Clipped Wings: The Rise and Fall of the Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASPs) of World War II 9781479805792

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Clipped Wings

Clipped Wings The Rise and Fall of the Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASPs) of World War II

Molly Merryman

New York University Press Classics New York

NEW YORK UNIVERSITY PRESS New York www.nyupress.org © 1998 by New York University. Preface to the NYU Classics Edition © 2020 by New York University. All rights reserved References to Internet websites (URLs) were accurate at the time of writing. Neither the author nor New York University Press is responsible for URLs that may have expired or changed since the manuscript was prepared. Cataloging-in-Publication data is available from the publisher. ISBN 9781479805785 New York University Press books are printed on acid-free paper, and their binding materials are chosen for strength and durability. We strive to use environmentally responsible suppliers and materials to the greatest extent possible in publishing our books. Manufactured in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Also available as an ebook

To the Women Airforce Service Pilots, who recognized the value of their history and worked to preserve it, and who, despite cultural denial for thirty years, maintained their worth, their history, and their identity, giving their all to us

Contents List of Illustrations Acknowledgments List of Abbreviations Preface to the NYU Classics Edition

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1.

Introduction

1

2.

The Development of the Women Airforce Service Pilots: From Guarded Experiment to Valuable Support Role

6

3.

Becoming Soldiers: Tracing WASP Expansion and Plans for Militarization

30

4.

From Praise to Rancor: Media Opinion Changes as Men Return from Battle

44

5.

No Allies for the WASPs: Congress Responds to Male Public Interest Groups

75

6.

They’ll Be Home for Christmas: The WASP Program Disbands

102

7.

On a Different Battlefield: The WASP Fight for Militarization after the War

131

8.

Recognizing the Gendered Warrior: History and Theory Intersect with the Fate of the WASPs

157

9.

Coda

182

Notes Bibliography Index About the Author

185 209 227 239

Preface to the NYU Classics Edition

In 1996, when Clipped Wings was first published, I thought the complete story of the Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASPs) had been told; that this group of extraordinary women had completed the last of their collective missions and that they were done fighting for their rights and for recognition as the first U.S. women military pilots. I assumed they would live out the remainders of their lives as private individuals, content that they had honorably served in World War II and improved opportunities for the women pilots who came after them. But I was wrong—there were more battles for them to fight and one more expression of national recognition for them to receive. And in these recent years, WASP veterans did what they’d been doing since 1942—they organized, they reached out to supporters, and, with quiet dignity, they once more fought for what was right, what was promised, and what they deserved. Now, a quarter of a century after Clipped Wings was initially published, is a felicitous time to revisit their story and to celebrate their most recent victories in gaining long-overdue rights and recognitions. NASA has announced the Artemis project, the plan to put the first woman on the surface of the moon.1 An international shortage of pilots has airlines actively recruiting women and supporting training programs for women and minorities in aviation.2 Combat roles for women pilots have fully opened up, and, unlike during World War II, African American women3 and out lesbian women4 are among the ranks. Additionally, recent books and films—including Hidden Figures, which focused on black women mathematicians who worked at NASA; Broad Band, a history of the women who helped to create the internet; and Code Girls, about the thousands of American women who served as code breakers during World War II— have recovered the important work women have done to support their country despite institutional and cultural barriers. The history of the WASPs is an important part of this larger story. These first women military pilots flew risky missions, tested the first fighter jets, and developed cutting edge weapons systems. Yet they were the only women’s auxiliary within the

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armed services of World War II that was not militarized, and their program was canceled before the conclusion of the war. They were forced to wait nearly thirty years to gain military status and receive veterans’ benefits, and this only due to their continued lobbying. I first interviewed WASP veterans just after the 1991 Gulf War and the subsequent lifting of the US ban on women serving as combat pilots. Though the combat phase of the Gulf War, triggered by Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait, only lasted two months, Operation Desert Storm once again brought the issue of women serving as combat pilots to the public’s attention. Women had been pilots and flight crew members on a variety of horizontal and vertical flight aircraft in all branches of the U.S. military from 1976. The remaining restriction— on women serving on combat flight crews— became contested when the Gulf War once again highlighted the permeable boundary between combat and non- combat roles in times of war. The thirty-five thousand women deployed to the region were frequently featured in media coverage of the war.5 One of the women who appeared in CNN’s extensive reporting of the war was Major Marie Rossi, a Chinook helicopter pilot who flew regular missions delivering soldiers and ammunition and other supplies into enemy territory and shuttling POWs out of the combat zone.6 Tragically, Major Rossi would become the first woman killed while flying in a combat zone: during a storm, the Chinook she was piloting crashed into an unlit microwave tower, killing her and most of her crew. On Major Rossi’s gravestone in Arlington National Cemetery is a plaque that credits her as being the “first female combat commander to fly into battle.”7 In her New York Times story on Major Rossi’s interment, Linda Bird Francke wrote: Habits fade away slowly, just like old soldiers. When I called Arlington National Cemetery to confirm the time of Major Rossi’s burial, I was told “he” was down for 3 P.M. on March 11. “She,” I corrected the scheduler gently. “His family and friends will gather at the new administration building,” the scheduler continued. “Her family and friends,” I said more firmly. “Major Rossi is a woman.” “Be here at least 15 minutes early,” she said. “We have a lot of burials on Monday.” Hundreds of military women turned out at Arlington, wearing stripes and ribbons and badges indecipherable to most civilians. I caught a ride with three members of the WASPs who flew during World War II. One was wearing her husband’s shirt under her old uniform. The shirts sold at the PX with narrow enough shoulders, she explained, don’t fit over the bust.8

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In June of 1991, Senators John Glenn and John McCain, both former military pilots, convened a Congressional sub-committee hearing that would address the restriction on women serving in combat.9 (The restriction was part of the Women’s Armed Services Integration Act of 1948, which enabled women to stay as permanent members of the military after the end of World War II but specifically excluded them from being pilots.10) Both spoke positively of the contributions women made in the Gulf War and throughout the military, noting that these contributions necessitated a reconsideration of the combat restriction. For the next two years, a number of Congressional and Presidential commissions explored the issue, and in April 1993, Defense Secretary Les Aspin ordered the military to allow women to fly in combat aircraft and serve on most combat ships.11 It was in this moment of women’s progress in military aviation that I decided to research the WASP, but I wasn’t sure what my contribution to their story would be. On May 21, 1994, an Armed Forces Day celebration in Findlay, Ohio, honored the WASPs, and veterans came from as far away as Florida to attend, in part because the news show 48 Hours was covering the event for a piece that combined the story of the WASPs with a look at the first co-ed Navy ship crew. I traveled there with my friend and fellow filmmaker Thomas Baumann to meet and interview the WASPs, and we co-directed a short film, Women Who Flew.12 In talking to the WASPs, I realized that although they had consistent and shared stories about their training and service missions, they weren’t certain about why the WASP program had been ended by Congress in 1944, before the war’s end, nor why the militarization that had been promised them was not extended until after a later Congressional battle in 1977 (thus leaving them devoid of benefits and the honor of veterans’ status). As I dug into secondary sources, I realized that much was missing from these accounts, and that disbandment should be the focus of my research. WASP veterans I spoke to asked me to find answers, and I wanted to honor them by succeeding in this task. I began by exploring the media portrayals of women during World War II, and I dug into the Congressional Record for the transcripts of all the World War II–era hearings related to women in the military. From these sources, I realized that American society had a complicated relationship with the wartime service of women, and that a Congress composed almost exclusively of men had sexist and wildly incorrect assumptions about the intentions and service records of the Women Airforce Service Pilots. But the WASP veterans I spoke to raised other questions—they wondered if the Army Air Forces and its commanding general, Henry “Hap” Arnold, had in fact advocated for them; they wondered why the military hadn’t offered

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a more convincing argument to keep them active, and if the Army Air Forces felt their missions were vital. I would find the answers to these questions after November of 1994, when President Clinton issued Executive Order 12937, which ordered the bulk declassification of forty-five million pages of documents, including 1,722,400 pages relating to the Army Air Forces.13 These declassified documents included memorandums to and from General Arnold that provided answers to many of these questions, giving me the evidence I needed for this book. *** The story of the Women’s Airforce Service Pilots of World War II has two primary themes: the accomplished heroism of these veterans in service of their country and the ongoing struggle these pilots engaged in against a sexist culture so strong that it ended their contributions to the war efforts before the war had concluded on either the European or Asian front. Because the WASP program was abruptly ended in 1944 following the loss of the bid for militarization during Congressional hearings, the WASPs did not get to participate in the post-war rewards provided in the GI Bill. It would take thirty-five years and another round of Congressional hearings before the Department of Defense issued the final document needed for these pilots to officially call themselves honorably discharged veterans. When I spoke to the veterans featured in this book, I asked them how the delay in benefits had impacted their lives. They pondered how different their lives would have been had they had the educational and housing benefits of the GI Bill; some were angry, most were wistful. Many were more upset that without military recognition, they had been unable to continue their careers as pilots. Some had wanted to return to service in 1947 when the Air Force became a stand-alone branch, but didn’t because the 1948 bill that permitted a continuation of women’s service past wartime specifically restricted women from having flight positions. Some looked into careers as civilian pilots, but found that airlines were incredulous about their flying experience, and because they lacked discharge papers, civilian employers wouldn’t hire them because the priority was hiring veteran pilots—a designation only received by male military pilots. But overwhelmingly, the WASP veterans I interviewed were not looking backward—their eyes were on a future they’d fought for. They were proud of the women who’d come after them, women who had opportunities for all military flight positions, were active in the space program, and had the civilian pilot careers that had been denied the WASPs. They took comfort that, although many of their life dreams could not be realized, their

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tenacious fight for what had been refused to them meant that women coming after them could realize their potential. Most personally, the WASP veterans spoke of their relief that they and their sisters in flight would be eligible for military honors when they passed on. When WASP veterans spoke of the sexism they endured, rarely did they express anger and emotion. The exception was when they spoke about those who died in plane crashes during the war. The pain was still visible when they spoke of collecting money at their bases (from female and male pilots alike) so that bodies could be returned to families, because the military didn’t provide this standard military benefit to the “volunteers.” They were haunted that the families of the dead weren’t permitted to display gold stars in their windows, the Service Flag marker denoting the ultimate sacrifice. When the WASP received retroactive militarization in 1977, one of the benefits conferred to them was the right to an Arlington National Cemetery inurnment (the placement of their ashes in above-ground structures).14 Yet, in February of 2002, when the WASP veteran Irene Englund died, her family was shocked that Arlington National Cemetery officials told them that Englund would not be buried with military honors.15 Englund’s family fought back, and by June full honors, including the presentation of a burial flag, were accorded to Irene Englund and her family.16 The start new century brought further renewed recognition. In 2005, the significant organizing work of the WASP veteran Deanie Parrish and her daughter, Nancy, culminated in the opening of the WASP Museum17 at Avenger Field, the location in Sweetwater, Texas, used for training by the majority of the WASPs. In 2010, the WASPs were awarded the Congressional Gold Medal,18 and nearly two hundred of the estimated three hundred WASPs still living were in attendance for the Capitol ceremony.19 Women of various racial backgrounds20 were now serving in combat and non-combat missions as pilots and other cockpit crew members within all branches of the U.S. military. Retired women aviators entered national politics, including the Blackhawk pilot Tammy Duckworth, the first disabled female combat veteran to be elected to Congress.21 Then, in 2015, Secretary of the Army John McHugh unexpectedly reversed the ruling that permitted WASP veterans burial rights at Arlington.22 That same year, the WASP Elaine Danforth Harmon died, and her family was confronted with this injustice during their time of grief. A campaign was organized, and on January 6, 2016, Rep. Martha McSally, an Air Force combat veteran, introduced a bill into the House of Representatives that would overturn this reversal, and similar action followed in the Senate a week later

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with a bill introduced by Senators Barbara Mikulski and Joni Ernst, an Army National Guard combat veteran.23,The bills received strong bipartisan support and moved quickly through Congress. In May of 2016, President Barack Obama signed the bill into law.24 Finally, on September 9, 2016, the remains of the WASP Elaine Danforth Harmon were put to rest in Arlington National Cemetery.25 At the ceremony, family, five WASP veterans, Rep. Martha McSally, Senator Joni Ernst, and other attendees witnessed as Harmon received a fly-by of World War II aircraft followed by a twenty-one-gun salute.26 A member of the Air Force Honor Guard presented Harmon’s daughter with the flag, saying, “On behalf of the President of the United States, the Department of the Air Force, and a grateful nation, we offer this flag for the faithful and dedicated service of WASP Elaine Danforth Harmon.”27 During a 1994 interview, WASP veteran Thelma K. (Hench) Miller told me: Women can do it—that’s the whole thing. And that’s what helps these gals today. There’s no question about it. You still have people fighting that, so you have to keep fighting back. Every inch of the way, you have to keep telling them; you have to keep telling them.28

The fight to properly honor Elaine Danforth Harmon and her fallen sisters is a most striking reminder of why it is important that subsequent generations of girls and women learn the story of the WASPs. The erasure of the history of the Women Airforce Service Pilots of World War II is linked to the messages girls and women still receive that they cannot and should not be in certain professions, including aviation. Then and now, women and girls prove these voices wrong. Clipped Wings and books like Hidden Figures and Code Girls reveal largely forgotten histories of women who have succeeded despite powerful cultural barriers. And although we are in a moment where these lost histories of women are being recovered, this moment is also one where the rights that previous generations fought valiantly for are being dismantled at an alarming speed. World War II crystalized the need for inclusion—for the first time, racial minorities and women were allowed to make valuable contributions to the war efforts both in the military and wartime factories. The United States and our allies saw the need to expand opportunities and include the efforts of all citizens in total war—and we defeated enemies who excluded women from military service and who murdered countless millions of minorities and immigrants. The history of World War II is vast, but it contains within it stark lessons about what can be achieved when we push open doors we have been told are closed to us.

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At its heart, the story of the Women Airforce Service Pilots is not about war or planes; it is a story about persistence and extraordinary achievement. These accomplished women pilots did more than break the barriers of flight; they established a model for equality.

Notes

1 Grush, Loren. “NASA’s Initiative to Put a Woman on the Moon Is Named Artemis, after Apollo’s Twin Sister,” The Verge, May 13, 2019, https://www.theverge.com. 2 Rice, Stephen. “Aviation Needs More Women on the Flight Deck—and in All Roles,” Forbes, March 11, 2019, https://www.forbes.com. 3 Evans, Kelley D. “Meet the First African-American Female Flight Pilot to Fly in War,” The Undefeated, August 31, 2016, https://theundefeated.com. 4 Panzino, Charlsy. “Bomber Pilot Picked to Be the Air Force Academy’s Commandant of Cadets,” Air Force Times, April 29, 2019, https://www.airforcetimes.com. 5 Nordheimer, Jon. “Women’s Role in Combat: The War Resumes,” New York Times, May 26, 1991, https://archive.nytimes.com. 6 Staff Writers. “Marie Rossi,” People, May 30, 1991, https://people.com. 7 Patterson, Michael Robert. “Marie Therese Rossi Cayton,” Arlington National Cemetery Website, accessed 1 January 2020, http://www.arlingtoncemetery.net. 8 Francke, Linda Bird. “Hers; Requiem for a Soldier,” New York Times, April 21, 1991, http://movies2.nytimes.com. 9 C-Span. “Restrictions on Women in Combat,” June 18, 1991, https://www.c-span.org. 10 Women’s Armed Services Integration Act of 1948, Pub.L. No. 80–625, 62 Stat. 356. 11 Lancaster, John. “Aspin to Open Combat Roles to Women,” Washington Post, April 28, 1993, https://www.washingtonpost.com. 12 Merryman, Molly, and Baumann, Tom, directors. Women Who Flew, 1994, https:// vimeo.com/152033524. 13 Federation of American Scientists. “Executive Order 12937,” December 1, 1994, https://fas.org. 14 Erdrich, Ronald W. “Denial of Military Honors at Arlington Stings WASPs,” Military. com, May 26, 2016M, https://www.military.com. 15 Vogel, Steve. “A Pioneer’s Honorable Rest,” Washington Post, May 15, 2002, https:// www.washingtonpost.com. 16 Ibid. 17 The WASP Museum, “Exhibits,” accessed 1 January 2020, https://waspmuseum.org. 18 Although the Congressional Gold Medal is generally regarded as the highest civilian honor the US Government awards, it was established to recognize participants in the American Revolutionary War. Recipients include military individuals and units, including the Tuskegee Airmen, who, despite never having to fight for militarized status, did engage in a similar struggle for acceptance and recognition as military

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19 20

21 22 23

24 25 26 27 28

pilots. (United States House of Representatives, “Congressional Gold Medal Recipients,” accessed 1 January 2020, https://history.house.gov). All Things Considered. “WWII Female Pilots Honored with Gold Medal,” March 10, 2010, https://www.npr.org. African American women were excluded from the WASP because the US Army was segregated in World War II, and at the beginning of the war, African American men were banned from being military pilots. She was elected to the House in 2012 and the Senate in 2016. (Biography. “Tammy Duckworth,” July 23, 2019, https://www.biography.com). Erdrich, Ronald W. “Denial of Military Honors.” Ugarte, Rodrigo. “Women Pilots, Who Flew During World War II, Denied Rest at Arlington National Cemetery,” Medium, accessed 1 January 2020, https://medium. com; Ernst, Joni, “United States Senator for Iowa” webpage, “Meet Joni,” accessed 1 January 2020, https://www.ernst.senate.gov. Shane, Leo, III. “Female WWII Pilots Now Allowed Burial at Arlington,” Military Times, May 20, 2016, https://www.militarytimes.com. Wilson, Benet J. “WASP Elaine Harmon’s Ashes Buried at Arlington National Cemetery,” Runway Girl Network, September 7, 2016, https://runwaygirlnetwork.com. Ibid. Ibid. Women Who Flew, unedited interview tapes, 1994.

1 Introduction

This boo k examine s th e accomplishment s an d struggle s o f th e Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASPs) of World War II—their service, their premature disbandment , an d ho w the y finally got som e o f th e recognitio n they deserved. The events , perceptions, an d opinion s tha t culminate d i n th e disbandment of the WASPs are contextualized within theories of feminist history and gender construction i n order to reveal how cultural constructions of gender, specificall y assumption s abou t th e role s o f women i n war, impacte d the fate of the 1,074 pilot s who served their country as the first women t o fly military planes. The purpose of this book is to provide answers to questions that have been raised for mor e than fifty years: Why were the WASPs disbanded when ther e was still a wartime nee d fo r thei r services ? Why di d th e to p official s o f th e Army Air Forces allow the disbandment t o occur? Why did Congress , which authorized militarizatio n fo r th e women' s branche s o f th e Army , Navy , Marines, and Coas t Guard , no t onl y refuse t o do so for th e WASPs, but also vote t o disban d th e entir e program , eve n whil e th e Unite d State s wa s stil l fighting a world war? In order to address these questions and revea l important detail s about th e WASPs, military documents from fou r archives , many of which were not declassified unti l th e 1980s , were examined . These document s includ e memo randums and proposals for the program, which began as a top secret initiative; reports from numerous bases at which WASPs served, which detailed their status in a range of missions and offered overal l evaluations of the program; and legal treatises tha t reveale d th e Army Air Forces' stance on th e congressiona l hearings regardin g the militarization o f the WASPs. Print medi a sources , including article s specifi c t o th e WASP s a s well a s wartime issue s o f popula r magazines, were examined to assess how the WASPs and other women i n the wartime effort wer e being presented to and perceived by the public. Congressional records were obtained for 1941 through 1977 to document not only how Congress vote d o n th e WAS P issue , bu t als o ho w i t debate d an d vote d o n

1

2 I Introduction

other women' s militar y auxiliarie s durin g an d afte r th e war. Finally , wome n who served as WASPs during World War II were interviewed to confirm doc umented sources and to obtain firsthand accounts of how the program and its subsequent disbandmen t impacte d thei r lives. Unfortunately, th e key players involved i n th e development o f the WASP program, a s well as those behin d its disbandment, were deceased before the research for this book began. However, Jacqueline Cochran, the WASP director, and General Henry H. Arnold, Commanding General of the Army Air Forces during World War II, wrote accounts abou t thei r involvemen t wit h th e WASPs, and Genera l Arnold's son , Major Bruc e Arnold, provided further insigh t into his father's opinions about the program during the 1977 congressional hearings that revisited militarizing the WASPs.

The Importance of the WASP Program as a Subject of Historical Inquiry The historical subject is defined throug h her relationship with her culture and all that inhabits and constitute s it . Indeed, histor y is a shifting phenomeno n understood onl y within th e contexts of its associations with the various components o f it s culture . Histor y i s a representation o f multipl e meanings , i n which th e subject mus t b e assessed with th e understanding tha t i t can neve r truly b e discovered. Just a s the mos t detaile d roa d ma p neve r look s like th e road, th e most thoroug h accountin g of a historical subjec t ca n neve r exactly look and respond like the subject i t intends to represent . The study of the WASPs contributes t o a gathering of evidence about notions o f women an d wa r a s well a s notions abou t gende r construction s an d their enforcement . Th e WASPs were the first American wartime service uni t comprised entirel y of women wh o performe d function s traditionall y associated with men. WASPs were involved in activities considered both dangerou s and adventurous fo r th e men who performed them ; thus, a high level of status was associated with their roles and missions. Although wome n hav e bee n activ e participant s i n al l war s i n whic h th e United States has been involved, 1 and although all branches of the U.S. military had women's auxiliaries i n World War II, the WASP program remaine d unique because all of the women who served were pilots; thus they all served in position s desire d an d admire d b y men . Withi n militar y hierarchies , th e World War II pilot was constructed as the most dashing and desirable among soldiers. The "flyboys " were the elite of the U.S. military. Cinematic and lit -

Introduction I 3

erary productions from th e World War II era include a number of representations o f the jealousy that infantryme n fel t towar d militar y pilots. For exam ple, in Audie Murphy's autobiography To Hell and Back, the highly decorated World War II soldier recounts th e brawls that occurre d i n town s nea r which both infantryme n an d pilot s wer e stationed—brawl s whic h Murph y attrib uted to local women being more attracted t o the pilots than the y were to th e foot soldiers. During thei r years of wartime service , the WASPs flew a terrain tha t was very much a proving groun d o f masculinity. Mor e tha n th e WACs (Army) , WAVES (Navy) , Spar s (Coas t Guard) , o r Women Marines , th e WASPs di rectly questioned th e purportedly natura l an d expected status of men withi n the military by serving in one of its most desired roles—desired both becaus e pilots were the elite of the military and becaus e the WASPs were assigned t o domestic, noncombat positions , which were the safest flying positions i n th e Army Air Forces. The WASPs performed mission s that were both exciting and valuable. Much of what they did was top secret, and a great deal of it involved risk, such as towing targets at which live ammunition was fired. By taking on roles an d mission s previousl y associate d wit h th e masculine , WASP s chal lenged assumptions of male supremacy in wartime culture. The wome n i n othe r branche s o f the militar y largel y serve d i n role s tha t had bee n culturall y constructed a s natural fo r women. This doe s not negat e the tremendous contribution o f American women in these military divisions, but it did temper the threat these female soldiers posed to male soldiers. During World War II, 350,000 women served in the U.S. military,2 providing necessary and demanding service to their country. Many women served overseas, some of them in combat situations; many were injured; som e became prisoners of war; and som e were killed. Man y women i n othe r branche s serve d i n roles generally associated with men, such as truck drivers and mechanics, bu t the majority serve d in roles culturally associated with women, such as clerical workers and nurses, thus deflecting attentio n awa y from thos e who served in roles typically associated with men . All WASPs were pilot s o r pilo t trainees. Therefore, th e threa t tha t thes e women posed to cultural constructions of gender identity can be more clearly assessed than can the threats posed by women in other World War II military branches. Within th e WASPs, there were no positions of "women's work" toward which media, congressional, and public attention coul d be directed. Although wome n i n th e other branche s serve d unde r comba t conditions , were injured, an d even died in the line of duty, the standing of these female soldiers has bee n fo r th e mos t par t ignored , erased , o r altere d t o fit th e cultura l as -

4 I Introduction

sumptions o f the time . The narrative s o f war captur e cultura l construction s more than facts . Therefore, mor e attention wa s focused o n women's role s in the home front tha n on their participation i n the battle front, an d the stories of women soldiers were mediated to fit existing and acceptable notions of gender, despit e th e effort s an d danger s tha t constitute d thei r lives . So while th e Women's Army Corps was the largest women's division and included women who wen t overseas , serve d a s mechanics , an d worke d wit h weapons , Arm y public relations disseminated stories that focused on those WACs based in the continental Unite d State s wh o handle d wor k traditionall y associate d wit h women, such as secretaries and sales clerks, and the media featured storie s on the feminine touche s WACs brought into their barracks, such as curtains and flowers.3 A s a result, the impact that these military women had on cultural assumptions about the constitution of the female soldier was mitigated by constructions fro m th e War Departmen t an d th e medi a tha t feminize d militar y women, tempere d th e threa t pose d b y women i n uniform , an d insiste d tha t these were indeed women first and soldiers later. The WASPs are valuable in analyzing the threat that World War II military women pose d t o cultura l assumption s abou t th e constructio n o f gender be cause their specific, masculine-valued, an d frequently dangerou s roles offere d no means through whic h th e message could b e mediated. Unlik e the major ity of women serving in the other military branches, the WASPs were not taking on jobs that me n di d no t want t o perform. Instead , the y were flying the newest an d bes t plane s th e U.S . militar y ha d developed , th e fastes t fighter planes an d heavies t bombers . The y test-pilote d experimenta l model s an d worked i n th e developmen t o f weapons systems . Yet, although th e mission s performed b y the WASPs were often dangerous , they were still safer tha n th e combat missions that men released from domesti c duties by the WASPs were sent overseas to perform. Man y male pilot trainees came to resent the femal e pilots for thi s reason and , i n fac e of being sent overseas , created a significan t media and public opinion campaig n against the WASP program. The existenc e o f a militar y uni t populate d entirel y b y femal e pilot s ra n counter t o popular assumption s regardin g the capabilities an d limitation s o f women, and the presence of women as pilots of military planes questioned assumptions o f masculinity. Becaus e of this, efforts b y the Army Air Force s to militarize the WASPs met fierce resistance. Consequently, the WASP program was the only World War II women's auxiliary that was not militarized. Instead, it was a civilian volunteer group, with members paying for thei r initial train ing, transportation , an d roo m an d board . Becaus e they were civilia n volun teers, WASPs who die d i n service were not recognize d a s wartime casualties ,

Introduction I 5

and their colleagues often ha d to raise money among themselves to send their bodies home . Lackin g veterans' status afte r th e war, WASPs were unabl e t o participate i n th e G I bil l an d othe r rewar d program s fo r veterans . Beside s being the only women's auxiliary to be refused militarizatio n ove r the course of the war, th e WASP program wa s the onl y nontraining componen t o f th e military to be fully disbanded and its personnel sent home before the war was over. The WASPs were disbanded in December 1944, eight months before the war ended . Previous historica l assessment s o f th e WASP s hav e no t adequatel y an swered the question o f why these pilots were removed from activ e service before the war's end, despite the request for their services by the leading officer s of th e Army Air Forces . I t i s n o smal l questio n t o as k why a uni t o f 1,07 4 women, eac h trained a t a minimum cos t of twelve thousand dollars , was demobilized befor e th e end of the war. Previous authors have assumed tha t th e WASPs were disbanded becaus e they were no longer necessary to the war ef fort; becaus e the WASP director ineptl y bungled th e program int o oblivion ; or because conflicts betwee n th e two subgroups tha t constitute d th e WASPs (the Women's Ferryin g Squadron an d th e Women's Flyin g Training Detach ment) were so strong as to destroy the foundations o f the program.4 These assumptions are not supported by the facts, but instead arise from historians' attempts at establishing a rationale for the demise of the WASPs within the program itself , whe n th e caus e i s foun d a t th e intersectio n o f variou s cultura l constituents in the United States and its military during World War II.

2 The Developmen t o f the Wome n Airforce Servic e Pilot s From Guarded Experiment to Valuable Support Role

The Wome n Airforc e Servic e Pilot s (WASPs ) o f World Wa r I I performed a n essential role in the United States ' war effort. Th e nation's first women pilot s o f military planes , WASPs flew every model i n th e Army Air Forces' (AAF ) arsenal , includin g multi-engin e bombers , pursui t (fighter ) planes, cargo planes, and even the first American military jet planes. "We did whatever we were asked to do to free men for combat—we were very short on combat pilots," recalled WASP Thelma K. Miller. 1 WASPs flew a variety of missions, including ferrying aircraft fro m factorie s to bases ; towin g target s fo r gunner y practice ; test-pilotin g ne w an d refur bished planes ; flying militar y personnel ; trainin g mal e pilots ; an d pilotin g bombers t o trai n navigators , gunners, an d bombardiers . WASP Ethel Finle y said: "We were utility pilots. We flew every airplane that the Army Air Corps had at the time. We flew everything but combat. And we flew only in the continental Unite d State s an d a little bi t int o Canada . . . . There were so man y jobs in the United State s that had to be done to release men for combat , an d it was never even considered that we fly in combat, although the Russians did have three squadrons of women combat fliers."2 Despite th e rang e an d difficult y o f th e mission s flown b y it s pilots , th e WASP program maintaine d civilia n status throughout it s two-year existence. "We had n o insurance. We got $25 0 a month t o fly the most dangerou s an d heaviest airplanes that were deployed by the United State Air Forces. We had to pay our own board bill; we bought our own uniforms," said WASP Madge Rutherford Minton. 3 The WASP program arose as a top secret project that was not initially publicized and was not submitted for militarization until "enough experience had been obtaine d t o determin e th e usefulnes s o f the women pilots." 4 The pro 6

The Development of the WASPs I 7 gram ha d it s root s i n th e formatio n o f tw o organization s i n Septembe r 194 2 that woul d late r merg e t o for m th e WASPs . Th e first organizatio n wa s th e Women's Auxiliar y Ferryin g Squadro n (WAFS) , develope d o n Septembe r 1 0 and le d b y pilot Nanc y Harknes s Love. 5 Initiall y comprise d ofte n pilots , th e WAFS gre w t o includ e twenty-eigh t pilot s b y January 1943. 6 O n Septembe r 12, th e Women' s Flyin g Trainin g Detachmen t (WFTD ) wa s create d whe n AAF Commandin g Genera l Henr y H . Arnol d approve d a memorandu m from Majo r Genera l H . L . George o f the Air Transport Comman d requestin g a training program fo r women pilots. 7 General Georg e modeled hi s request o n a program propose d b y famous aviato r Jacqueline Cochra n an d suggeste d tha t Cochran b e name d directo r o f th e program . Implementatio n o f th e trainin g program bega n thre e week s afte r approva l o f th e memorandum. 8 Th e tw o programs consolidate d i n July 1943, 9 and o n August 20 , the War Departmen t announced tha t the title for th e women pilot s who serve d with th e AAF woul d be th e WASPs o r Women Airforc e Servic e Pilots. 10 The WAS P progra m expande d beyon d al l initia l proposals , bot h i n term s of missions performed an d th e number o f women pilots . This expansio n aros e from th e AAF's need t o plac e all qualified mal e pilot s oversea s o r int o comba t positions. I n th e earl y stages o f th e war, th e Unite d State s suffere d significan t losses among it s air forces an d groun d troops . Army Air Force s Commandin g General Arnold wanted al l qualified mal e pilots released fo r comba t duty , an d he wante d t o redirec t mal e trainee s t o th e Army' s groun d forces . Th e AA F commanders als o wante d t o se e th e exten t t o whic h wome n militar y pilot s could b e use d i n th e even t tha t th e U.S . mainlan d cam e unde r attack . Gen eral Arnold pu t fort h thre e objective s i n th e formatio n o f the WASPs : 1. T o see if women coul d serve as military pilots, and, i f so, to form th e nu cleus o f an organizatio n whic h coul d b e rapidl y expanded . 2. T o releas e mal e pilot s fo r combat . 3. T o decreas e th e Ai r Forces ' tota l demand s fo r th e crea m o f th e man power pool. 11 The WASP s continue d t o gro w unti l Decembe r 1944 , whe n th e progra m was disbande d followin g congressiona l opposition . I n it s two-yea r existence , the progra m graduate d 1,07 4 wome n fro m Ai r Force s pilo t training , 91 6 o f whom activel y serve d th e Arm y Ai r Forces. 12 Thi s compare s wit h a tota l o f 190,000 mal e pilot s wh o serve d durin g Worl d Wa r II. 13 The initia l clas s o f WASPs wa s traine d a t a n airfiel d i n Houston , Texas , bu t th e majorit y o f th e 1,074 WAS P graduate s wer e traine d a t Avenge r Fiel d i n Sweetwater , Texas. 14 Avenger Fiel d continue s t o hol d th e distinctio n o f being the onl y military fly-

8 I The Development of the WASPs ing school to have been specifically designated for women pilots. WASPs flew a total of 60 million mile s in training and missions during the two years that they wer e operational. 15 The y delivere d 12,65 2 planes o n domesti c ferryin g missions16 and conducte d a variety of operational mission s a t nine air force s and commands. 17 These pilots served in a civilian capacity and thu s received no insurance , n o militar y benefits , an d n o veterans ' benefits. 18 Thirty-eigh t WASPs died in service, twenty-seven in active service and eleven in training. 19 Families o f thes e thirty-eigh t pilot s coul d no t plac e militar y servic e star s i n their windows, no r di d th e WASPs receive military burials. "If we got kille d in action our friends passed the hat to get enough money to send our personal effects hom e to the family. We couldn't have a military internment; we didn't get a flag for th e coffin ; an d w e got n o buria l expenses, " Madge Rutherfor d Minton noted. 20

The Development of American Military Air Power The history of the WASPs cannot be realized without understandin g the role of the AAF and th e struggl e Air Force s commander s wage d throughou t th e war to achieve autonomy from the Army. During World War II, the AAF went from bein g a small army corps with outmoded planes to a military branch so sophisticated an d larg e tha t i t controlle d th e ai r worldwide . Th e WASP s served a small but important role in this expansion, and an important and undervalued role in the Allied victory. The U.S . Army's use of air power i n World War I was extremely limited . Several hundre d pilot s flew what amounte d t o littl e mor e tha n observatio n missions.21 Attempts a t bombing and air-to-ai r comba t were crude, with pi lots sometime s employin g hand-hel d gun s an d amateu r explosives . In th e years between the two world wars, visionaries within the Army Air Service attempted t o convinc e th e Unite d State s o f th e significanc e ai r powe r woul d have in futur e wars . These attempt s culminate d i n th e 192 5 court martia l o f the assistan t chie f of the Army Air Service , William "Billy " Mitchell, fo r hi s accusations that the War and Navy departments were committing treason fo r neglecting air power. 22 Mitchel l conducte d experiment s tha t prove d th e vulnerability o f battleships an d groun d force s t o bombin g attacks , yet th e War Department, Army , an d Nav y refuse d t o ac t upo n th e results . I n 1926 , th e Army forme d th e Air Corps , which replace d th e Army Air Service . The Air Corps had only a few hundred plane s at this time and did not have the bud get to conduct researc h and developmen t o f new models. Significant growt h

The Development of the WASPs I 9

and chang e di d no t com e unti l th e beginnin g o f World Wa r II , when Germany and Japan, future enemie s of the United States, proved Mitchell's theories correct. In September 1938 , General Henr y "Hap " Arnold was named chie f of the Air Corps , which the n consiste d o f 1,650 officers , 16,00 0 enliste d men , an d less than 2,000 planes. 23 The Air Corps trained 300 pilots that year.24 Soon af terward, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt met with General Arnold to establish plan s for expandin g th e Army Air Corps . This was done i n anticipa tion of the United States s becoming involved in a war with Germany, follow ing Germany' s 193 8 invasion o f Austria an d th e 193 8 Munich agreement , i n which European leaders allowed Germany to annex the Czech Sudetenland. 25 Germany had already publicly demonstrated it s air superiority in 1937 by destroying Guernic a i n bombin g raids . Tha t sam e year , Japa n ha d a simila r demonstration when it invaded China by air. 26 Following presidential authorization, General Arnold issued directives that expanded th e Air Corps' trainin g programs an d increase d th e number o f pilots, enlisted personnel , an d planes. 27 These plans called for buildin g 10,00 0 new planes in 193 9 (from 2,20 0 i n 1938 ) and trainin g 1,200 ne w pilots (fro m 300 in 1938). 28 The Army Air Corp s continue d t o expan d ove r the nex t tw o years. In June 1941, it became a more autonomous divisio n of the Army, and its name was changed to the Army Air Forces. Immediately before the United States formally entere d World War I I i n Decembe r 1941 , the AAF expande d to 22,000 officers, 270,00 0 enlisted men, 9,000 airplanes in the United States and 1,100 planes overseas, of which 3,000 were combat planes. 29 American factories were mobilized to produce planes for the U.S. military and its allies. In 1942, 47,800 planes were produced; in 1943, 86,000 were produced.30 To handle th e substantial increas e in th e number o f planes built b y American factories , th e AA F develope d a specialize d divisio n o f pilot s an d support personnel to handle deliveries of planes and related supplies from fac tories to bases in the United States and throughout th e world. The Air Corp s Ferrying Command was established in May 1941, as a result of the Lend-Lease agreement wit h Britai n tha t promise d deliver y o f thousands o f planes over seas.31 In Jul y 1942 , the greatl y expande d uni t change d it s nam e t o th e Air Transport Comman d (ATC) , of which th e Ferryin g Divisio n wa s on e com ponent.32 The ATC alone needed more pilots than existed within th e entire AAF, so it began a program of hiring civilian pilots to ferry planes. Within si x months after th e Japanese attac k o n Pear l Harbor, 3,50 0 civilia n pilot s were hired b y the ATC, half of whom wer e later commissione d int o th e AAF. 33 The othe r

io I The Development of theWASPs half, which consisted of men who were too old to be commissioned, who did not mee t th e rigi d AA F medica l codes , o r wh o decline d commissions , re mained civilian s unde r th e emplo y o f th e divisio n bu t wer e give n draft-de ferred status. By the end of the war in 1945, 8,500 pilots from th e Ferrying Division o f th e AT C ha d delivere d 21,09 2 plane s t o foreig n destination s an d made 291,52 5 domestic deliveries. 34 This numbe r include d 14 1 WASPs wh o were assigned to the Ferrying Division from Septembe r 1942 until Decembe r 1944.35 These women delivered 12,652 planes on domestic missions36 and flew a total of 9,224,000 mile s for the ATC.37

The Development of the WASPs During World War II , many women participate d i n divers e roles usually reserved for men because of the labor shortages caused by increased factory production an d th e larg e deploymen t o f me n overseas. 38 Member s o f th e U.S . War Department wer e also concerned tha t th e country would no t hav e adequate personne l resource s t o fight an d wi n a n extende d war . Consequently , both civilia n factorie s an d militar y branche s bega n activ e recruitmen t o f women. The Army, Navy, Marines, and Coast Guard all recruited for women's divisions of their branches. American allies England and the Soviet Union had also incorporated wome n int o thei r military , includin g thei r ai r forces. Eng land's Ai r Transport Auxiliar y (ATA ) ha d wome n pilot s wh o ferrie d plane s under comba t conditions , and the Soviet Union forme d severa l battalions o f women comba t pilots , including bomber unit s an d fighter plane squadrons. The United States, which was less affected tha n these countries by World War II, did not begi n to use women pilots until September 1942 , when personne l shortages becam e problematic : "W e anticipate d the n tha t globa l war woul d require al l ou r qualifie d me n an d man y o f ou r women, " sai d Genera l Arnold.39 During World War I , several female aviator s volunteered thei r service s t o the Army Air Corps a s military pilots but were turned down. 40 In th e 1930s, before th e Unite d State s entere d World War II , several famous wome n pro posed tha t th e United State s incorporate women pilot s into thei r pilot pool ; among them were famous aviator Amelia Earhart and First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt, who continued to support this suggestion in her "My Day" newspaper column until the WASPs formed i n 1942. Official AAF reports also reveal that the idea of using women pilots arose within the military in the late 1930s and early 1940s , befor e an y forma l proposal s wer e submitte d b y eithe r Lov e o r

The Development of the WASPs I n Cochran. 41 Genera l Arnol d initiall y rejecte d th e ide a o f usin g wome n pilot s because the most significan t proble m affectin g th e AAF in th e years before th e war wa s a lac k o f planes , no t o f pilots . I n a memorandu m date d Augus t 25 , 1941, Arnold wrote : "Th e us e o f women pilot s serve s n o militar y purpose." 42 W h e n th e Unite d State s entere d th e wa r i n Decembe r 1941 , there wer e stil l more pilot s tha n planes , an d ther e wa s als o a grea t nee d t o trai n al l availabl e pilots fo r combat . I n additio n t o thes e tactica l reasons , Genera l Arnol d als o had significan t doubt s abou t th e abilitie s o f wome n t o fly militar y planes . "Frankly, I didn' t kno w i n 194 1 whether a slip o f a young gir l coul d fight th e controls o f a B-17 in th e heavy weather the y would naturall y encounte r i n op erational flying." 43 In 1941 , 2,100 America n wome n ha d pilot s licenses, 44 a numbe r tha t in creased t o 3,00 0 b y 1943. 45 Som e o f thes e wome n obtaine d thei r license s through Civilia n Pilo t Trainin g Progra m schools , whic h provide d affordabl e flight trainin g a t universitie s nationwide , givin g middle - an d lower-clas s peo ple th e opportunit y t o obtai n pilot' s licenses , thereb y increasin g th e poo l o f available pilot s i n th e Unite d States. 46 Becaus e Civilia n Pilo t Trainin g Pro gram bylaw s did no t specif y gender , women wer e able to tak e pilot trainin g a s well as the men th e program ha d bee n create d t o train . However , women wer e not alway s welcomed int o thes e classes . In 1942 , two separat e formal proposal s regardin g the use of women pilot s i n the militar y were submitted b y Nancy Harknes s Lov e and Jacqueline Cochra n to th e AAF. In previou s account s o f the WASPs an d th e Ferryin g Divisio n (fo r example, Captai n Marx' s "official " WAS P histor y an d book s b y Byr d Howel l Granger an d Jea n Hascal l Cole) , muc h attentio n ha s bee n focuse d o n whos e idea i t was initiall y t o establis h a women's progra m i n th e AAF, with man y ac counts constructing the proposal process as a rivalry between Cochra n (wh o directed the W F T Ds an d the WASPs) an d Lov e (who directed the WAFS). There is n o substantiatio n fo r thi s counterproductiv e construction . Bot h Cochra n and Lov e submitted forma l proposal s regardin g the use of women pilot s by th e AAF, an d bot h ha d writte n memorandum s t o variou s militar y leader s i n th e years before U.S . involvement i n the war in which the y articulated th e valuabl e contribution wome n pilot s coul d mak e i n th e even t o f a national emergency . Neither pilot can be or should b e credited with developing the idea of U.S. mil itary us e o f women pilots . Indeed , thes e adversaria l construction s onl y repre sent th e negativ e cultura l image s o f powerful wome n a t tha t time . The proposal s submitte d b y Cochran an d Lov e had distinc t missio n plans , which resulted in each being submitted t o a different sectio n of the AAF. Love, a renowne d pilo t wh o als o was marrie d t o Colone l Rober t Lov e o f th e AAF' s

12 I The Development of the WASPs

Ferrying Division, proposed th e development o f a small squad of women pilots specificall y t o ferr y aircraf t fro m factorie s t o AA F bases , bot h i n th e United State s and overseas. Love proposed tha t these pilots have a minimum of five hundred hours flying time and that they be used by the Ferrying Division exclusively. 47 In April 1942 , Love and Lieutenan t Colone l Tunner, wh o was then com mander o f the AAF Ferrying Command, discusse d Love' s proposal. 48 In July 1942, th e Ferryin g Comman d expande d int o th e Air Transport Command , which include d th e Ferrying Division. 49 The ATC's expansion resulte d fro m the AAF s need to transport planes to other nations as part of the Lend-Lease program, as well as to handle the transportation of planes and related supplies to militar y divisions. 50 Tunner approve d Love' s proposal an d sen t i t to Gen eral Georg e i n June, who gav e final approval t o th e plan. 51 I n July, th e pro posal reached General Arnold, who replied that "prior to doing anything fur ther alon g thi s line , i t i s desired tha t yo u confe r wit h th e CA A [Civi l Aeronautics Administration] . . . with a view of securing every possible pilot fro m that source." 52 Following Genera l George s approva l o f th e proposal , Lov e assemble d twenty-eight pilots , who wer e required t o hav e a minimum o f five hundred hours flying time, cross-country experience, commercial licenses, high school educations, American citizenship, and be between the ages of twenty-one and thirty-five.53 Pilot s accepte d int o th e progra m the n receive d fou r week s o f transition trainin g a t Ne w Castl e Arm y Ai r Bas e nea r Wilmington , Delaware.54 Transition training was not pilot training; it involved lessons specific to flying various military planes, including AAF regulations for takeoffs , landings, taxiing , an d s o on , an d deal t extensivel y wit h th e regulation s in volved with delivering planes, such as filling out forms and the procedures involved in maintaining the secrecy of war planes. Although their squadron was a division of the ATC, the WAFS had civilian status. The use of civilian pilots was a common arrangement with the Ferrying Division, which had also hired 3,500 male civilian pilots in the six months following Pearl Harbor.55 For their flying services in th e division, WAFS received $25 0 per mont h an d a $6 per diem fee when away from thei r base. Before the development o f the WAFS, Jacqueline Cochran ha d submitte d several proposals for a more expansive women's pilot program, which included the trainin g o f wome n pilots . Sh e submitte d he r first proposa l t o Colone l Robert Olds of the Ferrying Command i n July 1941, which called for th e implementation o f a squadron of civilian women pilots to handle all aircraft fer rying operations.56 This was followed i n 1942 by a more detailed proposal she

The Development of the WASPs I 1 3

submitted t o General Arnold. Recognizing the limited number of women pilots wit h enoug h flight tim e t o ferr y plane s wit h onl y transitio n training , Cochran proposed developing a division of women pilots to be trained by the AAR Sh e envisioned thes e pilots handlin g mor e tha n ferryin g mission s an d proposed tha t eventuall y wome n pilot s coul d handl e al l domesti c militar y flights, thus releasing all male AAF pilots to fly overseas and in combat. In her 1941 proposal, Cochran had recommended tha t the women b e civilians; afte r the WAFS and WFTDs were formed, however , Cochran and key military advisers realized the importance of having the pilots militarized and began to research the best possibilities for doing so. Cochran propose d a n air school for women pilot s that would incorporat e the same coursework received by male air cadets. Initially, pilots trained at this school woul d handl e ferryin g missions , althoug h Cochra n predicte d tha t these women coul d als o be used in nearl y all domestic piloting applications . Cochran had first suggested that the AAF use women pilots in 1938, when she sent a memorandum to General Arnold. Arnold rejected this proposal because the need a t thi s tim e was to trai n mal e pilots fo r combat . I n anticipatio n o f the entr y o f the Unite d State s int o World Wa r II , Cochra n resubmitte d he r proposal t o Arnol d i n th e fal l o f 1941 . Becaus e h e believe d tha t th e us e o f women pilot s would soo n b e a necessity, and becaus e he desired more infor mation abou t th e potential and possible limitations of women pilots , Arnold approved a request made by the British Air Commission t o have Cochran recruit and direct a group of American women pilots to transport planes for the British Air Transport Auxiliary. 57 In the spring of 1942, Cochran an d twenty five women pilot s wen t t o Englan d t o join th e ATA. The pilot s wer e give n eighteen-month contracts , whil e Cochra n wa s issue d a contract tha t woul d dissolve at the point the AAF called upon her services. She would return to the United States in less than six months. While Cochran was in England, Love, at the request of Tunner, submitte d her proposa l fo r a small ferryin g squa d o f previously traine d wome n pilots . Following the establishment of the WAFS, Arnold requested that Cochran return t o th e Unite d State s t o implemen t th e trainin g progra m sh e ha d pro posed earlier. Upon Cochran' s return to the United States in September 1942, Arnold appointed her director of the WFTD.58 Within days , Cochran bega n interviewing candidates for acceptanc e into th e WFTD program . The initia l goal of the WFTD wa s to supply trained pilot s exclusivel y for servic e in th e WAFS. Except for the original group, all other members of the WAFS would have to be processed through th e WFTD, following a n order that came fro m AAF Headquarters i n February 1943.

14 I The Development of the WASPs

WASP Recruitment Unlike th e women's auxiliarie s o f all other militar y branches , th e WASP pro gram neve r had t o establis h a recruitment campaign . "Th e progra m attracte d people wh o wer e willing t o ventur e bein g differen t an d t o ris k followin g th e dream tha t the y always had," sai d WASP Ethe l Finley. 59 Relyin g only on per sonal invitation s fro m Cochra n an d Love , casua l conversation s amon g fe male pilots, and occasiona l article s tha t appeare d o n th e program , mor e tha n 25,000 women applie d fo r acceptanc e int o th e WASP program , th e vast ma jority o f whom wer e eliminate d i n th e first stag e o f processin g becaus e the y did no t mee t th e minimu m flight requirements. 60 Yet, at "n o tim e durin g th e operation o f th e progra m wa s an y effor t necessar y t o secur e prospectiv e trainees, a s ther e wer e alway s severa l hundre d applicant s o n th e waitin g list." 61 WASP Madg e Rutherfor d Minto n sai d tha t sh e an d man y othe r wome n pilots were motivated t o join becaus e they wanted "t o see this war through an d get i t ended . There wer e thousand s an d thousand s o f women workin g i n wa r plants, and ever y one o f them was patriotic, an d the y were doing a job t o hel p win th e war. And th e WASP also was a working woman." 6 2 Katherin e (Kaddy ) Landry Steele , anothe r WASP , recalled , "Worl d Wa r I I wa s different , i t was a situation tha t welded us all together—men, women , an d children, from al l the different countries—an d soo n i t wa s suc h a bi g thing , an d t o b e a par t o f something that big, that important, tha t reall y set the world o n th e course tha t it late r followed , i s pretty important." 6 3 Most trainee s gav e u p mor e lucrativ e job s t o begi n WAS P training , an d many sol d thei r home s an d businesse s o n th e gambl e tha t the y woul d pas s training an d becom e WASPs. 64 O u t o f th e 1,83 0 wome n accepte d int o th e W F T D , 1,07 6 wome n graduate d fro m WAS P training. 65 Becaus e o f thei r civilian status , thos e accepte d int o th e progra m ha d t o provid e thei r ow n transportation t o th e trainin g base s i n Texas. 66 The background s an d experience s o f the pilots who joine d th e WASP pro gram varie d substantially . A s Minton noted , "Th e WASP s wer e women fro m all walks o f life an d al l economic level s i n th e Unite d States . We ha d million aires, and we had very poor girl s who worked very hard just to bu y flight time . But the y had on e thing in common, an d tha t was the love of flying. They wer e determined t o fly, an d the y sa w thi s opportunit y t o fly fo r ou r countr y an d help win World War II." 67 Finle y said, "W e cam e fro m al l walks o f life. Man y were teachers . W e ha d everythin g fro m teacher s t o a Ziegfel d Follie s girl , clerks, secretaries , offic e workers—ever y wal k o f life . Bu t I thin k underneat h

The Development of the WASPs I 1 5

all of it was this kind o f special characteristic o f the love of flying, of patriotism and also the spirit of adventure" 68 An interes t i n flying and feeling s o f patriotic dut y seem t o hav e been th e uniting principles among WASP trainees. "Flying was a very glamorous thin g to d o then, " sai d WAS P Claric e Bergemann . "I t ha d a lo t t o d o wit h th e movies, but flying was the most exciting thing you could do." 69 "I was in college, getting a B.A. in sociology and bacteriology," sai d WASP Marty Wyall. "I was going to go to graduate school, but I saw that the WASPs were recruiting. I wanted t o drop out , bu t m y father wouldn' t le t me. So I graduated i n May, soloed in August and had thirty-fiv e hour s [o f flying time] b y October. I loved to fly."70 Nadine Nagle's reason for joining the WASPs was much more personal: "In the summer of 1942, my husband [ a B-24 pilot] was killed on a mission i n England. I read an article on th e women pilot s the next month. I got thi s patriotic feeling tha t I was to fly in his place." Nagle also noted tha t she "specifically too k flying lessons because of this dramatic experience." 71 Once the y graduate d fro m training , WASPs had civilia n Civi l Air Patro l (CAP) status . Their salar y was $150 per month durin g training and $25 0 per month afterwards. 72 Ou t o f this wage, WASPs had to pay for their own housing, food , clothing , transportation , an d s o on . The y were , however , issue d textbooks, flying clothes, helmets, goggles, and parachutes. 73 WASPs did no t receive the sam e salary as male CA P pilots . WASPs earned $3,00 0 pe r year, while CAP pilots earned $3,6oo. 74 To b e accepte d int o th e WAS P trainin g program , wome n pilot s ha d t o meet minimu m requirement s an d pas s a persona l intervie w tha t wa s con ducted by Cochran o r one of her personal assistants. Because it was a civilian auxiliary group , ther e wer e n o regulate d requirement s fo r th e intervie w processes, and becaus e o f the experimenta l natur e o f the program , Cochra n was very concerned about the image of the WASPs. The evaluation and interview processes were therefore very subjective and critical. The guidelines were "a matter of choosing clean-cut, stable appearing young girls," 75 women who best fit the image of the WASPs as Cochran determine d i t t o be. Because of the subjectiv e natur e o f thi s process , w e ca n infe r tha t certai n group s o f women wer e likely excluded fro m th e WASPs; without existin g documenta tion, however, we do not know the extent to which an individual's class background o r perceive d sexua l orientatio n determine d acceptanc e o r rejection . We do know that thi s subjective screenin g process had a detrimental impac t on blac k women , who m Cochra n remove d fro m consideration . (No t al l WASPs were white, however ; tw o Chinese-America n wome n wer e accepte d into the program.) 76

16 I The Development of the WASPs Because th e applicatio n record s o f th e WASP s hav e bee n destroyed , th e number o f blac k wome n wh o applie d fo r WAS P trainin g i s no t known . W e do kno w tha t severa l blac k wome n wer e rejecte d a t th e final intervie w stage . Cochran wrot e thi s abou t th e WASP polic y o n blac k pilot s an d th e intervie w process: The so-called Negro question was laid on my doorstep in a very direct way early in th e women pilots ' training program. Severa l Negro girls applied fo r trainin g but neve r mor e tha n on e at a time ou t o f the thousand s o f applicants. I inter viewed thes e particular applicant s i n prope r orde r without prejudic e o r prefer ence, hardly knowing what I could do at that stage of my program if any one of them ha d passe d th e preliminaries . Fortunatel y fo r th e formativ e stage s of the work non e me t al l the specifications. Finall y one, a New Jersey school teache r who was a pilot and a fine physical specimen, mad e application fo r acceptanc e as a student a t Sweetwater . I aske d he r t o joi n m e fo r breakfas t o n a Sunda y morning in my New York apartment and made a special trip to New York for the purpose. I tol d he r th e manifol d trouble s I wa s havin g gettin g th e progra m started and ended by stating that I had no prejudice whatever with respect to the color or race of my candidates but that the complication she had brought up for decision might, for one reason or another, prove the straw that would break the camels back. This fine young Negro girl recognized the force and honesty of my arguments, stated that first of all the women pilots' program should be stabilized and strengthened, and she withdrew her application. She also saw to it, I believe, that I was left alone thereafter s o far as this particular issue was concerned. I appreciate her understanding and respected her as a person.77 It shoul d b e note d tha t Cochra n wa s no t actin g i n a uniquel y prejudice d fashion, bu t wa s followin g standard s commo n i n th e U.S . militar y a t thi s time. Unfortunately , racia l discriminatio n extende d throughou t th e AAF an d all other branche s o f the American military . Despit e th e achievement s o f several black male pilots i n World War I and othe r battlefield s i n th e early part o f the twentiet h century , th e AAF di d no t accep t blac k pilots. 78 I t was no t unti l pressure was put o n th e military, organized largel y by the black media, that th e Air Force s bega n t o allo w blac k pilots , an d the n onl y i n raciall y segregate d squadrons. Durin g Worl d Wa r II , th e AA F assemble d onl y tw o group s o f black pilots : th e 332n d Fighte r Group , whic h consiste d o f th e 99th , 100th , 301st, an d 302n d fighter squadrons ; an d th e 477t h (medium ) Bombardmen t Group, whic h consiste d o f th e 616th , 617th , 618th , an d 619t h bom b squadrons. 79 Th e 99t h Squadron , forme d o n Januar y 16 , 1941 , has th e dis tinction o f bein g th e first squadro n o f blac k pilots. 80 Member s o f thi s squadron ar e also known a s the Tuskegee Airmen, afte r th e Tuskegee Institute ,

The Development of theWASPs I 1 7 the school at which the y were first trained. Bot h groups suffered fro m docu mented discrimination , controversy , undu e an d unfai r attention , an d ba d publicity, despit e the pilots distinguishing themselve s bot h domesticall y an d overseas in battle with the Germans toward the end of the war. 81

The Women's Flying Training Detachment The Women's Flying Training Detachment receive d official approva l on September 15,1942, 82 and on October 7, a plan was developed proposing that the first WFT D clas s begi n o n Novembe r 1 5 at a n ai r schoo l nea r Houston , Texas.83 The school was run by a civilian contractor, Aviation Enterprises. The AAF had begun using civilian contractors to train its military pilots in 1940 in order t o reac h it s expanded goal s for pilo t training. 84 Genera l Arnold devel oped this idea when a goal of training 100,000 pilots was established, a number that the AAF could not train internally. (In 1939, the AAF had trained only 750 pilots.) The only way to reach the new goal was to offer civilia n contract s to private air schools; otherwise, th e AAF would hav e needed t o induc t an d train pilot s t o becom e instructors— a proces s tha t woul d hav e take n man y years.85 Among the requirements proposed for WASP trainees were pilot's licenses and a minimu m o f seventy-fiv e hour s flight time, 86 whic h wa s lowere d t o thirty-five hour s i n 1943 . In contrast , mal e pilot trainee s di d no t nee d pilot' s licenses or any flight experience to be accepted into flight training. Because of the short amount of time between the proposal for the school and the date the first class began at Houston, site preparation was incomplete,87 with necessary equipmen t fo r teachin g nigh t flying an d navigation , suc h a s Lin k trainers, lacking. (The Link trainer was one of the first flight simulators. It was designed to simulate blind flying, which is when the pilot relies solely on navigational instruments to pilot the plane. These skills were dangerous to learn in real flight but were necessary for night flying and for flying in bad weather.) The problems with the site did not improve, and on January 30,1943, a report wa s filed with th e AAF Central Flyin g Training Comman d statin g tha t "no dormitories or housing facilities exis t for th e students in the vicinity and they are being housed in tourist camp cottages at several scattered locations in the outskirt s o f the cit y and transporte d b y bus bot h ways . The moral e an d enthusiasm o f these girls under existing conditions is remarkable." 88 On Februar y 6 , 1943 , the previousl y establishe d goa l o f graduatin g 39 6 women pilot s that year doubled t o a goal of 750 graduates. 89 As a result, th e

18 I The Development of the WASPs

AAF Centra l Flyin g Training Comman d bega n t o searc h fo r othe r trainin g sites. A suitable sit e was found a t Avenger Fiel d i n Sweetwater , Texas, and a second WFTD schoo l began . A training progra m fo r mal e transpor t pilots , run b y Plosser-Prince Air Academy, already existed at this site. The first class for women pilots at Avenger Field began while male pilots were still in train ing, but th e decision was made to phase out th e male trainees an d creat e an exclusively female flight school. 90 Aviation Enterprise s oppose d openin g thi s second school, stating that the WFTD progra m would be "best operated an d produce a mor e standar d product " i f onl y on e contracto r le d training , a n opinion th e Centra l Flyin g Training Comman d believe d wa s influence d b y the director of Aviation Enterprises bein g "fearful o f eventual loss of his own contract."91 The first class of women pilots entered Avenger Field on February 21,1943, with classe s being directed b y Plosser-Prince Air Academy. Then, o n Marc h 10, the AAF Central Flying Training Command decided not to renew PlosserPrince's contrac t becaus e federa l gran d jur y ha d indicte d th e compan y o n charges of fraud i n January 1943. At this point, Central Flying Training Command decide d t o mov e Aviatio n Enterprise s an d al l WFT D trainin g t o Avenger Field . This mov e wa s mad e possibl e b y Plosser-Princ e agreein g t o transfer its lease of Avenger Field and to sell all training equipment on the site to Aviation Enterprises. 92

Curriculum and Flight Training The progra m o f instruction implemente d b y the WFTD i n Novembe r 194 2 put forth fou r genera l objectives: 1. Academi c instruction in technical objects, proficiency which is required in ferrying trainin g type aircraft . 2. Instructio n in the fundamental principle s required to pilot training type aircraft. 3. Trainin g in accepted procedures of the Air Transport Command . 4. Physica l trainin g t o maintai n an d improv e physica l an d menta l alert ness.93 The first training program was twenty-two and a half weeks long and consisted of 115 hours of flight training, twenty hours of Link training, five hours of physical training each week, and 180 hours of academic instruction i n five topics: navigation, weather, aircraf t an d engines , communications, an d ATC

The Development of the WASPs I 1 9

procedures.94 As with male pilot training, the WASPs' program of instruction underwent man y change s throughou t th e war years . I n January 1943 , flight training was divided into three phases—primary, basic , and advanced; academic instruction wa s expanded t o 23 0 hours, with mathematics , physics , an d seven hours of military instruction added; and physical training was increased to si x hour s a week. 95 Physica l trainin g include d calisthenic s an d muscle building, wit h particula r attentio n t o increasin g uppe r bod y strength . I t should b e noted tha t military planes in World War II did no t hav e the tech nological assists of contemporary planes. Tremendous leg strength was needed to contro l rudder s (especiall y i n four-engin e bombers) , an d significan t ar m strength wa s neede d t o contro l th e wheel. Nagl e said , "W e reall y flew these planes—they wer e flown b y manua l movements , no t technology . W e man handled those planes, if you will."96 Throughout 1943 , the lengt h o f the trainin g progra m increased . The las t major chang e i n trainin g cam e i n October , whe n trainin g wa s increase d t o twenty-seven weeks , which wa s divide d int o thre e nine-wee k phases . Fligh t instruction was increased to 210 hours (from 18 0 hours),97 and sixty-six hours of military training was included. 98 Academic instruction als o increased substantially, to 309 hours. Instruction no w comprised twelve topics: mathematics; physics ; maps , charts , an d aeria l photography ; navigation ; aircraf t an d principles o f flight; engine s an d propellers ; weather ; cod e practice ; instru ments; forms and procedures; pilots' information file; and communications. 99 The onl y appreciabl e chang e i n th e trainin g progra m i n 194 4 was that eac h section of flight training increased from nin e to ten weeks.100 Pilots enterin g WASP trainin g alread y had pilot' s license s an d experienc e flying civilian planes . The purpos e o f AAF flight trainin g wa s fo r cadet s t o learn how to fly the military's single- and dual-engine planes and to learn military flying regulations and techniques. The first WFTD schoo l near Houston lacked adequat e trainin g planes , especiall y cross-countr y an d instrumen t training planes. 101 The move to Avenger Field not onl y brought bette r facili ties, but also more and newer planes. 102 When th e WFTD schoo l in Housto n opened i n Novembe r 1942 , ther e wer e onl y thirtee n trainin g plane s avail able,103 and when it closed in February 1943, it had 133 airplanes. 104 When th e school at Avenger Field opened the same month, it had ninety-five planes, but it consistentl y average d tw o hundre d trainin g plane s i n 194 3 an d 1944. 105 Betty Stagg Turner, graduat e o f the nint h WAS P class of 1944, sent he r par ents in Columbus, Ohio, postcard pictures of her training planes. On May 15, 1944, she sent a postcard o f a PT-19 (primar y trainer), on which was printed an airplan e insigni a an d th e words "Let s go ! U.S.A. Kee p 'e m flying. Uncl e

20 I The Development of the WASPs Sam need s pilots." 106 O n tha t postcar d sh e wrote : "Thi s i s what I fly. Prett y neat huh ! I reall y like the m they'r e smooth . I'v e go t abou t 5 3 hours lef t t o fly in them , the n t o AT6's . . . will write t o you a s soon a s I get a chance." 107 Afte r she graduate d t o th e AT- 6 (advance d trainer) , sh e sen t a photo postcar d o f a BT-13 plane an d th e message : "Thi s i s the Basi c Trainer I will fly after I finish my trainin g i n th e AT6 th e on e I sent Mom . I'l l tak e m y instrumen t trainin g on thi s ship . This i s a 450 h.p. , th e AT 6 i s a 65 0 h.p . Will star t o n AT 6 Jun e 1. Will sen d yo u som e picture[s ] later." 108 W F T D flight trainin g varie d onl y slightl y fro m th e trainin g mal e AA F cadets received . The wome n receive d mor e navigationa l trainin g bu t n o gun nery trainin g an d les s formatio n flight trainin g an d aerobatics—thoug h stil l enough aerobatic s (suc h a s spins, loops, and stalls ) t o "b e able to recove r fro m any position." 109 I n 1942 , the flight trainin g progra m bega n wit h dua l flights in a basic trainer, followe d b y solo flights i n th e sam e trainer. Introduction s t o instrument trainin g an d lesson s i n da y and nigh t navigatio n wer e followed b y day an d nigh t flights i n a n advance d single-engin e comba t trainer . Th e pro gram conclude d wit h da y an d nigh t flights i n a twin-engine trainer. 110 Coursework an d flight trainin g change d throughou t th e WFTD' s exis tence in respons e t o mission s being performed b y the graduating WASPs. Th e first classe s of W F TD trainee s were placed in th e WAFS following graduation . Beginning i n Septembe r 1943 , training an d mission s were extended t o includ e target towing , glide r towing , rada r calibratio n flights, copilotin g bombers , and flying bombardie r trainin g missions. 111 A typica l weekda y fo r WAS P trainee s extende d fro m 6:0 0 A.M . unti l 10:0 0 P.M., beginnin g wit h th e cleanin g o f barrack s fo r inspection , followe d b y a march t o breakfast, the n a day divided amon g calisthenics , marching an d dril l training, groun d schoo l classes , and flight training , with evening s reserve d fo r study. 112 "I t was very hard. I trained i n Texas from Ma y throug h December . I t was very hot—th e onl y relie f you go t wa s when yo u go t i n a cockpit an d go t off th e ground . . . . You al l held eac h othe r up—everyon e wa s mora l suppor t for eac h other, " recalle d Miller. 113 Even though the y belonged t o a civilian auxiliary, WASP trainees were subject t o militar y regulation s an d procedures , an d man y trainee s ha d joine d th e program i n anticipatio n o f it s bein g militarized , lik e th e Women' s Arm y Corps, which ha d als o begun a s a civilian auxiliary . "W e were all there for on e purpose: To lear n t o fly the militar y way," Nagle said . "Al l of our trainin g wa s geared towar d th e military . I t wa s exactl y th e sam e a s th e men's , excep t the y had mor e navigatio n an d les s aerobatics , whic h th e me n use d fo r practicin g

dogfights."114

The Development of the WASPs I 2 1

WASP Assignments Following graduatio n fro m Avenge r Field , WASPs were assigne d t o a numbe r of AAF base s in th e continenta l Unite d States . Like male AAF cadets , the y received additiona l specialize d transitiona l trainin g tailore d t o thei r individua l assignments an d th e type s o f plane s t o b e flown a t thes e bases . N o standar d provisions were made fo r housin g or feeding WASPs, and problem s aros e ove r these issue s a t som e bases. 115 Fe w base s were larg e enoug h t o provid e accom modations fo r th e WASPs . Som e base s house d the m wit h bas e nurse s o r WACs, 116 whil e other s house d the m a t loca l hotel s o r civilia n barracks. 117 Bases als o ra n int o difficultie s i n determinin g wher e WASP s coul d dine . WASPs ofte n flew mission s wit h AA F pilots , wh o wer e officers , ye t wer e no t allowed t o ea t i n som e o f the officers ' messes . Base s varied i n thei r regulation s about where WASPs coul d tak e their meals . Most allowe d WASPs int o th e of ficers' messes , whil e other s restricte d WASP s t o WACs ' o r nurses ' messes , o r to civilia n bas e cafeteria s an d loca l restaurants. 118 Problems surrounding accommodation s an d eatin g were often a significan t issue for WASP s o n ferryin g missions , particularl y i n th e first yea r o f their ex istence, whe n base s an d airport s wer e les s familia r wit h them . Cross-countr y flights sometime s too k several days to complete, and WASPs would ofte n lan d at base s an d airport s where personne l wer e hostile o r unsur e abou t ho w t o ac commodate them . Man y WASP s encountere d problem s no t onl y wit h finding overnigh t accommodation s an d food , bu t als o i n obtainin g permissio n t o land an d receiv e plan e maintenance . Becaus e th e WAS P progra m ha d bee n developed wit h littl e publicity , man y bas e personne l di d no t kno w abou t it , and the y refuse d t o believ e tha t thes e wome n wer e pilots . WASPs wer e ofte n confused wit h civilia n stewardesses or passengers, while some were refused ser vice at local restaurants becaus e they wore pants. Several even told o f being ar rested o r detaine d b y militar y bas e police , who believe d the y were imperson ating soldiers or stealing planes. 119 Because of some of the problems tha t arose , many WASP s wh o ferrie d plane s wer e ordere d no t t o wea r thei r uniforms . "When w e returned t o base, " Madge Rutherfor d Minto n recalled , "w e could n't wear ou r uniforms , bu t w e carrie d a little card . And i f we were goin g bac k to pic k u p anothe r airplan e fo r anothe r delivery , thi s littl e car d gav e u s th e power t o bum p anybod y i n th e natio n of f o f a commercial airlin e excep t fo r members o f th e President' s cabine t an d th e Presiden t himself . I onl y ha d t o use it once." 120 WASPs als o would find tha t acceptanc e fo r the m varie d a t dif ferent bases . "Th e receptio n a t n o tw o fields i s alike. Sometime s th e girl s ar e accepted withou t questio n int o a fraternity tha t respect s a good pilo t regard -

22

I

The Development ofthe WASPs

less ofsex, but often enough the atmosphere is considerably more chilly than it is upstairs."121 The majority ofWASPs report that they received positive treatment from male MF members. "Most C.O.'s [commanding officers] appreciated the WASPs and our abilities to perform difficult jobs well," said Wyall.122 In final base reports, an overwhelming majority rated WASP performances as exem­ plary and indicated that WASPs and male MF pilots and personnel worked together well. The final report from Blytheville MF base noted that the "WASPS have been accepted by the military personnel in a very commend­ able manner as a part of the army."123 A report commissioned by the MF to assess the "experiment" of women as pilots was less enthusiastic, determining only that at "most of the stations no serious problems were created by the sex ofthe WASPs."124 The final report from Buckingham MF base was more en­ thusiastic: "Buckingham Field was sorry to lose their WASPS. The men on the line and the air crew members who helped keep the gunnery missions operat­ ing, had grown to respect the blue WASP uniform and also had grown to ad­ mire the women who wore those colors. A more enviable record could not have been left."125 However, some detachments were not receptive to having WASPs sta­ tioned with them, and at least one base was investigated and charged with dis­ criminating against the WASPs stationed there.126 Treatment ranged from commanding officers who requested that WASPs be sent elsewhere, to teasing, abusive remarks, and even sabotage. Women pilots who brought planes into airfields to which WASPs had not fl.own before sometimes experienced diffi­ culties in getting permission to land. However, the most common negative treatment that WASPs described was being ignored. "Nobody spoke to us from the time we landed until the time we left. We walked into the Opera­ tions office, checked in, and still we were met only with an air of hostile re­ sentment." 127 One MF report noted that resentment by male pilots occurred "where the WASP's were flying 'heavier' or 'faster' ships than the ones the male pilots were flying." 128 Captain Bob Morgan (retired) said that such resentment was limited to pi­ lots stationed in the United States. Morgan was the pilot of the "Memphis Belle," the first American B-17 to survive its full mission tour, which was in England. (After completing their tour of duty, Morgan and his crew were brought to the United States for a motivational tour.) Morgan said that com­ bat pilots knew firsthand that there was a shortage ofcombat pilots, and they appreciated the efforts ofthe WASPs. "The importance was that it relieved us to go off to do our combat duties and not have to ferry airplanes all over the

The Development of theWASPs I 2 3 country o r test them afte r the y were repaired—and tha t was very importan t because we were short of pilots, and we needed all the combat pilots we could possible have, and these gals could fly anything we could fly."129

