of items it must find. 6. Check on student teams periodically during the search. 7. Have teams report out on their search processes and products, alternating between groups. 8. Award the winning team the prize for completion of the activity, and congratulate all participants on their successes.

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Online Implementation: Team Scavenger Hunt Timing: Asynchronous Tools: LMS or virtual world The advantage of implementing this CoLT online rather than onsite is that it can allow students to learn not only the content but also important Internet literacy skills such as searching for and evaluating information. In addition, Web resources are widely available, which means they are easily accessible by all groups simultaneously, as opposed to a physical artifact such as a book, which only one group can access at a time. The challenge with conducting an online Team Scavenger Hunt is similar to the challenges inherent in other CoLTs: in particular, that you must give extra attention to the medium and the mode through which students actively collaborate while participating in the activity. Online students will be tempted to simply divide up the item list and work through it individually and then pool their results. If your aim is to have students truly

cooperate on finding the items, it will be important to generate a list of items that require some cooperation to collect. For example, require the group to vote for or against an item or suggest one person collect the item and another evaluate it. To implement this CoLT online, consider using LMS documents such as Wiki or Google Docs so that student team members can develop a common document. When team members collect or complete an item, they record it in the folder. In this way, the Team Scavenger Hunt may be conducted either synchronously or asynchronously. Alternatively, hold Team Scavenger Hunt in a virtual environment. Create objects ahead of time that students can search for within the environment. Or use an online instructional games website such as Quia to create, for example, a physics scavenger hunt (http://www.quia.com/sh/6244.html? AP_rand=1137096153).

Examples

Introduction to Mathematics (Traditional Onsite) This math instructor knew that many students came to her course with math anxiety. She decided to use a Team Scavenger Hunt early in the course to help students see the importance of math and to increase awareness of its importance in everyday life. She developed a list of items related to geometry and asked students to find examples on campus. Items included things such as Find an example of proportion using two buildings on campus, Look at the library and the administration building and identify what makes the figures similar and what makes them different, and Find examples of a square, rectangle, and parallelogram on campus. She divided the students into six teams of five students and presented the rules. She then asked them to collect their items by writing the names of the times on the list and to verify that they had visited the physical space by taking a picture with their smartphone. When students returned at the end of thirty minutes, the professor asked them to report out using Stand Up and Share (see Chapter Six), with the first group reporting the first item found, the second the second item, and so forth. She also allowed teams to chime in to give other examples of each item. The

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teacher had students turn in their lists, and she announced a winner based on the team that collected the most items. In this case, it was a six-way tie because all students had managed to collect all items. Students reported that they were impressed with the many different shapes represented on campus and acknowledged that they had not been aware of them prior to the Team Scavenger Hunt. •

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Qualitative Research Methods in Sociology (Flipped Course) Professor Sam Pling taught qualitative research methods and wanted the graduate students to understand how much information is currently available online and to ensure that students had the skills to find and retrieve articles that they would need in writing a literature review for a research paper. He decided to use Team Scavenger Hunt for library resources. Rather than having students physically go to the library, however, he asked them ahead of time to bring their laptops or tablets to class if they had them. He assured everyone that it was OK if they did not as they would be working in teams and he would make certain that each team had at least one student with a computer. He formed teams in class and gave students a list of items to locate, including an online resource for American Psychological Association (APA) style, the online database Academic Elite, Cabell’s Directories, three different qualitative research journals, and several specific article citations. Students worked together for forty-five minutes to locate fifty items. He asked teams to use a Google Docs folder he had created ahead of time to document, using site name and URL, where they found the different items. At the end of the time, he reviewed all the folders and announced the winner. He also had the winning team tell others where and how they had found the items on the list. •

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History of Art from the Middle Ages to the Renaissance (Online Course) Wanting to increase student enthusiasm as well as promote a stronger sense of community, the professor of this course decided to use a Team Scavenger Hunt as an introductory activity for a unit on Michelangelo. He created a list that included items such as the URL for the Metropolitan Museum of Art, a picture of Michelangelo, a picture of the statue of David, and the number of years it took to paint the Sistine Chapel, plus several questions for discussion (e.g., According to your group, what is Michelangelo’s best work?). He divided students into six groups of five students each. At the next scheduled synchronous session, he formed teams and explained the rules (including that group members should

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communicate with each other through chat and to place their findings into a file he had set up in his course’s LMS). He gave teams forty-five minutes to collect the items on the list and announced the winning team at the end of the session. Variations and Extensions

• Do an information search rather than an item search. Develop a list that requires students to find or alternatively infer answers from resources that you supply to students. • Have students perform a series of tasks rather than find something on a list. • Award a prize for the most creative responses instead of items collected the fastest. • Rather than having each item worth the same number of points, create a list in which item points are scaled according to difficulty of finding. Start with items that are easier to find and assign a low point value like one or two points; then mix in items that are more complicated to find and assign a higher point value to them like four or five points.

Observations and Advice

• To avoid singling out one team as a loser, have more than two teams in the competition. Students will feel more comfortable on a losing team if they are not the only ones. • The best teams are often those whose members have different skills and strengths, with the Team Scavenger Hunt requiring them to pool those in pursuit of a common goal. If students don’t know each other well, they may not yet know each other’s skills and thus may have difficulty coordinating their different skills or trusting each other to contribute. Therefore, consider using this activity after students have been oriented to each other and to collaborative learning (see Chapter Four). • To keep enthusiasm high during the hunt, use a list that includes some easy-to-locate items and some that are more challenging to find. • Stay involved during the Team Scavenger Hunt. It can be tempting to simply send teams out on their own to find the items on the list while you attend to something else, and it can be a challenge to keep track of teams going in different directions. Students will appreciate your presence and involvement in this activity. Check on the groups periodically, whether by being present within the locale selected for the hunt or by way of technology, such as instant messaging (IM).

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• A Team Scavenger Hunt will have the most educational value if a debriefing and discussion are held to close the activity. Most of the discussion should center around the content and skills learned, but it also may be worthwhile to lead a discussion about what went well and what could be improved related to group processes. Questions may revolve around what students learned about content and what they learned as a team and how their work will affect their next activities together. Primary Resource

Silberman, M. (1996). Active learning: 101 Strategies to teach any subject. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

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Quizo Characteristics Group Size

4–5

Time on Task

30–50 MINUTES

Duration of Groups

SINGLE SESSION

Description and Purpose

Quizo employs many elements of bingo, and its objective is for teams to work together to answer questions correctly to earn a chip, which in turn allows the team to cover a single space on a game board. The ultimate goal is to cover five sequential spaces on the game board. Quizo requires information recall and hence is a useful way to introduce a new topic (by foregrounding prior knowledge) or to review an old topic. As teams discuss the Quizo question, players inventory what they know and don’t know about the topic, thus developing a shared understanding of available information. The bingo format allows the game to be played quickly and creates a fast-paced activity that generates enthusiasm and engagement.

Preparation

Creating the quiz questions is a time-intensive but important aspect of preparation. The game requires thirty questions in which students must choose the correct response from a list of options. True-or-false or multiple-choice questions work well. They should be sufficiently difficult to require some consideration and reflection on the part of the team to answer. Decide in advance whether you will award prizes to the winning teams and if so what they will be (e.g., candy bars, bonus points). You also will need to create the following four game items:

1. A blank answer sheet on which students can record their responses. 2. Game boards with the word Quizo spelled out across the top, appearing in a row just above a 5 × 5 matrix with the numbers 1–5 in each column. The configuration of the numbers in each card should be scrambled so that no two cards are alike. You will need to create enough distinct game cards for each team to have one. See Exhibit 14.2 for a sample game card.

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EXHIBIT 14.2

Sample Quizo Card Q

U

I

Z

O

1 2 3 4 5

5 1 2 3 4

4 5 1 2 3

3 4 5 1 2

2 3 4 5 1

3. A deck of cards marked so that they correspond with the numbers on the cards. You should ensure that each square on the marked board is represented in the deck, so you will have the following cards: Q1, Q2, Q3, Q4, Q5 U1, U2, U3, U4, U5 I1, I2, I3, I4, I5 Z1, Z2, Z3, Z4, Z5 O1, O2, O3, O4, O5 Also make five additional cards that will work as wildcards: QW, UW, IW, ZW, OW These wildcards allow students to cover any square in the Q column, cover any square in the U column, and so forth as indicated on the card. 4. Twenty-five chips (such as poker chips or candies) that can cover the boards.

Procedures

1. Form teams of four to five and ask team members to sit together. 2. Distribute to each team a Quizo packet containing a game sheet, a blank answer sheet, and chips. 3. Announce the game objective: Win by covering five sequential spaces horizontally, vertically, or diagonally. 4. Read a question from your list or project it onto a screen. 5. Ask all student teams to discuss the question, to select the correct response, and to write in their response on the team answer sheet. 6. At a signal from the instructor, a group member holds up the team’s answers. 7. The instructor then reads the correct answer to the question.

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8. The instructor next draws a card from the deck and announces the game sheet space to be covered, for example, Q5. 9. Groups with the correct answer place the chip on the board covering the correct space. 10. The game continues until one team scores five sequential spaces and yells, “Quizo!”

Online Implementation: Quizo Timing: Synchronous Tools: Immersive environments or Web conferencing The benefit of implementing this CoLT online is that students have time to think about their responses and are not visually distracted by how well others are doing at reaching the goal of five in a row. Since student responses are recorded in the online environment and can be reviewed and checked against their Quizo card records, students are encouraged to report their responses honestly. This CoLT also gets online students working together in competition with other teams, which can provide them with a sense of community. It can be challenging to choose the right technologies, so

a combination of tools is likely the most effective. Therefore, Web conferencing, which allows for IM, voiceover Internet protocol (VoIP), and documents is a good choice. To implement this technique online, post packets in a shared document area such as a wiki (or Google Docs). At a synchronous session, use video conferencing to read the question; consider posting it in writing simultaneously if possible. Ask teams to IM with each other independently about the answer. Call the question at an appropriate time, and ask a team leader to post the team’s response on the main page’s chat area. Announce the correct response and ask the teams to record their answers on their game sheets. When a team has bingo, check the winning card in the wiki doc area.

Examples

Survey of British Literature (Traditional Onsite) Professor Ann Serfirst decided to use Quizo to help students review a unit on the Restoration and the eighteenth century. She developed a list of multiple-choice questions about the time period and about various works of literature. Sample questions included the following. 1. In 1707, something happened that altered the relationship between England, Wales, and Scotland. What was it? a. Toleration Act b. Failed invasion of the Spanish Armada c. French Revolution d. Act of Union

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2. Great Britain experienced economic wealth during this time period as a result of a. Economic relationship with China b. Exploitation of colonies’ resources, labor, and individuals c. French Revolution d. Bishop’s War 3. What literary work best captures issues of religion and political turmoil immediately after the Revolution? a. Gay’s Beggar’s Opera b. Pope’s Dunciad c. Dryden’s Absalom and Achitophel d. Swift’s Gulliver’s Travels She created game boards for five teams of five students each and assigned students to teams. She then went through her list of questions, pulling cards from her Quizo deck each time and announcing the square that those who had answered the question correctly could cover with their chip. The students told her that the game had been a fun review and that it had helped them identify gaps in their knowledge of the relevant history and key themes in the literary works that they were reading. •

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Occupational Therapy (Flipped Course) This professor of occupational therapy decided to use Quizo in a flipped classroom. He created a set of objectives for the unit. For the game, he developed several questions about autism important for future occupational therapists to understand that he tied directly to the objectives. Following are two examples: 1. The symptoms of autism usually appear in a. Early twenties b. Teen years c. Prepuberty d. Three or younger 2. Therapy often used with children who have autism is a. Sensory integration b. Motor learning c. Biomechanical therapy d. Cognitive retraining

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He then recorded several five-minute video segments about autism and occupational therapy and instructed students to watch them prior to class and created his Quizo materials, including game boards, questions, and card set. He used class time for students to play the game. Student teams answered questions to earn points for their boards. Ultimately one team called “Quizo!” The class then debriefed on the experience. •

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Principles of Cell Biology (Online Course) This professor structured his online class to include regular synchronous sessions and multiple collaborative activities. Early in the term he organized students into ten base groups (long-term teams) that worked together throughout the semester. He decided to use Quizo as a way to review a unit on photosynthesis. He first developed a bank of review questions such as During photosynthesis, ________ is released as a waste product and In plants, sugars are produced through a sequence of light-independent reactions called the ________. Next he created ten Google Docs areas, one for each team and into which he posted game packets that included basic directions and a blank Quizo card. When the students logged in, he told them that they would be playing a quiz game like bingo and that correct answers would be rewarded with a bingo space. He instructed them to review their packets in Google Docs for additional information. He said that he would be announcing the questions on the main page and would allow three minutes after the question was posted for students to develop a consensus answer. He asked teams (base groups) to IM with each other in a separate chat area to gain consensus but directed that all of their final answers be posted in the chat room on the main page, along with his video and the question. He asked the teams to choose a leader or spokesperson and a recorder for the responses; he gave the teams five minutes to organize. He then read and posted the first question in the text area next to his video. He gave teams three minutes to chat, called time, and asked the team leaders to post the team’s response on the main page’s chat area. He then announced the correct response. He pulled a card with a number corresponding to a space (while still on video) and announced Z2. He asked the team recorders to put an X in the correct space on the game sheets. After the first three questions, the teams developed a rhythm, and the game progressed smoothly and quickly. Finally, a team leader announced “Quizo!” in the chat area, the instructor verified the winning card, and they played another round.

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• If you are using this technique as a review, consider using a reciprocal technique such as a CoLT 11: Jigsaw, in which students help each other learn the material to prepare for the game. • Consider following this activity with CoLT 12: Test-Taking Teams after the game to increase accountability and promote interdependence. • Rather than using a single game card for each team, provide each student with his or her own game card. Teams still work together to answer the question correctly, and the win of any member of the team represents a win for the team. • Use easier questions if you want the game to move quickly. If you choose to do this, you will need to develop a greater number of questions so that you can play multiple rounds within the time frame you have allotted and to ensure that the activity feels and is substantial to students.

Observations and Advice

• To ensure that students recognize and receive the full value of this CoLT, you will want to spend some time debriefing after the game. Doing so will allow you to reinforce the key objectives and students to reflect on the purpose of the activity as well as on what they have learned. Consider asking questions such as What did you learn? What held the most meaning for you? What did you learn about answering questions as a team?

Primary Resource

Sugar, S. (2012). Got game? https://isdnow.wordpress.com/tag/Quizo/

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Friendly Feud Characteristics Group Size

4–6

Time on Task

20–45 Minutes

Duration of Groups

Single Session

Description and purpose

Friendly Feud is a quiz game that follows the format, rules, and guidelines of the TV game show Family Feud. Students play the game as members of teams. One team is in control at a time as its members strive to answer questions correctly. Each question has many correct answers, and each team’s objective is to list as many correct answers as possible. The overall goal of the game is to earn the largest number of points after multiple rounds of play. This CoLT works well for introducing new topics or for reviewing previously covered ones. It also can provide students with a sense of professional or popular opinions about topics that are timely and relevant to a field. Moreover, it helps to reinforce the idea that there is not always a right or wrong answer to every question; rather, open-ended questions can have multiple correct answers. Finally, Friendly Feud helps to reinforce the idea that an answer, even though technically correct, may not be the best answer to a given question.