WASP Missions Airplane ferrying was the initial mission fo r which WASPs were created, an d it would occup y nearly half of all active WASP graduates when th e progra m ended in Decembe r 1944. 130 Planes produced i n the United State s needed t o be flown from th e factories t o air bases at home, in Canada, an d overseas. To handle this transportation demand , the ATC hired thousands of male civilian pilots to ferry planes. These male pilots were later commissioned directly into the AA F i f the y me t th e requirement s an d desire d commissioning. 131 Th e WASPs were brough t o n a s ferryin g pilots , an d b y th e tim e the y wer e dis banded in December 1944, they had delivered 12,652 planes on domestic missions.132 By that time, 141 WASPs were assigned to the ATC.133 Although they comprised a small percentage of the total Ferrying Division pilots, WASPs had a significant impact . By 1944, WASPs were ferrying the majority o f all pursuit planes and were so integrated int o th e Ferryin g Divisio n tha t thei r disband ment caused delays in pursuit deliveries. 134 The days of ferrying pilots were long and unpredictable. At bases that handled a range o f planes, pilot s di d no t kno w fro m on e da y t o th e nex t wha t planes they would b e flying or ho w lon g o f a flight t o expect . I n Minton' s words, "We usually reported to the flight line at seven o'clock in the morning and looked at the board to see what had been assigned us in the way of an airplane, where it went and what we would need in the way of equipment to take along, and then we would go out to find our airplane and sign it out at operations and check it over to be sure everything was okay with the airplane. And then we would take off to wherever the plane was supposed to go."135 Ferrying militar y aircraf t durin g World War I I was not a n eas y task. The majority of these planes were not equipped with radios, so pilots navigated by comparing air maps with physical cues (highways, mountains, rivers , etc.) o r by flying the beam. (Th e "beam" was a radio transmission o f Morse code signals. A grid of such beams was established across the United States. To follow the beam, a pilot would listen on her headphone fo r aural "blips" or tones to direct her. This required a great deal of concentration an d was not always accurate.) Bot h navigationa l technique s wer e difficult , an d thi s wa s com pounded b y th e fact s tha t man y ai r base s an d factorie s wer e camouflaged ,

24 I The Development of theWASPs blackouts were maintained i n coastal areas, and th e navigational beam s were prone t o breakin g down . Problem s sometime s aros e with th e plane s them selves, which ha d bee n teste d a t th e factorie s bu t neve r flown. Cross-conti nental flights ofte n too k severa l days , dependin g o n th e plane s bein g flown and weather conditions . In addition, plane s equipped with to p secret munitions o r accessories had to b e guarde d whil e o n th e ground , an d WASP s receive d order s t o protec t these planes at all cost. WASPs flying these planes were issued .4 5 caliber pistols and were trained to fire machine guns. 136 WASPs ha d t o b e highl y skille d pilot s t o handl e ferryin g missions . Th e planes they ferried range d from th e primary and secondary trainers they had flown a t Avenge r Fiel d t o fas t single-engin e pursui t plane s (fighte r planes) , two-engine an d four-engin e bombers , an d two-engin e carg o planes . " I flew BT-13S and AT-6s; I flew C-47S and C-46S, and I also road the copilot's seat in the B-17S, " said Minton. 137 The plane s flown by the Ferryin g Divisio n wer e made b y man y differen t manufacturers , whic h mean t the y ha d differen t equipment an d controls , speeds , maneuverability , weight , altitud e ranges , take-off an d landing techniques and distances, and emergency procedures. Although th e WAS P progra m wa s initiall y forme d t o ferr y airplanes , b y 1944 less than half of all active WASPs were ferrying planes. 138 WASPs flew a wide variety of missions: they served as engineering test pilots, which included flying planes that had crashed and been repaired; they towed targets at which live ammo was fired; 139 they trained groun d crew s in searchlight s an d track ing b y flying night missions ; the y towe d gliders ; the y conducte d flight in struction; and they performed to p secret missions, including participating in the atomic bomb project, testin g anti-radar devices , and flying bombers with the then-classified Norde n bombsight. 140 Cross-country navigational skills were also a necessity for WASPs who flew administrative flights, which involve d transportin g militar y and governmental personnel between bases. As their reputation grew, WASPs were in demand by AAF officers, wh o found the m to be more reliable and consistent than th e male civilian pilots. 141 Nadine Nagle piloted administrative flights and foun d navigation to be the most demanding yet interesting aspect of these missions. "It wasn't easy like today. You flew the beams or followed lights along the way. You don't have many landmarks in Texas to fly off of." Nagl e also noted tha t WASPs were in demand fo r administrativ e flights: "They said it was because we didn't carr y our littl e blac k books int o towns , so we were on time , bu t I never saw male pilots missing appointments." 142 Arnold's written accoun t o f WASPs also mentions the male pilots' black books: "It was common for com-

The Development of the WASPs I 2 5 manding officer s t o sa y the y woul d rathe r hav e WASPs ferr y airplane s acros s the Unite d State s tha n mal e pilots , becaus e th e WAS P normall y reache d he r destination a day o r tw o ahea d o f th e tim e require d b y a male pilo t t o d o th e same job . Whe n presse d fo r reasons , th e answe r usuall y give n wa s tha t th e WASP didn' t carr y a n addres s boo k wit h her." 143 Although comba t was the only area of military flight tha t WASPs were pro hibited from , the y di d serv e vita l role s i n trainin g mal e soldier s fo r comba t missions. Fo r example , WASP bombe r crew s pilote d plane s pullin g target s a t which liv e anti-aircraf t ammunitio n wa s fired fro m groun d cannons . Pullin g targets required precisio n maneuvers , becaus e pilot erro r was likely to resul t i n the plane bein g shot down . Eve n th e bes t pilots face d th e possibility of havin g their plane , rathe r tha n th e target , shot . Kadd y Steel e recalled : "Yo u couldn' t help but realiz e the danger, bu t we had a lot of confidence tha t the people wh o were doing the training were in control o f what was going on, and by and larg e they were. Bu t becaus e everybody' s human , an d there' s alway s huma n errors , there wa s a definit e margi n o f error , especiall y i n th e low-altitud e missions , where we were towing sleeves, because sometimes the y would ge t overexuber ant whe n the y wer e firing th e guns . Bu t ther e wer e incident s wher e th e air planes wer e shot , an d ther e wer e incident s wher e th e airplane s wer e sho t down, bu t no t a t ou r base." 144 WASPs wer e als o recruite d t o assis t wit h bombe r cre w training , whic h meant piloting bombers while male combat trainee s practiced a s bombardiers, navigators, an d gunners . They flew simulate d strafin g mission s an d droppe d tear ga s an d othe r chemica l agent s i n orde r t o trai n groun d troops. 145 Again , these trainin g mission s require d precisio n an d involve d moc k comba t situa tions. Steel e flew suc h missions : I was stationed at Biggs Field, El Paso, in an air-to-ground gunnery station, and we flew B-25S, B-26S, P-47S, AT-ios, SPDs, SP2CSS, BT-13S. We had a lot of different kind s of airplanes because we had a lot of kinds of missions. We ha d target-towin g an d radar-trackin g missions . Then w e ha d strafin g missions, wher e w e would g o dow n an d simulat e strafin g th e troop s a s the y would be strafed i n a combat situation, and we had gassing missions, where we would gas the troops with tea r gas, so they could practic e using their masks— putting them o n i n a hurry 146 WASPs di d no t receiv e aerobatic s trainin g a t Avenge r Fiel d becaus e thes e techniques wer e only used b y fighter pilots . However , WASPs whose mission s included trainin g pursui t plan e comba t pilot s woul d late r lear n thos e tech niques, s o tha t the y coul d practic e dogfight s wit h comba t trainees . Claric e

i6 I The Development of theWASPs Bergemann flew an AT-26 that pulled targets for P-4 6 pilots to practice dogfighting. "The y use d cameras , s o the y ha d o n film ho w well the y did, " sh e said, notin g tha t WASPs at othe r base s were fired on with liv e ammunition . "It was pretty boring: you were given the area and you flew figure-eight patterns al l morning an d al l afternoon long . I t was exact flying, not interestin g flying."147 Base commanders sometimes used the competition tha t male pilots exhibited towar d WASPs to th e advantage o f a given mission . Fo r example, when pilots would refuse to fly a certain plane because of a known or supposed crash record, WASPs would be assigned to fly that plane at a number of bases to cajole the men into flying it as well. The four-engine B-29, which was the biggest and heaviest plane in the AAF, was one such plane. Colonel Paul Tibbets (who would late r lea d th e B-2 9 formatio n tha t droppe d th e atomi c bom b o n Hi roshima) use d WASPs to win ove r pilots who fel t tha t th e plane was too bi g to fly safely. 148 Tibbets subsequentl y use d WASPs for to p secre t mission s in volved with the Manhattan project. 149 WASPs were also used to demonstrate th e safety o f the B-26 Marauder, a plane that fearful pilot s had taken to calling the B-26 "Murderer." The Martin City Star covered one such flight. In an article titled "Suga r and Spice! B26 Gentl e a s Lamb i n Hand s o f WASPS," th e autho r pointe d ou t tha t th e bomber was not dangerous and difficult t o fly because twelve WASPs regularly piloted i t for anti-aircraf t crews ' gunnery practice. The piec e concluded tha t the "announcement o f young women flying the Marauder is the second piece of overwhelmin g evidenc e tha t prove s thi s Marti n bombe r i s NO T a toug h plane to fly."150

WASP Performance Records indicate that WASPs performed thei r duties slightly better than their male counterparts . Statistic s fro m AA F Headquarter s i n 194 4 revealed pilo t error percentages at .00 1 for WASPs, versus .00 7 for mal e pilots. 151 The fata l accident rat e for WASPs was .06 0 pe r 1,00 0 hours , or one fata l acciden t fo r every 16,667 hours flown, while the fatal accident rate for domestic, noncombat male pilots was .062 per 1,000 hours. 152 Despite the low accident rates, thirty-eight of the 1,830 WASP trainees and active pilots die d i n servic e to thei r country. 153 Those who die d receive d n o burial expenses or even recognition. "We did, most unfortunately, los e thirtyeight of our number, som e of them i n ferrying planes , some of them i n test -

The Development of the WASPs I 2 7

ing planes , a coupl e i n towin g targets , an d ther e wa s on e cas e o f sabotage , where a man who didn't really feel that women had any business in a cockpit put suga r i n a gas tank , an d i t didn' t ru n ver y well, an d sh e crashed, " sai d Minton.154 Additionally, accordin g t o a report fro m Brya n Army Air Field , th e "per centage of sick calls made by WASPs was lower in proportion to their number than the male pilots." 155 This contradicted earl y assumptions of medical personnel that women pilot s would b e grounded mor e frequently tha n mal e pilots becaus e o f menstruation , a facto r tha t (afte r considerabl e study ) wa s found t o have no impact upon women pilots. 156 Beyond thes e statistic s ar e th e report s an d letter s o f commendatio n tha t arose from ever y base at which WASPs were stationed. Hundred s o f WASPs received forma l commendatio n fro m bas e commanders . Among th e award s received b y WASPs wer e th e Ai r Meda l awarde d t o WAF S founde r Nanc y Harkness Lov e and Barbar a Erickso n o f the Air Ferryin g Squadron , an d th e Distinguished Servic e Medal awarded to Jacqueline Cochran. 157 The consen sus of AAF reports from al l bases where WASPs served was that "wome n ca n fly as well as men."158 These reports had tremendous impac t upo n th e futur e establishment o f wome n pilot s bot h i n an d ou t o f th e military . WASP s proved, under careful study , that women could fly all military planes. Further, as General Arnold wrote, their "very successful recor d of accomplishment ha s proved that in any future tota l effort th e nation can count on thousands of its young women t o fly any of its aircraft." 159 The official recognitio n o f WASP accomplishments b y the military mean t greater recognition for women's roles in wartime efforts. Cochra n noted: "The experience gaine d ha s prove d tha t thi s countr y ha s a n enormou s reserv e among our young women, available in case of need."160 Indeed , the once top secret document s tha t analyze d th e WAS P progra m wer e writte n "s o tha t when a similar program i s launched i n the future, a s it most certainly will be if an emergency again presents itself, the new woman's program, no longer experimental, can start initially as a significant, dependable , successful, an d accepted part of the Army Air Forces." 161

Expectations for Militarization Throughout its two-year existence, the WASP program maintained civilian status despite concerted attempt s by the AAF to militarize it. The first proposals that Love and Cochra n submitte d t o the AAF recommended tha t th e experi-

28 I The Development of theWASPs mental progra m b e implemented wit h civilia n women pilots. 162 Yet after th e formation o f the WAFS and WFTDs, Cochran and key military advisers realized that WASPs could serve more efficiently i f they were militarized, an d the AAF began to research the best possibilities for obtaining militarization . Recruits wer e tol d tha t th e progra m woul d b e militarized, 163 an d bot h WASP trainees and active WASPs performed an d were evaluated as if they already were members o f the armed forces. 164 WASPs were subject t o militar y review, had t o follo w militar y custom s an d procedures , wor e uniforms , an d were instructe d i n dril l an d militar y courtesy. 165 Th e difference s wer e tha t WASPs did not receive the money, security, and benefits o f being in the military, an d tha t WASPs could qui t thei r position s a t an y time. 166 The issu e of militarization constantl y aros e fro m th e inceptio n o f th e progra m i n 194 2 until it s demis e i n 1944 . Militar y protoco l an d drillin g wer e par t o f th e Avenger Fiel d groun d school , an d eighty-fiv e WASP s wer e sen t t o office r training school in Orlando , Florida , i n anticipatio n o f their becoming Army officers.167 Women's division s o f the Navy, Marines, and Coast Guar d ha d bee n im plemented as fully militarized branches, but the women's division of the Army began a s an auxiliar y unit (th e Women's Auxiliary Army Corps ) befor e con gressional authorizatio n change d it s statu s t o a militarize d branc h (th e Women's Army Corps). The AAF, the War Department, an d th e secretary of state had all requested tha t th e WASPs be militarized. Despit e their requests, however, Congress rejected th e bill for militarization, making the WASPs the only women's branch whose military status was rejected during World War II.

Gender Defines the Programs Creation The ver y existenc e o f th e WAS P progra m aros e fro m th e phenomeno n i n which pilot s wer e gendere d an d organize d accordin g t o thi s culturall y con structed categorization. What separated the first WAFS from th e male civilian ferrying pilot s wh o wer e eventuall y directl y militarize d int o th e AA F wa s specifically, an d singularly , thei r gender . Indeed , al l components o f the pro gram tha t affecte d it s survival , suc h a s experimenta l status , medi a prohibi tions, and incremental increases in the program following testing of pilots, resulted directl y from sexis t assumptions o f the AAF that th e program an d it s female pilots were likely to fail in their missions. From it s very inception, gende r was the defining poin t o f the WASP program. Women accepte d int o WASP trainin g alread y had t o b e proven fliers

The Development of the WASPs I 2 9

with pilot' s license s an d seventy-fiv e hour s o f flight tim e (late r reduce d t o thirty-five hours) , while male trainees did no t hav e to have pilot's licenses or any flight experience whatsoever t o be accepted into th e AAF's pilot trainin g program. Besides treating the male and female pilot cadets differently, th e AAF handled th e administratio n o f the WASP program differently . Fo r example , details of the WASP training program remained a closely guarded secret and the WASPs' public relation s pla n specificall y forbad e medi a contact . As a result, the public, th e media , an d Congres s were not mad e awar e of the importan t missions performed b y the WASPs and their high level of success in complet ing these missions. This degree of secrecy and cautious expansion would soon cause irreconcilable problems for the Women Airforce Service Pilots program.

3 Becoming Soldiers Tracing WASP Expansion and Plans I for Militarization

As the Women Airforce Servic e Pilots program expande d i n 1943 and 1944, the Army Air Forces, realizing that th e experimental us e of women pilots was successful, began to examine how the newly defined program should be constituted. Several possibilities for the status of the women's pilot program existed: civi l servic e o r civilia n standing , incorporatio n unde r th e Women' s Army (Auxiliary ) Corps , or direct militarization a s a division o f the Army Air Forces.1 Throughout th e program' s existence , concerted effort s wer e made t o militarize it as a division of the AAF, and numerous avenues for obtaining this goal were explored. One of these, placing the WASPs under the WACs, was investigated from th e beginning of the program in 1942 until its demise in 1944, but for changing reasons over the years, this option was never implemented . Most account s o f the WASPs ascertain tha t th e reaso n th e program neve r merged with th e WACs was that Jacqueline Cochra n di d no t ge t along with the WA C directo r Ovet a Cul p Hobby . Record s d o indicat e tha t th e tw o women wer e no t friends . Indeed , Cochran , i n he r autobiograph y Stars at Noon, described Hobby as the woman she loved to hate. However, no records indicate that the women's dislike for each other ever kept them from workin g together. Rather, they maintained a productive, professional relationship , regularly attendin g meeting s togethe r an d maintainin g correspondence . Th e Cochran/Hobby feu d ha s th e sam e mythi c cat-fightin g constructio n a s th e purported Cochran/Love feud referred t o in the previous chapter. This theory also ignores numerous other documented reason s why the WASPs were never incorporated int o the WACs. The WASP s develope d differentl y tha n th e othe r women' s auxiliarie s o f World Wa r II , formin g directl y unde r th e auspice s o f th e AAF a s a civilian group rather than b y receipt of congressiona l approval . Other women's divisions of the military , suc h a s the Navy's WAVES and th e Women's Marines ,

30

Becoming Soldiers I 3 1

were formed a s militarized units under the authorization of Congress, and the WACs received congressional approval as an auxiliary before they were subsequently militarized by Congress. The WASPs were the only women's militar y branch established during World War II that did not receive congressional approval. The AAF did no t submi t t o Congres s an y bills regarding th e forma tion o f the WASPs until 1944 , when i t submitted a bill t o obtai n militariza tion fo r th e program . Instead , th e AAF formed th e WASP program unde r a War Departmen t authorizatio n tha t enable d i t t o us e civilia n pilot s fo r do mestic missions . The AA F frequentl y use d mal e civilia n pilot s fo r ferryin g missions, which meant that training and using organized groups of civilian pilots, such as the WAFS and later the WASPs, was a common procedure within the AAF. Non e of the AAF program s that used civilian male pilots came under public scrutiny or governmental attack . Instead, thes e programs were praised in newspapers and on the floors of Congress. The first official proposa l for the WASP program within the AAF calle d for the WASPs to be an official , militarize d component. 2 This proposal , writte n by Cochra n i n July 1941 , recommended tha t th e women's pilo t progra m b e formed a s an auxiliary division i n the AAF and tha t "enablin g legislation" be developed immediately. 3 Thi s proposa l wa s rejecte d b y AAF Commandin g General Henr y H . Arnol d becaus e th e Unite d State s at thi s point ha d mor e pilots than planes. 4 In 1942 , base d o n a proposa l b y Love , th e Women' s Auxiliar y Ferryin g Squadron forme d unde r th e auspices of the Ferrying Division's civilia n pilo t program. Th e WAF S progra m followe d th e sam e guideline s an d principle s that governed the services of male civilian pilots. On December 15,1942, in response to AAF plans to expand th e program beyon d th e twenty-five origina l WAFS, Cochran submitted a modified version of her earlier proposal, which, unlike he r first proposal , reflecte d th e AAF' s oppositio n t o militarizin g women. In thi s version , Cochra n recommende d tha t th e progra m no t see k militarization fo r it s pilots unti l a t leas t 12 5 women ha d graduate d fro m th e program and were "working at ferrying, instructing, towing targets, and many other flying duties."5 The majo r element s of this proposal were repeated i n a December 1 9 memorandum fro m Brigadie r Genera l Walter F . Kraus to Gen eral Arnold, whic h encourage d th e militarizatio n o f th e program , bu t onl y after th e women had proven themselves to be successful pilots. 6 AAF officers workin g with th e WAFS prior t o Cochran' s proposal ha d already been encouraging militarization fo r thes e women as early as November 1942, basin g their recommendations on the performance of the WAFS and the needs of the military. 7 The Air Transport Comman d s Ferrying Division rec-

32 I Becoming Soldiers

ommended tha t women pilots be militarized s o that their standing would be consistent with that of the male civilian pilots used by the division, whom the Ferrying Division intended to militarize.8 As more AAF leader s recognized the abilities o f the women pilot s an d th e potential fo r a n expande d WASP program, the general staff went from cautiousl y releasing pilots on limited ferry ing assignments to greatly increasing the variety and scope of its missions . Based on the successes of these missions, the decreased need for combat pilots, and the Army's need for more ground forces, General Arnold announce d a plan in 1944 to release all male air cadets to the Army's ground forces and expand WASP missions to include all domestic flights. At this point in the war, pilot losses in combat had been substantially less than the AAF had predicted and recruite d for , an d in many sectors of the globe the Allies maintained ful l air superiority . Therefore , th e AA F n o longe r neede d th e grea t number s o f trainees tha t th e Army ha d appropriate d t o it . Th e logica l respons e wa s t o transfer ai r cadets into the "walking army," a change that would also result in a reduced need for the AAF to employ civilian instructors.

Early Plans for WASP Militarization When th e various proposals for the development of the WASP program were written i n 194 1 an d earl y 1942 , ther e wer e n o militarize d attachment s o f women within the U.S. military except for the Army Nurse Corps, which was established i n 1902. 9 Involvement o f women i n the military was initially opposed b y Congress an d reportedl y b y the American public ; instead , wome n were encouraged t o join "helping " units such as the Red Cros s and women's volunteer auxiliaries. 10 Women wer e expected t o hel p soldier s i n th e war ef fort bu t no t becom e soldiers, which resulte d i n women bein g encouraged t o participate i n th e war effor t onl y within function s tha t di d no t brea k statu s quo expectations of gender roles. 11 As WASPs successfully performe d mission s and were assigned to a variety of air bases, it became clear to AAF commanders that militarization was a necessary component of the program.12 The AAF bega n to explore routes through which militarizatio n coul d b e obtaine d fo r th e WASP program , suc h a s incorporation unde r th e WACs, direct commissioning within th e Ferrying Division, and congressiona l dictate . In th e interim, WASP training and assign ments were conducted a s though militarizatio n was imminent, i f not alread y implemented, wit h WASPs following militar y protocol an d servin g bases on twenty-four-hour call. 13 From th e first meeting s wit h representative s o f th e

Becoming Soldiers I 3 3

WASP program, WASP trainees were told that the program was to be militarized. "W e fully expecte d tha t we were going t o b e in th e militar y when w e joined," WASP Marty Wyall said.14 Clarice Bergemann said: "I thought it was the military , an d I was surprised whe n I was told tha t i t was civil service." 15 Nadine Nagl e joined th e WASPs specifically t o serv e in th e place of her de ceased husband, who ha d bee n a n AAF pilot: " I had expecte d militarizatio n and looked forward t o becoming part of the Air Corps." 16 In anticipation o f militarized status for the program, th e AAF sent eightyfive selected WASP s t o th e Arm y Ai r Force s Tactica l Schoo l i n Orlando , Florida, fo r advanc e office r an d tactica l trainin g i n Apri l 1944 . In May , th e WASP curriculu m a t Avenger Fiel d i n Sweetwater , Texas, was revise d t o in clude officer indoctrinatio n trainin g and a section o n th e duties and respon sibilities of officers.17 Although WASPs were behaving as soldiers, they did not receive the money, security, and benefits o f being in the military. In addition , because they were not par t o f the military, WASPs could qui t thei r position s at any time, which restricted the AAF's ability to discipline them. 18 Although discipline had never been a problem, th e AAF believed that this complicate d assignments, confuse d commander s a s to th e role s of WASPs, and increase d voluntary resignations. 19 Despite not bein g militarized, fro m it s inception th e WASP program ha d a uniqu e relationshi p wit h th e AAF. Technically civilia n employees , WASPs were subject t o al l forms o f military disciplin e excep t court-martia l (bu t in cluding forced dismissal) , were expected t o wear uniforms , live d o n militar y bases, and worked alongside AAF personnel, followin g th e same protocols as AAF officers. 20 Bu t a s civilians, WASPs were not entitle d t o th e hospitaliza tion, death , o r veterans' benefits o f the male pilots they served with, no r di d they receive the same pay, housing, or living expenditures. 21

The Development and Militarization of the Women's Army Corps One means of obtaining militarization that the AAF investigate d several times between 1942 and 1944 was the inclusion of the WASPs in the Women's Army (Auxiliary) Corps . Placing the WASPs as a unit of the WACs would have created for the women of both auxiliaries a structure similar to that which existed between the regular Army and the AAF. The ide a for developin g the WACs arose before th e United State s entered World War II. On December 12,1941, Congress introduced House Resolution 4906, the purpose of which was to establish a Women's Auxiliary Army Corps

34 I Becoming Soldiers

specifically fo r noncomba t service . Those supporting the bill argued that th e Army intended to use women in roles that they contended women were more skilled than men in performing. A statement issued by Chief of Staff General G. C. Marshall to Congress in support o f the bill noted "innumerabl e dutie s now bein g performe d b y soldier s tha t actuall y ca n b e don e bette r b y women."22 The roles proposed for women within the Army auxiliary included stenographers, telephon e operators , an d clerks. 23 Wome n ha d performe d these types of jobs durin g World War I in a civilian capacity , an d i t was because o f limitation s tha t ha d resulte d fro m workin g wit h civilian s tha t th e Army wanted to militarize these positions. 24 H.R. 490 6 was replaced b y H.R. 6293 , which calle d for th e developmen t of a women's auxiliary corps that would work "with " rather tha n b e "of" th e Army.25 This semanti c distinctio n resulte d i n th e greates t amoun t o f debat e concerning the bill's passage. Section 12 of the bill clearly stated the impact of the preposition: "The corps shall not be a part of the Army, but it shall be the only women's organization authorized to serve with the Army, exclusive of the Army Nurse Corp[s]." 26 Debate on H.R. 629 3 extended from January to May of 1942, and the bill went throug h thre e hearings i n th e Hous e an d Senat e Military Affairs com mittees before bein g submitted t o th e General Assembly. 27 Much o f this debate focuse d o n th e separate , nonmilitarize d standin g propose d fo r th e WAACs. Even thoug h som e member s o f Congres s wer e oppose d t o th e in volvement of women within the military, others recognized the administrative problems tha t woul d resul t fro m workin g with a separate auxiliary . The bil l called for members of the WAAC to receive pay from th e Army, be subject t o some but not all military codes, and perform a s voluntary employees—whic h meant tha t they could resign at any time, including when a n assignment di d not mee t thei r expectation s o r when the y wanted t o escap e disciplinar y ac tion.28 While this bill was being debated by Congress, the Army was also suggesting that an ideal situation would be to have the Women's Army Corps militarized, thus committing its members to all Army regulations. Between the authoring of the WAAC bill and its presentation to Congress, the Navy had submitted another bill, which Congress passed, that provided it with a militarized women's component , th e WAVES . I n 1941 , when th e WAA C bil l wa s first brought to Congress, the Army had wanted a similar situation, but the climate of Congres s di d no t favo r wome n bein g militarized . I n th e yea r tha t ha d passed, tha t climat e ha d change d dramatically , wit h Congres s expressin g a willingness to pass through al l bills submitted b y the military to keep Ameri-

Becoming Soldiers I 3 5

can involvemen t i n th e wa r uninhibited . Th e Arm y an d Wa r Departmen t conferred abou t adding an amendment t o the WAAC bill that would provide for militarizin g th e corps, but the y decided agains t changin g the bill (whic h had already been held up with considerable debate at the committee level) for fear that this would further dela y or even jeopardize the bill's passage. 29 Even though man y members of the Senate agreed with the Army in favoring com plete military standing for the corps, they voted on the bill as it stood, fearin g that unnecessary delays might result if they sent it back to the House of Representatives, whic h ha d alread y passe d th e bill. 30 The Senate' s decisio n mir rored that made by the Army, which had decided that the specific status of the women's corp s mattere d les s tha n obtainin g quic k passag e o f th e bill. 31 In deed, severa l senator s specificall y referre d t o th e Army's decisio n t o ge t ap proval on this first bill and implement the women's auxiliary immediately and then return to Congress at a later date to improve the program's status.32 In its presentation t o th e Senate , th e Army indicate d tha t i t preferre d militarize d status fo r th e women's auxiliary , bu t becaus e i t di d no t wan t an y delays potentially created by including an addendum t o the bill, it would leave the decision about determining WAAC status to Congress. 33 The greatest voice of opposition t o the creation o f the WAAC as an auxiliary service was raised b y one of the few women member s o f the legislature , Helen Dougla s Mankin o f Georgia, who had served overseas with a women's auxiliary in World War I . Mankin testifie d tha t women wh o serve d oversea s during World War I had been subject t o bombings, shellings, and other dan gers but ha d no t bee n "take n car e of by the Government " becaus e they were classified a s civilian employees. Mankin state d that she was testifying becaus e "I mad e u p m y mind a t tha t tim e that , i f we eve r had anothe r worl d war , I would do everything I could so that that would not happen again. " She drew an analogy of what the Army was constructing concerning the WAAC: "making a woman's outer garments military b u t . .. leavin g her underclothing civilian." She further asserte d that because Congress was developing different leg islation fo r wome n tha n fo r men , differen t law s would resul t governin g th e status of women, and, after th e war "the women are going to be forgotten an d neglected because they are going to be in the minority." 34 Mankin's point o f view was not th e majorit y opinio n withi n Congress . A more dominant view was the fear that if women were involved "in" the Army, there would be no barriers preventing the military from puttin g women int o combat, whic h member s o n bot h side s o f th e debat e wer e vehementl y op posed to. 35 Some members of Congress worried that any relationship with the Army might result in women being drawn into combat and thus opposed no t

36 I Becoming Soldiers

only militarizatio n o f th e WAACs , bu t als o wome n bein g involve d i n an y overseas missions.36 Army representatives at the various hearings continued to stress tha t th e WAACs woul d no t b e soldier s bu t civilia n employee s o f th e Army, a relationship simila r to that which th e WAFS (an d later, the WASPs) would hav e with th e AAF. General Marshal l was unable t o testif y i n perso n because of his war duties, but he sent written statement s t o Congress in support o f th e bill . Marshal l wrote,"I n my opinio n thi s propose d organizatio n would provide a sound an d practicable method fo r meetin g military requirements with respec t to the employment o f women."37 The Army also contin ued to support th e position tha t th e purpose o f the WAACs was to focus o n work tha t the Army felt women coul d d o better tha n men. 38 At the hearing, Lieutenant Colone l Ira Swift o f the General Staff Corps testified: "Th e Army at present tim e is not shor t o f military personnel. Neither doe s the War De partment advocat e the creation o f an Amazon contingen t t o supplement th e combat forces . However, there are a great many duties in the Military Establishment which can be performed bette r by women tha n b y men."39 The du ties listed were being stenographers, telephon e operators, 40 stewardesses, and clerks.41 Upo n hearin g this , Senato r Joshu a Le e (Okla. ) questione d why women wer e no t als o bein g utilize d a s cooks, t o which Army an d War De partment representativ e Brigadie r Genera l Joh n Hilldrin g explaine d tha t cooks had to accompany their units to the field of combat. 42 Several other points of debate arose within th e congressional hearings, including th e minimu m ag e fo r WAA C recruits . The Arm y wa s requestin g a minimum ag e of twenty-one, which varie d fro m th e minimu m ag e of eighteen for male recruits.43 The Army justified thi s requirement by claiming that women mature d a t twenty-one , makin g the m mor e desirabl e fo r servic e a t that age. 44 Several members of Congress were also concerned that the WAAC would insult "society women" who were volunteering in the war effort becaus e the WAAC s woul d hav e attractiv e uniforms . State d Representativ e Pau l Shafer (Mich.) : "You are not concerned, are you, Colonel [Swift] , over breaking the hearts of some of these society women who are out for a uniform?" 45 Representative Edmisto n worrie d tha t th e Army woul d becom e a marriag e broker fo r singl e women i f the WAAC program was enacted. After hi s questions revealed tha t th e Army had n o intention o f barring these women fro m marrying soldiers , h e asked : "Yo u ar e goin g t o star t a matrimonia l agency , aren't you?" 46 Colonel Swif t responde d b y pointing out tha t ther e had neve r been, in World War I or thus far in World War II, problems caused by nurses marrying soldiers. 47 Throughout it s congressional testimony , th e Army submitted the Army Nurse Corps and Britain's use of women in its military as ex-

Becoming Soldiers I 3 7 amples of the effectiveness an d functio n o f women withi n a military system. 48 Another concer n expresse d b y members o f Congres s wa s tha t WAA C officer s might direc t order s t o me n i n th e regula r Army . T o prohibi t this , additiona l wording wa s adde d t o th e bill , statin g tha t "personne l appointe d o r enliste d under provision s o f thi s Ac t wil l no t b e eligibl e t o comman d outsid e th e Women's Army Auxiliary Corps." 49 Voices o f suppor t wer e raise d withi n Congress , bu t the y wer e ofte n couched i n gendere d rhetoric . Representativ e Reynolds , chai r o f th e Com mittee o n Militar y Affairs , said : "Ar e w e t o den y th e patriotic , courageou s women o f America th e opportunit y o f participating i n thi s war? I t i s as muc h their wa r a s i t i s ours . I t i s mor e thei r wa r tha n th e wa r o f th e men , becaus e they, th e futur e mother s o f th e country , wil l b e calle d upo n t o exer t thei r in fluence fo r righ t afte r migh t ha s bee n exerte d i n thi s world-wid e conflict." 50 The majorit y o f Congres s kep t thei r remark s specifi c t o thos e wome n wh o would becom e WAACs , voicin g prais e fo r thei r anticipate d effort s an d ex pressing th e desir e t o ensur e the m lega l protectio n withi n thei r anticipate d roles. However, som e member s expresse d complet e oppositio n t o th e WAAC. Said Representativ e Maloney : I d o not wan t t o see the bill passed a t all. I think we can brin g these patrioti c American wome n int o position s o f importanc e wher e the y ma y serv e thei r country quite outside the Army. . .. I t seems to me that the least that might be said o f th e measur e i s tha t i t cast s a shado w ove r th e sanctit y o f th e home . Women s o anxious t o serve, women burnin g with patriotism , a s they are, will be afforded plent y of opportunity in the defense plants of our country and thus permit young men physically fit to go into the armed forces. 51 Opposition t o th e bil l was solid , bu t no t stron g enoug h t o defea t it . H.R . 6293 was passed o n Ma y 12,1942 , and th e WAAC was authorized t o begi n de velopment. Althoug h Congres s place d n o limitation s o n WAAC s servin g overseas, i t di d strictl y specif y tha t the y coul d no t perfor m i n comba t roles . The Arm y bega n it s attempt s t o chang e th e statu s o f th e WAAC t o a full y militarized uni t a s soon a s H.R. 629 3 passed. I n January 1943 , the Hous e sub mitted H.R . 118 8 to th e Senate , a bill that would establis h th e WAAC a s bein g "in" rathe r tha n "with " th e Army. 52 The bil l the n wa s reintroduce d a s S . 495, which, i n changin g th e women' s arm y divisio n t o th e Women's Arm y Corps , maintained it s status a s a voluntary (nondraft ) organization , bu t on e i n whic h participants wer e "whol e member s o f th e Army." 53 Th e bil l state d tha t al l "laws an d regulation s no w o r hereafte r applicabl e t o enliste d me n . . . shall i n like case s an d excep t wher e otherwis e expressl y provided , b e applicabl e re -

38 I Becoming Soldiers

spectively t o enliste d personne l an d forme r enliste d personne l o f suc h corps."54 The Army pushed strongly for the bill because it had encountered a number of problems with the WAAC that specifically had to do with the unit not bein g militarized , suc h a s issues o f discipline an d rapi d turnover . How ever, when the Army introduced the bill to Congress, the WAAC program was being subjecte d t o wha t Arm y report s late r calle d a slander campaign, 55 i n which rumors and then media reports alleged that WAACs stationed in Africa and th e Middl e Eas t wer e havin g sexua l relationship s wit h loca l me n bot h with and against their wills. Sensational media accounts alleged that there existed harems of WAACs, that women who did not want to participate in these activities were seeking shelter a t various monasteries, an d tha t th e Army was shipping a n excessiv e amount o f contraceptives t o th e women. 56 Becaus e of these reports, several members o f Congress felt tha t th e Army was not doin g enough t o protect th e WAACs and wer e cautious abou t approvin g anythin g that migh t pu t additiona l wome n a t risk . Fortunately , th e Army had severa l allies i n Congres s wh o wer e wel l informe d abou t th e WAAC progra m an d knew the fallacy of these rumors, and the Army Press Division bega n to confront th e media allegations actively, in part by placing positive articles on th e WAAC in the media. Thus, despite the slander campaign, the bill was passed by Congress , th e wor d "Auxiliary " wa s dropped , an d th e Women' s Arm y Corps becam e a fully militarize d divisio n o f the Army. The progra m was established to last until the war's end, when it would be demobilized over a sixmonth perio d unles s ther e wa s a continue d nee d fo r thei r involvement , i n which cas e the Army was to submit anothe r bil l to Congress. 57 Even thoug h congressional passag e wa s obtained , th e slande r campaig n ha d a significan t impact on the WACs and tarnished th e reputations of all women who served in the military during World War II. The effects o f the campaign were so serious that th e Army believed the campaign t o be the result of Nazi spies and requested a n FB I investigation . Th e FB I trace d th e rumor s no t t o enem y agents bu t t o mal e U.S. Army personnel wh o were threatened b y the incor poration o f women int o the armed services. 58

Attempts to Merge the WASPs with thesWACs Because the AAF was a division of the Army, of which the WACs was an auxiliary, it seemed logical to combine the two women's programs i n some fash ion. Fro m th e inceptio n o f th e WASPs , discussion s ha d occurre d betwee n leaders o f th e tw o women' s group s an d wit h AA F officer s t o determin e

Becoming Soldiers I

3 9

whether th e tw o group s coul d b e successfull y consolidated . Thi s optio n first arose whe n th e AA F wa s developin g proposal s fo r a women's auxiliar y o f pi lots. I t wa s suggeste d tha t th e WASP coul d b e a separate bu t subsidiar y divi sion o f th e WAAC , muc h a s th e AA F operate d withi n th e Army . Befor e th e formation o f th e WASPs , representative s o f th e AAF me t wit h WAA C direc tor Ovet a Cul p Hobb y t o discus s thi s option , an d Genera l George , Com manding General , Ai r Transpor t Command , expresse d interes t "tha t thei r women transpor t pilot s be in the WAAC rathe r tha n bein g employed i n a civil service status" because the division was attempting t o eliminate al l civil servic e employees, mal e an d female , fro m it s employ. 59 Initially, these meetings seemed favorable t o working out th e details of such an arrangement. However , Commandin g Genera l Arnold di d no t approv e th e consolidation o f th e program s becaus e h e sa w n o benefit s an d severa l prob lems t o placin g wome n pilot s i n th e WAAC. 60 A majo r reaso n fo r hi s disap proval was that th e WAAC was not yet militarized, s o the AAF would hav e n o greater opportunity fo r enforcin g order s or limiting resignations. Various AAF commanders expresse d concer n tha t thi s arrangement woul d als o decrease th e abilities o f AAF officer s t o comman d WASPs , becaus e th e hierarch y o f com mand woul d the n plac e th e WASP s unde r th e disciplin e o f th e WAAC . Colonel Tunner, commande r o f the Ferrying Division, di d no t believe that th e WAAC coul d mee t th e need s o f the Ferryin g Divisio n "becaus e o f the provis o that th e Women' s Auxiliar y Corp s shal l no t b e par t o f th e Arm y bu t shoul d serve with it . . . . The ferryin g o f aircraf t fo r th e Ferryin g Divisio n i s no t i n any sens e auxiliary , bu t i s a direc t functio n and , accordingly , th e wome n should b e directly in the Ferrying Division." 61 The requirement s an d mission s of th e tw o group s wer e s o distinc t tha t Cochra n likene d placin g th e WAS P within th e WAA C t o puttin g th e Ai r Force s unde r th e infantry. 62 Genera l Arnold note d tha t incorporatin g th e WAS P i n th e WAA C "woul d resul t i n confusion, conflict , an d inefficiency , becaus e th e wome n pilot s woul d b e re porting t o bot h th e Arm y Ai r Force s an d th e Women' s Auxiliar y Arm y Corps." 63 Combining th e WAA C an d WAS P program s woul d no t eliminat e th e major concer n th e Ferryin g Divisio n ha d with th e WASPs' civi l service status , which was the nee d fo r bot h militar y an d civilia n command s ove r th e wome n pilots. Colone l Tunner wrote : One of the things we hope to eliminate by militarization; namely , multiplicit y of administration, woul d stil l exist were a unit t o b e set u p unde r th e WAAC since the Division would then have under it Army Pilots and WAAC Pilots, just

40 I Becoming Soldiers

as it now has under it Army Pilots and Civilian Pilots. A more direct reason lies in th e fact tha t i f these women ar e to fly as a militarized duty , the n the y mus t be given a Service Pilot Rating and placed on Personnel Orders, and under AAF Regulation 50 7 a WAAC may not be so rated. 64 In othe r words , placin g th e WASP unde r th e WAAC woul d no t eliminat e any problems, an d th e legislation throug h whic h th e WAAC ha d bee n create d strictly prohibited WAACs fro m enterin g flying school s and obtainin g Servic e Pilots Rating . Th e Actin g Air Judge Advocat e examine d thes e regulation s i n 1943 and wrote tha t h e believed that becaus e the cod e AR 350-3500 , which au thorized aviatio n instructio n fo r militar y personnel , ha d bee n amende d t o read "the Secretary of War to detail personnel o f the Army of the United State s as students" (thu s eliminating th e words "Militar y personnel"), ther e was likelihood tha t WAACs migh t no t b e prohibited fro m obtainin g thei r pilot' s rat ing. 65 However , thi s suppositio n wa s no t proven , an d attempt s t o chang e i t would likel y have als o require d congressiona l approval . Seemingly, th e AAF did not see k congressional approva l for th e WASPs ini tially becaus e th e Ferryin g Divisio n wa s authorize d b y th e Wa r Departmen t to hir e civilia n pilots , regardles s o f thei r gender . Th e initia l plan s fo r th e WASPs oppose d militarizin g th e uni t unti l it s viability coul d b e proven. 66 B y the time reports showing the success of the program were being written, mem bers of the AAF and th e WASPs were also aware of the problems cause d by th e program's bein g comprise d o f voluntee r civilians . Th e Ferryin g Division , which worke d wit h th e WAF S an d the n th e WASPs , requeste d tha t th e women pilot s b e militarize d becaus e th e differenc e i n statu s betwee n th e pi lots reflecte d a discriminatory disparit y betwee n th e groups , sinc e the wome n pilots "fl y o n militar y order s a s do th e men , an d ar e subject t o disciplin e an d discharge a s are th e men." 6 7 When th e WA C wa s militarize d i n Februar y 1943 , the AA F agai n investi gated th e idea of placing the WASP within th e WAC. However , th e Air Force s discovered tha t ther e existe d substantia l difference s betwee n th e program s that woul d caus e problem s i f th e tw o merged . Fo r example , entr y require ments fo r th e tw o program s wer e very different. Th e WAS P progra m allowe d women ninetee n an d olde r t o apply , while th e WAC requirement , whic h wa s written int o it s congressiona l authorization , wa s fo r wome n trainee s t o b e a t least twenty-one. 68 I n addition , th e WAC di d no t allo w women wit h depen dent childre n (unde r th e ag e o f fourteen ) t o join , whil e 2 0 percen t o f th e WASPs had suc h children. 69 Difference s als o existed betwee n th e physical an d educational qualification s fo r applicant s t o th e WA C an d WAS P programs ;

Becoming Soldiers I 4 1 however, thes e difference s wer e believe d t o b e manageable , becaus e the y wer e similar t o th e difference s tha t existe d betwee n th e mal e applicant s o f th e reg ular Army an d pilo t trainee s i n th e AAF. 70 Another proble m aros e regardin g ho w WASP s woul d b e commissione d i f they wer e militarize d unde r th e WAC . Th e bil l developin g th e WA C specifi cally limite d th e ran k an d numbe r o f officer s allowed . I n th e AAF , al l pilot s were officer s an d wome n pilot s would hav e bee n give n th e sam e ran k a s mal e pilots if they were militarized. Therefore, th e number o f officers brough t i n b y the WAS P alon e woul d excee d th e tota l numbe r Congres s ha d allowe d th e WAC. I n addition , th e highes t ran k allowe d th e WAC wa s colonel , th e posi tion hel d b y Hobby . Yet , Cochra n ha d requeste d th e ran k o f colone l i f th e WASPs wer e militarize d becaus e thi s ran k wa s concurren t wit h tha t o f mal e AAF officer s leadin g similar-size d divisions . Therefore , th e WAS P directo r would have had th e same rank as Hobby, who a s WAC directo r would becom e her immediat e supervisor . The AA F genera l staf f realize d tha t ther e wa s n o wa y t o resolv e thes e dif ferences withou t havin g t o g o to Congress , s o it mad e sens e to pu t fort h a bill to militariz e th e WAS P a s a separate program . I n Jun e 1943 , following inves tigation int o th e opinion s o f various staff s workin g wit h th e WASPs, a mem orandum fro m Genera l Arnold reporte d tha t the Commandin g General , Flyin g Training Command , th e trainin g agency , and the Commanding General, Air Transport Command, the using agency, recommend tha t th e women pilo t grou p b e militarized an d that , fo r administra tive and othe r purposes, they be incorporated int o th e Army Air Forces direct, rather than incorporate d int o th e Women's Army Auxiliary Corps. The Direc tor of the Women's Flying Training urges this procedure, which i s overwhelmingly favored b y the women pilot s and trainees themselves. 71

Other Plans for Incorporating Women Pilots into the Army Air Forces The AA F investigate d route s othe r tha n congressiona l hearing s an d integra tion int o th e WAC throug h whic h th e WASPs coul d b e militarized . Th e first avenue th e AAF investigate d was to awar d direc t commission s t o WASPs wh o served th e Ferryin g Division , avoidin g standar d channel s o f recruitment. Th e Ferrying Divisio n wa s already able to avoi d norma l channel s o f receiving can didates throug h th e Arm y becaus e i t coul d offe r direc t commission s t o mal e pilots wh o joine d th e Ferryin g Divisio n a s contracte d civilia n employees , i f they me t th e AA F s physical, educational , an d ag e requirements . A Wa r De -

42 I Becoming Soldiers partment regulatio n specificall y authorize d th e Ferryin g Divisio n t o induc t pilots directly into it s ranks, and a n investigatio n int o th e legal documents be hind thi s regulatio n di d no t find "eithe r i n th e Constitution , th e statute s re lating t o militarizin g o f Army personnel , o r i n th e regulation s themselves , a law or regulatio n t o th e effec t tha t onl y persons o f the mal e sex may wither b e enlisted o r commissione d i n th e Army o f th e Unite d States." 72 The Ferryin g Division, "i n th e absenc e o f an y limitations, " too k th e positio n tha t "person s of th e femal e sex are eligibl e fo r enlistmen t an d commissionin g i n th e Arm y of th e Unite d States." 73 Memorandum s an d report s indicat e tha t th e AA F gave a great dea l o f consideratio n t o bein g abl e t o induc t th e WASPs directl y into th e Ferrying Division i n this way, but lega l counsel determined tha t whil e the regulatio n di d no t specificall y stat e tha t th e pilot s covere d unde r thi s reg ulation were men, th e understandin g wa s that thes e pilots were men, an d tha t any effort s t o induc t wome n unde r thi s regulatio n woul d no t b e approved . Another avenu e explore d wa s t o incorporat e th e WASP s int o th e AA F under th e sam e legislation tha t allowe d women physician s an d surgeon s t o b e made Army officers . Publi c La w 38 , a one-paragraph bill , passe d Congres s i n April 1943, thus authorizin g the "commissionin g o f female physician s and sur geons i n th e Medica l Corp s o f th e Arm y an d Nav y wit h th e sam e grad e an d length o f service of men." 7 4 Colone l Courtne y Whitney, th e Acting Air Judge Advocate, reported t o Brigadier General Luther Smit h that this legislation ha d not gon e throug h Congres s smoothl y an d ha d bee n specificall y oppose d b y the War Department ; thu s h e believe d tha t attempt s t o militariz e wome n pi lots i n thi s way would als o b e rejected. 75 In Report of Investigation Regarding Proper Use of Women Pilots in the Army Air Forces, issue d August 5 , 1943, Deputy Ai r Inspecto r Colone l T . C . O d u m concluded: "Th e onl y way which women pilot s can b e brought int o th e Arm y Air Forces so as to have them compl y with th e requirements . . . i s to have separate legislatio n passe d providin g fo r th e establishmen t o f a ne w militar y di vision o f the Army Air Forces." 76 As a result, th e AAF bega n wor k o n a bill t o establish th e WASP s a s a militarized componen t o f th e Ai r Forces . However , Colonel Whitney had predicted i n 1943 that such legislation would fail : "Con gress i s distinctl y hostil e t o legislatio n o f thi s character . O u r ow n experienc e in tryin g t o ge t th e Women' s Arm y Corp s incorporate d int o th e Arm y ha s demonstrated this , and th e recen t experienc e o f the Nav y Departmen t i n try ing t o obtai n certai n change s i n th e law s pertainin g t o thei r women' s reserve s indicates th e sam e attitud e o n th e par t o f Congress." 77 Becaus e th e AAF ha d explored an d rejecte d al l othe r avenue s fo r militarization , legislatio n wa s th e only remainin g option .

Becoming Soldiers I 4 3

The WASP programs developmen t wa s unlike that o f any other women' s auxiliary, but al l women's detachment s o f the U.S. military faced oppositio n to their existence and continuance from th e military, Congress, and the public, an opposition aros e solely from th e gender o f those who comprised thes e auxiliaries. Al l women' s auxiliarie s wer e establishe d a s temporar y contribu tions to a total world war, and military and congressional records indicate that there was considerable reluctance to having even the temporary participatio n of women in the military. The gendered rhetoric Congress used during the debate on the bills to establish the WAAC and later the WAC offers convincin g testimony a s to the degree to which sexis t assumptions abou t th e abilitie s o f women determine d th e development o f these organizations. I t als o provide s insight int o th e considerabl e threa t th e involvemen t o f women i n th e U.S . military posed to the continuance of normative gender constructions .

4 From Praise to Ranco r Media Opinion Changes as Men Return from Battle

Perhaps th e mos t importan t facto r leadin g t o th e demis e o f th e Women Airforce Servic e Pilots program was a negative media campaign precipitated i n part by the return o f combat pilot s from oversea s and the release of Army Air Forces cadets and pilot trainers into the "walking Army" for service i n anticipate d large-scal e groun d assault s agains t Japan s military . Th e male civilian pilots organized a lobbying group and discovered in the WASPs a target agains t whom the y could articulat e claim s of preferential treatment , thus deflecting attention away from thei r real intent of refusal to serve as combat soldiers, the role in which th e military had deeme d tha t thes e men were needed. The male civilian pilots had avoided the draft becaus e of their statu s as AAF cadet s an d trainers , an d the y ha d accrue d enoug h mone y an d re sources to organize an effective lobby . A direct result of this lobby was a negative campaign in the media and to Congress against the WASPs, a campaign that was readily accepted and expanded exponentiall y because of cultural expectations o f male superiorit y an d privilege , muc h a s the slande r campaig n against the Women's Army Corps had a year earlier. In other words, Congress and th e public readily believed that th e men were more worthy and talente d pilots than th e WASPs simply because they were men. The War Departmen t ha d establishe d a WASP public relation s pla n tha t avoided any media publicity because it believed that the public would oppose the program, particularly if WASP deaths became known. 1 As a result of this policy, no voices were raised to counter those put forth b y the male civilian pilots' lobby. Despite the need for someone from th e WASP program, the AAF, or the War Department t o refute untru e allegation s raised against the WASP program, th e public relation s plan remaine d unchanged . The scal e and ton e of the media campaig n was so strongly in oppositio n t o the WASP program that in 1945 former WASP Mary B. Hillberg stated: "It is my opinion that we

44

From Praise to Rancor I 4 5

never ha d th e righ t publicity—o r any publicity—except bad . Lik e th e fals e and misleading letters written by civilian pilots who turned down one chance to fly for th e Army, bu t whe n the y were face d wit h th e possibilit y o f bein g drafted int o the walking Army cried for our jobs. The 'men w e were supposed to be releasing to fight a war didn't want to." 2 The ton e o f media report s o n th e WASPs was not alway s negative , how ever. Early in the war, when American media was celebrating the efforts o f all people who pulled together for the war effort, th e WASPs, other women's military auxiliary organizations, and women i n factories developin g war materials were all portrayed as heroines dedicated to the cause of freedom. Bu t as the war was winding down, the media began to articulate cultural anxieties about whether th e countr y coul d retur n t o it s prewar standards . Women i n al l aspects o f the war effort , onc e celebrated , wer e no w attacke d b y the medi a as self-serving individual s wh o jeopardize d th e abilitie s o f returnin g mal e sol diers to survive the postwar economy .

Life Depicts U.S. Involvement in World War II Media support for the WASPs coincided with overall support for total American involvement in the war effort. Fro m 1941 to 1943, the media publicly supported th e war effort an d the nation's military. Patriotism was a standard editorial stance, and eve n the most questionabl e battl e tactics were not publicl y doubted. Durin g these first years of American involvemen t i n World War II, the United States, which was fighting on two major fronts, was losing the war. The country had entered the war unprepared for a total world war, and effort s put forth b y any citizen in support o f the war were lauded. A portal into the changing public opinion regardin g women and the military is provided by Life magazine, which was the self-described pulse of the nation. Durin g th e wa r years , Life was publishe d weekl y an d feature d pho tographs an d article s depictin g th e wa r o n al l fronts , includin g th e hom e front. A 1942 survey revealed tha t 6 3 percent o f American militar y men rea d Life? The magazin e arguabl y wa s th e means b y which mos t American s re ceived news about th e war, and it is also an invaluable source in determinin g public opinion an d mores because it maintained a large and popular "Letter s to the Editor" section. It is of note that the depictions of those involved in the war effort wer e of white people. When blac k soldiers were represented, thei r race was the subject o f the piece. In December 1941, immediately following the Japanese attack on Pearl Har-

46 I From Praise to Rancor bor, Life presented som e of the firs t War Departmen t picture s o f the attack . I n the issue s publishe d i n th e mont h afte r th e attack , article s an d editorial s en couraged ful l participatio n i n th e wa r effor t an d stresse d tha t tota l commit ment wa s neede d i f the Unite d State s an d it s allies were t o b e victorious. Total participation mean t that the efforts o f women an d children were considered in valuable to the overall war effort. Storie s appeared o n th e involvement no t onl y of women , bu t als o o f childre n (usuall y boys) , suc h a s boy s makin g mode l planes fo r Civi l Defens e identification s o f Allied an d enem y planes. 4 Life first encourage d th e specifi c participatio n o f women i n a January 194 2 issue, i n whic h a cove r portrai t o f a nurse's aid e an d accompanyin g stor y en couraged wome n t o becom e nurse' s aide s an d hel p fight th e nation' s shortag e of nurses. 5 Advertisements praisin g wome n wa r worker s bega n t o appea r th e same month, suc h as a piece for th e Sanforized clothin g process with th e head line "Wome n a t Work fo r Uncl e Sam! " tha t feature s drawing s o f women wa r workers i n factor y coveralls. 6 An Octobe r 194 2 article, "Huma n Resource s fo r a Total War," directl y asserted , "Th e ultimat e solutio n o f the manpowe r crisi s is women," an d gav e war industr y projection s tha t one-thir d o f factor y wor k would b e filled b y women t o mee t quotas. 7 Despit e it s purported celebratio n of the potential o f women t o suppor t th e war effort throug h factor y work, th e article very clearly demonstrated a double standar d b y being highl y critica l o f women worker s who di d no t car e about thei r physica l appearance s i n th e fac tory: "Thoug h a man ca n b e as sloppy a s he pleases , an unsightl y female , em ployers find, play s hel l with morale." 8 The articl e "Girl s i n Uniform : I n U.S . Industry They Hel p Mak e Weapons o f War" suggest s that industria l work was constructed a s glamorou s simpl y becaus e th e worker s wer e women : "Th e woman worke r i n a war industr y i n th e U.S . has acquired som e o f the glamo r of th e ma n i n uniform . I n labor' s socia l scale , sh e belong s t o th e elite . At th e very to p i s the gir l who work s i n a n airplan e factory . Sh e i s the glamo r gir l o f 1942."9 Advertisement s capitalize d o n th e linkage s draw n betwee n women' s war wor k an d glamor ; fo r example , a Munsingwea r girdl e a d feature d a woman rivete r wearing tight an d fashionabl e coverall s and th e headline "Wh o Says a Smooth Gir l Can' t Fight." 10 By 1943 , Lifes depiction s o f wome n wa r worker s ha d becom e common place an d include d wome n engage d i n dangerou s an d activ e role s within fac tories, with n o mentio n o f fashion. I n "Wome n No w Mak e Tests Onc e Don e by Soldiers, " wome n wer e picture d loadin g an d firing gun s t o measur e shel l velocity.11 A cove r photograp h simpl y entitle d "Stee l Worker " feature d a woman welder , wearin g loos e garb , whos e gende r i s discernibl e onl y upo n closer examination. 12 "Wome n Steel : The y Ar e Handlin g Toug h Job s i n

From Praise to Rancor I 4 7 Heavy Industry " i s a n eight-pag e featur e o n wome n handlin g heav y stee l work. The piec e began : "Sinc e th e star t o f th e war, U.S . women hav e quickl y and abl y assume d man y jobs traditionall y hel d b y men." 1 3 Despite thi s handfu l o f portrayals o f women worker s tha t di d no t refe r t o glamor o r fashion , th e recurrin g them e i n storie s o n women' s involvemen t i n the wa r effor t wa s th e impac t i t ha d o n fashion . A Modern Living sectio n i n 1942 wa s title d "Shor t Bob s fo r Wartime : Women' s Servic e Group s Requir e Military Style." 14 The piec e discussed th e uniform s no t o f women's auxiliarie s (which ha d no t develope d yet) , bu t o f organization s lik e th e Re d Cros s an d American Women' s Voluntar y Service . Accompanyin g picture s showe d women i n thes e organizations' uniform s an d feature d detaile d instruction s fo r performing th e cut . Life als o reported o n fashion s tha t were influence d b y th e involvement o f women i n war work. The cove r of the April 20,1942, issue, entitled simpl y "Slacks, " feature d a woman wearin g slacks , whic h ha d rise n i n popularity because , th e accompanyin g articl e stated , o f women's wa r work. 15 This cove r inspire d severa l mal e reader s t o respon d t o th e editors . William A . Pelletier was move d t o invok e a muse : Sirs: "Men lose their pants to slack-crazy women" (April 20) should be awarded the prize for the best title of the year. It so aptly describes the way men feel, who grudgingly suffe r th e passing of vests and cuff s t o satisfy womanl y fad s whic h flare unabated eve n in wartime. As Ogden Nas h said: "Sure, deck your lower limbs in pants; / Yours are the limbs, my sweeting, / You look divine as you advance — / Hav e you eve r seen yourself retreating?" 16 To demonstrate hi s aversion t o women's wearing slacks, reader James Hsie h referred bac k t o a March 9 piece , "Shap e o f Women," whic h reported : "Th e average U.S . female i s not onl y short ( 5 ft. 3 in. tall ) bu t chunk y (13 3 lb.). Th e Department o f Agriculture arrive d a t thi s deplorabl e conclusio n i n Miscella neous Publicatio n No . 454." 17 H e wrote : " I mus t admi t tha t you r cove r gir l looked lovel y in slacks , but a n averag e woman, 5 ft. 3 in. i n heigh t an d weigh ing 14 0 lb., would loo k lik e a sack of potatoes." 18 Life wa s mos t likel y t o featur e wome n wh o supporte d th e wa r effor t b y maintaining stratifie d gende r role s an d encouragin g thei r me n t o fight. Mor e often tha n factor y worker s o r member s o f th e military , Life depicte d wome n volunteers o r women i n roles as wives and mothers , symbolizing what the me n overseas were fighting for . The cove r "War Stamp Bride" featured a bride hold ing a bouquet mad e o f war stamps. 19 The cove r "US O Victor y Belle " feature d a portrai t o f a young woma n wh o volunteere d a s a United Servic e Organiza -

48 I

From Praise to Rancor

tions escor t t o d o he r par t fo r th e wa r effort. 20 "10,00 0 Sub-Deb s D o Har d Useful Wa r Work As Juniors i n AWVS" featured five pages of photographs de picting hig h schoo l girl s who volunteere d fo r th e American Women' s Volun teer Service s t o perfor m traditiona l women' s wor k (suc h a s foo d service ) i n support o f the war effort. 21 I n th e pages of Life, women frequentl y "serve d th e war effort " b y marryin g soldier s an d givin g birt h t o thei r children . "Arm y Man an d Wife, " seve n page s o f wome n "serving " a s wive s t o militar y men , began, "Pluck y girls quit home s an d jobs for har d cam p lif e with husbands," 22 and include d a photograph o f babies delivere d i n a n Army hospital . More tha n article s an d editorials , advertisement s feature d wome n i n th e war effort. Came l was the first to direct its advertising toward women involve d in th e effort , wit h a series featuring spotlight s o n rea l women servin g th e mil itary as , fo r example , a camouflag e expert, 23 a Civi l Aeronautics Administra tion (CAA ) pilot, 24 an d a Civi l Air Patro l (CAP ) pilot. 25 No t t o b e outdone , Chesterfield cigarette s feature d a member o f th e WAVES smokin g unde r th e caption "Mor e than 75,00 0 women i n war services today. You can join now." 26 Some advertisement s feature d wome n soldier s using the sponsor s equipment , such a s a Mimeograp h Duplicato r a d tha t depicte d a WAAC usin g th e ma chine. 27 Othe r ad s simpl y place d model s i n uniform , maintainin g th e sam e poses and situation s a s before th e war, such a s an advertisement fo r Van Raalt e Rayon Stocking s tha t picture d a woman i n unifor m o n a n ai r base , he r skir t blowing u p t o revea l he r leg s and stockings , with a smiling mal e office r look ing a t her. 28 Othe r advertisement s feature d product s tha t coul d no t logicall y be linke d t o wome n involve d i n th e militar y b y structurin g th e ad s a s cele brations o f women i n th e arme d services . Fo r example , a Norge applianc e a d featured a female CA P pilo t flying ove r th e ocean. 29 The piec e was no t abou t appliances, bu t instea d offere d a salute t o th e wome n i n th e Civi l Air Patrol . Among th e advertiser s i n Life magazin e wa s th e WAAC , whic h place d nu merous recruitmen t ad s i n th e publication. 30 The first piec e featuring a woman pilo t workin g towar d th e war effor t wa s a bac k cove r advertisemen t fo r Came l cigarettes . (Throughou t th e wa r years , Camel ra n a series of ads focusin g o n wome n i n th e war effor t a s pilots, civil ian factor y workers , an d member s o f th e arme d services. ) I n thi s first ad , a bold re d headlin e proclaime d "What ! A girl trainin g me n t o fly fo r Uncl e Sam?" The a d feature d fou r photograph s o f a woman pilo t i n a white jump suit wit h he r plane . Th e cop y read : "Th e nam e i s Lennox—Pegg y Lennox . She's blonde . She' s pretty . Sh e ma y no t loo k th e par t o f a traine r o f fighting men, but—Sh e i s one o f the few women pilot s qualifie d t o giv e instruction i n the CA A flight trainin g program. And th e record s a t Randolph an d Pensacol a

From Praise to Rancor I 4 9

of the men who learned to fly from Pegg y show she's doing a man-sized job of it."31 The first article depicting women in the military followed the development of the WAAC. The June 1942 article, "U.S. Women Troops to Enlist in Army's First All-Female Force," began: "On Ma y 27, for th e first time in history, th e U.S. Army began genera l recruiting of women."32 Yet, despite Life's assertion that th e developmen t o f th e WAA C wa s historical , th e issue' s cove r stor y maintained traditional gender roles in a feature on nurses' aides that was twice as lon g a s th e WAA C piece . Another WAA C piec e followe d i n September . "WAACS: Firs t Wome n Soldier s Joi n Army " began : "Th e ide a behin d th e Women's Army Auxiliary Corp s i s simply this : Women ca n d o som e o f th e jobs that me n ar e doing in th e Army. By taking over these jobs, they can release men fo r activ e or combat duty. 33 This articl e was the first in Life to depict blac k soldiers involved in th e military during World War II. Within th e eight-page photo spread is a photo of "Negro WAAC officer candidates, " who were, according to the caption, kept segregated from white WAACs. (It is notable tha t th e first depictio n o f African American s servin g wit h th e arme d forces would be of WAACs. Life always depicted the normalized soldier fighting for the United State s as a white man.) Life later ra n feature s o n al l branche s o f women' s auxiliaries , includin g women merchan t marine s (merchan t marine s were not a militarized branc h of the arme d forces ) wh o ha d bee n grounde d followin g th e attac k o n Pear l Harbor and who were fighting to return to sea through their union (Nationa l Maritime Union): "The women member s of the N.M.U. argu e that since all other branches of the armed forces are open to women, the Merchant Marin e should not be an exception. They underscore the fact that British, Soviet, and Norwegian wome n stil l hel p sai l their country' s ships." 34 I n January 1942 , a woman in uniform first appeared on the cover. While the inset reveals that the woman wearin g th e unifor m o f th e Britis h Women' s Auxiliar y Ai r Forc e (ground support, no t pilot) was an actress in the movie This above All, the visual impact is that of seeing a woman soldier on the cover. This cover was followed in th e February 16 "Letters to th e Editors" section b y a four-page fea ture and photograph depicting the real WAAF who inspired the posed shot. 35 The April 27, 1942, issue featured tw o pieces that reference d women' s in volvement with th e war. "Women i n Uniform Marc h for a Cause" featured a photograph o f women civi l defens e ai r warden s marchin g i n a parade, an d began: "On April 11, for the first time since the last World War, 10,000 women tramped t o the beat of military bands down Ne w York's Fifth Ave." 36 In tha t same issue, "Civil Air Patrol: America's Private Pilots Are Mobilized for War"

50 I From Praise to Rancor

began: "Today, more than a third of the nation's 100,000 civilian pilots are at war on th e home front. The y are the Civil Air Patrol, composed o f the me n and women wh o flew for fu n i n day s of peace." 37 Of significanc e i s the fac t that none of the article s ten photographs include d a woman CA P pilot. The women's auxiliary of the Navy, the WAVES, first appeared in the pages of Life in an article that focused o n th e designs and designers of WAVES uniforms rather than on the corps itself. "Waves Uniforms" featured three pages of photographs o f the uniforms an d on e of their Parisia n designer . The lea d of fered the only information specifi c to the corps: "On Oct . 9 about 1,600 Nav y WAVES (Women Appointed for Voluntary Emergency Service) will start training. . . . They are the first of a projected corp s of 10,000 enlisted women who, with 1,00 0 officer s traine d a t Smit h Colleg e and Mt . Holyoke , will form th e first authorized women' s corp s i n th e U.S . Navy." The nex t paragrap h estab lished the focus of the article: "To design a functional yet feminine uniform fo r this newest Navy corps, the Navy turned t o Mainbocher." Durin g these same years, no articles appeared that discussed the uniforms o f men in the military. Women soldier s first mad e th e cove r o f Life in Marc h 1943 , with thirtee n WAVES posed in a group shot, with an accompanying article spotlighting both the WAVES and the WAAC.38 Photographs featured the women soldiers training, marching , an d drilling , whil e th e cop y rea d i n part : "B y last week , th e Waves and Waacs were no longer military experiments. They were military realities, having appeared for duty with startling effects a t Army and Navy posts all over the country. Undoubtedly they were doing good work, but old-time of ficers an d enlisted men still could not get used to them." 39 Most of Life s depictions o f women i n th e military stressed tha t thes e soldiers wer e first and foremos t women . Militar y wome n wer e frequentl y fea tured in uniform bu t outside of their service—for example , engaged in recreational or volunteer activities. WAVES were again featured i n April 1943, this time attending a New York fashion show. 40 The nex t appearanc e o f WAACs in th e magazine had a similar tone: a two-page spread featured a WAAC talent show that raised money for war bonds. 41 The pattern of featuring women soldiers as society girls continued with "Sinatr a Sings for WAVES: 600 Navy Girls Liste n without On e Hysterica l Yelp," which include d a photograph o f uniformed WAVE S gathere d aroun d th e stag e o n whic h Fran k Sinatr a per formed.42 In its only depiction o f a woman i n combat, Life put forth a different con struction tha n i t typicall y gav e to mal e comba t experience . A short piec e o n Lieutenant Maiy a Sloboda, a Soviet combat soldie r who commande d a hundred me n an d who had single-handedly killed twenty-eight Germa n soldiers ,

From Praise to Rancor I 5 1

provided no references t o other women combat soldiers or combat pilots with whom Sloboda served, nor did it describe her acts of heroism (a s was typically done with male combat stories); it simply offered a photograph of her and gave quick mention o f the number she killed.43 The article did not explain or contextualize what was a unique and newsworthy use of women in the war effort . Just a s Sloboda' s accomplishment s wer e state d wit h n o heroi c build-up , constructions of women i n the U.S. military were posed very differently tha n those of men in the military. For example, in "Life Visits U.S. Army Nurses in New Caledonia , Sout h Seas, " a six-page phot o sprea d displaye d th e live s of Army nurse s oversea s a s thoug h the y wer e vacationin g abroad . Amon g th e photographs wer e shot s o f th e wome n bathin g outside , playin g ping-pong , and relaxing. Not one photograph appeared of the nurses assisting in surgery, working i n th e field, o r assemble d unde r comba t conditions. 44 In fact , Life would not print a photograph o f an Army nurse actually working until April 1943, whe n "Flyin g Nurse s Ai d U.S . African Campaign " feature d a photo graph of a nurse tending to wounded soldier s on a plane.45

Life Depicts American Military Pilots Just as depictions o f men an d women i n general received differing construc tions within the pages of Life, the magazine also depicted female pilots differ ently than mal e pilots. Life featured numerou s storie s on th e growth and development o f the AAF throughout th e war. A February 1942 cover showed a Thunderbolt fighter, and the accompanying article began: "The air armies of America, whic h flew in piddlin g flocks two years ago , will b e flying now i n ever growing swarms . The giganti c specification s o f President Roosevel t cal l for masse s of airplanes which will far outmatc h thos e of any other power." 46 Other features on the Air Forces touted the bomber task force,47 the B-17 Flying Fortress,48 the Chinese Airforce,49 the "rigid training" of air cadets at Randolph Field, 50 bombardie r school, 51 aeria l gunnery school, 52 and aeria l navigation.53 Men were depicted i n action , an d n o women wer e ever featured i n these stories, even though the y served as trainers and teachers and in suppor t roles. In addition, no women pilots were featured in stories on divisions where WAFS/WASPs were assigned, such as Air Transport Command. 54 Life first wrote about th e Women's Air Ferrying Squadron i n a September 1942 article focusin g o n women' s involvemen t i n th e war effort . "Women i n Action" began: "Th e simples t way for women—as fo r men—t o think war is to ge t int o action . Hundred s o f thousand s hav e don e so . Th e WAACS ,

52 I From Praise to Rancor

WAVES, and WAFS have accepted without flinching th e hard routine s of military life." 55 The piec e no t onl y feature d wome n i n th e arme d forces , bu t fo cused o n wome n wh o worke d wit h th e Aircraf t Warnin g Service , a s wel l a s women wh o serve d a s nurses , servic e cantee n workers , an d militar y factor y workers. Th e sam e issu e feature d "WAF S Woman, " a shor t piec e o n Nanc y Harkness Lov e that als o described th e formatio n o f the WAFS. 56 In July 1943, Life ra n a cover stor y o n WAS P trainees , arguabl y th e mos t widel y rea d posi tive piece on th e WASPs t o appea r durin g World War II . The cove r featured a trainee in coveralls, wearing no makeup , perched o n a training plane. 57 Inside, a nine-pag e featur e entitle d "Gir l Pilots : Ai r Forc e Train s T h e m a t Avenge r Field, Texas" depicted th e trainee s o n a typical day : risin g a t dawn , marchin g in formation , attendin g classes , bunking i n barracks , walking ou t t o th e flight line, an d flying trainin g planes . The articl e began : The time-honored belie f that Army flying is for men only has gone into the ash can. At Avenger Field, near Sweetwater, Texas, girls are flying military planes in a way that Army officer s a year o r s o ago would neve r hav e though t possible . These girls, who so joyously scramble int o th e silver airplanes o f the Women's Flying Training Detachmen t eac h day , fly with skill , precisio n an d zest , thei r hearts se t on pilotin g with a n unfeminin e purpos e tha t migh t well be a threat to Hitler. 58 However, no t everyon e rea d th e WAS P piec e i n a positiv e light . Privat e James D . McGilvra y sen t a letter t o th e editor s statin g tha t eve n ba d mal e pi lots shoul d b e flying fo r th e militar y rathe r tha n women . McGilvray' s lette r i s of particula r interes t becaus e i t anticipate d th e argument s mad e agains t th e WASPs b y th e mal e civilia n pilot s lobb y th e nex t year : Sirs: Have just finished reading your article on women flying for the Army. It is very nice that ou r women ca n d o such thing s when th e nee d arises , but ther e are plenty o f men tha t ar e perfectly abl e to d o th e work. Why don' t the y give the "washed-out " cadet s a chance? There ar e thousands o f these boys who, although they might not be good combat pilots, could perfectly well take over the job of ferrying planes. 59

Life Champions a Return to Prewar Standards By 1944 , Life's attitud e towar d women' s involvemen t i n th e wa r effor t ha d changed considerably , mirrorin g an overall policy change toward depiction s o f the war. N o longe r di d th e magazin e encourag e recruitmen t o f women i n th e

From Praise to Rancor I

5 3

war effort—i t no w focused o n returnin g soldiers . Life was encouragin g th e return t o normalcy , t o th e more s o f prewa r life . Piece s o n th e militar y exude d confidence an d anticipate d victory . In January 1944, Life published "Arm y Air Forces Report " b y General H . H . Arnold , whic h began : "I t i s now plai n that , for us , th e beginnin g ha s ended ; fo r ou r enemies , th e en d ha s begun . T h e Army Ai r Force s ar e no w i n th e proces s o f fulfillin g a n histori c an d decisiv e mission." 60 Th e repor t demonstrate d ho w th e Unite d State s ha d rise n fro m seventh i n productio n o f military aircraf t befor e th e wa r t o first, an d ho w re cruitment, trainin g an d mission s ha d bee n s o successfu l tha t th e AA F n o longer neede d muc h o f it s cade t personnel . Tw o month s later , a n editoria l pointed ou t tha t th e Army wa s i n nee d o f more foo t soldier s an d encourage d an increase d draft. 61 Advertising representation s o f women i n th e militar y als o changed sharpl y in 1944 . The encouragemen t fo r wome n t o joi n th e militar y wa s replace d b y the suggestio n tha t wome n retur n t o th e hom e an d tak e car e o f thei r hus bands. Depiction s o f wome n soldier s droppe d dramaticall y thi s year , an d those tha t appeare d maintaine d th e gende r difference s presen t befor e th e war . For example, an ad for Barbaso l shaving cream feature d fou r attractiv e wome n in unifor m salutin g an d th e caption : "Girl s i n unifor m salut e mor e Barbaso l Faces tha n an y othe r kin d fo r th e simpl e reaso n tha t mor e me n i n unifor m Shave with Barbaso l tha n an y other brand." 62 The women ma y be in uniform , but thei r missio n n o longe r focuse d exclusivel y upo n winnin g th e war . Cov ers more ofte n feature d model s instea d o f women actuall y involved i n th e wa r effort; an d rathe r tha n runnin g a cover o n pants , a fashion tren d tha t ha d fol lowed a n on-the-jo b necessit y in 1942 , the cove r in August 194 4 was on "Peda l Pushers"—shorts. 63 Wome n wer e portraye d a s leisur e object s rathe r tha n a s skilled workers . B y Septembe r 1944 , Life wa s makin g passiv e object s ou t o f women. "Whic h Are the Prettiest? Life's Camera Conduct s a Test in Fou r U.S . Cities" feature d photograph s o f youn g wome n fro m Ne w York , Hollywood , Des Moines , an d Dallas, 64 perhaps a s a service to returnin g soldier s intereste d in relocatin g t o ne w cities . Reader interes t wa s high : i n subsequen t issues , let ters t o th e editor s (usuall y accompanie d b y photographs ) continue d th e "ex periment" i n othe r cities . Women soldier s were depicte d les s frequently, an d whe n the y were, i t wa s with a substantiall y differen t ton e tha n earlie r i n th e war . A n advertisemen t for Internationa l Sterlin g featured a WAC contemplatin g havin g a home wit h her husband followin g th e war and suggeste d tha t her reaso n fo r having joined the organizatio n wa s t o hav e somethin g t o kee p he r bus y whil e he r husban d was away. 65 I n th e sam e issue , an a d fo r th e WAC followe d th e sam e them e o f

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returning t o domesticit y an d marriag e afte r th e war . Th e recruitmen t ad' s headline reads : "I' d rathe r b e with them—tha n waitin g fo r them." 6 6 Wome n who wer e no t soldier s wer e depicte d similarly . A Kelvinato r advertisemen t "Sunday. . . . Som e Day, " for instance , feature d a mal e soldie r an d civilia n woman dreamil y lookin g towar d thei r futur e fantas y kitchen. 67 For Life, th e critical issu e in the latter half of 1944 was not winning th e wa r but returnin g t o prewa r domesticit y an d productivity . "Reconversion : W h a t Has Bee n Done , W h o Ha s Bee n Fightin g W h o m an d Why , an d Wher e D o We G o fro m Here? " wa s a length y articl e discussin g th e reconfiguratio n o f war factorie s an d th e expectation s o f a postwa r econom y an d jo b market. 68 The followin g issu e ha d th e cove r titl e "Specia l Issue : A Lette r t o GI's " an d featured a photograp h o f a mode l wearin g a bikini. 69 A s th e photograp h demonstrated, Life di d no t mea n "GI's " t o includ e women . T h e issue' s edi torial, "Soldier s an d Civilians, " discusse d th e homecomin g fear s o f soldiers , focusing particularl y o n fear s tha t a wartim e imbalanc e ha d shifte d powe r and prestig e fro m whit e men . Wit h regard s t o wome n i n th e wor k force , i t stated: At present women constitut e a third of the U.S. labor force an d many of them are keeping up their homes as well. But if any GI is concerned about a woman keeping him out of a postwar job, he can solace himself by the poll conducte d by the Women's Auxiliary of the American Legion, which indicates that 54% of the women no w working want to quit when peace comes. 70 The sam e issu e o f Life als o feature d "GI' s Drea m Party : Beautifu l Girl s Made I t Com e True, " a nine-pag e photomontag e o f a soldier surrounde d b y scantily cla d model s listenin g intentl y t o hi s wa r storie s an d bringin g hi m drinks. 71 In 1945 , Lifes onl y depictio n o f women i n th e militar y was "WAC S Shive r in Paris, " whic h feature d photograph s o f WAC s sharin g a Pari s apartment . None o f th e WAC s appeare d i n uniform , an d al l th e photo s feature d th e women a s domestic an d romanticall y oriente d towar d men— a WA C lie s in a bed loade d wit h covers , anothe r iron s sheets , whil e ye t anothe r gaze s a t a framed photograp h becaus e he r "boyfriend' s pictur e help s he r forge t th e cold." 72 Throughou t th e remainde r o f th e year , hundred s o f picture s an d dozens o f articles depicte d Allied victories, includin g th e final defeat s o f Ger many an d Japan, ye t women soldier s were no t represented . Clearly , Life mag azine establishe d tha t i n victory , America n wome n wer e n o longe r t o b e sol diers or workers, but rathe r th e wives and girlfriend s wh o welcomed hom e th e decidedly mal e victors .