Preparation

• Identify a reputable data source that is important to your field, and mine it for information that you can use to develop a list of questions with multiple correct answers. • Prepare a list of questions and answers based on information available from the data source. • Develop a plan for awarding points based on the information that you have gathered to develop questions, such as the number of answers given when surveyed. If the answer to question number one was provided

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by thirty participants, then that answer could be worth thirty points, or if 40 percent of participants had that response, it could be awarded forty points. Alternatively, they may be ranked and tallied based upon the most correct answers, with a set number of points distributed across answers based upon how correct they are. • Determine a way to display the questions and answers during game play. The display should allow you to reveal the answers in the order in which students give them. A low-tech approach would be to draw a game board on a whiteboard or alternatively to bring in poster boards with the game board already created, with potential questions and answers filled in but covered prior to play. A game board might look like the following:

Name the top five answers to this question.(Insert question here) Rank

Answer

Point Value

1 2 3 4 5

• A more high-tech solution would be to use a presentation package such as PowerPoint. It may be difficult with PowerPoint to reveal the answers one at a time if the order students give them is different from the ranked order, but some game applications can be used with this software. If you plan to use this CoLT regularly, it may be worth purchasing one. Alternatively, the reference at the end of this chapter contains a sample PowerPoint for this game that can be adapted to different topics. • Determine how students will buzz in, for example, by using a rattle, bell, or squeaker. Alternatively, students could simply raise a hand. Procedures

1. Divide the class in half: Division A and Division B. Within each division, form teams of four to six players (Team A1, Team A2, Team A3 … Team B1, Team B2, Team B3). 2. Ask all teams to appoint a leader who will be the final decision-maker, primary spokesperson, and person responsible for determining the sequence in which the players on each team will play.

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3. Announce that the two matched division teams (A1 and B1) will play for a specific amount of time (e.g., ten minutes), and then the next two teams will play, and so on, until all teams have had a turn. 4. The leaders of the first two teams face off as the teacher poses the first question of the game. The other students in the class watch the first two teams, much like the discussion that occurs in CoLT 9: Fish Bowl. 5. The leader who buzzes in first makes the initial attempt at answering the question; if the leader’s answer is not the top answer, the second leader gets a chance to provide a better, higher-ranking answer and thus steal the play. 6. The player with the most correct answer gains control of the board; the leader can play or pass control to the other team. 7. While one team is in control, the other team huddles and tries to develop a list of answers it can use in case it has the opportunity to steal the play. 8. The team in control begins play, as each member in turn provides an answer to the question. a. Team members who answer questions correctly see the teacher reveal their responses on the board along with the points for the answer. b. Team members who give an answer that does not appear on the board receive a strike for the team. 9. The team in control strives to provide all correct answers before earning three strikes. a. If the team provides all of the answers before receiving three strikes, it earns the points for the answers that appear on the board, and then control moves to the next team as a new question is posed. b. If the team receives three strikes without uncovering all of the answers, control passes to the waiting team. The team that now has the control is able to give one answer in the hopes that it is found on the board. i. If the answer appears on the board, the points revealed thus far are added to the team’s score, and it has control of the board as the new question is posed. ii. If the answer does not appear on the board, the other team gets the points, control reverts to the other team, and a new question is posed.

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10. Play continues by repeating steps 7–9 until the allocated time runs out. Tally points for that round. 11. The next two teams become the active teams with the others watching. The exchanges continue until all teams have had a turn. 12. The winner of the game is the division with the most points when all questions have been answered or when time runs out.

Online Implementation: Friendly Feud Timing: Synchronous Tool: Immersive environments Implementing Friendly Feud online has the advantage of providing students a safe vantage point for their participation and observation, which can help to alleviate the anxiety that some games can cause. It also allows online students to forge relationships with their online peers, thus promoting classroom community. It can, however, be a challenge to implement logistically. Implement this CoLT online only if your students regularly use the

technology you will employ so that they aren’t required to learn new technology while simultaneously having to work through the rules of the game and fast-moving game play. A good way to implement this CoLT online is through immersive environments. Instructors can create areas that look like the television game show Family Feud. Teams can gather together around their tables or other designated objects. The instructor can integrate a PowerPoint presentation to serve as the game board. Students may buzz in either verbally or through text.

Examples

Current Issues in Education (Traditional Onsite) Professor Addie Tudes was teaching a current issues course and chose Friendly Feud to introduce students to teachers’ professional opinions about education in the United States. To do so, she referred to a regular poll conducted in her field annually and developed questions such as the ones shown here, along with the correct answers. Question: According to public school teachers, what would you cut first in a budget crunch?

Rank

Answer

Points (%)

Athletics

52

Gifted programs

34

Art

4

Music

3

Special education

4

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Question: According to public school teachers, how old is too old to read to students? Rank

Answer

Points (%)

Never

86

5th grade

4

8th grade

4

11th grade

3

12th grade

3

Question: According to public school teachers, who has the most ability to transform schools? Rank

Answer

Points (%)

Teachers

50

System administrators

20

School administrators

15

Students

10

Parents

5

She divided the students into two divisions (A ad B) of eight students each. She next divided each division into two teams (A1, A2, B1, B2) and asked each one to choose a leader to determine the sequence of team member participation. Two students, one from Team A1 and another from Team B1, faced off, the professor posed the first prompt, and an A1 student raised his hand, thus gaining control of the board. The leader of Team A1 intervened, choosing to pass control to Team B1, believing that neither team would be able to provide all of the answers in one turn and therefore that their best chance to win was to steal. Team B1 surprised him, however, and was able to provide all of the answers to the first question before earning three strikes. Control then shifted back to Team A1. This team was not able to provide all of the answers to the third question before earning three strikes. However, the waiting team’s response was incorrect, so no one earned the points. On the third question, the Team B1 went first but decided to pass back to Team A1. This time Team A1 was able to answer all the questions before receiving three strikes and thus earned the points.

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Play continued for twenty questions and approximately twenty minutes before Teams A2 and B2 had their turn. The teacher followed up with a discussion of the current issues and trends that they would be learning about throughout the semester. •

•

•

Fundamentals of Pharmacy (Flipped) A pharmacy professor decided to use Friendly Feud to review a unit on pharmacology that she taught as a flipped course. She developed several online modules introducing each drug and its potential side effects, which included text overviews, brief videos, and short quizzes. To prepare for the game, the professor developed several questions, each presenting a drug and then asking students to list common side effects, such as the following: What are common side effects of the ACE Inhibitor (Captopril)?

Rank

Answer

Points

Cough

2

Angioderma

2

Proteinuria

2

Taste change

2

Rash

2

What are common side effects of the vasodilator Nifedipine?

Rank

Answer Headache

Points 4

Dizziness

3

Drowsiness

2

Nausea

2

Vertigo

1

The professor divided her class of sixty students into two divisions. She further subdivided each half into twelve teams of five students each. She divided those twelve teams into two groups, with six teams per group. She and her

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two graduate teaching assistants helped to facilitate this CoLT by each taking a group of six. Each of the three facilitators gave used three rounds of play (allowing each of the six groups to play). Each round of play lasted for fifteen minutes. The instructor aggregated scores of the various subteams and announced the winning division to the class. •

•

•

Children’s Literature (Online Course) In this small class of twelve students, the professor held regular synchronous meetings in the online virtual world Second Life. She had an island where the class regularly met, and in preparation for Friendly Feud she created two campfires so that each of the two six-member teams could sit together around its own campfire. During one synchronous session, she told the groups that they would play Friendly Feud as a way of reviewing the Contemporary Trends unit. She assigned teams, explained the rules of the game, and asked each team to sit together around one of the two campfires and choose a team leader and spokesperson. She posed the first question: What five children’s picture books made the most recent New York Times bestseller list? One team leader raised a hand and ventured a guess, This Is Not My Hat, which was on the top five list. The other team leader provided a guess, The Dark, which was not on the list. The first group took control, as the teacher continued asking questions and teams took turns answering questions. Students used Second Life’s group text chat to IM each other for collaboration and coming to consensus about their responses. Variations and Extensions

• Have students create survey questions themselves and then have them pose the questions to one or two family members or friends (depending on the nature and purpose of the survey). When they return their responses, tally up the top four to five answers to develop responses to the questions. • Get another class involved for Class Feud. Doing so can help build camaraderie and community among students in their respective sections. • Instead of having subsequent rounds of play, have students play in teams throughout the activity. One way to accomplish this is to allow leaders to consult with team members on each question. Instead of having four to five player teams, assign small teams to fill that roll as follows:

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Observations and Advice

Original Configuration

Reconfigured as Team

Player 1

3-member squad

Player 2

3-member squad

Player 3

3-member squad

Player 4

3-member squad

Player 5

3-member squad

Total number of players: 5

Total number of players: 15

355

• Developing good questions with multiple solutions is critical for this CoLT to work well. Polling data provide an excellent source of questions and answers. • Scoring is also a critical consideration. When writing questions, try to ensure that each question is worth roughly the same number of points. Doing so will ensure that teams have equal opportunities to win.

Primary Resource

Hannibal, M.A. (n.d.). Instructions for playing family feud. http://www.iup.edu/ page.aspx?id=59989

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Team Jeopardy Characteristics Group Size

5–6

Time on Task

35–45 MINUTES

Duration of Groups

SINGLE SESSION

Description and Purpose

Student teams take turns selecting a square from a grid that contains a prompt presented in the form of an answer, to which teams phrase their response in the form of a question. For example, a prompt such as An Englishman considered to be the father of antiseptic surgery should generate the response, Who was Joseph Lister? The grid is organized vertically by category and horizontally by level of difficulty; within each category, more difficult questions have the potential to earn more points. This CoLT offers a fast-paced, energizing way for students to work together as they review course content. It also requires students to think about content in a different way, providing the questions for the answers, rather than the other way around. This can help deepen their understanding. It can be particularly effective for test preparation as it helps ensure adequate preparation, thus alleviating test-taking anxiety. Furthermore, because it can be fun, students relax and are more open to learning and remembering. Team Jeopardy promotes teamwork, encouraging students to use their classmates as a resource. This CoLT gives immediate feedback to both the instructor and the student on how well material has been mastered. Students, particularly, can gauge what they are or are not understanding or remembering.

Preparation

• Choose a medium for your game board. One approach is to use a word processing program to create a grid you can display by projector onto a screen.

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• Choose several different categories (e.g., people, places, events, dates, things), the number of categories (typically four to six), and the number of questions for each category (typically four to six). • Develop your grid. Place your categories in the squares across the top row. Determine the values for each square on the grid and fill columns with those values:

Category I

Category II

Category III

Category IV

Category V

5

5

5

5

5

10

10

10

10

10

15

15

15

15

15

20

20

20

20

20

25

25

25

25

25

• Prepare your prompts for each category by developing twenty-five to thirty facts that can serve as answers and by identifying what could count as acceptable questions (i.e., student responses). The number of questions should correspond with the number of squares on the grid. Vary the level of difficulty and assign each question one of the established point values. Determine which question corresponds with each square on the grid. • You may also want to determine penalties. Students may not be able to produce a response after they choose a square, so consider assessing a penalty, such as losing five points. Moreover, some students may get rowdy or highly competitive and resort to cheating or unsportsmanlike behavior. Professional sports offer ideas for penalties: consider giving a warning for the first infraction; deduct or add points as appropriate; give nonoffending teams several free opportunities to answer and gain additional points; require offending teams or players to sit out one or more rounds or, in worst cases, expel them from the game. • Decide how teams will ring in. The quietest and easiest approach is to simply have the team spokesperson raise his or her hand (or stand up) and say “Ready.” But you can also use different kinds of noisemakers such as bells, whistles, sound-effect makers, and musical instruments. Because this game is highly competitive, consider giving each team a different kind of ring-in noise so that you can distinguish which team rings in first.

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• Consider using a timer (like the one on most smartphones) to keep things moving and fair so that you will be free from having to look at your watch. • Develop game rules and directions. Depending on how you structure the game, ensure at minimum that you determine the following elements: • Read time: how long teams have to read (or hear) and understand the question; • Ring-in time: how much time teams have before they must answer; and • Answer time: the length of time they have to provide their answer. • Plan ahead, but allow for flexibility if students seem to be moving more slowly or quickly than you anticipated. • While Team Jeopardy can be played with many variations (see Variations and Extensions), here is an example of basic rules: 1. Each team has a team captain who has thirty seconds to select a cell (e.g., Category I for thirty points). 2. Team A starts. Once the teacher reads the question, Team A has one minute to decide on its answer and ring in. 3. Once the team rings in, the team captain has thirty seconds to state the team’s answer to the whole class. 4. Correct answers earn the stated points, and the next turn moves to Team B. 5. Incorrect answers lose the stated points and the opportunity to answer goes to Team B. If that team answers correctly, it earns the marked points and has the opportunity to select a new category/ point cell. 6. If a team cannot provide an answer, it loses five points, and the opportunity to answer the question goes to the next team. As with incorrect answers, if that team answers correctly, it earns the marked points and has the opportunity to select a new category/ point cell. 7. At the end of the match, the team with the most points wins. In the event of a tie, the two teams will compete to answer a tiebreaker question. 8. Winning team members will be rewarded with the following number of points applied toward their final grade: first place, fifty points; second place, thirty points; third place, ten points.

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• Determine how you will keep score. Keeping a simple table on which you can record and tally responses is a good approach:

Team

1

2

3

4

Round 1 Round 2 Round 3 Round 4 Final score

• Post or distribute game rules, review them with the class, and answer any questions. Most of the unproductive contentiousness that can arise due to the competition in this CoLT is due to unclear rules or not familiarizing students with the rules ahead of time. Procedures

1. Divide the class into teams of five to six students, and ask the teams to choose a spokesperson. 2. Display or distribute the rules, review them with the class, and answer any questions. 3. Select the team that will go first, using a random method of selection, such as having spokespersons choose numbered cards and determining the order from highest to lowest draw. 4. Ask the team spokesperson to choose a category and a point value. 5. Reveal the prompt or question that corresponds with the square the students have selected. Give the team time as stated in your rules (e.g., one minute) to confer and develop a consensus answer. Ask the team for its response. 6. If the team provides a correct response, award the team the point value indicated on the grid. 7. If the response is incorrect, leave the question open and allow the other teams to ring in to try to answer it. 8. If the team is unable to provide a response, deduct five points from the total number of points. 9. Cross off each cell as it is selected; if you are displaying the grid electronically, simply mark an X in the appropriate square. 10. Move to the next team, and repeat steps 4–6 until all the squares have been crossed off. 11. The team with the most points wins.