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Positive but Scattered Publicity Appears on the WASPs in 1942 and 1943 Early accounts in the mainstream media dealing with all aspects of the war ef fort, includin g wome n militar y pilots , wer e positive . I n Decembe r 1941 , Henry R . Luce , edito r o f bot h Life and Time, called fo r al l Americans, re gardless of gender or age, to participate in the war: "There is terrible fighting to be done. All of us will be in the fight—men, wome n an d children, for thi s is indeed total war." 73 Luce did not specify exactl y how women should be involved i n th e war, bu t fo r militar y strategist s suc h a s General Arnold o f th e AAF, a total war meant tha t women would hav e to become directly involve d in the military. When Arnold announced the development of the WASPs, the first of the programs three objectives was: "T o see if women could serve as military pilots, and, if so, t o form th e nucleus of an organization which could be rapidly expanded." 74 Militar y leaders of all branche s of the military had similar reason s fo r incorporatin g wome n withi n thei r branches . As a result, th e Army, Coast Guard , Marines , an d Navy all formed women' s auxiliaries. The media played up the formations o f these auxiliaries as examples of the United States' dedicatio n t o th e war effor t an d proo f tha t th e Allies would wi n th e war. In the first years of World War II, articles, editorials, and even advertisements encouraged and portrayed the involvement of American women in the war effort, a s members of military branches, as civilian workers in war plants, and as volunteers with service organizations like the Red Cross and the American Women's Voluntary Service. Before the formation o f the WASPs, women who flew or instructed fo r the CAA were profiled . In 1941 , Jacqueline Cochran , who would later head the WASPs, copiloted a Lockhee d Hudso n bombe r bein g delivere d t o th e Roya l Air Force. 75 Th e media offere d glowin g accounts o f this fea t a s a demonstration o f American versatility and commitment. America would win the war, the media inferred , because even its women were willing to be involved in spectacular ways in the war effort. Simila r publicity followe d a few month s later , when Cochra n as sembled a group of twenty-five American women to serve with the British Air Transport Auxiliar y a s ferrying pilot s t o fre e Britis h mal e pilot s fo r comba t duty. When th e Women's Auxiliary Ferrying Squadron was formed o n Septem ber 10,1942, 76 media attention agai n was positive. Accounts about individua l WAFS pilots , an d especiall y WAF S Directo r Nanc y Harknes s Love , wer e commonplace. Again, the stories featured th e voluntary nature of women's involvement and their dedication to the war effort. Storie s frequently noted that

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the pilots were motivated b y having male relatives who were serving in combat or who had been killed at Pearl Harbor. However, accompanying the stories praising the women pilots were a significant numbe r of articles and opinion pieces fearful o f the effects o f women's wartime participation. In addition, even positive accounts of women in the media contained constructions main taining strong gender separations and naming women participants in the war efforts a s temporary and exceptions to the norm. "The Girl s Delive r th e Goods " wa s on e articl e tha t appeare d abou t th e WAFS in 1942 . The piec e is similar to thos e written abou t th e mal e pilots o f Air Transport Command, emphasizing the skill, dedication, and discomfort involved with flying airplanes across the country on shifts that could last for days. The onl y source of amazement i n the article was that th e pilots were not just women bu t young women. "I t was astonishing—humbling, too—t o thin k of a girl like that flying Army planes to points al l over the country, alon e in th e skies hour afte r hour , flying through rai n an d slee t an d sno w an d clouds." 77 Even the photos and captions for this article avoided the glamor shots and double-entendres that would soon be the normative positioning of the WAFS. The pilots ar e depicted i n ful l gear , with caption s emphasizin g thei r abilities . Appearing under a photo of seven WAFS in full flight gear walking past a trainer plane is the caption: "Aces. The squadron takes only the very best. Each girl has at least 500 flying hours."78 Another caption, of a WAFS pilot gearing up next to a plane reads: "Solo. The WAFS fly alone for long, cold hours. Here Barbara Tame prepares for a n overnigh t hop." 79 The ton e o f the piece reflects th e request Love is quoted as making: "Don't present us as a glamor outfit. We're not. There's no room or time for glamor in the WAFS. We've got a serious job to do and we do it . I f any girls come here with illusion s of glamor, thing s like that mud and rain out there take it out of them quickly enough." 80 The AAF' s officia l pres s polic y regardin g th e WAF S an d th e Women' s Flight Training Detachment in 1942 was to downplay the programs because of their experimental nature and because both the AAF an d Cochran feared public resistanc e towar d th e program , particularl y i f femal e casualtie s becam e known. I n 1943 , whe n th e WAF S merge d wit h th e WFT D t o for m th e WASPs, the first official medi a plan was developed. The plan was simple: Keep the WASPs out of the media. 81 Because of a record number of volunteers, the WASP program di d not nee d media reports for recruitmen t purposes , as did the other women's auxiliaries. The only articles to appear about the recruiting of WASPs wer e shor t piece s appearin g i n 194 2 announcing tha t WAS P re cruitment director Ethel Sheehy was at a specific place to accept applications. These pieces stressed that th e program was looking for skille d women pilots .

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For example , th e piec e "See k Wome n Pilot s t o Ferr y Planes " state s tha t "li censed wome n pilots , wit h on e hundre d o r mor e hour s o f flying time , ar e badly neede d t o ferr y militar y aircraf t i n th e Unite d States." 82 Despit e th e clear reques t fo r onl y highly skille d pilots , th e WASP progra m wa s inundate d with application s an d soo n stoppe d al l recruitin g efforts . Th e Washington Herald Tribune reported : "Unlik e th e other women's services , the W.A.S.P. ha s more recruit s tha n i t ca n possibl y use . B y th e en d o f thi s yea r ther e wil l b e about 60 0 Wasps , wit h 50 0 mor e i n training . Classe s no w ar e filled u p unti l June, 1944 , an d n o furthe r recruitmen t i s planned fo r th e present . Eac h day , about 30 0 letter s g o ou t fro m Miss . Cochran' s office , i n answe r t o request s about th e W.A.S.P." 83 Therefore, wit h fe w exceptions , article s o n th e WASP s were limited t o graduation storie s and assignmen t account s i n th e local paper s of WASP trainees , an d t o bas e newspaper s an d small-tow n newspaper s wher e bases were located, wher e new s o f field occurrence s wa s regularl y reported . Except a t th e newspape r i n Sweetwater , Texa s (wher e Avenge r Field , th e WASP trainin g base , wa s located) , WAS P graduation s wer e onl y new s i f a local woman wa s a graduate. Eve n th e historical first graduatio n o f women pi lots from a military school onl y attracted loca l attention. No t surprisingly , th e largest an d mos t positiv e stor y o n thi s histori c graduatio n appeare d i n th e Houston Chronicle, th e cit y nea r th e bas e a t whic h th e first clas s was trained . The full-pag e articl e begins : Saturday wa s ladie s da y a t Ellingto n Field , whe n th e firs t 2 3 women i n th e United State s t o receiv e thei r silve r wing s an d arm y diploma s a s full-fledge d ferry pilot s wer e graduate d i n a n elaborat e ceremon y o n th e bi g ram p o f th e field. . . . The women hav e completed a seven-month rigi d cours e trainin g a t the Housto n Municipa l Airpor t an d late r finished a t Sweetwater , wher e th e school wa s move d severa l week s ago . Representative s o f man y state s o f th e Union, these women have been trained to fly five different type s of planes, will serve as civilian ferry pilots under army orders and will receive $250 per mont h base pay."84 One phot o captio n note d a physica l differenc e experience d b y som e women pilot s an d th e creativ e way s the y foun d t o compensat e fo r it : "Dorothy Yang of Washington D . C , smalles t o f the graduate s an d calle d th e 'three-cushion gal, ' because she has to have that man y pillows unde r he r to se e the cockpit. Sinc e she was the first t o receive her diplom a an d wings, she is the first woma n i n th e Unite d State s t o hav e tha t honor." 85 The Wa r Department' s Burea u o f Publi c Relation s develope d a pla n fo r WASP publi c relation s tha t encourage d medi a silenc e because i t believed tha t

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the WAFS had attracte d unnecessar y attention, tha t writers wanted t o do "un desirable 'glamor ' an d publicity-promotio n type s o f stories, " tha t "selection , not recruiting , i s the WASP problem, " an d tha t th e "progra m involve s exper imentation i n trainin g an d utilization , wit h stron g attendan t possibilit y o f mistakes an d losses , wit h resultan t publi c criticism." 86 Th e repor t impose d media silenc e o n WAS P activitie s excep t fo r storie s o f graduatio n an d ad vancement, whic h wer e t o b e release d t o th e hometow n newspaper s o f indi vidual pilots ; WASP units ' involvemen t i n loca l events ; an d storie s o n WAS P accidents, whic h wer e t o b e handle d b y th e War Department . Th e publi c re lations pla n als o stated tha t storie s were t o b e constructe d t o plac e th e rol e o f the WASPs a s supplemental t o mal e pilot s an d t o emphasiz e tha t th e WASPs ' role within th e AAF was minor. Articles o n th e WASPs seeme d t o fi t thi s con struction—peripheral bu t laudabl e wa r effort s b y thos e othe r tha n it s princi ples (i.e. , mal e soldiers) . Articles describe d th e physica l attribute s o f WASPs, frequently deal t wit h thei r uniform s an d appearances , an d emphasize d con stantly that thes e pilots were, indeed, stil l women. As a result, the new s storie s that appeare d durin g thi s time di d littl e to educat e th e publi c abou t th e rang e of mission s WASP s performe d o n a daily basi s o r th e leve l o f skil l an d flying hours th e pilot s ha d befor e the y eve n bega n trainin g with th e AAF. One o f th e earlies t newspape r article s t o appea r o n th e W F T D ha d a s it s theme th e overwhelmin g interes t tha t was expected t o b e shown b y America n women towar d joining th e group. The articl e interviewe d wome n pilots , wh o gave their opinion s abou t th e newl y forme d women' s pilo t organization : Mae Wilson, manage r an d flight instructor a t the Wilson airport , an d nation ally famous stun t flier, expressed th e belief that th e organization o f the WAFS will meet with a n excellent response among women flyers all over the country. She said: "Many of our women pilots , eager to aid in the war effort, hav e gone to England by Jacqueline Cochran t o ferry planes for the British, but now that we hav e a ferryin g squadro n o f ou r own , it' s m y gues s tha t jus t abou t ever y woman flier in the country who can qualify will sign up with the WAFS."87 A mor e commo n typ e o f coverag e tha t appeare d i n th e firs t month s o f WASP assignment s t o ferryin g detachment s wer e article s i n smal l newspaper s near ai r base s coverin g th e arriva l o f wome n pilots . These article s almos t al ways focuse d o n th e physica l attribute s o f pilot s an d wer e usuall y accompa nied b y numerous picture s o f the pilots , none o f which eve r showed the m ac tually pilotin g a plane . In a Wichita Beacon piece , fou r o f th e article' s fiv e paragraph s ar e devote d to thes e "attractive " wome n whil e onl y th e final paragrap h mention s th e ac -

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tual pilo t program , a s well a s th e relate d dutie s an d expectations . Th e articl e began: The daily routine of delivery of military air planes to the armed forces was given the feminine touc h Friday at the local Boeing plants, when a comely quartet of pilots of the Women's Auxiliary Squadron flew away four Boein g PT-17 Kaydet Primary Trainers. Fridays flight was the first time th e newly-organize d WAF S have operate d out of Wichita. Flight line mechanics, long used to daily contact with ferry pilots, quickl y brok e int o smile s an d snappe d int o thei r dutie s whe n th e abl e young ladies appeared. Hardened flight engineers scurried to help with luggage, and the colorful an d expressive jargon of the flight hangar subsided into a goodnatured bantering. 88 "Biggs Field Male Personnel Perks Up When Exper t Wasps Arrive on Scene, " in th e El Paso Times, focuse d o n th e uniquenes s o f havin g wome n pilot s o n a military base, as well as offering a n accurat e depictio n o f the WASPs' missions : Pilots com e an d g o in suc h number s a t Bigg s Fiel d tha t thei r arrival s an d de partures fail t o arouse much interest . Bu t everybody looked u p early this week when five new fliers check in . They were Wasps—Women's Ai r Forc e Servic e Pilots. . . . Al l of Biggs Field's Wasps, assigne d t o a tow-target squadro n here , are experienced pilot s and have been flying from tw o to six years. Between th e five o f them, they have 3500 hours in the air. . . . Th e genera l publi c ha s appeare d t o b e a littl e confuse d abou t th e Wasps—that they're military personnel, like WAC and Army nurses. Some persons have vague ideas that Wasps belong to the Air Transport Command o r the Ferrying Command . They are civilian pilots employed by the Army Air Force. Relieving men pilots for duty in the theaters of war, Wasps are assigned to various commands of the AAF, flying tow-target planes; breaking in new engines by slow time flying; filling air courier assignments; piloting administrative personnel; ferrying ship s within the Continental United States and transporting needed instruments and repairs.89 However, no t al l article s fro m thi s tim e focuse d o n th e novelt y o r physica l attributes o f th e pilots . Som e focuse d entirel y o n th e pilots ' skills . "Cobra s have a 'Lady Pilot' " le d with : She is the first woman ever to fly a P-39. The P-39 Cobra was in 1943 the fastest fighter plane the US Military possessed. She is a little amused at the special attention which has been given her latest assignment as a member of the Women's Auxiliary Ferr y Squadron. "Me n ca n fly the P-3 9 an d lik e it," sh e says. "Wriy cant women: JV

6o I From Praise to Rancor The articl e profiled WAF S Squadro n Leade r De l Scharr . I t i s very differen t from othe r WASP article s o f the tim e i n tha t i t discusse d th e gende r discrim ination Schar r face d previou s t o he r assignmen t wit h th e WAFS , suc h a s he r inability before th e war to get a position with aviatio n school s despite her hav ing earne d a n instructor s certificate. 91 In "Wome n Trai n i n West Texas fo r Arm y Ferr y Flying, " fro m th e Christian Science Monitor, th e WASP trainin g progra m wa s presente d a s newswor thy an d th e pilot s a s groundbreakers. The articl e outline d i n detai l th e dutie s and background s o f th e wome n pilots , emphasizin g th e difficult y o f thei r training an d missions . I t began : "Wome n fliers b y the hundreds, sunbronzed , trim a s their streamline d planes , are threading the wide blue sky of West Texas in th e Army's ne w progra m t o prepar e the m fo r wa r service." 92 As Cochran starte d t o pursue militarize d statu s fo r th e WASPs, she worke d to plac e mor e storie s abou t th e progra m i n th e media . Sh e organize d a pres s event a t Cam p Davis , Nort h Carolina , wher e WASPs towe d target s a t whic h live machin e gu n an d canno n ammunitio n wa s fired. Th e resultan t storie s were th e mos t positiv e an d detaile d article s t o appea r abou t WAS P missions , and the y represented th e last positive series of stories on th e WASPs t o appea r until th e lat e 1970s . The first stor y o n thi s event , fro m th e Evening Star, bega n wit h a quot e from th e WASP directo r abou t militarizin g th e program : Miss Jacqueline Cochran , directo r o f women pilot s fo r th e Army Air Forces , told a group of newspaper reporters observing the Women Air Force Pilots perform thei r missions here at the antiaircraft trainin g center that "i f the war lasts long enough we will probably use women pilots for noncombat dutie s in some theaters o f the war (Englan d an d Hawaii) . . . . We supplement th e Army Air Forces," sh e added , "rathe r tha n replac e it s personnel , fo r som e mission s fo r which we are capable mus t remai n fo r th e me n a s valuable experienc e t o prepare them fo r comba t duty." 93 Another articl e began: "Wome n pilots , generally supposed t o have been re stricted t o ferryin g plane s fro m factorie s t o airfields , have , fo r th e las t thre e months, bee n performin g a t leas t si x othe r highl y specialize d job s fo r th e Army Ai r Forces . . . . Eventually, i t i s expected, wome n pilot s wil l b e give n a dozen differen t assignment s wit h th e Army." 94 This articl e outline d on e missio n performe d b y WASPs wit h a level o f de tail usuall y reserve d fo r th e exploit s o f male pilots : As the bomber piloted by the WASPS was reported near the range, the four gun batteries trained their guns on the target—a flag of wire mesh, 35 feet by 6 feet,

From Praise to Rancor I 6 1 about the size of the fuselage of a medium-sized plane, at the end of a 3,000 foo t tow rope. Another roun d o f gun fire, and the target snapped from it s tow rope and fell into the sea. The WASP dipped her wings and turned fo r home. 95 "WASPS W ho To w Air Targets Ma y Soo n B e Real U.S . Soldiers" not onl y re ported o n th e mission s Cochra n arrange d fo r th e medi a t o watch , bu t in cluded th e reaso n behin d th e medi a show : Girls will be girls and Army Air Force pilots, too. If the achievements of Jacqueline Cochra n an d he r WASP squadro n her e ar e a sign o f things t o come . The WASP, Wome n Airforc e Servic e Pilots , ar e step-childre n i n hand-me-dow n clothes so far. They replace men of the First Tactical Air Force for combat by towtarget and tracking mission flying, two of the most difficult an d tedious labor of flying back and forth hou r after hou r on a set course, making precise turns. 96 A more commo n respons e t o th e medi a even t was for reporter s t o enhanc e their new s article s wit h reference s t o th e physica l qualitie s o f th e wome n pi lots themselves : " v We ge t a thrill ever y tim e w e leav e th e ground, ' say s prett y Eileen Roach , Phoenix , Arizona . v The Wasp s ar e doin g a man' s job , an d a good one, ' a n attractive , blonde , brown-eye d woma n i n triml y tailore d slac k suit o f blue tol d a visiting newspaper woman." 9 7 These descriptor s appea r de spite th e sam e WAS P tellin g th e reporter : "Th e Wasp s ar e doin g essential , unglamorous har d work. We are here as a small cog in an extremel y importan t wheel o f the entir e Army." 98 The New York Daily News handle d th e stor y b y focusin g o n a n individua l pilot, Dorothe a Schultz , then twenty-two : "Like all WASPS, Miss Schultz ha d come u p th e har d way , qualifyin g wit h 3 5 hours o f previou s flying tim e an d strict physica l an d educationa l requirements . . . . 'We'r e th e luckies t girl s i n the world,' sh e commented . 'Ever y tim e yo u tak e a plane u p it' s a thrill.'" 99 The Washington Daily News offere d a positive , althoug h uniquel y gen dered, treatmen t o f the medi a event : Women Air Service Pilots (WASPS ) are flying target-towing and tracking missions for anti-aircraf t artilleryme n here . Their job has been so satisfactory tha t their chief, Miss Jacqueline Cochran, deeme d i t need no longer remain a military secret. The famous woman flier was on hand to show what her girls can do and insist it be treated "withou t glamor. " Like WACS, WAVES, SPARS and Marines , WASPS ha d t o win thei r wa y here. Air Corps personnel assigned to this post were quite skeptical at first. Now most of them ar e in the cheering section. The WASPS ar e from al l sections, the y have been draw n togethe r b y thei r love of flying. Under Civil Service status now, eventually they may become part

62 I From Praise to Rancor of the Air Corps. Meanwhile, they wear uniforms an d take orders. They could quit—but the y don't. They have made themselves at home her e and ne w bar racks are being readied for them. In the interim, they have dandied up their present quarters with chintz cot covers, curtains and other feminine touches . Pictures line the walls—but no t of pin-up men. Mostly they are pictures of various war planes. 100 These articles, which reporte d a n important rol e the WASPS had i n the American wa r effort , represente d th e las t tim e durin g World Wa r I I tha t th e medi a portrayed th e WASPs positively .

WASP Plans for Militarization Come under Attack By 1944, media support and public opinion were turning away from all-ou t war efforts an d wer e focusin g instea d o n effort s t o retur n th e Unite d State s t o a n idealized prewa r styl e of living. I t wa s assume d tha t th e war wa s won, an d in terest no w focuse d o n th e postwa r economy , particularl y i n jobs fo r returnin g servicemen. A t wa r factories , wome n wer e bein g lai d of F in recor d numbers , and popular media , movies , and book s advocated th e return o f women t o thei r "rightful places " i n suppor t o f men . Thi s i s the cultura l contex t withi n whic h the issue of women pilotin g military planes would be debated no t onl y in Con gress, bu t als o in th e media . Congressiona l debat e an d th e mal e civilia n pilots ' lobby would brin g th e issu e of WASP militarizatio n t o publi c attention . O n e o f th e majo r criticism s agains t th e WASPs—tha t the y wer e no t needed becaus e th e ferryin g o f plane s wa s bein g effectivel y handled—ironi cally ha d bee n contribute d t o b y th e WASP s becaus e o f thei r efficienc y i n performing thei r duties . B y 1944 , th e Unite d State s an d it s Allie s ha d ob tained worldwid e ai r superiority . Ai r battle s were stil l bein g fought , bu t the y were no t o f th e magnitud e o f earlie r battles , an d th e Unite d State s ha d no t lost th e number s o f planes an d flight crew s military planner s ha d anticipate d and fo r whic h the y ha d establishe d contingencies . A s a result , greate r num bers o f experience d comba t pilot s wer e returnin g t o th e Unite d States , fewe r pilots an d flight crew s neede d t o b e trained , an d fewe r plane s neede d t o b e produced. At the same time, American militar y planners were anticipating a n intensive groun d assaul t agains t Japan. The Arm y neede d hundred s o f thou sands o f soldier s fo r it s groun d troops . A s a resul t o f thes e factors , th e AAF, which ha d conscripte d me n fro m th e roster s o f it s paren t organization , th e Army, di d no t nee d significan t number s o f pilo t trainee s an d release d the m

From Praise to Rancor I

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back t o th e Arm y fo r conscriptio n int o th e groun d forces . School s tha t ha d been establishe d fo r trainin g pilot s wer e closed , an d th e pilo t trainers , wh o had no t bee n drafte d int o th e regular Army while they served as trainers, wer e now eligible for th e draft. I n addition , comba t pilot s who ha d returne d t o th e United State s were eage r to perform an y utilit y flying s o that the y coul d con tinue t o receiv e flight pay . (AA F pilot s receive d a greater monthl y salar y th e more hour s the y flew. However , civilia n pilot s hire d b y th e AAF, such a s th e WASPs, di d no t receiv e greate r pa y fo r thei r flight time , regardles s o f ho w many hour s the y flew.) In th e past , th e bill s t o creat e militarize d unit s o f women's auxiliarie s ha d met wit h limite d oppositio n i n th e media . Editorial s an d article s wer e ofte n incredulous o f the idea of women soldiers , but tende d t o support th e opinion s and request s o f th e Wa r Department . Storie s coverin g women' s auxiliarie s usually appeare d afte r th e auxiliarie s ha d bee n approve d b y Congress . How ever, bill s authorizin g al l othe r auxiliarie s wer e brough t t o Congres s i n 194 2 and 1943 , when th e medi a generall y supporte d increase s i n th e military . I n 1944, when th e AAF brough t th e WASP bil l befor e Congress , tw o majo r ob stacles existed: a Congress that was concerned mor e with cuttin g military cost s than wit h creatin g programs , an d th e thousand s o f me n wh o wante d th e flying position s the n hel d b y th e WASPs . I t woul d b e th e secon d obstacl e tha t would dra w publi c attentio n t o th e action s o f Congress . An articl e tha t appeare d befor e th e congressiona l debat e bega n optimisti cally maintained tha t th e me n o f the U.S . military supporte d th e WASP pro gram: So successfu l wa s thi s initia l effor t tha t th e Arm y decide d t o coordinat e th e whole program and set it up last summer as a continuous program unde r Miss Cochran. So, the big-wigs are sold on the whole idea and the enlisted men have taken th e girls to their hearts. A belligerent, husk y sergeant who threatened t o desert if a woman lande d o n th e place now takes a personal interes t and keep s on their trail. 101 This articl e incorrectl y predicte d tha t mal e serviceme n woul d accep t th e bill . While th e bil l fo r WAS P militarizatio n wa s stil l bein g examine d a t th e com mittee leve l i n Congress , th e mal e civilia n pilot s ha d bee n lai d of f an d wer e subject t o draf t int o th e walkin g army , an d the y wer e organizin g a congres sional lobb y t o targe t th e WASP bill . At th e sam e time , negativ e publicit y to ward th e progra m wa s increasin g i n th e media . The articl e "Arm y Passes Up Jobless Pilot s t o Train Wasps : Prefer s Wome n to Older , Experience d Flyers " began: "Wit h 5,00 0 experienced airplan e pilot s

64 I From Praise to Rancor looking fo r job s a s a result o f th e liquidatio n o f th e civi l aeronauti c commis sion's pilo t trainin g program , th e governmen t i s trainin g mor e tha n 1,00 0 young women, a t a n estimate d cos t o f 6 million dollars , a s ferry pilot s fo r th e army." 102 The articl e went o n t o sa y that "most " o f the forme r CA A pilots fel t "that th e WASP trainin g program shoul d b e stopped an d experience d me n pi lots give n th e ferryin g jobs." 103 The articl e "Me n Pilot s Jobless , Hous e Uni t Considers Investigatin g WASP" ha d a similar tone : The House Civil Services Investigating Committee, it was learned today, is considering a n inquir y t o determin e whethe r th e WASP (Wome n Air Servic e Pilots) program shoul d be continued while thousands o f experienced me n pilot s are looking for jobs. . . . Mutterings about the WASP in male flying circles increased sharply after th e Army an d Nav y gave notice o f intention t o abando n th e war trainin g servic e program unde r th e Civi l Aeronautics Administration . Thi s releasin g approxi mately 900 male pilots, averaging 31 years of age and 2,200 hours in the air, and 4,167 student instructors . Many of these men will lose their deferred draf t sta tus and may be put into the "walking Army."104 One piece , "La y That Airplan e Down , Babe , Cr y Grounde d He-Ma n Pi lots," ha d a more accurat e focu s an d strongl y predicte d wha t wa s i n stor e fo r theWASPs: Fiercest battle in the war between men and women, outside of James Thurber s cartoons, i s being fought toda y in th e air. Thousands o f well-trained mal e pilots are grounded an d jobless, is the masculine cry, while Jacqueline Cochran' s WASPS continu e ferryin g planes , towin g targets , trackin g an d doin g courie r work for the Army at $250 a month. The battle of the sexes has reached such proportions that mail from outrage d males is piling high on congressional desks. The Ramspeck Civil Service Investigating Committe e i s considerin g a n inquir y whic h som e observer s a t th e Capitol consider inevitable. Supporters of the ladies, seeing the handwriting on the wall , ar e movin g heave n an d eart h t o ge t thr u th e Costell o bil l tha t wil l move the winged women fro m Civi l Service, and give them Army status and a firmer gri p on thei r jobs. . . . Reports from aroun d the Capitol say that some of the members are unwilling to go to bat for the ladies and support this bill while another bill before th e committee to give commissions to members of the armed forces traine d unde r the Civil Aeronautics Administration, got no action. . . . Most of the WTS in structors lac k th e on e requiremen t o f 20 0 hour s i n 20 0 h.p . planes , the y say. "Most o f the me n wis h tha t fo r th e duratio n the y coul d b e women," wrote a group of WTS instructor s t o a sympathetic senator.

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Some of the masculine comments aren't gallant. "Thirty-five hou r wonders" is one tag they've pinned on the lady fliers. "The taxpayers we do bleed easily," said one disgruntled male. "Costs $7000 to train every female. It's the most expensive way to ferry planes." "If the girls were patriotic they'd resign," declared another . "Doesn't mak e sense, " sighed on e baffle d b y i t all . "Especiall y when Gen . Arnold says the Army has pilots running out of its ears." Chances are , say Capitol observers , that th e men won't go down without a fight on the floor, waged by male members who think it's time for the ladies to holler "uncle." 105 As a resul t o f th e pressur e applie d b y mal e civilia n pilots , th e Hous e Civi l Service Investigatin g Committe e bega n a n inquir y int o th e WAS P trainin g program. Th e inten t o f th e committee , "t o determin e whethe r th e Women' s Airforce Servic e Pilot s progra m shoul d b e continue d whil e thousand s o f ex perienced ma n pilot s ar e lookin g fo r jobs," 106 was highl y publicize d i n news papers an d magazines . Whe n th e committe e reporte d tha t to o muc h mone y was being spent o n WASP trainin g and suggeste d i t be discontinued, th e pres s immediately seize d on an d exaggerate d th e results . Even article s that provide d positive statistics on th e WASP program were distorted b y irrelevant and com pletely gendere d constructions : Miss Cochran, who i n peacetime was never too bus y gathering up bot h men' s and women's flying trophies t o neglect her own femininity , i s also determine d that th e women flying for th e Air Transport Comman d shal l not neglec t thei r feminine allure . Sh e ha s ordere d the m ou t o f slack s an d dungaree s an d int o dresses at least four night s a week at the Sweetwater, Texas, Training Post. . . . Any girl who insist s o n keepin g on he r working clothe s o n night s tha t th e flag is run u p for dres s can't come into th e mess hall unless she is on duty , no r into the recreation rooms . Wasp uniform s fo r wor k an d dres s ar e attractiv e enoug h t o mak e an y girl want to keep them on. Santiago blue is the color for work slacks & "battle jackets" as well as the dress skirt and jacket worn with a white cotton shirt . Women fliers hav e a lower acciden t rat e tha n th e me n doin g comparabl e work, ge t bac k from mission s mor e swiftl y an d don' t min d dul l hops , airme n report. Arnold wants at least another two thousand o f them t o replace men in permanent no n comba t flying jobs in this country. 107 A Washington Star "Bulletin " reporte d tha t mone y wa s bein g spen t o n th e WASP program while a pool of experienced mal e pilots existed, and tha t com mittee member s wer e influenced i n thei r findings b y the existenc e o f these pi -

66 I From Praise to Rancor lots. 108 On e newspape r reporte d tha t officer s involve d wit h th e CA A wer e using public planes and fund s t o solicit signatures fro m CA A pilot instructor s to presen t t o Congress : Fifty Army planes carrying high-ranking officers ar e winging their way around the country on a whirlwind missio n tha t may give the court to hopes of thousands o f well-trained mal e fliers for victor y i n th e battl e o f the sexe s over th e right to fly Army planes on non-combat dut y i t was learned toda y If the ladies win, it is pointed out , men fliers will have a new interpretatio n of "victor y throug h ai r power." And i n an y cas e the Army cod e o f "a n office r and a gentleman" will have been stretche d t o th e point o f gallantry tha t cost s the taxpayers a pretty penny. Officers o f the Flyin g Instructor Board , appointe d b y the Army Air Forces Training Command, ar e interviewing at training centers throughout th e country flying instructors o f the Enlisted Reserv e Corps-Civil Aeronautics Administration War Training Service to ge t their signatures o n a document tha t says in effect the y will be satisfied b y whatever jobs they are given. 109 At th e sam e time , WASP s wer e forbidde n fro m speakin g wit h th e medi a o r publicly discussin g th e bil l befor e Congress . "I n th e las t twelv e t o fourtee n months o f ou r servic e i n World Wa r II , a n edic t cam e dow n fro m headquar ters tha t ther e wa s t o b e n o publicit y an d n o medi a interview s o r anythin g about th e WASP S o r b y th e WASPS, " sai d WAS P Madg e Rutherfor d Minton. 1 1 0 Th e medi a silenc e fro m th e WASPs durin g thi s tim e o f crisi s wa s itself newsworthy , an d th e blam e fo r th e ba n wa s put , no t o n th e Wa r De partment s Bureau o f Public Relations , which actuall y developed th e ban , bu t squarely o n th e shoulder s o f WASP directo r Cochran : Miss Jacqueline Cochran, head of the WASPs, has jealously guarded her flying women from th e wrong kind of publicity. According to an air force spokesman the nationally known aviatrix feels that "glamorizing" is the worst hazard a woman flyer has to meet. Before Miss Cochran's women flying training detachment was merged int o the WASPs its head ha d alread y decided tha t publicit y fo r wome n flyers with the accen t o n wome n wa s "out." Sh e had alread y discovered tha t th e camera men simpl y woul d no t behav e an d tha t featur e writer s refuse d t o tak e th e proper slant on women i n the air. The photographer s invariabl y picke d ou t th e bes t lookin g girl s t o photo graph t o th e discomfiture o f the less photogenic o f the girls with flying ambitions while th e featur e writer s too k a perverse attitud e tha t flying was an un usual accomplishmen t fo r wome n an d tha t se x should b e underline d i n an y recital of the accomplishment o f any aviatrix.

From Praise to Rancor I 6j This, accordin g t o Mis s Cochran' s spokesman , wa s a fals e notio n whic h must be gradually dispelled from th e public mind . Because of these strong conviction s o n th e equalit y o f opportunity fo r th e sexes Miss Cochran ha s refused t o allo w her organization t o b e advertised a s a woman's auxiliar y an d ther e ha s bee n th e minimu m o f pictures featurin g th e cadets of the women ai r force pilots. 111 Members o f Congress likewise recognized th e potential fo r publicity if they aligned themselve s with th e mal e civilia n pilots , an d the y soo n bega n t o issu e attacks agains t th e WASPs . Representativ e Alvi n O'Konski , a Wisconsin Re publican, wa s quote d a s chargin g tha t th e WAS P bil l wa s "jus t mor e mone y for th e ai r force s t o squander, " whil e flight instructor s wer e "bein g throw n into th e street." 112 I n anothe r stor y a Congressma n explaine d th e WAS P bil l with outrageou s supposition s abou t femal e behavior : And wit h a fine instinc t fo r feminin e psychology , Rep . Ma y (D . Ky) , whe n asked why the WASPS hadn't been made part of the WACS, said, "That would be too many women in one place. The WASPS might sting the WACS." . . . That th e powder puff brigad e got priority before th e committee has been a matter o f anguish t o grounde d jobless male fliers, let ou t when th e Army discontinued th e program i n January, an d the y have been flooding congressiona l desks with protests. 113 Adding fuel t o the debate, the media published Genera l Arnold's testimon y before th e House Military Affairs Committee , i n which he said that h e wante d not onl y for wome n pilot s t o replac e me n pilots , bu t fo r al l women t o replac e all me n i n th e Unite d States , thu s freein g th e me n fo r oversea s service : "W e must provid e fighting me n whereve r w e can , replacin g the m wit h wome n wherever we can, whether i t be in factorie s o r towin g airplane target s or wher ever i t maybe." 1 1 4 Articles abou t propose d legislatio n t o militariz e th e WASPs frequentl y fo cused mor e o n th e pligh t o f male civilia n pilot s tha n the y di d o n th e WASPs . Realizing that oppositio n t o militarizin g the WASPs was largely based on con cern fo r th e male pilots, Secretary of War Henr y Stimso n bega n t o addres s th e issue. He state d tha t th e purpose o f the legislation was not t o give women spe cial privileges, no r t o preven t skille d mal e pilot s fro m flying, bu t t o allo w th e military t o tak e ful l advantag e o f th e wartim e contributio n o f wome n pi lots. 115 "Neither th e existence nor th e militarization o f the WASP will keep out of the Army Air Forces a single instructor or partially trained civilian pilot who desires to become a service pilot or a cadet and can meet the applicable standards of the

6$ I From Praise to Rancor Army Air Forces, " stated Henr y L . Stimson , Secretar y o f War, a t a press con ference here. The present membership of the WASP and the women pilots in training for the Army Air Forces are employed in a civilian status by the Army Air Force, and are performing valuabl e service s i n thi s respect . Bu t th e rights, privileges , an d benefits availabl e to comparable military personnel are denied to them. . . . The WASP organizatio n i s small, an d th e women pilot s ar e professional personne l with specialized skill, in the same sense as female doctors and female nurses. The consideration which dictates the incorporation of such professional skills directly into the Medical Corps of the Army indicates a similar disposition of women pilots.116 As a result o f the surg e i n storie s create d o n behal f o f the CA A pilots, eve n the leade r o f th e AAF wa s compelle d t o releas e a statement tha t modifie d hi s original inten t t o transfe r th e mal e civilia n pilot s t o th e Army's groun d forces : "General H . H . Arnold , chie f o f th e Army Air Forces , wa s reporte d toda y a s willing t o giv e mal e CA A instructor s th e sam e chanc e a t Arm y commission s which h e ha s strongl y recommende d fo r gir l fliers i n th e WASPs." 117 But these statements b y Stimson an d Arnold di d nothin g t o combat th e ris e of negative publicit y agains t th e WASPs. The mal e pilots ' lobby—and , subse quently, th e media—ha d foun d a vulnerable target . The WASP s were accuse d of being excessivel y glamorous , an d allegation s aros e tha t thei r uniform s wer e costing taxpayer s mor e tha n five hundre d dollar s each 118 an d wer e create d b y "Fifth Avenue " designer s a s part o f the "glamorou s excess o f the corps." 119 An exclusive Fifth Avenue shop is outfitting th e War Department's women flyers in snapp y ne w military uniform s a t $50 5 per WASP, a Senate Militar y Af fairs Subcommitte e was told yesterday. By contrast, Mr. Morrison said, male flying instructors being thrown ou t of jobs by cutbacks in AAF pilot training look a bit ragged in old khaki pants and "Woodtick" coat s discarded by the CCC. 120 Representative Jame s Morriso n wa s furthe r quote d i n anothe r piec e tha t fo cused o n th e WASP uniforms : Experienced mal e fliers, with mor e tha n 2,00 0 hour s i n th e air , ma y soon b e cleaning windshield s an d servicin g plane s fo r "glamorou s woma n flyers wh o only have 35 hours of flying time," the House was told yesterday by Representative Morrison, Democrat , o f Louisiana. Declaring "this is a glamorous and unnecessary duplication," the Louisianan described th e WASPS as an "elit e corps," which would be made u p entirely of commissioned officer s i f Congress approve s a bill to mak e the group a regular part of the Air Forces.

From Praise to Rancor I 6 9 "The WASPS are perhaps the most super-duper of all programs," he told the House. "Magazine s hav e playe d the m u p an d eve n th e movie s contribute d a picture in their behalf. Their natt y and stylish uniforms wer e tailored on Fift h Avenue in New York and cost over $500 for eac h WASP."121 Defense agains t th e charge s tha t th e WASPs were a n overl y glamorized grou p were countere d no t b y article s o r release s fro m th e Wa r Department , bu t b y Mrs. G . W Featherhoff , a mother o f a WASP who wrot e a letter t o th e edito r of the St . Loui s Globe-Democrat I have been reading with much interes t the articles on the Wasps, and their socalled glamour . I have a daughter in the Wasps and if the life she leads comes under the head of glamour, Mr . Webster i s dead wrong i n hi s definition o f the word. They fly from su n u p to sun down ever y day, check in a hotel a t night to o tired even t o see a movie, and even if they were inclined to do a little night life they have nothing but thei r flying suits to wear. Imagine spreading glamour i n a bulky jacket, wrinkled slacks , helmet s an d mayb e a decorativ e parachut e fo r extr a appeal . They live in barracks. Need I go into detail about this luxurious setting?. . . These girls were asked by their government to do this job and they are doing their very best. They are intensely interested in their work, eager to serve wherever they are needed an d deeply grateful tha t the y have been given this oppor tunity to fly.122 In additio n t o th e attack s o n th e women' s pilo t program , WAS P directo r Cochran als o cam e unde r personalize d an d pointe d attacks . Th e medi a dis played he r a s a wealthy egomaniac whose personal consideration s outweighe d the nations needs . The WASPs were constructed a s her pe t project , supporte d and continued , i t wa s alleged , becaus e o f Cochran' s abilit y t o seduc e high ranking member s o f th e militar y an d government . Gossi p columnis t Dre w Pearson purporte d tha t th e governmen t wa s "trainin g lad y fliers , primaril y a t the behes t o f vivacious Aviatrix Jaquelin [sic] Cochran, wif e o f financial mag nate, Floy d Odium . Magneti c Mis s Cochra n seem s t o hav e quit e a drag wit h the Bras s Hat s an d ha s eve n persuade d th e ai r forces ' smilin g commande r t o make severa l secret trip s t o Capito l Hil l t o lobb y for he r pets , the WASPS." 123 Articles furthe r allege d tha t Cochra n ha d create d th e WASP progra m no t ou t of patriotism i n suppor t o f the country' s militar y needs , bu t a s " a political af fair."124 Obviously , conclude d thes e critics , thi s leve l o f conspirac y coul d no t be the act of one woman, n o matte r ho w seductive and corrupt , bu t mus t hav e the suppor t o f othe r wome n engage d i n suc h deviou s activities . Thus, som e named Firs t Lad y Eleano r Roosevel t a s a "back-door " supporte r o f th e

jo I

From Praise to Rancor

WASPs. On e piece , "Firs t Lady' s H a n d I s Seen, " stated : "Suspicio n point s t o Mrs. Roosevel t a s influential i n effort s t o advanc e th e WASPS, women fliers, at th e expens e o f thousands o f trained civilia n pilot s an d instructor s who pos sess much mor e experienc e i n th e air." 125 This an d othe r piece s displaye d th e WASPs no t a s women dedicate d t o supportin g th e wa r effort , bu t a s wome n detrimental t o th e wa r effor t becaus e the y wer e simpl y th e pawn s o f a too powerful Firs t Lad y wh o wante d t o unjustl y furthe r th e cause s o f women. A sampling o f headlines o n th e WASP bil l candidl y revea l the medi a oppositio n to th e progra m an d th e construction s use d t o expres s thi s opposition : "CA A Men Tosse d t o th e Wolves, ' Ai r Staf f Office r Informed," 126 "WAS P Bil l Hinges o n Right s fo r Men," 1 2 7 "Wasp s Ma y Ous t 5,00 0 Instructors," 128 "Avi ators Stun g b y WASPS: Flier s Resente d Propose d Corps," 129 an d "Pilot s See k to Continu e Instructing : Denie d Jobs Women Pilot s Now Receivin g Training For." 130 A common denominato r amon g articles criticizing the WASP program wa s that the women pilot s had oversteppe d thei r reason fo r bein g created an d wer e replacing me n rathe r tha n releasin g the m fo r duty . On e articl e quote d Repre sentative O'Konsk i a s chargin g tha t th e AA F wa s squanderin g mone y b y training the WASPs when "5,00 0 trained flight instructor s were being 'throw n into th e street.'" 131 Despite Genera l Arnold' s insistenc e tha t th e AA F wa s transferrin g mal e cadets and trainers where they were needed fo r th e war effort—which wa s int o the groun d forces—th e medi a continue d t o attac k th e WASPs a s a hindranc e to th e wa r effort . Editorial s asserte d tha t mal e pilot s wer e "bein g converte d into lackey s fo r th e glamou r gal s . . . grounde d t o loo k afte r th e glamou r gals." 132 These piece s claime d o r inferre d tha t th e mal e pilot s coul d tak e u p the flying job s bein g performe d b y WASPs, neve r mentionin g th e specialize d training tha t wen t int o ferrying , targe t towing , o r othe r missions . Som e eve n went s o fa r a s to infe r tha t th e AAF ha d create d artificiall y hig h standard s fo r the mal e pilot s specificall y t o preven t the m fro m flying: "Rep . John J . Spark man (D . Ala.) announce d tha t h e wil l introduc e a n amendmen t designe d t o stall off any move by the War Department t o set the standards so high the me n can't qualify." 133 Despit e thi s assertion , th e article did no t poin t ou t a primar y contradiction, namely , tha t th e bil l reall y was t o provid e CAA-WT S instruc tors an d trainee s wit h "additiona l trainin g a s ma y b e necessary " t o mee t th e minimum AA F requirement s fo r pilots. 134 One articl e eve n state d tha t WASPs wer e no t jus t replacin g men , bu t wer e actually preventin g me n fro m obtainin g th e comba t trainin g the y needed : "One P-3 8 pilo t unwillin g t o b e named , complaine d tha t ther e wa s n o roo m

From Praise to Rancor I 7 1 for hi s squadron , du e i n Englan d fo r comba t dut y i n nin e weeks , a t a south ern field fo r muc h neede d advance d instrumen t trainin g becaus e a WAS P contingent wa s on han d fo r a six weeks' cours e t o prepar e the m a s instrumen t instructors." 135 Othe r article s state d just th e opposite : WASPs were no t flying because ther e wer e to o man y mal e pilot s alread y flying th e mission s th e WASPs were purportedl y stil l bein g traine d t o cover : WASPs themselve s questio n thei r essentialit y t o th e wa r effor t an d a sizabl e number ma y resig n i f Congres s give s the m Arm y status , accordin g t o Mrs . Jeanne Robertson , 26 , Los Angeles, Calif., a WASP who resigne d recentl y fo r "personal reasons." . . . "All these report s o f thousand s o f traine d civilia n pilot s release d an d no w grounded mak e them wonder how necessary they are," she said. "And there's a reluctance t o fly the heavy, fast plane s because they're a challenge, particularl y on the part of those who have husbands and children." 136 The sam e article quotes a n anonymous WASP, who als o purportedly resigned , as saying : "Ever sinc e we arrived a t ou r ferr y base s after graduation , an d wer e promptl y disillusioned a s to their need of our services, the situation ha s been a source of discussion amon g th e member s o f ou r class . There seeme d t o b e n o nee d t o train women fo r ferr y pilot s as the bases were apparently overstocked with ca pable men who sometimes begge d fo r a chance to fly just hours i n th e mont h to keep on flight pay." 137 Exemplifying ho w stron g publi c opinio n wa s agains t th e WASPs, eve n th e release o f a Hollywoo d film abou t th e pilot s woul d b e turne d agains t them . Ladies Courageous, a melodramati c an d inaccurat e portraya l o f th e program , unfortunately wa s release d jus t a s th e congressiona l bil l wa s receivin g heate d criticism. Subsequently , Washington , D.C. , newspaper s didn' t simpl y revie w the film, the y positione d i t within th e large r debate : "Ladies Courageous" will arrive at Keith's tomorrow, i n th e midst o f a Capitol Hill battle to make the WASPs a part of the Army Air Force. Picture is a tribute to the Women Air Forces Service Pilots and has the sanction o f the U.S. Army. The bil l of Rep. John M . Costell o of California, woul d swear in the WASPs as an integral unit of the Air Forces. Lined u p agains t th e measure ar e the American Legio n an d aviatio n inter ests. The WASPs are led by the alluring Miss Jacqueline Cochran, wife of Floyd D. Odium , multi-millionair e Ne w Yor k financier, possesso r o f man y medal s and honors for her feats in an airplane.

72 I From Praise to Rancor Those who have seen "Ladie s Courageous" predict tha t th e picture will d o Rep. Costello's bill no particular good . For "Ladie s Courageous " careen s awa y into tellin g stories about what irre sponsible an d emotionall y unstabl e girl s the y are . Thei r persona l problem s weigh mor e tha n thei r career s i n th e air , the y liv e i n a n atmospher e o f pett y bickering. Things get so bad that their commander resign s in shame. Toward the end of the picture a last-minute attempt is made to hint that all these antics were just an expression of healthy, girlish spirits. This feature arrivin g at the time when th e debate in Congress is red-hot will be poten t scree n argumen t agains t Rep . Costello' s bill . Persona l emotion s an d jealousies interfere with their work, the screening at this time is a recording of the organizations growing pains. It leaves a bad impression of the women pilots. 138 Subject an d cas t are far bette r tha n th e film itself. Bein g a glorification o f th e WAFS—the brave , efficien t femme s wh o ferr y th e plane s t o th e fighters—it should have been a precision bomb. . . . Tale is about th e small group o f women flier s who earl y in th e war offere d their service s t o th e Governmen t t o reliev e men fo r comba t duty . Stor y take s you int o th e intimate moment s o f their live s in barracks , shows them o n lon g and hazardous operationa l flights, dramatizes thei r campaig n t o be militarize d into the Army along with the other distaff group s such as the WACS. I think the courageous and efficient WAFS deserve a better testimonial tha n this.139 In Congress , representative s oppose d t o th e WASP bil l use d th e film a s another exampl e o f the glamorizatio n o f WASPs, ignorin g th e countles s movie s that appeare d durin g th e wa r no t onl y o n mal e militar y participants , bu t o n the WACs, WAVES, an d militar y nurses . The wors t attack s agains t th e WASP s cam e fro m Pearson , who , i n hi s widely read, syndicate d "Th e Washington Merry-Go-Round " column , aime d his vitriol no t onl y a t th e WASP program , bu t als o a t th e leadin g individual s involved i n th e program . Amon g hi s ke y contribution s t o th e debat e wa s al leging tha t Cochran , th e "vivaciou s Aviatrix, " ha d seduce d Genera l Arnol d into usin g a "back-doo r strategy " t o ge t th e WAS P progra m approved ; tha t unqualified wome n flew i n th e program; tha t WASPs use d thei r beaut y t o ge t by wit h mal e AA F officers ; an d tha t WASP s wer e inadequat e pilot s wit h a n above-average fatalit y rat e wh o wer e incapabl e o f checkin g ou t o n higher rated pursui t plane s an d bombers , thu s renderin g the m useless. 140 Among th e false charge s levele d agains t th e WASPs b y other journalist s wer e tha t WASP s were inexperience d an d ba d pilots , that thei r fatalit y rate s in trainin g were ex cessively high, tha t the y cost more t o trai n tha n mal e pilots, and tha t the y ha d

From Praise to Rancor I

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a lower rate of passing courses and o f succeeding in missions tha n di d mal e pi lots. On e suc h articl e stated : Now the minimum cos t of training a WASP is $20,000. Of 1313 girls who have taken suc h training , onl y 54 1 hav e graduated, 28 1 have flunked an d th e other s are still trying to make the grade. It costs more to train them than to train a man for th e same work and tha t i s not th e worst of it. There ar e thousands o f men pilots with nothing much t o do except to ferry the planes which Arnold want s the gals to ferry. What i s behind th e general's move to build th e WASPs up t o huge organization fo r which there is no earthly need? 141

Patterns of Media Depictions of the WASPs A carefu l readin g o f medi a depiction s abou t th e WASP s reveal s a patter n i n which th e WASP s themselve s wer e no t subjec t t o praise . Rather , durin g th e first thre e year s o f American involvemen t i n Worl d Wa r II , al l effort s i n sup port o f th e war , n o matte r ho w insignifican t o r eve n illogical , wer e praised . However, i n 1944 , whe n th e wa r turne d th e Allies ' way , medi a account s adopted a more critica l stance: battle losses were questioned; discussion s aros e as t o th e tactica l value s o f missions ; ke y militar y figures wer e criticized ; and , in general , request s wer e mad e t o retur n "th e boys, " cu t losses , sav e money , and develo p th e postwa r domesti c economy . Fo r th e first tim e i n Worl d Wa r II, th e media bega n t o criticiz e and carefull y analyz e financial expenditure s o n the war . I n thes e changin g medi a construction s towar d th e military , th e sol dier (typicall y defined a s the ma n i n comba t o r th e boy overseas) was the onl y entity tha t continue d t o receiv e medi a support . A s th e yea r continued , th e media develope d a s it s missio n th e protectio n o f thes e soldier s o n th e hom e front. Victor y wa s eminent , an d issue s o f job securit y an d domesti c appoint ments fo r returnin g comba t veteran s becam e primary . The medi a ha d constructe d wome n i n th e militar y a s supplementa l (fol lowing th e War Departmen t an d congressiona l directive s tha t define d wome n participants i n th e arme d force s no t a s soldier s bu t a s auxiliarie s t o soldiers) . When ful l mobilizatio n o f soldiers an d citizen s ha d bee n calle d for , th e medi a supported th e involvemen t o f thes e women . However , thi s suppor t wa s guarded an d constructe d withi n gendere d notions . Wit h th e wa r reachin g it s end, medi a opinio n abou t women i n th e military shifted, an d women wer e beginning to b e constructed a s unnecessary siphon s o f money tha t would b e bet ter directed i n support o f "real" soldiers. In 1944 , the women's auxiliarie s o f th e

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Army, Navy, and Army Air Force s all came under medi a attack , an d becaus e women wer e constructed a s a singular category , attack s o n on e branch detri mentally affected th e other branches. The WAVES came under media scrutiny because the Navy planned t o position the m overseas . Media piece s called fo r the tota l recal l o f al l WAVES an d loudl y criticize d th e Navy' s purporte d at tempts at putting women into combat. Following this, the WACs faced false allegations of immorality from what was later determined to have been a slander campaign developed by male Army personnel. The publication of these rumors resulted in a general call for the WACs to return to the safety of "home." It migh t b e argue d tha t th e WAS P progra m suffere d fro m ba d timing . Throughout its two-year existence, there were plans to submit bills for its militarization to Congress, but the AAF did not formalize these plans and submit any bills until 1944. The introduction of the bill to militarize the WASPs came when bot h Congres s an d th e medi a wer e callin g fo r militar y cutbacks , an d also coincide d wit h th e tremendousl y publicize d se x scanda l o f th e WAC . Concurrently, mal e civilia n pilot s an d trainer s ha d bee n lai d of f an d face d being drafted int o th e "walking army," and returnin g comba t pilot s publicl y complained abou t thei r nee d fo r domesti c flight missions so that the y could continue to receive flight pay. All of these factors combined to initiate a dramatic media attack against the WASP program . Th e wome n pilot s wer e depicte d a s a waste o f taxpayers ' money, a s unnecessary, a s lacking in skill , and a s an overall detriment t o th e war effort. Becaus e of a public relation s polic y imposed b y the War Depart ment, no media messages were issued in defense of the WASP program. Statements b y members o f Congres s revea l that th e negativ e publicit y cause d b y the media campaign initiated by male civilian pilots and returning combat pilots had a profound impac t on how they would vote on the bill.

5 No Allies for th e WASPs Congress Responds to Male Public Interest Groups

The powerfu l lobb y assemble d b y the mal e civilia n pilot s focuse d its attention s o n Congres s a s well a s th e media . Th e pilot s initiate d a letter writing campaig n t o Congres s tha t wa s backe d b y powerful mal e aviatio n as sociations an d veteran s groups , an d the y bega n t o lobb y individua l member s of Congress. W h en th e grou p learne d tha t Hous e Committe e o n Militar y Af fairs ha d recommende d passag e of a bill to militariz e Women Airforc e Servic e Pilots, th e lobb y bega n t o attac k th e WASPs an d pushe d fo r th e introductio n of it s ow n bill , supportin g th e contention s tha t position s b e foun d fo r mal e pilots an d tha t the y no t b e relegate d t o th e Army's groun d forces .

The WASP Militarization Bills O n Septembe r 30 , 1943 , Representativ e Joh n Costell o o f Californi a intro duced th e WAS P militarizatio n bill , Hous e Resolutio n 3358 . The complet e text o f the bil l follows , wit h italicizatio n an d punctuatio n intact : A bill to provide for th e appointment o f female pilot s i n th e Air Force s of the Army. Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representativesof the United States of America in Congress assembled, Tha t hereafte r durin g th e presen t wa r an d si x months thereafter ther e shall be included i n the Air Forces of the Army such licensed female pilots as the Secretary of War may consider necessary, whose qualifications, duties , and assignments shall be in accordance with regulation s to be prescribed by the Secretary, and who shall be appointed and at his discretion removed b y the Commandin g Genera l o f the Air Forces of the Army, subject t o the approval of the Secretary of War. Those appointed shall be commissioned in the Army of the United States, and shall receive the same pay and allowances and be entitled to the same rights, privileges and benefits as members of the Officers ' Reserve Corps of the Army with the same grade and length of service.1

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Following congressiona l protocol , th e bil l wa s referre d t o th e Committe e o n Military Affair s fo r approva l o r recommendations . I n a n Octobe r 4 lette r t o WASP directo r Jacquelin e Cochran , Costell o encourage d he r t o ensur e tha t the War Departmen t woul d issu e a favorable repor t t o th e committee, stating , "If we ca n ge t a favorable repor t fro m th e Wa r Department , I fee l tha t I wil l have littl e difficult y i n gettin g th e Committee' s approval." 2 I t was si x month s before th e Committe e o n Militar y Affairs hel d hearing s abou t WAS P milita rization. I n th e meantime , Costell o ha d submitte d a longer bill , Hous e Reso lution 4219 , " A bill t o provid e fo r th e appointmen t o f femal e pilot s an d avia tion cadet s i n the Air Force s of the Army." The bil l was structured similarl y t o the first bill , excep t tha t i t provide d greate r detai l concernin g th e administra tion o f the WASP program : Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representative of theUnited States of America in Congress assembled, That for the period of the present war and for six months thereafter o r for such shorter period as the Congress by concurrent resolutio n or the President b y proclamation shal l prescribe, there may be included i n th e Air Forces of the Army such female commissioned and flight officer personnel and female aviation student personnel as the Secretary of War may consider necessary. The qualifications , duties , and assignment s o f such personnel shal l be in accor dance with regulations to be prescribed by the Secretary of War. No officer shal l be appointed t o a grade above that o f colonel and no t mor e than on e officer t o that grade, and the right of commissioned or flight officers t o exercise command shall be specifically limited to personnel placed under their command . Sec. 2 . Th e commissione d personne l selecte d directl y fro m civi l life , o f which no t les s than 9 5 per centum shal l consist of qualified pilots , shall be appointed i n the Army of the United State s under the provisions of the joint resolution o f September 22,1941 (55 Stat. 728), and ordered into the active service of the United States. Sec. 3. Under such regulations as the Secretary of War shall prescribe, femal e aviation cadet s ma y be appointed fo r pilo t trainin g i n th e Army o f the Unite d States and, upon successful completio n of the prescribed course of training, may be commissioned a s second lieutenants in th e Army of the United State s unde r the provisions of the joint resolution of September 22,1941, or appointed as flight officers o f the Army of the United State s under the provisions of the Act of July 8,1942 (56 Stat. 549). Service as an aviation cadet which is terminated by discharge before completion of the prescribed course of training or before commission as a second lieutenant or appointment a s a flight officer, an d which is not terminate d as a result o f a physical disabilit y incurre d durin g suc h trainin g shall not b e regarded a s service i n th e arme d force s withi n th e meanin g o f the law s grantin g rights, privileges, or benefits t o discharged members of the armed forces.

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Sec. 4. All persons commissioned o r appointed unde r thi s Act shall, except as otherwise provided herein, receive the same pay and allowances as members of the Army of the United State s and shall be entitled t o the same rights, privileges, and benefit s a s are accorded th e said member s o f the same rank, grade , and length of service.3 The mos t significan t addition s t o thi s bil l wer e th e placemen t o f a ceilin g on th e highes t ran k tha t coul d b e awarde d i n th e divisio n (whic h equale d th e top ran k allowe d i n al l other women' s division s within th e military) ; a limita tion tha t officer s coul d comman d onl y members o f their division (i.e. , women could comman d onl y women); a restriction tha t a minimum o f 95 percent o f those i n th e WASPs would hav e t o b e qualified pilots ; and allowance s provid ing that th e women woul d receiv e pay, rights, and privilege s equa l t o thos e re ceived b y men o f the sam e ran k i n th e Army Air Forces . The hearin g b y th e Committe e o n Militar y Affair s laste d les s tha n on e hour, wit h onl y on e witnes s testifyin g o n behal f o f th e bill . That witnes s wa s a formidable one : AAF Commandin g Genera l Henr y H . Arnold . Arnol d tes tified tha t th e Army wa s sufferin g fro m a severe personne l shortage , an d tha t WASPs would assis t American wa r effort s b y filling al l domestic flying opera tions roles , enablin g me n involve d i n thes e mission s t o b e place d i n oversea s situations. H e stated : "I t i s no t beyon d reaso n t o expec t tha t som e da y al l o f our Ai r Transport Comman d ferryin g withi n th e Unite d State s wil l b e don e by women." 4 A s th e New York Herald Tribune reported : The nee d fo r young infantry soldier s has become so acute that 36,00 0 men i n the Army Air Forces pilot training pool are being returned to the Army Ground Forces; General H . H . Arnold, chie f of the A.A.F, reveale d toda y with a n explanation—supplemented b y Genera l Georg e C . Marshall , Chie f o f Staff — that planne d requirement s fo r ai r forc e personne l hav e bee n reduce d becaus e casualties have been fewer tha n expected . This disclosur e o f that sourc e o f combat troo p suppl y an d a statement b y General Arnold tha t h e expected women t o replac e virtually al l male ferry pi lots within th e United States , serve to emphasize the seriousness of the Army's need for young foot soldiers who are now being drawn from war industry in increasing numbers. . . . The War Department explaine d that casualties in the air have been less than the percentages established in expectation of the character of the fighting. Also, th e genera l shortag e o f trained personne l throughou t th e Army, due t o cumulative shortage s i n th e draft sinc e last July, has made i t necessar y to uti lize ever y availabl e soldie r t o mee t th e curren t demand s fo r pendin g opera tions.

78 I No Allies for the WASPs General Arnold tol d th e Hous e Militar y Affairs Committee , however , tha t of the 4,687 men training to become instructors of Army pilots, 974 have qualified fo r aviatio n cade t trainin g an d 65 1 for glide r training , 2,61 8 for technica l training and 310 for specialist duties, and 134 were hospitalized o r on furlough . Of the 615 enlisted reservists, 229 have applied for assignment to the Air Transport Command , an d al l wil l b e considere d fo r som e typ e o f wor k wit h th e A.A.E i f they meet the standards. 5 Arnold note d tha t th e greates t shortage s wer e wit h th e Army' s groun d forces, which , h e reported , wa s 200,00 0 me n shor t o f it s neede d personne l strength. 6 H e testifie d tha t 36,00 0 me n wh o ha d bee n i n th e Air Force s poo l awaiting us e a s future comba t flight crew s ha d bee n "returne d t o th e Groun d and Servic e Forces, " becaus e th e Arm y wa s i n nee d o f talente d an d educate d officer material. 7 The poin t o f Arnold's argumen t wa s that , despit e wha t th e media wa s reporting , WASP s woul d no t b e replacin g mal e pilots ; rather , th e overall war missio n calle d fo r thes e me n t o b e use d b y th e militar y i n capaci ties othe r tha n a s domesti c pilots . Arnol d propose d tha t al l capabl e me n b e sent oversea s fo r comba t an d relate d duties , while women handle d al l domes tic military missions . "Arnol d Visions All-Woman U.S . Air Transport," i n th e Washington Evening Star, reporte d th e situatio n thi s way : Envisioning a day not far away when th e airplanes will be crowded with Army planes piloted b y women, Gen . H . H . Arnold, Army Air Force s commander , told th e Hous e Militar y Affairs Committe e toda y he expect s t o hav e al l mal e flyers "ou t of the United State s and get them ove r fighting." "It is not beyond all reason to expect that some day all our air transport services in the United State s will be done by women," Gen. Arnold said as he endorsed legislation to give Army status to the Women's Air Force Service Pilots, now compose d o f 53 4 civilian wome n wh o ferr y Arm y planes , mak e weathe r flights and even tow targets for machine gun practice. He emphasize d tha t "i t i s not propose d t o sen d th e WASPS int o comba t fields."8 Besides encouragin g WAS P militarization , Genera l Arnol d requeste d tha t Congress authoriz e a n expansion o f the WASP program t o between 2,00 0 an d 2,500 pilots , s o tha t th e AAF woul d "ge t enoug h t o replac e ever y ma n quali fied fo r oversea s servic e whos e permanen t dut y i s flying i n th e Unite d State s and ge t al l of these qualifie d me n ou t o f the Unite d State s an d ge t the m over seas." 9 Arnold als o indicated tha t th e AAF was experimentin g wit h WASP s a s pilot trainer s s o tha t mal e pilo t instructor s coul d b e release d t o "ou r fighting " units. i U

No Allies for the WASPs I 7 9 General Arnol d countere d al l aspect s o f th e argument s bein g pu t fort h b y male civilia n pilot s an d instructor s tha t th e AAF di d no t hav e places fo r the m as pilots becaus e WASPs were filling al l available flight positions . Arnold care fully trace d th e placemen t o f the 13,00 0 mal e civilia n pilot s who ha d bee n af filiated wit h th e Civi l Aeronautic s Administratio n an d th e 89 9 instructor s from AAF-afifiliate d flight schools , detailin g ho w al l ha d bee n give n th e op portunity t o joi n th e AAF , with thos e wh o qualifie d bein g approve d a s pilo t cadets an d thos e who di d no t bein g transferre d t o flight cre w o r groun d cre w positions o r receivin g medica l discharges. 11 Arnold stresse d that the male pilots were not being replaced by WASPs, bu t that mos t o f these men di d no t mee t th e pilot requirement s establishe d b y th e AAF. (Thei r previou s position s ha d bee n wit h th e CAA , whic h ha d lowe r re quirements tha n th e AAF.) "I f they canno t qualif y accordin g t o ou r standard s in on e o f thes e capacitie s [a s pilots, copilots , bombardiers , gunners , o r navi gators] the n w e offe r the m othe r trainin g i n th e Army Air Forces . We canno t lower ou r standard s becaus e a man ha s ha d a few hour s i n th e air . They mus t meet ou r standards, " Arnold testified. 12 Thus , i n orde r fo r th e AAF t o accep t the pilot s wh o wer e publicl y demandin g t o b e give n places , i t would hav e t o lower th e standard s establishe d fo r pilots—standard s me t b y th e WASPs. 13 One committe e representativ e tol d Genera l Arnol d abou t a n instructo r with 1,90 0 ai r hour s wh o wa s turne d dow n b y th e Ai r Force s becaus e h e wa s not i n th e Reserves , and aske d th e genera l what h e coul d d o t o hel p tha t indi vidual. Genera l Arnold responded : "W e don' t conside r we owe them anythin g because the y wer e offere d a chanc e t o joi n th e Reserv e an d di d no t tak e ad vantage of it. And no w when the y see they are likely to b e drafted the y want t o come i n an d i t i s too late." 14 General Arnold wa s testifyin g abou t a side of th e issue tha t th e medi a wa s no t reporting . Th e Arm y ha d plan s t o us e th e mal e civilian pilot s i n oversea s roles , probabl y i n comba t position s fo r whic h the y were bot h qualifie d an d needed , an d thes e me n wer e resistin g thi s necessar y transition. Th e stanc e o f patriotis m pu t fort h b y th e mal e civilia n pilot s an d their lobbyist s i n th e medi a wa s a false one . The purpos e o f th e civilia n pilot s campaign agains t th e WASPs wa s no t t o suppor t th e wa r effort , bu t t o avoi d the draft an d combat service. Their positions as instructors and CA A pilots ha d protected the m fro m bein g drafted; whe n th e AAF removed thei r draft-exemp t status, the y wer e face d wit h th e possibilit y o f servin g i n combat . I n addition , the Air Forces had give n the m th e opportunit y t o serve in activ e duty a s pilots, but th e majorit y o f the pilot s no w publicl y vyin g fo r th e jobs hel d b y WASP s did no t mee t th e qualification s necessar y t o plac e the m i n thos e roles . General Arnold als o testified abou t th e reasons why the Air Forces had cho -

8o I No Allies for the WASPs sen t o develo p th e WASP s a s a separat e divisio n fro m th e Women' s Arm y Corps. "Fo r a while we though t w e migh t b e abl e t o pu t th e women pilot s i n the WA C s, bu t w e hav e a n entirel y differen t typ e o f personnel . Th e wome n pilots are professional, wit h specialized skill, in the same sense that nurses are," Arnold testified . (Th e Arm y Nurse s Corp s wa s als o a n autonomou s militar y division, whic h wa s entirely separate fro m th e WAC.) "An d ther e ar e also cer tain basi c provision s i n th e WA C legislatio n tha t prevent s the m takin g ove r the WASP S w e no w have." 15 The difference s Arnol d liste d wer e minimu m and maximu m ag e requirements an d th e WAC ba n o n wome n wh o ha d chil dren unde r th e ag e o f fourteen . Othe r difference s betwee n th e tw o organiza tions ha d t o d o wit h minimu m educatio n requirements , WAS P trainin g re quirements, an d a ride r i n th e WA C bil l tha t specificall y prohibite d WAC s from bein g pilots . I n concludin g hi s testimony , Genera l Arnol d encourage d passage of the bill no t onl y so that th e AAF coul d expan d th e WASP progra m and eventually replace all male pilots flying domestically , bu t als o to enable th e AAF t o bette r utiliz e WASPs who wer e alread y active : In connection with th e WASP bill we are waiting now, holding over certain of our decisions pending the passage or nonpassage of this bill. From our point of view with the present terrific manpower shortage we should use every means we can to put women i n where they can replace men. This bil l will help no t onl y to do that but will also make far more effective th e employment o f the present WASPS that we have in our service. . .. I t is an emergency proposition so far as I am concerned. 16 This echoe s th e sentimen t expresse d b y Secretar y o f War Henr y Stimson , who submitte d a letter i n suppor t o f enabling WASP legislatio n date d Febru ary 16,1944, when H.R . 335 8 was still under consideration . Lik e Arnold, Stim son expresse d th e nee d fo r th e WASPs , outline d th e benefit s tha t militariza tion offere d th e AAF, and provide d reason s why incorporatio n int o th e WA C would no t work . Stimso n als o presse d fo r a quick resolutio n t o th e bill : The War Departmen t believe s tha t presentl y qualifie d femal e pilot s an d suc h necessary femal e administrativ e personne l shoul d b e commissione d i n th e Army of the United State s without delay , and tha t provision s b e made for ad ditional appointment s a s the need arises . . . . The organizatio n i s small an d is composed o f wome n wh o ar e offerin g a special skil l i n connectio n wit h th e prosecution o f this war. 17 O n Marc h 22 , 1944 , th e sam e da y Genera l Arnol d testifie d t o th e Com mittee o n Militar y Affairs , th e committe e issue d a report recommendin g th e

No Allies for the WASPs I 8 1 passage o f H.R . 4219 . The committe e cite d tw o argument s i n suppor t o f th e bill: tha t recognize d personne l shortage s i n th e wa r effor t warrante d th e exis tence an d expansio n o f a progra m o f wome n pilots ; an d tha t becaus e o f th e necessary service s bein g performe d b y thes e women , the y deserve d th e med ical an d othe r militar y benefit s provide d t o member s o f th e arme d services . The repor t stated : There i s no controvers y ove r the fac t tha t ther e exist s in thi s countr y a n acut e shortage of manpower necessary for the armed forces and essential industry. . . . In recognitio n o f these principles, th e Army Air Forces now employ as Federal civil-service employees over 500 women pilots.... The present organization an d procedure is not well adapted to the peculiar and special nature of the duties performed an d most efficient personne l administration. 18 The repor t note d tha t th e WASP s wer e no t receivin g neede d benefit s "merely becaus e o f th e lac k o f enablin g legislation" 19 an d suggeste d tha t th e militarization o f the WASPs woul d benefi t th e war effor t b y streamlining th e administration o f the program : It should be pointed out, however, that passage of the proposed legislation would not resul t in the creation o f another separate women's corps. To the contrary, it eliminates an otherwise necessary separate civilian organization now attached to the Army and provides for the incorporation o f this personnel in the Air Forces in a manner similar to that whereby professional femal e personnel with specialized skills are assimilated by the Medical Department o f the Army.20 In other words, the WASP would no t perfor m lik e the WACs—as a segregated unit—but woul d instea d b e integrate d wit h mal e pilots , a s they were alread y operating. The committe e submitte d it s report alon g with H.R . 421 9 for con sideration b y a House vote . O n Marc h 24,1944 , Senators Joseph Hil l (Ala. ) and Harol d Burto n (Ohio ) submitted Senat e Resolutio n 1810 , " A bill t o provid e fo r th e appointmen t o f female pilot s an d aviatio n cadet s in th e Air Forces of the Army." S.R . 181 0 was the Senat e versio n o f H.R . 421 9 an d containe d th e sam e element s a s th e House bill .

Male Pilots' Lobby Presses House Civil Service Committee into an Investigation Expectations fo r passage of a bill to militariz e th e WASPs were high. Congres s had neve r rejecte d a bill supporte d b y th e War Departmen t o r commandin g

82 I No Allies for the WASPs

generals during the war, 21 and the bill had been endorsed b y the Committe e on Militar y Affairs. Withi n th e AAF, plans wer e bein g mad e t o accep t th e WASPs a s Army officers , includin g th e enrollmen t o f twenty-seve n wome n into officers ' trainin g school in Orlando, Florida . The onl y voices of opposition raised against the WASPs were those of the unemployed male civilian pilots, but it was expected that their voices would soon quiet as the public came to the realization that they were only attempting to avoid the draft an d receive flight pay. But between March and June of 1944, the male civilian pilots began to get substantial an d sympathetic media coverage. They were joined in thei r attack against the WASPs by military pilots who were returning from th e various wa r theaters , wh o wante d t o guarante e tha t they kep t thei r flight pay . "The men pilots were coming back from th e various theaters of war and they found that we were flying the hottest and the heaviest and the fastest airplanes, which the y thought were their private property, an d the y wanted thei r flight pay. And flight pay for flying those kind o f airplanes was a choice morsel. So they just lobbied against us," said WASP Madge Rutherford Minton. 22 They formed a powerful lobby , supported by several civilian aviation organizations an d veterans ' associations . The lobb y foun d a n all y in th e media , which was advocating an end to the war, a return to prewar standards, the reduction o f military expenditures, a return o f soldiers from overseas , and, significantly, a return of women from factorie s an d the military to their homes. The mal e civilia n pilots ' lobby approache d Representativ e Rober t Ram speck, who chaired the Committee on the Civil Service, formed fo r the purpose of streamlining and accounting for civil service components o f the war effort.23 Directl y becaus e o f request s fro m th e grou p o f mal e pilot s whos e specific intent was to eliminate the WASPs, Ramspeck's committee began an investigation o f the WASP program. 24 The report issue d by the committee, commonly referre d t o a s th e Ramspec k Report , wa s create d withou t an y members of the investigating committee visiting the WASPs' training school at Avenger Field or any bases to which WASPs were assigned to active duty. 25 Two investigator s fo r th e Committe e o n th e Civi l Servic e did mee t wit h WAFS directo r Nanc y Harknes s Lov e on April 16 , 1944. In a resume o f th e conversation written by Love the following day, she noted that the majority of the questions were about alleged incompetency of WASPs, purported failure s with WASP training, an d assume d resentment s fro m mal e pilots toward th e WASPs as well as between Lov e and Cochran , al l of which Lov e denied. 26 A substantial portio n o f the "facts " gathered b y the committee were submitte d by th e mal e civilia n pilots ' lobby. 27 Indeed , th e structur e o f claim s raise d

No Allies for the WASPs I 8 3 against th e WASP progra m wa s directly attribute d t o th e pilots ' grou p withi n the committee' s ow n report : Essentially, the mass of this correspondence addressed to the Congress protested that— 1. Arm y Air Forces had embarke d upo n a costly and unnecessar y program o f recruiting inexperienced young women fo r training as noncombat servic e pilots. 2. Simultaneousl y Arm y Air Forces was dismissing, or failing t o properly utilize , large numbers of male civilian pilot-instructors, who had been trained at a cost of millions of dollars. 3. Whil e insisting upon high qualifications a s prerequisite to the retention of these male civilian pilot-instructors, Army Air Forces was lowering the standards fo r female civilian recruits to an almost irreducibl e minimum . 4. Th e program was highly experimental. 5. Th e allege d manpower shortag e given as a reason fo r th e recruiting and train ing of inexperienced personnel was not, as claimed, being alleviated, but instead was being further confuse d an d aggravated. 28 The thirteen-pag e Ramspec k Repor t addresse d eac h o f thes e claim s an d found, wit h littl e referenc e t o AA F documents , tha t th e claim s o f th e mal e civilian pilot s wer e upheld . Indeed , th e repor t wa s a s muc h abou t th e mal e civilian pilot s an d thei r suppose d pligh t a s it was about th e WASPs. Althoug h it containe d severa l statement s claimin g tha t i t wa s no t abou t wome n a s pi lots, th e repor t focuse d o n gende r issues . I t stated : "Thi s i s not a question o f the utilizatio n o f male o r femal e personnel , bu t i s a question o f the utilizatio n of experienc e an d capabilitie s befor e resortin g t o th e us e o f inexperienc e an d costly training." 29 Despit e th e clai m tha t th e repor t wa s t o investigat e dispar ities between pilots ' programs, n o referenc e wa s made t o th e mal e pilots of Air Transport Comman d wh o ha d bee n recruite d an d inducte d just as the WASP s had, bu t wh o wer e later provide d commission s i n th e AAF. (A t the tim e thes e male pilot s wer e commissioned , th e AAF ha d wante d t o exten d commission s to the women pilot s a s well but was prevented fro m doin g so only because th e pilots were female.) Indeed , th e report opene d b y alleging that th e women di d not posses s th e skill s t o b e AAF pilot s becaus e the y ha d previousl y bee n em ployed i n wor k attribute d t o women . The implication contained in the proposal, that it is now either necessary or desirable t o recrui t stenographers , clerks , schoo l teachers , housewives , factor y workers, and other inexperienced personnel for training at great outlay of public funds a s pilots for the military planes of the Government, particularl y when there alread y exists a surplus o f personnel t o perfor m thes e identical duties , is as startling as it is invalid. 30

84 I No Allies for the WASPs The committe e di d no t find i t a t al l as startling o r invali d t o recrui t "inex perienced personnel " wh o wer e me n an d wh o ha d com e t o th e Ai r Force s from traditionall y mal e jobs just a s removed fro m pilotin g a s the caree r fields listed above . Severa l page s o f th e repor t deal t exclusivel y wit h issue s sur rounding mal e civilia n pilot s rathe r tha n th e WASPs , an d allege d tha t thes e male pilots had th e same skills as WASP graduates . The repor t contende d tha t women pilot s were bein g give n preferentia l treatment : It is not understood why the qualification fo r both men and women should not be identical, and why the proven experienc e of this available male personnel is not bein g utilized. I t is impossible t o escape the conclusion tha t thi s discrimination attempt s t o demonstrat e tha t th e million s o f dollar s o f publi c funds , spent with th e approval and at the insistence o f the War Department , t o trai n these civilian instructors has been unwise and unavailing. 31 The repor t publishe d statistic s provide d b y th e mal e civilia n pilot s t o demonstrate tha t thousand s o f male pilots were ou t o f work. Nowher e i n th e report di d th e lates t figures provide d b y Genera l Arnol d abou t th e tru e hir ing pattern s an d skil l level s o f thes e pilot s appear , no r di d th e expresse d re quest o f th e Wa r Departmen t fo r thes e me n t o serv e i n th e Arm y groun d forces.

Allegations of the Ramspeck Report The Ramspec k Repor t publishe d man y purporte d findings abou t th e WAS P program, which ha d considerabl e influenc e no t onl y over how Congress vote d on th e WAS P bill , bu t als o o n th e anti-WAS P medi a campaign . Th e Ram speck Repor t gav e journalists mor e materia l fo r stories , an d followin g th e re lease of th e report , th e medi a campaig n agains t th e WASPs escalate d dramat ically. The repor t mad e numerou s allegation s abou t th e incompetenc e o f th e WASPs an d th e unnecessar y rol e they performed. I t presented fact s abou t th e program i n a distorte d an d negativ e manner , wit h misleadin g an d negativ e headings. T o begi n with , i t allege d tha t wome n recruite d int o th e WASP s lacked aviatio n experience. 32 Although th e WASP progra m ha d lowere d it s requirements fo r acceptanc e int o th e training school from seventy-fiv e t o thirty five flight hours , mal e pilo t recruit s wer e no t require d t o hav e an y previou s flight tim e o r eve n t o hav e pilots ' licenses . Th e repor t als o allege d tha t th e Women's Flyin g Trainin g Detachmen t wa s forme d specificall y s o tha t un qualified wome n coul d fly plane s fo r th e military , whe n i n fac t th e progra m

All photographs and identifications are from the WASP Photo Collection, Women Airforce Service Pilots. Air Force Museum Archives. Wright Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio.

i. The first WASP classes, known a s the "Guinea Pigs," were trained at the Houston Municipa l Airport. Here , acting commanding offi cer Captain Henr y Gibbons greets Ann Johnson, Jane Straughan , and Mary Lou Colbert Neale, members of the first WASP graduat ing class.

2. The main gate to the WASP training center, Avenger Field at Sweetwater, Texas. Note the depiction o f the WASP mascot, Fifinella, a Disney design, that tops the sign. Aviation Enterprises , Ltd., the civilian contractor responsibl e for training the WASPs during most of their existence, also trained male Army Air Force pilots.

5. Graduation da y for WASP trainees a t Avenger Field , Ma y 1943.

4. Nadine Nagle appears i n an Avenger Field barracks doorway wearing her flight gear, including th e leg-stra p map pa d use d for navigating.

j . Joann e Trebtoske appears in a Link Trainer with an Army Air Forces instructor a t Romulus Army Air Field.

6. Velma Morrison Saunde r qualifie d i n the P-39 at Harlington Army Air Field.

7. Three WASP s i n col d weather fligh t gea r pas s a B T - J ^ , als o known a s th e "Vultee Vibrator. "

8. WASPs of Buckingham Arm y Air Field converge aroun d B-17 S t o discuss th e day' s mission : Daw n Rochn s Balden , Blanche Osborn , Juli e Ledbetter, Virgini a Acher, an d Charlott e Mitchell .

p. Elizabeth Gardner walks across the wing of an AT-23, which is a stripped-down B-26.

io. Shirle y Slad e (Life's WASP cover girl ) sit s awaiting departur e of her B-2 4 at Har lington Army Air Field before flying a gunnery training mission .

ii. A n A-24, commonly called the "Dauntless," flown by Elsie Dyer returns from a tow target mission pulling a target sleeve, used for trainin g anti-aircraft troops .

12. Dor a Doughert y Strother , Joyc e Sherwoo d Succhini (seated) , an d Florenc e Knight with a line-up o f A-25AS prior t o a tow-target missio n a t Davi s Army Air

13. Mar y A. Nelso n await s take-off i n a n A-2 5 "Helldiver, " March Army Air Field.

14. Three unidentified WASP s check a map on the wing of an A-25 "Helldiver," March Army Air Field.

i$. WASP Director Jacqueline Cochran with Commandin g Genera l Henry H . Arnold at Avenger Field on Decembe r 6, 1944, fo r th e final WASP graduation. Not e Arnold's modified B-2 5 in the background .

i6. Commanding Genera l Arnold awards wings to the final WASP graduates at Avenger Field, December 7,1944 . WASP Director Cochra n appear s to the immediate left o f the WASP who is receiving her wings.

No Allies for theWASPs I 8 5

began t o expand th e pool of available domestic pilots and t o fit mor e closely the training demands and expectations of the AAF. The report stated: "In September 1942 the organization known as the Women's Flying Training Detachment (WFTD) was established for the purpose of training young women who could not meet the qualifications fo r duty in the Women's Auxiliary Ferrying Squadron (WAFS)." 33 This overlooked th e fact tha t th e programs were organized separately, fo r tw o distinct purposes , an d with differen t organizationa l futures planned . Th e WAF S wer e designe d a s a smal l an d elit e grou p o f women pilots who were to remain as civilian contractors to the AAF, while the WFTD was formed t o develop a larger core group of women pilots to handle most or all domestic flights. The repor t als o questioned th e legality of the organization o f the WASPs by arguing that the program was unnecessary. The report acknowledged tha t the secretary of war had th e authority t o "appoin t traine d civilia n personne l to such duties in the War Department as he sees fit," but claimed that because the "necessity for this training program has not been demonstrated," th e War Department was not specifically authorized to create the program, because the law under which authority was given stated "salaries and wages of civilian employees as may be necessary." 34 Therefore, b y drawing conclusions abou t th e necessity o f th e WASP s (conclusion s opposit e t o thos e reache d b y Genera l Arnold, the AAF, and the War Department), the committee claimed that th e War Department wa s in violation o f standards fo r developin g a civilian pro gram.35 Unde r th e headin g "Standard s Lowered, " th e repor t liste d tha t th e program ha d lowere d it s age limit fro m twenty-on e years to eighteen-and-a half years, without mentioning that this was done to bring the WASP program requirements i n lin e with thos e of male pilots' training requirements. I t also listed that required hours had been reduced, without giving the reasons for the reduction o r mentioning tha t mal e pilot trainee s were entering AAF schools with no pilots' licenses and zero hours of flight time. The Ramspeck Report took figures about WASP pilot training out of context, without comparing them to figures for male trainees, and then developed negative conclusions abou t th e statistics. For example, th e report state d tha t only 80 percent of trainees completed th e training program at a total cost per graduate of $12,150.70.36 The report declined to provide comparative statistics for mal e graduates, which would hav e revealed tha t WASP candidates ha d a higher graduation rate than male pilots and were trained at approximately the same cost. The repor t als o provided WASP casualty figures without compar ing them t o mal e casualty figures, claiming tha t suc h a comparison wa s no t equitable becaus e the trainin g o f the tw o was not identical . The repor t the n

86 I No Allies for the WASPs went o n t o mak e a suppositio n abou t th e casualt y rate : "I t i s authoritativel y stated, an d ther e i s ever y reaso n t o believe , tha t th e inductio n o f additiona l unskilled personne l int o thi s progra m wil l accelerat e th e acciden t an d fatalit y rate." 37 However , thi s contradicte d AA F reports , whic h conclude d tha t th e WASPs ha d lowe r acciden t an d fatalit y rate s i n trainin g an d o n operationa l missions tha n di d mal e pilots . In a further allegatio n o f th e WASP progra m s failure t o trai n it s pilot s ef fectively, th e Ramspeck Report include d a chart and descriptiv e copy that pur ported t o show that WASPs could no t successfull y progres s to higher pilo t rat ing. Th e char t showe d tha t a s o f Marc h 1944 , onl y thre e ou t o f 53 2 WASPs qualified o n four-engin e bombers , an d onl y eleve n qualifie d o n twin-engin e pursuit plane s an d bombers. 38 Again , whil e thes e figures ar e accurate , the y leave out a great dea l of information, suc h a s the fact tha t th e AAF had place d restrictions prohibitin g WASP s fro m gettin g rate d o n four-engin e bombers , and tha t th e progra m fo r WASP s t o transpor t pursui t plane s ha d onl y starte d immediately befor e th e statistic s wer e gathered . So , whil e th e number s wer e correct, th e assumptio n abou t wh y th e number s wer e a t thos e level s wa s in correct, ye t wa s printe d a s being factual . T o bac k claim s tha t a lack o f transi tional ratin g wa s th e resul t o f WASP inability , th e repor t publishe d hearsay : "A substantial numbe r o f candidates fo r th e highe r ratin g experienc e difficul ties in makin g th e transition , an d officer s i n charg e o f WASP operation s stat e that ther e i s a lack o f sufficient experienc e upo n whic h t o bas e a n estimat e o f probable results." 39 The repor t furthere d th e suppositio n an d hearsa y i n th e section "Eliminee s Total Losses, " which began : "Authoritativ e source s are definite i n thei r opinio n tha t a large percentag e o f WASPS wil l neve r qualif y t o pilot th e faster o r heavier" planes. 40 As a result of this, great numbers o f WASP training eliminee s wer e assumed , fo r who m th e repor t calculate d a projecte d loss of $3,558,60 0 i f the WASP progra m wa s expande d t o 2,50 0 pilots . Again , the repor t presente d thi s conjectur e a s fact . The Ramspec k Repor t conclude d b y allegin g tha t becaus e wome n wer e getting preferentia l treatment , traine d me n wer e lef t wit h n o jobs , an d th e WASPs were wasting millions o f dollars raised from "th e war stamps o f schoo l children, th e taxe s o f th e farmer , th e saving s o f th e wag e earner , deduction s from th e pa y envelope o f the laborer , an d th e earning s o f the industry." 41 Th e report allege d tha t th e WASPs were destructive force s i n th e war effort . I t als o reflected publi c fear s o f a postwa r Unite d State s sufferin g fro m economi c problems escalate d b y women i n th e workplace whe n i t stated : "A t the en d o f this war ther e wil l b e tremendou s surpluse s o f trained an d experience d pilot s throughout th e world . Utilizatio n o f thes e surpluse s wil l constitut e a n acut e

No Allies for the WASPs I 8 7 post-war problem . To no w see k out an d train , a t Governmen t expenses , addi tional inexperience d personne l woul d ad d anothe r surplu s t o thi s recognize d post-war surplus." 42 The repor t ende d wit h thre e conclusions : 1. Th e proposa l t o expan d th e WASP ha s no t bee n justified . Therefore , i t is recommended tha t th e recruitin g o f inexperience d personne l an d thei r training for the WASPS be immediately terminated . 2. Tha t the use of the WASPS already trained and in training be continued and provision b e made for hospitalization an d insurance . 3. Ther e exist several surpluses of experienced pilot personnel available for utilization as service pilots. Therefore i t is recommended tha t th e service of these several groups o f experienced air personnel be immediately utilized. 43 It i s notabl e tha t o f th e thre e recommendations , onl y th e firs t wa s deal t with extensively . The repor t di d no t mentio n wh y th e WASP s neede d provi sions fo r insuranc e an d hospitalization , no r di d i t addres s th e cost s o f doin g so. Although th e repor t focuse d nearl y hal f it s spac e o n th e purporte d pligh t of male civilian pilots , i t recommende d tha t th e AAF us e these pilot s withou t examining th e trainin g necessar y t o brin g the m u p t o a functiona l level , th e costs involve d i n executin g suc h training , th e mean s b y which thes e individ uals shoul d b e used , an d th e provision s neede d fo r implementation . Indeed , the conclusion s o f the repor t continue d t o reflec t th e biase s of the committe e and th e lac k o f documente d evidenc e an d investigatio n i n suppor t o f it s claims. I t i s ver y tellin g tha t five representatives—one-thir d o f th e commit tee—issued a minorit y repor t tha t clearl y state d thei r disagreemen t wit h th e Ramspeck Repor t an d indicate d tha t "th e termination , th e continuatio n o r the further developmen t o f a woman's flying progra m i s a matter fo r th e Arm y Air Force s t o determine." 44

The House Committee on Appropriations Addresses the CAA and WASP Programs At th e sam e tim e th e Ramspec k committe e wa s publishin g it s findings, th e House Committe e o n Appropriation s addresse d th e WAS P progra m bu t ar rived at substantially differen t findings. I n "Militar y Establishment Appropri ation Bill , 1945," a report issue d i n June 1944 , the committe e foun d tha t ther e were valid reasons for th e termination o f the CAA and AAF schools, which re sulted in the redirection o f thousands o f instructors an d cadet trainees into th e

88 I No Allies for the WASPs Army's groun d forces. Indeed , th e committe e foun d tha t th e "considerabl e criticism" that arose publicly was unwarranted, an d that "the matter has been handled wit h reasonabl e dispatc h an d a s fairly an d equitabl y a s consistenc y with appropriat e militar y consideration s woul d permit." 45 I n it s analysi s o f the WAS P program , th e committe e foun d tha t despit e th e allegations , n o WASP "has displaced or will displace a male pilot meeting the single standard maintained for both sexes." 46 This committee, unlike the Ramspeck committee, reache d io o percen t agreemen t abou t th e WASPs. Its conclusio n abou t the value of the WASP program wa s completely opposite to tha t reache d b y the Ramspeck committee. The Committee on Appropriations reported : The members of the subcommittee having jurisdiction o f the accompanying measure are a unit as to the genuine value of these women fliersto the war effort and agree with General Arnold that they should be given a military status and have the same responsibility as male pilots flyingmilitary airplanes, and, along with it, the same rights, privileges, and benefits to which such male pilots are entitled.47 The committee approved the requested amount of $6.4 million to fund th e WASP program i n 1945. 48 This compare d wit h a n allotte d amoun t o f $12.6 billion approve d fo r th e AAF and a total military appropriation o f $49.1 billion for 1945.49

Congress Introduces the Ramspeck Report and Media Accounts into the House Debate The findings o f the Committe e o n Appropriations woul d no t receiv e media coverage nor was the full repor t introduced a t the hearings on the bill to militarize the WASPs. Yet the conclusions and figures from th e Ramspeck Report were quoted i n great detail by the media and als o made their way into othe r governmental report s an d congressiona l testimony , t o th e detrimen t o f th e WASP program. On June 16,1944, one week before th e WASP bill was to be voted on in Congress, Representative James Morrison of Louisiana voiced his opposition t o th e militarizatio n o f the WASPs an d entere d th e entir e Ram speck Report into the public record, urging all members of Congress to read it, claiming it was "concise, exact and to the point."50 The extensions of Morrisons remark s were listed unde r th e headin g "Ramspec k Committe e Urge s Army Air Forces to Utilize 10,000 Instructors and Trainees ofWTS Progra m and Curtail Further Expansion of WASP Program." 51 O n June 10, Represen-

No Allies for theWASPs I 8 9 tative Costello , autho r o f th e WAS P bill , mentione d th e error s an d discrep ancies i n th e Ramspec k Report . Hi s "Extensio n o f Remarks" was listed unde r a mor e simpl e heading : "Th e WASP Bill." 52 In hi s remarks , Costell o focuse d on th e repor t s claim o f a pilot surplus : "th e mos t astoundin g par t o f thi s re port i s th e assumptio n tha t ther e doe s exis t a vast poo l o f well-trained pilot s ready to serv e the Army Air Force s a t a moment s notice. This i s an erro r tha t I woul d lik e t o correc t now." 53 Costell o provide d documentatio n o f th e tru e status an d availabilit y of male civilian pilots , and urge d congressiona l suppor t

for the bill:

We have placed General Arnold, with perfect confidence , a t the head of the 16 air force s no w functionin g throughou t th e world. The record s o f these force s speak for themselves . General Arnold himsel f has requested th e passage of the WASP bil l i n orde r tha t th e civilia n wome n pilot s no w servin g wit h ou r ai r forces an d thos e hereafte r t o b e traine d migh t b e removed fro m thei r civilia n status and placed in a full military status. The desirability of this change cannot be questioned by anyone. Even the report of the Civil Service Committee urges in thei r secon d recommendatio n tha t "provisio n b e mad e fo r hospitalizatio n and insurance." The effective utilizatio n o f these women pilot s can only be accomplished i f they are made a part o f th e militar y organization . Havin g see n the development o f the WACs, WAVES, SPARS, and MARINES , I know n o reason why this group of women pilots alone of the various military-service organizations shoul d no t b e give n th e sam e statu s a s had bee n accorde d thos e other groups. In conclusion, let me explain that the sole effect o f the WASP bill is to bring these civilian women completel y under military jurisdiction a s they should be. Likewise, le t m e poin t ou t tha t th e Arm y Ai r Force s hav e bee n mor e tha n pleased wit h th e splendi d succes s o f th e WASP progra m an d it s accomplish ment, and this program shall be continued whether it remains in a civilian status or becomes a military organization. I t will be continued becaus e the Army leaders are satisfied a s to th e necessity for th e organization an d becaus e i t will aid materially i n benefitin g ou r aviatio n activitie s in thi s country and likewis e relieving many pilots qualified fo r combat activities and enabling them t o hasten our day of victory in this war. 54 However, Costello' s fact s wer e n o matc h fo r th e cultura l fear s bein g raise d in th e medi a an d amon g member s o f Congress . Morriso n use d newspape r opinion piece s and editorial s t o bolster oppositio n t o th e WASP bill . In all , h e cited thre e op-e d pieces , on e persona l statement , an d on e lette r i n th e week s prior t o th e House s vot e o n H.R . 4219 . Unde r th e headin g "Bradle y Taylo r Explains i n Detai l th e Whol e WAS P Situation—Say s W.T.S . Me n Go t Ra w

90 I No Allies for the WASPs Deal," Morrison gave expert standing to a member of a special interest group, entering into the record a letter written to him by Bradley Taylor, who represented a group advocatin g fo r th e mal e civilia n pilots . The lette r filled tw o pages of the Congressional Recordrwith hearsay and innuendo. 55 In a statement labeled "Wh y Waste $273,355,22 5 of Ou r Taxpayers' Mone y an d Spen d Another $100,000,000 To Train Personnel for the Same Jobs?—Something That the WASPS Can't Answer," Morrison not only failed to mention where he acquired thes e dollar figures or what exactl y they referenced, bu t als o failed t o mention th e WASPs.56 He instea d focuse d o n th e "plight " of the civilian pilots and concluded: "Not only in fairness and justice but from th e standpoint of good old-fashioned hors e sense, I say that the men we have already trained should be commissioned an d given the jobs for which they were trained." 57 On June 8, two weeks before H.R. 4219 was slated for a House vote, Morrison condemne d th e bil l widely under th e heading "Dimple s an d Glamou r Evidently Have Devastating Effect Eve n on General of A.A.F."58 The sole evidence that Morrison presented in defense of his condemnation of the bill was newspaper opinion . Morrison rea d from op-e d pieces, so that they would b e included a s "Extension o f Remarks" in th e Congressional Record. Amon g th e headings give n t o Morrison' s remark s were : "Th e Evenin g Star , On e o f th e Leading Washingto n Papers , Say s WAS P Progra m I s Waste d Mone y an d Wasted Energy" 59 and "Why Spend $100,000 on the WASP Program?—Read What Mis s Cassinni Says." 60 The latter piece alleged that th e AAF was backing the WASP program because Cochran had seduced General Arnold: In th e last week the shapely pilot ha s seen her covete d commissio n comin g closer and closer. * * * On e of the highest placed generals, it seems gazed into her eyes, and since then has taken her cause celebre very much "to heart" * * * She's such an attractive composition of wind-blown bob, smiling eyes and outdoor skin nobody blames him. It's whispered he's battling like a knight of olde, or olde knight, for "the faire Cochran." So the announcement ca n be expected any day that Jackie's commission has been approved, if the captivated general is victorious in his tournaments.61 Morrison wa s not th e only representative t o quot e opinion piece s instead of facts. After the initial vote on the WASP bill, Representative Edward V. Izac of California include d a piece by gossip columnist Drew Pearson, who had issued a series of attacks against Cochran and the WASP program. The heading for Izac' s remark s wa s take n directl y fro m Pearson : "Arnol d Face s Congres sional Uproar Over His Continued Use of the WASPS—Miss Cochran's Lady

No Allies for the WASPs I 9 1 Fliers No w Replac e Instea d o f Releas e Men." 6 2 Morriso n was , however , th e most prolifi c i n submitting material s agains t th e WASPs. Among thes e was a n editorial piec e published i n th e Idaho Statesmen o n Ma y 12,1944 . The editor ial no t onl y mad e unfounde d allegation s abou t th e WASP progra m an d mis quoted AAF statistic s an d requirements , bu t i t offered a distinctly sexist shap ing o f all women. Becaus e th e allegation s an d ton e o f the articl e were echoe d by members o f Congress i n th e debat e ove r the WASP resolution , th e entiret y of Morrison s quotation follows : Priority on Women Several time s we have hear d servicemen , usuall y bac k o n furlough , complai n about wome n i n th e service . Sometime s w e fel t tha t the y were merel y preju diced, but sometimes it seemed to us that they had a valid gripe. A recent happening supports the latter position . Some weeks ago thousands o f experienced mal e pilots were grounded, pre sumably because we had traine d mor e pilots than we shall need. Nevertheless, Jacqueline Cochran's WASPS are getting a priority of a very special kind. There is a bill before Congres s t o commissio n wome n pilots , and som e have already completed their first weeks of schooling. General Arnold told Congressmen th e women pilot s will b e neede d fo r combat . That's a strange statemen t t o mak e when thousands of men pilots are now out of jobs, or soon will be. The me n ar e angry about it , and the y seem to have additional reasons . For instance, WASP S qualif y fo r transpor t trainin g afte r 3 5 hours o f flying time, whereas me n mus t hav e 1,000 , includin g 20 0 i n heav y craft . W e don' t kno w what the explanation is. Probably it is the sentimental softness of American men in regard to their women. In colleges the smooth, good-looking gals can get As without a lick of work; and in the armed services it may be that dimples have a devastating effect eve n on generals. 63 The rhetori c o f this piec e strongl y implie d tha t th e WASPs ha d somehow , through sexua l seduction , receive d undeserve d privileges . I n addition , b y comparing thes e highl y skille d pilot s o f military plane s wit h colleg e girls , th e author eve n refuse d t o characteriz e th e WASP s a s adults . "Priorit y o n Women" als o included inaccurat e dat a about th e requirement s o f the WASPs, comparing th e hour s o f flight tim e neede d simpl y t o join th e WASP trainin g program wit h th e total transitional hour s neede d b y any pilot t o ferr y militar y aircraft. Me n wh o entere d th e AA F cade t trainin g progra m di d no t nee d pi lots' licenses , le t alon e an y hour s o f flight time , whil e WAS P trainee s ha d t o have license s an d a minimu m o f thirty-fiv e hour s o f flight time . B y compar ing statistics from tw o different stage s of pilot training, the author constructe d something tha t looke d lik e th e prejudicia l treatmen t contende d i n th e edito -

92 I No Allies for the WASPs rial. Many othe r medi a piece s would mak e simila r comparisons , which mem bers of Congress would late r quote as fact i n their argument s agains t propose d legislation fo r WASP militarization .

The House Considers the WASP Bill Neither Costell o no r an y other supporters o f H.R. 421 9 introduced an y medi a opinion pieces , letters, or testimon y i n defens e o f the WASPs. The bil l was in troduced fo r consideratio n b y Representative Roge r Slaughte r o f Missouri o n June 20,1944 , who simpl y defined th e parameters o f the bill and explained , a t the reques t o f other member s o f Congress, th e impac t i t would hav e o n civil ian mal e pilots . Afte r hearin g argument s raise d b y Slaughte r abou t th e bill' s importance, th e Hous e agree d t o conside r th e bil l th e followin g day. 64 High lights o f Slaughter' s argument s follow : There i s no question bu t tha t ther e is a shortage of pilots, although ther e may be some difference o f opinion a s to th e proper metho d i n which thi s shortage should b e met; nevertheless the Army, and when I say the Army, I mean Gen eral Arnold, General Giles, and the Secretary, Mr. Stimson, are strongly in favor of this bill and have recommended an d asked for its passage. . . . While they [the 500 WASPs in active service] have done a splendid work, according t o th e Arm y an d accordin g t o thos e individual s wh o ar e informed , there are very definite drawbacks to the present arrangement, not only from th e standpoint o f the Army, but o f the women themselves . For instance, thes e female pilot s com e int o variou s Arm y post s an d afte r the y groun d thei r ship s there are no facilities for taking care of them. They are not permitted to go into the officers' clubs ; they are not permitted t o buy from th e post exchange; they are not permitted t o go into certai n portions of the Army reservation; and, although they are doing work identical with that of certain portions of the Army fliers, they are not eligible for certain benefits, includin g insurance. The Army, on the other hand, complains that while these women who enjoy a civil-service status are doing this highly important work , th e Army does not hav e the necessary and essentia l contro l ove r them whic h i t should . I n othe r words, while they are closely connected wit h th e Army, i n trut h an d i n fac t the y ar e com pletely outsid e s o far a s authority i s concerned, an d fo r tha t reaso n th e Army through Genera l Arnold is urging the passage of this bill. . . . One argumen t whic h ha s been raise d agains t thi s bil l i s totally erroneous , and that is, if this bill is passed, it would create what would be in effect anothe r branch o f the Women's Army Corps. The very contrary is the case, because as matters no w stan d thes e women o f civil-servic e statu s ar e se t of f i n a sort o f

No Allies for the WASPs I 9 3 group b y themselves. This bill , if it passes, will absorb thi s group an d amalga mate them an d bring them int o the Regular Army Air Corps. 65 O n June 21, the House went forward with its consideration of H.R. 4219, "To Provide Appointmen t o f Femal e Pilot s an d Aviatio n Cadet s i n th e Arm y Ai r Forces." The debat e di d no t focu s o n th e WASPs, however, bu t instea d becam e a foru m fo r Congres s t o placat e th e demand s o f the mal e civilia n pilot s lobby , in which issue s affecting no t th e WASPS but th e male pilots were raised and debated. Throughout th e debate , i t becam e clea r tha t man y member s votin g o n the bill did no t eve n understand tha t i t was specifically abou t WASP militariza tion. 66 Indeed, it seemed that for many, their sole exposure to information abou t the WASP program was through th e strongly biased and inaccurate repor t writ ten b y the Ramspeck committee , o r through opinio n piece s and editorial s pub lished i n newspaper s o r submitted t o th e Congressional Record. In a turn tha t virtually guaranteed tha t th e measure would no t pass , the de bate ove r th e WAS P bil l wa s chaire d b y Representativ e Ramspeck. 67 O n to p of that, th e debate was attended b y members o f the mal e civilian pilots' lobby , who filled th e galler y o f th e Hous e an d vocall y expresse d thei r oppositio n t o the bill. 68 "They didn't know what the y were talking about with regard s to ou r work," Nadin e Nagl e said . "Ou r wor k wa s differen t tha n theirs." 69 Representative Rober t Sike s of Florida opened th e session by criticizing th e report issue d b y th e Committe e o n Militar y Affair s tha t recommende d pas sage of the bil l becaus e th e hearings "compris e a little more tha n 9 pages" an d did not provide enough justification fo r th e measure. 70 Sikes went o n t o prais e the Ramspec k Report , whic h a t "1 3 pages i n lengt h . . . i s very complete i n it s study o f the WASPS." 71 Sike s added : I do not believe we are ready to say to the Congress that we know the WASPS as a military organization are needed now and that we can justify the expenditure of $50,000,000 for training of limited-service personnel. I do not use that term in a derogatory sense, because this is a fine group of ladies. They have done a splendid job. I commend the m fo r thei r service to th e war effort. Bu t nevertheless, thei r service is going to be limited. They cannot be used in combat theaters. 72 Sikes then encourage d th e passage of a bill relating to "th e utilization o f th e C.A.A. an d W.T.S . trainee s an d instructors," 73 who , base d o n n o report s is sued b y congressiona l committees , Sike s determine d wer e deservin g o f mili tary commissions. Followin g th e introductio n o f the topi c of male civilian pi lots by Sikes, Congress bega n a lengthy discussion tha t would exten d throug h seven pages in the Congressional Record. Of the fifty-five column s reportin g th e House debat e o n th e WASP bill , twenty-six mostl y o r entirel y involv e discus -

94 I No Allies for the WASPs sion abou t th e WASP s and/o r th e propose d bill , whil e twenty-nin e column s mostly o r entirel y involv e debat e abou t th e situatio n o f mal e civilia n pilots . Although member s o f Congress neede d t o understand th e status o f these mal e pilots (sinc e i t was bein g allege d tha t WASPs wer e takin g thei r rightfu l place s in th e cockpit) , t o devot e mor e tha n hal f o f th e debat e o n th e WAS P bil l t o the issue s o f mal e civilia n pilots , withou t requirin g tha t detaile d report s an d data b e submitted , wa s a grievou s error . Indeed , becaus e th e decisio n o f whether t o pas s th e WASP bil l was motivate d b y issues surroundin g th e mal e civilian pilots , i t wa s unjus t t o reac h suc h a decisio n base d upo n figures an d notions supporte d b y special interes t group s an d a biased medi a presentation . Despite hi s state d oppositio n t o th e WAS P bill , Representativ e Sike s argue d specifically fo r thi s leve l o f fairness i n th e debate : The C.A.A.-W.T.S. groups should have their day in court on the merits of their case, an d no t a s we propos e t o brin g the m i n today , a s an appendag e t o th e WASP bill. The entir e bill should b e recommitted t o the Committee o n Military Affairs fo r furthe r study , and during the period of that study the War Department wil l have a full opportunit y t o utiliz e th e C.A.A.-W.T.S . trainee s t o the greatest possible extent. Then w e can consider th e WASP bill on th e basis of the actual need for tha t group alone. 74 Despite Sikes' s request , th e debat e continue d t o focu s o n th e mal e civilia n pilots an d th e legitimac y o f their claims . Even Costello , th e bill' s sponsor, en tered int o th e discussio n o f th e mal e civilia n pilots , statin g tha t anothe r bil l (which ha d bee n propose d bu t ha d no t ye t bee n debated ) woul d giv e thos e male civilia n pilot s who wer e physically qualified AA F commissions , bu t tha t it was unreasonabl e t o as k th e AAF t o lowe r thei r standard s t o thos e o f CA A instructors. 75 "Ther e ar e an y numbe r o f disease s an d disabilitie s tha t thes e men suffere d wit h an d no w have , an d who m h e woul d brin g int o th e ser vice," 76 Costell o argued , note d tha t thes e pilots , lik e the WASPs, were no t el igible fo r comba t service . Costell o als o pointe d ou t tha t th e curren t polic y o f the militar y was t o plac e qualifie d mal e civilia n pilot s int o th e AAF a s pilots : "If th e me n ar e qualifie d t o fly planes , we want t o pu t the m i n th e Army flying planes . I f the y canno t qualif y t o fly planes , w e wan t t o pu t the m i n a s Army navigator s an d bombardiers . W e wan t t o us e ever y ma n tha t i s quali fied."77 I n th e te n minute s allotte d t o him , Costell o a t least managed t o brin g the discussio n bac k t o th e WASP program : Let me call your attention t o this one fact. The sole purpose of this bill is simply this, to take these women who are now with the Army Air Forces in a civilian capacity and convert them into a military capacity. That i s the sole purpose

No Allies for the WASPs I 9 5 of the WASP bill and nothing else. This should be done, because these women at presen t ar e denie d hospitalization ; the y ar e denie d insuranc e benefits , an d things of that kind to which, as military personnel, they should be entitled, and because of the work they are doing, they should be receiving at this time. Likewise, these women the n would be subject t o military discipline. May I poin t ou t tha t righ t no w th e Governmen t ca n g o ou t an d spen d $12,000 for trainin g one of these women and , i f you d o no t pas s this bill, she can quit after she receives that training. You have spent $12,000, and you do not have anything to show for it . If we make them par t of the military, we will retain them as part of the military, and they will be subject t o military discipline. That i s very necessary. Might I emphasize that the cost of training one of these women i s n o differen t fro m th e cos t o f trainin g a man . I t i s approximatel y $12,000 fo r each , whethe r the y g o throug h Randolp h Fiel d o r whethe r the y happen t o go through th e women's pilot training program. The cost is approximately th e same . The cos t fo r th e uniform s i s the same . There i s actually n o difference. The casualty rate is approximately the same. There has been no difference whatsoever between the men and the women. 78 Despite Costello' s attempt s a t defining th e bill and directin g Hous e debat e to it s particulars , member s o f Congres s returne d t o th e emotiona l topi c o f women takin g over the roles of men. Explainin g his position i n support o f th e male civilia n pilots , avi d editoria l reade r Representativ e Morriso n o f Louisiana claime d tha t th e me n ha d bee n unfairl y asked : "Woul d yo u qualif y for comba t duty? " He explaine d tha t eithe r way a pilot answere d th e questio n would ge t hi m throw n ou t o f th e Ai r Forces , whic h Morriso n compare d t o asking a man: "Whe n di d yo u sto p whippin g you r wife?" 79 Costello faile d t o evok e feeling s agains t th e mal e civilia n pilot s regardin g their lac k of devotion towar d th e war effor t becaus e he simply gave the facts , rather tha n powerfull y challengin g th e me n i n a condemnin g oration . Un like hi s opposition , Costell o di d no t mak e sweepin g statements , lin k th e plights o f WASPs with youn g women throughou t th e Unite d States , o r con front th e cowardic e o f th e pilot s b y readin g a n accoun t o f a brav e youn g man wh o di d no t fle e hi s duty . Costello' s presentatio n lacke d th e emotiona l appeal necessar y t o comba t th e allegation s agains t th e wome n pilots , wh o were supposedl y unnaturall y claimin g tha t whic h wa s no t theirs . Hi s onl y plea t o enforc e patriotis m wa s brie f an d los t amon g questionin g abou t th e particular statu s th e pilot s migh t hop e t o achiev e i n th e groun d forces . Costello stated : We are in war. You very often hav e to change the rules of the game in the middle of a war in order to win. What ar e we in the war for, anyway?

96 I No Allies for the WASPs I have not had much complaint fro m th e fathers o f these young men when I explain the situation. These men were transferred to the ground forces because they were needed there. 80 Morrison, o n th e othe r hand , wa s zealou s i n hi s us e o f sweepin g general izations an d personalize d accounts . H e introduce d a n amendmen t t o th e bil l that woul d limi t th e tota l numbe r o f WASPs t o 1,500 , so tha t th e mal e civil ian pilot s coul d hav e th e opportunit y t o fly missions a s well. H e claime d tha t the me n ha d "gotte n a raw deal an d thi s WASP progra m make s i t worse," be cause the y ha d bee n promise d entr y int o th e Arm y wit h commission s an d were onl y give n entr y int o th e Army. 81 I n othe r words , th e "ra w deal" Morri son was submitting wa s tha t thes e me n wer e not makin g enoug h mone y dur ing a time o f war. To bolster sympathy , h e tol d ho w trainee s receive d onl y $5 0 a mont h plu s roo m an d boar d whil e the y wer e training . (WAS P trainee s re ceived $15 0 a month , bu t ha d t o pa y fo r room , board , travel , an d clothing. ) As a result, Morriso n claimed , "Man y los t thei r home s an d los t their automo biles an d almos t los t thei r wives , becaus e whe n th e mone y situatio n becam e so acute the y had t o g o and liv e with thei r ow n families." 82 Member s o f Con gress gravitate d towar d Morrison s stories , neve r askin g fo r reference s o r sta tistics, and neve r reasoning that the women o f the WASP program would hav e had th e sam e hardships , fo r the y obviousl y di d no t expec t wome n t o ow n homes o r automobiles . Representative Joh n Vory s o f Ohi o ros e i n oppositio n t o Morrison' s amendment, arguin g that it "is an attempt t o write physical standards into thi s bill by saying that th e physica l characteristic s o f women ar e such tha t we nee d only 1,50 0 o f them." 8 3 Vorys , who wa s a n activ e CA P pilot , state d tha t Con gress did no t understan d th e physical qualification s neede d fo r flying an d wa s attempting t o appl y "outmoded " standard s ont o th e situatio n a t hand . H e went o n t o say : Women ca n qualify fo r flying and they cannot qualif y fo r ground fighting. . . . I have found out , on a number o f airfields i n the past few months, that the flying people grudgingly admi t tha t thes e girls can fly and d o th e kind o f flying that the y ar e assigned t o do , an d therefor e i n som e way release a man, t o d o what? Releas e a ma n someplac e alon g th e lin e t o fight i n th e ai r o r o n th e ground.84 Representative Compto n Whit e fro m Idah o addresse d Vory s s remarks b y citing th e Ramspec k committee s allegation s o f wast e an d incompetenc e within th e WAS P program . Representativ e Kar l Stefa n o f Nebrask a offere d statements o f suppor t fo r bot h groups , bu t h e als o wanted th e Hous e mem -

No Allies for theWASPs I 9 7 bers t o us e correc t figures concernin g th e mal e civilia n pilot s rathe r tha t th e outrageously overblow n number s tha t Morriso n an d other s wer e claiming. 85 In suppor t o f th e WASPs, Stefa n gav e a speech , recorde d unde r th e headin g "Work of American Women," tha t celebrated no t only the specific work of th e WASPS, bu t th e wartime contribution s o f all American women . I t began : I fee l tha t th e wome n pilot s wh o ar e no w doin g suc h valuabl e wor k fo r ou r Army Air Corp s shoul d b e commended. I hope tha t nothin g b e done here t o eliminate the m an d tha t thos e women wh o ar e now flying transports wil l no t only be retained but be given the rewards to which they are entitled. I have firsthand informatio n a s to thei r grea t ability, and I resen t insinuation s tha t thes e or other women have not rendered tremendous service to our Nation.... Tha t women ar e rendering outstandin g servic e should no t b e denied, bu t i t shoul d be acknowledged again at this time when we are dealing with legislation affect ing their future . Thi s doe s not detrac t fro m th e grand servic e which ha s been rendered by the instructors referred t o in this debate. 86 Stefan wen t o n t o discus s th e man y othe r invaluabl e contribution s mad e by American wome n towar d th e war effort . H e concluded : In the homes of America, Mr. Chairman, th e fires of hope are burning because the American women ar e making that hope live. In thes e few minutes allotte d to me I wanted t o add my word of homage to American womanhood an d give thanks to the Almighty that American men honor and respect our women. For their great service I voice my appreciation an d thanks. 87 Representative Willia m Mille r o f Connecticu t als o voice d hi s suppor t o f the WASPs , an d state d Morrison s oppositio n t o th e propose d amendment , which would limi t th e WASP program t o 1,500 pilot s and trainees . He als o in ferred tha t othe r member s o f Congress had no t gotte n th e facts o n th e WASP s and i n hi s statemen t summe d u p wha t wa s trul y a t issu e i n thi s debate—th e use o f th e WASP s a s bargainin g chip s t o guarante e th e commission s o f th e male civilia n pilots . I have taken the trouble to talk with men in the War Department who have assured me, and proven to me, that they have a real need for these WASPS. They are doing a good job; they have demonstrated tha t they can do a good job. . . . It seems to me that the House is in a bargaining mood today. We are saying to the Chief of the Air Corps: "If you want 5,00 0 WASPS, we will let you have them, but if you get them you have to take this other group of students and instructors that you say you do not want at this time." I agre e with thos e who sa y that a promise shoul d b e kept, bu t abov e all, a promise that may be made to any particular group about what commission they

98 I No Allies for the WASPs would get when they completed a certain course of training is subordinate to our over-all promise of ioo percent support of the war effort. . . . S o the War Department had to say to these men in the schools and colleges: "We are sorry, but our job is to win the war and the greatest contribution you can make toward winning the war is to now go into the Infantry." Most of them went willingly.88 When th e Hous e finally got aroun d t o discussin g the component s o f the bill, it became obvious how much thei r ideas about th e program an d the bill had been influenced b y newspaper opinio n pieces . For example, Representa tive John Hinsha w o f California objecte d t o th e section o f the bil l that pro vided for commission of a colonel, which was "reserved and intended for Miss Jacquelyn Cochran, a famous woman flier."89 This was the allegation made in several opinion pieces , including "Wh y Spen d $100,00 0 o n th e WASP Program?—Read What Miss Cassinni Says," which Morrison had submitted into the Congressional Record.90 However, the bill clearly stated that colonel was not a required rank, but would be the maximum rank possible in the organization, and ha d Hinsha w rea d an y document s pertainin g t o th e WASPs, he woul d have recognized that Cochran was not just a famous woman flier but the current director of the WASP program. Debate then focused o n several aspects of the WASP program, all of which had bee n raise d b y th e medi a an d th e Ramspec k Report : tha t th e WASP s should be placed under the WACs, that unethical if not illegal developments had occurred because Congress should have previously voted on the development of the WASP program, and that the program was unnecessary. Concer n over th e questio n o f ran k wa s s o grea t tha t Representativ e Samue l Hobb s (Ala.) introduced a bill to limit the highest rank possible within the WASPs to captain.91 Hobb s suggeste d tha t thi s woul d b e mor e fair , sinc e th e WA C colonel commanded 75,000 , while the WASP director would only be in command o f 2,500. He also suggested that having "a sprinkling of captains along with th e rank an d file of lieutenants" would settl e the whole issue of rank. 92 Representative Costello then stated that it was necessary to have a single offi cer in command, an d tha t th e "rank of colonel in the case of the WACs, th e WAVES, the SPARS, and the MARINES" 93 was consistent to facilitate func tioning among those divisions, and therefore it was important to do the same with th e WASPs. Representative Edward Rees of Kansas raised the specter of the progra m havin g bee n wrongl y create d withou t th e vote o f Congress , t o which Representativ e James Wadsworth o f New York answered: "Th e us e of women fo r ferryin g pilotin g was an experiment , therefor e authorit y was no t asked for i n the statute. It has now proven to be a success, and they want th e

No Allies for the WASPs I 9 9 authority t o pu t the m i n th e Army." 94 T o this , Ree s replie d tha t th e experi ment ha d bee n "carried " to o far. 95 Representativ e Josep h O'Har a o f Min nesota interrupte d th e debates and issue d a strong condemnation o f the entir e bill, which h e describe d a s being " a piece o f social legislation." 96 As far as I am concerned the bill is about as unpalatable as it can be, no matte r how much i t is amended, becaus e I think you are overlooking some very, very serious things . . . . This bil l i s apparentl y fo r th e purpose , no t o f creatin g a WASP organization—that ha s already been created—but t o commission thes e very charming young ladies. . . . I am wondering what we are going to sa y to these boy s who hav e bee n comba t pilot s an d hav e bee n wounded , an d com e back, and want t o keep on flying? They cannot g o into comba t flying because of thei r injuries , an d perhap s becaus e o f th e nervou s strai n the y hav e under gone. But they can do the very things that thes e girls are doing. No: they cannot do that because they say, "We have to have somebody in there who is a very attractive lady pilot." 97 By constructin g th e WAS P militarizatio n bil l a s "socia l legislation, " O'Hara shifte d th e focus o f the bill from legislatio n tha t was developed t o fur ther th e American wa r effort s t o legislatio n tha t wa s shape d a s governmenta l sponsorship o f leisurel y activitie s fo r a privilege d group . The assumption s o f members o f Congres s abou t th e intention s an d abilitie s o f wome n pilot s specifically an d women generall y cloude d thei r abilitie s t o recogniz e th e reso lution a s it was submitted—as enablin g legislation sponsore d b y the AAF an d the War Department . O'Haras statement s wer e followe d b y suppor t fo r hi s positio n fro m Rep resentative Walter Breh m o f Ohio : " I agre e with th e gentlema n tha t thi s leg islation i s very unpalatable . I thin k i t i s time t o forge t th e glamo r i n thi s wa r and thin k mor e o f th e gor e o f war." 98 Costell o followe d wit h a rebutta l o f these statements, arguing that Congres s neede d t o rel y on th e military expert s who wer e requestin g th e bill , becaus e i t wa s the y wh o understoo d th e de mands an d need s o f th e wa r effort : I, for one, would not want to try to tell the Army Air Forces when they say they want 2,500 of these WASPS, that they will have to get along with less. I am not going to tell General Eisenhower, when he says he needs 5,000 tanks to carry on a battle, that he can get along with 50 0 tanks and like it. I am perfectly willin g to rel y upon th e judgment o f the men who ar e engineering thi s war. I am no t going to set myself up here and stat e that becaus e you give a uniform t o thes e women pilots, just as you have given a uniform t o the women nurse s or to any one of all the other women's organizations, you are creating some glamorous organization o r some social organization. I f you like to be covered with grease, if

ioo I No Allies for the WASPs you lik e t o swea t ou t pilotin g a n airplan e throug h storm y weathe r fro m on e coast to another, an d cal l that a social activity, very well then, vote against thi s bill. Then that is a "social activity." But if you want to try to help to carry on the war effort, i f you want to release a few more men to do some of the ferrying i n combat zones , to engag e the enem y themselves , the n pas s this bil l and releas e another 2,500 pilots who otherwise will have to stay in this country. " Representative Fores t Harness o f Indiana followe d Costell o by stating tha t if ther e wa s suc h a nee d t o releas e pilot s fo r oversea s duty , th e instructor s could b e utilized , an d "the y ma y no t nee d al l th e WASP S the y inten d t o bring in." 100 Representativ e E d Iza c o f Californi a offere d a motio n t o strik e out th e enactin g claus e o f the bill . "M y objec t her e i s to kil l thi s bil l becaus e we d o no t nee d suc h a bill. I t i s the mos t unjustifie d piec e o f legislation tha t could b e brough t befor e th e Hous e a t thi s lat e date . I know tha t an y woma n would lik e t o hav e 2,50 0 girl s unde r he r an d b e a colonel." 101 H e conclude d by stating : You are not going to make it any different fo r these women because 500 of them are alread y servin g unde r civi l servic e doin g thi s identical , utilit y work . N o change, except the change that comes by putting on a manikins uniform . I t is not goin g t o hel p th e cours e o f th e wa r on e bit , an d I a m sorr y t o se e Ha p Arnold lose his balance over this proposition. 102 The atmospher e o f th e congressiona l hearin g wa s rathe r circus-like , wit h members of the male civilian pilots' lobby cheering, booing, and making othe r outbursts. When Izac , i n offerin g a motion t o kil l th e measure , said , "Thi s i s the mos t unjustifie d piec e of legislation tha t coul d possibl y be brought befor e the Hous e a t thi s lat e date . I t i s an unconscionabl e bill, " man y Hous e mem bers applauded hi s remarks, and mal e civilian pilots cheered. 103 WASP Madg e Rutherford Minto n said : "Whe n th e bil l cam e u p i n th e Hous e o f Represen tatives, th e gallerie s wer e ful l o f pilot s returne d fro m wa r theaters . An d the y vocally shouted an d expresse d themselve s and lobbie d agains t the bill." 104 The disturbance create d b y th e pilot s wa s s o grea t tha t "abou t 2 0 soldier s wer e asked t o leav e th e galler y whe n the y continue d t o applau d anti-WAS P re marks fro m th e floor." 105 Testimony ove r th e bil l conclude d wit h Representativ e Rober t Thomaso n of Texas askin g fo r th e othe r representative s t o retur n t o th e bil l a t han d an d consider i t intelligently : Mr. Chairman, I think I sense the temper o f this Committee an d I am takin g these 5 minutes to beg and plead for clear straight thinking without any bias and without an y prejudice. . . .

No Allies for theWASPs I 10 1 While I am not in sympathy with everything that is in the bill, yet I am not willing to go on recor d a s saying that th e head of the greatest air power i n th e world should have his official reques t turned down. We are not military experts. Our militar y leaders are now on th e way to a glorious victory. Our brav e boys are fighting and winning o n ever y front. Th e leas t we can d o i s to bac k the m u p . . . . H e [Genera l Arnold] can be depended upon to treat them all fairly, and we will be hastening the day of victory.106 Following Thomasons statements , Ramspec k calle d for votes on Iza c s motion tha t th e enactin g claus e o f th e WASP bil l b e stricke n out . The first vot e was divided . Representativ e Andre w Ma y o f Kentuck y calle d fo r tellers , an d another vot e wa s taken , whic h thi s tim e showe d tha t th e motio n wa s agree d to b y "11 9 ayes and 10 2 noes." 107 The Hous e the n vote d o n th e recommenda tion tha t th e enactin g claus e b e stricke n out . The rol l showe d tha t ther e wer e 188 yeas an d 16 9 nays , wit h 7 3 representative s no t voting. 108 Th e Hous e ha d effectively kille d H.R . 4219 , " A bill t o provid e fo r th e appointmen t o f femal e pilots an d aviatio n cadet s in th e Air Force s of the Army," b y a margin o f nine teen votes. Not sinc e the beginnin g o f the war i n 194 1 had an y legislation sup ported b y th e Army Air Force s bee n turne d down. 109

6 They'll Be Home for Christma s The WASP Program Disbands

Following th e defea t o f th e Hous e Resolutio n 421 9 o n June 22 , 1944, the Army Air Forces was faced three choices regarding future action s for obtaining WASP militarization. First , it could push for passage of Senate Bill 1810, a WASP militarization bil l that had been submitted t o the Senate Military Affairs Committe e an d was awaiting debate. If the War Department en couraged it s submission, an d i f it passed th e Senate , then th e issue could b e resubmitted befor e th e House, because the Hous e ha d technicall y not vote d against th e bill but had , i n a legislative maneuver, simpl y removed it s enact ment clause. Second, the AAF could stop WASP training, in accordance with the recommendations o f the Ramspeck committee , maintai n th e WASPs on active duty , an d see k medica l an d insuranc e benefit s fo r them . Th e thir d choice was to disband the entire program. While the WASP bill was being debated befor e th e House, Commandin g General Henr y H. Arnold was in Europe directing the air operations fo r th e D-Day attack, still recovering from a heart attack he had suffered immediatel y before th e European mission . The D-Da y operation s ha d bee n very successful. Allied troops had landed in Normandy with fewer losses to the Air Forces than had been anticipated. The Allies were now moving toward Germany, and the American media was predicting a quick end to the war. Upon his return to Washington, D.C., General Arnold ordered on June 26 that, i n complianc e with th e recommendation s o f the Ramspec k committe e report, th e training program o f the WASPs be discontinued a s soon a s those currently i n classe s finished. 1 Becaus e o f th e tim e involve d i n training , thi s meant that the training of women pilots by the AAF would end in December 1944.2

In July, R. Earl McKaughan, president of Aviation Enterprises, the civilian firm responsible for trainin g the WASPs, and his attorney, E d Ponder, bega n an inquiry into the facts surrounding the order to end training, with the hopes of getting Congress to reconsider the WASP bill so that the firm's pilot train -

102

They'll Be Home for Christmas I 10 3 ing schoo l a t Avenge r Fiel d coul d remain open. 3 I n th e meantime , McK aughan had solicited Avenger Field to the AAF Training Command as a training facility for male pilots and WASPs engaged in transitional training. 4 After the AAF Central Training Detachment indicate d an interest in using Avenger Field for the training of male pursuit pilots, McKaughan n o longer made any attempts to address Congress about the WASPs.

The "Lost" Class of WASPs The next class of WASPs (which would have been the first class to graduate in 1945) was scheduled t o begi n trainin g a t Avenger Fiel d on June 30 , just fou r days after Genera l Arnold issued the order to conclude training. 5 On June 26, Telegrams were sent under General Arnold's name to the women who were to be part of this class, telling them that the training program had been canceled. The telegram read : Due to the recommendations of House Civil Service Committee and unfavorable action of House of Representatives on WASP bill your orders to report for WASP training thirty June nineteen forty four are cancelled.6 Because o f th e uncertaintie s o f trave l schedule s durin g th e war , mos t women who were in this class had already left their homes for the WASP training field in Texas. The telegram reached Eleanor Watterud a t the Bluebonne t Hotel in Sweetwater, Texas. Many of the women who had been scheduled t o begin the next class had, like Watterud, already arrived in the town nearest the training field o r wer e well o n thei r wa y t o Texas when th e announcement s were sent out. All of these women were traveling at their ow n expense. Even many o f thos e mor e fortunat e candidate s wh o ha d no t alread y lef t fo r th e training field had quit thei r jobs, sold their homes, and purchased th e cloth ing and supplies they needed for WASP training.7 "When the girls that would have been i n 45- 1 came in, an d were told, i t was terrible. Some of them ha d sold their homes, because they were going into the service; some of them had made arrangements for their children; and there were so many things that just broke their hearts. It was so sad for us, " said WASP Betty Stagg Turner.8 For the next several days, the office o f WASP director Jacqueline Cochra n was inundated with calls from thes e women and their families. Some families, like that of Elizabeth Wadlow of Pleasant Ridge, Michigan, came from seein g their daughte r of f at the train station , onl y to return hom e t o a telegram an nouncing the cancellation of the program.9 Some women found out about the

104 I They 11 Be Home for Christmas

cancellation o f the program e n route, such as Elaine Scull, whose father sen t a telegra m t o he r a t a train statio n o n th e way to Sweetwater. 10 Scul l calle d Cochran to find out what to do about transportation, because she had already traveled from Atlantic City to St. Louis, where she had received the telegram. She was calling not only for herself but for four other s scheduled for the June 30 class who were at the station with her. Cochran tol d Scull that if she continued o n to Sweetwater, transportatio n would be provided to her, not to her hometown, but to the base nearest to her home. To receive this transportation , Scul l and he r companion s woul d hav e to trave l t o Sweetwater , becaus e transportatio n wa s onl y authorize d fro m there. Cochra n added : "Yo u wont ge t an y mone y refunde d i f you g o bac k from Sweetwater, but we are going to give the girls transportation from Sweet water to the nearest point to their home. For instance, you're in Atlantic City; you'd probably be dropped of f at the nearest point the airplane passes over— probably Ne w York." 11 A woma n travelin g wit h Scull , Joan Bogart , calle d back to the WASP offices t o see if travel expenses to Sweetwater would be reimbursed. Sh e asked : "Well , i f w e wen t dow n ther e we' d g o o n ou r ow n money, wouldn't we—from St . Louis?" To which she was told, "Oh yes, you'd have to go on your own money and of course if you came back from St . Louis you'd have to come back on your own money." 12 Cochran als o informe d Scul l tha t sh e an d th e othe r schedule d trainee s would no t hav e an y o f thei r trave l expense s refunded . Whe n directl y aske d about a refund, Cochra n stated, "No. There just isn't anything they could do; they've bee n tol d t o sto p training , an d the y stoppe d trainin g i n accordanc e with thei r instructions fro m Congress." 13 The women were given a choice of bad options. Either they would pay for a return trip home, or they would pay for the remainder of the trip to Sweetwater, fly to an airfield near their homes, and pay for transportatio n fro m ther e to their homes. Cochran als o received telephone calls from women who were scheduled to be in later classes and who had already taken thei r physicals at Army bases or who were scheduled to do so. Cochran tol d the m no t to take their physicals, that al l future classe s were canceled—a fact tha t she said would no t chang e unless Congress changed its decision.14 The plight of the women o f the WASP class slated to begin June 30,1944, who wer e strande d withou t transportatio n o n thei r wa y fro m th e trainin g field, did not escape mention in the press. One of these pieces, "Congressmen Clip Wings of 9 Wasps: Detroit Gir l Fliers Downed i n Texas," appeared several days before th e clas s was to have started, an d befor e th e WASP trainee s had made any decisions about what they would do. The piece began:

They 11 Be Home for Christmas I 10 5 Word received by parents of the Detroit girls indicates that most of them hav e refused th e Army's offer t o fly them home because they are just too embarrassed to come home. Some of the girls gave up jobs, others disposed of their civilia n clothes, and all of them were given farewell parties by their friends an d gifts b y their relatives. The plight of the girls was described by Mrs. Mary Wadlow, 24 Kensington Avenue, Pleasant Ridge , whose 18-year old daughter , Elizabeth , i s at Sweetwa ter. "Elizabeth's preparations for joining the Wasps," Mrs. Wadlow said, "cost us almost $1,000 . I think tha t figure must b e about averag e for th e group . I t in cludes 35 hours of flight training which th e Army required before i t would un dertake its own training of the girls.... They had to pay their own railroad fare to Avenger Field." 15 This sam e grou p o f WASPs would soo n becom e th e onl y organize d oppo sition t o th e disbandmen t fro m withi n WAS P ranks , a s those women alread y in training or having active mission statu s were strictly prohibited fro m speak ing to th e media . The wome n first organize d a protest, a s reported i n th e Detroit Free Press: The WASPS, seven from Detroi t (b y latest count) staged a sit down at Avenger Field, Sweetwater , Texas , ove r th e weeken d whil e friend s an d congressme n flooded Washington with telegraphic, oral and written protests . Meanwhile, Mrs . Mary Wadlow, 2 4 Kensington, Roya l Oak , Mothe r o f Inductee Elizabeth Wadlow, said that the girls, who represent almost every state, are planning a special lobbying committee to march on Congress in September. 16 Marty Wyall , WAS P an d officia l historia n fo r th e program , sai d o f th e many WASP trainee s who di d no t receiv e notice o f disbandment an d showe d up a t Avenger Field : "The y wer e mad , an d refuse d t o leave . The onl y wa y t o get them ou t o f there was to ge t a DC-10 an d fly them t o Californi a a t th e Air Forces' expense." 17 A doze n WASPs demande d flight t o Hollywood , an d the n began a medi a crusad e fro m there . The lea d fo r on e articl e abou t the m was : "Jobless, deserte d b y thei r 'ric h uncle ' an d a long way fro m home—that' s th e plight o f a doze n attractiv e girl s a t th e women' s divisio n o f th e Hollywoo d Guild Canteen." 18 Another articl e reveale d tha t th e Hollywoo d protes t ha d it s pleasurabl e side, an d tha t th e wome n pilot s wer e bein g approache d b y recruiter s fro m other women' s militar y auxiliaries : Hollywood is proving to be the ideal place for 114 would-be girl pilots to forge t their troubles. The girls were stranded in Texas a week ago by Army orders halt-

io6 I They'll Be Home for Christmas ing their inductions into the Wasps. They are now in Hollywood being treated like celebrities according to Dorothy Moon o f 15458 Nowda. "We ar e havin g a ga y time, " Doroth y wrot e he r mother , Mrs . Morto n Moon. "A t the Hollywood Cantee n on e night, Joan Crawfor d an d Alan Lad d came over to see us and Peggy Ryan invited us to lunch at her studio." "This morning I expected to sleep, but three newspapermen an d photogra phers came to see us, and later officers o f the Army and Navy came over to tr y to enlist us in the Air WAVES and Air WACS," she said. 19 Despite th e Hollywoo d fun , th e losse s t o th e wome n trainee s wer e no t t o be take n lightly . On e woma n tol d reporter s abou t ho w sh e ha d gotte n a re lease fro m he r wa r jo b t o joi n th e WASPs , whil e anothe r sai d tha t sh e ha d spent five hundre d dollar s o f he r ow n mone y t o ge t th e flying hour s neede d to qualif y fo r WAS P training. 20 Anothe r articl e asserte d tha t mor e tha n fifty separate bill s befor e Congres s wer e expecte d t o b e filed b y th e wome n wh o had travele d t o Sweetwater , s o that the y could recou p thei r trave l money . Th e article began : Congress, which washed u p the Wasp training program just befor e recess , will find quite an aftermath waitin g on its return. Fifty-odd privat e bill s for reimbursemen t o f travel expense s o f that hal f of the new Wasp class which di d no t ge t their telegram s saying it was off, an d so arranged fo r trainin g a t Avenger Field, Sweetwater , Tex., are almost certai n t o be introduced a t the earliest possible moment . The War Department ha s already been besieged for a return o f the money. Its answer, of course, was that the only way such reimbursement would be possible would b e through th e introduction o f a private bill in Congress . Each of the fifty-two disappointed Wasp s would thu s hav e to ge t her ow n membe r o f Congress to put i n a bill for her. 21 The wome n o f what woul d late r becom e know n amon g forme r WASP s a s the "lost " clas s of WASPs continue d t o addres s th e curtailmen t o f their train ing i n th e medi a an d towar d Congress .