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Online Implementation: Team Jeopardy Timing: Synchronous Tools: Immersive environments or Web conferencing The advantage of implementing this CoLT online is that it can reduce some of the anxiety and stress that can occur when students compete against each other in the same time and space. Team Jeopardy also allows students who only know each other at a distance to come together for a common goal. The challenge can be finding an appropriate technology that has sufficient multifunctionality for accommodating fast play. If you implement this

CoLT online, ensure that students have a good grasp of the technology ahead of time so that they aren’t having to learn new tools while having to answer questions in a team-based learning environment. One tool for implementing this CoLT is an immersive environment such as the online virtual world Second Life, where instructors can present slides and students can communicate with their team members through group chat. Other tools for implementing this CoLT are videoconferencing (if it has VoIP) and chat rooms, in which teams can meet and confer about answers.

Examples

History of the United States (Traditional Onsite) To motivate students to learn and remember the basic information that served as the knowledge foundation for the course, Professor James Town used Team Jeopardy as a review strategy to prepare students for both the midterm and the final exam. He provided students with a study guide a week prior to the game that included names, dates, and core concepts. On the review day, he divided the class into teams of six students and led them through several fast-paced rounds of the game. Members of the three teams with the top scores were given bonus points that were applied to their exam scores. Students told him they enjoyed the chance of pace from the usual lecture and he found that they also performed better on the objective portion of the exam. •

•

•

Education Law (Flipped Classroom) In this educational law course, Professor Evie D’ance wanted students active as they engaged in thinking about various legal terms. She decided to use Team Jeopardy as a way to get them involved in their own learning about special education legal terms. She developed a list of prompts and potential questions, such as This is the duty of a party to substantiate its claim against the other party: What is burden of proof? This is the requirement that the parent be fully informed of all information that relates to any action that a school wants to take about the child: What is consent? and This is a chart used to translate test scores into different measures of performance: What is a conversation table? She then developed

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a set of podcasts describing the different terms for students to listen to prior to class. She created her game materials, including a game and a scorecard. (She decided to go low-tech in class and used a poster to keep score.) In class, she announced the activity and assigned student teams. The students played several rounds and were wildly enthusiastic about the game. While she worried about the level of noise students were creating, she was pleased with the response in class as well as with the responses of students after class telling her how much they had enjoyed it. •

•

•

Developmental Math (Online Course) A math instructor teaching an introductory math class decided to use Team Jeopardy to help students review terminology critical to the class. She developed her categories: quadratic function, polynomial functions, parallel and perpendicular lines, relations and functions. She developed a set of definitions she wanted students to know and created prompts and responses to which she assigned her point values. A few examples follow:

Category

Prompt

Response

The graphs of

This is a

What is a quadratic

polynomial

polynomial

functions

function of the

Point Value Grid Placement 1

Column 1, Row 2

1

Column 2 Row 2

5

Column 2, Row 3

function?

form. Parallel and perpendicular lines

These two lines exist on a plane

What are parallel lines?

but never meet.

Parallel and

These two lines

What are

perpendicular

meet at 90

perpendicular

lines

degrees.

lines?

She then created her grid. She developed her categories: quadratic function, polynomial functions, parallel and perpendicular lines, relations and functions: Polynomial

Parallel and

Relations and

Quadratic

Function

Perpendicular Lines

Functions

Function

1

1

1

1

5

5

5

5

10

10

10

10

15

15

15

15

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Students in her online course attended weekly synchronous meetings in a learning management system. At their next session, she announced that they would play Team Jeopardy to review for the upcoming test. She divided her class into five teams of six students each. In the Web conferencing area of the LMS, she used a live video of herself and posted the grid in the adjacent drawing area. She then asked teams to confer in their preassigned chat rooms to select a spokesperson. The spokesperson, she announced would ring in by raising a hand in the main chat room. To pick the order of teams, she wrote a number on a piece of paper. She asked spokespersons to name a number between one and twenty. She determined the order of participation by teams who came closest to the number on the paper, which she held up so that students could see on the video. She asked the first team to select a square on the grid. The spokesperson wrote in the chat area: “We’ll take parallel and perpendicular lines for 5 points.” The teacher read the prompt: “These two lines meet at 90 degrees.” The spokesperson conferred with his team and responded correctly: “What are perpendicular lines?” The team received the points, and the play went to the next team. The game proceeded until all the squares had been covered, and the teacher announced the winning team based upon the tally sheet. •

Variations and Extensions

•

•

Question Variations • Use a more standard quiz show approach, such as College Bowl, and pose straight questions as opposed to questions in the form of answers. • Use this CoLT for problem-solving or more complex essay questions by extending the response time or having all teams work on a response simultaneously. For example, teams can compete to be the first to successfully solve a math or economics problem. • Add variety to the game by selecting categories requiring different kinds of responses, for example, short answer, essay answer, image identification, role-play, and problem-solving. Increase point values as questions become more challenging. • You can use this CoLT to clarify and expand on material. For example, if the question is The type of soil conditioner that should be used when planting a new evergreen tree and the response is peat moss, the teacher can elaborate by saying Peat moss is essential to retain moisture, fertilize, and loosen hard soils.

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Play Variations • Instead of alternating teams, allow teams to compete simultaneously with individual team members ringing in to compete to answer the question. If you use this variation, you may wish to add the rule that teams cannot ring in until the question has been read in its entirety. • If the class is large, consider having multiple games played simultaneously. Divide the class into an equal number of teams, subdivide into groups of two teams, and proceed with concurrent games of two teams competing against each other monitored by students who have been designated as game show hosts. • Include one or more special bonus questions hidden behind the regular question that can be answered only by the team that selected that square. The team can wager all or part of its accumulated points and have that amount either added or subtracted to its total score depending on the correctness of the answer. • Shorten the game by using smaller grids (e.g., 3 × 3) or breaking the game into several segments, using only part of the grid at one time. Game Board Variations • If you decide to use this CoLT on a regular basis, consider purchasing the materials or software to conduct a more official-looking game. Instead of using a word processing document and projector, construct a game board out of cardboard or foam-core board (approximately 5 × 4 feet) and use index-card sized sticky notes for each cell. On the side of the note that faces the students, write the point value and on the opposite side, write the corresponding question. For an even more professional appearance, invest in game show supplies. For example, Trainer’s Warehouse (http://www.trainerswarehouse.com/) offers a wide range of supplies including different sizes of game boards and buzzers for ringing in. LearningWare (http://www.learningware.com/) offers software that helps you construct games and also incorporate them into online classes. Prize Variations • Vary the prizes. Instead of grade points, consider coupons for assignment exemption, candy, and gift cards for coffee or fast food. Extensions by Linking to Other Activities • Extend this CoLT by combining it with CoLT 12: Test-Taking Teams. Form the teams prior to the game and have them study for the review game

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(which will prepare them for a subsequent exam) together. Use Team Jeopardy to review. On the day of the exam, have individuals take the exam and then, prior to returning the graded exam, take the exam again with their team. Individual grades can be a combination of their Team Jeopardy score, individual exam, and team exam. Observations and Advice

• Team Jeopardy works best for review of fact-related information. It is not as effective for questions with subjective or highly involved answers. • Students will be less anxious with this CoLT if they have reviewed the material ahead of time. Provide students with a study guide to prepare for the game. • The amount of time you wish to allot for this activity in combination with the extent of the material you wish to review will dictate the number of questions and matches. A typical Team Jeopardy game involving twenty-five questions for two matches takes thirty to forty-five minutes. • Students may be anxious about playing in front of each other. You can reduce student anxiety over answering incorrectly by eliminating penalties. • Sometimes hearing and processing a question orally can be challenging. Consider posting not only the categories but also the question on a slide; having a written question can be helpful to some students, such as nonnative speakers. • Team Jeopardy can be a challenge to facilitate. Consider appointing a student as an assistant who can help you by keeping score, serving as a second set of eyes to see which team rings in first, crossing off cells, and so forth. • To prevent a hotshot team from collecting all the points from the higher-level cells early in the game, require all columns in Row 1 be selected before moving to Row 2, then all in Row 2 before moving to Row 3, and so forth. • This CoLT can be a single activity, but it can also be effective if used in such a way that groups work together to review material on several occasions. This allows students to form strong bonds and to begin to feel responsible for each other’s successes.

Primary Resources

Barkley, E. (2010). Student engagement techniques. San Francisco: Jossey Bass. Yaman, D., & Covington, M. (2006). I’ll take learning for 500: Using game shows to engage, motivate, and train. San Francisco: Pfeiffer, pp. 47–49.

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35

Team Games Tournament Characteristics Group Size

4–6

Time on Task

50 MINUTES to 1 HOUR

Duration of Groups

SINGLE SESSION

Description and Purpose

Team Games Tournament is a quiz and thinking game in which heterogeneous (by achievement) home teams work together to learn content and then compete against members of other more homogeneous teams in newly formed tournament teams. Individual students earn points for correctly answering questions. Individual scores won in tournament teams are aggregated to the home team; the winning team is the home team whose individual members answer the most questions correctly. The primary purpose of Team Games Tournament is to encourage students to help each other master content and skills. It provides opportunities for students to revisit a unit of content, often before a formal test or other assessment. This CoLT can be used as an assessment alternative as well. Through cooperative competition, students often are motivated, and many times those with test fear may be more at ease with material. Moreover, students work with students of diverse abilities and similar abilities in the same activity; both group structures have distinct advantages, so this CoLT provides a unique opportunity to both teach each other and learn from each other.

Preparation

• Choose a method to organize students by achievement level. For example, create a list of students according to highest-to-lowest current class grade or recent quiz scores, or consider one of our methods for heterogeneous stratification in Chapter Five.

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• Develop a list of home teams, generally composed of four to six members of differing achievement levels to ensure that each team has a mix of high-, average-, and low-achieving students. A stratified home team might include: Home Team A: Student 1A (high achieving), Student 2A (high-average achieving), Student 3A (low-average achieving), Student 4A (low achieving) Home Team B: Student 1B (high achieving), Student 2B (high-average achieving), Student 3B (low-average achieving), Student 4B (low achieving) Home Team C: Student 1C (high achieving), Student 2C (high-average achieving), Student 3C (low-average achieving), Student 4C (low achieving) • Develop a list of tournament teams by placing roughly equalperforming students from different home teams on a new tournament team that is stratified homogeneously by level of academic achievement (i.e., high-achieving students compete against each other, average-achieving students compete against each other, low-achieving students compete against each other), for example: Tournament Team 1: Student 1A, Student 1B, Student 1C Tournament Team 2: Student 2A, Student 2B, Student 3C Tournament Team 3: Student 3A; Student 3B; Student 3C Tournament Team 4: Student 4A; Student 4B; Student 4C • Create a set of fill-in-the-blank questions about a particular unit of content, with each question bearing a separate number. Make copies of the question sheet for each tournament team. • Develop an answer sheet and make copies for each team. • Make decks of numbered cards that correspond to the number of tournament teams you will have: for example, if you have four tournament teams, you will need four sets of cards. Each card should bear one number that corresponds to one of the questions on the list: for example, if you have fifty questions, create fifty cards numbered 1–50.

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• Prepare scoresheets for each tournament team:

Tournament Team Scoresheet for Team _____ Player’s Name Home Group Name

Score for

Score for

Score for

Round 1

Round 2

Round 3

Total Points

• Determine how you will score the answers. Some instructors choose to allocate a simple scoring system such as one point per question. Others choose to allocate based on a hierarchical system, with the high scorer receiving six points, high middle receiving four points, low middle receiving two points, and low achieving one point. Procedures

1. Form home teams, and ask team members to review a unit of content, either as homework or as an in-class activity. 2. Regroup students into tournament teams. 3. Announce a time limit for the game, and ask a member of each team to pick up a set of numbered cards, a question sheet, an answer sheet, and a scoresheet. 4. Each student in a team selects a card. The student with the highest number begins the game; the student with the next highest serves as materials manager. 5. The materials manager takes up the numbered cards and shuffles again. 6. The first student begins the game by picking a card from the top of the stack, turning it over on the table, reading the number. 7. The materials manager reads the corresponding question from the question list aloud. 8. The first student tries to answer the question as others listen. 9. Play goes in clockwise direction, at this point moving to student number three. Each successive student may elect to pass (without answering) or challenge (by providing a different answer from the materials manager/first player).

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10. After the last person passes or challenges, the materials manager checks the answer on the answer sheet. 11. The first person to correctly answer the question (including the first student) keeps the card. 12. The game continues with the next play, as the student next in line selects a card and then answers the corresponding question. 13. When all the cards have been claimed, students count cards and record their scores on the scoresheet. 14. Students compete in additional rounds until the time allotted has ended. 15. The materials manager returns the materials, including the tabulated scoresheets, to you; you then record total scores on the board for each home team and announce the winner, which is the home team with the highest score.

Online Implementation: Team Games Tournament Timing: Synchronous Tool: Web conferencing The advantage of implementing this CoLT online is that doing so can allow the instructor an easy mechanism for monitoring several teams simultaneously and unobtrusively. Rather than physically moving from group to group, the instructor simply monitors teams and individuals online. Moreover, having students work together online to master materials provides them with a good way of getting to know each other better while engaging with course content. It also allows more time than the onsite version for reflection. Finding technology that allows this CoLT to move rapidly and naturally online, however, can

be a challenge. Obviously the shuffling the card decks and selecting cards can be difficult to accomplish online. This part of the game can be omitted, though, and the teacher can simply read the questions aloud and have students record their responses. This technique will likely be most effective in synchronous environments that simulate the onsite experience. Teachers using Web conferencing should form teams and assign them conference rooms, in which students can work together to answer questions. Teachers who choose to teach online in virtual environments can create home areas around a fixture like a bonfire and then tournament tables for the tournament team workspace. Text-based responses are likely the easiest to monitor.