The Media Continues to Attack the WASP Program Despite thi s sligh t pepperin g o f articles , what happene d t o th e trainin g pro gram an d t o thes e women di d no t arous e th e sam e outrage fro m th e medi a o r the publi c a s had th e pligh t o f civilia n mal e pilots . The onl y medi a tha t con sistently argued on behal f of the WASPs were aviation journals and magazines . For example , National Aeronautics magazin e correctl y state d th e impetu s be -

They'll Be Home for Christmas I 10 7 hind th e WASP bil l an d offere d a balanced opinion : "A s far a s the conflictin g claims of the WASP an d th e CAA-WT S me n ar e concerned ther e i s justice o n both sides . Patently , justic e mus t b e don e fo r bot h groups . The wome n no w flying fo r th e WASP o r i n trainin g deserv e militar y status . Those CAA-WT S men wh o ar e qualifie d fo r flight dut y deserv e flying job s i n th e arme d ser "22

vices. z z Another publication , The Service Woman, offere d article s full y i n suppor t oftheWASPs: If there is anything t o that ol d superstition ther e must b e a number o f legislators in Washington with burnin g ears. To put i t mildly, WASPS—Women Air Force Servic e Pilots—i n trainin g her e ar e dar n goo d an d sore . I n fac t they'r e hopping mad. . . . The feelings of the girls at Avenger Field might be summed up in the words of one petite WASP. "What th e heck," sh e said, "wh y do CA A pilots have to b e afraid o f us? If they're better pilots than we are let them prove it. And if they're better then it's a cinch that the Army would take them instea d of us." The girl , who aske d tha t he r nam e b e withheld, referre d t o th e argumen t presented t o Congress that CA A pilots have to have 1,000 hour s flying time as against 3 5 hours require d o f a girl befor e WAS P training . Sh e mentioned on e friend o f hers , Marcell a Fried , no w statione d a t th e U.S . Arm y Ai r Field , Greenville, Miss., who has logged almost 2,000 flying hours. "Marcella's a test pilot," the petite WASP said, "and I'll stack her up against any man flyer alive. And he can choose his own plane and distance." 23 But these treatments were the exception, an d because they appeared mainl y in trad e journals , the y di d no t affec t publi c o r congressiona l opinion . Th e mass medi a di d no t complai n tha t patrioti c individual s ha d bee n le t dow n b y their countr y o r tha t governmenta l mone y wa s bein g waste d i n a time o f na tional crisis , as had bee n state d i n suppor t o f the mal e pilots . I n addition , ed itorials di d no t lamen t th e losse s o f jobs, money , an d home s b y thes e wome n who ha d sacrifice d a grea t dea l t o joi n th e wa r effort . Despit e th e fact s tha t were publicize d abou t th e WAS P program , an d despit e publi c suppor t fo r programs designe d t o pu t a quic k en d t o th e war , th e medi a stil l di d no t ac knowledge tha t thes e women wer e soldiers with importan t mission s an d valu able skill s wh o wer e bein g le t dow n b y thei r governmen t an d thu s wer e no t contributing t o th e U.S . war effort . Instead , th e medi a continue d thei r nega tive publicit y agains t wha t remaine d o f th e WAS P program . Opponent s would no t b e satisfied unti l th e entire WASP program—bot h trainin g an d ac tive assignments—was ended .

io8 I They 11 Be Home for Christmas As th e medi a announce d th e ruling s o f th e congressiona l committee s an d the ful l vote s o f congressiona l members , th e ton e continue d t o b e poise d against th e WASPs : The Civil Service Investigating Committee this afternoon recommende d to the House that recruiting of inexperienced personnel for training with the WASPS be terminated an d tha t th e service of experienced ai r personnel no w availabl e be utilize d immediatel y i n th e job s fo r whic h wome n pilot s ar e bein g pre pared.24 Newspaper article s continue d t o perpetuat e rumor s an d sprea d incorrec t in formation abou t th e WAS P program . On e suc h articl e began : "Reliabl e in formation fro m Washingto n indicate s the WASPS (Wome n Air Service Pilots ) are in a nose div e fro m whic h the y will no t recover." 25 With heading s suc h a s "Not Create d b y Congress " an d "Score s Ar e Killed, " th e articl e maintaine d that th e WASP progra m ha d bee n create d illegall y and tha t th e women pilot s were so unskilled tha t the y were dying in record numbers. 2 6 It also alleged tha t the wome n pilot s cos t mor e t o trai n tha n me n an d state d tha t mos t WASP s were stil l i n trainin g becaus e the y weren' t competen t enoug h t o graduate . I t also quoted unname d sources , giving them th e status of experts: "They are o n their way out and , t o quote one who knows, 'we'll wake up one of these morn ings an d discove r ther e ar e n o mor e WASP S t o stin g th e taxpayer s an d kee p thoroughly experience d me n ou t o f flying jobs'." 27 As early as July 1944 , rumor s wer e bein g printe d i n th e medi a tha t th e en tire WASP progra m wa s goin g t o b e disbanded , rathe r tha n jus t th e trainin g program. Aviation News Magazine reporte d i n its "Washington Observer " col umn tha t "i t i s onl y a matte r o f month s unti l th e whol e progra m wil l b e washed out." 28 The articl e went o n t o stat e that while Cochra n wa s making " a flying 'stumping ' tou r t o variou s states , i n orde r t o dru m u p congressiona l support fo r he r organization, " th e America n Legio n an d othe r veterans ' groups were supporting a House bil l introduced b y Representative Harnes s t o immediately abolis h th e WASPs. 29 Gossip columnis t Dre w Pearso n returne d t o hi s attac k o n th e WASP pro gram i n August, claimin g tha t th e Ramspec k committe e repor t originall y ha d stated, "W e urg e tha t th e Wasp s b e wiped ou t completely, " bu t tha t Genera l Arnold ha d mad e a trip t o Capito l Hil l an d prevente d tha t sentenc e fro m ap pearing. 30 Pearso n allege d tha t WASP s wer e stil l i n trainin g an d stil l flying missions whil e "mor e tha n 5,00 0 traine d me n pilots , eac h wit h a n averag e o f 1250 flying hour s remai n idle, " and tha t Genera l Arnold wa s going against th e congressional rulin g an d wa s attemptin g t o hav e th e WASP s incorporate d

They'll Be Home for Christmas I 10 9 under th e WACs. 31 Pearson s colum n wa s flagrantly incorrec t an d deliberatel y omitted tha t th e AA F ha d conclude d ne w trainin g an d recruiting . However , response to the rumor issue d by Pearson an d othe r reporter s was so strong tha t the War Departmen t issue d a press releas e denyin g tha t incorporatio n o f th e WASP int o th e WA C wa s unde r consideration. 32 Anothe r rumo r tha t aros e during thi s tim e wa s tha t th e cal l fo r WAS P militarizatio n wa s no t base d o n need o r prior plans, but o n th e AAF s desire to have its own women's auxiliary , like th e res t o f th e militar y divisions . On e articl e blame d th e controvers y o n "an over-zealous, 'Part y line' kind o f mentality on th e part o f some of Arnold's subordinates. They reasone d tha t i f the Army an d Nav y have their auxiliaries , therefore th e ai r forc e shoul d hav e it s separate auxiliary." 33 Yet anothe r lin e o f negativ e reasonin g wa s tha t th e AA F an d Genera l Arnold kne w tha t th e WAS P progra m wa s no t viabl e o r reasonable , bu t tha t AAF leader s ha d pressure d fo r militar y recognitio n o f th e pilot s i n orde r t o overcompensate fo r thei r mistake : But at this stage of the war, the renewed effort t o commission member s of the WASPS is more indicative of a desire to vindicate the wisdom of an experiment of doubtful valu e than to meet any valid need. On a "long-term" basis, it is said, full effectiveness o f the WASPS requires militarization of the organization. The question i s whether long-term us e of woman pilots in the Army is really under serious consideration b y anybody. 34 Another situatio n tha t damage d th e program s reputatio n wa s tha t th e media continuall y compare d th e WASPs, who performe d relativel y risk y mis sions, wit h othe r women' s auxiliarie s whos e mission s wer e no t a t al l similar , simply becaus e al l maintained th e sam e gender . Fo r example , th e Washington Daily News note d tha t th e "25th WASP girl-pilot death has just been reported " and added , "Som e critic s o f th e WAS P progra m hav e compare d thes e 2 5 deaths amon g th e les s tha n a thousan d WASP S i n servic e wit h 4 0 death s i n the entir e personne l o f th e WACS , WAVES , SPAR S an d Arm y nurse s com bined." 35 The resul t o f thi s inequitabl e compariso n o f fatalit y figures amon g th e women's auxiliarie s was t o shap e th e WASPs a s being incompetent . I t als o re flected a cultura l constructio n i n whic h me n an d wome n wer e perceive d a s being such separate categorie s tha t i t was deemed mor e logica l to compar e th e WASPs wit h wome n wh o serve d a s clerks, nurse s an d secretaries , rathe r tha n with mal e pilot s statione d a t th e sam e base s a s th e WASPs . Ha d th e WASP s been compare d wit h thes e mal e pilots , instea d o f bein g constructe d a s in competent, i t would hav e bee n reveale d tha t th e rat e o f accident s an d death s

no I They'll Be Home for Christmas

was lower for WASPs than for male pilots in training and performing simila r missions.

Cochran Releases Report on WASP Program On August i, 1944, Cochran issued an eleven-page, two-year status report on the WASPs to General Arnold, which was written, in part, "to determine their future i n light o f todays know n factors." 36 The repor t provide d a thoroug h history o f th e program , a n administrativ e backgroun d o n th e organization , and cost s o f training an d progra m maintenance , an d i t liste d th e objective s and mission s o f the WASPs. Cochran conclude d tha t th e program wa s successful i n meetin g its stated objectives 37 an d describe d th e rang e of missions being performed b y WASPs, which include d ferrying , instructing , engineer ing flying, target towing , testin g flight clothin g an d equipment , an d liaiso n flying.38 She noted: "The usefulness o f WASPs cannot be measured by the importance of the types of planes they fly, for thei r job is to do the routine, th e dish-washing flying jobs of the AAF, that will release men for higher grades of duty."39 In discussin g WASP missions , th e repor t note d tha t man y WASPs had receive d commendations , an d tha t th e acciden t an d fatalit y rate s wer e lower for WASPs than for male pilots of the Continental Army Air Forces who were performing simila r missions. 40 Either to counter the negative publicity surrounding the WASPs and the bill for militarizatio n o r in a calculated attemp t t o bring about th e conclusion o f the program, th e Pres s Branch o f the War Departmen t release d th e two-yea r status report in its entirety and attached to it a two-page news release that highlighted, not only in its text but in its headline, a single suggestion made in the report b y Cochran, which was that "seriou s consideration shoul d b e given t o inactivation o f the WASP program i f militarization i s not soon authorized." 41 This suggestio n wa s seize d upo n b y th e medi a a s a n ultimatu m issue d b y Cochran to force the AAF into giving her and "her girls" officer commissions , and would lead to the final demise of the WASP. A substantial portion o f the report dealt with the issue of militarization—whether th e pilots should be militarized, if the WAC was an acceptable option for obtaining militarization, and if the program shoul d continue . Cochran cam e to several conclusions, which were that the program should be militarized, but not as part of the WAC, and that despit e th e succes s an d valu e o f th e program , withou t militarizatio n i t should no t continu e onc e an evaluatio n ha d show n tha t th e WASPs were n o longer needed. She noted in a section about militarization that :

They'll Be Home for Christmas I i n i. Th e loss of funds expended in training civilian WASPs and the unreliability of flying personne l in a civilian status, as indicated by the high resignation rate, are factors to be considered in using civilian WASPs in any AAF activity. . . . 2. Th e difficulties o f providing proper administration of a civilian organization established t o perfor m a military missio n hav e proven t o b e almos t insur mountable. WASPs are assigned to military units, perform th e same jobs as commissioned pilots , an d ar e associate d wholl y wit h militar y personnel . However, a s civilian s the y ar e subjec t t o a n entirel y differen t se t o f laws , rules, and regulations. . . . 3. Difficultie s encountere d i n utilizin g th e WAS P civilia n personne l a s out lined above and mentioned throughout this report indicate that the only ef fective means by which the AAF can obtain efficien t an d economical use of women pilot s i s through a militarized progra m whic h make s th e WASP a part of the AAF. Simple justice for the WASPs themselves also dictates such a step. They are doing the work of an officer free d t o serve elsewhere. They get none of the benefits of military status, not even the right to a military funeral. As a WASP s pay is less than the income of a second lieutenant on flying duty, i t follow s tha t th e AAF i s getting result s a t les s cost. This woul d presumably continu e i f WASPs were militarized, a s it is believed tha t mos t WASP commissions would be in the lowest grade. They are entitled to equal pay and equal recognition fo r equal work. 42 With regar d t o whe n an d ho w th e WAS P progra m shoul d b e concluded , Cochran wrote : The WASP should, of course, be demobilized quickly when no longer needed. To say that they should be the first pilots to be demobilized does not necessarily follow. At present each WASP saves one less-qualified ma n fro m bein g withdrawn from privat e life or releases one already-trained pilo t for othe r duties. The question needs to be raised and settled whether WASPs should be retained temporar ily during early stages of demobilization so that male pilots who wish to return to their norma l civilia n occupation s ca n do so that muc h earlier . Certain i t is that the WASPs will have no useful place with the AAF when the male pilots who wish to remain in service are sufficient i n number to perform al l the duties. 43 Cochran conclude d th e repor t wit h fou r recommendations : tha t th e WASPs b e militarized an d commissione d a t the lowest grad e possible; that n o decisions b e mad e abou t progra m expansio n unti l projection s wer e estab lished abou t futur e nee d fo r pilots ; tha t th e civilia n WAS P progra m b e con tinued unti l a final decisio n wa s mad e abou t militarization ; an d finally : Under a civilian status, so many elements of the experimental project are lost or weakened, an d there is such lack of control ove r permanency o f work by indi-

ii2 I They'll Be Home for Christmas vidual WASPS after they are trained, that serious consideration should be given to inactivatio n o f the WASP program i f militarization i s not soo n authorized . If such action should be taken, and effort shoul d be made to obtain military status, i f onl y fo r on e day , an d resultin g veteran s recognitio n fo r al l wh o hav e served commendably. 44 The medi a leap t o n thi s recommendatio n solely . Wit h headline s lik e "WASP Directo r Demand s Arm y Statu s fo r Group," 4 5 "WASP S Ask Genera l Arnold fo r Bar s o r Discharge," 46 an d "Mis s Cochra n Woul d Commissio n Wasps o r Junk Organization," 47 th e medi a asserte d tha t Cochra n wa s issuin g an ultimatu m t o secur e commission s an d tha t th e WASP s wer e no t profes sional o r devote d t o th e caus e o f winning th e war , becaus e the y wer e alread y resigning an d wer e willing t o sto p flying i f they di d no t receiv e commissions . One suc h piece , "Th e WAS P Row, " claime d tha t Genera l Arnol d wa s hardl y aware o f th e WASPs , ha d bee n draw n unfortunatel y int o th e dispute , an d along wit h mal e pilots , woul d gladl y us e th e threa t t o disban d th e WASPs . The piec e began : It i s unfortunate tha t Gen . Arnold, chie f of the United State s army air forces , should have gotten himself involved in a dispute over the military status of the WASPS. The bes t availabl e informatio n fro m Washingto n o n th e ro w kicke d up b y Jacquelyn [sic] Cochran, directo r o f the women's air force servic e pilots, is that it is a petticoat fuss from whic h Arnold would gladly withdraw.48 Occasional piece s tha t supporte d th e WASP s di d appear , bu t neve r wit h anywhere nea r th e sensationa l headlines , size , frequency , o r placemen t o f th e opposing pieces . " A Fair Proposal " ra n onl y fou r paragraph s an d state d tha t Cochran's repor t "reviewe d th e two-yea r histor y o f th e Wasp s an d th e splen did recor d the y hav e mad e ferryin g al l type s o f aircraf t fro m factorie s t o sta tions throughou t th e countr y an d towin g target s a t aeria l gunnery schools." 49 The piec e conclude d b y notin g tha t Cochran' s "recommendation " tha t th e WASPs receiv e military statu s fo r a t leas t on e day , in orde r t o receiv e veteran' s recognition o r en d thei r service , was " a fair proposa l an d on e o n whic h Con gress shoul d ac t promptly . Thes e youn g wome n eithe r hav e prove d thei r worth o r the y hav e not . I f they have , the y ar e entitled t o th e sam e considera tion whic h alread y ha s bee n give n wome n volunteers." 50 Anothe r editoria l that supporte d th e WASPs, "WASP s Deserv e Army Status, " ended : The women fliers should be recognized. They do a task equally as important as the WACs, WAVEs or SPARs . They are entrusted wit h exceptionall y valuable fighting aircraft. They must be efficient. Thei r recor d is superb. The members now are deprived of military benefits sinc e their status is that

They'll Be Home for Christmas I 11 3 of civilians. They cannot be used to fullest wort h i n the air forces becaus e they are not under military discipline. The House was wrong in June. It s time to give these young women thei r due recognition. 51

AAF Sets the Stage for Disbandment An August 24,1944 , memorandu m fro m th e offic e o f the assistan t t o directo r for th e Army Air Force s on outline d plan s fo r disbandin g th e WASP progra m and suggeste d tha t th e conclusio n o f Cochran' s report , whic h requeste d mili tarization o r cancellation, aros e from a source other tha n Cochran' s ow n hand . The repor t bega n b y focusin g o n medi a activit y surroundin g th e issu e o f WASP militarization . I n referencin g wha t h e calle d th e "WAS P Project, " Major Richar d Elliott , specia l assistan t t o th e directo r fo r Arm y Ai r Forces , stated tha t variou s phase s o f th e "project " wer e completed . Thos e phase s in cluded: "issuanc e o f article s o n CAA-WT S Trainees , o n Civilia n Instructors , on WAS P trainin g i n Orlando , an d o f Mis s Cochran' s repor t t o th e Com manding General . . . . Fact s o f th e WAS P situatio n hav e bee n clarified , suc cess o f th e experimen t partiall y told , an d th e issu e outline d a s on e o f milita rization o r o f cancellation." 52 Cochran' s purporte d ultimatu m seemingl y wa s not eve n he r own , bu t par t o f a plan devise d b y th e AAF. Major Elliott' s memorandu m wen t o n t o explor e continue d lobbyin g fo r legislation benefitin g th e WASP s an d consideration s abou t th e continuatio n of the program . I t state d tha t ther e was considerabl e oppositio n t o th e WAS P program o n Capito l Hill , an d tha t onl y sustained publi c relation s an d legisla tive campaign s combine d wit h provabl e need s fo r pilot s migh t resul t i n mili tarization o f th e program . Th e ris k was tha t "an y campaig n t o obtai n milita rization coul d resul t harmfully fo r AAF public and legislativ e relations." 53 The AAF was gearing up fo r a larger legislative campaign t o obtai n separat e stand ing fro m th e Army followin g th e war , s o i t di d no t wan t t o mak e enemie s i n Washington. The repor t suggeste d tha t WASPs coul d b e used fo r a short tim e as civilian s i f "n o actio n i s take n t o projec t the m befor e th e public' s eyes," 54 but that the deactivation proces s should b e started. The repor t concluded wit h two recommendations : a. Announcemen t b e made that al l basic flight trainin g of WASPS at Avenger Field will be concluded as of 6 September 1944, with the class graduating that date t o b e utilized, wit h al l other student s i n trainin g t o b e dismissed. Announcement will be tied to "changing pilot situation in anticipation of fall of Germany," and "undesirabilit y of continuing to expend funds fo r training. "

ii4 I They 11 Be Home for Christmas b. Announcemen t b e mad e tha t immediately—o r followin g fal l o f Ger many—the WASP program will be cancelled. 55 In a n attemp t t o direc t som e o f th e publi c attentio n awa y fro m th e WASPs, Elliot t suggeste d "tha t an y action i n regar d t o cuttin g bac k o r can celling th e WASP progra m b e tied i n with simila r actio n i n regar d t o othe r women i n AAF service, to civilian mal e pilots , to civilian specialists." 56 T he plan fo r endin g th e WASP s wa s written . I f th e progra m receive d littl e media attention , the n i t would b e continue d temporaril y a s a civilian pro gram. However, th e editorials an d articles opposing WASP militarizatio n contin ued i n greate r number s tha n thos e i n suppor t o f th e program . Washingto n newspapers frequentl y ra n article s agains t th e WASPs , whic h alleged , lik e Pearson's piece , tha t th e WASP progra m an d the AAF were engage d i n illega l activities b y attemptin g t o g o agains t a congressional order . Th e Washington Daily News ra n a piec e tha t began : "Undaunte d b y Congress ' emphati c n o vote i n June, advocate s o f giving Army statu s t o th e WASPs, Air Forc e civil ian fliers, hav e begu n a pressure campaig n t o get Congress t o revers e itself." 57 "Inside Washington," a syndicated piece that ran throughout th e country, suc cinctly pu t fort h al l th e opposin g argument s agains t an d incorrec t assump tions abou t th e WASP program : Despite a Congressiona l ba n o n WASP S i n th e U.S. Army, ther e i s a mov e under way to incorporate th e women pilot s in Uncle Sam's fighting forc e any way. Ever since being given the cold-shoulder by Congress early this summer, the WASPS have been buzzing angrily, recently issuing an ultimatum of their own. In a n n-pag e report , Jacquelin e Cochran , WAS P director , demande d th e "Girls" be made par t o f the Army or given thei r discharge . The top air chief, Gen. H. H. Arnold, always was friendly towar d the idea of women pilots to fill out the need for "manpower" in his flying forces. And i f the women pilot s ar e disbanded, Jacquelin e adds , the y shoul d b e given militar y statu s i f only for a day so those who have served ca n be recognized as "veterans" of World War II.58 Media pressur e wa s relentless , an d o n Septembe r 12 , Major Genera l M . A. Craig , assistan t chie f o f Air Staff , issue d a memorandum t o th e office o f General Arnol d tha t recommende d tha t "th e WASP Progra m b e discontin ued o n o r immediatel y afte r th e day Germany i s defeated," becaus e o f con tinued oppositio n agains t th e progra m fro m th e medi a an d member s o f Congress. 59

They'll Be Home for Christmas I 11 5

Arnold Disbands the WASPs O n Octobe r 1 , 1944, Genera l Arnol d issue d a memorandum t o WASP direc tor Cochra n statin g tha t th e WASPs ha d successfull y complete d thei r missio n and, becaus e o f the "changin g wa r situation, " woul d "soo n becom e pilo t ma terial i n exces s o f needs." 60 H e wrote : I have therefore directe d tha t WASP be deactivated a s soon a s consistent wit h giving adequate notice to the WASPs and t o the Commanding Officer s o f the bases where they are employed, and that you submit promptly to me your plan for such deactivation t o take place not later than 2 0 December 1944. 61 Cochran responde d tha t same day, offering five recommendations : tha t th e program en d o n Decembe r 2 0 t o giv e bas e commandin g officer s adequat e time t o arrang e replacement s an d retur n th e WASPs hom e b y Christmas; tha t any WASP resignin g afte r Novembe r 2 0 no t hav e he r performanc e statu s af fected b y her resignation ; tha t al l phase s o f th e WASP progra m b e continue d until tha t date ; tha t eac h WASP i n servic e unti l he r releas e b e issue d a certifi cate simila r t o a n honorabl e discharge ; an d tha t al l WASP s b e give n a car d confirming thei r pilo t ratings , t o assis t the m i n obtainin g commercia l pilots ' licenses. 62 The sam e day , Genera l Arnol d authore d a lette r t o b e sen t t o al l WASPs , which announce d th e inactivatio n o f th e progra m o n Decembe r 20 . H e stated: The WASP became part of the Air Forces because we had to explore the nations total manpowe r resource s an d i n orde r t o releas e male pilots fo r othe r duties . Their very successful recor d o f accomplishment ha s proved tha t i n an y futur e total effort th e nation can count on thousands of its young women to fly any of its aircraft. Yo u have freed mal e pilots fo r othe r work, bu t no w th e war situa tion has changed and the time has come when your volunteered service s are no longer needed . The situatio n i s that i f you continu e i n service ; you will be replacing instea d o f releasing ou r youn g men . I kno w tha t th e WASP wouldn' t want that. 63 Cochran include d Arnold' s lette r alon g wit h a lette r sh e sen t ou t t o th e WASPs o n Octobe r 2 . Her lette r outline d th e condition s o f disbandment sh e had submitte d i n th e Octobe r 1 letter t o Arnol d an d directe d th e WASP s t o update thei r logbook s t o hel p th e AA F issu e a horsepower-ratin g car d t o them. 64 Th e followin g day , Cochra n wrot e a lette r t o th e WASP s trainin g a t Avenger Field , notifyin g the m o f th e upcomin g disbandmen t an d assurin g them tha t the y woul d b e allowe d t o finish thei r training. 65 Cochra n als o vis-

u6 I

They'll Be Home for Christmas

ited the WASP trainee s at Avenger: "Jacki e Cochran cam e to the field, an d sh e announced t o us that we would n o longe r be flying afte r December , tha t Con gress ha d decide d tha t the y n o longe r neede d u s tha t th e wa r wa s windin g down. There wa s a lot o f crying," sai d Bett y Stag g Turner. 66 O n Octobe r 4 , the Pres s Branch o f the War Departmen t issue d a media re lease announcing tha t th e entire WASP progra m woul d b e concluded o n De cember 20 . It began : Unless there are unexpected and much higher combat losses in the air war over Germany, th e Army Air Forces will inactivate the Women Airforce Servic e Pilots (WASP ) o n Decembe r 20 , 1944 , Genera l H . H . Arnold , Commandin g General, announced today . The decision to release volunteer women pilots from further servic e with the AAF was based on present indications that by mid-December there will be sufficient male pilots available to fill all flying assignments in the United States and overseas. General Arnold said: "I am proud o f the WASPs and thei r recor d o f skill, versatility and loyalty . They have done outstanding work for the AAF, even exceeding our expectations when the program was begun i n 1942. "The WASPs were accepted a s volunteers a t a time when th e natio n face d total mobilization and when a pilot shortage would have imperiled this mission of the AAF. They have been a s much a n integra l part o f the AAF as their civil service status would permi t an d hav e not onl y performed highl y essential ser vice but als o have established previously-unknow n fact s concernin g th e capa bilities o f women i n highl y specialize d militar y flying jobs. Their knowledg e will be of inestimable value should another national emergency arise. Together with th e women fliers of our Allies, the WASP have proved tha t women hav e the ability and the capacity to perform th e most difficult job s in flying." 67 The pres s release did nothing to counter th e arguments tha t had been raise d against the WASPs. Indeed, i t furthered th e argument tha t the WASPs were no t needed b y incorrectly statin g tha t ther e existe d enoug h pilot s t o fly al l domes tic missions. The releas e also contained mino r errors , including an incorrect figure fo r WAS P deaths. 68 The publi c announcemen t o f the disbandmen t o f th e WASPs did not achieve its intent; media attacks against the program continued . In a n articl e o n Arnold s announcemen t tha t th e WASP progra m woul d soo n be disbanded, th e Washington Daily News wrote : "Th e decisio n cam e after sev eral months' controvers y about furthe r expensiv e trainin g of women pilot s at a time when several thousand male civilian fliers were available as the result of discontinuance o f the civil pilot trainin g program." 69 An editoria l i n the Washing-

They'll Be Home for Christmas I 11 7 ton Post furthered th e allegations , claimin g tha t th e "Wasps ' controversia l ca reer" ended directly because of Cochran's ultimatum. The piece was titled "Me n Take Over: Army t o Dro p Wome n Flier s Next Dec . 20 . "70 Even wit h th e progra m slate d t o end , an d wit h i t th e threa t pose d b y th e WASPs, some positive articles began t o trickle into th e media as well. "'Let U s Fly,' Ple a o f WASPS : Groundin g o f 1,00 0 Girl s Bring s Man y Heartaches " quoted tw o WASPs as saying that th e trainin g of WASPs was wasted, an d tha t the WASP s ha d n o hope s o f finding commercia l flying job s followin g dis bandment. WASP Nancy Hanks was quoted a s saying: "the airlines don't wan t us. O n e o f th e girl s was tol d whe n sh e inquire d abou t a job, 'Th e onl y plac e we wan t wome n i s scrubbin g ou t th e planes , o r mayb e a n offic e i f yo u ca n type!'" 71 Cochran ha d bee n quote d th e previou s sprin g a s sayin g tha t th e WASP s would hav e n o futur e i n flying: Jacqueline Cochrane [sic], director of the Wasps, declared yesterday she can see no future fo r women i n commercial aviatio n after th e war. . . . "I don't believe many women will be used actively in aviation afte r th e war because there will be too many pilots available to the aviation companie s who will need jobs. "Airlines, too , will conside r th e hazard s o f hiring wome n wh o ma y marr y and hav e to tak e time ou t t o have children. Flyin g is nothing you ca n pu t o n the shelf for six or eight months and the n tak e up again." 72 As th e dat e fo r disbandmen t neared , th e percentage s o f positiv e medi a pieces abou t th e WAS P progra m increased , becaus e th e mal e civilia n pilo t s lobby, which ha d achieve d it s goal o f ending th e WASP program , pulle d bac k its medi a campaign . Fo r th e first tim e sinc e th e debat e ove r th e progra m began, the WASPs themselves were interviewed an d th e media reported o n th e nature o f thei r missions . Among thos e wh o wrot e i n prais e o f the WASP wa s popular U S O an d Hollywoo d entertaine r Bo b Hope : We were flying in th e lead shi p i n a formation o f B-17 s the othe r da y on ou r way t o th e Army ai r bas e in Clovis , N . M. , an d afte r w e had bee n i n th e ai r about an hour I went up to the cockpit to talk to the pilot and discovered a girl flying the plane. Imagine my amazement! I should have know it was a woman pilot becaus e another B-1 7 was flying along side trying to ru b noses . This girl, Mary A. Gresham of Plainfield, N. J. is a Wasp, one of those girls who have been flying planes for our Government thes e past few years and have been making a great contribution t o the war effort . I found ou t fro m on e of the crew why they call them "Wasps"—I f you get too close they sting, I understand th e Air Force is going to drop all the civilian

n8 I They 11 Be Home for Christmas girl pilots this year and before it's too late I think we all should make them take a bo w becaus e an y tim e a girl ca n pilo t a lead shi p o f a formation o f Flyin g Fortresses it certainly makes a sucker out of the phrase "weaker sex." 73 Stories commonl y focuse d o n wha t th e WASP s woul d d o afte r th e pro gram disbanded . O n e stor y reviewe d th e findings o f a War Departmen t sur vey o f WASPs, whic h revealed , no t surprisingly , tha t th e majorit y wante d t o continue flying afte r disbandment. 7 4 Th e stor y noted , however , tha t i t wa s unlikely tha t an y WASP s woul d find suc h employment , an d tha t thos e WASPs wh o ha d bee n tryin g t o find civilia n flying job s wer e alread y givin g up. The stor y also note d tha t Cochra n ha d writte n t o th e embassie s o f Allied nations t o se e i f the y woul d hir e th e WASPs , i n muc h th e sam e manne r a s England ha d hire d America n wome n t o transpor t plane s befor e th e forma tion o f th e WAS P program , an d tha t othe r WASP s wer e lookin g towar d South America a s a possible place to fly commercial transpor t planes. 75 Othe r pieces als o speculate d o n wha t th e futur e woul d hol d fo r th e disbande d WASPS: The wonderful Wasps (they fly B-29's, pursuits and other heavy planes) will try to connect with the Red Cross, driving ambulances. They are all miserable because the Governmen t i s inactivating the m o n Decembe r 20 . None ca n ge t a job a t an y plane plant, either . Fin e way to rewar d thes e girls who riske d thei r lives for all of us. Here's a salute to the 600 of them. 76 Now there is no place for thes e 1,000 girls , the greater majority o f whom wan t to kee p o n flying. Man y seekin g jobs a s commercial pilot s hav e bee n turne d down because there are so many male pilots. It seems unfortunate tha t this situation exists . These girls gave up good jobs, in many instances, and the y have done valuable work. They deserve better treatment. 77

WASP Disbandment Costs the Army Air Forces Time and Money One o f th e mos t positiv e piece s o n th e WASP s wa s a syndicate d colum n b y Gill Rob b Wilson. The piec e not onl y pointed ou t th e successe s o f the WAS P program, bu t state d tha t th e disbandmen t o f th e WASP s woul d prov e costl y to taxpayer s becaus e th e mal e pilot s takin g ove r thei r position s ferryin g air planes woul d nee d training , whic h woul d cos t tim e an d money . Wilso n ac knowledged tha t expecte d wartim e pilo t casualtie s wer e no t a s hig h a s ha d been anticipate d an d planne d for , bu t h e was no t convince d tha t th e WASP s were no t needed , particularl y sinc e they were "ferryin g mor e tha n 8 0 per cen t

They'll Be Home for Christmas I 11 9 of all ships produced." 78 Among his arguments for continuin g th e WASPs was the rang e o f planes the y were capabl e o f flying: I take up no cudgels for women pilots because they are women nor for men because they are men, but only to get on with the winning of a war, the toughness of which is not yet generally comprehended. Approximately two hundred of the nine hundred Wasps can fly expertly any plane that i s used in battle today, including jet-propelled aircraft . Trainin g of men t o tak e their places will requir e a million dollars, from fou r t o six months' time, and even then will not replace the broad experience which the women have built up on pursuit aircraft. I just do not thin k th e United State s is rich enough t o throw away two hundred ex pert pilots, regardless of who they are. . . . In thei r tw o years ' existenc e th e Wasp organizatio n a s a whole ha s logge d better than half a million air hours on almost every type of mission except combat. In ferrying the y have flown all the aircraft fro m th e biggest bomber to th e hottest pursuit, an d thei r low accident recor d is a joy to behold. But , as previously indicated, the question is not of demobilizing the Wasps, but of firing the experts among them who can not be replaced in full an d whose partial replacement will be expensive and slow. 79 Appearing i n th e sam e issu e o f th e New York Herald Tribune wa s a n edito rial i n suppor t o f Wilsons piece : The necessary waste in prosecuting a war is appalling. Appalling too, is its corollary—callousness towar d unnecessary , entirel y avoidabl e waste . Captai n Gil l Robb Wilson point s out elsewhere on thi s page that th e demobilization o f the Women's Airforce pilot s scheduled fo r Decembe r 2 0 will, unless prompt mea sures are taken t o avoid it, deprive the Air Transport Comman d o f 200 exper t ferrying pilots; cost a million dollar s to train men t o do their jobs; hamper th e delivery of planes during the four to six months required to train replacements; and prevent the men who are transferred t o ferry dut y from completin g train ing for specialized combat tasks. The decisio n t o discontinu e trainin g wome n pilot s an d t o disban d th e Wasps was no doubt based on the fact that Airforce casualtie s were not so great as estimates and th e resultan t prospec t tha t ther e would b e plenty o f available men pilots . A s Mr . Wilso n make s clear , however , ther e ar e no t me n alread y trained t o d o th e specialized flying which th e tw o hundred women hav e been doing for eighteen months. They have flown almost every type of war plane and they have done half of all the ferrying o f pursuit planes . Moreover, thei r enviable safety record is one which it will be next to impossible for flyers who have not had their accumulated experienc e to match. What i s needed is (1) authorization fo r the Air Transport Comman d t o hire pilots in a civilian capacit y and (2 ) the money with which t o pay them. There

120 I They 11 Be Home for Christmas are unused funds appropriate d for the Wasps training program which might be allocated fo r a t leas t partial payment . Neithe r requiremen t shoul d presen t in superable difficulty . Wha t i s unthinkabl e i s that th e Transport Comman d b e forced no w t o dispens e with th e service s o f 20 0 exper t pilot s who ca n b e replaced onl y a t a very high cos t i n time , mone y an d personnel . This surel y is waste that can and should be avoided. 80 It i s probable tha t someon e fro m th e Ferryin g Squadro n o r th e Air Trans port Comman d leake d certai n informatio n t o Wilson , becaus e th e figures used, as well as the angle of the story, replicated a memorandum tha t had bee n sent b y Ferryin g Squadro n Brigadie r Genera l Bo b Nowlan d t o th e Com manding Genera l o f th e Ai r Transpor t Command . Th e Ferryin g Squadro n had propose d t o Genera l Arnol d tha t certai n experience d WASP s b e allowe d to continu e thei r service s past th e disbandmen t o f the WASP program . I n ad dition, severa l WASP s mad e a n offe r (whic h the y publicized ) t o th e AA F t o continue thei r flying service s throughou t th e wa r year s fo r paymen t o f on e dollar pe r year. 81 On e articl e focused no t o n th e patriotis m o f these particula r women, bu t o n a n inferre d lac k o f suppor t i n th e wa r effor t fro m othe r women: The offe r o f som e 2 0 Women Ai r Servic e Pilots—wh o hav e bee n know n a s Wasps—to serve for $1 a year if they can continue their work of ferrying planes from point s of manufacture t o points where they are needed, an d it s rejectio n by Gen. H. H . Arnold o n th e ground tha t ther e are now plenty of male pilots is in contrast with the situation tha t exists in other branches of war work. The Army Nurse Corps, the Wacs, the Waves and the Spars all need recruits and women workers are needed in many war industries but sufficient volunteer s are not forthcoming . Th e shortag e i n th e Nurse Corp s ha s bee n s o acute tha t talk of drafting nurse s has been heard an d extensio n o f the draft t o women t o fill up the other branches has been discussed. 82 Other articles , however, focuse d o n th e misuse d patriotis m o f the WASPs: To be qualified an d anxious to do an important war time job but being barred from it' s the plight of about 1,00 0 patrioti c American young women. Members o f at leas t tw o o f th e deactivate d squadron s hav e requeste d tha t they be allowed to continue the work, at $1 a year pay. . . . Most of the ex-WASPS expect to enter commercial aviation. Whatever their choice, they again will select something of direct benefit t o the war effort. 83 One articl e note d tha t offer s ha d bee n receive d fro m WASP s a t thre e dif ferent ferryin g bases , an d tha t th e "Ai r Force s sai d th e offe r wa s appreciate d but tha t enoug h me n pilot s were availabl e t o carr y on th e ferryin g operation s

They'll Be Home for Christmas I 12 1 which th e women civilia n pilot s ha d bee n performing." 84 However , thi s pub licized statemen t wa s ver y differen t fro m th e reality , whic h wa s tha t traine d male pilot s wer e no t availabl e t o tak e ove r th e position s o f th e WASPs , an d that serious backlogs would resul t because male pilots needed additional train ing t o replac e th e mor e tha n 80 0 WASPs who wer e engage d i n activ e service . O f particula r concer n t o th e Ferryin g Squadro n wa s the loss of skilled WASP s to delive r pursui t planes , becaus e a t th e tim e o f thei r disbandment , WASP s were ferryin g al l P-47 Thunderbolts an d nearl y al l of the othe r fighters. 85 O n Novembe r 1 , 1944 , Brigadie r Genera l Nowland , commande r o f th e ATC Ferryin g Division, wrote a memorandum detailin g the hardship tha t th e loss o f th e WASP s woul d caus e t o th e divisio n an d t o th e mal e pilot s wh o would hav e t o tak e thei r places . Th e mos t significan t point s raise d i n th e memorandum follow : The announce d inactivatio n o f th e WASP o n 2 0 Decembe r 194 4 will hav e a pronounced effec t o n th e ability of the Ferrying Division t o meet its commit ments an d t o delive r pursuit typ e aircraft. Sinc e June 194 3 women pilot s have been delivering fighters in increasing numbers, and a t this date 117 WASPs, or 82 per cent of the total number assigne d thi s Division, ar e "frozen" o n pursui t planes. They represent 49 per cent of our total "frozen" pursuit pilots in the five Groups to which WASPs are assigned. It was planned to keep this group of civilian pilots on pursuit deliveries permanently, thu s releasing men for progressiv e upgrading in order to meet our quotas. . . . Replacement o f these experienced pilot s with a n equal number o f male pilots will entail a months trainin g at Brownsville for eac h male pilot. These replacements must be chosen from th e ranks of our more experienced personnel, since i t ha s bee n demonstrate d tha t a minimum o f 400 hour s an d a n instru ment car d ar e necessary prerequisites fo r pursui t trainin g an d subsequen t saf e delivery of fighters. The 117 WASPs we have been using on pursuit deliveries are already experienced i n this specialized typ e of flying and have established a remarkably low accident record. . . . The cos t o f trainin g a fighter pilo t a t th e 4t h OT U i s approximatel y $9,336.00, or $1,085,312 for the 117 replacements required upon the discharge of the WASPs. . . . The loss of the women pilot s in th e Ferrying Division will effect a definit e hardship upo n th e operation s o f the Groups . The discharg e o f the WASPs i n December will necessitate the immediate freezing on pursuits of 117 male pilots to replac e them . Thes e officer s wil l consequentl y b e ineligibl e fo r upgradin g and foreig n quota s for a minimum perio d o f five months, since pursuit train ing consume s on e month , an d a period o f four month s o f pursuit flying ha s been demonstrate d t o b e th e minimu m perio d t o insur e effectiv e utilization .

122 I They 11 Be Home for Christmas These pilots, even after training , will not b e as efficient, du e to lack of experience, as are the WASPs who have been specializing in this type of flying over a period o f eighteen months . I t i s obvious that th e eliminatio n o f this group o f pilots will no t onl y seriousl y hampe r th e Ferryin g Divisio n i n performin g it s ferrying mission, bu t wil l resul t i n needles s expenditur e o f a considerabl e amount o f money in training and replacements. 86 The memorandu m reache d the attention o f General Arnold, an d unde r hi s command, a terse reply was issued to th e ATC statin g that hirin g WASPs afte r the disbandment dat e would no t b e approved an d strictl y prohibiting any discussion abou t th e cost s o r delay s tha t th e WAS P disbandmen t woul d cause : "Evaluation o f thi s progra m i n term s o f dollar s an d cent s i s not th e immedi ate issue at stake and personne l unde r you r contro l shoul d scrupulousl y avoi d any discussio n alon g thi s line." 87 Had simila r assessment s o f the cost s and delay s of WASP disbandmen t no t been forbidden , th e hig h cos t o f disbandin g th e WASPs woul d hav e becom e a matte r o f record , revealin g tha t disbandmen t ha d no t save d taxpayer s an y money, bu t mos t likel y had cos t millions . B y using th e dolla r figure provide d by the Ferryin g Squadron , a rough figure o f the cost s o f replacing th e WASP s can b e assessed . The tru e cos t i s likely t o b e eve n higher , becaus e mal e pilot s would als o have received a higher monthl y wage than WASPs, as well as flight pay an d th e cost s o f benefits . Th e trainin g cost s o f al l WAS P replacement s would als o vary slightly fro m th e Ferryin g Divisio n figure, becaus e WASPs i n different division s flew differen t plane s an d missions , whic h require d th e in troduction o f othe r type s o f transitiona l training . However , whil e no t al l WASPs wer e engage d i n ferryin g pursui t planes , WASPs di d hav e specialize d training in bombers, experimental plane s (includin g jets), and a s trainers serv ing a s tow targe t pilots , instructors , tes t pilots , engineerin g pilots , an d s o on . Using Nowland' s assessmen t o f $9,33 6 t o trai n a pilo t t o ferr y pursuits , a rough calculatio n reveal s that th e estimate d cos t simply to trai n mal e pilots t o replace th e 85 0 WASP s activ e a t th e tim e o f disbandmen t wa s $7,935,600 . (This figure doe s no t includ e increase d monthl y wages , flight pay , healt h in surance, lif e insurance , an d othe r benefit s accorde d t o militar y pilots. ) Th e amount requeste d b y th e AAF an d approve d b y th e Congressiona l Appropri ation Committe e t o ru n th e entir e WASP progra m throughou t 194 5 was onl y $6,39i,250. 88 The memorandu m issue d by General Arnold's office orderin g silence abou t the costs o f training mal e pilots t o replac e WASPs i s official acknowledgmen t from th e AA F tha t th e WAS P progra m wa s necessary , tha t it s disbandmen t would caus e delay s o f militar y plane s i n reachin g thei r destinatio n an d cos t

They'll Be Home for Christmas I 12 3 the countr y million s o f dollars, an d tha t mal e pilots were no t actuall y traine d to d o th e job s o f th e WASPs . However , a positio n o f enforce d silenc e fro m AAF Comman d Headquarter s woul d ensur e tha t problem s cause d a t variou s domestic base s b y the recal l o f WASPs woul d no t b e documented . In th e meantime, Cochra n wa s trying to locate other flying position s for th e WASPs, but without success . She gathered a list of WASPs willing to fly planes for Allie d nations , the n approache d th e embassie s o f thes e nations , bu t non e followed throug h o n th e offer. 89 Rumor s o f potential flying job s circulate d fre quently among th e WASPs, as well as rumors tha t th e program was going to b e continued o r resurrected . On e suc h rumo r circulatin g afte r disbandmen t claimed th e WASP s coul d b e incorporate d i n th e WA C a s rate d flying offi cers. 90 This rumo r wa s s o strong an d continue d fo r s o long tha t Cochra n sen t a letter t o al l former WASP s i n Februar y 194 5 explaining tha t i t had n o factua l basis, and tha t th e WASP progra m wa s no t goin g t o b e continued. 91 Even a s the WASP progra m ended , ther e wa s n o officia l acknowledgmen t of the value o f the progra m i n th e publi c sphere , an d th e medi a continue d t o issue negativ e an d exaggerate d piece s attackin g th e WASPs . O n e suc h piec e was "Passin g o f WAS P Mourne d b y Arden t Fe w W h o Create d Thi s Un Needed Service. " I t began : With the advent of Dec. 1, the futility o f the WASP will disappear into the void of Washington records, mourned only by its creators and remembered wistfull y by few. No dimmin g o f th e glor y an d courag e exhibite d b y thos e keen-eye d girl s who entered the WASP, who flew for it, studied and died for it. They only read the posters, then crawle d into dungarees an d trainin g planes to fill a need tha t never existed. The Women s Airforce Service Pilots, brainchild of American aviatrix Jacqueline Cochrane [sic], blundere d throug h a series of official okehs , was patterned after th e highly useful an d efficient Britis h Women's Ferrying corps. Outwardly a vitally needed home front organ , the unit actually added turmoil to the overfed pilot trainin g program, embittere d experience d pilot s who were thrown ou t o f jobs because of its existence, and worst of all, disillusioned a lot of stout-hearted U.S. maidens who were in there pitching for a No. 1 cause. . . . In spit e o f unenviabl e trainin g records , th e WAS P turne d ou t gir l pilots . These superficiall y traine d fledglings, although earnes t i n thei r desir e to help, were in the majority not qualified to fill ferry and instructor jobs assigned them. Those who did make the grade forced veteran instructor s ou t of long held positions an d generall y create d pandemoniu m i n th e rank s o f home fron t avia tion. Worst of all, 24 girl pilots were killed by Jun. 21,1944. Fortunately, al l efforts t o incorporat e th e WASP as an intrinsi c part o f th e

124 I They 11 Be Home for Christmas army, failed month s ago. Termination o f army contracts and War Training service training school s for militar y pilot s furthe r lessene d th e nee d fo r mor e ai r manpower. With more than 6,000 capable male instructors facing induction as buck privates i n non-flying G I capacities , the WASP withered an d died. As of Dec 1,1944 , the organization will disappear. 92

The Final WASP Graduation O n Decembe r 7,1944 , th e final clas s of WASP trainee s graduated. Their grad uation dat e ha d bee n advance d t o coincid e wit h th e thir d anniversar y o f th e attack o n Pear l Harbo r an d t o allo w these final graduate s t o b e deeme d activ e WASPs befor e disbandment . Seventy-on e wome n graduate d i n thi s class — seventy-one pilots who would no t retur n th e twelv e thousand dollar s in train ing cost s invested i n eac h o f them. 9 3 Perhaps in an attempt t o demonstrate publicly that th e WASP program ha d indeed bee n disbande d t o placate critics of the program, th e WASP graduatio n was designed t o be a publicity event for th e AAE Lieutenan t Colone l Mannin g D . Sell , Public Relation s Officer , Flyin g Training Command , wa s i n charg e o f the ceremonies. 94 A number o f AAF generals and commandin g officer s wer e in attendance, an d Genera l Arnold , Lieutenan t Genera l Barto n Youn t (Com manding Genera l o f AAF Training Command) , an d Brigadie r Genera l Walte r Kraus (Commandin g Genera l o f Central Flyin g Training Command) spok e t o the graduates , alon g with Directo r Cochran. 95 I n attendanc e wer e Army filmmakers an d militar y an d civilia n reporters . Lieutenan t Colone l Ro y Ward , Commanding Office r o f Avenger Field , introduced th e graduation ceremonie s of the nineteenth an d final graduatin g class , noting tha t th e ceremony was also a final tribut e t o th e WASP program. 96 H e commente d tha t the wa r situatio n ha s change d sinc e th e WASP s volunteere d thei r services . Combat losse s have bee n unexpectedl y low . The vast AAF Training program , has been amazingly successful; s o that no w we find ourselves in the happy position of having enough trained pilots on hand to meet all needs here and overseas. The WASPs themselves have contributed n o small part t o th e present fa vorable pictur e an d thoug h i t means tha t thei r ow n belove d progra m i s n o longer needed, they share the nation's thankfulness tha t we are moving toward victory ahead of schedule. I kno w I speak for everyon e at Avenger Fiel d and ou r man y friends i n th e City of Sweetwater when I say that we sincerely regret termination of the WASP program here. 97

They'll Be Home for Christmas I 12 5 General Krau s followe d Colone l War d b y presentin g a review o f th e train ing program. Notin g tha t 1,07 6 WASP s graduate d i n th e tw o years o f the pro gram, he added: "I n relation to the overall AAF Training effort, thi s WASP program has been conservativel y small. However, fro m th e standpoint o f those di rectly responsible for the conduct o f the school, the operation was a sizable one. The graduatio n rat e o f 1,00 0 i n tw o year s equal s th e entir e Ai r Corp s pilo t training productio n rat e o f th e peacefu l year s prio r t o 1939 . "98 Genera l Youn t provided a summar y o f th e mission s o f activ e WASPs an d aske d fo r remem brance o f those women pilot s who gav e their live s in servic e t o thei r country : Let u s acknowledg e th e measur e o f thei r sacrific e b y honoring the m a s brave women, an d b y honoring the m a s women who served without though t o f the glory which w e accor d t o heroe s o f battle . The servic e pilo t face s th e ris k o f death without th e emotional inspiration o f combat. Men who battle in the sky have th e grim , triumphan t knowledg e tha t thei r bomb s an d bullet s ar e de stroying the enemy, and their courage is sustained b y the emotions of conflict . These women hav e given their lives in the performance o f arduous an d exact ing duties without being able to see and feel the final results of their work under the quickenin g influenc e o f aerial action . They hav e demonstrate d a courag e which i s sustained no t b y the fevers o f combat, bu t b y the steady heartbeat o f faith—a fait h i n th e Tightnes s o f our cause , an d a faith i n th e importanc e o f their work to the men who do go into combat . Let u s pay tribute t o thes e women b y honoring thei r memory. . . . Let u s treasure their memory as women whose sacrifice has brought honor not only to their country, but als o to their organization. . . . We shall not forget the accomplishments of our women fliers and their contributions t o th e fulfillment o f our mission . And we shall always keep and re member the brave heritage of the women who gave their lives. It is the heritage of faith i n victory and faith i n the ultimate freedom o f humanity." General Arnold spok e next , outlinin g th e histor y an d accomplishment s o f the program, a s well as his own initia l doubts tha t " a slip of a young gir l coul d fight th e control s o f a B-1 7 i n th e heav y weathe r the y woul d naturall y en counter i n operationa l flying." 100 H e countere d thos e doubts : "Yo u an d nin e hundred o f your sister s hav e show n tha t yo u ca n fly wingti p t o wingti p wit h your brothers . I f there eve r was a doubt i n anyone' s min d tha t women ca n be come skillfu l pilots , th e WAS P hav e dispelle d tha t doubt." 101 Directo r Cochran conclude d th e remarks , an d sh e an d Genera l Arnol d hande d ou t diplomas an d WASP wings to th e seventy-on e WASPs who would neve r serv e their country . A n AA F directiv e sen t graduate s o f th e las t WASP clas s t o th e stations neares t t o thei r home s o r th e area s t o whic h the y intende d o n mov -

126 I They'll Be Home for Christmas ing after disbandment. 102 Fo r the next two weeks, WASPs at various duty stations tried t o get in a s much flying as they could, bu t thei r abilitie s to do so depended o n the graciousness of their commanding officers. 103 The official "AA F Policy Governing Separation of the WASP" dictated tha t "WASP in good standing be given the opportunity to ride in military aircraft t o their homes or to the vicinity of their homes, provided space is available and no additional expense to the Government is incurred."104 Because of this caveat, the policy was open to interpretation by base commanders. Most WASPs were fortunate t o serv e on base s where commander s an d bas e pilots empathize d wit h their situation, so they did get flights home, with some even piloting or copiloting the planes. Marty Wyall (who only had eleven days from graduatio n to disbandment) no t only received a flight to a base near her home, but she also got to copilot the plane. She noted that male pilots from her base sympathized with graduates who didn't get to serve as WASPs, so they let them fly as many missions as possible in that short time, including on the flight home. "There were six of us WASPs on the plane to New York," she said. "Each got to copilot." 105 Unfortunately, thi s wa s no t th e situatio n fo r al l WASPs. Som e wer e re turned hom e b y other mean s o f transportation, ofte n a t thei r ow n expense , because their base s didn't hav e outgoing flights to thei r hom e areas . "I went home on a train, because there weren't any planes going near my home," said Betty Stagg Turner. 106Even worse, in a situation reminiscen t o f the plights of those women schedule d t o b e in th e June 194 4 training class , many WASPs were strande d afte r disbandmen t a t base s fa r fro m thei r homes . "W e wer e dropped—out o f the blue—with n o benefits," said Clarice Bergemann. "W e were just tol d t o leave—ther e was no 'we'l l take you home ' o r anything . We had to get home as you could."107 Wyall, WASP and program historian, added that while she was flown home, "A lot of gals did have problems getting home. Some were stuck or stranded i n places." 108 However, a t leas t on e bas e a t whic h WASP s wer e statione d ignore d th e edict against incorporating WASPs into the base staff as civil service employees. Ethel Findley, a Link instructor at Shaw Field, South Carolina, said: "The war was still going on, and it was still a basic school, and I was classified as civil service. They needed [Link ] instructors, so we stayed down there." 109

After Disbandmenty the Media Lessen Their Attacks Only after disbandmen t di d the media begin to offer realisti c and factual de pictions of the WASP program. Most of these pieces conveniently forgot th e

They 11 Be Home for Christmas I 12 7 barbed attack s thos e sam e newspaper s ha d le d agains t th e pilot s jus t severa l months earlier . Storie s abou t th e final WAS P graduatio n include d mor e posi tive data abou t WASP dutie s an d mission s tha n ha d bee n previousl y revealed : The Chief of the Army Air Forces said the record of the Wasps is "valuable information fo r th e archives as we enter the air age." He adde d tha t "w e haven't bee n abl e to buil d a n airplan e you can' t fly" revealing tha t wome n hav e flown th e bi g B-29' s an d th e ne w je t propulsio n planes. . . . Miss Cochran sai d the women's flying program will go down in history and "will mean more to aviation than anyon e realizes." 110 The mos t laudator y medi a piece s abou t th e WASP s appeare d o n o r afte r the da y the y disbanded—whe n ther e wa s n o threa t o f wome n "takin g over " mens flying jobs . These storie s quote d fro m th e graduatio n speeche s an d em phasized th e role s th e wome n pilot s playe d i n th e domesti c wa r effort , thei r range o f skills , an d thei r patriotism . Mos t article s emphasize d th e poin t en couraged b y both Cochra n an d Arnold, whic h wa s tha t th e WASPs would b e home i n tim e fo r Christmas , a symbolicall y importan t goa l fo r mos t servi cepeople, on e s o importan t a s to b e immortalize d i n song . "Although the y neve r actuall y go t int o comba t bu t di d valiant dut y i n im portant wa r trainin g mission s an d othe r wa r service , th e Wasps wil l b e hom e for Christmas, " bega n th e articl e "Wasp s G o int o Retiremen t afte r Valian t War Service." 111 Adde d another : "Disconsolat e Wasp s wh o hav e los t thei r Army flying job s wit h th e recen t disbandmen t o f thei r servic e ar e comin g home i n tim e fo r Christmas , soothe d onl y b y tha t fact . Th e onl y othe r thin g that coul d pleas e them a t this point i s to find a new assignmen t tha t will kee p them bus y flying planes." 112 Notabl y absen t fro m thi s final batc h o f storie s was any mention o f the organized oppositio n t o th e progra m fro m mal e civil ian pilots , returnin g comba t pilots , an d Congress ; allegation s o f ineptitud e and wrongdoing ; an d insinuation s tha t th e wome n pilot s wer e detractin g from th e war effort . Indeed, a n effor t seeme d t o hav e bee n mad e t o celebrat e th e WASP s wit h convenient forgetfulness : On Wednesday 1,000 pilots of the Women Air Force Service—the WASP—will leave thei r ship s fo r good . The servic e i s disbanded becaus e ther e ar e enoug h men pilots available now to do the job. Meanwhile, let's look at the record. The girls made good. Flying in fair weather and foul, they delivered fighters and big transports far and wide; they served in the ferrying command, the y did a hundred od d jobs of the air that had to be done in the press of organizing the

n 8 I They 11 Be Home for Christmas Army's striking power of the skies. Thirty were killed in the line of duty. And all the while they were civil service pilots. The pity is that they were not given equal status with th e WACS while they did thei r bit for Uncl e Sam. But the rumpu s over their positio n i s all in th e past . The recor d remains— a golde n chapte r o f Americas marshaling air fleet. A grateful natio n says: "Thanks, girls."113 Another article , "Wome n Pilot s ou t o f Work a s Wasp Quits, " began : The Wasps—more tha n 1,00 0 o f them—succumbed yesterda y to the cold of a congressional edict . Women' s Arm y Servic e Pilots , wh o fo r 1 8 months hav e served in domestic ferrying, targe t towing, as instrument flying instructors and couriers for th e Army Air Forces, have taken u p their last plane as members of an organization which never attained Army status. 114 An editoria l piece , title d "Th e Gentle r Sex : Women Unafraid, " approache d the WASPs fro m a n angl e of what the y symbolized t o curren t an d futur e gen erations o f women : The Wasps are not needed, says the Army, because there is a surplus of veteran men pilots to do their work—to ferry planes on non-combat assignment. So the 1,000 o r more young women who participated in one of the most venturesome jobs of the war will receive certificates o f service and return to move traditional and possibly "lady like" pursuits. . . . However, th e Wasp s wil l no t b e forgotten . The y wil l liv e a s a symbo l o f woman's military trail-blazing into the air and particularly of women's conquest of physical fear. . . . Should thi s peac e b e onl y anothe r armistice , swarm s o f Wasp s wil l fly again—and probabl y not onl y in non-comba t areas . A peaceful world , youn g women will find in commercial aviatio n a new outlet—even thoug h the y may have to fight at first to break down barriers . In feminine tradition the Wasps symbolize the beginning of a new era—that of the woman who scorns to use fear as an adjunct o f personal charm . The Wasp s hav e mad e suc h fear s see m silly . Th e increasin g numbe r o f young, attractive, even fragile young women who rally forth into the air is making feminin e physica l fea r see m antiquated . Las t bulwar k o f the women wh o clung to the precarious economic security of helplessness, such fear has become nothing more than a maginot line to the dauntless feminine generation that this war has sent into the air at home and into the combat areas abroad. 115 But i t wa s no t unti l 194 5 that newspaper s woul d repor t tha t WASP s ha d no t received commercia l airlin e jobs an d wer e upse t abou t thei r status : After flying the Army Air Forces ' biggest bomber s an d pilotin g jet propulsio n planes, the disbanded Wasps are plainly discontented o n th e ground. . . .

They 11 Be Home for Christmas I 12 9 Typical of the group is Miss D'Ambly, who remarked: "The men pilots said that 1000 Wasps were keeping 5000 of them from jobs . Maybe we're even better than we thought." One of the most annoying Congressional Statement s to the girl fliers was a remark that "Thi s is just social legislation t o glamorize the war." The Wasps maintain ther e was little glamor attached t o their jobs. No uni forms were issued to them until the last few months of their careers, they point out, an d mos t o f their tim e was spent i n coveralls , "either flying or waiting t o fly-" They had no t militar y status, and thei r pay as pilots was less than a second lieutenants. "We were taken a s a matter o f course on th e airfields," sai d Miss D'Ambly , "as soon as the pilots recognized that we were capable of doing a good job. We lived in barracks on th e field, but we never rated a salute." . . . Two hundred o f the women hav e been rate d as top pilots of fighter planes, as part of the $21,000,000 spent on their training in the corps. 116 Despite Genera l Arnold s suppor t fo r th e WAS P program , publi c opposi tion ha d bee n to o stron g an d ha d arise n fro m to o man y sector s fo r hi m t o b e able t o comba t it . I n addition , i n a n Air Force s o f 190,000 mal e pilots, 117 th e program o f 1,07 4 WASP s wa s relativel y minor , an d becaus e o f th e publi c at tack th e progra m wa s receiving , i t bega n t o deman d mor e assistanc e tha n i t provided. Timing was also bad fo r Genera l Arnold t o offe r dedicate d support , because the congressiona l bil l was defeated immediatel y followin g D-Day , fo r which Arnol d le d th e Air Forces ' participation . Becaus e th e WASPs neve r at tained Arm y status , the y were destine d t o fad e fro m publi c attentio n despit e the assertio n b y Genera l Youn t tha t th e countr y "shal l no t forge t th e accom plishments o f ou r wome n flier s an d thei r contribution s t o th e fulfillmen t o f ••

"11

8

our mission . 11 0 W h e n German y surrendere d i n Ma y 1945 , n o on e remembere d th e WASPs. W h e n Japa n surrendere d i n September , thu s endin g th e war , th e AAF di d no t mentio n tha t WASP s ha d bee n par t o f th e to p secre t plannin g missions o f th e crew s who ha d droppe d th e atomi c bombs . I n th e hundred s of page s o f storie s i n magazine s an d newspaper s acros s th e countr y tha t cel ebrated th e soldier s o f th e U.S . arme d services , non e remembere d th e WASPs. I n citie s an d town s acros s th e Unite d States , mor e tha n a thousan d former WASP s wer e tryin g t o begi n thei r live s agai n i n a natio n tha t no w wanted wome n ou t o f th e militar y an d ou t o f th e workplace . They wer e un able t o pu t thei r tremendou s skill s t o use , an d becaus e the y wer e no t veter ans, they could no t us e the GI Bil l to obtai n ne w skills and educations . Face d

130 I They'll Be Home for Christmas

with a country tha t ha d neve r celebrate d thei r contribution s an d wanted t o forget thei r existence , mos t WASP s packe d u p thei r wings , thei r uniforms , scrapbooks, an d pictures , and trie d t o fit into postwa r American society . As Katherine Landry Steele said, "The WASP program was over; we got on with our lives, and nobody knew who we were and nobody cared, so I didn't care either."119

7 On a Different Battlefiel d I The WASP Fight forMilitarization after the War

The disbandmen t o f the Women Airforce Servic e Pilots and th e Allied victory in World War II did not end WASPs' attempts to receive veterans' statu s o r othe r recognitio n fo r thei r wartim e service . In 1945 , forme r WASPs placed their hopes on the Senate WASP bill that had been introduce d at the same time as the defeated House bill, but because of the great media opposition to the program, no senator would sponsor the bill. WASPs attempted to obtain sympathetic publicity about their plight, but theirs was not the story the media wanted to tell. As World War II ended, the focus of the media and Congress wa s o n victory , returnin g servicemen , an d th e postwa r economy . There was no room for accounts of women pilots, particularly when they were claiming tha t thei r governmen t ha d le t the m down . The medi a spotlighte d the return of women from wa r roles back to the household. Individual mem bers of the WASPs pressed their congressional representatives for a bill in support of the WASPs, but no one would introduce such a bill. The WASP s pursue d lobbyin g campaign s pressin g fo r veterans ' status . Many WASPs remained organized after their disbandment through the Order of Fifinella, a WASP service organization, which had been formed i n Octobe r 1944 following the announcement tha t the program was to be disbanded. "I n the first years after the war, everybody had gone their own ways, but a few people kept holding small core groups together and organized what was called the Order of Fifinella," sai d WASP Ethel Finley. 1 Named th e Order of Fifinella afte r th e WASP insignia character, the organization wa s forme d wit h th e purpos e o f informin g WASP s abou t employ ment possibilitie s an d th e continue d fight t o ge t reinstate d i n th e Army Air Forces.2 In 1947, the Order of Fifinella approache d it s members t o support a resolution it submitted t o Edith Nourse Rogers, chair of the Veterans Affair s Committee of the House.3 The resolution was for WASPs who had completed the program i n good standing to receive full veterans' rights and for th e next of kin of WASPs who had died "in the line of duty" to receive compensation. 4

131

132 I On a Different Battlefield

Despite the involvement of the Order of Fifinella an d backing the by numerous former WASPs , the resolution di d no t receiv e enough overal l support i n Congress to be introduced.

The Wornens Armed Services Reserve Bill In 1948 , Senat e Bil l 164 1 wa s introduce d i n Congres s "t o establis h th e Women's Arm y Corp s int o th e Regula r Army , t o authoriz e th e enlistmen t and appointment o f women i n the Regular Navy and Marine Corps and th e Naval an d Marin e Corp s Reserve." 5 The bil l came at a time when th e con tingent arrangement s provide d b y World Wa r I I wer e ending . Al l militar y branches ha d bee n satisfie d wit h th e performanc e o f wome n soldier s an d wanted to maintain a regular component of women soldiers in the peacetime military. I f approved , thi s would b e th e first tim e th e U.S . militar y woul d have positions for women i n th e regular peacetime military branches. 6 Representative Charle s Brook s (111. ) stated: "Mr . Chairman , thi s bil l mark s a n epic in the development of our armed forces. For the first time during the period o f peac e w e ar e authorizin g organization s o f wome n i n ou r arme d forces."7 Th e Senat e passe d th e bil l t o allo w th e wome n int o th e "Regula r Army," but th e Hous e hel d u p th e measure , introducin g a compromise bil l aimed at keeping the women i n the Reserves. 8 Some members of the Hous e clearly believed tha t ther e existed tremendou s difference s betwee n me n an d women, an d expresse d reservation s ove r th e "man y considerations involve d in the problem of placing women in a permanent status in the service." 9 Just as th e congressiona l debat e durin g Worl d Wa r I I ove r th e developmen t o f women's auxiliarie s centere d o n fear s tha t wome n woul d b e negativel y af fected b y their wartime involvement , th e 1948 House debate focused o n th e propriety of women servin g in the Regular Army. Unlike their wartime predecessors, however , th e member s o f Congres s wh o oppose d th e measur e could not argue that women were incapable of military service, for the World War II records of women soldier s in all branches had been impeccable . Said Representative William Mille r (Conn.) : Certainly they have demonstrated during the war period and in the months and years since the shooting war ended that there is a place for them in the armed forces, that they can do a job fully as well as any male soldier can do it, and in certain positions and categories, particularly in hospitals, they can do their job better than any man can do it for them.10

On a Different Battlefield I 13 3 Indeed, it seemed that all of Congress solidly approved of the involvement of women in the military throughout the duration of the World War II, when all of America was mobilized, but with a postwar return to normalcy, however, many fel t tha t wome n shoul d n o longe r b e par t o f th e arme d services . Fo r these members, the permanency of women in the military offered b y this bill was perhaps its most frightening aspect . Representative Paul Shafer of Michigan was also worried that permanent women's divisions would keep men who desired commission s ou t o f the military, 11 a position very similar t o th e on e that turne d Congres s agains t th e WASPs. This time , however , ther e was n o vocal and organized oppositio n t o women servin g in th e military ; instead , a number o f civilian organization s endorse d th e bill. 12 Indeed, othe r member s of Congress offere d a n opposite argument , o n th e basis of other bill s up fo r consideration tha t involve d a civilia n draft . Aske d Representativ e Lyndo n Johnson of Texas: "How can the gentleman vote for a draft of 19-year-old boys to fill places that we refuse t o let women voluntarily fill." 13 Because of the distinguishe d servic e performed b y women i n World War II, members of Congress who were opposed to women serving in the military couched thei r oppositio n i n laudator y praise . Sai d Representativ e Adolp h Sabath of Illinois: Personally, I am satisfied that the women have served the country well, but that was during the war. I feel now that the war is over—and I hope there is no danger o f anothe r war—tha t i t wil l no t b e necessar y t o expan d th e women' s branches of the armed services.14 One member of Congress spoke against the bill because he believed it would result in women bein g drafted int o th e military. Representativ e Noah Maso n (111.) concluded: " I certainly would no t want my daughter t o be drafted int o the Army against her will, and I certainly would not vote to make it possible to draft anothe r person s daughte r int o th e Army agains t he r will." 15 However , most members of Congress expressed support fo r the bill and were upset tha t the measure presented before the House was designed to keep women only in the Reserves. Representative Margare t Chas e Smith of Maine, one of the fe w female members of Congress, proposed an amendment for the House to adopt the bill that was before the Senate, which maintained the existence of women's branches in the regular armed forces. 16 In support of this amendment, Repre sentative William Miller of Connecticut followe d with a celebratory speech: I can see no justifiable reason for discriminating between men and women in their privileges, opportunities, and duties to preserve and protect our country. . . .

134 I On a Different Battlefield There ar e many women who ar e ambitious t o mak e military life thei r per manent careers . Unless the Smith amendment i s adopted, an d in the event the House bil l becomes a law as written, women will not hav e the same opportu nities as are accorded men. . . . American women ar e not bystander s of war. They play a vital role in virtually every phase of its prosecution. War ha s a curious way of speeding u p al l historical processe s an d pushin g people and thei r societies much mor e rapidly into th e future tha n the y would ever move under norma l peacetime processes. For instance, it speeded up, even more rapidly in the last war, the revolution in the life of women. We forget tha t it is not only about ioo years since women were first admitted t o any universities in America; that they obtained th e fran chise only after World War I; and that only during the Second World War were all restrictions o n thei r possibl e activitie s lifted , wit h thei r admissio n int o th e last hitherto exclusively male occupation: the armed forces . War is inevitably a revolutionary force in the life of women. There are those indeed who, like Max Lerner, go as far as to say that "whe n the classic work on the history of women come s to b e written th e biggest forc e o f change in thei r lives will turn ou t to have been war." 17 The record s o f women durin g th e wa r an d i n th e thre e year s since , whic h many member s o f Congres s cite d a s thei r reaso n fo r supportin g th e Smit h amendment, provide d soli d statistic s an d reasonin g that th e opposition coul d not rall y against . W h e n Representativ e Dewe y Shor t o f Missour i ( a membe r of the committe e tha t rewrot e th e bill t o limi t women t o th e reserves ) trie d t o bring u p allegation s o f immoralit y concernin g WACs , Representativ e Mille r stated: "th e behavio r recor d o f th e wome n o n th e basi s o f th e record s o f th e War Departmen t i s better tha n th e recor d mad e fo r behavio r b y the males." 18 A congressiona l slande r campaig n agains t wome n i n th e militar y wa s no t t o occur i n 1948 , becaus e a t thi s poin t a soli d recor d o f participatio n b y thou sands of women belie d such erroneous assumptions . I n fact , th e debate on th e Women's Arme d Service s Reserv e Bil l bega n wit h condemnatio n o f th e wa y that Congres s had deal t with women i n the military during the war years. Said Representative Wadsworth : Just a word abou t th e measur e itsel f and perhap s it s origin . I a m sur e a great many of you will remember the discussions which took place back in 1942 and 1943, while we were at war, with respect to the admission of women to the military services of the United States . I can remember very well at that time ther e were a good many cynical remarks made, some were very unkind remarks, with respect t o the ability of women t o serv e faithfully an d efficientl y i n the arme d forces.19

On a Different Battlefield I 13 5 The bil l receive d substantia l an d voca l suppor t durin g th e Hous e debate , and i t passe d o n Apri l 21,1948 , thus allowin g women entranc e int o th e regu lar militar y branche s i n a permanen t capacity . Th e measur e did , however , place a 2 percent ca p o n th e numbe r o f women allowe d t o participat e i n th e military. 20 Withi n th e Hous e measure , th e possibilit y o f reintegratin g th e WASPs int o th e Ai r Forc e (whic h ha d becom e a separat e militar y branc h i n 1947) wa s discussed . Representativ e Charle s Fletche r (Ga. ) name d WASP s "the unsun g heroine s o f th e las t war" 21 an d detaile d th e event s i n Congres s that le d t o thei r demise . Followin g this , Fletche r requeste d clarificatio n tha t the provision s o f th e Women' s Arme d Service s Reserv e bil l woul d allo w for mer WASPs int o th e Air Force Reserves. He provide d statistic s about th e cost s of training the WASPs and note d tha t i f they were allowed t o participate a s pilots in th e Air Forc e Reserves, their trainin g cost s would b e put t o goo d use. 22 After receivin g confirmatio n tha t th e bil l ha d n o section s tha t woul d exclud e WASPs, Fletche r rea d a subsection o f th e bil l tha t h e purporte d woul d allo w the WASPs t o retur n t o militar y flying: May I call the attention o f the Members tha t th e bill further provide s i n sub section (f ) o f section 301 that— "The Secretary of the Air Force shall prescribe the military authority which any female person of the Air Force Reserve may exercise, and th e kind o f military duty to which such female persons may be assigned: Provided, That femal e persons of the Air Force shall not b e assigned to aircraft whil e such aircraft ar e engaged in combat missions." I think tha t clearl y shows that i t was the intention o f the committee t o in clude WASPS in the Air Force Reserves. 23 Despite Fletcher' s assumption , i t was no t th e intentio n o f the Air Forc e t o utilize WASPs o r an y othe r wome n a s pilots. The Ai r Forc e was, however, in terested i n integratin g forme r WASP s int o th e Women' s Ai r Forc e (WAF ) a s nonflying officers , an d Air Forc e officers ha d bee n meetin g with ex-WAS P di rector Jacqueline Cochra n t o establis h provision s fo r doin g so . Although for mer WASPs were invite d t o join th e WAF program , the y suffere d ye t anothe r indignity becaus e appointmen t o f officers i n th e WAF wa s limited t o wome n who ha d militar y servic e i n Worl d Wa r II. 24 Becaus e th e WASP s ha d neve r been militarized , the y could no t b e commissioned a s officers, "excep t as newly appointed secon d lieutenant s i n competitio n wit h othe r wome n havin g n o military service." 25 Eve n i n th e Air Force , th e WASP s ha d n o recognize d sta tus, an d n o women , includin g forme r WASPs , wer e t o b e appointe d a s pi lots. 26 Despit e this , abou t thre e hundre d forme r WASP s joine d th e Women' s

136 I On a Different Battlefield Air Forc e Reserves , includin g Cochra n an d WAF S leade r Nanc y Harknes s Love.27 Air Forc e Deput y Chie f o f Staf f Lieutenan t Genera l I . H . Edward s en couraged th e Secretary of the Air Force to give preference towar d the forme r WASPs: The WASPs did a good job during the war. As a body, they were high type women, and we would be well advised to offer the m an opportunity for commissions in the reserve. I feel they should be given constructive military credit for their service during the war. Many of them have skills and techniques, other than flyingproficiency, tha t are very usable. However, our position should be definite that they are not eligible for a pilot status.28 Four years after thei r disbandment, th e WASPs were given an opportunit y to be involved in the Air Force, but only in the reserves, without earned commissions, an d no t a s pilots. Fo r mos t forme r WASP s still fighting t o receiv e militarization, when the integration of women into the armed services in 1948 again excluded the women pilot s and officially denie d the wartime service of the WASPs, it meant the end of any expectations of ever obtaining militarization. Clearl y thei r battl e was over. The experimen t the y had participate d i n had irrevocabl y concluded , an d th e wome n wh o ha d onc e flown militar y planes were now, without a doubt, expecte d to return to their civilian lives. Nearly thirty years would pass before the former WASPs would again come together an d fight fo r th e militarizatio n tha t ha d bee n promise d bu t denie d them. In thes e thirty years, some stayed in th e military, and some continue d to fly; however, mos t o f the women married , ha d children , an d di d no t tal k much of their contribution i n World War II. Most unfortunately, th e WASPs lost track of each other. Because they were not veterans, no system was in place to maintai n thei r records , an d becaus e mos t wh o marrie d change d thei r names, keeping track of each other was nearly impossible.

The WASPs Reunite In the 1960s, one former WASP, Marty Wyall, a member of the final graduating clas s o f Decembe r 7 , 1944 , bega n t o assembl e th e addresse s o f forme r WASPs. In 1964 , twenty years after th e program disbanded , Wyall organize d the first reunion of the WASPs.29 She planned another reunion in 1969, which was better attended tha n th e first because many women sh e could no t locat e had hear d abou t th e first reunion an d contacte d her . This was the first time

On a Different Battlefield I 13 7

many former WASPs had discusse d th e disbandmen t o f th e program . Mos t had been unaware of the situations surrounding their demise, and those who were had been forbidden b y the AAF to discuss what they knew. Despite th e passage of time, their anger was still acute. Obtaining militarization became a central issu e at reunions , an d man y women bega n t o work individually , ap proaching politicians, the media, and veterans' organizations in an attempt to obtain thei r standing as veterans.30 In 1972, the WASPs held their largest reunion thus far. Marking the thirtieth anniversary of the programs beginning, the reunion was held in Sweetwater, Texas, where most of the WASPs had trained.31 Again, conversations of the former WASPs turned towar d militarization. Several WASPs had been lobbying for a militarization bill , and on e bill , House Resolutio n 15035 , had bee n introduced b y Representative Pats y Mink o f Hawaii. However , lik e the first Senate bill in 1944 , this bill never reached th e floor of the House for debate , but wa s instead refuse d consideratio n b y the Hous e Veterans' Affairs Com mittee.32 As a result o f these discussions , th e first national organizatio n wa s formed t o obtai n militarization , th e WAS P Militar y Committee. 33 Nanc y Crew, the n presiden t o f th e Orde r o f Fifinella , organize d th e committe e i n February 1973 and named as its chair retired Air Force Colonel Bruce Arnold, the so n o f decease d Arm y Ai r Force s Commandin g Genera l Henr y H . Arnold.34 "Senato r Barr y Goldwate r an d Colone l Bruc e Arnold, th e so n o f Hap Arnold, helpe d investigat e our gettin g veterans status , and thi s is when the WASPS again becam e more activ e and starte d hav e biannual meetings, " said WASP Ethel Finley. 35 The committee began its work by organizing former WASPs , assembling documents abou t th e WASP program, publicizing accounts o f the progra m in the media, and lobbying the Pentagon an d Capito l Hill . Members of the WASP Military Committee pored over earlier congressional documents an d media account s t o determin e th e source s o f oppositio n an d mistake s tha t had previousl y bee n made . Th e failur e o f th e 197 2 bil l t o eve n reac h th e House floo r provide d th e committe e wit h a n indicatio n o f the oppositio n they coul d anticipat e receivin g i n Congress. 36 I n 1975 , th e effort s o f th e WASP Militar y Committe e resulte d i n th e introductio n o f WASP milita rization bill s in bot h th e Senate and th e House . Representative Min k agai n sponsored th e bill , Hous e Resolutio n 6595 , while Senato r Goldwate r (wh o had served as a Ferrying Squadron pilo t in World War II) sponsore d Senat e Bill 1345. However, neithe r bill made it past their respectiv e veterans' affair s committees becaus e o f opposition t o th e bill s in bot h militar y affair s com mittees.37

138 I On a Different Battlefield

The "First" Women Military Pilots In 1976 , th e Air Forc e announce d a major polic y change—wome n woul d b e allowed t o serv e a s pilots . Tha t summer , te n wome n officer s entere d flight screening a t Lacklan d Ai r Base. 38 In Septembe r 1977 , the women pilot s grad uated fro m th e Ai r Forc e Pilo t School. 39 Thes e announcement s generate d a great dea l of media attention—because , i t was claimed, wome n wer e going t o pilot U.S . militar y plane s fo r th e first time . The climat e fo r wome n ha d change d tremendousl y i n th e thirty-tw o year s since the y ha d las t flown militar y planes . I n 1944 , th e medi a presse d fo r women t o retur n t o thei r home s an d maintai n peacetim e gende r roles . Storie s about th e WASP s i n 194 4 ha d headline s lik e "Glamorou s Fliers" 40 an d dre w upon opinio n rathe r tha n documentatio n i n condemnin g th e wome n pilots . Because of wartime restriction s o n th e WASP program , th e stor y of their mis sions ha d neve r bee n tol d durin g th e war ; afte r th e war , ther e wa s n o interes t in tellin g thei r stories . In th e 1970s , ther e wa s significan t medi a interes t i n storie s abou t th e ac complishments o f women, particularl y i n fields previousl y o r commonl y be lieved t o b e nontraditiona l fo r women . Th e wome n enterin g th e Ai r Forc e Academy a s pilot s receive d a substantia l amoun t o f publicit y becaus e thei r achievement wa s believe d t o b e a first. Man y WASP s wh o rea d o r sa w storie s on th e Air Forc e s latest women pilot s were upse t an d angere d b y th e positiv e attention thes e women pilot s no w received , bu t the y an d th e WASP Militar y Committee recognize d tha t the opening of Air Force pilot positions to wome n in th e 1970 s was a n opportunit y no t onl y fo r thos e women , bu t als o fo r th e WASPs. Katherin e (Kaddy ) Landr y Steel e said : When the Air Force Academy decided they were going to take women, and they made the announcement tha t for the first time in history women were going to fly military aircraft , i t reall y set a bomb unde r al l of us. I thought: Com e on , after al l we put into that program, and all of the—I won't say sacrifices, because it wasn't really much o f a sacrifice, bu t i t certainly was a big effort, an d we did a very, very good job. So I then decided that we all had to get behind our militarization.41 The WASP s no w ha d a n angl e wit h whic h t o approac h th e media . Soon , stories began appearin g i n newspaper s an d magazine s an d o n televisio n abou t the women wh o trul y were the first t o pilot militar y planes. Connections wer e made betwee n th e achievement s o f th e WASP s an d th e achievement s o f th e newest incarnatio n o f American women militar y pilots. "If we had bee n calle d in an d aske d t o d o th e mission s we ha d done , an d w e mad e a bloody mes s o f

On a Different Battlefield I 13 9 it, the n thi s woul d hav e bee n delaye d anothe r fifty years . Bu t becaus e i t wa s successful—is th e importan t issue—the y ha d n o problems, " sai d Steele. 42 It was a first for th e WASPs a s well. For th e first time , the y were abl e to tel l the complete story of their service, their achievements, and how they had bee n let dow n b y th e governmen t i n 1944 . They wer e abl e t o explai n i n persona l and tangibl e term s what th e loss of military benefits mean t fo r man y o f them . And, fo r th e first time , America listened . The headline s o f WASP storie s i n 197 6 an d 197 7 were dramaticall y differ ent fro m thos e tha t appeare d durin g an d immediatel y afte r Worl d Wa r II . "The WASPs: Maybe They'll Ge t More , Bu t All They Want I s Recognition" 43 and "Worl d Wa r U s Wome n Pilot s Fee l Forgotten , Thei r Benefit s Ignored" 44 are typical of the headlines written durin g this period. Storie s published i n th e 1970s followed simila r structures: the history of the WASP program was given, emphasizing tha t thes e wer e th e first America n wome n t o pilo t militar y planes; storie s o f individual WASP s wer e told ; an d th e piece s conclude d wit h a discussion abou t th e lack of militarization, it s effects, an d effort s bein g mad e to remed y th e situation . Thes e storie s wer e ver y differen t fro m previou s cov erage, bot h becaus e th e complet e histor y o f WAS P achievement s wa s bein g told (a s records an d report s becam e declassified ) an d becaus e ther e wa s a distinctly sympatheti c an d supportiv e ton e t o th e pieces . In th e 1940s, the media was incredulous tha t th e WASPs would deman d o r expect veterans' benefits; b y 1977, the media was incredulous tha t the y had no t received these benefits. I n 1944 , editorial writers offered WAS P deaths as proof of incompetence an d use d the m t o dissuade th e public of the value of the pro gram. I n storie s fro m th e 1970s , the death s o f WASPs were offere d a s proof o f their claim s and a s the strongest validation tha t thes e women wer e indeed vet erans, who had offere d th e greatest sacrifice t o their country. On e piec e began : "Thirty-two year s afte r the y flew fo r thei r countr y an d sometime s die d i n flaming crashes , mor e tha n 95 0 forme r wartim e fliers wh o ha d bee n attache d to th e Unite d State s Air Forc e fee l the y ar e no t gon e bu t tha t the y ar e forgot ten." 45 Anothe r piec e detaile d th e tragi c effect s th e lac k o f benefits ha d whe n a WASP wa s kille d i n th e lin e o f duty : Because the WASPs were officially stil l civilians, there were no benefits. In fact , as Pat [Pateman ] an d Ellen [Evans ] told, th e WASPs would sometimes have to pass the hat for enough mone y to send the body home. "Everywhere I went, people were killed," Pat said. "And every time it seemed an injustice becaus e we had no benefits. . . . "There was no insurance or anything to cover the death of a woman pilots. We collected money among ourselves and at the officer's club . One o f the offi -

140 I On a Different Battlefield cers took leave to take her [ a WASP test pilot who had died in a plane crash] body home. Most of the men were surprised that we had nothing. "We served our country, and when one of us died the parents were met with a pine box saying, 'Thanks a lot, here's your daughter'. It was pretty earth-shattering."46 In th e year s immediatel y followin g Vietnam , man y American s wer e de manding that th e military be held accountable for th e deaths of soldiers and citizens alike. In the WASPs, the public recognized a group who had received no compensatio n fo r it s wartim e effor t mor e tha n thirt y year s earlier . Th e WASP Military Committee welcomed the change in media temperament bu t did no t res t its case on tha t alone . It continued t o encourage former WASP s to get their stories told in the media, and it worked with the media to counter any opposition tha t arose. 47 In 1972 and 1975, three WASP bills had failed t o reach the floor of Congress due to a lack of public pressure. The WASP Military Committee did not want this to happen again . While the cause of the WASPs had public support, i t also had official op position. The Veterans Administration, American Legion, Veterans of Foreign Wars (VFW), and President Jimmy Carter were opposed to the measure, and, as another WASP bill was proposed, they began to publicize their opposition. One opposin g piece , ver y interestingl y entitle d "Woma n Oppose s WAS P Push for Vet Benefits," focused o n the Veterans Administration opposition — as voiced by Dorothy Starbuck, the "first woman to head the benefits divisio n of th e Veteran s Administration." 48 Citin g Starbuck s testimon y befor e th e Senate Veterans ' Affair s Committee , th e piec e note d tha t th e Veteran s Ad ministrations oppositio n reste d wit h th e civilia n status o f th e WASPs. The Veterans Administrations positio n wa s tha t th e WASPs di d no t diffe r fro m other civilia n group s who ha d supporte d th e U.S . war effor t an d tha t i f the WASPs received veterans' benefits, those benefits would then likely have to be accorded t o all other civilian s who belonge d t o suppor t organizations. 49 Despite its slanted headline, this story did provide the WASP position regardin g militarization, which was that the WASPs had performed a s though they were militarized. Part of the WASP media strategy was to keep public the legislative maneuvering that accompanied the bill for WASP militarization. Working out of the Washington, D.C. , office s o f the Army-Navy Club, the WASP Public Affairs Office provide d continua l medi a update s regardin g th e progres s o f th e bill , arranged fo r interview s wit h individua l WASPs , an d provide d photograph s and fac t sheet s to members o f the media. In 1944 , the WASPs had los t thei r

On a Different Battlefield I 14 1

bid for militarizatio n becaus e th e publi c wa s bot h misinforme d an d unin formed abou t th e missions performed b y the WASPs and th e impac t cause d by a lack of militarization. I n 1977, the WASPs, no longer under AAF orders to maintain thei r silence, were going to ensure that they were not overlooked this time around. An intensive media campaign placed stories about individ ual WASPs in Sunda y papers acros s th e country , i n regula r new s feature s i n print an d o n radi o and television , an d eve n on th e national televisio n enter tainment series Real People. While the WASPs were well represented i n the mass media, opposition t o WASP militarizatio n wa s arisin g no t fro m th e averag e American vote r an d television viewer, but rather from the veterans' organizations. In 1975, both the House and th e Senat e had shu t dow n th e WASP bill in thei r respectiv e veterans affair s committees . Thes e committee s wer e highl y influence d b y th e Veterans Administration an d by veterans' organizations such as the American Legion an d VFW, all of which openly opposed th e WASP bill. If the milita rization of the WASPs was to occur, it would have to be endorsed by veterans, as well as active members of the armed forces .

The Stars and Stripes Gives Official Voice to the WASPs The WASP Military Committee receive d a tremendous boos t in Septembe r 1977, when The Stars and Stripes, "The Onl y Nationa l Veterans ' Newspa per," allowed the WASPs a weekly column t o publicize their attempts at receiving militarization. The endorsement o f the veterans' newspaper quickl y resulted i n othe r veterans ' organization s offerin g publi c suppor t t o th e WASPs. Local chapters of the American Legio n and VFW also issued statements i n suppor t o f the bills, which were contrary t o thos e issue d b y thei r national offices . The Stars and Stripes firstoffered substantia l coverage of the WASP bill on June 2,1977, with several pages of excerpts from th e testimony before the Senate Committe e o n Veterans ' Affair s o n Ma y 25 . The testimon y o f forme r WASP Dora Doughert y Strothe r was featured o n th e front page , and subsequent page s continue d he r testimon y an d include d statement s o f suppor t from severa l members of Congress, including Senator Goldwater, sponso r of the bill , an d statement s o f oppositio n fro m th e Veteran s Administration , American Legion , an d VFW. The June 1 6 issue of The Stars and Stripes featured a colum n fro m th e Nationa l Associatio n o f Concerne d Veterans , an nouncing its support o f the WASP bill. In its statement o f support, th e asso-

142 I On a Different Battlefield ciation countere d th e argument s raise d b y the Veterans Administration tha t a dangerous preceden t woul d b e set : It is shameful tha t these women who served their country honorably in time of war have been denied veterans' benefits. It is shameful tha t they must still fight for these benefits after 30 years. And it is shameful tha t not only must they convince Congres s o f thei r right , bu t mus t als o convinc e thos e wit h who m the y served and who are now spokesmen fo r the veterans' organizations. There are certain facts which must be kept in mind. These women were assigned flight activities that were not assigned to other civilian pilots. They conformed t o military discipline and military courtesy. They participated i n physical trainin g require d a t dut y bases , were require d t o lear n infantr y drill , an d they carried weapons. Under curren t la w a male reservist who serve s on activ e duty fo r onl y tw o weeks and is injured whil e on active duty is eligible to apply for VA benefits. A woman who served her country in time of war, functioned i n combat zones and served in essential areas when there existed a "manpower" shortage, is not eligible to apply for VA benefits. The argumen t tha t grantin g WASPs veterans' benefits woul d se t a dangerous precedent i s an untenabl e position. There have been many civilian group s asking Congres s fo r veterans ' benefits . But , i t i s unfai r t o conside r al l thes e groups solely under th e heading "civilian." Let each group be considered separately and on its own merit. 50 The Comba t Pilot s Association als o endorsed th e WASP bil l and extende d its membershi p t o forme r WASPs , stating : "Whil e the y didn' t necessaril y en gage in aeria l combat, the y did provide fo r th e adde d an d neede d deploymen t of mal e pilots." 51 B y September , The Stars and Stripes was runnin g a weekl y column b y forme r WAS P Patrici a Collin s Hughe s abou t th e WAS P bill . Hughes als o directl y confronte d th e claim s tha t th e WASP s wer e simpl y an other civilia n grou p requestin g benefits . Still othe r surfac e oppositio n t o WAS P recognitio n ha s bee n centere d i n th e VA, strongly supported b y the Headquarters o f the American Legio n and Veterans of Foreign Wars, which have voiced fears that recognition of the legendary lady fliers will denigrate th e meaning o f the term "veteran " while opening th e floodgates for literally dozens of groups such as the Civil Air Patrol, Merchan t Marine, American Wa r Correspondents , etc. , al l o f whom performe d servic e with or for the armed forces since the Civil War.52 Hughes carefull y deconstructe d thi s argumen t b y listin g eleve n way s tha t the WASP s markedl y differe d fro m othe r civilia n groups , whic h include d their bein g traine d t o b e par t o f th e militar y "whe n prove n operationall y ef -

On a Different Battlefield I 14 3 fective," decoratin g thei r member s "b y militar y order s i n militar y cere monies," and bein g officially sponsore d b y the AAF an d th e War Departmen t to receiv e militarization . Becaus e th e curren t debat e i n Congres s wa s als o in fluenced b y wha t wa s publishe d i n th e 194 4 Congressional Record, Hughes' s column frequentl y deal t wit h topic s mor e tha n thirt y years ol d b y publishin g reports an d memorandum s fro m Worl d Wa r II . On e o f th e mor e interestin g declassified piece s printe d i n Hughes' s colum n wa s a n orde r directin g a flight of armed B-1 7 bombers tha t include d thre e WASPs o n "a n emergency comba t war mission " t o Cub a an d Puert o Rico. 53 I n tha t mission , th e WAS P pilot s maintained civilia n status , whil e th e mal e flight crew s receive d comba t pa y and credit . The missio n ende d u p bein g a routine flight ove r area s considere d to b e occupie d b y th e enemy ; however , th e plane s wer e arme d an d th e crew s were o n alert . An importan t issu e to Congres s i n 197 7 was whether th e AAF trul y had in tended fo r th e WASP progra m t o b e militarized . Th e WAS P debat e centere d on a Catch-2 2 argument : Th e Veteran s Administratio n an d veterans ' servic e groups wer e willing t o suppor t WASPs ' request s fo r benefit s i f they were vet erans or former member s o f a formal militar y branch; while the reason WASP s were fighting fo r veterans ' standin g an d subsequen t benefit s wa s tha t th e branch o f which the y were member s ha d no t bee n formall y accepte d int o th e military. As Hughe s wrote : The cru x of the current argumen t agains t militarization apparentl y is that th e WASPs d o no t mee t th e VA definition o f veterans despit e th e fac t tha t the y were sworn i n an d serve d a s part an d parce l o f the military, becaus e a forma l SOP discharge was never issued. They were disbanded, ergo, they were not categorized a s veterans an d ca n no t b e considered a s meeting the veteran defini tion. Gentlemen an d gentlewomen , that' s wha t we'v e bee n sayin g fo r 3 3 years! That's wh y w e ar e STIL L petitioning ! Your predecessor s dumpe d u s inglori ously. We kept ou r commitmen t u p t o th e lette r o f our swor n oat h . . . they wrote us off as if we never existed. Give us a discharge based on the criteria used to qualify me n fo r a discharge during the same war in the same MOS an d th e argument i s settled. 54 Besides providin g detail s abou t th e 194 4 bi d fo r militarization , congres sional hearings , an d subsequen t disbandmen t o f th e WAS P program , Hughes's column s als o provide d detaile d update s abou t activitie s o n Capito l Hill. The WASP s were determine d tha t thi s tim e th e bil l would no t b e lost i n debate within a secondary committee . I n September , Hughe s reporte d o n th e Senate Veterans ' Affair s Committe e (an d it s Chair , Senato r Ala n Cranston) ,

144 I On a Different Battlefield

which had deliberately delayed the WASP bill in committee since May;55 announced tha t a Veterans Administration representativ e state d tha t Presiden t Carter had specifically ordered him to testify against the bill;56 and publicized the statement by Representative Herbert Roberts of Texas, Chair of the House Committee o n Veterans ' Affairs, tha t " I wil l neve r le t thi s bil l com e ou t o f Committee."57 Hughes's column also served to organize former WASPs and gather important information . Fo r example , whe n th e Veterans Administration wrongl y testified that civil service benefits had been paid to WASPs and their survivors, Hughes calle d fo r an y WASPs who ha d bee n pai d o r who ha d informatio n about suc h payments t o come forward. 58 A s a result o f information receive d by the WASP Military Committee, thos e testifying o n behal f of the WASPS were able to prove that the Veterans Administration was wrong.

Congressional Hearings Examine a Thirty-Year-Old Injustice Following a persuasive and persistent introduction b y Senator Goldwater (in cluding the threat that he would attach the WASP amendment t o all bills he introduced i n Congress if the Senate Committee on Veterans' Affairs contin ued to deadlock the bill),59 the WASP bill was finallyunder congressional consideration in 1977. The WASP Military Committee was sophisticated and organized, an d it s members ha d studie d th e 194 4 congressional document s t o ensure that the mistakes made then would no t b e repeated. In 1944, military secrecy and the AAF s fear that the women pilots would fail kept Congress and the American publi c from knowin g about th e missions th e WASPs had per formed. Individual WASPs did not testify before Congress or submit letters or telegrams i n suppor t o f th e program—indeed , the y wer e strictl y forbidde n from doin g so. Because the War Department's officia l publi c relations' policy on th e WASPs prohibited medi a contact, 60 th e WASPs and th e AAF did no t counter spuriou s informatio n tha t aros e in medi a accounts , which ha d bee n fostered b y the male civilian pilots' lobby. In Congress, sponsors of the WASP bill di d no t submi t emotiona l appeal s o n behal f o f th e WASPs , eve n t o counter suc h appeals submitted b y the male pilots' lobby. In 1944 , the sponsors of the WASP bill had quietly underplayed th e bill, expecting that simple documentation an d th e War Department' s endorsemen t woul d pas s the bill. Indeed, al l othe r women' s auxiliarie s ha d me t wit h congressiona l approval , and the resistance against them on Capitol Hill had been among members of Congress who doubte d tha t wome n coul d successfull y serv e in th e military .

On a Different Battlefield I 14 5

With th e WASPs , th e AA F ha d documentatio n abou t thei r performance . However, th e AAF and the sponsors of the WASP militarization bil l had un derestimated the powerful rol e that gender would play in the debate. The 1944 congressional debat e over WASP militarization was not logical or factual; in deed, it was not eve n about th e WASPs. The 194 4 debate was about whethe r women shoul d b e allowed t o perfor m militar y mission s that me n wanted t o perform, an d i t was about privilege s certai n civilia n me n expected—suc h a s avoiding the draft an d receiving flight pay. Key to the debate was the worth of women, bu t sponsor s o f the bill had mad e the mistak e of attempting t o ad dress the bil l specificall y o n it s merits, i n a factual an d understate d manner , without emotiona l tactics and without medi a attention . In 1977 , the WASPs were not goin g t o allow the same mistakes t o occur . Beginning in 1976 , the WASPs generated constan t an d supportiv e medi a at tention. Wit h classifie d document s no w release d an d n o sanction s i n plac e preventing th e forme r WASP s from speakin g publicl y abou t thei r missions , the WASPs were able to provide detailed accounts of their missions, the risks they took, and the losses they incurred. Individua l WASPs could now discuss their experience , as well as the impact a lack of militarization o r even publi c recognition ha d on their lives. Those who were in need of Veterans Administration medica l benefit s als o cam e forward . I t helpe d tha t th e medi a ha d changed enough in the thirty-three years that had passed to be willing to publish balanced and even positive stories about women pilots of military planes. For this congressional battle , the WASPs were not silent. They told their stories, revealed their faces and raised their voices. In 1944 , members o f Congress oppose d t o WASP militarization regularl y introduced negativ e newspaper editorials into the Congressional Record m th e weeks before the introduction o f the WASP bill. This had a profound impac t on Congress; debate often focuse d o n fictional issues that had been created in these opinion pieces . In 1977 , WASP bill sponsors use d thi s tacti c to benefi t the WASPs. I n September , whe n th e WASPs were testifyin g befor e a selec t subcommittee o f the House Veterans' Affairs Committe e (th e same commit tee that had deliberately delayed the bill since May), both Senator Goldwate r and Representative Margaret Heckle r of Massachusetts submitted newspape r pieces supporting the WASPs to the Senate and House floors. Goldwater submitted an article written by Paul Dean, a columnist distributed throughout Arizona, who had interviewed four former WASPs and wrote about thei r experience s a s well a s the propose d legislation . Sai d Goldwater : "Mr. Dean describes the numerous instances in which the women pilots were identical t o mal e military pilots—identica l i n al l but on e importan t techni -

146 I On a Different Battlefield cality, that is . For the women wer e barred b y law from bein g commissioned a s flight officer s an d ha d t o remain civilians." 61 Deans "Bi g Wars Flyin g Female s Stifle Yawns over New Crop " contraste d th e 1 0 women pilo t recruit s with th e 1,074 WASPs , includin g th e 3 8 who died . The piec e concluded : The te n wh o graduat e fro m William s AF B ar e eligible , a s they hav e bee n since signature at a recruiting office, fo r college on the GI bill , disability benefits, lifetim e pension s an d space—availabl e ai r trave l anywher e i n th e worl d once retire d an d ful l fringe s fro m fre e treatmen t a t veterans ' hospital s t o th e macabre moment o f subsidized burial with a free flag on the casket. But the WASPs of World War II? They receive d nothin g beyon d backpat s when thei r servic e was disbande d in 1945. They have been given no benefits since. They are not considered veterans. They don't have the authority t o buy a BX [Base Exchange] aspiri n t o cure headaches earned at their occasional reunions at military airfields . Bills to bring veteran's benefits to the WASPs have been aborted by Congress since 1944 . A new , stronger , unified , tighte r organize d drive , with Sen . Barr y Goldwater, R-Ariz. , a s pilot-in-command , continue s t o b e jostle d b y Senat e and House and their committees. So the Mmes. Nyman, Kindig, Blake and Tamblin [th e WASPs Dean inter viewed] do not downgrade the efforts, proficiency , dedicatio n and deserved status of the flying ladies of Williams. Nor are they seeking retroactive liberation. But they would like equity with today's military women. 62 Heckler submitte d a piec e tha t ha d bee n distribute d i n newspaper s throughout th e country . The piece , entitled "T o Right a 33-Year-Old Wrong, " had th e bylin e o f William Randolp h Hearst , Jr., whom Heckle r referre d t o a s "one o f th e mos t outspoke n an d respecte d journalist s o f our time." 63 Heckle r

said: Mr. Hears t call s upon Americans everywhere to urg e Congress to approve ful l veterans' benefit s fo r th e World Wa r I I Women's Airforce Servic e Pilots , uni versally known a s the WASP s. I would like to publish this excellent article in the Record in its entirety. Additionally, I would like to quote one brief passage which eloquently summarizes the WASP cause: "These courageous ladies piloted fighter craft and bombers to all parts of the world. Their rol e was to relieve male pilots for comba t dut y because there was a pressing shortage o f combat-ready pilot s i n th e war's early days, and they — the women—performe d thei r job s wit h courage , dispatc h an d efficiency . S o dedicated were they that 38 of them lost their lives."

On a Different Battlefield I 14 7 Mr. Speaker, as a member of the Committee on Veterans' Affairs an d as the sponsor o f H.R . 5087— a bil l whic h woul d gran t veterans ' benefit s t o th e WASP's—I commend Mr . Hearst for his support o f these deserving women. In addition to Mr. Hearst, the number of distinguished Americans support ing the WASP cause is large and impressive. 64 Goldwater followe d i n th e Senate , submittin g a length y articl e entitle d "WASP's: The Forgotte n 'Warriors', " which began : It's a sign of the times. Some military pilots now wear lipstick instead of mustaches, just as some 18 women ar e now flying for 10 major U.S . airlines. They aren't the first women to enter the world of professional aviation : only the first to be recognized for it . During th e black years of 1942-1944 women pilot s were the forgotten war riors. This unique group of aviators was known as the WASP's, which stood for Women's Airforce Servic e Pilots. They were not actual members of the service, but contrac t employees— a statu s they fought the n an d ar e still fighting today. The 85 0 surviving WASP's want recognitio n an d ful l veteran' s right s fo r thei r wartime exploits. There wer e 1,07 4 WASP' s performin g th e ofte n dul l an d mundane—an d sometimes dangerous—flying mission s at home. Although they wore military flying gear while piloting the latest aircraft o f the Army Air Forces and logged some 60 million ai r miles ferrying a myriad o f aircraft type s to and from port s of embarkation, the law at that time prohibited women from being commissioned as pilots. They had a choice of being commissioned in the WAC's and limited to desk jobs or of becoming WASP contract employees in order to fly for their country. 65 Goldwater note d tha t th e WASPs wer e receivin g a great dea l o f support i n Congress, amon g voters , an d i n newspapers . B y demonstratin g tha t th e WASPs ha d bee n refuse d militar y standin g solel y becaus e o f thei r gender , h e also skillfully countere d th e argumen t tha t approva l o f veterans' statu s fo r th e WASPs woul d se t a dangerous precedent . I n th e 1970 s claim s o f sex discrimi nation wer e bein g take n seriousl y b y the federa l government , an d b y focusin g on th e rulin g o f th e AA F tha t ha d allowe d mal e Ferryin g Squadro n pilot s t o receive commissions bu t prohibite d th e same allowance for th e women pilots , Goldwater transforme d th e WAS P issu e fro m on e o f historica l impor t t o a pertinent, political , an d publi c contemporar y issue : Mr. President, the WASP's have attracted a n unusual amount o f interest in th e news media , whic h i s natura l whe n on e consider s th e extrem e unfairnes s o f treatment thes e ladies have received under ou r law s compared with thei r grea t achievements and de facto militar y status during wartime.

148 I On a Different Battlefield Prominent newspaper s i n a t least 40 State s have printed numerou s article s about the contributions of the WASP's and their struggle for recognition as veterans. Severa l magazine s hav e joine d i n heraldin g i n th e wome n pilot s an d proving that their performance a s aviators was every bit as competent as that of male pilots. The myth that the designation o f these ladies as veterans would set a precedent fo r othe r civilia n group s t o clai m veterans ' right s has been expose d tim e and again . The gir l pilots were denied commission s a s military office r fo r on e reason alone—their sex. A law which the Air Corps wanted to use to bring women pilots into the service as regular officers was ruled by the Comptroller Genera l as not applying to women. Horror o f horrors , th e interpretatio n o f th e la w neede d t o authoriz e th e commissioning o f women woul d hav e require d considerin g the m t o b e "per sons," sinc e th e la w permitted th e Army Air Corp s t o gran t temporar y com missions to "qualified persons. " The Comptroller General' s ruling stated that is would be "revolutionary" t o include women a s "persons" and so the female pilots had to remain civilians. Now, i f there was any othe r grou p wh o wa s u p agains t a unique an d dis criminatory law like this one, I would like to hear about it. I doubt if there are any, which prett y well demonstrates th e fact tha t correction o f this past injus tice, whereby women coul d no t eve n be considered a s "persons" in th e eyes of the law, would not open the gates to a flood of similar claims. 66 In th e fal l o f 1977 , suppor t fo r WAS P militarizatio n wa s s o hig h tha t n o fewer tha n fourtee n Hous e resolution s wer e proposed, 67 an d Senat e Bil l 24 7 was cosponsore d b y twenty-nine Senators. 68

Testimony before the Senate Committee on Veterans'Affairs Both th e Hous e an d Senat e veterans' affairs committee s were major source s o f opposition t o th e bil l tha t woul d gran t veterans ' statu s t o th e WASPs . Th e Senate committe e ha d deliberatel y delaye d th e WASP bil l fo r mor e tha n fou r months, 6 9 an d Representativ e Robert s ha d tol d th e WASPs wh o wer e testify ing before hi s committee tha t h e would "neve r le t thi s bil l com e ou t o f Com mittee." 70 I f th e WAS P bil l faile d t o mak e i t ou t o f eithe r committee , th e WASP Militar y Committe e wa s considerin g followin g i n th e footstep s o f members o f th e Russia n Railwa y Servic e Corp s o f 191 7 an d 1918 , who, afte r years of legislative failure, sue d th e Army i n 197 1 and receive d basi c benefits. 71 T h e railwa y worker s wer e not , however , recognize d a s veterans, whic h wa s a

On a Different Battlefield I 14 9 significant goa l o f th e WASPs . The WASP s woul d tak e thi s approac h onl y i f all legislative attempt s failed . Very similar testimon y wa s heard a t th e hearing s o f the Senat e committee , which bega n Ma y 25,1977 , an d thos e o f th e Hous e committee , whic h bega n September 20 , 1977 . Testifying o n behal f o f th e WASP s wer e severa l forme r WASPs; Colone l Willia m Bruc e Arnold , retired , U.S . Ai r Force , th e so n o f AAF Commanding Genera l H . H . Arnold; an d various members o f Congress. Testifying agains t th e bil l wer e th e Veteran s Administration , America n Le gion, an d VFW . Firs t t o testif y a t th e Senat e committe e hearing s wa s forme r WASP Dor a Doughert y Strother , who a t that tim e was a lieutenant colone l i n the Air Force Reserve and chie f of the H u m an Factor s Engineering an d Cock pit Arrangement Grou p a t Bel l Helicopter . Strothe r began : We come before yo u toda y to speak on behal f of the Women Airforce Servic e Pilots, the WASPs of World War II. We are here to urge your support of S. 247 sponsored b y Senator Barr y Goldwater . Thi s bil l will recogniz e th e WASP as having been de facto Army Air Forces officers an d aviators. Many of the women who served their country as Women Airforce Pilot s are in the witness room today. Each of them could tell you essentially the same militarization stor y o f ou r Arm y Ai r Force s experience , wha t w e wer e tol d an d promised, what we expected, and how the Army Air Forces in fact "militarized " us in every respect of our training and operational duties. This i s the first tim e th e ran k an d file members o f th e WASP hav e ha d a chance to tell their story. We have waited many years to tell our story. 72 Former WASP s Strother , Margare t Ker r Boylan , Dori s Bricke r Tanner , and Bernic e Fal k Hayd u provide d heavil y documente d testimon y abou t training, dail y regiments , require d uniforms , missions , an d commendation s and discharge s tha t wer e handle d i n accordanc e wit h militar y procedure s and practice . Al l provide d documentatio n an d testifie d abou t expectation s toward militarization , an d al l gav e account s o f mission s a t ai r base s along side mal e Ai r Force s officers , i n whic h commandin g officer s believe d th e WASPs t o b e regula r AA F troops. 7 3 Particula r attentio n wa s give n b y th e WASPs an d Colone l Arnol d i n thei r testimon y towar d th e specifi c differ ences betwee n WASP s an d member s o f civilian groups , suc h a s the Civi l Ai r Patrol. Fro m twenty-four-hou r dut y mission s t o militar y drillin g an d uni forms, fro m servic e alongside mal e Air Force s officer s t o to p secre t missions , the WASPs outline d importan t differences . Senator s an d congressiona l rep resentatives wh o testifie d backe d u p thes e claim s an d furthe r explaine d th e loss of benefit s tha t aros e fro m th e WASPs ' lac k o f statu s a s military o r civi l

150 I On a Different Battlefield service. T he WASP s receive d n o hospitalizatio n o r deat h benefit s durin g o r after th e war . Those wh o oppose d WAS P militarizatio n argue d tha t th e WASPs ha d re ceived civi l servic e benefits , an d tha t the y ha d no t distinguishe d thei r servic e markedly enoug h fro m civilian s t o deserv e veterans ' status . Leadin g th e op position wa s the Veterans Administration, fo r whic h Doroth y Starbuck , chie f benefits director , testified : Whatever similarities to military service the employment of these civilians bore, fundamental distinction s remained. As civil servants they were eligible for Federal Employees Compensation for job-related injuries, and in the event of death their survivin g spouse s an d childre n becam e eligibl e fo r deat h benefit s unde r this same program. 74 This was untrue. Because the original intention o f the Army Air Forces was to militariz e th e WASPs , th e progra m wa s neve r give n civi l servic e standing . The WASP s gathere d documentatio n o f this , whic h the y late r submitte d t o Congress. 75 Starbuc k furthe r testified : It i s by definition th e Veterans Administration's missio n t o administe r ben efits program s fo r whic h entitlemen t arise s b y reason o f the servic e o f "vet erans." The term veteran is defined a s "a person who served in the active military, nava l o r ai r servic e an d wh o wa s discharge d o r release d unde r condi tions othe r tha n dishonorable . . . . Entitlement t o Veterans Administratio n benefits is , unde r curren t law , dependen t upo n servic e i n th e arme d force s proper. . . . During the wars in which the United State s has been engaged, many civilians were subject t o hazards and dangers while rendering worthwhile service s on behal f of this Nation. . . . We are fully aware of the commendable service performed an d the skill exhibited b y the Women Airforce Servic e Pilots, as well as the esteem i n whic h they wer e hel d b y militar y member s o f th e Arm y Ai r Forces . Nevertheless , singling out WASP participants for veterans' status would clearly discriminate against thos e countles s othe r civilian s who hav e likewis e contribute d greatl y in time s of grave national need . . . . It remain s that , a s civil servants, these individual s performe d employmen t under condition s whic h differe d fro m tha t o f member s o f th e arme d force s proper. It is a substantial rather than formal difference tha t these civilians could resign a t an y time , an d tha t thei r wartim e disciplinar y infraction s subjecte d them t o no more than civi l service penalties. . . . In summary , w e believ e benefit s unde r law s administere d b y th e Veteran s Administration shoul d be limited to persons who rendered active service in the

On a Different Battlefield I 15 1 armed forces an d to their dependents. Accordingly, and in view of discriminatory and precedential aspects of S. 247, the Veterans Administration opposes its enactment.76 The V F W als o sen t a representative t o th e committe e hearing s t o voice it s opposition t o the WASP bill . Donald Schwab , director o f National Legislativ e Service for th e organization , argue d o n th e sam e principl e a s did th e Veteran s Administration—that becaus e th e WASP s ha d neve r trul y bee n calle d sol diers, the y coul d no t no w b e calle d veterans . Lik e th e others , Schwa b first noted th e WASP recor d o f accomplishment befor e givin g the reason s for thei r opposition: There is no question the flying performed b y these young ladies was both a definite asse t t o ou r nationa l wa r effor t an d patriotic . . . . Notwithstanding th e meritorious contributio n t o th e wa r effor t mad e b y thes e ladies , th e fac t re mains that they were civil servants with war service appointments subject to the national retirement s act s an d civi l servic e leav e regulations. They were super vised by the Civil Service establishment officers , wit h the right to resign at any time an d the y were no t subjec t t o an y form o f military discipline . To deviat e from th e established criteri a of veterans' status, as enunciated i n Title 38, USC [United States Code], and grant such to these ladies would open a Pandora's box and mak e it extremel y difficul t fo r th e Congres s o f the United State s to den y these benefits t o many , man y other groups . Suc h actio n would eventuall y destroy the special status of veterans and do irreparable damage to veterans' ben efits.77 The America n Legio n representativ e approache d th e hearing s wit h th e same strateg y bu t too k hi s argumen t further . Rober t Lyngh , deput y directo r of th e American Legio n s National Veteran s Affairs an d Rehabilitatio n Com mission, emphasize d th e honor o f the American veteran , whom Lync h alway s referred t o a s a "he" : The America n Legio n canno t suppor t thi s bill . It s enactmen t would , i n ou r judgment, jeopardiz e th e entire concep t upo n whic h th e program o f veterans' benefits hav e been constructed. . . . We have read the record of how the [1944 ] bill failed of passage on the floor of the House, and perhaps the House should have, in fact, passed the bill at that time, possibl y resulting i n th e militarizatio n o f the WASPS, and thu s makin g this subject, no w before th e Committee, moot . But the bill was not passed. The WASPS were not militarized, an d the complete record of their service establishes that they functioned i n a civilian capacity. The question , then , tha t mus t no w b e answered i s whether a s civilians, i n the service of the Army for performanc e o f a specific an d limite d task , admit -

152 I On a Different Battlefield tedly involvin g appreciabl e ris k t o lif e an d limb , th e forme r member s o f th e WASPs should be accorded the same rights and benefits tha t appertain t o honorable service in the Armed forces during World War II. The American Legio n firmly believes that this should not b e done. The point is not whether the WASPs performed importan t and valuable service. The point i s the retention o f the concept o f veterans and veterans' benefits, as this concept has been developed and maintained throughout the history of the Republic. . . . In the history of our Nation, th e veteran has, from th e time of the Revolution, occupie d a special plac e i n relationshi p t o th e American people . I n th e main, ou r war s hav e bee n fough t an d wo n b y th e citizen-soldie r who , i n re sponding to the nations call , is fulfilling a basic obligation o f citizenship. The citizen-soldier take s th e soldier' s oath . H e i s enrolled fo r th e duratio n o f th e war. H e i s subjec t t o militar y contro l an d discipline . H e i s require d t o bea r arms, and to engage in combat according to the orders of the officers appointe d over him. Upo n honorabl e completio n o f the prescribed ter m o f service, he is honorably discharged an d h e becomes a veteran. And a t that point i n tim e he becomes entitle d t o th e honors a n benefit s tha t hav e been bestowe d o n veter ans by a grateful nation . The role of the veteran i n America is a very special one. . . . How does one precisely define th e ter m "veteran" ? The American Legio n will stand with th e definition provide d b y section 10 1 of title 3 8 of the United State s Code. Para graph (2 ) of section 10 1 reads: The ter m "veteran " means a person who serve d in the active military, naval, or air service, and who was discharged o r released therefrom unde r conditions other than dishonorable . On th e basis of that definition , th e former member s o f the WASPs are not veterans. And i f that i s true, th e questio n tha t the n present s itsel f is whether, notwithstanding th e fac t tha t WASP s performe d i n a civilia n capacity , the y should nevertheles s b e accorded th e rights, privileges an d benefit s tha t ar e accorded to veterans. We of the American Legio n say not. Of all the points that can be made against them, the overriding one, in our judgment, i s that to legislate such a grant of benefits would denigrate the ter m "veteran" so that i t will never again have the value that presently attaches to it. For, once the precise definition o f the term is breached, it will no longer be possible to defend it. 78 The oppositio n th e WASPs faced i n 197 7 was decidedly different fro m tha t of 1944. This time , th e WASPs ha d organize d an d powerfu l allie s in Congres s and i n the media. With th e declassification o f most World War II records, the y finally ha d documentatio n abou t th e dangerous, varied, and valuable mission s they had performed . I n 1944 , Congress di d no t hav e access to informatio n re garding th e mission s man y WASP s wer e involve d with ; i n fact , durin g th e

On a Different Battlefield I 15 3

WASP militarization hearin g of that year, Representative William Mille r had voiced his support fo r th e WASP program an d expressed frustration ove r the limited facts to which other members of Congress had access. 79 In 1977, these facts were available in great abundance, and the argument shifted t o one of semantics. The WASP s ha d successfull y prove n thei r worth , an d i n thi s con gressional battl e the y wer e no t bein g slandered . However , th e WASP s an d their supporter s ha d no t com e t o Washingto n t o receiv e compliments ; th e WASPs wanted nothin g les s than ful l veterans ' recognitio n an d th e benefit s that went with it . The question at hand was what defined a veteran. All of those voicing opposition to the WASP bill turned to the United States Code, which stated that a veteran was "a person who had served in the active military, naval, or air service, an d wh o wa s discharged o r release d therefro m unde r condition s othe r than dishonorable." 80 Someho w th e WASPs ha d t o convinc e Congres s tha t they too fit this definition . Part of the WASP argument was correcting the assumption tha t the y ha d been part of the civil service. If they could prove that they had never been designated a s civil servants , they would b e one ste p close r t o provin g tha t the y had indeed served in the military. The other task was more difficult: Someho w the WASPs would hav e t o convinc e Congres s tha t the y fit the definitio n o f veterans. In th e face o f a 1944 congressional rulin g that place d the m outsid e the Army Air Forces, the WASPs had to show that the AAF not only had good intentions about militarizing the group, but that it had in some way made the WASPs part of the military.

Testimony before the House Committee on Veterans' Affairs Four month s passe d befor e th e WAS P lobb y wa s calle d befor e th e Hous e Committee on Veterans' Affairs i n September. Rather than stressing their history and accomplishments as they did before the Senate Committee, this time the WAS P supporter s stresse d th e exten t o f th e WASPs ' militar y standing . They prove d tha t WASPs di d no t hav e civi l servic e standing, an d the y provided dozen s o f declassifie d document s tha t stresse d th e program s militar y regimentation, chain of command, use of military equipment, and issuance of military orders. Those testifyin g i n oppositio n maintaine d th e same strateg y as before. This time , the Disable d American Veterans testified, als o claimin g that WASPs had come under the protection of civil service benefits. Their representative, William Gardiner , concluded :

154 I On a Different Battlefield In short, Mr. Chairman, the Disabled American Veterans is deeply sympathetic to the plight o f these valiant ladies. They have earned our respect and admira tion. We cannot, however, support the pending legislation, as we believe that its approval would b e extremely detrimental t o th e existing programs o f veterans benefits an d services. Enactment of the WASP bill (H.R. 3277) would violate this nation's historic principle of restricting VA benefits t o veterans and their dependents only. 81 In defens e o f th e WASPs, Colone l Arnol d focuse d o n th e soli d intention s of his father t o hav e th e WASPs militarize d an d pointe d ou t tha t th e decisio n not t o allo w th e WASP s int o th e militar y wa s a political decisio n influence d by a powerfu l mal e civilia n pilots ' lobby , rathe r tha n a decisio n emanatin g from th e War Department . Arnol d conclude d hi s remark s b y specifically tak ing o n th e argument s pu t fort h b y th e Veteran s Administratio n an d it s ac companying servic e groups : On eac h side of the door of the Veterans Administration i n large letters are the words, "to care for him who shall have borne in battle . . ." And, in theory, these words of Abraham Lincol n ar e fitting for th e Bureau . We know that wars create man y battles ; blood y battle s i n foreig n land s where th e finest men o f ou r country ar e killed an d wounded . There wer e als o battles i n th e Unite d State s borne by finance clerks, chauffeurs, staf f personnel: fate seems to determine the battles we as individuals are asked to fight. We realize that your committee jealously guards the term "veteran " in order to protect i t from misuse—an d w e heartily agree. Only the veteran shoul d b e cared for as it is he that has borne the battle. But, tell me, sir, who is more deserving, a young girl, flying on written offi cial military orders who is shot down and killed by our own anti-aircraft artiller y while carrying out those orders, or a young finance clerk with an eight to fivejob in a Denver finance office? And, is not a WASP, flyingco-pilot in a B-25 crew just as deserving of a military funera l an d othe r veterans' benefits a s the mal e pilot and other members of the crew, when that plane crashed and killed them all? From th e Veteran s Administration poin t o f view, neithe r o f thes e wome n should have any veterans' benefits whatsoever, but the men in both cases should have all benefits. We hope that this committee will remember that the WASP too have borne the battle, a battle that left : 79 of them kille d or injured . No t t o car e for the m also makes a mockery of the motto of the Veterans Administration as well as the whole Veterans Administration syste m in our country. 82 Assembled for the WASP hearings were 114 pages of copies of orders, forms , discharges, and othe r officia l documents . Entitle d "Evidenc e Supportin g Mil -

On a Different Battlefield I 15 5 itary Servic e b y Wome n Airforc e Servic e Pilot s o f World Wa r II, " th e thic k presentation, writte n an d assemble d b y Byr d Howel l Granger , forme r com manding office r o f a WASP Squadro n i n Pal m Springs , California , provide d ample suppor t tha t th e rol e o f WASPs wa s recognize d b y th e AA F a s havin g been militar y servic e durin g World Wa r II . Fro m passin g th e Cade t Qualify ing Examination 83 an d enterin g officia l cade t training, 84 u p throug h th e re ceipt o f World Wa r I I servic e ribbon s afte r disbandment, 85 t o th e grantin g o f permission fo r WASP s wh o late r joine d th e Air Forc e t o displa y thei r WAS P wings o n thei r uniform, 86 th e collectio n provide d ampl e documentatio n an d numerous firsthand account s o f the militar y servic e o f a nonmilitarized orga nization. Granger's presentatio n refute d man y o f the charge s elicite d b y the opposi tion t o th e bill. The assumptio n tha t WASPs were free^to com e an d g o as the y pleased was negated b y orders o f transfer, 87 identificatio n cards , and Army In strument Pilo t Certificates 88 tha t WASP s wer e require d t o hav e i n thei r pos session whil e o n flight duty . I n addition , WAS P testimonial s reveale d tha t WASPs wer e o n twenty-four-hou r cal l rathe r tha n workin g civilia n hours. 89 Court-martial sentence s o f WASPs disprove d th e suppositio n tha t the y wer e not subjec t t o militar y discipline, 90 whil e dut y assignment s reveale d tha t WASPs participate d i n to p secre t militar y missions. 91 I n anothe r section , WASPs recounte d firearms trainin g an d th e requirement s fo r WASPs t o carr y and dra w arms while guarding to p secre t planes an d equipment, 92 whic h wer e backed b y Ordinanc e records. 93 One documen t tha t wa s no t par t o f Granger s "Evidence, " bu t whic h would hav e profound impac t o n th e Committe e o n Veterans ' Affairs, wa s th e Army Honorabl e Discharg e certificat e o f WASP Hele n Porter. 94 A soli d com ponent o f the Unite d State s Cod e definin g a veteran wa s receip t o f an honor able discharg e fro m a n activ e militar y service. 95 Befor e th e WASPs disbande d in December 1944 , Commanding Genera l Henry H. Arnold ha d issue d order s to al l commandin g officer s o f base s a t whic h WASP s serve d tha t th e wome n pilots b e issue d a certificat e simila r t o a n honorabl e discharge. 96 Arnol d di d not issu e an y specification s o n wha t th e certificat e shoul d loo k like , an d a s a result, severa l commandin g officer s simpl y issue d th e WASPs who ha d serve d at thei r base s certificate s o f Honorabl e Discharg e fro m th e Army . Hele n Porter, wh o ha d bee n th e onl y WASP statione d a t Strothe r Fiel d i n Kansa s a t the tim e o f disbandment, wa s on e o f thes e WASPs. Sh e passe d he r certificat e to th e WAS P Militar y Committee , wh o provide d copie s o f i t t o th e Hous e Committee o n Veterans ' Affairs. I t wa s th e final piec e o f documentatio n th e committee neede d t o mak e it s decision .

156 I On a Different Battlefield On October 19,1977, the Senate unanimously voted to add an amendment calling for WASP veterans' recognition t o the GI Improvemen t Act. 97 Then, on November 3,1977, the House voted for passage of WASP veterans' status.98 The followin g day , th e Senat e passe d th e G I Improvemen t Act , whic h in cluded provision s fo r th e WASPs t o "hav e thei r servic e recognize d a s active military servic e by the Secretar y of Defense" 99 an d t o receiv e honorable dis charges and full veterans' benefits. 100 President Carte r signe d th e bil l int o la w on Novembe r 23 , 1977, one da y before Thanksgiving, "officiall y declarin g the Women's Airforce Service Pilots as having served on activ e duty in the Armed Force s of the United State s fo r purposes o f law s administere d b y th e Veteran s Administration." 101 Th e WASPs were now recognized as veterans of the Army Air Forces. "We were finally recognize d fo r wha t w e ha d don e thirt y year s before, " sai d Nadin e Nagle.102 Th e successfu l passag e o f th e bil l brough t ou t WASP s wh o ha d found thei r treatment at the end of World War II so painful tha t they tried to forget th e entire experience. "When i t was finally passed, the n I finally went to a reunion," said Kaddy Steele. 103 On March 8,1979, Air Force Assistant Secretary Antonia Chayes signed the Department o f Defense documen t tha t authorize d officia l discharge s fo r th e WASPs.104 This was the final document needed . Soon afterwards, WASPs individually applie d fo r an d receive d certificate s o f Honorabl e Discharge , be came eligibl e fo r veterans ' benefits , an d thos e n o longe r livin g coul d hav e a flag placed o n thei r coffins—th e final recognitio n tha t the y had serve d thei r country. In 1979, the war was officially ove r for the WASPs, and this time they were victorious.

8 Recognizing the Gendered Warrior History and Theory Intersect with the Fate of the WASPs

The Wome n Airforc e Servic e Pilot s o f World Wa r I I wer e dis banded befor e th e war's end , an d befor e th e women wh o ha d serve d i n th e program receive d th e militarizatio n promise d them , simpl y because th e culture in which they existed was not prepared for women to succeed in roles that were associated with an d desire d b y men. Events and situation s surroundin g the groups disbandment i n 194 4 and the struggle of members to obtain mil itarization most clearly illuminate the consequences of the construction of the gendered warrior . Th e precedin g chapter s hav e note d th e intersection s be tween the WASPs and the multiple cultural forces that inhabited their terrain, such a s the Army Air Forces , the mal e civilia n pilots ' lobby , th e media , an d Congress. This chapte r introduce s theorie s of feminist history , cultura l stud ies, and women's military involvement and notes the way these theories intersect with the facts surrounding WASP disbandment . A clear confrontatio n betwee n th e WASPs and cultura l value s i n suppor t of male dominance occurred when th e positions occupied by the WASPs became desired by men. Here, the threat o f the WASPs became palpable. They were flying the newes t an d bes t planes tha t th e militar y had developed , an d they were flying in th e relativ e safety o f the continental Unite d States . Male pilot trainees whose services were not needed domestically were being released for infantry duty. Despite strong evidence that the male pilot trainees were not qualified t o perform th e missions of the WASPs, the male civilian pilots publicly expresse d thei r resentmen t o f th e WAS P progra m an d successfull y launched a media an d publi c opinion campaig n agains t th e program, whic h resulted i n it s disbandment. As demonstrated b y the media account s quote d in this study, the existence of the WASPs as a military unit populated entirel y by women pilot s ran counte r t o popula r assumption s abou t th e capabilitie s and limitations of women. Because of this, substantial opposition arose to the efforts mad e by the AAF to militarize these women.

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Constructions of Cultural Power The notio n o f hegemon y i s usefu l i n understandin g ho w cultura l force s clashed with th e WASPs. According to social theorist Antonio Gramsci , hege mony i s a relation o f domination no t throug h force , bu t throug h consen t tha t occurs b y mean s o f politica l an d ideologica l control. 1 I n othe r words , hege mony i s a syste m o f contro l tha t occur s throug h th e consen t o f individual s whose behavior s ar e modified b y ideologies tha t ar e disseminated throughou t their culture . Wit h hegemony , individual s ar e no t force d int o certai n behav iors, bu t instea d ar e force d t o believ e tha t th e behavior s ar e ideal . Struggle s over hegemoni c powe r occu r whe n ther e ar e shift s i n th e distributio n o f power, control , an d ideologica l understanding . I n America durin g World Wa r II, a number o f these shifts were occurring. The activitie s of women, racia l mi norities, and lower-clas s individual s were more visible tha n durin g peacetime , and thei r contribution s t o th e war effor t wer e publicly recognize d a s valuable. Women i n particula r wer e participatin g i n specifi c militar y unit s a s well a s i n war factorie s an d othe r domesti c suppor t position s tha t no t onl y challenge d existing assumptions abou t th e abilities and limitations of women a s a cultural group, bu t als o provide d wome n wit h greate r mobility , freedom , education , and incom e tha n the y ha d previousl y enjoyed. 2 A s th e statu s an d powe r o f women i n America bega n t o shift , attempt s were made b y the dominant mal e power structur e t o conserv e an d defen d th e previousl y existin g system, a con struction o f nationa l identit y tha t ha d alread y bee n weakene d b y th e experi ences o f th e Grea t Depression . A s th e likelihoo d o f victor y fo r th e Unite d States and it s Allies increased, s o too di d attack s agains t female participant s i n the wa r effort . Th e wor k o f women i n factorie s an d i n th e militar y wa s criti cized, and women were let go from thei r jobs to make room fo r returning mal e servicemen. The WASP s becam e a n importan t targe t i n th e effor t t o maintai n hege monic contro l ove r th e sexes. Becaus e the y overloo k thi s hegemoni c enforce ment, man y historian s wh o onl y examine d militar y document s an d persona l accounts hav e no t bee n abl e t o explai n wh y th e WASPs were disbande d eigh t months befor e th e war' s end , despit e effort s b y AAF leader s t o maintai n an d even expan d th e program , o r why th e WASPs were th e onl y women's militar y auxiliary during World War II that did no t receiv e the militarization requeste d by th e Wa r Department . Th e answer s t o thes e question s li e no t wit h th e WASPs specifically bu t i n the larger American cultura l landscape, of which th e WASPs wer e bu t a singula r component . Withi n th e cultura l terrai n tha t th e WASPs inhabited , th e point s o f intersectio n an d conflic t betwee n th e WAS P

Recognizing the Gendered Warrior I 15 9

program an d dominan t cultura l constituent s ar e uncovered. These points o f intersection no t onl y provid e th e reason s fo r whic h th e progra m wa s dis banded, but also help us understand th e cultural construction o f gender dur ing this historical period specifically an d in other periods generally.

The Performance of Gender Although most people understand the categories of "man" and "woman" to be tied to assumptions about biological sex, gender is not fixed historically or biologically. Gende r i s defined b y the meaning s tha t a given culture assign s t o individuals wit h specifi c biologica l bodies 3 an d i s a "historicall y specifi c knowledge abou t sexua l difference." 4 I t therefor e change s over time and ca n vary among different nation s and cultures. Once women an d men are placed in cultura l categories , thei r behaviors , expectations , occupations , an d thoughts are shaped by the meanings their culture has established about what constitutes being of a specific gender . There is thus an instability to gender. Dominant cultural forces attempt to deny this instability by assigning rigid rules that determine acceptable actions for individuals depending on their gender. Threats to gender assumptions are taken very seriously when the y occur, and extreme consequences face the individuals or groups who put forth thes e challenges. Such challenges generally occur during cultural crises, moments when the definitional barrier s between the gender s ar e remove d t o accommodat e som e large r threat , suc h a s tha t which occurs in nations during war. Significantly, relationship s betwee n th e gender s ar e heavily influenced b y power. Becaus e the dominant powe r control s th e generally accepted system s of belief within a given culture , thes e constructions ar e such tha t th e domi nant category—i n thi s cas e men—is establishe d a s the norm . Accordin g t o Gerda Lerner , suc h construction s for m th e basi s fo r th e historica l develop ment o f patriarchy. Within th e system o f patriarchy, th e "metaphor s o f gender" ar e constructe d s o tha t th e mal e i s normative , "whol e an d powerful, " while the female is deviant, mutilated, and dependent. 5 Women and men are constructed as diametrically opposed to each other, and categorical difference s are heightened an d invoked a s "proof" that natural difference s exis t between the genders. Because the definitiona l syste m tha t support s th e construction s of gender i s based o n thi s oppositiona l categorization , wome n canno t b e allowed t o perfor m i n men' s spaces , because thei r performance s ris k revealin g that gende r an d therefor e powe r ar e artificial constructions . Thus, th e entir e

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existence o f this syste m o f power i s supported b y the denia l o f the artificia l construction of gender; instead, the consequences of gender performances ar e interpreted a s natural differences . Contingent als o to thi s diametri c construction o f gender i s the notio n o f the couple . This notion , whic h provide s th e mos t basi c organizational con struction in Western thought, is sexed; organizational couples (like strong and weak, active and passive, and war and peace) have concealed beneath their oppositional arrangemen t gende r construction s i n which th e dominant gende r is always privileged. Such constructions enforce a culturally developed notion that men are superior t o women , a n assumptio n tha t i s maintaine d b y th e contro l o f an y findings tha t may rais e question s abou t thi s purportedl y natura l arrange ment. Fo r example , findings abou t biologica l difference s betwee n gender s have overlooke d th e documente d presenc e o f women i n categorie s deeme d unsuitable for the m an d have denied tha t individua l difference s withi n gen der group s ar e large r tha n th e averag e difference s betwee n groups. 6 Argu ments abou t sexua l difference develope d b y dominant group s serv e to con ceal bot h th e cultura l construction s o f th e power s hel d b y members o f th e dominant group and the artificial construction s of the body by claiming that the difference s thes e argument s acknowledg e ar e "natural " i n thei r forma tion. I n examinin g the construction o f gendered work i n nonindustria l cul tures, noted anthropologis t Margare t Mea d foun d tha t when women bega n to do what had previously been labeled "men's work," the men would shift t o an are a o f labor tha t wa s not ye t labele d accordin g t o gender , woul d desig nate this area as being exclusively "men's work," and would subsequently redefine it as being the work that makes men different fro m women, effectivel y constructing an area of work that "proves " that the y are indeed men. 7 In ad dition, Mea d foun d tha t th e spac e occupie d b y men an d th e activitie s the y performed wer e assigne d greate r cultura l significanc e an d valu e tha n th e spaces and activities of women. Gender categories remain fiercely defended an d place roles and limitations on individuals based entirely upon the category they occupy. Judith Butler has explained this phenomenon i n part by revealing the normative function tha t gender performs fo r the culture, and by the regulatory processes that produc e the bodies it governs. Butler defines gender as a construction determine d an d sustained by performances influence d b y a culture's assumptions about itself.8 The category of "woman" thus becomes not a living body, but a boundary that varies according to outside regulation. In other words, the body of woman is determined by cultural rules and expectations. The transitory construction o f

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gender is in danger of being revealed at those points where challenges to such cultural rules and expectations are raised. If, a s Butler asserts, gender is a performance, a ritual reenactment of socially established learning in which the act of repetition conceal s its origins, 9 then a challenge that interrupts thi s repetition ca n disrup t th e entir e performanc e an d it s assumptions b y drawing at tention t o th e instabilit y an d fiction o f th e performance . I f thi s occurs , th e culture that constructed thes e gendered boundarie s will have to enforce a return to the repetitive performances an d either deny that any rupture occurred or punish thos e individuals who shifted th e culture's prescribed performanc e of gender by naming their actions as unnatural transgressions .

Intersections of Feminist Historical Inquiry During Worl d Wa r II , militar y strategist s use d three-dimensiona l terrai n maps to plan the movements of troops and material. Intelligence groups supplied information tha t detailed the maps, such as enemy placements, civilian groupings, and weather, thu s enabling strategists to envision fully th e terrai n and texture of the intended battlefield. The same strategy has been used in this study o f an importan t face t o f World Wa r I I history . To thoroughl y under stand the history of a subject, we must not only examine the subject, bu t also invoke and envision the relationships, experiences, and cultural landscape inhabited by that subject . The proces s of feminist historica l inquir y no t onl y offers insigh t int o th e specific peopl e or events being (re ) discovered, bu t als o uncovers valuable in formation abou t th e processes through which th e identities and expectation s of the separate genders have been and are being developed. Feminist historian Joan Scot t ha s argued tha t th e purpose serve d b y feminist exploration s int o history is to explicate the occurrences of gender constructions. 10 Historical accounts frequentl y hav e served to support dominan t assumption s abou t con structions of gender (as well as race, class, nationality, etc.) by normalizing the concepts of dual and opposin g genders as stable and real , rather tha n a s constructions perpetually in flux. Through feminis t history , this normative positioning of gender can be represented an d contested . Feminist historical inquiry not only improves our understanding of events that wome n hav e participated in , bu t als o uncover s construction s o f gender that bette r develo p the body of knowledge through which feminis t theorist s approach thei r subjects . Accordin g t o feminis t theoris t Teres a d e Laurentis , the "essential difference" o f feminism i s found no t in the category of women,

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but in feminisms "histori c specificity" in understanding the ways that women live (and have lived) differently fro m me n and from eac h other. Feminist history is not th e "history of women." Becaus e of the multiplicity of factors tha t constitute individuals, there can be no history particular t o women. When women are assessed individually, however, certain patterns do arise that can be applied categorically. A significant patter n tha t has arisen in feminist historica l inquir y i s that o f flux. The categorie s tha t establish"men " and "women " (essentially , construction s o f masculinit y an d femininit y tha t are culturally accepte d a s normativ e behavior ) chang e ove r tim e an d var y throughout an d eve n within differen t cultures . There exist s no stabl e grou p identity, an d th e definition s o f bot h categorie s ar e develope d i n relatio n t o each other s o that an y changes i n on e gender categor y impact definition s o f the other. Through applications of feminist historical technique to specific entities during particular times, patterns of change become visible. Feminist historica l inquir y ha s bee n integra l i n understandin g notion s o f hegemony and cultural constructions b y illustrating some of the mechanism s operating within cultures that exert powerful control over the thoughts and behaviors of individuals. The relations of power and consent that constitute hegemonic control are revealed through th e study of the historically specific. Fur thermore, feminis t historica l inquir y help s chang e th e assumption s guidin g historical studies by focusing its scholarship on critical examinations of documents. Such scholarship recognizes that written records and their preservation reflect the values of a given culture about what is important more so than they exist as evidence of what has previously occurred within that culture. Certainly, questions of the subjectivity of historical accounts have been debated within many schools of history. However, attempts at rediscovering the history of women had considerable impact on the understanding of historical subjectivity, becaus e account s o f women's histor y frequentl y pointe d t o th e hegemonic process by which events are given historical importance more than they focused o n the history of women. As a result, not only did the historian begin t o questio n whethe r sh e was writing a reflection o f her time , bu t sh e began t o questio n he r understandin g o f larger, hegemoni c structure s o f culture and their impact o n th e shaping of the subject. Therefore, th e telling of history throug h feminis t analyse s no t onl y reflects th e dynamic s o f contem porary times, but also becomes the story of larger cultural constructions rather than o f individua l subjects . I t i s not enoug h t o simpl y examin e th e specifi c subject o f inquiry, fo r doin g so risks categorizing and restrictin g the subject . As Joan Scott has noted, examinations of the experiences of hidden lives only reproduce the system that produced th e silence. 11

Recognizing the Gendered Warrior I 16 3 Within th e technique s o f feminis t history , th e valu e o f examining th e his torical subjec t come s no t fro m tellin g th e specifi c stor y o f th e subjec t (whic h is presumed t o b e impossibl e t o recove r fully) , bu t fro m mappin g ou t th e cul tural landscap e i n whic h a particular historica l subjec t wa s situate d an d the n examining th e relationship s o f tha t subjec t wit h other s wh o populat e thi s landscape, thu s tracin g th e movement s an d transition s o f th e subjec t withi n and throughou t th e give n space . I t i s not enoug h t o tel l a specific story—th e position o f th e subjec t withi n tha t stor y mus t als o b e accounte d for . Fo r ex ample, b y positionin g individual s identifie d a s wome n i n th e cultura l land scape fro m whic h the y came , ther e i s les s likelihoo d o f fallin g int o a tra p o f universalizing th e categor y o f women int o a normative an d thu s exclusionar y category. Thos e w e no w cal l wome n i n contemporar y America n cultur e ar e not member s o f a unified an d cohesiv e grou p withi n thi s historical period , le t alone throughou t history . Historical period s i n which gende r crise s existed (suc h as times o f war) ca n be use d a s point s o f entr y t o examin e th e transitiona l aspec t o f sex role s an d identity. Women hav e bee n agent s no t onl y i n changin g thei r presume d gen der roles , bu t als o i n th e large r event s tha t compris e history . This chang e ha s not alway s bee n positive , an d wome n hav e no t alway s ha d a positiv e impac t on events ; nevertheless , th e variou s role s tha t wome n hav e playe d an d con tinue t o pla y i n historica l an d curren t event s shoul d no t b e overlooke d i n ex plorations o f women's history . Ye t eve n i f we se e women a s powerful an d ac tive entities , inequitie s stil l exis t tha t preven t the m fro m ful l agenc y i n man y cultural situations . Legal an d societa l restraint s ofte n impos e barrier s o n th e role s allowe d women. Durin g time s of national crises , however, thes e barriers are frequentl y dissolved, resultin g in increase d participatio n b y women i n historically signif icant events . This participatio n cause s anothe r crisis—i n th e representation s of masculinit y an d femininity—becaus e an y redefinitio n o f gende r role s im mediately ha s significan t impac t upo n bot h sexes du e t o th e binar y construc tion o f sex identity an d roles . Therefore, a n expansio n o f th e right s an d role s of women almos t immediatel y result s i n a crisis o f masculinity . Feminis t the orist Elaine Showalter ha s explained tha t ther e exists a thin "sexua l borderline " between th e masculin e an d th e feminine , an d whe n definition s o f women' s roles and identitie s change , th e borderlin e become s a "vanishing poin t o f sexual difference." 12 Therefore , change s i n assumption s abou t wh o wome n ar e and wha t role s the y ca n perfor m i n an y give n cultur e no t onl y immediatel y impact masculin e identit y an d assumption s o f mal e roles , bu t als o threate n the entir e constructio n o f difference betwee n me n an d women .