Examples

Introduction to Genetics (Traditional Onsite) Professor Eve O’Lution decided to use a Team Games Tournament to help students prepare for a major unit exam. Prior to class she took her roster of her twenty-four students and ranked them from highest achieving to lowest

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achieving based on the results of their most recent quiz grades. Professor O’Lution then organized this list into four quadrants, selecting one student from each quadrant to form six home teams. The professor then made another list in which the six students in each of the four quadrants were assigned to four tournament teams. The professor also prepared by making a list of fill-in-the-blank questions related to evolution and natural selection such as: The person who wrote about the evolution of individuals was _______. The modern synthesis of evolution adds _________ to the Darwinian concept. An example of human polymorphisms is ___________. For the first twenty minutes of class, Professor O’Lution asked students to work in their home teams to compile a summary of everything they knew about evolution to create a crib sheet that each home team member could take with him or her when competing in the tournament. She then reformed the students into their tournament teams and gave each team a written list of instructions for the game. After reviewing the instructions and answering questions regarding the procedures, she told students to begin playing. After thirty minutes, Professor O’Lution picked up the scored cards and announced the winning home team. •

•

•

Computer Science: Databases (Flipped Class) Professor Hy Marx was teaching a flipped class on the topic of databases. He presented all of his content online through a traditional LMS. Prior to meeting in class, students were required to read a brief essay he wrote to introduce each module. They also watched brief videos. Finally, they took readiness quizzes to ensure their mastery of material. In class, they engaged in a range of active learning activities, including Team Games Tournaments. Professor Marx implemented this CoLT once per month at the end of a unit as a review in preparation for a test. For each tournament, he first sorted students into heterogeneous teams based on their ability as determined by the results of their most recent test score. Then he created base teams, who studied together to complete a study sheet he developed and distributed to them. They then split into tournament teams to compete against students of heterogeneous ability levels. He reformed both base teams and tournament teams each time, reconstituting them based on their ability as demonstrated in the prior quiz. While he did not announce it, students soon realized that they were advancing (or not) in the tournament teams based on their performance on them. The students

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accordingly ratcheted up their performances and strived to get seats at higher-performing tables. •

•

•

English: Composition and Reading (Online Course) Professor Rhoda Book, an English instructor teaching a unit on Shakespeare, decided to use Team Games Tournament to help students review and prepare for a multiple-choice examination. She created a list of students ranked by their scores on the previous exam. She then divided her list of thirty-two students into four quadrants, which would ultimately be the tournament teams. She next selected students from each of the four quadrants to constitute four heterogeneous home teams. In a synchronous class session, she told students that they would play a Team Games Tournament to help them prepare for the next exam and that the winning team would receive a five-point bonus on the exam. She then announced home teams and asked them to go to one of the four designated chat rooms she had prepared in advance and spend twenty minutes reviewing the different Shakespeare plays they had studied. To guide their review, she had prepared a worksheet that asked students to list the date of the play, the main characters, and the basic plot. When the class reconvened in the main chat room, she posted the list that organized students into tournament teams. Rather than using a deck of cards, however, the teacher simply read the question and had students post their responses in Google Docs. The teacher later graded their responses, comparing scores of tournament teams and then selecting the winning home team. She sent an announcement to the class informing them of the winning home team along with an attached answer sheet with the correct answers to the questions used in the tournament. •

•

•

Algebra 1 (Large Lecture) This large lecture consisted of six combined sections that came together for lectures twice a week. Students participated in online tutorials between sessions. Two graduate teaching assistants were available to supervise the online tutorials at specific times during the week. The instructor decided to use Team Games Tournaments to review at the end of a four-week module. During the first session of the week, the instructor divided students into home teams to learn materials. During the second session of the week, students worked at tournament tables to compete for scores for their home teams. The

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teaching assistants helped monitor and facilitate the teams’ activities and kept track of scores. The instructor found the games an engaging way to help build community and improve student performance. •

Variations and Extensions

•

•

• Because all students will not have prepared equally well, it may be useful to use an activity such as CoLT 8: Learning Cell or CoLT 12: Test-Taking Teams to prepare students to work together to review before beginning the completion. • Consider giving bonus points to the highest-scoring team or include tournament scores as an additional grade in the grade book.

Observations and Advice

• The game is more fun when it moves quickly, so consider setting time limits for responses. • Ensure that you have developed a sufficient number of questions to fill the time so that student teams are not left with nothing to do. • If questions are sufficiently complicated, more than one pass through may be appropriate. • Students need time to develop trust and to get to know each other well enough to work together efficiently to master materials. Therefore, this technique may be most effective using base groups that work together in the class over an extended period of time as the home teams. On the other hand, due to the complications that can occur in groups, it can be beneficial to occasionally change throughout the term. Doing so prevents the same team winning every period and other problems arising from irregular attendance or group members not getting along.

Primary Reference

Slavin, R. E. (1990). Cooperative learning: Theory research and practice. Allyn and Bacon.

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Appendix A

Useful Tools for Implementing Collaborative Learning in Online Courses Collaborative Tool

Description and Purpose

Bookmarks and

Social bookmarking tools are Web-based

Annotation

Sample Current Technologies • Diigo

means of sharing URLs, often labeling

• Delicious

them with tags that allow for

• Bounce

organization and also annotations.

• Google bookmarks

Social bookmarking tools also allow

• Markup annotation tool

students to share resources with each

• Scribble

other.

• SearchTeam (collaborative search engine)

Blog

At a fundamental level, blogs are

• Wordpress

websites that are maintained either by

• Edublogs

individuals or by groups of individuals

• Blogger

that allow for regular updating. Blogs

• Blackboard Collaborate

permit users to write essay style entries, to which others may post comments. They also allow students to try out new ideas and to receive feedback from others. Microblogs

Microblogging is a form of blogging that

• Twitter

is done on a smaller scale. Microblogs

• Tumblr

allow users to publish ideas in

• Edmodo

abbreviated form to others.

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Collaborative Tool

Description and Purpose

Discussion Forums

A discussion forum is a message board

Sample Current Technologies • Ning social network

intended as a discussion site in which

• Yahoo groups

individuals hold conversations in the

• Google groups

form of posted messages. This tool

• Voicethread

allows participation through posting

• Wimba voice

their ideas in writing or voice,

• Facebook groups

connecting ideas to others.

• OpenStudy

Voicethread provides a unique

• Blackboard

discussion environment that permits

• Desire2Learn

not only text but also video responses. Chat

Chat is the exchange of typed messages

Instant Messaging/

Instant messaging is text-based

• Google Chat

between individuals in real time. Text Messaging

synchronous communication that

(or Texting)

allows students to interact with each

• Yahoo! Messenger • AOL IM

other immediately. E-mail

E-mail is a system for sending and receiving messages electronically over

• Gmail • Ymail

a computer network, as between personal computers. Voiceover Internet Protocol (VoIP)

VoIP allows for synchronous communication that involves video and audio.

• Tinychat

Thus, users can see and hear each

• Gizmo5

other as they talk together in real time. Drawing

Mind-Mapping

• Skype

A drawing tool allows students to create

• Google Hangouts • CoSketch

freehand drawings in an online

• Draw it live

environment. Several tools exist in

• Flockdraw

which students can collaborate on

• ibrainstrom

drawings remotely.

• Interactive illimitably

Mind-mapping tools allow users to create graphic representations that show relationships among ideas or concepts. Several tools exist in which students may collaborate on their maps in real time.

• Mindmeister • • • • • • • • • • • •

Wisemapping Mindmodo Diagram.ly Creately Spiderscribe Bubbl.us Cacoo The brain Xtimeline Dipity Exploratree Lucidchart

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Collaborative Tool

Description and Purpose

Photo Sharing

Publishing photos online, which enables the user to share them with others.

Sample Current Technologies • Flickr • Instagram • Zangzing • Glogster

Presentation

Presentation tools allow users to create

• Prezi

and host presentations online, which

• Google Docs

makes for easier sharing with others.

• Zohoshow

Some presentation tools, such as Prezi

• Sliderocket

and Google Docs, also provide students with a way to develop presentations together. Video

The term video means moving images and sound. While teachers have long used videos to illustrate content, many are now asking students to create and share their own.

Videos • iMovie, • Windows Live Movie Maker • Masher • Eyejot Screencast videos • Screencast-o-matic • Jing • Camtasia Animated videos • Animoto • Voki • Blabberize Distribution of videos • YouTube • Eyejot

Pinboards

Boards are a space for the posting of

• Wallwisher

public messages intended to provide

• Corkboard

note boards,

information. Many online boards allow

• Popplet

whiteboards,

for real-time collaboration, drawing,

• Pinterest

corkboards, bulletin

and manipulation of the posted

• Stixy.com

boards)

messages.

• Realtime board

(Also known as sticky

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• Board 800 • Conceptboard • Scribblar • Skrbl

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Collaborative Tool

Description and Purpose

Wiki Documents

Wiki documents permit students to

Sample Current Technologies • Google Docs

collaborate in one document when

• Tikiwiki

they are separated by space and time.

• Mediawiki

Each student can access, add to, and

• Wikispaces

edit it.

• Sync Space • Blackboard Collaborate

Social Network Site

Social network sites are websites where

• Google groups

people can create a profile, make

• Yahoo groups

connections with other users, and

• Facebook groups

communicate and share content

• Ning

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Appendix B

Key to Classroom Environment in CoLT Examples CoLT No

CoLT Name

Course Title

Discipline

Classroom Environment

1

Think-Pair-Share

African Art and the

Art History

Traditional

Chemistry

Large Lecture

Anthropology

Flipped

Diaspora 1

Think-Pair-Share

Introduction to Chemistry

1

Think-Pair-Share

Introduction to Physical Anthropology

1

Think-Pair-Share

English Composition

English

Online

2

Round Robin

Survey of

Business

Traditional

Conversational French

Languages

Traditional

International Business 2

Round Robin

2

Round Robin

Legal Writing 1

Law

Large Lecture

2

Round Robin

Developmental Math

Math

Online

3

Buzz Groups

The Nature and Origin

Sociology

Traditional

Education

Traditional

Chemistry

Online

Media Studies

Large Lecture

of Major Social Problems 3

Buzz Groups

Leadership Issues in Community Colleges

3

Buzz Groups

Introduction to Organic Chemistry

3

Buzz Groups

Introduction to Media Studies

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CoLT No

CoLT Name

Course Title

Discipline

Classroom Environment

4

Talking Chips

Introduction to Social

Sociology

Traditional

4

Talking Chips

Calculus

Math

Traditional

4

Talking Chips

Nursing Care for Older

Gerontology

Online

Welfare

Adults 5

Three-Step Interview

Introduction to Music

Music

Traditional

5

Three-Step Interview

Survey Marketing

Business

Online

5

Three-Step Interview

Calculus

Math

Traditional

5

Three-Step Interview

Patient Care in

Radiologic

Traditional

6

Critical Debate

Philosophy of Law

6

Critical Debate

7

Note-Taking Pairs

7 7 7

Radiation Oncology

Technology Law

Traditional

Contemporary Issues

Sociology

Online

General Physics

Physics

Large Lecture

Note-Taking Pairs

Geriatrics

Nursing

Flipped

Note-Taking Pairs

Statics

Engineering

Traditional

Note-Taking Pairs

History of Western

History

Online

Civilization 8

Learning Cells

Introduction to Art

Art History

Flipped

8

Learning Cells

Human Anatomy and

Anatomy

Traditional

8

Learning Cells

Race and Ethnic

Sociology

Online

8

Learning Cells

Intro to Business

Business

Online

8

Learning Cells

Intro to Chemistry

Chemistry

Large Lecture

9

Fishbowl

General Biology

Biology

Large Lecture

9

Fishbowl

Administration of

Education

Flipped

Physiology Relations

Higher Education 9

Fishbowl

American Cinema

Film

Online

10

Role-Play

Psychology of

Psychology

Traditional

10

Role-Play

Oral Communication

ESL

Traditional

10

Role-Play

History of the Vietnam

History

Flipped

10

Role-Play

Management

Business

Online

11

Jigsaw

Masterpieces of

English

Traditional

Anthropology

Flipped

Prejudice Skills I War Practices American Literature 11

Jigsaw

Introduction to Cultural Anthropology

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Key to Classroom Environment in CoLT Examples

CoLT No

CoLT Name

Course Title

Discipline

379

Classroom Environment

11

Jigsaw

Website Publishing Tools:

Computer

Online

Science

Dreamweaver 11

Jigsaw

Introduction to

Geology

Large Lecture

Geology 12

Test-Taking Teams

General Psychology

Psychology

Large Lecture

12

Test-Taking Teams

English Poetry of the

English

Traditional

12

Test-Taking Teams

Introduction to

Statistics

Flipped

12

Test-Taking Teams

Composition and

Music

Traditional

13

TAPPS

Developing Language

ESL

Traditional

Math

Flipped

Romantic Period Statistics Theory Skills for International Students 13

TAPPS

Introduction to

13

TAPPS

Differential Equations

Math

Online

13

TAPPS

Programming in

Computer

Large Lecture

Statistics

BIOPERL 13

TAPPS

Introduction to

Science Education

Large Lecture

College Teaching 14

Send-a-Problem

Urban Planning

Business

Traditional

14

Send-a-Problem

Advanced

Respiratory

Flipped

Pathophysiology

Therapy

and Patient Management 14

Send-a-Problem

English Literature

English

Online

14

Case Study

Issues in

Art

Traditional

Political

Flipped

Contemporary Art 14

Case Study

International Relations

15

Case Study

Introduction to

Science Education

Online

Environmental

Traditional

Teaching Online 16

Structured ProblemSolving

16

Structured Problem-

16

Structured Problem-

Solving Solving

Environmental Science Music History and

Science Music

Online

Chemistry

Large Lecture

Literature Introduction to Biochemistry

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CoLT No

CoLT Name

Course Title

Discipline

Classroom Environment

17

Analytic Teams

Organizational Theory

Business

Flipped

17

Analytic Teams

History of the

History

Online

17

Analytic Teams

General Biology

Biology

Traditional

Americas 17

Analytic Teams

Management Seminar

Business

18

Group Investigation

Introduction to

English

Traditional

18

Group Investigation

Plant Biology

Biology

Flipped

18

Group Investigation

Music of Multicultural

Music

Online

Biochemistry

Large Lecture

Research Methods

America 18

Group Investigation

Introduction to Biochemistry

19

Affinity Grouping

English Literature

English

Traditional

19

Affinity Grouping

Strategic Leadership

Business

Online

19

Affinity Grouping

Civil Engineering

Engineering

19

Affinity Grouping

Research Methods

Education

Flipped

19

Affinity Grouping

Orientation to

Horticulture

Traditional

English Literature

English

Traditional

Environmental Horticulture 20

Group Grid

20

Group Grid

Introduction to Art

Art

Traditional

20

Group Grid

Physical

Anthropology

Traditional

20

Group Grid

Principles of Business

Business

Flipped

Anthropology 20

Group Grid

Developmental Math

Math

Online

21

Team Matrix

Music of Multicultural

Music

Traditional

21

Team Matrix

School-Age-Child

Education

Traditional

Political

Flipped

America (5–12) Behavior and Development 21

Team Matrix

Post–World War II Germany

21

Team Matrix

Masterpieces of World

Science Literature

Online

History

Traditional

Geography

Traditional

Business

Flipped

Literature 22

Sequence Chains

History of Western Civilization

22

Sequence Chains

World Regional

22

Sequence Chains

Designing Web Pages

Geography

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Key to Classroom Environment in CoLT Examples

CoLT No

CoLT Name

Course Title

Discipline

381

Classroom Environment

22

Sequence Chains

Masterpieces of

English

Traditional

Education

Online

Art

Traditional

History

Flipped

Nineteenth-Century Russian Literature 22

Sequence Chains

History of College-Level Curriculum

23

Word Webs

Basic Two-Dimensional Design

23

Word Webs

History of the United States from 1877

23

Word Webs

Social Work

Sociology

Online

24

Dialogue Journals

Shakespeare

English

Traditional

24

Dialogue Journals

Introduction to

Political

Traditional

Political Science 24

Dialogue Journals

Introduction to

Science Mathematics

Flipped

Media Studies

Online

Contemporary Mathematics 24

Dialogue Journals

Intro to Mass

25

Round Table

Introduction to

25

Round Table

Principles of

25

Round Table

Technology in Higher

26

Dyadic Essays

African American

26

Dyadic Essays

26 27 27

Peer Editing

Composition, Critical

Communication Scientific Principles

Interdisciplinary Flipped Science Economics

Traditional

Education

Online

English

Traditional

General Biology

Biology

Flipped

Dyadic Essays

Real Estate Principles

Real Estate

Online

Peer Editing

Introduction to

Philosophy

Traditional

English

Online

Psychology

Traditional

Education

Flipped

Philosophy

Online

Macroeconomics Education Literature

Philosophy Reading and Writing 27

Peer Editing

Introduction to Psychobiology

28

Collaborative Process

28

Collaborative Process

Writing Writing

Teaching College Courses Online Comparative World Religions: West

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CoLT No

CoLT Name

Course Title

Discipline

Classroom Environment

28

Collaborative Process Writing

Introduction to Zoology

Biological and

Traditional

Physical Sciences

29

Team Anthologies

Composition and

English

Traditional

Health

Flipped

Reading 29

Team Anthologies

Health Education

Science 29

Team Anthologies

Educational

Education

Online

Photography

Traditional

Anthropology

Large Lecture

Geography

Flipped

Business

Traditional

Foundation 29

Team Anthologies

Introduction to Photographic Expression

29

Team Anthologies

Introduction to Cultural Anthropology

30

Paper Seminar

Survey of World Geography

30

Paper Seminar

Principles of Marketing

30

Paper Seminar

Screenplay Writing

Drama

Online

31

Team Scavenger Hunt

Introduction to

Math

Traditional

31

Team Scavenger Hunt

Qualitative Research

Sociology

Flipped

31

Team Scavenger Hunt

History of Art from the

Art History

Online

English

Traditional

Biology

Online

Education

Traditional

Pharmacology

Flipped

Mathematics Methods Middle Ages to the Renaissance 32

Quizo

Survey of British Literature

32

Quizo

Principles of Cell Biology

33

Friendly Feud

Current Issues in Education

33

Friendly Feud

Fundamentals of Pharmacology

33

Friendly Feud

Children’s Literature

English

Online

34

Team Jeopardy

History of the United

History

Traditional

Education

Flipped

States 34

Team Jeopardy

Education Law

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CoLT No

CoLT Name

Course Title

Discipline

383

Classroom Environment

34

Team Jeopardy

Developmental Math

Math

Online

35

Team Tournaments

Introduction to

Biology

Traditional

Computer

Flipped

Genetics 35

Team Tournaments

Computer Science: Databases

35

Team Tournaments

English: Composition

Science English

Online

Math

Large Lecture

and Reading 35

Team Tournaments

Algebra 1

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Appendix C

Key to Professor Names from CoLT Examples Name

Translation

Discipline

CoLT #

CoLT Name

Sara McShards

Ceramic shards

Anthropology

1

Think-Pair-Share

Mark Etting

Marketing

Business

2

Round Robin

Jen Derr

Gender

Sociology

3

Buzz Groups

Anna Log

Analog

Calculus

4

Talking Chips

Jerry Attricks

Geriatrics

Nursing

4

Talking Chips

Clara Nett

Clarinet

Music

5

Three-Step Interview

Pauline O’Pinions

Polling opinions

Marketing

5

Three-Step Interview

Lex Rex

Lex rex (the king is

Law

6

Critical Debate

Penicillin

Nursing

7

Note-Taking Pairs

Alec Tricity

Electricity

Engineering

7

Note-Taking Pairs

Meg Nacarta

Magna Carta

History

7

Note-Taking Pairs

Tish Oosells

Tissue cells

Human Anatomy

8

Learning Cells

Ann Virement

Environment

Biology

9

Fishbowl

Ann Glish

English

English as a Second

10

Role-Play

Watts D. Matta

What’s the matter?

Psychology

10

Role-Play

Paige Turner

Page turner

Literature

11

Jigsaw

Sara Bellum

Cerebellum

Psychology

12

Test Taking Teams

Cole Ridge

Coleridge

Poetry

12

Test-Taking Teams

Marge N. O’Vera

Margin of error

Statistics

13

TAPPS

law/the law is king) Penny Cillen

Xavier Breath

Save your breath

Respiratory Therapy

14

Send-a-Problem

Fitz William

Fitzwilliam (main

Literature

14

Send-a-Problem

character in Pride and Prejudice)

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Key to Professor Names from CoLT Examples

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385

Name

Translation

Discipline

CoLT #

CoLT Name

Neil Politan Warren Peace Amanda Lin

Neapolitan War and Peace A mandolin

Art Political Science Music

15 15 16

Case Studies Case Studies Structured

Molly Cule

Molecule

Chemistry

16

Problem-Solving Structured

A. Joe

Age of Exploration

History

17

Problem-Solving Analytic Teams

Vexploration Jenn Ettics Clara Fie Phil O’Dendron Anna Littical Allie Gorical Owen Cash Grace Note A. B. Sieze Wes T. Ward Al Luvial Rose E. Riveter Manuel Recount Anna Log Al Kali Penny Wise and

Genetics Clarify Philodendron Elementary Allegorical Owing cash Grace note ABC’s Westward Alluvial Rosie the Riveter Manual recount Analog Alkali Pennywise and

Biology English Biology Education Art Business Music Education Western Civilization Geography History Political Science Math Science Economics

17 18 18 19 20 20 21 21 22 22 23 24 24 25 25

Analytic Teams Group Investigation Group Investigation Affinity Grouping Group Grid Group Grid Team Matrix Team Matrix Sequence Chains Sequence Chains Word Webs Dialogue Journals Dialogue Journals Round Table Round Table

L.B. Foolish Jean Poole Ona Holm Watts Itmene Zeke N.

pound foolish Gene pool Own a home What’s it mean? Seek and ye shall

Biology Real Estate Philosophy Comparative

26 26 27 28

Dyadic Essays Dyadic Essays Peer Editing Collaborative Writing

Yeshallfind Ana Conda Ann O’Tate Sal Monella Rita Booke Matt Finnish Cara Bean Sal N. Stuff Sam Pling

find Anaconda Annotate Salmonella Read a book Matte finish Caribbean Selling stuff Sampling

Religion Zoology Composition Health Education Education Photography World Geography Marketing Sociology

28 29 29 29 29 30 30 31

Collaborative Writing Team Anthology Team Anthology Team Anthology Team Anthology Paper Seminar Paper Seminar Team Scavenger

32 33 34 35 35

Hunt Quizo Team Jeopardy Family Feud Team Tournaments Team Tournaments

Ann Serfirst James Town Addie Tudes Eve O’Lution Hy Marx

Answer first Jamestown Attitudes Evolution High marks

English History Education Biology Computer Science

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A Abrami, P. C., 29 Allen, I. E., xii Allum, P., 330 Ambrose, S. A., 25–26 Anderson, L. W., 42–47, 55 Anderson, T., 30, 99–100 Anderson, V., 101, 107, 110–113 Angelo, T. A., 62–63, 110, 131, 157, 168, 185, 194, 211, 218, 230, 236, 247, 254, 271–272, 277, 286, 287–288, 322, 326, xiv Angelou, M., 303 Annis, L. F., 26 Archer, A., 30, 99 Archer, W., 30 Aronson, E., 78, 218 Astin, A., 23–24, 101 Ayers, L. R., 107 B Bakia, M., 29 Bandura, A., 16 Bang, P., 72 Banta, T. W., 101 Barkley, E., 26, 364 Bean, J. C., 40, 78, 186 Bender, E., 66 Bergeron, K., 29 Bernard, R. M., 29 Berthofff, A., 107 Bethel, E. C., 29 Black, R. H., 223 Blackmon, S. J., 30 Blakely, G., 330 Blaney, N., 78 Bloom, B. S., 42 Bomstad, 11 Bonk, C., 39

Borokhovski, E., 29 Bosworth, K., 66–67 Bowen, J. S., 39 Boyer, E. L., 36 Brassard, M., 267 Bridges, M. W., 25–26 Bromley, K., 296 Brookfield, S. D., 79, 81, 167–169, 186 Brophy, J., 25 Brown, J. S., 19 Bruffee, K. A., 6, 9, 10, 12, 36 Bruner, J., 247, 248 Bull, K. S., 322–323 Byrne, R., 289 C Cabrera, A. F., 25, 28 Campbell, N. A., 314 ˜ Canas, A. J., 261 Cavus, N., 29 Chickering, A., 25, 29 Chopin, K., 264 Christensen, C. R., 242, 243 Clark, K., 98 Cleveland State University, 103 Cohen, G., 66 Collins-Eaglin, J., 22 Community College Leadership Program, 22–23 Connelly, S., 199 Cook, L., 79, 82 Cooper, J., 79, 82 Cooper, S., 330 Cottell, P. G., 6, 65, 66, 79, 81, 82, 83, 86, 87, 95, 102, 114, 120, 138, 141, 158, 174, 179, 184, 194, 216, 231, 237, 247, 248, 295, 305–306, 310–311, 323 Covington, M., 364 Cranton, P., 7, 78, 296

403

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Cross, K. P., 62–63, 101, 110, 131, 157, 168, 185, 194, 211, 218, 230, 236, 242, 247, 254, 271–272, 277, 286, 287–288, 322, 326, xiv Culbertson, H., 120 Cunningham, J. W., 277 Cunningham, P. M., 277 Cuseo, J. B., 5, 27, 79, 82 D Davidson, N., 7 Davis, B. G., 41, 45, 55, 95, 107, 151, 189, 219, 242, 243, 259, 300, 305–306, 315–316 Davis, E. A., 24, 26, 28, 82 Denton, D., 56–57 Dewey, J., 40, 244 Dietz, E. J., 78 Digital-ads.org, 242 Dimeff, L. A., 199 DiPietro, M., 25–26 Dirkx, J. M., xii Donovan, S. S., 20–21, 24, 26, 27 Dunn, M., 66 E Eberlein, T., 12 EC&I 834 Online Education, 105 Educational Resources Information Center, 14 Ehrmann, S. C., 29 El-Khawas, E., 101 Elder, L., 315 Entertainment Software Association, 330 Ewell, P. T., 101 F Fantuzzo, J. W., 199 Felder, G. N., 78 Felder, R. M., 62, 78, 84 Feldman, K. A., 21 Fiechtner, S. B., 24, 26, 28, 82 Fink, L. D., 39, 42, 51–55, 107, 111–112, 223 Flannery, J. L., 10 Flavell, J. H., 61 Fleming, N., 62, 84 Forrester, G., 30 Fowler, G., 289 Fox, S. L., 199 Foyle, H. C., 301 Freire, P., 15 Freud, S., 277 Furneaux, J., 52–54 G Gabelnick, F. J., 77 Gamson, Z. F., 25, 29 Gardner, H., 127 Garrison, D. R., 30, 99 Gavelek, J. R., 17

Gibbs, G., 138, 329 Good, E., 306 Grasha, A. F., 37n1, 62, 84 Groccia, J. E., 72 H Habeshaw, S., 138, 329 Habeshaw, T., 138, 329 Hall, R. M., 78 Hall, T., 282 Hamrin Jr., C. E., 78 Hannibal, M. A., 355 Harnish, J., 329 Harvard Business School, 242 Hastie, P., 331 Henderson, D., 334 Herreid, C. F., 243 Hertz-Lazarowitz, R., 260 Higher Education Research Institute at UCLA, 151 Hillebrand, R. P., 317 Hsu, E., 209 Hughes, C., 81 Hutchings, P., 101 I Ibrahim, D., 29 IBS Center for Management Research, 242 Ip, A., 211 J Jaques, D., 92 Johnson, D. W., 6, 8, 10, 23, 26, 36, 76, 77, 78, 79, 90, 92, 95, 120, 156, 194, 200, 218, 254, 311 Johnson, F. P., 72 Johnson, R. T., 6, 8, 10, 23, 26, 36, 76, 77–78, 79, 90, 95, 200, 254 Jones, K., 29 K Kagan, S., 7, 65, 114, 163, 178, 205, 237, 282, 301 Kampmeier, J., 12 Karabenick, S., 22 Karousou, R., 5 Kendall, B., 66 Kim, A.-H., 261 Kimball, S. L., 322–323 King, Martin Luther, Jr., 287 King, R., 267 Knight, A., 223 Koschmann, T., xii Kosciuk, S. A., 30–31 Krathwohl, D. R., 42–47, 55 Kuh, G., 23 Kvale, S., 9

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Name Index L Lan, W. Y., 24 Larson, C., 66 Lave, J., 19 Light, R. J., 24, 26 Lin, Y., 26, 316 Linser, R., 211 Lochhead, J., 230 Love, G., 77 Lovett, M., 25–26 Lumpe, A., 56–57 Luotto, J. A., 210, 244 Lyall, R., 29 Lyman, F., 156, 158 Lyman, F. T., 158 M MacGregor, J., 66, 77, 231 MacGregor, J. T., 4 MacGregor, R., 77 Mackness, J., 5 Major, C. H., 5, 19, 20, 30, 88, 133–134 Marchese, T. J., 101 Marketing Campaign Case Studies, 242 Marshall University, 289 Matthews, R., 9, 77 Mauney, M., 78 Mayer, R., 25–26 Mazur, E., 149 McClenney, K. M., 101 McKeachie, W. J., 26, 27–28, 41, 64, 79, 101, 106, 120, 130–131, 151, 169, 186, 187, 199, 200, 219, 224, 239, 241, 243, 316 McKenzie, J., 261 McNamara, S., 29 McTighe, J., 42, 47–51, 55, 283 Means, B., 29 Melrose, S., 29 Mentkowski, M., 101 Michaelson, L. K., 223 Michelangelo, 339 Middlecamp, C., 31–32 Millar, S. B., 22, 30–31, 101 Miller, J. E., 31, 72, 85, 87, 123 Miller, M. A., 101 Millis, B. J., 6, 65, 66, 79, 81, 82, 83, 86, 87, 95, 101, 114, 120, 138, 141, 158, 174, 179, 184, 194, 216, 231, 237, 247, 248, 295, 305–306, 310–311, 323 Minderhout, V., 12 Montgomery, D. L., 322–323 Moog, R. S, 12 Moore, D. W., 272, 282 Moran, E. T., 101 Morris, L. A., 316 Morris, T., 73 Motteram, G., 30