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One suc h perio d i n whic h cultura l assumption s abou t me n an d wome n were contested an d change d was during World War II. Many historians, an thropologists, and cultural critics have written about the impact World War II had not only upon altering constructions of gender, but also constructions of race, class , sexuality , an d nationalism . Becaus e Worl d Wa r I I wa s a "tota l war,"13 efforts of all citizens had to be focused on the war. In the United States, total war resulted in the recruitment of women and even teenagers to work in manufacturing plants and the incorporation of women into all branches of the military, participating in nearly all military actions except for combat . The introductio n o f women int o what had previousl y been established as a proving ground for masculinity subsequently resulted in a crisis of representation regarding gender. Because gender is a cultural construction, we can presume tha t th e greate r th e threa t t o gende r identity , th e greate r th e backlas h against those individuals who constituted tha t threat .

A Man Is Not Born a Soldier The militar y has tremendous impac t upo n th e gender performances o f both men and women in contemporary American culture. For the purposes of this study, the military is defined a s a stable, governmentally sponsored, and societally recognized institutio n tha t i s responsible fo r th e maintenance o f a nation's worldwide standing through th e exercise of force, typicall y expressed as wars or other actions involving combat. Revolutionary forces, guerrilla forces, and so-calle d terroris t organization s ar e excepte d fro m thi s definition . Th e defining difference s ar e governmental sponsorship , societa l recognition , an d stability. Warfare and gender are "intimately connected." 14 Constructions of gender formed withi n th e military establishment hav e a wide reach because military metaphors ar e often use d both within an d outsid e the military to define an d defend gende r roles. Combat narratives are specifically invoked to distinguish men fro m women , especiall y because o f the impact comba t ha s i n th e sym bolic process o f becoming a man. Thus, recognizin g women withi n comba t narratives disrupts expectations o f gender and confuse s mal e identity. Works by feminist militar y theorists Cynthia Enloe and Jean Bethke Elshtain exam ine the development and enhancement o f soldiers' masculinity, both throug h highly feminize d an d sometime s degradin g portrayal s o f women wh o serv e the military in support roles, and by the elimination of accounts of female soldiers from militar y narratives. Enloe argues that th e military system control s

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soldiers' wives as thoroughly as it does soldiers, and she documents ho w military structures prevent wives (most notably wives of officers) fro m obtainin g jobs deemed as not bein g feminine. Fo r example, the military provides wives with jobs as cashiers at the USO, o r encourages thei r involvemen t i n charit y work, but prevents them from takin g factory jobs. 15 Enloe also traces the historical root s of what sh e calls the feminization o f military nurses, 16 in which nurses are stereotyped as nurturers and are exempted from traditiona l personnel classifications t o deny their importance and numbers. 17 Masculinity—"the se t o f images, values, interests , an d activitie s hel d im portant t o a successfu l achievemen t o f mal e adulthoo d i n America n cul ture"—is intrinsicall y linke d wit h militar y involvemen t throug h a rang e o f popular cultur e products. 18 Severa l thing s occu r withi n th e spac e i n whic h combat-as-masculinity i s performed tha t benefi t th e institutio n tha t foster s these construction s an d als o enforc e culturally constructe d normativ e stan dards o f gender. Fo r example , militar y recruitmen t benefit s fro m th e estab lishment o f unspoken rule s of male conduct tha t includ e a proverbial condi tioning unde r fire. Because these rules ar e unspoken, i t is difficult fo r mem bers of our culture to articulate a resistance toward them . Ron Kovi c i s one o f man y Vietnam veteran s wh o hav e written convinc ingly about confusing comba t service with becoming a man. He places the responsibility for hi s disabling war injury no t with th e Vietnamese, bu t with a national consciousness that articulated that a boy must fight in a war in order to become a man. While notions similar to Kovic's proliferate i n Vietnam accounts (perhap s becaus e th e los s of the war prevente d American serviceme n from symbolicall y achievin g manhoo d throug h comba t victory) , the y als o occur i n persona l narrative s fro m al l wars. Highl y decorate d Worl d Wa r I I hero an d 195 0 s movie actor Audie Murph y wrote abou t th e connection s h e saw between bein g a soldier and becomin g a man i n his 1949 autobiograph y To Hell and Back, which was later transformed int o a Hollywood movi e starring Murphy. He wrote: "When the Japanese hit Pearl Harbor, I was half-wild with frustration. Her e was war itself; and I was too young to enlist. I was sure it would al l be over in a few months an d I would b e robbed o f the great ad venture tha t ha d haunte d my imagination." 19 Murph y trie d t o enlis t i n th e Marines, which he described as being "the toughest o f the lot," 20 bu t was rejected b y them an d late r b y the Army paratroopers becaus e of his small an d boyish stature. He joined th e Army infantry, wher e he fought bein g assigned as a cook, which was for him "humiliation," 21 an d subsequently became a rifleman stationed in Europe. Murphy's autobiography is an account of one soldier's coming of age (becoming a man) in the American wartime military. De-

166 I Recognizing the Gendered Warrior spite hi s subsequen t horro r towar d th e war , whic h i s develope d throughou t the account , Murph y neve r doubte d tha t fo r hi m becomin g a war her o an d becoming a man wer e linked . Wartime account s suc h a s thes e provid e tangibl e example s o f th e tenuou s and letha l plac e o f gender performance s i n th e military . I n this , th e mal e sol dier assume s a variatio n o f Simon e d e Beauvoir' s maxi m "on e i s no t bor n a woman, on e become s a woman," i n which on e is not bor n a man, bu t on e be comes a man . Th e ma n i s create d an d performe d withi n a culturall y pre scribed construction , i n whic h me n ar e willin g t o ris k danger , dismember ment, an d deat h t o prov e thei r masculinity . Comba t i s no t th e onl y danger ous an d frequentl y deadl y proving groun d fo r men—othe r arena s includ e th e running o f the bulls in Spain , football, an d boxing . However, comba t remain s the ultimat e sit e within whic h on e prove s manhood , fo r eithe r on e i s successful o r on e dies . A cultura l focu s upo n th e performance s o f masculinit y withi n th e militar y benefits th e institution itsel f by helping to keep secret the true means b y which it works. Contemporar y militar y system s rel y more o n technologie s an d polit ical activitie s tha n o n individua l brut e forc e t o wi n battles ; therefore , i f war i s presented a s stories of individual comba t soldier s fighting, th e range and dept h of wartime activitie s ca n b e easily concealed. Example s o f this ca n b e found i n dominant medi a coverag e o f American militar y involvemen t i n th e Gul f War . The Gul f War was technologicall y based , with result s determine d b y the com plexity o f weapons system s rathe r tha n b y individua l soldier s o r th e field bat tles i n whic h the y participated . Despit e encouragemen t b y th e Pentago n t o publicize th e technologica l aspec t o f th e wa r (suc h a s video shot s o f th e pur portedly "smart " bombs 5 tracking devices), the American medi a still attempte d to fit th e war int o storie s i n which th e individua l soldie r assume d importance . Focusing o n individua l soldier s enable d th e U.S.-le d coalitio n force s t o con duct battle s i n controlle d secrec y whil e a wealt h o f storie s generate d b y th e media gav e some a perception o f seamless coverag e of the war an d it s battles. 22 A focu s o n individua l soldier s divert s attentio n fro m th e importan t agendas , goals, and politica l weights o f battles, an d create s a myopic spac e i n which th e audiences believ e the y ar e receivin g a complet e accoun t o f wartim e occur rences, when instea d the y have onl y bee n give n a minimum o f information . The creatio n o f th e America n soldie r i n narrative s doe s mor e tha n avoi d the large r o r mor e significan t account s o f rea l wars ; i t als o serve s t o silenc e many truth s o f war . Battl e accounts , a s the y appea r i n dominan t medi a sources, d o no t demonstrat e th e realitie s encountere d b y rea l peopl e i n war s as much a s they continue an d substantiate commonl y held and culturall y con -

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structed belief s abou t me n an d women, th e culture s within whic h the y live, and the cultures to which theirs is opposed. War narratives are frequently con cocted by the military itself to increase the morale of both the soldiers directly involved in war and the civilians they represent. Paul Fussell documents how accounts of military failures an d individual acts of cowardice are transforme d by military institutions int o battl e narratives of courage and strength, whic h become mor e frequen t an d reac h greate r mythical proportion s th e furthe r a nation is from obtainin g victory.23 Important to these narratives are constructions o f th e masculin e soldier , whic h becom e internalize d b y th e soldier s themselves an d ar e incorporate d int o thei r ow n narratives , regardles s o f th e facts. Fo r example , Fussel l point s t o soldier s wh o idealize d thei r ow n mas culinity in battle stories, while at the same time surveys revealed "fears so deep they often vomited , urinated , o r lost control o f their bowels." 24 Reality need not enter the battlefield narrative . Among the realities lost in the cultural constructions of war are the contributions, involvements , an d experience s o f women. Becaus e th e militar y ha s been the place where masculinity is "tested and confirmed" i n boys and men , the "presence of women contributes to the erasure of this symbolic feature." 25 In addition t o constructed masculinity , another gendered component i s integral to th e battlefiel d narrative—th e absenc e o f femininity, tha t is , the con trolled absence of women and their combat stories. Women cannot be allowed to exist within these narratives if combat is to continue to be a proving ground for masculinity. If war is ideologically the place of men, it follows the bound aries of binary opposition upon which gender is constructed that war is therefore not th e place of women. Men ar e made in combat, according to this rationale, because it is a place where women canno t surviv e and therefor e can not exist . The symboli c absence o f women i s key to understandin g ho w th e military develops gender. By looking a t ho w rea l participants—namely , women—hav e bee n elimi nated fro m militar y performance narratives , it becomes evident tha t thi s is a space i n whic h artificia l genderin g an d it s subsequen t performance s ca n b e seen clearly. The metaphorical significanc e o f the military (an d more specifi cally of combat ) ha s frequentl y bee n linke d wit h masculinit y primaril y be cause women have been excluded from popular accounts, institutionally sanctioned narratives , and widely accepted notions . Metaphorically, me n fight in the space of war, while women occupy another space and activity—maintain ing the hom e front . Th e distinc t image s tha t resul t fro m thes e gendered as sumptions were used successfully durin g World War II to recruit both women and men into various war efforts. 26

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The absenc e o f women fro m militar y performanc e narrative s i s signifi cant t o th e developmen t an d understandin g o f assumption s abou t th e fe male gender . No t onl y i s th e militar y importan t a s a provin g groun d fo r men, but i t also serves an integral role as a proving ground fo r women. Th e symbolic absence of women from militar y narratives has meanings key to assumptions o f who women are , what the y are capable of , an d what cultura l reactions the y shoul d have . If , i n wa r narratives , militar y involvemen t demonstratively prove s men' s strengt h an d courag e (and , becaus e o f thei r symbolic absence, proves the physica l an d emotiona l weaknes s o f women), then t o understan d th e realitie s o f gende r construction s w e mus t explor e both th e realities and th e perceptions o f women's and men's involvement i n the military . If gender difference s ar e biologically determined , the n th e performanc e of men and women in the military, particularly during times of crisis, would differ decidedl y an d consistently . However , i f gende r i s a n artificia l con struction, the n th e difference s betwee n men' s an d women' s behavior s an d abilities would b e fluid o r even nonexistent. I n othe r words, if a solid, bio logical differenc e existe d betwee n th e sexes in th e aren a o f soldiering , al l wars would b e fought solel y by men, militar y engagemen t woul d b e something all men woul d aspir e to do, and al l women woul d b e absent fro m al l wars. There would exis t for bot h gender s stable and secur e places fo r the m and between them—place s tha t would no t hav e to be artificially create d o r maintained. Becaus e the military is a significant performanc e plac e for gender, ther e exist s substantial distanc e betwee n th e historicall y demonstrate d involvement o f wome n an d th e idealize d belief s o r develope d narrative s about the absences of women. The culture has invested considerable energy in maintaining it s notions o f gender, despite documented evidenc e that in validates these beliefs. Indeed, because differences exis t between realities and ideologies of gender, we can assess the importance of any given performanc e in determining gender roles by measuring the efforts take n to disguise its realities and write new performances. I n doing so, we can isolate moments of performance tha t ar e integral t o maintaining gender constructions . Women have served many roles in the military (and , more specifically, i n combat), bu t the y ar e no t par t o f wa r narrative s becaus e thei r presenc e would disrup t th e military's rol e as a masculine proving ground. Therefore , women ar e not allowe d to experience symbolically the presence on th e bat tlefield tha t the y have experienced historically . Comba t i s a place where at tributes generally equated with masculinity—suc h a s domination, self-con trol, violence , physica l expression , an d conquest—ar e rewarde d i n men ,

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while account s o f women expressin g th e sam e attribute s ar e denied . Mili tary's basic training asserts that being a man means not being a woman, thu s drill instructors humiliat e mal e cadets by calling them women o r girls. The very existence o f women o n th e battlefiel d throw s int o questio n culturall y created assumption s o f gende r divisio n an d gende r roles ; i n orde r t o dea l with thi s confusion, th e military separates men an d women int o artificiall y designated positions tha t are, through regulator y decree, occupied solel y by men. The primary position o f exclusively male occupation withi n th e military is combat. While in the contemporary American militar y certain com bat positions , suc h a s fighter pilots , ar e onl y recentl y bein g minimall y oc cupied b y women, th e definition s ar e shifting t o defin e mor e strictl y wha t constitutes combat , suc h a s hand-to-han d fighting, an d thu s t o exclud e women. If combat and military metaphors of masculinity extend into and highlight larger cultural assumptions abou t gender, accounts of women i n battle situations would unsettle status quo expectations. To prevent this, artificial bound aries are clearly laid dow n o n th e stag e of battle. Women hav e long partici pated i n front-lin e situation s (mos t frequentl y a s nurses, drivers, and suppl y officers), bu t their positions have been designated as noncombat, regardless of whether the y experience d comba t conditions . Thes e boundarie s ofte n ar e quite ridiculous. In World War II, British anti-aircraft gun s were run by crews consisting o f both me n an d women. Women wer e prohibited fro m actuall y firing the guns but were involved with all other aspects of using the weapons, such as aiming, loading, and unloading . Yet the women o n thos e crews were designated a s noncomba t personnel , th e me n a s comba t personnel. 27 Th e topic o f thi s book , th e WASP s o f Worl d Wa r II , ofte n serve d a s pilot s i n bombers in which all other crew members were male; on at least one mission, the mal e cre w member s wer e designate d a s comba t personnel , whil e th e WASPs wer e civilians . Indeed , th e ultimat e resul t o f combat—killin g th e enemy—does no t alway s define wha t constitute s combat . In th e contempo rary U.S. Air Force, women serve as missile officers, an d as such, their mission is to fire missiles (som e of which are capable of killing millions), yet they are designated as noncombat personnel . Proximity t o th e fron t i s another componen t use d b y the militar y t o define combat, bu t th e concep t o f the fron t ha s changed radicall y as weapons have become more sophisticated. With the appearance of long-range artillery in World War I and of bombers and missiles in World War II, the concept of the fron t becam e ambiguous . I n Worl d Wa r I , 5 percent o f casualtie s wer e civilians; by World War II, civilian casualties had risen to 50 percent, and the

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casualty rate s i n contemporar y war s averag e 8 0 percent civilian. 28 The ma jority of wartime casualties occur at great distance from what is designated as the front. Definition s o f combat based on proximity to the front an d the use of a weapon ar e arbitrarily determined , supportin g Enloe' s contentio n tha t an "elastic definition" o f combat is used to exclude women from specifi c classifications.29 I t i s of note tha t withi n th e military , comba t positions , whic h are denied women , resul t i n swifte r promotion s amon g career militar y per sonnel. The act of women fighting in war is labeled unnatural no t becaus e it constitutes a constructed crim e agains t nature , bu t becaus e i t negate s culturall y anticipated narratives . In these situations, women becom e problematic when they knowingly act in ways that contradict the status quo of gender constructions. Accounts of women who disguised themselves as men to join th e military offe r interestin g glimpse s int o th e dynamic s forme d b y th e comple x arrangements o f gende r code s an d th e confusio n generate d b y encouragin g patriotism i n women while placing limitations upon thei r behavior. Feminis t author Juli e Wheelwrigh t argue s tha t wome n wh o disguise d themselve s a s men and became soldiers had no desires to be men, but instea d wanted mal e privileges an d experiences , on e o f which wa s militar y participation. 30 Onc e their tru e gender s wer e discovered , cultura l reaction s t o thes e wome n hav e been multiple and complex. On th e one hand, these women were sometimes rewarded fo r thei r service , ofte n t o encourag e recruitmen t o f me n int o th e military. O n th e othe r hand , th e sam e wome n wer e punishe d i f the y at tempted t o continu e t o deman d an y privileges gaine d b y their masquerade . The presence of women i n war itself is not a challenge to military structures. Indeed, militar y institution s hav e long ru n campaign s specificall y t o recrui t women. In Worl d Wa r II , al l branche s o f th e militar y excep t th e Army Air Forces ran recruitment campaign s for women. This effort range d from medi a articles in newspapers and magazines promoting the need for women to serve as nurses31 to the Women's Army Auxiliary Corps placing recruitment adver tisements in popular publications. 32 However, the participation o f women i n the military, though encourage d durin g times of war, does challenge cultura l expectations of gender roles. Acknowledging the presence of women in an institution tha t i s significant i n th e developmen t o f masculinit y question s as sumptions of biologically determined se x roles, pointing instead to the fluidity o f gender role s an d revealin g tha t th e notio n o f gender i s nothing mor e than a cultura l construction . Thu s th e battlegroun d become s a provin g ground not for masculinity but for enforcing the artificial construction of gender performances .

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The Constructed Absence of Women from War In th e spac e that exist s between th e military' s nee d fo r wome n an d th e cul ture's need to deny their role, an interesting phenomenon arise s in which real women who served their militaries during wars or other national crises are ef fectively erase d fro m wa r narratives . Thus, i n th e consciousnes s o f their cul tures, they cease to exist. Several components arise from thi s metaphorical disappearance. Because the "ideologica l constructio n o f soldiering is so securely linked wit h soldiering , storie s hav e been constructe d i n which wome n hap pened to be on the front, becaus e of a singular accident." 33 This "singula r accident" construction occur s in fictionalized narratives about real women warriors. Fo r example , th e Amazon s hav e lon g bee n delegate d t o a position o f myth, despit e accounts o f their historical existence , and th e narratives abou t Amazons have been fictionalized to add sexualize d components , extrem e (o r unnatural) display s of aggression, and self-hatred. The myth of Amazons severing their breast s to become archers is one example. This myt h i s offered a s proof o f women's inabilit y t o b e combatant s unles s the y ar e unnaturall y al tered to become more like men. In this, the Amazons deplete their femininit y and begin to replicate the male, taking on not only the "male" guise of soldier, but also the guise of the male body. Feminist military theorist Mady Wechsler Segal has developed a model t o portray the various forces that influence the degrees to which women will participate i n th e military . The element s with th e greatest impac t i n thi s mode l are not th e military and threats to national security, but social structures an d cultural influences. According to Segal, a given culture's values and social constructions about gender are most likely to affect th e roles of women in the military.34 Need s o f the labo r forc e an d nationa l securit y conform t o thes e cultural influences. In cultures where women are not valued as equal participants, a pattern emerge s in which women ar e called int o th e military when a need exists an d release d whe n th e crisi s i s past . Furthermore , whe n th e militar y needs women, "their prior military history is recalled to demonstrate that they can perfor m effectivel y i n variou s positions . There is , however, a process o f cultural amnesi a of the contributions wome n mad e during emergency situa tions. In th e aftermat h o f war, women's militar y activitie s ar e constructed a s minor. DJ The real deployment and subsequent disbandment of military women during times of war occur within symbolic constructions in which women are absent from cultural representations of the military. Gender constructions are allowed malleability only when it benefits dominant interests; therefore, women

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are deployed in wartime situations when they are needed, but only for the duration of the war. The use of large groups of women in a war effort i s justified by the supposition tha t war is an unnatura l tim e for a culture. This both explains women's wartime function s i n nonthreatenin g way s and justifies thei r subsequent remova l from th e military during peacetime . I t also portrays th e involvement of women as something unnatural to the social order and potentially damaging to the culture if allowed (lik e killing) t o continue into peacetime. The continue d presenc e of women i n th e peacetime military threaten s gender construction s an d negate s th e authorit y o f mal e superiorit y an d strength (a s "proven" by military involvement). After a war, national institu tions pu t substantia l effor t int o returnin g thei r cultur e t o prewa r normality . War is portrayed a s an abnormality tha t arise s and mus t be dealt with, while peace is portrayed a s normal an d separate from war . Many things that occu r in wars, such as mass killings, are thus not perceived as normal, but as necessary within the boundaries of combat. The function o f women i n roles previously define d a s exclusivel y mal e receive s muc h th e sam e treatmen t a s killing—that is , something tha t occur s i n abnorma l times , ou t o f necessity , but is itself never normal. The deployment o f women i n the military, particularly during peacetime, also alters the way the women themselves are perceived. To explain their continued involvement in military institutions during times of peace, the culture constructs these women as being unnatural in their desires to remain. In keeping with th e dichotomized separation s o f gendered behaviors , female behav ior is sexualized; hence, the abnormality of female soldiers in a peacetime military is explained in sexualized terms. The female soldie r is constructed a s either bein g excessivel y sexua l o r excessivel y nonsexua l (i n a heterosexua l cultural reality) , for whic h sh e is tagged a s either "whore " or "lesbian. " This sexualized namin g maintain s th e repetitio n o f gendered performanc e withi n the military by explaining the peacetime participation of women as an unnatural phenomenon . Norma l wome n hav e returne d t o th e home ; therefore , women who remain are not normal and either want to be men or want to have sex with men outside of culturally sanctioned norms . In th e Unite d States , wit h th e adven t o f th e al l volunteer force , wome n have constituted a greater percentage of the military than ever before. Women represent abou t 1 0 percent o f militar y personne l i n th e Unite d States. 36 In 1990, 223,000 women were on active duty.37 And with the attention accorde d to women who participated in the Gulf War, the image of the soldier as a masculine entity has changed. This has resulted in a gender crises within the very institution throug h which concepts of masculinity are shaped.

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Technology and science have also impacted the model of women's involvement in the military by lessening the need for soldiers to fight by brute force. 38 A result of the increase in technology and the increase of women i n the military has been to redefine the image of the soldier as a professional. The media portrayal o f American soldier s i n th e Gul f War invoke d thi s construction, 39 claiming that the contemporary soldier relied on technology rather than physical strength, in an effort t o preserve an icon of the masculine combat soldier. Segal notes tha t becaus e th e militar y serve s suc h a critical rol e i n societ y with regard s to the development an d maintenanc e o f ideals about masculin ity, "For women to participate, either the military has to be perceived (b y policy makers and the populace) as transformed t o make it more compatible with how women are (or perceived to be) or women have to be perceived as changing in ways that make them more seemingly suited to military service." 40 The importanc e o f women's involvemen t i n militar y servic e extend s be yond th e basi c economic, educational , an d othe r opportunitie s accorde d t o the individual soldier . I n th e United States , military servic e and ful l citizen ship rights are inextricably linked. Historically , thes e links have been consis tently maintained, and consequently "enfranchisement an d civil service rights drives have been more successful afte r wars." 41 The question of women's roles in the military is not simply about the career choices of individuals, but rather about "whethe r the y should share, as a matter o f citizenship, the same rights and obligation s a s men fo r thei r nation' s defense; an d i f not, what th e legitimate parameters for their participation shoul d be." 42

Theories and Realities Intersect with the WASPs This study of the disbandment of the Women Airforce Service Pilots analyzes the reactions that several dominant components of the American cultural terrain had towar d on e small group o f women wh o assumed , i n World War II, one of the most desire d militar y role s among men, on e that was at the tim e strongly associate d wit h th e developmen t o f masculinit y an d mal e sexua l prowess—that of piloting military planes. The focus of this study has been on the WASP program's disbandment, which was not caused by military request or necessity, but was instead a reflection o f larger cultural fears during a period when gender roles were being contested in America. The WASPs were no t simpl y participant s i n a world war . They wer e en gaged i n a critical cultura l battl e ove r th e identit y an d representatio n o f th e categories of men and women and the boundaries that exist between them. An

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examination of the events leading to the disbandment of this particular group of women further s ou r knowledg e o f the larger histor y o f representation re flecting the instability of gender categories and the continuing contestation of gender norms. The reasons behind the disbandment of the WASPs are important not only because they provide a greater awareness of the program, these particular service women, an d th e time in which the y served, but als o because they reveal many of the weaknesses in arguments currently being used against the full participation of women in the U.S. military, and because they uncover the fright ening implications of the power members of Congress have in voting upon issues about which the y know little or nothing. The stor y of the disbandmen t of the WASPs is one i n which ignoranc e an d fea r dominate d decision-mak ing, and in which cultural assumptions about gender had more influence tha n the facts surroundin g women's actual involvement i n wartime efforts . Exam ining the circumstances involved in the disbandment o f the WASPs provides us no w with a precise mode l o f how discriminatio n an d assumption s over came patriotism an d documented success , and resulted in the termination o f a successful an d groundbreaking World War II military operation . The historica l evidenc e o n th e WASP s presente d i n thi s stud y intersect s with theorie s o f feminist histor y to reveal a pattern i n which cultura l gende r constructions were forcefully maintaine d because of erosions that were occurring a s women substantiall y increase d thei r role s i n th e wor k forc e an d th e military. Examination o f this evidence uncovers connections tha t further ou r understanding o f the constructio n an d enforcemen t o f gender norms . Nor mative expectation s o f gender ar e usuall y maintaine d throug h cultura l con trol, bu t i n time s o f gender crisi s the controllin g mechanism s becom e mor e visible. In tracin g the history of the WASPs, we discovered tw o institutiona l mechanisms withi n th e WASPs ' cultura l terrai n tha t maintaine d an d pre scribed normative behaviors for these women pilots: the media and Congress. The weekly magazine Life featured wome n wh o supporte d th e war effor t from withi n stratifie d gende r roles—that is , as volunteers or in support role s to men , suc h a s wives and mothers—mor e ofte n tha n i t featured wome n i n factory work or the military. Lifes coverage of women i n the war effort care fully maintaine d existin g expectations o f the role s and behavior s o f women, and depictions of women soldiers were more likely to focus on their uniform s than on the duties they performed. A s the war shifted i n the Allies' favor, th e media became more critical of women's involvement in the military and began encouraging women to return to the home and prewar standards of existence. It was during this time that the issue of WASP militarization was raised in

Recognizing the Gendered Warrior I 17 5

the media . The attack s o n th e WASPs were strong an d consistent . I n piece s like "Army Passes Up Jobless Pilots to Train Wasps: Prefers Women t o Older , Experienced Flyers, " the media called for th e WASP program t o be ended so that "experience d men pilots [be ] given the ferrying jobs." 43 The main critique raised against the WASPs in the media was that they were women. Reporters were incredulous that women would be in the positions men wanted, and because of ideological blinding, they overlooked the motives of the majority of these men, which was to avoid being drafted into the Army's ground forces. Instead , th e medi a sharpl y criticize d th e WASPs fo r oversteppin g th e boundaries allowe d to women, an d subsequently portrayed the m no t as patriotic, but as hindrances not only to the male pilots, but also to the war effort . Similarly, Congres s impose d cultura l value s abou t gende r role s o n th e WASPs when it refused t o grant them militarization as requested by the Army Air Force s an d th e War Department . Again , th e WASPs' missions an d thei r success in fulfilling the m was not the issue. What was being contested was the notion an d realit y o f wome n servin g i n role s tha t cultura l standard s ha d deemed beyon d wha t wa s normativ e an d allowabl e fo r women . Th e Ram speck Committee, which conducte d a very biased congressional subcommit tee investigation o f the WASPs program, bega n it s report: "Th e implicatio n contained in the proposal, that it is now either necessary or desirable to recruit stenographers, clerks, school teachers, housewives, factory workers, and other inexperienced personne l fo r trainin g a t great outlay of public funds a s pilots for the military planes of the Government, particularly when there already exists a surplus of personnel to perform thes e identical duties, is as startling as it is invalid." 44 Th e issu e was very clearl y no t abou t th e WASPs a s pilots, bu t about wome n wh o wer e goin g beyon d culturally constructe d normativ e boundaries of how women were expected to behave, and who were serving in what were constructed t o be male roles. Issues o f maintainin g gende r orde r dominate d Congress' s debat e o n th e WASP bill . Debat e move d fro m th e bil l itsel f t o issue s o f whether me n o r women should serve in the domestic pilot positions. With the maintenance of gender role s being the issue raised i n th e congressional debat e durin g a time when gende r construction s wer e being contested i n American culture , ther e was no chanc e fo r th e WASP bill t o be successful. Objectio n t o th e bill was swift an d adamant. Sai d Representative Edouar d Iza c of California whe n of fering a motion t o strike out th e enacting clause of the bill: "My object her e is to kill this bill because we do not need such a bill. It is the most unjustifie d piece of legislation tha t could be brought befor e th e House." 45 The struggle for WASP militarization reflected struggles for changes in ide-

176 I Recognizing the Gendered Warrior

ological constructions o f women's behaviors, and i t thus constituted a threat to constructions of masculine identity. The WASPs would not succeed in obtaining militarization fo r mor e than thirt y years because it was necessary fo r the United States to change its ideological understanding and the distribution of cultural power before an act that so solidly reflected gendere d assumption s could b e allowed. By the 1970s, assumptions abou t gende r had changed dra matically, and the media and Congress were at a very different leve l of understanding regardin g th e issu e o f WASP militarizatio n tha n they ha d bee n i n 1944.

This stud y ha s followe d th e method s o f feminis t historica l inquir y b y working to understand the notions of hegemony and cultural control implicit in the involvement o f women pilots of World War II. By studying the historically specific (i n thi s case , a unit o f 1,074 women) , some of the relation s o f power and consent that constitute hegemonic control could be revealed. Furthermore, thi s stud y support s feminis t historica l inquiry' s critica l stanc e to ward th e historica l documen t b y evaluatin g a subjec t tha t ha s largel y bee n "lost" in most traditional historical accounts of World War II and the U.S. Air Force. Written record s and their preservation reflect th e values of a given culture about what i s important, an d a s a result, valuable documents abou t th e WASPs n o longe r exist . Indeed , th e amoun t o f informatio n o n th e WASPs that doe s exist is remarkable an d i s largely attributable t o th e collection an d storage efforts o f WASP veterans themselves. Throughout thi s inquiry, the experiences surrounding the disbandment of the WASPs have been examined as representing discursive points of departure from th e constructions articulate d an d impose d b y World War II era American culture upon gendered subjects. Rather than accepting the designation of "women" as a cultural given, the enforcement o f this gender construction ha s been analyzed as an element of the power relations occurring within cultura l systems. The issues surrounding the disbandment debate in the media and in Congress reveal the pervasive positioning of gender as a symbol denoting systems of control an d element s o f representation. The WASPs were women i n that they were entities whose histories were determined b y societal pressures, expectations, and conditioning specific to that gender . The WASPs' successes in their missions provided a tangible threat to overall contructions o f masculinity to those men who had failed t o pass the rigid requirements of the Ferrying Squadron, which the women pilots had successfully done . Th e mal e pilot s wer e abl e t o invok e cultura l fear s abou t th e usurpation of men to "prove" that the WASPs could not have passed the same requirements that these men had failed. In other words, it was a cross-cultural

Recognizing the Gendered Warrior I 17 7

crisis of masculinity that brought the male-dominated media and Congress to support th e caus e o f th e mal e pilot s despit e th e fact s tha t supporte d th e WASPs. Congress and the media were not advocating for the male civilian pilots as much as they were for an enforcement o f prewar gender roles and a suppression of a state of gender crisis. As stated previously , change s i n assumption s abou t wh o wome n ar e an d what roles they can perform within any given culture threaten the entire construction o f define d differenc e betwee n me n an d women . Th e greate r th e threat t o divisio n o f gende r identity , th e greate r th e backlas h agains t thos e who constitute the threat. Since piloting military planes was one of the most desired role s amon g me n durin g Worl d Wa r II , i t follow s tha t th e WASP s would pose a greater threat to gender constructions tha n women who served in othe r militar y branches . Certainly , th e WASPs suffered th e greates t back lash amon g servic e women: They were refused militarization , disbande d be fore the war s end, and refused veterans ' status after th e war. The constriction s place d upo n th e WASPs an d th e rigi d enforcemen t o f gender roles they incurred as the result of requesting militarization strongly attest t o a pattern o f gender crisi s i n th e Unite d State s durin g World Wa r II . Documentation of the enforced gendering of the WASPs is thus a valuable addition t o the larger body of feminist historica l knowledge about gende r con structions acros s various time s an d cultures . Suc h dat a allo w us to confron t the traditional assumptions about the consistency and stability of sex roles and positions. When theorie s o f women an d wa r ar e applie d specificall y t o th e WASPs and thei r disbandment , th e artificia l boundarie s create d t o develo p assump tions of military might an d mal e superiority ar e revealed. This study has approached th e military institution a s a fixed variable, placing no valuations o n the military, the Army Air Forces, or World War II; instead, the U.S. military, particularly the Army Air Forces, and World War II are presented and assessed as factors tha t affecte d a specific grou p o f women an d consequentl y th e development of gender constructions during World War II. Furthermore, no essential constitution fo r women i s assumed; gender is disclosed as an artificia l and regulated construction. Indeed, one of the stated purposes of this study is to uncove r th e stabilizin g cultura l rol e tha t encourage d th e constructio n o f distinct gender roles in the American militar y during World War II. As noted, on e of the leading feminist theorie s of women an d th e militar y involves th e symboli c absenc e o f wome n fro m war , an d particularl y fro m combat narratives. The WASPs of World War II represent one unit of female participants in war whose narratives were eliminated from wartim e accounts.

178 I Recognizing the Gendered Warrior

This exclusion began during the war years, when medi a accounts of the program were negligible. To further distanc e the experiences of the WASPs fro m wartime narratives , those few accounts tha t di d appea r o n th e women pilot s were constructed i n ways that negate d thei r contributio n t o th e wartime ef fort and instead portrayed them as adventurous women at play. By the end of the war, the WASPs had already been disbanded and were thus excluded fro m accounts of the Allied victory. In the two decades following World War II, the WASPs made several attempts to receive recognition fo r thei r service and in volvement an d t o b e include d a s ful l participant s i n th e newl y forme d Ai r Force. But these attempts failed because American culture did not accept that women should be involved with the military outside of national crises and as heroes. It was not unti l th e 1970s , when man y attempts were being made t o recover the lost history and recognize the significant achievement s of women, that the WASPs were finally able to get their story covered by the media. Even today, there are only a handful o f historical accounts of the WASPs, and these are typically positioned a s women's history or as individualized storie s rathe r than as true representations of military history, thus continuing the marginalization of an important component within the American military experience. The eliminatio n o f rea l participant s fro m militar y experienc e create s a space in whic h th e constructio n o f gender an d it s subsequent performance s can b e studied . Th e effor t t o eliminat e femal e militar y narrative s demon strates th e attempt s b y a given cultur e t o restructur e historica l event s t o fit normative construction s o f the behaviors , roles , and experience s o f women. The WASPs were removed fro m Worl d War II narrative s befor e th e war had ended because they constituted a serious threat to constructed gende r identities at a historical point a t which their culture was trying to reduce the existing gende r crisi s b y imposin g prewa r gende r identitie s an d roles . Unfortu nately for the WASPs, their roles did not fit within the enforced limit s for behaviors culturall y permitte d wome n a t tha t time ; therefore , the y wer e eliminated. When war makes necessary the inclusion of women i n the military, artifi cially designated positions, such as "combat," are constructed t o separate the genders. In terms of the participation of women in World War II, the WASPs placed th e mos t pressur e o n thi s parameter, an d the y were subsequently re fused militarizatio n becaus e o f th e threa t tha t the y imposed . I n chapter s 3 and 5 , examinations o f the congressiona l debat e ove r militarization bill s fo r the Women's Army Corp s an d th e WASPs durin g World Wa r I I revea l th e strict boundarie s impose d b y Congres s upo n th e level s o f participation al lowed t o women' s auxiliarie s an d th e gendere d rhetori c tha t Congres s in -

Recognizing the Gendered Warrior I 17 9 voked i n it s arguments . Member s o f Congres s strictl y impose d limit s o n women, prohibitin g an y activitie s tha t migh t b e construe d a s combat . In deed, Congres s wa s ver y clea r tha t specifi c division s betwee n me n an d women b e maintaine d withi n th e militar y branches . T he WASP s wer e prob lematic wit h regar d t o thi s prohibitio n becaus e the y wer e solidl y integrate d with mal e pilot s o n missions , an d becaus e thei r missions , whil e no t strictl y defined a s combat, di d fit a n ideologica l definitio n o f combat. Durin g Worl d War II , piloting militar y planes was perceived a s dangerous an d adventurous , and just a s the military institutio n rewarde d comba t dut y with increase d pay , male militar y pilot s were rewarde d fo r thei r dangerou s role s b y the receip t o f additional flight pay . Indeed , certai n flight dutie s tha t wer e performe d b y WASPs, suc h a s test pilotin g an d engineerin g flights, wer e recognize d withi n the Air Force s a s being aki n t o comba t wit h regar d t o th e leve l of risk, an d a t least one mission flown b y WASPs was considered t o b e a combat missio n fo r the participatin g mal e cre w members , becaus e i t extende d ove r waters desig nated a s enem y territory . However , receip t o f militar y recognition , le t alon e combat status , wa s no t t o b e allowe d th e WASPs . Th e developmen t o f th e Women's Arm y Corp s an d th e WAS P progra m reveal s a carefu l structurin g on th e par t o f Congres s an d th e militar y t o maintai n separat e classification s for women . Th e WA C wa s first designate d a s a voluntary auxiliar y because , at th e beginnin g o f Worl d Wa r II , officiall y involvin g wome n i n militar y branches woul d hav e extende d thei r participatio n beyon d th e spac e con structed fo r women . A s the war's expansio n increase d th e nee d fo r wome n i n the military , thi s separation prove d unwield y an d was thus eliminated . How ever, th e women wer e stil l maintaine d i n separat e militar y units , which wer e prohibited fro m becomin g integrate d wit h th e "true " militar y branc h an d whose member s wer e refuse d an y ran k ove r men . One inciden t i n th e histor y o f th e WAS P progra m tha t unveil s th e artifi cial separatio n betwee n th e gender s i s when th e AAF sough t t o directl y com mission WASP s i n th e Ferryin g Division , jus t a s i t ha d th e me n the y serve d alongside. Despit e an y specifi c exclusio n b y sex i n th e rule s governin g direc t commissioning o f pilots i n the AAF, military leaders determined tha t th e ter m persons i n th e la w tha t privilege d direc t commissionin g o f pilot s wa s no t in tended t o includ e women . I n othe r words , wome n wer e s o fa r remove d fro m war nanative s tha t the y coul d no t legall y be considere d a s persons withi n th e Army Air Forces . Another contentio n develope d b y feminis t militar y theorist s i s tha t th e military participatio n o f women i s limited t o th e duratio n o f a war o r othe r necessity, an d tha t wome n wh o desir e t o continu e i n suc h role s ar e consid -

180 I Recognizing the Gendered Warrior

ered unnatural . Chapte r 4 traces the change in media depictions o f women in the war effort fro m encouragemen t t o discouragement a s America turne d from underdo g t o victor . B y 1944 , when th e Unite d State s wa s certai n i t would b e victorious, article s reflecte d a concern fo r th e postwa r econom y and encouraged a return to prewar values, which placed women in the home rather tha n i n factories an d th e military. Articles on women i n th e militar y became sharpl y critica l a s the war reache d it s end . N o longe r celebrate d a s patriotic symbols, these women were seen as threats to men returnin g fro m overseas an d a s a liabilit y t o th e postwa r economy . Unfortunatel y fo r th e WASPs, it was in this climate that they attempted t o acquire militarization . Given thi s cultura l climate , i t i s no t surprisin g tha t th e WASP s wer e no t only refused militarization , bu t were strongly attacked. The cultur e was focused o n a return t o prewa r gende r constructions , whic h ha d n o plac e fo r women a s pilot s o f militar y planes , particularl y whe n th e me n vyin g fo r their job s include d returnin g serviceme n wh o desire d t o supplemen t thei r military pay with flight pay. Public sympathies were most decidedly with the servicemen. The WASP s were shaped b y the medi a a s women wit h unnat ural demands who were not serving any valuable roles for their country, bu t instead were threatening the positions of male pilots and taking money that could b e better use d t o improv e th e postwar economy . Fo r th e WASPs, involvement pas t a necessary duration wa s constructed a s unnatural an d selfish. Despite the Air Forces' assertions to the contrary, i n the public's eye the need fo r pilot s was over. American culture , as represented b y Congress an d the media, had determined tha t the war was over and was working to return the country to a peacetime structure. I n this ideological construction, ther e was no plac e for th e WASPs because thei r continue d existenc e would hav e symbolized a wa r tha t wa s no t yet won , a shif t i n th e role s allowe d t o women, o r both . In feminis t theorie s of women an d war, the culmination o f all the factor s involved results in one singular fact—that wome n soldiers cease to exist. This was the fate o f the WASPs. Because they were not granted militarizatio n an d the resulting veterans' status, the Women Airforce Service Pilots of World War II were erased from th e narratives of the war they had served in and even died in. Thei r histor y di d no t fit int o normativ e construction s o f America n women. Even as the narratives of women war workers and women who served in other military branches became known, the stories of the WASPs remained hidden simpl y becaus e the y di d no t comfortabl y fit int o thes e othe r struc tures, and also because the story of their disbandment led directly to the space in which the warrior becomes gendered. The missions of the WASPs were too

Recognizing the Gendered Warrior I 18 1

oriented towar d comba t and to o specific t o masculine military construction s to settle into more comfortable notion s of women's experiences in World War II. Just a s the majority o f accounts o f women soldier s ar e denied o r restruc tured to fit cultural expectations of women and war, so too were the narratives of th e Wome n Airforc e Servic e Pilot s effectivel y erase d fro m cultura l con sciousness.

9 Coda

The story of the Women Airforce Servic e Pilots is far from bein g over. The majority o f the more than eight hundred WASPs living today regularly attend th e national biennia l reunion s an d numerou s regiona l reunions . The vitality of the national organization of WASP veterans is considerable. "It is probably the strongest support group I have other than my own family. We are a very cohesive group. We seem t o generate our ow n energ y once we get together for a few hours," said Ethel Finley. 1 Through th e 1970s, the WASP organization focused o n obtaining retroactive militarization. Now it campaigns on behalf of other women pilots of military planes and continue s in its efforts t o preserve and engag e the history of the WASPs. "We were all proud of what we did, but I was proud of it in 1945, too; the only trouble was nobody was proud of me then. Now they're all proud of me , s o I migh t a s wel l b e prou d too, " sai d Katherin e (Kaddy ) Landr y Steele.2 At WAS P reunions , th e lin k betwee n th e WASP s an d contemporar y women militar y pilot s i s unmistakable . Wome n pilot s fro m th e Ai r Force , Army, Navy , Marines , an d Coast Guar d regularl y atten d reunion s t o mee t their heroes, thank their flying ancestors, and share stories. "We set a presence of women in aviation. The women [pilots ] today, they say, 'We look up to you; you started things and you stuck through it ; and men had to accept you. If it hadn't been for you we wouldn't be flying today,'" said Betty Stagg Turner.3 Former WASPs continue to make outstanding contributions—nationally , in their communities, and within their families. Many WASP veterans remain active pilots. "M y identity will alway s be a s a woman wh o flew or flies, and that cannot change," said Madge Rutherford Minton. 4 Perhaps th e mos t valuabl e contributio n th e WASPs hav e mad e occurre d long after World War II had ended. What makes the WASPs heroes is not their flying records, their war records, or their act s of heroism durin g the war; instead, they are heroes because when thei r cultur e turned agains t them, when everyone refused t o acknowledge their efforts an d achievements, they contin-

182

Coda I 18 3

ued to fight for recognition, for benefits that were rightfully theirs , and for the place they had earned in history to be publicly acknowledged. The WASPs are heroes becaus e the y would no t giv e up. With grea t reserv e and eve n greate r dignity, the y worked diligentl y an d quietly fo r mor e tha n thirt y years, unti l they received their rightful places as veterans and the next flock of women military pilots was able to take their place in the skies. As Thelma K . (Hench ) Mille r said : "Women ca n d o it—that' s th e whole thing. And that's what helps these gals today. There's no question about it. You still have people fighting that, s o you have to keep fighting back. Ever y inch of the way, you have to keep telling them, you have to keep telling them." 5

Notes

NOTES T O CHAPTE R I

i. Muir , Kate, Arms and the Woman, 1992. 2. Mitchell , Brian, Weak Link: The Feminization of theAmerican Military, 1989,14. 3. Treadwell , Mattie, The Women's Army Corps, 1954 . 4. Arm y Air Forces, History of theWomen Airforce Service Pilots, 1945. Captain Marx gave thi s a s a primar y reaso n fo r WAS P disbandment , an d boo k account s b y Byr d Howell Granger {On Final Approach: The Women Airforce Service Pilots ofW.WII, 1991 ) and Jean Hascall Cole (Women Pilots of World War II, 1992) make similar allusions. NOTES T O CHAPTE R 2

i. Women Who Flew, unedite d intervie w tapes, 1994. 2. Ibid . 3. Ibid . 4. Cochran , Jacqueline, Final Report, Women Pilot Program, Februar y 1945, 45. 5. Wa r Department New s Release, Memorandum for the Press, 10 September 1942. 6. Granger , Byrd Howell, On Final Approach: The Women Airforce Service Pilots of WWII, 1991,5-6 7. Centra l Flying Training Command, Army Air Forces, History of the WASP Program, 20 January 1945, 8. 8. Ibid . 9. Wa r Departmen t New s Release, Jacquelyn [sic] Cochran Designated Director of Women Pilots for AAF, 5 July 1943. 10. A numbe r o f variations o n th e WASP acrony m wer e use d durin g an d afte r World War II, including "Women Air Service Pilots" and "Women's Auxiliary Service Pilots." There are two acceptable names for th e WASPs: "Women's Air Force Service Pilots" and "Women Airforce Service Pilots." The first was the title given the program by AAF Memorandum 20- 8 on August 5 , 1943, and was the official titl e used b y the War Department' s Pres s Division . I n 1944 , AA F Regulatio n 40-8 , Utilizatio n o f Women Pilots , use d th e nam e "Wome n Airforce Servic e Pilots. " This was the nam e officially use d by the AAF until th e end o f the war, and i t is the designation use d by WASP veterans to this day. Because of this, "Women Airforce Service Pilots" is the version I use throughout thi s study.

185

i86 I Notes to Chapter 2 II. Centra l Flying Training Command, History of the WASP Program, 179 . 12. Cochran , Final Report, 28 . 13. Perret , Geoffrey, Winged Victory: The Army Air Forces in World War II,1993, 376. 14. Ibid . 15. Ibid. , 1. 16. Tunner , Lt. Gen. William, Over the Hump, 1964 , 39. 17. IbicL , 28. 18. Arm y Air Forces, Women Pilots in the Air Transport Command, January 1945,161. 19. Cochran , Final Report, 33 . 20. Women Who Flew, unedite d interview tapes. 21. Perret , Winged Victory, 5 . 22. McFarland , Stephe n Lee, and Newton, Wesley Phillips, To Command the Sky: The Battle for Air Superiority over Germany, 1942-1944,1991, 21 . 23. Arnold , Henr y H., Global Mission, 1947,165. 24. Perret , Winged Victory, 57 . 25. McFarlan d and Newton, To Command the Sky, 73. 26. Rubel , David, Webster s 21st Century Concise Chronology of World History, 1993, 206.

27. Arnold , Global Mission, 179. 28. Perret , Winged Victory, 34, 57. 29. Arnold , Global Mission, 267. 30. Perret , Winged Victory, 140 . 31. Tunner , Over the Hump, 11,18. 32. Arnold , Global Mission, 294 . 33. Tunner , Over the Hump, 23. 34. Ibid. , 12. 35. Cochran , Final Report, 28 . 36. Ibid. , 39. 37. Granger , On Final Approach, A-103. 38. Hartmann , Susan , The Home Front and Beyond: American Women in the 1940s, 1982,15.

39. Centra l Flying Training Command, History of the WASP Program, 178 . 40. Holden , Henry , an d Griffith , Lori , Ladybirds: The Untold Story of Women Pilots in America, 1992 . 41. Arm y Air Forces, Women Pilots, 161. 42. Ibid. , 8. 43. Arnold , Gen . H. H. , Remarks , Final WASP Graduation, Decembe r 1944. 44. Cochran , Jacqueline, Memorandum t o Col. Robert Olds, 21 July 1941. 45. Wa r Department New s Release, 5 July 1943. 46. Perret , Winged Victory, yjG. 47. Arm y Air Forces, Women Pilots, 13. 48. Ibid. , 12.

Notes to Chapter 2 I 18 7 49. Arnold , Global Mission, 294 . 50. Ibid . 51. Arm y Air Forces, Women Pilots, 131. 52. Ibid. , 15. 53. Ibid. , 13. 54. Cochran , Final Report, 4. 55. Tunner , Oz w ^ Hump, 23. 56. Cochran , Memorandum t o Col. Robert Olds. 57. Cochran , Final Report, 2 . 58. Wa r Department News Release, 10 September 1942. 59. Women Who Flew, unedite d intervie w tapes. 60. Cochran , Final Report, 1 . 61. Ibid. , 4. 62. Women Who Flew, unedite d interview tapes. 63. Ibid . 64. "Congressme n Cli p Wings of 9 Wasps: Detroit Gir l Fliers Downed i n Texas," Detroit Free Press, 2 June 1944. 65. Centra l Flyin g Training Command, History of the WASP Program, 4. 66. Ibid. , 9. 67. Women Who Flew, 1994 . 68. Women Who Flew, unedite d intervie w tapes. 69. Bergemann , Clarice , telephone interview with author , March 1994. 70. Wyall , Marty, telephone interview with author, March 1994. 71. Nagle , Nadine, telephone interview with author, March 1994. 72. Centra l Flying Training Command, History of the WASP Program, 9. 73. Ibid. , 126. 74. Poole , Barbara, "Requiem for the WASP," Flying Magazine, December 1944, 56. 75. Cochran , Final Report, 4. 76. Granger , On Final Approach, Appendix D . -JJ. Cochran , Jacqueline, and Odium, Floyd , The Stars at Noon, 1954,127-128. 78. Osur , Alan, Blacks in the Army Air Forces during World War II, 1980. 79. Pentagon , Fact Sheet: Tuskegee Airmen, 1995. 80. Ibid . 81. Osur , Blacks in the Army Air Forces. 82. Cochran , Final Report, 8 . 83. Ibid. , 9. 84. Perret , Winged Victory, 59 . 85. Arnold , Global Mission, 181 . 86. Centra l Flying Training Command, History of the WASP Program, 9 . 87. Ibid. , 22. 88. Centra l Flyin g Training Command, History of the WASP Program, 23 . 89. Ibid. , 26.

188 I Notes to Chapter 2 90. Ibid . 91. Ibid. , 27. 92. Ibid . 93. Ibid. , 46. 94. Ibid. , 47. 95. Ibid. , 48. 96. Nagle , Nadine, telephone intervie w with author, March 1994. 97. Centra l Flying Training Command, History of the WASP Program, 52 . 98. Ibid. , 54. 99. Ibid. , 55. 100. Ibid. , 56. 101. Ibid. , 62. 102. Ibid. , 65. 103. Ibid. , 62. 104. Ibid. , 64. 105. Ibid. , 65 , 72. 106. Stagg , Betty, Postcard to Mr. Donald Stagg , 15 May 1944. 107. Ibid . 108. Stagg , Betty, Postcard to Mr. and Mrs. Donald Stagg , 20 June 1944. 109. Knight , Charlotte , "Service Pilots," Skyways, 1944 , 50. no. Centra l Flying Training Command, History of the WASP Program, 49. in. Ibid. , 78. 112. Life, 19 July 1943, 75. 113. Women Who Flew, unedite d interview tapes. 114. Nagle , Nadine, telephone interview with author, March 1994. 115. Centra l Flyin g Training Command, History of the WASP Program, 119 . 116. Easter n Flyin g Training Command , Arm y Air Forces , History of the Women Airforce Service Pilots, Eastern Flying Training Command, January 1945, 4. 117. Arm y Air Forces , History of the Women Airforce Service Pilots, Gardner Field, January 1945, 3. 118. Easter n Flying Training Command, History of the Women Airforce Service Pilots, 4. 119. Knight , "Servic e Pilots," 74. 120. Women Who Flew, unedite d intervie w tapes. 121. Easter n Flyin g Training Command, History of the Women Airforce Service Pilots, 10 . 122. Wyall , Marty, telephone interview with author, March 1994. 123. Arm y Ai r Forces , History of the WASP Detachment at Blytheville Army Air Field, January 1945, 8. 124. Arm y Air Forces, Army Air Forces Historical Studies, January 1945,144. 125. Arm y Air Forces, History of the WASPs at Buckingham Army Air Field, January I945> 61. ix6. Arm y Air Forces, Army Air Forces Historical Studies, 144 .

Notes to Chapter 2 I 18 9 127. Knight , "Servic e Pilots," 70. 128. Arm y Air Forces, Army Air Forces Historical Studies, 145 . 129. Women Who Flew. 130. Cochran , Final Report, 28 . 131. Tunner , Over the Hump, 23. 132. Ibid. , 39. 133. Cochran , Final Report, 28. 134. Arm y Air Forces, Women Pilots in the Air Transport Command, 168. 135. Women Who Flew, unedite d intervie w tapes. 136. Granger , Byrd Howell, Evidence Supporting Military Service by Women Air force Service Pilots, World War II, 1977, 74 . 137. Women Who Flew, unedite d intervie w tapes. 138. Cochran , Final Report, 28 . 139. Granger , Evidence, 48. 140. Ibid. , 1-2 , 48 .

141. Arnold , Global Mission, 358 . 142. Nagle , Nadine, telephone intervie w with author, March 1994. 143. Arnold , Global Mission, 358 . 144. Women Who Flew, unedite d intervie w tapes. 145. Cochran , Final Report, 28 . 146. Women Who Flew, unedite d intervie w tapes. 147. Bergemann , Clarice , telephone interview with author, March 1994. 148. Wells , Mar y Retick , "A n Ope n Lette r t o Rep . Oli n E . Teague Re . WASP," Stars and Stripes, 8 September 1977. 149. Granger , Evidence, 1 . 150. "Suga r an d Spice ! B-26 Gentl e a s Lamb i n Hand s o f WASPS," Martin City Star, February 1944. 151. Poole , "Requiem for th e WASP," 148. 152. Cochran , Final Report, 32 . 153. Ibid. , 32,1.

154. Women Who Flew, unedite d intervie w tapes. 155. Arm y Air Forces, Army Air Forces Historical Studies, 211 . 156. Arm y Air Force, Medical Considerations of the WASPs, 2iAugus t 1945, 9. 157. Strother , Lt. Col. Dora Dougherty, The WASP Program: An Historical Synopsis, Septembe r 1971 , 31 . 158. Arm y Air Forces, Army Air Forces Historical Studies, 179. 159. Arnold , Gen . H. H. , Lette r to Each Member of the WASP, 1 Octobe r 1944. 160. "WASP S End Wartime Flying Contribution," New York Times, 19 December 1944. 161. Arm y Air Forces, Army Air Forces Historical Studies, 6. 162. Cochran , Memorandu m t o Col . Rober t Olds , 2 1 July 1942 , and Memoran dum t o General Arnold, Octobe r 1942.

190 I Notes to Chapter 3 163. Bergemann , Clarice ; Nagle, Nadine; and Wyall, Marty, telephone interview s with author, March 1994. 164. Granger , Evidence, 118. 165. Ibid . 166. Centra l Flyin g Training Command, History of the WASP Program, 159 . 167. Ibid. , 130. NOTES T O CHAPTE R 3

1. Odom , Col . T. C, Report to Commanding General of the Army Air Forces, 5 August 1943. 2. Cochran , Jacqueline, Memorandum t o Col. Robert Olds , 21 July 1941. 3. Ibid. , 3. 4. Centra l Flying Training Command, Army Air Forces, History of the WASP Program, 20 January 1945, 8. 4. Cochran , Jacqueline, Memorandum t o Col. McNaughton, 1 5 December 1942. 6. Kraus , Brig. Gen. Walter R, Memorandum t o Gen. Arnold, 19 December 1942. 7. Tunner , Col . William, Memorandum t o Gen. Arnold, 30 November 1942. 8. Ibid . 9. Committe e o n Militar y Affairs, Hearings before the Committee on Military Affairs, 20 January 1942, 22. 10. Ibid . 11. Ibid. , 5. 12. Tunner , Memorandum t o Gen. Arnold. 13. Granger , Byrd Howell, Evidence Supporting Military Service by Women Airforce Service Pilots, WW. II, 1977, 38. 14. Wyall , Marty, telephone interview with author, March 1994. 15. Bergemann , Clarice , telephone interview with author, March 1994. 16. Nagle , Nadine, telephone interview with author, March 1994. 17. Centra l Flying Training Command, Army Air Forces, History of theWASP Program, 10 January 1945,130. 18. Ibid. , 159. 19. Ibid. , 166. 20. Granger , Evidence, 1-2. 21. Centra l Flying Training Command, History of the WASP Program, 166. 22. Ibid. , 5. 23. Ibid. , 7. 24. Ibid . 25. Committe e on Military Affairs, Hearings before the Committee on Military Affairs, 1 May 1942, 4. 26. Ibid. , 36. 27. Congressional Record, 1 2 May 1942, 4086.

Notes to Chapter 3 I 19 1 28. Committe e o n Militar y Affairs, Hearings, 1 May 1942 , 30. 29. Ibid. , 5 . 30. Congressional Record, n Ma y 1942 , 4087 . 31. Ibid. , 4088 . 32. Ibid. , 4087 . 33. Ibid. , 4088 . 34. Committe e o n Militar y Affairs, Hearings, 1 May 1942 , 41. 35. Ibid. , 10 . 36. Congressional Record, 12 May 1942 , 4088. 37. Committe e o n Militar y Affairs , Hearings, 2 0 January 1942 , 5. 38. Ibid. , 18 . 39. Ibid. , 9 . 40. Ibid , 20,16 . 41. Committe e o n Militar y Affairs, Hearings, 1 May 1942 , 7 . 42. Ibid . 43. Ibid. , 22 . 44. Ibid. , 34 . 45. Ibid. , 22 . 46. Ibid . 47. Ibid . 48. Ibid. , 7 . 49. Ibid. , 15. 50. Congressional Record, 12 May 1942 , 4092 . 51. Ibid. , 4090 . 52. Congressional Record, 14 January 1943,193 . 53. Congressional Record, 1 May 1943 , 4993. 54. Congressional Record, 15 February 1943 , 938. 55. Whitney , Col . Courtney , Memorandu m t o Brig . Gen . Luthe r Smith , 2 0 Jun e 1943. 56. Treadwell , Mattie , The Women's Army Corps, 1954. 57. Congressional Record, 15 February 1943 , 938. 58. Treadwell , Women's Army Corps. 59. Stratemeyer , Majo r Gen . Georg e E. , Memorandu m t o Brig . Gen . Luthe r S . Smith, 2 4 November 1942 . 60. Arnold , Gen . H . H. , Memorandu m t o Gen . Marshall , 1 4 June 1943 . 61. Tunner , Memorandu m t o Gen . Arnold , 1 . 62. Cochran , Memorandu m t o Col . McNaughton . 63. Arnold , Memorandu m t o Gen . Marshall . 64. Tunner , Memorandu m t o Gen . Arnold , 2 . 65. Whitney , Memorandu m t o Brig . Gen . Luthe r Smith , 2 0 June 1943 . 66. Cochran , Memorandu m t o Col . McNaughton . 67. Ibid .

192 I Notes to Chapter 4 68. Arnold , Memorandum t o Gen. Marshall. 69. Ibid . 70. Ibid . 71. Ibid . 72. Tunner , Memorandum t o Gen. Arnold. 73. Ibid . 74. Arnold , Memorandum t o Gen. Marshall. 75. Whitney , Memorandum t o Brig. Gen. Luther Smith . 76. Odom , Repor t to Commanding Genera l of the Army Air Forces, 6. 77. Whitney , Memorandum t o Brig. Gen. Luther Smith . NOTES T O CHAPTE R 4

i. Wa r Department, Burea u of Public Relations, Public Relations Policy for WASP, 3 December 1943. 2. Centra l Flying Training Command, Army Air Forces, History of the WASP Program, 20 January 1945,134. 3. Life, 14 September 1942,121. 4. Life, 23 March 1942. 5. Life, 5 January 1942, cover and 65. 6. Life, 19 January 1942, 58. 7. Life, 26 October 1942 , 29. 8. Ibid. , 35. 9. Life, 6 July 1942, 41. 10. Life, 8 March 1943 , 21 . 11. Life, 1 February 1943, 65. 12. Life, 9 August 1943, cover. 13. Ibid. , 75. 14. Life, 2 February 1942, 50. 15. Life, 20 April 1942. 16. Life, 11 May 1942, 4. 17. Life, 9 March 1942,12. 18. Life, 11 May 1942, 4. 19. Life, 22 June 1942, cover. 20. Life, 29 June 1944, cover. 21. Life, 15 June 1942, 73. 22. Life, 12 October 1942 , 56. 23. Life, 2 November 1942 , back cover. 24. Life, 23 February 1942, back cover. 25. Life, 4 October 1943 , back cover. 26. Life, 31 May 1943, 29. 27. Life, 9 November 1942, 28.

28. Life, 16 November 1942,137. 29. Life, 25 October 1943,118. 30. Life, 25 January 1943, 74; 5 April 1943, 82. 31. Life, 23 February 1942. 32. Life, 8 June 1942, 26. 33. Z//£ , 7 September 1942, 74. 34. Life, 26 July 1943, 55-57. 35. Z//£ , 16 February 1942, 2. 36. Z//£ , 27 April 1942, 39. 37. Ibid. , 63. 38. Life, 15 March 1943 , 72. 39. Ibid. , 73. 40. Life, 19 April 1943, 31. 41. Life, 31 May 1943, 26-27. 42. Life, 1 November 1943 , 36-37. 43. Life, 10 August 1942, 20. 44. Z/j£ , 5 October 1942,126. 45. Life, 19 April 1943, 41. 46. Life, 2 February 1942, 38. 47. Life, 6 April 1942, cover. 48. Ibid. , 62. 49. Life, 4 May 1942, cover. 50. Life, 11 May 1942, 50. 51. Life, 18 May 1942, cover and 73. 52. Life, 13 July 1942, cover and 43. 53. Life, 28 September 1942, 92. 54. Life, 30 November 1942, 75. 55. Life, 28 September 1942, 32. 56. Ibid. , 40. 57. Life, 19 July 1943, cover. 58. Ibid , 73-80. 59. Life, 9 August 1943 , 2. 60. Life, 17 January 1944, 26. 61. Life, 13 March 1944, 26. 62. Life, 27 March 1944,129. 63. Life, 28 August 1944, cover. 64. Life, 4 September 1944, 28. 65. Life, 11 September 1944, 75. 66. Ibid. , 117. 6j. Life, 9 October 1944 , inside cover. 68. Life, 18 September 1944, 98. 69. Life, 25 September 1944, cover.

194 I Notes to Chapter 4 70. Ibid. , 36. 71. Ibid. , m-119. 72. Life, 26 March 1945 , no. 73. Lz/£ , 15 December 1941,12. 74. Centra l Flying Training Command, History of the WASP Program, 179 . 75. Granger , Byrd Howell, On Final Approach, 1991,124 . 76. Wa r Department News Release, Memorandum for the Press, 10 September 1942. JJ. Schisgall , Oscar, "Th e Girls Deliver the Goods." 78. Ibid . 79. Ibid . 80. Ibid . 81. Wa r Department, Bureau of Public Relations, Public Relations Policy for WASP. 82. "See k Women Pilot s to Ferry Planes," 3 December 1942. 83. Mendelson , Frances , "Wome n Pilot s Towing Targets fo r Arm y Anti-Aircraf t Practice: Originally Restricted to Ferrying Planes from Factories , They Are Achieving Success i n Highl y Specialize d Job s a t Cam p Davis, " Washington Herald Tribune, 2 5 October 1943. 84. "Nation' s Firs t Clas s o f Women Ai r Ferr y Pilot s Awarde d Wings, " Houston Chronicle, 2 5 April 1943. 85. Ibid . 86. Wa r Department, Bureau of Public Relations, Public Relations Policy forWASP. 87. Habas , Ralph, "Women Pilot s Here Anxious to Join WAFS," Chicago Sunday Times, 13 Septembe r 1942. 88. "Wome n Ferry Pilots Start Operating out of Wichita," The Wichita Beacon, 25 April 1943. 89. "Bigg s Field Male Personnel Perks Up When Exper t Wasps Arrive on Scene," El Paso Times, 1943. 90. "Cobra s Have a 'Lady Pilot,'" The Bellringer, 1943. 91. Ibid . 92. "Wome n Train i n West Texas for Army Ferr y Flying: Their Dut y Will B e to Fly Planes from Factor y to Fiel d and fro m Fiel d to Fiel d within U.S, " Christian Science Monitor, 8 May 1943. 93. Cahoon , Yvonne , "WAS P Hea d Believe s Women Pilot s Fac e Dut y o n Wa r Fronts," Evening Star, 25 October 1943. 94. Mendelson , "Wome n Pilot s Towing Targets." 95. Ibid . 96. Stevick , Ann , "WASP S Wh o To w Air Targets Ma y Soo n B e Real U.S . Sol diers," October 1943. 97. Eads , Jane, "Girl Fliers on Varied Tasks in Complicated Games High up in the Air, Towing Targets Is One o f Hazardous Dutie s on Which They Train," Cincinnati , 25 October 1943. 98. Ibid .

Notes to Chapter 4 I 19 5 99. Williams , Dorothy , "Ga l Flier s Help Perfec t Aim, " New York Daily News, 25 October 1943. 100. Kidney , Danie l M. , "Wome n Air Servic e Pilots Do Satisfactor y Job," Washington Daily News, 25 October 1943. 101. Stephenson , Malinna , "WASPS—Unsun g Heroine s o f Ou r Ai r War," King Features Syndicate, 19 March 1944. 102. "Arm y Passes Up Jobless Pilots to Train Wasps: Prefers Women t o Older, Experienced Pilots, " Chicago Tribune Press Service, 1 1 February 1944. 103. Ibid . 104. "Me n Pilots Jobless, House Unit Considers Investigating WASP," Washington Evening Star, 14 March 1944. 105. Sarles , Ruth, "La y That Airplan e Down , Babe , Cr y Grounde d He-Ma n Pi lots," Washington Daily News, yi. March 1944. 106. "Hous e to Probe Need of Women a s Fliers," Associated Press, 4 March 1944. 107. O'Donnell , John, "Capito l Stuff," Washington Times Herald, 3 1 March 1944. 108. "En d o f Recruiting Untraine d WASP S Urge d b y Hous e Unit, " Washington Star, 5 June 1944. 109. Sarles , Ruth, "5 0 Army Planes Spee d Signature s o f CAA Fliers to Hea d Of f Bill," Washington Daily News, 16 April 1944. no. Women Who Flew, unedite d intervie w tapes, 1994. in. Lombard , Helen , "Flyin g Wome n Guarde d fro m Wron g Publicity, " Times (Roanoke, Va.), 24 April 1944. 112. "Ai r Force Accused of Waste on WASPS," World Telegram, 3 1 May 1944. 113. "He-Pilot s Ge t Some Support i n Bi d for Gals ' Ferry Jobs," Washington Daily News, 13 April 1944. 114. "Commissio n Urge d fo r Wome n Pilots : Gen . Arnold Hope s t o Sen d Ever y Male Flier Overseas," United Press , 22 March 1944. 115. "WASP S to Be Part of Army under War Department Plan, " Associated Press, 4 May 1944. 116. "Secretar y Stimson Denie s WASP Training Will Affect Trainin g of Male Air Pilots," The Service Woman, 1 2 May 1944. 117. "WASP S Vs CAA: Fight to Give Men Flying Instructors Equality with Girls," Doylestown (Pa.) Intelligence, 2 0 May 1944. 118. "Clippin g WASPS' Wings," Washington D. C News, 13 July 1944. 119. "Glamorou s Fliers," Anderson (N.C.) Independent-Tribune, 2 3 June 1944. 120. "WASP S t o Ge t Snapp y Outfit s Costin g $505, " Washington D.C Star, 10 June 1944. 121. "WAS P Training Plans Assailed in House," Associated Press , June 1944. 122. "Explainin g th e Wasps : To th e Editor, " St. Louis Globe-Democrat, 1 0 Ma y 1944. 123. "Arnol d Face s Congressional Uproa r ove r WASPS; Lady Fliers Now Replac e Instead of Release Men," 5 August 1944.

196 I Notes to Chapters 124. "Tha t WASP Bill," 22 July 1944. 125. "Firs t Lady's Hand I s Seen," Worcester (Mass.) Gazette, 7 June 1944. 126. "CA A Men 'Tosse d to the Wolves,' Air Staff Officer Informed. " 127. "WAS P Bil l Hinges o n Right s fo r Men, " Independent News Service, 2 0 May 1944. 128. "Wasp s May Oust 5,000 Instructors," Washington Times Herald, 21 May 1944. 129. "Aviator s Stun g b y WASPS : Flier s Resente d Propose d Corps, " ScrippsHoward, 1 3 July 1944. 130. "Pilot s See k to Continu e Instructing : Denie d Jobs Women Pilot s No w Re ceiving Training For," Cuero (Tex.) Record, 8 May 1944. 131. "Ai r Force Accused of Waste on WASPS." 132. "Glamorou s Fliers." 133. "Hous e Fight on WASP Bill Hinted by Sparkman Motion," Washington D. C. News, 16 May 1944. 134. Ibid . 135. "Mal e Flier s Ma y Switc h Tactics an d Sponso r Their Ow n Bill, " Washington D. C News, 9 May 1944. 136. "WASP S Would Quit Army, Is Report," Washington D. C. News, 12 June 1944. 137. Ibid . 138. Kelley , Andrew R., "Point s and Pointer s on th e Amusement Market : 'Ladie s Courageous' Arrive at a Time When Congres s Is Debating WASP Measure," 1944. 139. Mortimer , Lee, "The Movies: "Ladies Courageous' Glorified WAFS," 1944. 140. "Th e Washington Merry-Go-Round : Arnold Faces Uproar over His Contin ued Use of WASPS," 5 August 1944. 141. "Shortag e or Conscience?" Idaho Statesman, 4 June 1944. NOTES T O CHAPTE R 5

1. Costello , Rep. John, H.R. $$$8, A bill to provide for the appointment of female pilots in the Air Forces of the Army, 30 September 1943. 2. Costello , Rep. John, Letter to Jacqueline Cochran, 4 October 1943. 3. Committe e o n Militar y Affairs, Hearings before the Committee on Military Affairs on HR 4219, 2 2 March 1944,1-2. 4. Ibid. , 3. 5. Cottrell , Ann, "Pilot Trainees Being Sent to Infantry Units: Arnold Says 36,000 Will Be Shifted; Assets Women Ma y Replace Ferry Flyers," New York Herald Tribune, 23 March 1944. 6. Committe e on Military Affairs, Hearings, 2 2 March 1944 , 2. 7. Ibid . 8. "Arnol d Visions All-Woman U.S . Air Transport," Washington Evening Star, 22 March 1944. 9. Committe e on Military Affairs, Hearings, 2 2 March 1944, 6.

Notes to Chapters I 19 7 10. Ibid. , 3. 11. Ibid. , 4-5. 12. Ibid. , 5. 13. Ibid. , 6 . 14. Ibid. , 8. 15. Ibid . 16. Ibid. , 9. 17. Stimson , Henry L., Letter to Andrew J. May, Chairman o f the Committee o n Military Affairs, 16 Februar y 1944. 18. Committe e on Military Affairs, Report No. njy: Providing forthe Appointment of FemalePilots and Aviation Cadets of the Army Air Forces, 2 2 March 1944,1-2. 19. Ibid. , 2. 20. Ibid . 21. "WASPS, " Washington Post, 2 5 Jun e 1944. 22. Women Who Flew, unedite d intervie w tapes, 1994. 23. Committe e on the Civil Service, Interim Report No. 1600: Concerning Inquiries Made of Certain Proposals for the Expansion and Change in Civil Service Status of the WASP, 5 June 1944,1. 24. Ibid . 25. Cochran , Jacqueline, Letter to Robert Ramspeck , 5 April 1944. 26. Love , Nancy Harkness, "Resume of Conversation between Mrs. Love and Col. McCormick o f Ramspeck Committee," 1 7 Apri l 1944,1 . 27. Committe e o n the Civil Service, Interim Report No. 1600, 1.