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Mueck, R., 79, 82 Murphy, R., 29 N Naidu, S., 211 Nash, J. M., 15 National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science, 242 Nelmes, P., 330 Newcomb, T. M., 21 Nilson, L. B., 63, 75 Norman, M., 25–26 Northern Arizona University, 116 Novak, J. D., 261 Nurrenbern, S., 82 O Olmstead, J. A., 243 P Palinscar, A. S., 17 Paris, S. G., 107 Pascarella, E. E., 5, 21–22 Paul, R., 315 Pavlakis, A., 29, 30 Penberthy, D., 30–31 Perret, K. M., 156 Pew Research Center, 330 Pham, A. X., 51 Pintrich, P. R., 26–28, 316 Platt, T., 12 Plous, S., 208, 211 Prescott, S., 79, 82 Preskill, S., 79, 81, 167–169, 186 R Ramsden, P., 18 Readence, J. E., 272, 282 Reece, J. B., 314 Reichmann, S., 62, 84 Reisinger, D., 330 Reither, J. A., 317 Repman, J., 24 Riggio, R. E., 199 Roby, T. Y., 56–57 Rody, W., 331 Romero, C. C., 21 Rosser, S. V., 78 Rourke, L., 30, 99 Russo, P., 77 S Sadler, P., 306 Säljö, R., 18 Sandler, B. R., 78 Schön, D. A., 224

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Schönwetter, D., 331 Seaman, J., xii Shank, P., 69 Sharan, S., 78, 163, 174, 260, 301 Sharan, Y., 260 Sherman, L., 306 Sherman, S. J., 306 Siemens, G., 20 Sikes, J., 78 Silberman, M., 68, 71, 72, 79, 82, 85, 92, 98, 120, 341 Silverberg, L. A., 78 Simon, E. J., 314 Skirton, H., 330 Slavin, R. E., 8, 12, 26, 216, 371 Smith, B. L., 4, 77 Smith, D. A., 26, 316 Smith, K. A., 6, 7, 8, 23, 26, 36, 76, 77, 78, 90, 95, 156, 194, 200, 218, 254, 311 Smith, L., 79, 82 Smith, R. O., xii Snapp, M., 78 Soloman, B. A., 62, 84 Spires, H. A., 330 Springer, L., 20–21, 24, 26, 27 Stahl, G., xii Stanne, M. E., 20–21, 24, 26, 27 Steadman, M. H., 242 Stephan, C., 78 Stevens, D. D., 17 Stoll, E., 201, 244 Strangman, N., 282 Struthers, D., xii Sugar, S., 330, 347 Surkes, M., 29 T Tamim, R., 29 Terenzini, P. T., 5, 21–22 Theordou, M., 29, 30 Thomas, D., 19 Tiberius, R., 95, 205 Tinto, V., 77 Tobin, L., 317 Todescan, S., 331 Tolstoy, L., 280 Topping, K. J., 17 Toyama, Y., 29

Treisman, U., 24 Trimbur, J., 31, 85, 123 Tucker, S., 316 Tuckman, B., 119–120 U University of Waterloo, 90, 94, 120 Urban Land Institute, 242 Uzunboylu, H., 29 V Varma-Nelson, P., 12 Vaughn, S., 261 Ventimiglia, L. M., 97 Vipond, D., 317 Vygotsky, L. S., 16 W Wade, A., 29 Walvoord, B., 102, 107, 110, 111–113 Wampold, B. E., 30–31 Wanzek, J., 261 Weaver, J., 330 Wei, S., 261 Weimer, M., 10, 11, 39 Wenger, E., 19, 20 Whimbey, A., 230 White, H. G., 12 Wicks, D., 56–57 Wiggins, G., 42, 47–51, 55, 110 Wilkes, J. M., 31, 72, 85, 123 Wilkes, P., 66 Williams, P. H., 30–31 Williams, R., 5 Worsham, T., 7 Wright, B. D., 101 Wright, J. C., 30–31 Y Yaman, D., 364 Z Zakon, A. M., 72 Zembylas, M., 29, 30 Zhang, K., 39

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A Abilities, student: in gaming, 333–334; group formation and, 78, 340, 365, 368–369; in online settings, 134, 142, 213; range in, 16–17, 55–56, 134, 142, 191–192, 340; relevance of, 63, 67, 243; in teaching activities, 212, 217; in writing tasks, 315 Absences, 129 Academic dishonesty, 130–131, 255, 316 Academic failure, 23 Accountability: group, 8; individual, 8, 55, 70, 121, 129, 131–135; institutional, 36 Action-oriented pedagogy, 39 Action prompts, 41 Active learning, 25 Adjourning stage, 120 Adjustment of students, 23 Adobe Connect, 145 Adult students, 27 Affective domain, 42–43 Affinity Grouping, 54, 77, 122, 163, 263–267, 315 African American students, 24 America 2049 game, 335 Analytic Memos, 185, 326 Analytic skills, 43, 46, 226, 254 Analytic Teams, 46, 86, 129, 249–254 Anatomy coursework, 196–197 Animation, 207 Animoto website, 207, 213 Annotation Tool website, 319 Anonymity, 207 Anthologies. See Team Anthologies Anthropology coursework, 155, 214, 270, 321 Anxiety, student. See also Confidence; Resistance; Shyness: course content and, 168, 177, 210, 220, 338, 360; language barriers and, 208; monitoring of, 294; in online classes, 351 Application Cards, 211

Application of knowledge. See also Career preparation: assessment and, 48–50; as cognitive process, 43; description of, 52; examples of, 46, 49, 53–55; role-playing and, 206 Application prompts, 41 Art coursework, 154, 197, 240, 269–270, 320, 339–340 Articulation, 17 Assessment: design and examples of, 21–25, 29, 46–49, 102–107, 179, 185, 248; of learning outcomes, 5, 25, 43, 47, 101–105, 310; of problem-solving, 230, 236, 247–248; purpose of, 163, 217; quality of, 28, 30–31; of reciprocal teaching, 191, 199–200, 218; of student reactions, 322; through games, 330, 332, 365; timing of, 102, 228, 230, 298, 309; of writing skills, 290, 310 Assignments: as alternatives to exams, 150; appropriateness of, 127–128, 129, 134; chunking of, 131, 260, 312; desirable qualities of, 40; in online environments, 56–57; reading, 167; relevance of, 42, 167, 259; research, 184; written, 50, 174, 178, 179, 183, 184, 211 Asynchronous activities: benefits of, 57, 133, 182, 190; communication for, 239; definition of, 144; discussion during, 160; group work in, 88, 135 Attendance policies, 66, 128–129, 134–135. See also Absences Attrition, 24, 177, 228 Audiotaped Protocols, 248 Auditoriums, 85 Authenticity, 53, 55, 122 Authority, 10, 67, 94 Autobiographical sketches, 62 Automatic grading, 304 Autonomy, 6, 10, 36, 124

B Backward design, 47 Ball toss icebreaker, 60

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Banking model of education, 15 Base groups: benefits of, 141, 346, 371; closure for, 98; definition of, 77; drawbacks to, 79; in online settings, 73, 88, 160, 176, 213; roles in, 87; selection for, 82, 84; for writing, 318 Basecamp website, 256 Behavioral learning theory, 6, 16–17 Binary distinctions, 276–277 Bingo. See Quizo Biology coursework, 202–203, 247, 251, 257, 303–304, 346 Blabberize website, 207 Blackboard Collaborate, 82–83, 135, 145 Blended classes, 39 Blogs: definition of, 373; group formation and, 83; icebreaker activities and, 74; instruction through, 207, 293, 295, 303, 314; technology available for, 145 Body language, 73 Bonding in groups, 88 Bookmarking, social, 145, 319, 321, 373 Boredom, 162–163 Brainshark tool, 213, 250 Brainstorming, 88, 159, 248, 300 Breakout space, 85. See also Movable furniture Business coursework, 81–82, 160, 198, 209, 265–266, 271, 325–326 Business model, 81–82, 95, 100, 132 Buzz Groups, 62, 72, 131, 149, 164–169, 314 C Calculus coursework, 22, 171–172, 177 Career preparation, 32, 72, 132, 312, 315 Caring, student, 52 Case banks, 242 Case Studies, 77, 86, 238–243, 328 Catfish and Mandala (Pham), 51 Cause and effect prompts, 41, 279 Cause and Effect Sequence Chain, 281 Cellular phones, 144, 155–156 Challenge prompts, 41 Character analyst role, 252 Character Word Web, 287 Chat rooms, 135, 165–167, 169, 182, 360 Cheating, 130–131, 255, 316 Chemistry coursework, 30–31, 154–155, 166–167, 198, 245–246, 247 Circular response organization. See Round Robin Clarity, need for, 98, 212, 236, 281–282 Class size, 57, 143, 281 Classroom Assessment Techniques (Angelo & Cross), 110 Classroom dynamics, 7, 9, 10 Classroom Opinion Polls, 185 Classroom Salon website, 186, 196, 295 Classroom setup teams, 66 Classroom space, 85, 143, 221–222 Closure: debriefing for, 311, 341; examples of, 173–174, 242; facilitation of, 100; for games, 334; for graphic

organization, 277, 288; need for, 96–97, 139, 168, 211, 217; for problem-solving, 230, 235; for reciprocal teaching, 211 Co-laboring, 4–5 Cognitive domain, 42–43 Cognitive presence, 30 Cognitive process dimensions, 43–47 Cognitive theory, 15–16, 224, 287 Cognitivist learning theory, 6 Collaborative learning. See also Group dynamics; Online collaborative learning; specific CoLTs: benefits of, 26–28, 70–72; challenges to, 66–67, 121–122, 269, 274; definitions of, 4, 9, 12–13; development and facilitation of, 49–51, 90–91, 99–100; disciplinary differences in, 11; empirical study of, 14; grading and assessment of, 105, 111–116; orientation to, 90–91; vs. other types of learning, 5–6, 10–12, 67; overview of techniques for, 137–142; policy related to, 65 Collaborative Process Writing, 77 Collaborative scripts, 57, 99 Collaborative skills, 122–123, 125, 126 Collaborative Writing, 19, 288, 312–317, 322, 325, 328 Collective intelligence, 17 College Bowl quiz show, 362 College Student Experience Questionnaire (CSEQ), 25 Colloquia, 95, 100 Comfort level, 26, 81, 185, 210. See also Anxiety, student CoMindWork website, 256 Common-sense inventory, 63, 75 Communication: among students, 22, 29, 57, 122; facilitation of, 84; with instructor, 21–22, 25, 29, 92–94, 99; online, 19, 245; skills for, 173, 175; timing of, 144; value of, 19–20, 29 Communications coursework, 295 Communities of practice, 19–20 Community: creation of, 23, 25, 191, 196, 313, 351, 360, 364, 368; importance of, 23, 131 Community College Survey of Student Engagement (CCSSE), 22–23 Community manager role, 89 Community of inquiry model, 20 Commuter students, 27 Competency-based grading, 106–107 Competition: between groups, 131, 222, 333, 344, 357; as impetus for learning, 6; stress related to, 360; in traditional classrooms, 67 Complex projects, 55, 88, 256 Comprehension. See Understanding Compromise-based decision-making, 94. See also Negotiation Computer science coursework, 369–370 Concept maps, 284. See also Word Webs Conceptual knowledge, 44, 45, 47 Conceptual networks, 287 Confidence, 22, 32, 177, 298. See also Anxiety, student Connections icebreaker, 60 Connector role, 249–250, 253

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Subject Index Conscientization, 107 Consensus decision-making, 94 Content-coverage pedagogy, 42 Context factors, 11, 57 Continuity of information, 278 Continuums, 276 Contract grading, 106 Cooperative learning: vs. collaborative learning, 10–12; definition of, 6–8; effects of, 20–21, 23, 25; empirical study of, 14, 20–21, 33n1; in K–12 education, 6; vs. lecture format, 30–31 Corkboard website, 264 Correction in group work, 93 Count off group selection, 80 Course-concept mapping, 63 Course goals. See Learning goals CreateDebate website, 182 Creately website, 264 Creating Significant Learning Experiences (Fink), 42, 51–52 Creation of knowledge, 43, 47 Creative writing, 300 Criterion-based decision-making, 94 Criterion-referenced grading, 106 Critic role, 249–250 Critical Debate, 46, 82, 136, 180–186, 315 Critical prompts, 41 Criticism, constructive, 255, 316 Crocodoc website, 298 Cultural differences, 204–205 Curator role, 89 Curriculum connections, 104 Cyberbullying, 286 Cycle Maps, 287 D Data coding, 265 Data gatherer role, 89 Data manager role, 89 Deadlines, 57, 116, 260. See also Assignments; Time limits Debate. See Critical Debate Debate.fm website, 182 DebateGraph website, 264, 284 Debatewise website, 182 Debriefing, 311, 334, 341 Decision-making techniques, 94, 251–252 Deep learning, 18 Defining Features Matrix, 277 Design coursework, 215, 280–281, 284–285 Desire2Learn website, 145 Developmental coursework, 309 Diagnostic prompts, 41 Diagramming skills, 284 Dialogue Journals: closure and, 96; description and examples of, 47, 51, 54–55, 292–295; grading and,

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115; guidance for, 295–296; as orientation activity, 62; variations on, 295 Difficulty level, 45, 55, 144. See also Abilities, student Digital products, 104 Diigo website, 319 Direct online instruction, 100 Directed Paraphrasing, 168, 218 Directive supervision, 92–93 Discourse facilitation, 99 Discovery Learning, 247 Discovery Method, 247 Discrimination, gender, 165 Discussion CoLTs: Buzz Groups, 164–169; Critical Debate, 180–186; list of, 152; online, 146; Round Robin, 159–163; Talking Chips, 170–174; Think-Pair-Share, 153–158; Three-Step Interview, 175–179 Discussion forums: discussion in, 171; private, 245; problem-solving and, 233, 239, 256; reciprocal teaching and, 213, 220; writing and, 293, 319 Discussions: in-class vs. out-of-class, 24; relative value of, 7, 140, 151; semistructured, 168 Dissent, 6 Distraction avoidance, 344 Diversity, structural, 17, 27 Diversity of perspectives, 32, 78, 82 DNA-Double Helix game, 335 Documented Problem Solutions, 230, 248 Doodle website, 239 Dreamweaver, 215 Dropr website, 250 Dyadic Essay Confrontations, 306 Dyadic Essays, 50, 140–141, 302–306 E Economics coursework, 45, 298–299 Editing. See Peer Editing Editor role, 89 Education coursework: discussion in, 166; games, 351–353, 360–361; graphic organizing in, 281; problem-solving in, 235, 241; reciprocal teaching in, 203; writing in, 299, 314, 321 Educative Assessment (Wiggins), 110 Effective Grading (Walvoord & Anderson), 110 Effort level, 144 Elluminate website, 89, 145 Email, 176, 190, 193, 293 Empathy, 48–51 Empowerment, 106 Engagement of students, 147 Engineering coursework, 191 English coursework, 155–156, 208, 220, 234–235, 264–265, 309–310, 319–320, 370 Enjoyability, 32 Enterprise level, 144 Entry/exit ticket, 66, 199 Environmental science coursework, 245

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Equity, 4, 70 ESL coursework, 208, 227, 309 Essays, 50, 83, 211, 303–305. See also Dyadic Essays Ethnic/racial minority students, 22, 24, 27, 28, 78 Ethnic studies coursework, 197–198, 303 ETUDES software, 145 Evaluation. See Assessment Evaluative prompts, 41 Events Sequence Chain, 281 Examinations: alternatives to, 150; development of, 214–215; group, 50, 115, 219–223; in online settings, 220; preparation for, 149, 198, 222, 235; use of, 65, 70, 84, 216, 228 Example giver role, 250 Examples, use of, 91, 98, 116, 122, 203, 283 Experiments, 246 Expertise, student. See Abilities, student; Peer tutoring Expertise, teacher, 6–7, 15, 242 Explaining, 48–49 Exploratory prompts, 41 Exploratree website, 264 Extension activities, 128, 135–136, 229 Extension prompts, 41 Extinction, 313 F Face-to-face classrooms. See Traditional onsite learning Facilitators, 86, 364. See also Teacher presence Factual knowledge, 44–46 Faculty. See Teachers Familiarity, development of, 53, 213 Family Feud, 348, 351 Feedback. See also Assessment; Praise: to groups, 125–126, 131; to individuals, 122–125, 130, 133, 171; need for, 296 Film studies coursework, 204, 327–328 Financial aid, 23 Fine arts, 25 Firo-B, 84 Firo-B inventory, 62 Fishbone Maps, 287 Fishbowl, 126, 201–205, 210 Flexibility, 5, 10, 37, 102, 213, 358 Flickr website, 321 Flipped classes: definition of, 39, 143; discussion in, 155; games in, 339, 345, 353–354, 360–361, 369–370; graphic organizing in, 265, 271, 276, 280–281, 285–286; problem-solving in, 228–229, 234, 240–241, 245–246, 251–252, 257; reciprocal teaching in, 191–192, 197, 203, 209, 214, 221; writing in, 294, 299, 303–304, 314, 320–321, 326–327 Flow chart, 280 Folder monitor role, 86 Folios, 66 ForAndAgainst website, 182 Foreign language coursework, 161, 162 Formal groups, 84 Formative assessment, 42, 52, 110, 309

Forming stage, 120 Foundational knowledge, 52 14Dayz website, 256 Free-form group selection, 79–81 French coursework, 161 Friendly Feud, 348–355 Furniture, 85, 147–148, 161, 221 G Gallery of achievements, 97, 100 Game CoLTs: assessment through, 330, 332, 365; elements of, 331, 332; facilitation of, 364; Friendly Feud, 348–355; list of, 335; losing in, 334, 340; in online environments, 146; Quizo, 342–347; Team Games Tournament, 365–371; Team Jeopardy, 356–364; Team Scavenger Hunt, 336–341; value of, 140, 330, 364 Games, online, 330, 338 Gender studies, 165–166 Genetics coursework, 368–369 Geography coursework, 280, 326–327 Geology coursework, 216 Geriatrics coursework, 191–192 Glogster EDU tool, 213, 239 Goal matching, 62 Goals. See Learning goals Goals theory, 25 Google Docs: collaboration through, 193, 375–376; games and, 338, 339, 344, 346, 349, 370; group formation with, 83; information organization and, 271, 276; notetaking and, 190; reciprocal teaching and, 193; writing and, 338 Google Hangouts, 89, 100, 135, 176 Grading: approaches to, 106–107, 111–116, 132, 304, 310; challenges in, 316; emphasis on, 22, 101; of graphic organization, 286; group, 109, 111, 114, 117, 221–223, 306, 322; importance of, 110, 310–311; individual, 114, 117, 322; inflation of, 112; in online settings, 116–117; of problem-solving, 230; of writing, 306, 316 Graphic information organizer CoLTs: Affinity Grouping, 263–267; definition and types of, 140, 262; Group Grid, 268–272; in online environments, 146; Sequence Chains, 278–282; Team Matrix, 273–277; value of, 261; Word Webs, 283–288 Graphic organization tools, 264 Graphics, types of, 286 Grasha & Reichmann Student Learning Styles inventory, 62, 84 Grids, 268, 273–274 Ground rules, 67–69, 74–75 Group duration, 140–141 Group dynamics. See also Competition: accountability in, 8; assessment of, 109, 111, 125–126; CoLTs to address, 172; coordination of, 239; development of, 120; power in, 9–10; problems in, 4, 6, 32, 82, 85, 124–125 Group evaluation. See Grading

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Subject Index Group Grid, 45, 62, 67, 70, 115, 268–272 Group Investigation, 50, 54, 131, 150, 255–260, 315 Group learning contract, 68–69, 135 Group processing, 8, 108 Group products, 102–105 Group reform, 125, 129, 134, 135 Group résumé, 70–71 Group-Work Evaluations, 322 Groups: changes to, 84–85; diversity of, 78–79, 114; formality of, 76–77, 79; frequency of membership in, 23; norms and roles within, 86–87, 130–131; online, 89; selection of, 79–84, 123, 125, 128, 246, 365; types of, 76–78 Guided reciprocal peer teaching, 199 Gun control, 183 H Handheld devices, 144, 155–156 Health coursework, 320–321 Hearing-impaired students, 90 Heterogeneous groups, 82–83, 365, 368–369 Hierarchical information, 287 High-achieving students, 126, 127, 134. See also Abilities, student Historical researcher role, 253 History coursework: collaborative learning in, 49–51; discussion in, 171; games in, 339–340, 360; graphic organizing in, 276, 279–281, 285–286; problem-solving in, 252–253; reciprocal teaching in, 192, 209 Homework, 156, 177, 194, 217, 305. See also Assignments Homogeneous grouping, 79, 82–83, 366 Horticulture coursework, 264 How Learning Works: Seven Research-Based Principles for Smart Teaching (Ambrose et al.), 25 Human dimension of knowledge, 52–53 Human Interaction Sequence Chain, 281 Humanities coursework, 11 Humor, 93, 179 Hybrid classes, 39, 295. See also Flipped classes Hyperlinks, 105 Hypothesis testing, 247 Hypothetical prompts, 41 I Icebreaker activities, 59–61, 74, 176, 210 Illuminate software, 145 Immersive environments: definition of, 145; discussion in, 176, 178, 182; games in, 338, 351, 354, 360, 368; reciprocal teaching in, 196, 202, 207, 209, 210; reporting-out in, 100 Improvement-based grading, 107, 223 Individualistic learning, 6, 195, 213, 221, 284 Individuals: accountability of, 8, 121, 129, 131, 134–135; guidance for, 114, 122–123, 130, 171; role of, in groups, 4

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Informal groups, 79, 84 Information integration, 16 Information vs. understanding, 18 Inside Outside Circles. See Fishbowl Inspiration website, 264, 284 Instant messaging, 145, 202, 245, 279, 340, 344, 346 Institutional accountability, 36 Instructional design, 64, 99 Instructions, 90–92, 98–100, 236, 311 Integration of information, 16 Integration of students, 23 Intelligences, multiple, 127 Intentional design, 4–5 Intentionality, 39 Interactive group learning. See Collaborative learning; Cooperative learning Interconnectedness of ideas, 279–280 Interdependence, 55, 121, 128, 130, 132, 134–135 Integrated learning, 101 International relations coursework, 240–241 International students, 27, 227 Internet literacy skills, 338 Interpersonal skills, 122–123, 133, 195. See also Group dynamics Interpretation of knowledge, 48, 50 Interpretation prompts, 41 Interviews, 50, 59, 175, 178 Introductory courses, 268 Isolation in online learning, 29 J Jargon, 12 Jigsaw: class projects and, 150; description and examples of, 47, 54, 55, 212–216; group leadership and, 126; guidance for, 216–218; variations on, 216, 288, 322, 347 Jigsaw 2, 216 Jigsaw matchups, 81 Journals, communal, 295. See also Dialogue Journals K K–12 cooperative learning, 6 Knowledge: acquisition and creation of, 9, 16, 19–20, 43, 47, 53–54; dimensions and organization of, 16, 43–47, 63; pooling of, 19; vs. understanding, 47–49 Knowledge banks, 259 Kolb LSI, 62, 84 L Laboratories, 85 Language barriers, 90, 123, 364 Large-enrollment classes: breakout sessions in, 147–149; discussion in, 154–155, 161, 167; games in, 363; group formation in, 78; problem-solving in, 228, 235, 247; reciprocal teaching in, 190–191, 198, 202–203, 216, 221; writing in, 299, 321 Lawsuits, 114

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Leadership, 94, 125–127, 134 Leadership coursework, 265–266 Learner-centered pedagogy, 42 Learning: assessment of, 5, 48–49; hierarchy of, 18; need for innovation in, 52; process of, 45; as a social act, 16–17; student involvement in, 24; types of, 16–17, 19, 25, 29, 61, 101 Learning by doing. See Role-Play Learning Cells, 53, 149, 195–200, 371 Learning communities, 77 Learning disabled students, 126–127 Learning goals: centrality of, 42, 48, 55, 106; clarity of, 64, 102; development of, 44–45, 53–55; grading and, 106; lack of, 51; in online learning, 98; student, 10, 25, 62 Learning how to learn, 52 Learning management system (LMS), 145, 239, 245, 271, 295, 369. See also LMS messaging Learning outcomes, 10, 57 Learning plans, 241 Learning style inventory, 62 Learning styles, 84, 254 Learning tasks. See Assignments LearningWare website, 363 Learnist website, 250, 319 Lecture halls, 85 Lectures, 24, 30–31, 45, 51, 58. See also Large-enrollment classes Legal coursework, 161, 182, 360–361 Legitimate peripheral participation, 19 Libraries, 259 Likert scales, 83 Line up and divide group selection, 81 Listening skills, 173, 226–231 Literature coursework, 214, 276, 280, 293, 303, 344–345, 354 LMS messaging, 196, 213, 233. See also Learning management system (LMS) Logical thinking, 229, 278 Long-term assignments, 79 Long-term groups. See Base groups Losing in games, 334, 340 Low-achieving students, 126, 128, 134. See also Abilities, student Lower division coursework, 57 M Majority decision-making, 94 Marginalization, 78. See also Group dynamics Marketing coursework, 178, 325–326 Massive open online courses (MOOCs), 88, 145, 306 Mastery-based grading, 106 Mathematics coursework: discussion in, 161–162, 171–172; games in, 338–339, 361–362, 370–371; graphic organizing in, 271–272; problem-solving in, 229; writing in, 294 Matrices, 268, 273–274 Meaning, shared, 9

Meaningful learning, 4–5 Media studies, 167 Medical coursework, 172, 177, 234, 320–321 Meeting Words website, 298 Membership, sense of, 23 Mental illness, 122 Metacognitive knowledge, 44, 47, 61 Meyers-Briggs Type Indicator, 62, 84 Microblogs, 145, 156, 160, 207, 250, 303, 373 Milestone deadlines, 57 MindMeister website, 264 Mindomo website, 264 Minute Paper, 157, 194 Miscommunication, value of, 74 Missionaries, 240 Mobile devices, 144, 155–156 Modeling, 16–17, 91, 98, 116, 122, 203, 283, 304 Moodle software, 145 Motivational researchers, 25 Movable furniture, 85, 147–148, 161, 221 Muddiest Point, 298 Multidimensional learning, 101 Multilayer tasks, 247 Multimedia specialist role, 89 Multiple intelligences, 127 Multiple-session groups: for problem-solving, 226, 238, 244, 255; for reciprocal teaching, 189, 195, 212; for writing, 292, 302, 307, 312, 318, 324 Music analyst role, 252 Music coursework, 176–177, 221–222, 246–247, 258–259, 274–275 N Name game, 59 National Survey of Student Engagement (NSSE), 22–23 Negative minority decision-making, 94 Negotiation: challenges in, 122, 284; goals of, 9, 17, 94; teacher role in, 109, 119 Network Trees, 287 Neuroscience, 15–16 Nobelprize.com website, 335 Nondirective role, 243 Norming stage, 120 Norms, 130–131 Note-Taking Pairs, 96, 149, 189–194 Nursing coursework, 172. See also Medical coursework O Objectives. See Learning goals Observations, 16–17, 19, 91–94. See also Fishbowl Occupational therapy coursework, 345–346 Odd-even group selection, 80 Off-task behavior, 124, 135, 165, 168 Online collaborative learning. See also Flipped classes; Online education: benefits of, 18–20, 29–30, 88, 207, 213; challenges in, 132–136, 269, 274, 284; design of, 56–57, 73–75, 98–100, 116–117, 142, 144–147, 202,

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Subject Index 308, 373–376; discussion in, 154–156, 160–161, 165–167, 169, 171–172, 176, 178, 180, 182–183, 186; games in, 334–335, 338–340, 344, 346, 351, 354, 360–362, 368, 370; graphic organizers in, 264, 269, 271–272, 274, 276, 279, 281, 284, 286; group membership in, 81, 88–89; in-person meetings and, 73; problem-solving in, 227, 229, 233–235, 239, 241, 245–247, 250, 252–253, 256, 258–259; reciprocal teaching in, 190, 192, 196–198, 202, 204, 207, 209, 213, 215, 220, 225, 227; student role in, 190, 204; teacher role in, 368; writing in, 293, 298, 299, 303–305, 308–310, 313–315, 319, 321, 325, 327–328 Online communication skills, 182, 202, 245, 250, 308 Online education, 5, 19–20. See also Online collaborative learning Online polling services, 185 Online transferability, moderate, 255 Open environments, 145, 213 Open mindedness, 57 OpenSpace3D platform, 145 Oral histories, 50 Organizational theory coursework, 251–252 Orientation, 57, 63, 73–75, 121, 125, 132 Out-of-class interactions, 21, 39, 143 P Pacing in groups, 32, 91, 128, 135–136, 308 Padlet website, 264 Pairs: benefits of, 77, 123, 149; discussion and, 153; graphic organizers and, 273; long-tem, 294, 296; matching of, 178–179; problem-solving and, 226, 227; reciprocal teaching and, 189, 195; writing and, 292, 302, 307 Panels, 95, 100, 168 Paper Seminar, 77, 129, 315, 324–329 Participation: grading based on, 310–311; requirements for, 135, 163; tracking of, in online classes, 319; variation in, 128–130, 165, 170–173, 202–203, 249, 299; ways to increase, 249 Parties, 97 Partners. See Pairs Passive activities, 249 Pavlov’s Dog game, 335 Pedagogy, 6, 9, 24, 39, 42 Peer checking, 281. See also Dialogue Journals Peer Editing, 140, 307–311, 315, 328 Peer editing groups, 88 Peer evaluation, 108–110, 308 Peer interactions. See Communication Peer-led team learning (PLTL), 12 Peer tutoring, 17, 19, 26, 177, 192. See also Abilities, student Performance-based grading, 106 Performance vs. learning goals, 25 Performing stage, 120 Peripheral participation, 19 Persistence, 21, 24. See also Retention rates Personal development, 23–25

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Personality inventory, 62 Perspective, 48, 50 Pharmacy coursework, 353–354 Philosophy coursework, 182, 308–309 Photo essays, 322 Photo sharing, 319 Photographs of student work, 97 Photography coursework, 320 Physically disabled students, 126 Physics coursework, 52–55, 190–191, 192–193 Physiology coursework, 196–197 Pinboards, 160, 264–265, 269, 274, 279, 284, 298, 299, 319, 375 Pinterest website, 250, 319 Plagiarism, 255, 316 Planning, importance of, 139 Playing cards, 80 Policies and procedures, 64–66, 98, 129, 130, 132 Policy studies, 257 Political correctness, 185 Political science coursework, 294 PollDaddy website, 185 Portfolios, 191 Positive interdependence, 8 Poster sessions, 96, 100 PowerPoint software, 349, 351 Practical experience of instructors, 242 Praise. See also Feedback: examples of, 97–98; for in-class work, 241; for online work, 100; value of, 92–93, 120–122, 125–126, 128, 133 Preassessments, 230 Presentation skills, 325 Prezi website, 286, 325 Primary trait analysis, 106–107 Prime numbers, 271 Priority prompts, 41 Privacy, 67, 293 Prizes, 334, 342, 363 Pro and Con Grids, 185, 271, 272 Problem-based learning, 39, 224 Problem (definition), 224 Problem posting, 63 Problem prompts, 41 Problem Recognition Tasks, 230, 247 Problem-solving abilities, 140, 244. See also Problem-solving CoLTs Problem-solving CoLTs: Analytic Teams, 249–254; Case Studies, 238–243; Group Investigation, 255–260; list of, 225; in online environments, 146; Send-a-Problem, 232–237; Structured Problem Solving, 244–248; Think-Aloud Pair Problem-Solving (TAPPS), 226–231 Procedural knowledge, 44, 46 Procedures. See Policies and procedures Process-oriented guided inquiry learning (POGIL), 12 Proconit website, 182 Programming coursework, 228 Progressive disclosure format, 242

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Progressive grading, 310 Promotive interaction, 8 Prompts, 40–41, 91, 92, 99 Proofreading, 315 Proponent role, 249–250 Psychological adjustment, 23 Psychology coursework, 208, 221, 275–276, 309 Psychomotor domain, 42–43 Q Quads, 184 Qualitative assessments, 24, 29 Quantitative assessments, 21–25, 29 Quarter system, 57 Question types. See Prompts Questioner role, 250 Quia website, 33, 335 Quizo, 342–347 Quizzes. See Examinations R Race relations coursework, 197–198 Random group assignment, 79–81, 84 Rationality as learning outcome, 10 Real estate coursework, 304–305 Real world vs. academics, 178, 313 Reciprocal Letter Writing, 295 Reciprocal peer teaching CoLTs: definition and role of, 126–127, 140, 187; Fishbowl, 201–205; Jigsaw, 212–218; Learning Cell, 195–200; list of, 188; Note-Taking Pairs, 189–194; Role-Play, 206–211; Test-Taking Teams, 219–223 Reciprocal peer tutoring, 199 Recorder role, 86 Reentry students, 27 Referees, 210 Reflection, 139, 173–174, 217, 230, 295. See also Closure; Reporting-out Reflective listeners, 210 Reform of groups, 125, 129, 134, 135 Relational prompts, 41 Relevance, 23, 42, 55, 167, 259 Religion coursework, 314–315 Remedial coursework, 309 Remembering of information, 43, 45 Reporter role, 86 Reporting-out: in online settings, 100; purposes of, 94–96, 179; strategies for and examples of, 94–96, 157, 168, 179, 199–200, 272 Research assignments, 184, 255, 256, 259–260, 324–328. See also Group Investigation; Team Anthologies Research methods coursework, 257, 265, 339 Resistance. See also Anxiety, student: to group work, 11, 114, 132, 151; solutions to, 58, 121–122, 254 Restoration era, 344–345 Retention rates, 24, 177, 228 Rigor, 22

Role assignment, 86–87, 123, 134, 136 Role-Play, 46, 54, 82, 127, 206–211 Role reversal, 185 Rotating trios, 95, 100, 260 Round Robin. See also Round Table: description and examples of, 159–162; group dynamics and, 87, 122; guidance for, 162–163; large classes and, 149; as orientation activity, 62–64, 67, 72; variations on, 162, 257, 259, 315 Round Table, 76, 297–301. See also Round Robin Rubrics, 50, 102–105 Rules for interaction, 91, 98, 333 S Sakai tool, 145 Scaffolding, 16, 19 Scavenger hunt. See Team Scavenger Hunt Scheduling tools, 239 Schemata, 287 Scholarship of teaching, 36 Science coursework: collaboration in, 52–55; discussion in, 154–155, 166–167; games in, 346, 368–369; problem-solving in, 245–246; reciprocal teaching in, 190–191, 192–193, 196–197, 198, 202–203, 216; writing in, 299, 303–304, 313–314 Scoring of games, 332–333 Second Life virtual world, 145, 354, 360 Self-assessment, 62, 107–109, 304, 315 Self-Assessment of Ways of Learning, 254 Self-awareness, 48, 50–51, 61–64, 122 Seminars, 85, 95, 100 Semistructured conversations, 168 Send-a-Problem, 149, 232–237 Sensory stimulation, 15 Sentence diagramming, 227–228 Sequence Chains, 96, 247, 278–282 Service-based learning, 39 Seven Principles for Good Practice in Undergraduate Education (Chickering & Gamson), 25 Shared meaning, 9, 17 Short-term assignments, 79 Shyness: reasons for, 151; reciprocal teaching and, 208; respect for, 61; small groups and, 123; spontaneity and, 165; structure to address, 163, 170, 173, 250 Signal to stop, 66 Significant learning experiences (Fink), 51–52 Single-session groups: for discussion, 153, 159, 164, 170, 175, 180; for games, 336, 342, 348, 356, 365; for graphic organization, 263, 268, 273, 278, 283; for problem-solving, 226, 232, 238, 249; for reciprocal teaching, 189, 195, 201, 206, 212; for writing, 292, 297, 302 Situated learning, 19 Six Facets of Enduring Understanding (Wiggins & McTighe), 55 Six-step problem solving technique, 244–245 Skills. See Abilities, student Skype, 89, 176, 196, 229

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Subject Index Sliderocket website, 213 Slideshare website, 213, 250 Small classes, 281 Small-group skills. See Teamwork skills Small-group stations, 96 Smartphones, 144, 155–156 Snowball Discussion, 167–168 Social constructivism, 9, 17 Social dynamics, 54. See also Group dynamics Social icebreakers, 59–61 Social interaction, 17 Social networking, 57 Social presence, 30 Social work coursework, 171, 286 Sociology coursework, 183, 339 Software, 145 Soloman and Felder Learning Styles, 62, 84 Sorting of ideas, 263–266. See also Graphic information organizer CoLTs Spider Maps, 286 Sponge activities, 125, 128, 135–136, 229 Spontaneous activities, 164–165, 182 Sports, 333 Stand Up and Share, 95, 338 Standardized assessment instruments, 21 Standards for grading, 106, 112–113 Statics coursework, 191 Statistics coursework, 221, 228–229 STEM fields, 11, 21, 25 Stereotypes, 78, 208 Storify website, 250, 319 Stormboard tool, 245, 250 Storming stage, 120 Storybird tool, 239 Storyboards, 300 Stratification, 82 Structure, value of, 7, 10, 11 Structured Academic Controversy, 184 Structured Problem Solving, 244–248 Student folders, 66 Students. See also Abilities, student; Anxiety, student; Communication; Community; Learning; Participation: accountability of, 8; achievement and development of, 21–25, 36, 97–98, 100, 223; adjustment of, 23; attitudes of, 16–17, 21–24, 28–29, 31–32, 52, 194, 287; autonomy of, 36; characteristics of, 27, 165, 330; confidence of, 22, 168, 298; honesty of, 130–131; minority, 22, 24; motivations of, 8, 24, 25, 81; needs of, 55–56; perceptions and beliefs of, 26–28, 58, 61, 65, 180, 183; persistence of, 21, 24; reflections of, 157, 295; satisfaction of, 23–24, 26, 79, 163; self-awareness of, 61–64, 107–109, 254; as teachers, 54 (See also Reciprocal peer teaching) Study groups, 115, 149 Study guides, 191, 197, 214–215, 269–270, 304 Study sessions, 21, 24 Summarizer role, 249–250 Summary prompts, 41

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Summative assessment, 109–110 Supportive interaction, 92–94 Surface learning, 18 Survey marketing coursework, 178 Surveygizmo website, 185 SurveyMonkey website, 83, 185 Surveys, 182 Syllabi, 64–65, 74 Symposia, 95, 100 Synchronous activities: CoLTs and, 144, 160, 166–167, 227; minimization of, 57; in online settings, 88, 136, 171, 172, 178, 182; technology for, 145, 245, 250 Synthesis of learning, 96–97, 100

T Tagul website, 169 Tagxedo website, 169 Talking Chips, 122, 170–174 Taskmaster role, 128 Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching and Assessing (Anderson & Krathwol), 55 Taxonomy of educational objectives (Bloom), 42–43 Taxonomy of significant learning (Fink), 51–55 Teacher presence. See also Teachers: to build trust, 30; debate about, 36; establishment of, 120, 125, 133, 135; in games, 333–334, 340; as moderator, 92–94, 93, 124, 209, 243, 368; as monitor, 91–94, 139, 306; need for, 120, 124, 165; in written word, 296 Teachers. See also Communication; Teacher presence: assessment by, 106–107; authority of, 10; beliefs of, 27–28, 185; demands on, 36; desirable qualities of, 217; effect of group work on, 32; effort of, 144; expectations of, 64, 67, 70, 73–74, 113, 121, 132, 139; expertise of, 6–7, 15, 242; role of, in group work, 36, 92–94; role of, in learning, 6–7, 9–10, 36, 40, 97, 119–120; self-perceptions of, 36–37; student perceptions of, 24, 26 Teaching Style Inventory, 37n1 Team agreements, 69 Team Anthologies, 150, 318–322 Team Games Tournaments, 149, 365–371 Team hiring, 81–82 Team Interviews, 178 Team Jeopardy, 356–364 Team Matrix, 46–47, 63, 273–277 Team rotation, 95, 100 Team Scavenger Hunt, 336–341 Teambox website, 298 Teamwork skills, 8, 55 Technology. See also Online collaborative learning; Online education: capabilities of, 57, 142; student comfort with, 20, 178, 351, 360; use of, in classrooms, 39, 53–55, 155, 156; use of, in writing, 317; value of, 135 Technology coursework, 215, 299 Term-length projects, 77, 195, 255 Term papers, 259–260, 322, 324–328

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Test banks, 221–222, 346 Test-Taking Teams: closure and, 96; description and examples of, 50, 219–222; grading and, 115; guidance for, 222–223; test preparation and, 149; variations on, 70, 216, 222, 305, 363–364, 371 Tests. See Examinations Text matchups, 81 Think-Aloud Pair Problem-Solving (TAPPS), 46, 138–139, 149, 226–230 Think-Pair-Share: ability levels and, 126–128; class participation and, 138; closure and, 96; description and examples of, 45, 53, 153–156; guidance for, 156–157; interpersonal skills and, 122; large classes and, 149; online implementation of, 154; variations on, 61–63, 156, 314 Thinking, higher-level, 28 Thinking processes, 227 Threaded discussions, 160, 182, 298 Three before me statement, 65 Three stay one stray model, 95, 100 Three-Step Interview, 47, 59, 68, 175–179 Time limits. See also Deadlines: determination of, 48, 236; need for, 91, 157, 179, 371; in online settings, 176; pressure from, 196; relevance of, 141, 163, 168 Time-tracking tools, 256 Timekeeper role, 86, 128, 136 Timelines, 279 TitanPad website, 298 Topic selection, 185 Touching, comfort with, 204–205 Traditional onsite learning: CoLTs in, 160–161, 165–166, 182–183; definition of, 143; discussion in, 171, 176–177; games in, 338–339, 344–345, 351–353, 360, 368–369; graphic organizing in, 264–265, 269–270, 274–276, 279–280, 284–285; problem-solving in, 227, 233, 240, 245, 251, 257; reciprocal teaching in, 191, 196–197, 208, 214, 220, 221–222; writing in, 293–294, 298–299, 303, 308–309, 313–314, 319–320, 325–326 Traditional vs. collaborative learning, 67 Trainer’s Warehouse website, 363 Trello website, 256 Triad Listening, 210 Triads, use of, 95, 100, 210, 314 Tricider tool, 182 Trust, 71–72, 108, 205, 229, 296, 340. See also Community Tumblr website, 250, 303. See also Microblogs Tutorials, online, 370 Tutoring, peer, 19, 26, 177, 192 Twitter, 156, 160, 207, 250, 303. See also Microblogs U Understanding: deepening of, 17, 48, 49, 54; definition of, 43; examples of, 45–46; formative assessment of, 298; vs. knowing, 18, 47; levels and facets of, 18, 48 Understanding by Design (Wiggins & McTighe), 42, 47–49, 51

University of California, Berkeley, 24 University of Wisconsin, 30 Urban planning coursework, 233 V Values, educational, 101 Variable-length groups, 219, 292, 302 Venn diagrams, 277 Video games, 330 Videoconferencing, 145, 269, 279, 344, 360 Videos, value of, 211, 213, 241 Videotaped Protocols, 248 Virtual environments. See Immersive environments Virtual participation, 325 Visual, Auditory, Reading/Writing, Kinesthetic (VARK) inventory, 62, 84 Visual analyst role, 252 Visual maps. See Sequence Chains Vita trading, 74 Voice chat, 145 Voiceover Internet protocol (VoIP), 160, 176, 196, 227, 229 VoiceThread website, 100, 196, 227, 374 Voki website, 207, 375 Voting, 94, 155, 229, 241, 256, 338 W Web-based interfaces, 145 Web conferencing, 145, 171, 182, 227, 325, 344, 362, 368. See also Chat rooms WebEx website, 89, 145 Website creation, 258 What’s the Principle?, 236, 248 Whiteboards. See Pinboards Whodunit? (icebreaker), 60 Wiggio website, 245, 250 Wiki applications, 190, 213, 227, 239, 256, 314, 338 Wikispaces tool, 256 Wildcard role, 86 Wimba Classroom, 145 Wimba Voice, 374 Within-Team Jigsaw, 216 Women, 27, 78 Word clouds, 156, 169 Word processing software, 310, 313 Word Webs: closure and, 96; description and examples of, 45, 140, 283–286; guidance for, 287–288; as orientation tool, 63; vs. Sequence Chains, 281; variations on, 163, 286–287, 315 Wordle application, 156, 169 Work plans, 241 World War II, 285–286 Wridea website, 160 Write-Pair-Share, 61 Writing. See also Writing CoLTs: assignments for, 50, 174, 178–179, 183–184, 211, 310–311; value of, 289–290

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Subject Index Writing Across the Curriculum, 289, 303–304 Writing CoLTs. See also Writing: Collaborative Writing, 312–317; Dialogue Journals, 292–296; Dyadic Essays, 302–306; list of, 290–291; in online environments, 146; Paper Seminar, 324–329; Peer Editing, 307–311; Round Table, 297–301; Team Anthologies, 318–323 Writing coursework, 300, 327–328

Y YourNameExplain.com, 74 Z Zone of proximal development, 16 Zoology coursework, 313–314

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