28. Ibid. 29. Ibid., 3. 30. Ibid., 2. 31. Ibid., 11. 32. Ibid., 4. 33. Ibid., 5. 34. Ibid. 35. Ibid. 36. Ibid., 6-7. 37. Ibid., 7. 38. Ibid., 8. 39. Ibid., 9. 40. Ibid .

41. Ibid., 13. 42. Ibid., 5. 43. Ibid., 13. 44. Ibid. , 14. 45. Committe e on Appropriations, Report No. 1606, Military Establishment Appropriation Bill, 1945, 7 June 1944, 9.

198 I Notes to Chapters 46. Ibid . 47. Ibid. , 10. 48. Ibid . 49. Ibid. , 4. 50. Congressional Record—Appendix, 16 June 1944, A3305. 51. Ibid . 52. Congressional Record—Appendix, 1 0 Jun e 1944, A3171. 53. Ibid . 54. Ibid. , A3172. 55. Congressional Record—Appendix, 1 7 June 1944, A3342-3343. 56. Congressional Record—Appendix, 7 June 1944, A3287-3288. 57. Ibid.,A3288 . 58. Congressional Record—Appendix, 8 June 1944, A3095. 59. Ibid. , A3096. 60. Congressional Record—Appendix, 17 June 1944, A3344. 61. Ibid . 62. Congressional Record—Appendix, 1 0 Augus t 1944, A3857. 63. Congressional Record—Appendix, 8 June 1944, A3096. 64. Congressional Record, 2 0 June 1944, 6412. 65. Ibid. , 6409-6411. 66. Ibid. , 6398, 6400, 6409, 6411, 6412 . 6j. Congressional Record, 2 1 June 1944, 6398. 68. Women Who Flew, 1994 . 69. Nagle , Nadine, telephone interview with author, March 1994. jo. Congressional Record, 2 1 June 1944, 6398. 71. Ibid. 72. Ibid. 73. Ibid. 74. Ibid., 6399. 75. Ibid. , 6403 . j6. Ibid. , 6404 . JJ. Ibid . 78. Ibid . 79. Ibid. , 6046 . 80. Ibid. , 6045. 81. Ibid. , 6406 . 82. Ibid . 83. Ibid. , 6407. 84. Ibid . 85. Ibid. , 6408. 86. Ibid. , 6409. 87. Ibid. , 6410.

Notes to Chapter 6 I 19 9 88. Ibid . 89. Ibid. , 6412. 90. Congressional Record—Appendix, 1 7 June 1944, A3344. 91. Congressional Record, 2 1 June 1944, 6412. 92. Ibid . 93. Ibid. , 6413. 94. Ibid. , 6411. 95. Ibid . 96. Ibid. , 6413. 97. Ibid . 98. Ibid . 99. Ibid. , 6414. 100. Ibid . 101. Ibid . 102. Ibid. , 6415 .

103. Sarles , Ruth, "CAA Bill Introduced after WASPS Rejected," Washington D. C News, 22 June 1944. 104. Women Who Flew. 105. Sarles , "CAA Bill Introduced." 106. Congressional Record, 2 1 June 1944, 6415-6416. 107. Ibid . 108. Ibid .

109. "WASPS, " Washington Post, 2 5 June 1944. NOTES T O CHAPTE R 6

i. "WAS P Training Courses to End," Associated Press , 26 June 1944. 2. "WAS P Training Ends in December, Arnold Announces," United Press, 27 June 1944. 3. Ponder , Ed, Letter to R. Earl McKaughan, 2 5 July 1944. 4. McKaughan , R . E. , Lette r t o Commandin g General , Training Command , 1 4 July 1944. 5. Arnold , Gen. , Telegram to Eleanor Watterud, 2 6 June 1944. 6. Ibid . 7. "Doze n Would-Be Wasps, Stranded, Figh t Back," Detroit Times, 6 July 1944. 8. Women Who Flew, unedite d interview tapes, 1994. 9. Wadlow , Mrs. Thomas, Recor d of Telephone Conversatio n t o Miss Jacqueline Cochran, 2 7 June 1944. 10. Scull , Elaine, Record of Telephone Conversation t o Miss Jacqueline Cochran , 27 June 1944. 11. Ibid . 12. Bogart , Miss, Record of Telephone Conversation to Miss Edwards, 27 June 1944.

200 I Notes to Chapter 6 13. Scull , Record of Conversation with Miss Cochran. 14. Fluke , Emm y Lou , Recor d o f Telephon e Conversatio n t o Mis s Jacquelin e Cochran, 2 7 June 1944. 15. "Congressme n Cli p Wings of 9 Wasps: Detroit Gir l Fliers Downed i n Texas," Detroit Free Press, 2 June 1944. 16. "11 4 Stranded WASPS Get a Free Trip to Coo l Off, " Detroit Free Press, 4 July 1944. 17. Wyal l Marty, telephone interview with author, March 1994. 18. "Doze n Would-Be Wasps, Stranded, Figh t Back." 19. "Detroi t Would-B e Wasp s Fin d Hollywoo d Exciting, " Detroit Free Press, 1 2 July 1944. 20. "Doze n Would-Be Wasps, Stranded, Figh t Back. " 21. "Bill s Face Congress for Wasps' Travel: Girls Who Paid Way to Texas for Training Ask Refund," New York Times, 7 July 1944. 22. "Ma n Powe r and th e WASP," National Aeronautics, June 1944. 23. "WASP S 'Burn' as Congress Cracks Up Program: Congress Halts Training Despite Gen. Arnold's Plea," The Service Woman, 14 July 1944. 24. "En d o f Recruitin g Untraine d WASP S Urge d b y Hous e Unit, " Washington Star, 5 June 1944. 25. Steely , H . H. , "Figh t agains t WASP Gainin g As Idle Airmen's Rank s Grow, " Oklahoman, 26 June 1944. 26. Ibid . 27. Ibid . 28. "WASP s May Disband Soon, Says Magazine," Washington Daily News, 31 July 1944. 29. Ibid . 30. "Th e Washington Merry-Go-Round : Arnold Face s Uproar ove r His Contin ued Use of WASPS," 5 August 1944. 31. Ibid . 32. "Den y Report WASPs to Become Air WACs," Aviation News, 7 August 1944. 33. "Th e WASP Row," Minneapolis Star-journal, 10 August 1944. 34. "Ar e They Needed?" Washington D. C Star, 10 August 1944. 35. "WASP S May Disband Soon , Says Magazine." 36. Cochran , Jacqueline, WASP Report, to Commanding General, Army Air Forces, 1 August 1944,1. 37. Ibid. , 2. 38. Ibid. , 7. 39. Ibid. , 6. 40. Ibid. , 8. 41. Ibid. , 11.

42. Ibid. , 8-9 . 43. Ibid. , 10.

Notes to Chapter 6 I 20 1 44. Ibid. , 11. 45. "WAS P Director Demands Army Status for Group," Shelby Daily Globe, 8 August 1944. 46. "WASP S Ask General Arnold for Bars or Discharge," Washington Daily News, 8 August 1944. 47. "Mis s Cochra n Would Commissio n Wasp s or Junk Organization, " Washington Post, 8 August 1944. 48. "Th e WASP Row." 49. " A Fair Proposal," Fort Worth Star Telegram, 16 August 1944. 50. Ibid . 51. "WASP s Deserve Army Status," Muncie (Ind.) Star, 1 3 August 1944. 52. Elliott , Major Richar d G., Memorandum t o Office o f the Commanding Gen eral, 24 August 1944,1 . 53. Ibid . 54. Ibid. , 2. 55. Ibid . 56. Ibid. , 3. 57. "WASP s Begi n Ne w Pressur e Driv e t o Mak e Congres s Revers e Vote," Washington Daily News, 6 September 1944. 58. "Insid e Washington: Wasps May Still Get into Army," Central Press,15 August 1944. 59. Craig , Major Genera l M. A., Memorandum fo r Chief of Air Staff, 12 September 1944. 60. Arnold , Commanding Gen. H. H., Memorandum t o Director of Women Pilots, 1 October 1944. 61. Ibid . 62. Cochran , Jacqueline , Memorandu m t o Commandin g General , Arm y Ai r Forces, 1 Octobe r 1944. 63. Arnold , Gen . H. H. , Lette r to Each Member of the WASP, 1 October 1944. 64. Cochran , Jacqueline, Letter to All WASP, 2 October 1944. 65. Cochran , Jacqueline, Letter to the WASPs at Avenger Field, 3 October 1944. 66. Women Who Flew, unedite d intervie w tapes. 6j. Wa r Departmen t New s Release , AAF to Inactivate WASP on December 20, 3 October 1944. 68. Ibid . 69. "WASP s to Lose Wings Dec. 20, Arnold Rules," Washington Daily News, 4 October 1944. 70. "Me n Tak e Over : Army t o Dro p Wome n Flier s Nex t Dec . 20, " Washington Post, 4 October 1944. 71. "'Le t U s Fly, ' Ple a o f WASPS : Groundin g o f 1,00 0 Girl s Bring s Man y Heartaches," New York Journal, 22 October 1944. 72. Pasley , Virginia, "Wome n Pilot s Have No Future , Say s WASP Head, " Washington Times Herald, 2 9 March 1944.

202 I Notes to Chapter 6 73. "Bo b Hope's Communique," Washington Post, 1 1 November 1944. 74. "Wasp s Wan t t o Kee p Flyin g a s Civi l Pilots, " Herald Tribune, 2 Decembe r 1944. 75. Ibid . j6. Winchell , Walter, "Ma n abou t Town," Daily Mirror, 4 December 1944. JJ. "N o Place for WASPS," Boston Post, 5 December 1944. 78. Wilson , Gill Robb, "Wasps to Be Demobilized Dec . 20: Of Nine Hundred o f Them, Two Hundred Are Experts, Needed i n War Work," New York Herald Tribune, 13 Decembe r 1944. 79. Ibid . 80. "W e Can't Spare Them," New York Herald Tribune, 1 3 Decembe r 1944. 81. "Arm y Refuse s Wome n Fliers ' Work Offer, " Detroit Free Press, 11 December 1944. 82. "Wasp s Want to Serve, Other Women Not So Anxious," Los Angeles Times, 2 2 December 1944. 83. "Willin g But Grounded," Sacramento Bee, 2 6 December 1944. 84. "Arm y Refuses Women Fliers ' Work Offer. " 85. Pentagon , Fact Sheet: Women's Airforce Service Pilots, 1995 . 86. Nowland , Brig. Gen. Bob E., Secret Memorandum t o Commanding General, Air Transport Command , 1 November 1944. 87. Bevans , Majo r J . M. , Assistan t Chie f o f Ai r Staff , Secre t Memorandu m t o Commanding General , Air Transport Command , 2 2 November 1944. 88. Committe e on Appropriations, Report No. 1606, Military Establishment Appropriation Bill, 194$, 7 June 1944,10. 89. Cochran , Jacqueline, Letter to All Members of the WASP, 3 November 1944. 90. Militar y Poll Committee, Letter to WASP, n.d. 91. Cochran , Jacqueline, Letter to All Former WASP, 22 February 1945. 92. "Passin g o f WASP Mourne d b y Ardent Fe w Who Create d This Un-Neede d Service," St. Petersburg Times, 2 2 October 1944. 93. Centra l Flying Training Command, Army Air Forces, History of theWASP Program, 20 January 1945,174. 94. Granger , Byr d Howell , On Final Approach: The Women Airforce Service Pilots of WW II, 1991, A-89. 95. Centra l Flying Training Command, History of the WASP Program, 171-182 . 96. Ibid. , 172. 97. Ibid . 98. Ibid. , 174. 99. Ibid. , 176-177. 100. Ibid. , 178 . 101. Ibid . 102. Ibid. , 151.

103. Wyall , Marty, telephone interview with author, March 1994.

Notes to Chapter 7 I 20 3 104. Giles , Lt. Gen . Barney , Deputy Commander, Army Air Forces and Chie f of Air Staff, AAF Ltr 40-34 to Commandin g Generals , All Air Forces and All Indepen dent and Subordinate AAF Commands; Director, AAF Technical Service Command ; and Commandin g Officer s o f All AAF Base s (i n continenta l Unite d States) , 1 November 1944, 2. 105. Wyall , Marty, telephone interview with author, March 1994. 106. Women Who Flew, unedite d intervie w tapes. 107. Bergemann , Clarice, telephone interview with author, March 1994. 108. Wyall , Marty, Telephone interview with author, March 1994. 109. Women Who Flew, unedite d intervie w tapes. no. Kinch , Sam , "Arnol d Praise s WASPS a t Valedictory Ceremony, " Fort Worth Star Telegram, 8 December 1944. in. "Wasp s Go into Retirement after Valiant War Service," Christian Science Monitor, 20 December 1944. 112. Boyden , Sara h Brown , "Prospec t o f Holiday s Soothe s Jobles s WASPS, " Chicago Sun, 14 December 1944. 113. "Hai l to the Wasp," Indianapolis Star, 19 December 1944. 114. "Wome n Pilots out of Work as Wasp Quits," Washington Times-Herald, 21 December 1944. 115. Lindsay , Malvina, "Th e Gentle r Sex : Women Unafraid, " Washington Post, 1 9 December 1944. 116. "WASP S Shorn of Wings: Women War Fliers Gripe on Inactivity," Philadelphia Inquirer, 1 April 1945. 117. Perret , Geoffrey , Winged Victory: The Army Air Forces in World War II, 1993, 376. 118. Centra l Flyin g Training Command, History of the WASP Program, 177. 119. Women Who Flew, unedite d intervie w tapes. NOTES T O CHAPTE R J

i. Women Who Flew, unedite d intervie w tapes, 1994. 2. Granger , Byrd Howell, On Final Approach: The Women Airforce Service Pilots of WW II, 1991,467. 3. Williams , Betty Jane, President, Orde r of Fifinella, Lette r to Helen Luts , 3 June 1947,1. 4. Ibid. , 2. 5. Congressional Record—House, 2 1 April 1948, 4806. 6. Ibid. , 4809. 7. Ibid. , 4810. 8. Ibid. , 4807. 9. Ibid. , 4809. 10. Ibid. , 4830.

204 I Notes to Chapter 7 11. Ibid. , 4809 . 12. Ibid. , 4814 . 13. Ibid. , 4820 . 14. Ibid. , 4808 . 15. Ibid. , 4830 . 16. Ibid . 17. Ibid. , 4831. 18. Ibid. , 4832 . 19. Ibid. , 4806 . 20. Ibid. , 4821. 21. Ibid. , 4811. 22. Ibid .

23. Ibid . 24. Edwards , Lt . Gen . I . H. , Ai r Forc e Deput y Chie f o f Staff, Memorandu m t o Secretary of the Air Force, 17 June 1948. 25. Ibid . 26. Ibid . 27. Verges , Marianne, On Silver Wings: The Women Airforce Service Pilots of World War II, 1942-1944, 1991, 231 .

28. Edwards , Lt . Gen . I . H. , Air Forc e Deput y Chie f o f Staff, Memorandu m t o Secretary of the Air Force, 17 June 1948. 29. Wyall , Marty, telephone interview with the author, March 1994. 30. Crew , Nanc y B. , Presiden t o f th e Orde r o f Fifinella , Memorandu m t o Al l WASPs, 15 June 1973. 31. Wyall , Marty, telephone interview with the author . 32. WAS P Military Committee, Brief History on WASP Struggle for Militarization, 1976. 33. Crew , Memorandum t o All WASPs. 34. Ibid . 35. Women Who Flew, unedite d intervie w tapes. 36. WAS P Military Committee, Brief History on WASP Struggle for Militarization, 1976. 37. Ibid . 38. "WASP's : The Forgotte n 'Warriors,' " Air Line Pilot Magazine, October 1977. 39. "T o Right a 33-Year-Old Wrong," Hearst Publications, 16 September 1977. 40. "Glamorou s Fliers, " Anderson (N.C.) Independent-Tribune, 2 3 June 1944. 41. Women Who Flew, unedite d intervie w tapes. 42. Ibid . 43. "Th e WASPS: Maybe They'll Ge t More, But All They Want Is Recognition," Dayton Daily News, 15 May 1977. 44. "Worl d War Us Women Pilot s Feel Forgotten, Their Benefit s Ignored, " Baltimore Evening Sun, 14 October 1976.

Notes to Chapter 7 I 20 5 45. Ibid . 46. "Rea l Live Nieces of Our Uncle Sam Born With a Yearning to Fly," Panorama, 9 July 1978. 47. WAS P Military Committee, Brief History on WASP Struggle. 48. "Woma n Oppose s WASP Push for Vet Benefits," Tennessean, 2 6 May 1977. 49. Ibid . 50. Moore , Kathleen, National Secretary, National Association of Concerned Veterans, "NACV Supports WASP Bill," Stars and Stripes, 16 June 1977. 51. "CP A Extends Membership t o WASPs," Stars and Stripes, 2 9 September 1977, 352. Hughes , Patricia Collins , "WASP s Stalemate Nears End," Stars and Stripes, 1 5 September 1977 , 3. 53. Hughes , Patrici a Collins , "Wer e WASP s Firs t Comba t Women? " Stars and Stripes, 2 0 October 1977 , 3. 54. Hughes , Patrici a Collins , "1 1 Bills Pendin g fo r Veteran s Status, " Stars and Stripes, 1 September 1977, 3. 55. Hughes , "WASPs Stalemate Nears End. " 56. Ibid . 57. Hughes , Patricia Collins, "Roberts Vows to Keep WASP Bill Tied Up in Committee," Stars and Stripes, 2 2 September 1977, 3. 58. Hughes , Patrici a Collins , "Wer e WASPs Pai d Benefits? " Stars and Stripes, 1 3 October 1977 , 3. 59. Hughes , "Roberts Vows to Keep WASP Bill Tied Up." 60. Wa r Department , Burea u o f Publi c Relations , Public Relations Policy for WASP, 3 December 1943. 61. Congressional Record—Senate, 2 2 September 1977, S15379. 62. Ibid . 63. Congressional Record—House, 2 8 September 1977, H10302. 64. Ibid . 65. Congressional Record—Senate, 6 October 1977 , S16572. 66. Ibid . 67. Hughes , "Were WASPs First Combat Women?" 68. Congressional Record—Senate, 6 October 1977 , S16572. 69. Hughes , "WASPs Stalemate Nears End. " 70. Hughes , "Roberts Vows to Keep WASP Bill Tied Up." 71. WAS P Public Affairs Office , New s Release, September 1977. 72. Strother , Dora Dougherty, "Dora Dougherty Strother Testifies for WASPs Veterans' Status," Stars and Stripes, 2 June 1977,1 . 73. Ibid . 74. "Administratio n Oppose s WASPs Bill," Stars and Stripes, 2 June 1977. 75. Hughes , "Were WASPs Paid Benefits? " 76. "Administratio n Oppose s WASPs Bill," 9.

2o6 I Notes to Chapter 8 77. "V.EW . Opposes WASP Bill," Stars and Stripes, 2 June 1977. 78. "America n Legion Opposes WASPs Bill," Stars and Stripes, 2 June 1977,15. 79. Congressional Record, 21 June 1944, 6410. 80. "America n Legion Opposes WASPs Bill." 81. Gardiner , William B., Statement of William B. Gardiner, National Director of Legislation, Disable d America n Veterans , Befor e th e Selec t Subcommitte e o n th e WASPs of the House Committee on Veterans' Affairs, 2 0 September 1977, 4-5. 82. Arnold , William Bruce , Arnold s Copy, Statement b y William Bruc e Arnold, Colonel, U.S . Air Forc e (Retired) , Befor e th e U.S . Hous e o f Representative s Com mittee on Veterans' Affairs, 2 0 September 1977. 83. Granger , Byrd Howell, Evidence Supporting Military Service by Women Airforce Service Pilots of World War II, 1977, 3 . 84. Ibid. , 4. 85. Ibid. , 113. 86. Ibid . 87. Ibid. , 13. 88. Ibid. , 41. 89. Ibid. , 98-99. 90. Ibid. , 79. 91. Ibid. , 90. 92. Ibid. , 74. 93. Ibid. , 74a. 94. Porter , Helen, Certificate of HonorableDischarge from the Army, 2 0 December 1944. 95. "America n Legion Oppose s WASPs Bill," 15. 96. Cochran , Jacqueline , Memorandu m t o Commandin g General , Arm y Ai r Forces, 1 October 1944 ; Cochran, Jacqueline, Letter to All WASP, 2 October 1944. 97. "Senat e Votes 91-0 for WASP Status!" Stars and Stripes, 2 7 October 1977 , 3. 98. Congressional Record—Senate, 4 November 1977 , S18812. 99. Ibid. , S18813. 100. Ibid. , S18819. 101. "Rea l Live Nieces of Our Uncl e Sam," 15. 102. Nagle , Nadine, telephone interview with author, March 1994. 103. Women Who Flew, unedite d intervie w tapes. 104. Roberts , Lillian Conner, Memorandum t o All WASP, Trainees, and Survivors of WASP, March 1979. NOTES T O CHAPTE R 8

i. Simon , Roger, Gramscis Political Thought: An Introduction, 1991, 22 . 2. Hartmann , Susan , The Home Front and Beyond: American Women in the 1940s, 1982, 79.

Notes to Chapter 8 I 20 7 3. Scott , Joan Wallach, Gender and the Politics of History,1988, 32. 4. Lerner , Gerda, The Creation of Patriarchy,1986 , 9. 5. Ibid. , 3. 6. Birke , Lynda, Women, Feminism and Biology: The Feminist Challenge, 1986 . 7. Mead , Margaret , Male and Female: A Study of the Sexes in a Changing World, 1967. 8. Butler , Judith, Bodies That Matter: On the Discursive Limits of "Sex, "1993,1. 9. Butler , Judith, Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity,1990. 10. Scott , Joan Wallach, "Experience, " 1992. 11. Ibid. , 25 .

12. Showalter , Elaine , Sexual Anarchy: Gender and Culture at the Fin de Siecle, 1990, 8. 13. Luce , Henry R., editorial comment, Life, 15 December 1941,12. 14. Stiehm , Judith Hicks , "Bananas , Beaches , and Bases : Making Feminis t Sens e of the International Politic s by Cynthia Enloe," 1992. 15. Enloe , Cynthia , Does Khaki Become You? The Militarisation of Women's Lives, 1983, 53-55 16. Ibid. , 100 . 17. Ibid. , 106 .

18. Jeffords , Susan, The Remasculinization of America: Gender and the Vietnam War, 1989, xii. 19. Murphy , Audie, To Hell and Back, 1949,7. 20. Ibid . 21. Ibid. , 8. 22. Jeffords , Susan , an d Rabinovitz, Lauren, eds. , Seeing through the Media: The Persian Gulf War, 1994 . 23. Fussel , Paul , Wartime: Understanding and Behavior in The Second World War, 1989. 24. Ibid. , 277. 25. Addis , Elisabetta , Russo , Valeria E. , Sebesta , Lorenza , Eds. , Women Soldiers: Images and Realities, 1994 , xii. 26. Rupp , Leila , Mobilizing Women for War: German and American Propaganda, ip39-i94S> 1978 . 27. Enloe , Does Khaki Become You?123. 29. Vickers , Jeanne, Women and War, 1993 , 36. 30. Enloe , Does Khaki Become You?\yj. 31. Life, 5 January 1942, 65. 32. Life, 5 April 1943, 82 . 33. Enloe , Does Khaki Become You? 122. 34. Segal , Mady Wechsler, "Women' s Militar y Role s Cross-Nationally : Past , Present, and Future," 1995, 759. 35. Ibid. , 761.

2o8 I Notes to Chapter 9 36. Korb , Lawrence. "The Pentagon's Perspective," 1989, 24. 37. Holms , Maj. Gen. Jeanne, Ret., Women in the Military: An Unfinished Revolution, 1992, 397. 38. Goldman , Nancy Loring, eds., Combatants or NonCombatants? Historical and Contemporary Perspectives, 1982, 4. 39. Wheelwright , "Th e Media's Use of the Feminine in the Gulf War," 131 . 40. Segal , "Women's Military Roles Cross-Nationally," 758. 41. Wilcox , Clyde, "Race, Gender, and Support for Women in the Military," 1992, 310.

42. Holms , Women in the Military, xv. 43. "Arm y Passes Up Jobless Pilots to Train Wasps: Prefers Women t o Older , Ex perienced Flyers, " Chicago Tribune Press Service, n Februar y 1944. 44. Committe e on the Civil Service, Interim Report No. 1600: Concerning Inquiries Made of Certain Proposals for the Expansion and Change in Civil Service Status of the WASP, 5 June 1944, 2. 45. Congressional Record, 2 1 June 1944, 6414. NOTES T O CHAPTE R 9

i. Women Who Flew, unedite d intervie w tapes, 1994. 2. Women Who Flew, 1994. 3. Women Who Flew, unedite d interview tapes. 4. Ibid . 5. Ibid .

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Telegram, 8 Decembe r 1944 . The WAS P Collection . Texa s Women' s Universit y Archives. Denton, Texas. Knight, Charlotte . "Ou r Women Pilots. " Air Force: Official Journal of the U.S. Army Air Forces, 1944 . L2, Women Airforce Servic e Pilots. Air Force Museum Archives. Wright Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio. . "Service Pilots." Skyways, 1944 . The WASP Collection. Texas Women's University Archives. Denton, Texas. "'Let U s Fly, ' Ple a o f WASPs: Groundin g o f 1,000 Girl s Bring s Man y Heartaches. " New York Journal, 2 2 Octobe r 1944 . Th e Jacquelin e Cochra n Collection . Th e Eisenhower Cente r Archives, Abilene, Kansas. Life Magazine, 1941-1945. Lindsay, Malvina. "The Gentler Sex: Women Unafraid. " Washington Post, 1 9 December 1944 . The Jacqueline Cochra n Collection . The Eisenhowe r Cente r Archives . Abilene, Kansas. Lombard, Helen . "Flyin g Women Guarde d fro m Wron g Publicity," Times (Roanoke, Va.), 2 4 April 1944 . The Jacqueline Cochra n Collection . The Eisenhowe r Cente r Archives. Abilene, Kansas. "Male Flier s Ma y Switc h Tactic s an d Sponso r Thei r Ow n Bill. " Washington D.C. News, 9 May 1944 . The Jacqueline Cochra n Collection . The Eisenhowe r Cente r Archives. Abilene, Kansas. "Man Powe r an d th e WASP. " National Aeronautics, Jun e 1944 . Th e Jacquelin e Cochran Collection . The Eisenhower Cente r Archives. Abilene, Kansas. Mendelson, Frances. "Women Pilot s Towing Targets for Army Anti-Aircraft Practice : Originally Restricted t o Ferrying Planes from Factories , They Are Achieving Success in Highly Specialized Jobs at Camp Davis." Washington Herald Tribune, 25 October 1943 . The WASP Collection . Texas Women's Universit y Archives. Denton , Texas. "Men Pilots Jobless, House Unit Considers Investigating WASP." Washington Evening Star, 14 March 1944 . The Jacqueline Cochran Collection . The Eisenhower Cente r Archives. Abilene, Kansas. "Men Take Over: Army to Drop Women Fliers Next Dec. 20." Washington Post, 4 October 1944. The Jacqueline Cochran Collection . The Eisenhower Center Archives. Abilene, Kansas. "Miss Cochran Would Commission Wasps or Junk Organization." Washington Post, 8 August 1944 . Th e Jacquelin e Cochra n Collection . Th e Eisenhowe r Cente r Archives. Abilene, Kansas. Moore, Kathleen , Nationa l Secretary , Nationa l Associatio n o f Concerne d Veterans . "NACV Supports WASP Bill." Stars and Stripes, 16 June 1977. The WASP Collection. Texas Women's University Archives. Denton, Texas. Mortimer, Lee . "Th e Movies : 'Ladie s Courageous ' Glorifie d WAFS. " 1944 . Th e Jacqueline Cochran Collection. The Eisenhower Center Archives. Abilene, Kansas. "Nation's First Class of Women Air Ferry Pilots Awarded Wings." Houston Chronicle,

Bibliography I 21 3 25 April 1943. The WASP Collection. Texas Women's University Archives. Denton, Texas. Newsweek 1941-194$. "No Place for WASPS." Boston Post, 5 December 1944 . The Jacqueline Cochra n Col lection. The Eisenhower Cente r Archives. Abilene, Kansas. O'Donnell, John . "Capito l Stuff. " Washington Times Herald, 31 March 1944 . Th e Jacqueline Cochran Collection. The Eisenhower Center Archives. Abilene, Kansas. "114 Stranded WASPS Get a Free Trip to Cool Off." Detroit Free Press, 4 July 1944. The WASP Collection. Texas Women's University Archives. Denton, Texas. Pasley Virginia . "Wome n Pilot s Hav e N o Future , Say s WAS P Head. " Washington Times Herald, 29 Marc h 1944 . The Jacquelin e Cochra n Collection . Th e Eisen hower Center Archives. Abilene, Kansas. "Passing of WASP Mourned b y Ardent Fe w Who Create d This Un-Needed Service. " St. Petersburg Times, 22 Octobe r 1944 . The Jacquelin e Cochra n Collection . Th e Eisenhower Center Archives. Abilene, Kansas. "Pilots See k t o Continu e Instructing : Denie d Job s Wome n Pilot s No w Receivin g Training For. " Cuero (Tex.) Record, 8 May 1944 . The Jacqueline Cochra n Collec tion. The Eisenhower Cente r Archives. Abilene, Kansas. Poole, Barbara . "Requiem fo r th e WASP. " Flying Magazine, Decembe r 1944 . L2 , Women Airforce Servic e Pilots. Air Force Museum Archives. Wright Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio. "Real Live Nieces of Our Uncle Sam Born with a Yearning to Fly" Panorama, 9 July 1978. Th e WAS P Collection . Texa s Women' s Universit y Archives . Denton , Texas. Sarles, Ruth. "CA A Bill Introduced afte r WASP S Rejected." Washington D.C. News, 22 Jun e 1944 . Th e Jacquelin e Cochra n Collection . Th e Eisenhowe r Cente r Archives. Abilene, Kansas. . "5 0 Army Plane s Spee d Signature s o f CA A Fliers t o Hea d Of f Bill. " Washington Daily News, 26 April 1944. The Jacqueline Cochran Collection . The Eisen hower Center Archives. Abilene, Kansas. . "Lay That Airplane Down, Babe , Cry Grounded He-Ma n Pilots. " Washington Daily News, 31 March 1944 . The Jacqueline Cochra n Collection . Th e Eisen hower Center Archives. Abilene, Kansas. Schisgall, Oscar . "Th e Girl s Delive r th e Goods. " Th e WAS P Collection . Texa s Women's University Archives. Denton, Texas. "Secretary Stimson Denie s WASP Training Will Affect Trainin g of Male Air Pilots. " The Service Woman, 12 May 1944. The WASP Collection. Texas Women's Univer sity Archives. Denton, Texas. "Seek Women Pilots to Ferry Planes." 3 December 1942. The WASP Collection. Texas Women's University Archives. Denton, Texas. Segal, Mady Wechsler. "Women' s Military Roles Cross-Nationally: Past , Present, an d Future." Signs, 9 , no.6,1995, 757-775.

214 I Bibliography

"Senate Votes 91-0 for WASP Status!" Stars and Stripes, 2 7 October 1977 . The WASP Collection. Texas Women's University Archives. Denton, Texas. "Shortage o r Conscience? " Idaho Statesman, 4 June 1944 . The Jacquelin e Cochra n Collection. The Eisenhower Cente r Archives. Abilene, Kansas. Steely, H . H . "Figh t agains t WAS P Gainin g A s Idl e Airmen's Rank s Grow. " Oklahoman, 26 June 1944. The Jacqueline Cochran Collection. The Eisenhower Cente r Archives. Abilene, Kansas. Stephenson, Malinna . "WASPS—Unsun g Heroine s o f Ou r Air War." King Features Syndicate, 19 March 1944 . The Jacquelin e Cochra n Collection . Th e Eisenhowe r Center Archives. Abilene, Kansas. Stevick, Ann. "WASP S Who Tow Air Targets May Soon B e Real U.S. Soldiers." October 1943 . The WAS P Collection . Texa s Women's Universit y Archives. Denton , Texas. Stiehm, Judith Hicks. "Bananas, Beaches, and Bases: Making Feminist Sense of the International Politic s by Cynthia Enloe," Signs, 17 , no. 4,1992, 825-829. Strother, Dor a Dougherty . "Dor a Doughert y Strothe r Testifies fo r WASP s Veterans' Status." Stars and Stripes, 2 June 1977. The WASP Collection. Texas Women's University Archives. Denton, Texas. "Sugar and Spice! B-26 Gentle as Lamb in Hands of WASPS." Martin City Star, Feb ruary 1944 . L2 , Wome n Airforc e Servic e Pilots . Ai r Forc e Museu m Archives . Wright Patterso n Air Force Base, Ohio. Tanner, Dori s Brinker . "W e Als o Served. " American History Illustrated. Novembe r 1985. WASP Collection. Archives. Women's International Air and Space Museum. Dayton, Ohio . Taylor, Frank . "Ou r Wome n Warriors. " Liberty Magazine, 2 9 Januar y 1944 . L2 , Women Airforce Servic e Pilots. Air Force Museum Archives. Wright Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio. "That WASP Bill." 22 July 1944. The Jacqueline Cochran Collection. The Eisenhower Center Archives. Abilene, Kansas. Time, 1941-1945 .

"To Right a 33-Year-Old Wrong." Hearst Publications, 26 September 1977. The WASP Collection. Texas Women's University Archives. Denton, Texas. "V.F.W. Opposes WASP Bill." Stars and Stripes, 2 June 1977 . The WASP Collection . Texas Women's University Archives. Denton, Texas. "The Washington Merry-Go-Round : Arnol d Face s Uproar ove r His Continue d Us e of WASPS." 5 August 1944 . The Jacqueline Cochra n Collection . The Eisenhowe r Center Archives. Abilene, Kansas. "WASP Bill Hinges on Rights for Men." Independent News Service, 20 May 1944. The Jacqueline Cochran Collection. The Eisenhower Center Archives. Abilene, Kansas. "WASP Directo r Demand s Arm y Statu s fo r Group. " Shelby Daily Globe, 8 August 1944. The Jacqueline Cochra n Collection . The Eisenhower Cente r Archives. Abilene, Kansas.

Bibliography I

21 5

"WASP Progra m Flaye d i n House. " Associated Press , 1 9 June 1944 . The Jacquelin e Cochran Collection . The Eisenhower Cente r Archives. Abilene, Kansas. "The WASP Row." Minneapolis Star-Journal, 10 August 1944. The Jacqueline Cochran Collection. The Eisenhower Cente r Archives. Abilene, Kansas. "WASP Training Course s t o End. " Associate d Press , 2 6 June 1944 . The Jacquelin e Cochran Collection . The Eisenhower Cente r Archives. Abilene, Kansas. "WASP Training Ends in December, Arnold Announces." United Press, 27 June 1944. The Jacquelin e Cochra n Collection . Th e Eisenhowe r Cente r Archives . Abilene, Kansas. "WASP Training Plans Assailed i n House. " Associated Press , June 1944 . The Jacqueline Cochran Collection . The Eisenhower Cente r Archives. Abilene, Kansas. "WASPS." Washington Post, 2 5 June 1944 . The Jacqueline Cochra n Collection . Th e Eisenhower Cente r Archives. Abilene, Kansas. "WASPS Ask General Arnold fo r Bar s or Discharge. " Washington Daily News, 8 August 1944. The Jacqueline Cochra n Collection . The Eisenhowe r Cente r Archives. Abilene, Kansas. "WASPs Begi n Ne w Pressur e Driv e t o Mak e Congres s Revers e Vote. " Washington Daily News, 6 Septembe r 1944 . The Jacquelin e Cochra n Collection . Th e Eisen hower Center Archives. Abilene, Kansas. "WASPS 'Burn ' a s Congres s Crack s U p Program : Congres s Halt s Training Despit e Gen. Arnold s Plea. " The Service Woman, 14 July 1944 . The Jacquelin e Cochra n Collection. The Eisenhower Cente r Archives. Abilene, Kansas. "WASPs Deserv e Army Status. " Muncie (Ind.) Star, 13 August 1944 . The Jacquelin e Cochran Collection . The Eisenhower Cente r Archives. Abilene, Kansas. "WASPS End Wartime Flying Contribution." New York Times, 19 December 1944. L2, Women Airforce Servic e Pilots. Air Force Museum Archives. Wright Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio. "Wasps Go into Retirement afte r Valiant War Service." Christian Science Monitor, 20 December 1944 . Th e Jacquelin e Cochra n Collection . Th e Eisenhowe r Cente r Archives. Abilene, Kansas. "The WASPs: Maybe They'll Ge t More, But All They Want I s Recognition." Dayton Daily News, 1 5 Ma y 1977 . Th e WAS P Collection . Texa s Women' s Universit y Archives. Denton, Texas. "WASPs May Disband Soon, Says Magazine." Washington Daily News, 31 July 1944. The Jacqueline Cochran Collection. The Eisenhower Center Archives. Abilene, Kansas. "Wasps Ma y Ous t 5,00 0 Instructors. " Washington Times Herald, 21 May 1944 . The Jacqueline Cochran Collection. The Eisenhower Center Archives. Abilene, Kansas. "WASPS Shorn o f Wings: Women Wa r Flier s Gripe o n Inactivity. " Philadelphia Inquirer, 1 April 1945 . The Jacqueline Cochra n Collection . The Eisenhowe r Cente r Archives. Abilene, Kansas. "WASP's: The Forgotte n 'Warriors.' " Air Line Pilot Magazine, Octobe r 1977 . Th e WASP Collection. Texas Women's University Archives. Denton, Texas.

2i 6 I Bibliography "WASPS to Be Part of Army under War Department Plan. " Associated Press , 4 May 1944. The WASP Collection. Texas Women's University Archives. Denton, Texas. "WASPS to Ge t Snapp y Outfits Costin g $505." Washington D.C. Star, 10 June 1944. The Jacquelin e Cochra n Collection . Th e Eisenhowe r Cente r Archives . Abilene , Kansas. "WASPs to Los e Wings Dec . 20 , Arnold Rules. " Washington Daily News, 4 Octobe r 1944. The Jacqueline Cochra n Collection . The Eisenhowe r Cente r Archives. Abilene, Kansas. "WASPS V s CAA : Figh t t o Giv e Me n Flyin g Instructor s Equalit y wit h Girls. " Doylestown (Pa.) Intelligence, 2 0 Ma y 1944 . The Jacquelin e Cochra n Collection . The Eisenhower Cente r Archives. Abilene, Kansas. "Wasps Want t o Kee p Flying as Civil Pilots." Herald Tribune, 2 December 1944 . The Jacqueline Cochran Collection. The Eisenhower Center Archives. Abilene, Kansas. "Wasps Want t o Serve , Othe r Wome n No t S o Anxious." Los Angeles Times, 22 December 1944 . Th e Jacquelin e Cochra n Collection . Th e Eisenhowe r Cente r Archives. Abilene, Kansas. "WASPS Would Qui t Army , I s Report." Washington D.C. News, YL June 1944 . The Jacqueline Cochran Collection. The Eisenhower Center Archives. Abilene, Kansas. "WASP Training Plan s Assailed i n House. " Associated Press , June 1944 . The Jacqueline Cochran Collection . The Eisenhower Cente r Archives. Abilene, Kansas. "We Can' t Spar e Them." New York Herald Tribune, 13 December 1944 . The WAS P Collection. Texas Women's University Archives. Denton, Texas. Wells, Mary Retick. "A n Open Lette r t o Rep . Olin E . Teague Re. WASP." Stars and Stripes, 8 Septembe r 1977 . Th e WAS P Collection . Texa s Women' s Universit y Archives. Denton, Texas. Wilcox, Clyde. "Race, Gender, an d Suppor t fo r Women i n th e Military." Social Science Quarterly, 73, no. 2,1992, 310-323. Williams, Dorothy. "Ga l Fliers Help Perfect Aim." New York Daily News, 25 October 1943. The Jacqueline Cochra n Collection . The Eisenhowe r Cente r Archives. Abilene, Kansas. "Willing Bu t Grounded. " Sacramento Bee, 2 6 Decembe r 1944 . Th e Jacquelin e Cochran Collection . The Eisenhower Cente r Archives. Abilene, Kansas. Wilson, Gil l Robb. "Wasps to Be Demobilized Dec . 20: Of Nine Hundred o f Them, Two Hundre d Ar e Experts, Neede d i n War Work." New York Herald Tribune, 1 3 December 1944 . L2, Women Airforce Servic e Pilots. Air Force Museum Archives. Wright Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio. Winchell, Walter. "Ma n abou t Town." Daily Mirror, 4 December 1944 . The Jacqueline Cochran Collection . The Eisenhower Center Archives. Abilene, Kansas. "Woman Opposes WASP Push for Vet Benefits." Tennessean, 26 May 1977. The WASP Collection. Texas Women's University Archives. Denton, Texas. "Women Ferr y Pilots Start Operating out of Wichita." Wichita Beacon, 25 April 1943. The WASP Collection. Texas Women's University Archives. Denton, Texas.

Bibliography I 21 7 "Women Pilot s out of Work as Wasp Quits." Washington Times-Herald, 2 1 December 1944. The Jacqueline Cochra n Collection . The Eisenhowe r Cente r Archives. Abilene, Kansas. "Women Train in West Texas for Army Ferry Flying: Their Duty Will Be to Fly Planes from Factor y to Field and from Fiel d to Field within U.S." Christian Science Monitor, 8 May 1943. The WASP Collection. Texas Women's University Archives. Denton, Texas. "World Wa r li s Wome n Pilot s Fee l Forgotten , Thei r Benefit s Ignored. " Baltimore Evening Sun, 14 October 1976 . The WASP Collection. Texas Women's Universit y Archives. Denton, Texas.

BOOKS

Addis, Elisabetta, Russo, Valeria E., and Sebesta, Lorenza, eds. Women Soldiers: Images and Realities. Ne w York: St. Martins Press , 1994. Arnold, Henr y H. Global Mission. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1947. Ayling, Keith. Calling All Women. Ne w York: Harper & Brothers , 1942. Beauvoir, Simone de. The Second Sex. Ne w York: Knopf, 1952. Becraft, Carolyn . Women in the U.S. Armed Services: The War in the Persian Gulf. Washington, D.C. : Women's Research and Education Institute , 1991. Birdwell, Russell. Women in Battle Dress. Ne w York: Fine Editions Press, 1942. Birke, Lynda . Women, Feminism and Biology: The Feminist Challenge. Ne w York : Methuen Press , 1986. Butler, Judith. Bodies That Matter: On the Discursive Limits of "Sex." New York: Routledge, 1993. . Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. Ne w York: Rout ledge, 1990. Butler, Judith , an d Scott , Joa n Wallach . Feminists Theorize the Political. Ne w York: Routledge, 1992. Churchill, Jan. On Wings to War: Teresa James, Aviator. Manhattan , Kans. : Sunflowe r University Press, 1992. Cochran, Jacqueline, an d Brinley , Maryann Bucknam . Jackie Cochran: An Autobiography. Ne w York: Bantam Books , 1987. Cochran, Jacqueline , an d Odium , Floyd . The Stars at Noon. Boston: Little , Brown , 1954Cole, Jean Hascall . Women Pilots of World War II. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1992. Congressional Quarterly . Congressional Quarterlys Guide to Congress. 4t h edition . Washington, D.C. : Congressional Quarterly , 1991. Dailey, Janet. Silver Wings, Santiago Blue. New York: Poseidon Press, 1984. Dorn, Edwin. "Statistical Trends." In Who Defends America? Race, Sex, and Class in the

218 I Bibliography Armed Forces, edited by Edwin Dorn. Washington, D.C.: Joint Center for Political Studies Press, 1989. Douglas, Deborah . United States Women in Aviation, 1940-198$. Washington , D.C. : Smithsonian Institution , 1991. Elshtain, Jean Bethke . Women and War. New York: Basic Books, 1987. Enloe, Cynthia. Does Khaki Become You? The Militarisation of Women's Lives. London: South End Press, 1983. Fraser, Antonia. Boadiceas Chariot. London : Weidenfield & Nicolson, 1988. Fussel, Paul. Wartime: Understanding and Behavior in the Second World War. Oxford: Oxford Universit y Press, 1989. Goldman, Nancy Loring, ed. Combatants or NonCombatants? Historical and Contemporary Perspectives. Westport, Conn. : Greenwood Press , 1982. Granger, Byr d Howell. On Final Approach: The Women Airforce Service Pilots of WW II. Scottsdale, Ariz.: Falconer Publishing Co., 1991 . Hartmann, Susan. The Home Front and Beyond: American Women in the 1940s. Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1982. Holden, Henry , an d Griffith , Lori . Ladybirds: The Untold Story of Women Pilots in America. Freedom, N.J.: Black Hawk Publishing Co., 1992. . Ladybirds II: The Continuing Story of American Women in Aviation. Freedom, N.J.: Black Hawk Publishing Co., 1993. Holms, Maj. Gen. Jeanne, Retired. Women in the Military: An Unfinished Revolution. Novato, Calif: Presidio Press, 1992. Jeffords, Susan . The Remasculinization of America: Gender and the Vietnam War. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989. Jeffords, Susan , an d Rabinovitz , Lauren , eds . Seeing through the Media: The Persian Gulf War. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1994. Keil, Sally Van Wagenen. Those Wonderful Women in Their Flying Machines: The Unknown Heroines of World War II. New York: Four Directions Press , 1990. Korb, Lawrence . "Th e Pentagon' s Perspective. " I n Who Defends America? Race, Sex, and Class in the Armed Forces, edite d b y Edward Dorn . Washington, D.C. : Joint Center for Politica l Studies Press, 1989. Kovic, Ron. Born on the Fourth of July. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1976. Laurentis, Teresa de. Cultural Studies. New York: Routledge, 1994. Lerner, Gerda . The Creation of Feminist Consciousness: From the Middle Ages to 1870. New York: Oxford Universit y Press, 1993. . The Creation of Patriarchy. Ne w York: Oxford Universit y Press, 1986. Lynn, Vera . Unsung Heroines: The Women Who Won the War. London : Sidgwic k & Jackson, 1990. McFarland, Stephen Lee, and Newton, Wesley Phillips. To Command the Sky: The Battle forAir Superiority over Germany, 1942-1944. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press , 1991 .

Bibliography I 21 9 Mead, Margaret. Male and Female: A Study of theSexes in a Changing World. New York: William Morrow, 1967. Mitchell, Brian . Weak Link: The Feminization of the American Military. Washington , D.C.: Regnery Gateway, 1989. Muir, Kate. Arms and the Woman. London: Sinclair-Stevenson Limited , 1992. Murphy, Audie. To Hell and Back. Ne w York: Holt, Rinehar t and Winston, 1949. Myles, Bruce . Night Witches: The Untold Story of Soviet Women in Combat. Novato, Calif.: Presidio Press, 1981 . Noggle, Ann. For God, Country, and the Thrill of It: Women Airforce Service Pilots in World War II. College Station: Texas A & M Press , 1990. Osur, Alan. Blacks in the Army Air Forces During World War II Ne w York: Arno Press, 1980. Pentagon: 50t h Anniversar y o f Worl d Wa r I I Commemoratio n Committee . Fact Sheet: Tuskegee Airmen. 1995. . Fact Sheet: Women's Airforce Service Pilots. 1995 . Perret, Geoffrey . Winged Victory: The Army Air Forces in World War II. Ne w York : Random House , 1993. Piercy, Marge. Gone to Soldiers. Ne w York: Summit Books , 1987. Rubel, David . Webster's 21st Century Concise Chronology of World History. Nashville, Tenn.: Thomas Nelson, 1993. Rupp, Leila. Mobilizing Women for War: German and American Propaganda, 1939-1945. Princeton: Princeton Universit y Press, 1978. Rustad, Michael. Women in Khaki: The American Enlisted Woman. Ne w York: Praeger Publishers, 1982. Saywell, Shelley. Women in War: From World War II to El Salvador. Ontario : Pengui n Books, 1985. Scharr, Adela Riek. Sisters in the Sky: Volume II—The WASP. St . Louis: Patrice Press, 1988. Scott, Joan Wallach. "Experience." In Feminists Theorize the Political, edited by Judith Butler and Joan Wallach Scott. New York: Routledge, 1992. . Gender and the Politics of History. New York : Columbi a Universit y Press , 1988. Showalter, Elaine. Sexual Anarchy: Gender and Culture at the Fin de Steele. New York: Viking, 1990. Simon, Roger . Gramsci's Political Thought: An Introduction. London : Lawrenc e & Wishart, 1991. Treadwell, Mattie. The Women's Army Corps. Washington, D.C.: Office o f the Chief of Military History, Department o f the Army, 1954. Tunner, Lt. Gen. William. Over the Hump. Ne w York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1964. Verges, Marianne. On Silver Wings: The Women Airforce Service Pilots of World War II, 1942-1944. Ne w York: Ballantine, 1991.

220 I Bibliography Vickers, Jeanne. Women and War. London : Zed Books , 1993. Wekesser, Carol , an d Polesetsky , Matthew , eds . Women in the Military. Sa n Diego : Grenhaven Press , 1991 . Wheelwright, Julie. Amazons and Military Maids: Women Who Dressed As Men in the Pursuit of Life,Liberty and Happiness. London : Pandora, 1989. . "The Media's Use of the Feminine in the Gulf War." In Women Soldiers: Images and Realities, edited b y Elisabett a Addis , Valeri a E . Russo , an d Lorenz a Sebesta. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994. Willenz, June. Women Veterans: America's Forgotten Heroines. Ne w York: Continuum, 1983.

Williams, Vera. WASPs: Women Airforce Service Pilots of World War II. Osceola, Wis.: Motorbooks International , 1994. Wood, Winifred. We Were WASPs. Cora l Gables, Fla.: Glade House, 1945.

GOVERNMENTAL REPORT S AN D DOCUMENT S

Army Air Forces. Army Air Forces Historical Studies. January 1945. The WASP Collection. Texas Women's University Archives. Denton, Texas. . Army Air Forces Regulation 40-8, Utilization of Women Pilots. 1944. L2 , Women Airforce Servic e Pilots. Air Force Museum Archives. Wright Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio. . The History of the WASPs at Buckingham Army Air Field. Januar y 1945 . L2, Women Airforce Servic e Pilots. Air Force Museum Archives. Wright Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio. . History of the Women Airforce Service Pilots, Gardner Field. January 1945. L2, Women Airforce Servic e Pilots. Air Force Museum Archives. Wright Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio. . The History of WASP Detachment at Blytheville Army Air Field. January 1945. L2, Women Airforce Servic e Pilots. Air Force Museum Archives. Wright Patterso n Air Force Base, Ohio. . Medical Considerations of the WASPs. 2 1 August 1945. The WASP Collection. Texas Women's University Archives. Denton, Texas. . Women Pilots in the Air Transport Command. January 1945. L2, Women Airforce Service Pilots. Air Force Museum Archives. Wright Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio. Central Flying Training Command, Army Air Forces. History of theWASP Program. 20 January 1945 . L2, Women Airforc e Servic e Pilots . Air Forc e Museu m Archives . Wright Patterso n Air Force Base, Ohio. Cochran, Jacqueline. Final Report, Women Pilot Program. Februar y 1945 . The WASP Collection. Texas Women's University Archives. Denton, Texas. . WASP Report, to Commanding General, Army Air Forces, 1 August 1944 . The WASP Collection. Texas Women's University Archives. Denton, Texas.

Bibliography I 22 1 Committee on Appropriations. Report No. 1606, Military Establishment Appropriation Bill, 194s. Hous e of Representatives, 78t h Congress , 2 d Session, 7 June 1944 . The Jacqueline Cochran Collection. The Eisenhower Center Archives. Abilene, Kansas. Committee o n Militar y Affairs. Hearings before the Committee on Military Affairs. 20 January 1942. The WASP Collection. Texas Women's University Archives. Denton, Texas. . Hearings before the Committee on Military Affairs. 1 May 1942 . The WAS P Collection. Texas Women's University Archives. Denton, Texas. . Hearings before the Committee on Military Affairs on HR421P. 78th Congress, 2nd Session , 2 2 March 1944 . The WAS P Collection . Texa s Women's Universit y Archives. Denton, Texas. . Report No. 1277: Providing for the Appointment of Female Pilots and Aviation Cadets of the Army Air Forces. 78t h Congress , 2n d Session , 2 2 March 1944 . The Jacqueline Cochran Collection. The Eisenhower Center Archives. Abilene, Kansas. Committee o n th e Civil Service. Interim Report No. 1600: Concerning Inquiries Made of Certain Proposals for the Expansion and Change in Civil Service Status of the WASP. 78th Congress , 2n d Session , 5 June 1944. The Jacqueline Cochra n Collec tion. The Eisenhower Cente r Archives. Abilene, Kansas. Congressional Record. 1 2 May 1942. The WASP Collection. Texas Women's Universit y Archives. Denton, Texas. Congressional Record. 1 4 January 1943. The WASP Collection. Texas Women's Univer sity Archives. Denton, Texas. Congressional Record. 1 5 February 1943 . The WASP Collection . Texas Women's Uni versity Archives. Denton, Texas. Congressional Record. 1 May 1943 . The WAS P Collection . Texas Women's Universit y Archives. Denton, Texas. Congressional Record—Appendix. 7 June 1944. The WASP Collection. Texas Women's University Archives. Denton, Texas. Congressional Record—Appendix. 8 June 1944. The WASP Collection. Texas Women's University Archives. Denton, Texas. Congressional Record—Appendix. 10 June 1944. The WASP Collection. Texas Women's University Archives. Denton, Texas. Congressional Record—Appendix. 16 June 1944. The WASP Collection. Texas Women's University Archives. Denton, Texas. Congressional Record—Appendix. 17 June 1944. The WASP Collection. Texas Women's University Archives. Denton, Texas. Congressional Record —Appendix. 1 0 Augus t 1944 . Th e WAS P Collection . Texa s Women's University Archives. Denton, Texas. Congressional Record. 2 0 June 1944. The WASP Collection. Texas Women's Universit y Archives. Denton, Texas. Congressional Record. 2 1 June 1944. The WASP Collection. Texas Women's Universit y Archives. Denton, Texas.

222 I Bibliography Congressional Record—House. 2 1 April 1948. The Jacqueline Cochran Collection . The Eisenhower Cente r Archives. Abilene, Kansas. Congressional Record —House. 2 8 Septembe r 1977 . Th e WAS P Collection . Texa s Women's University Archives. Denton, Texas. Congressional Record —Senate. 22 Septembe r 1977 . Th e WAS P Collection . Texa s Women's University Archives. Denton, Texas. Congressional Record—Senate. 6 October 1977. The WASP Collection. Texas Women's University Archives. Denton, Texas. Congressional Record —Senate. 4 Novembe r 1977 . Th e WAS P Collection . Texa s Women's University Archives. Denton, Texas. Costello, Rep. John. H.R. 3358, A bill to provide for the appointment of female pilots in the Air Forces of the Army. 3 0 Septembe r 1943 , 78th Congress , 1s t Session . Th e WASP Collection. Texas Women's University Archives. Denton, Texas. Eastern Flyin g Training Command , Arm y Air Forces . History of the Women Airforce Service Pilots, Eastern Flying Training Command. January 1945. L2, Women Airforce Service Pilots. Air Force Museum Archives. Wright Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio. Hearings before the Committee of Military Affairs. House of Representatives, 20 January 1942. The WASP Collection. Texas Women's University Archives. Denton, Texas. Hearings before the Committee of Military Affairs. Hous e o f Representatives , 1 May 1942. The WASP Collection. Texas Women's University Archives. Denton, Texas. Hearings before the Committee on Military Affairs. House of Representatives, 22 March 1944. The WASP Collection. Texas Women's University Archives. Denton, Texas. Marx, Captain. Women Pilots in the Air Transport Command. January 1945. The WASP Collection. Texas Women's University Archives. Denton, Texas. Odom, Col. T. C. Report to Commanding General of theArmy Air Forces. 5 August 1943. The WASP Collection. Texas Women's University Archives. Denton, Texas. Porter, Helen . Certificate of Honorable Discharge fromtheArmy. 2 0 Decembe r 1944 . The WASP Collection. Texas Women's University Archives. Denton, Texas. Report of Investigation Regarding Proper Use ofWomen Pilots in the Army Air Forces. August 5,1943. The WASP Collection. Texas Women's University Archives. Denton, Texas. Strother, Lt . Col . Dor a Dougherty . The WASP Program: An Historical Synopsis. Ai r Force Museum, Researc h Division , Septembe r 1971 . L2, Women Airforce Servic e Pilots. Air Force Museum Archives. Wright Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio. War Department, Burea u of Public Relations. Public Relations Policy for WASP. 3 December 1943 . Th e Jacquelin e Cochra n Collection . Th e Eisenhowe r Cente r Archives. Abilene, Kansas.

NEWS RELEASE S

War Departmen t New s Release . Memorandum for the Press. 1 0 September 1942 . The Jacqueline Cochran Collection. The Eisenhower Center Archives. Abilene, Kansas.

Bibliography I 22 3 War Department New s Release. Jacquelyn [sic] Cochran Designated Director of Women Pilots for AAF. 5 July 1943 . The Jacqueline Cochra n Collection . Th e Eisenhowe r Center Archives. Abilene, Kansas. War Departmen t New s Release. AAF to Inactivate WASP on December 20. 3 October 1944. The WASP Collection. Texas Women's University Archives. Denton, Texas. WASP Public Affairs Office. New s Release . September 1977 . The WASP Collection . Texas Women's University Archives. Denton, Texas.

INTERVIEWS

Bergemann, Clarice . Telephone interview with author, March 1994. Nagle, Nadine. Telephone interview with author, March 1994. Wyall, Marty. Telephone interview with author, March 1994.

LETTERS, MEMORANDUMS , TELEGRAPH S AN D T E L E P H O N E TRANSCRIPT S

Army Air Forces Memorandum 20-8 . 5 August 1943. The Jacqueline Cochran Collec tion. The Eisenhower Cente r Archives. Abilene, Kansas. Army Air Forces Memorandum 40-8 . 1944. The Jacqueline Cochra n Collection . The Eisenhower Center Archives. Abilene, Kansas. Arnold, Gen . H . H. , Lette r t o Eac h Membe r o f th e WASP . 1 October 1944 . L2 , Women Airforce Servic e Pilots. Air Force Museum Archives. Wright Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio. . Memorandum t o Director of Women Pilots. 1 October 1944. The Jacqueline Cochran Collection . The Eisenhower Center Archives. Abilene, Kansas. . Memorandu m t o Genera l Marshall . 1 4 June 1943 . The Jacqueline Cochra n Collection. The Eisenhower Center Archives. Abilene, Kansas. . Telegram t o Eleano r Watterud. 2 6 June 1944 . The WASP Collection. Texas Women's University Archives. Denton, Texas. Bevans, Majo r J . M. , Assistan t Chie f o f Ai r Staff . Secre t Memorandu m t o Com manding General , Air Transport Command . 2 2 November 1944 . The Jacquelin e Cochran Collection . The Eisenhower Cente r Archives. Abilene, Kansas. Bogart, Miss. Record of Telephone Conversation t o Miss Edwards. 27 June 1944. The Jacqueline Cochran Collection. The Eisenhower Center Archives. Abilene, Kansas. Cochran, Jacqueline. Letter to All Former WASP. 22 February 1945. L2, Women Airforce Service Pilots. Air Force Museum Archives. Wright Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio. . Letter to All Members of the WASP. 3 November 1944. L2, Women Airforc e Service Pilots. Air Force Museum Archives. Wright Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio.

224 I Bibliography . Letter to All WASP. 2 October 1944 . L2, Women Airforce Servic e Pilots. Air Force Museum Archives. Wright Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio. . Lette r t o Rober t Ramspeck . 5 Apri l 1944 . The Jacqueline Cochra n Collec tion. The Eisenhower Cente r Archives. Abilene, Kansas. . Letter to the WASPs. 1 October 1944. The WASP Collection. Texas Women's University Archives. Denton, Texas. . Letter to the WASPs at Avenger Field. 3 October 1944 . L2, Women Airforc e Service Pilots. Air Force Museum Archives. Wright Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio. . Memorandu m t o Genera l Arnold. Octobe r 1942 . The Jacqueline Cochra n Collection. The Eisenhower Center Archives. Abilene, Kansas. . Memorandum t o Commanding General , Army Air Forces. 1 Octobe r 1944. The Jacquelin e Cochra n Collection . Th e Eisenhowe r Cente r Archives . Abilene, Kansas. . Memorandu m t o Col . McNaughton . 1 5 December 1942 . The Jacquelin e Cochran Collection . The Eisenhower Cente r Archives. Abilene, Kansas. . Memorandu m t o Col . Robert Olds . 2 1 July 1941 . The Jacqueline Cochra n Collection. The Eisenhower Cente r Archives. Abilene, Kansas. . Memorandum t o Col. Robert Olds. July 1942. The Jacqueline Cochran Col lection. The Eisenhower Cente r Archives. Abilene, Kansas. Costello, Rep . John. Lette r t o Jacqueline Cochran . 4 October 1943 . The Jacqueline Cochran Collection . The Eisenhower Cente r Archives. Abilene, Kansas. Craig, Maj. Gen. M. A. Memorandum fo r Chief of Air Staff. 12 September 1944. The Jacqueline Cochran Collection. The Eisenhower Center Archives. Abilene, Kansas. Crew, Nancy B., President of the Order of Fifinella. Memorandu m t o All WASPs. 1 5 June 1973 . The WASP Collection . Texa s Women's Universit y Archives. Denton , Texas. Edwards, Lt. Gen. I. H., Air Force Deputy Chief of Staff. Memorandum t o Secretary of th e Air Force. 1 7 June 1948 . The Jacqueline Cochra n Collection . Th e Eisen hower Center Archives. Abilene, Kansas. Elliott, Maj . Richard G . Memorandu m t o Offic e o f the Commanding General . 24 August 1944 . Th e Jacquelin e Cochra n Collection . Th e Eisenhowe r Cente r Archives. Abilene, Kansas. Fluke, Emmy Lou . Record o f Telephone Conversatio n t o Miss Jacqueline Cochran . 27 Jun e 1944 . Th e Jacquelin e Cochra n Collection . Th e Eisenhowe r Cente r Archives. Abilene, Kansas. Giles, Lt. Gen. Barney, Deputy Commander , Army Air Forces and Chief of Air Staff . AAF Ltr 40-34 to Commanding Generals , All Air Forces and All Independent and Subordinate AA F Commands ; Director , AA F Technical Servic e Command ; an d Commanding Officers o f All AAF Bases (in continental United States). 1 November 1944. The WASP Collection. Texas Women's University Archives. Denton, Texas. Kraus, Brig . Gen. Walter F . Memorandum t o Gen. Arnold. 1 9 December 1942 . The Jacqueline Cochran Collection. The Eisenhower Center Archives. Abilene, Kansas.

Bibliography I

22 5

Love, Nancy Harkness . "Resum e o f Conversation betwee n Mrs . Love and Col . McCormick o f Ramspeck Committee. " 1 7 April 1944 . The WASP Collection . Texas Women's University Archives. Denton, Texas. McKaughan, R. E. Letter to Commanding General, Training Command. 14 July 1944. The Jacquelin e Cochra n Collection . Th e Eisenhowe r Cente r Archives . Abilene , Kansas. Military Poll Committee. Lette r t o WASP. No date . L2, Women Airforce Servic e Pilots. Air Force Museum Archives. Wright Patterso n Air Force Base, Ohio. Nowland, Brig . Gen . Bo b E . Secre t Memorandu m t o Commandin g General , Ai r Transport Command . 1 November 1944 . The WAS P Collection . Texa s Women's University Archives. Denton, Texas. Ponder, Ed. Letter to R. Earl McKaughan. 25 July 1944. The Jacqueline Cochran Col lection. The Eisenhower Center Archives. Abilene, Kansas. Roberts, Lillia n Conner . Memorandu m t o Al l WASP , Trainees , an d Survivor s o f WASP. March 1979 . The WASP Collection . Texas Women's Universit y Archives. Denton, Texas. Scull, Elaine. Record of Telephone Conversation t o Miss Jacqueline Cochran. 27 June 1944. The Jacqueline Cochra n Collection . The Eisenhowe r Cente r Archives. Abilene, Kansas. Stagg, Betty . Postcar d t o Mr . Donal d Stagg , 1 5 May 1944 . Photo File . Women Air force Service Pilots. Air Force Museum Archives. Wright Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio. . Postcar d t o Mr . and Mrs . Donald Stagg , 20 June 1944 . Photo File . Women Airforce Servic e Pilots . Air Forc e Museu m Archives . Wright Patterso n Ai r Forc e Base, Ohio. Stimson, Henry L. Letter to Andrew J. May, Chairman of the Committee on Military Affairs. 16 Februar y 1944 . Th e WAS P Collection . Texa s Women' s Universit y Archives. Denton, Texas. Stratemeyer, Maj . Gen . Georg e E. Memorandum t o Brig . Gen. Luthe r S . Smith. 2 4 November 1942 . Th e Jacquelin e Cochra n Collection . Th e Eisenhowe r Cente r Archives. Abilene, Kansas. Tunner, Col . William . Memorandu m t o Gen . Arnold , Throug h th e Commandin g General o f th e Ai r Transpor t Command . 3 0 Novembe r 1942 . Th e Jacquelin e Cochran Collection . The Eisenhower Center Archives. Abilene, Kansas. Wadlow, Mrs . Thomas . Recor d o f Telephon e Conversatio n t o Mis s Jacquelin e Cochran. 27 June 1944. The Jacqueline Cochran Collection. The Eisenhower Center Archives. Abilene, Kansas. Whitney, Col . Courtney . Memorandu m t o Brig . Gen . Luthe r Smith . 2 0 June 1943. The Jacquelin e Cochra n Collection . Th e Eisenhowe r Cente r Archives . Abilene, Kansas. Williams, Betty Jane, President, Orde r of Fifinella. Lette r to Helen Luts. 3 June 1947. The WASP Collection. Texas Women's University Archives. Denton, Texas.

226 I Bibliography U N P U B L I S H E D SOURCE S

Arnold, Gen . H. H . Remarks , Final WASP Graduation, Decembe r i944.Th e WASP Collection. Texas Women's University Archives. Denton, Texas. Arnold, William Bruce. Arnold's Copy, Statement by William Bruce Arnold, Colonel, U.S. Air Force (Retired), Before the U.S. House of Representatives Committee o n Veterans' Affairs, 2 0 September 1977. The WASP Collection. Texas Women's University Archives. Denton, Texas. Gardiner, William B . Statement o f William B . Gardiner, Nationa l Directo r o f Legislation, Disable d America n Veterans , Befor e th e Selec t Subcommitte e o n th e WASPs o f th e Hous e Committe e o n Veterans ' Affairs , 2 0 Septembe r 1977 . The WASP Collection. Texas Women's University Archives. Denton, Texas. Granger, B. Howell. Evidence Supporting Military Service byWomen Airforce Service Pilots, World War II, 1977. L2, Women Airforc e Servic e Pilots . Air Forc e Museu m Archives. Wright Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio. WASP Military Committee . Brief History on WASP Struggle for Militarization, 1976 . The WASP Collection. Texas Women's University Archives. Denton, Texas.

VIDEOS

Air Force News. Air Forc e News Videotape. June 1993 . Audio/Visual Collection . Air Force Museum Archives. Wright Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio. Forty-Eight Hours. CBS News. Eight-minute segment . July 1994. Author's collection . Nagle, Nadine, WASP Veteran. Videotaped presentation . Marc h 1992 . Audio/Visual Collection. Air Force Museum Archives. Wright Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio. Real People. NBC . Eleven-minut e segmen t o n th e WASPs. 1980 . Audio/Visual Col lection. Air Force Museum Archives. Wright Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio. Silver Wings and Santiago Blue. Sixty-minute documentary . 1981 . The WASP Collection. Texas Women's University Archives. Denton, Texas. We Were WASP. Twenty-three-minute documentary . 1990 . Th e WAS P Collection . Texas Women's University Archives. Denton, Texas. Women of Courage of World War II. Sixty-minute documentary. 1993 . The WASP Collection. Texas Women's University Archives. Denton, Texas. Women Who Flew. Lipstik Productions . Eight-minut e documentary . 1994 . Author' s collection. Women Who Flew, unedited intervie w tapes. Lipstik Productions. 1994. Author's collection.

Index

Acher, Virgini a (WASP) , phot o 8

All Volunteer Force , 17 2

Aircraft Warnin g Service , 5 2

Amazons, 17 1 American Legion : oppositio n t o WAS P militarization bill , 140,141,142,149 ; support o f bil l t o abolis h th e WASPs , 108; testimon y befor e Senat e C o m mittee o n Veteran s Affairs, 151-15 2

Air Forc e Academy, wome n pilot s within, 13 8 Air Forc e Pilo t School , wome n gradu ates, 138 Air Meda l recipients , 2 7 Airplanes: A-24, phot o 11 ; A-25, phot o 13, photo 14 ; A-25A, phot o 12 ; AT-6, 20, 24 ; AT-10, 25 ; AT-23, phot o 9 ; AT-26, 26 ; B-17,11 , 24 , 51,117,125 , 143, photo 8 ; B-24,15 , 22 , photo 10 ; B-25, 25,154 , phot o 15 ; B-26, 25 , 26; B-29, 26,118,127 ; BT-13 , 20 , 24 , 25, photo 7 ; C-46 , 24 ; C-47, 24 ; DC-10 , 105; Hudso n bomber , 55 ; jets, 119, 127,128; P-39 , 59 , photo 6 ; P-46 , 26 ; P-47, 25,121 ; PT-19,19 ; SPD , 25 ; SP2C, 2 5 Air Transport Auxiliar y (British) : Cochran directin g American wome n in, 13 ; women in , 1 0 Air Transport Command : civilia n pilot s within, 23 , 40; difficultie s cause d b y loss o f WASPs, 119-123 ; establishmen t of, 9,12 ; exploratio n o f placin g WASPs withi n WAC , 39 ; male pilots ' commissioning, 23 , 83,147; plane s delivered, 10 ; recommendation fo r WASP militarization , 31 ; request fo r training wome n pilots , 7 ; WASP s within, 2 3

American Wa r Correspondents , fea r tha t WASP militarizatio n woul d lea d t o its militarization , 14 2 American Women' s Voluntar y Service , 47>48 Army Air Corps , 8 , 9 Army Air Forces , formatio n of , 9 Army Air Force s Regulatio n 507 , 4 0 Army Air Force s Tactical School , 3 3 Army Air Service , 8 Army-Navy Club , office s o f WASP Pub lic Affairs Office , 14 0 Army Nurs e Corps : establishmen t of , 32; as example o f effectiveness, 36-37 ; as autonomous militar y organization , 80; theorie s of , 16 5 Army Pres s Division , confrontatio n o f WAC slande r campaign , 3 8 Arnold, Colone l (William ) Bruce : chai r of WASP Militar y Committee , 137 , 149; testimon y befor e Hous e Veteran s Affairs Committee , 15 4 Arnold, Genera l Henr y H. : announce ment o f WASP disbandment , 116 ; chief of Air Corps , 9 ; counterin g CA A

227

228 I Index pilot arguments against WASPs, 79; D-Day involvement, 102 ; disapproval of WASP incorporation unde r WAC, 39; expectations of WASP handling all domestic ferrying, JJ\ doubt s of women's piloting abilities, 10,125; final WASP graduation, 124-126, photo 15 , photo 16; House Committe e on Appropriations agreement with, 88; media attacks regarding WASPs, 65, 68, 72, 90, 91,108,109; media accounts of WASP disbandment, 127; opinion on male civilian pilots' claims, 84; opinion on WASPs, 27, 85 ; order restricting discussion of delay caused by and costs of WASP disbandment, 122 ; order to issue certificate like honorable discharge to WASPs, 155; order to stop WASP training, 102,103; order to disband WASPs, 115; release of male air cadets to ground forces, 32, 44, 62, 70, 78; recommendation fo r militarization o f WASPs, 41, 89, 92; support for WASP, 129; testimony before Hous e Military Affairs Committee , 6y, yy y 78, 79, 80; total war concept, 10, 55; us e of civilian contractors, 17; WASP creation, 7; WASP proposal, consideration, 13; WASP proposal, rejection, 11 , 25, 31 Atomic bomb, 26 Avenger Field, 21 , photo 2 , photo 3, photo 4; change to male pilots training facility, 103 ; final WASP graduation at, 124-126, photo 15, photo 16; military training at, 28, 57,103; officer training at, 33; Ramspeck Com mittee investigation, 82 ; WASP trainee protest at, 105-106 Aviation Enterprises , 18,102, photo 2 Balden, Dawn Rochn s (WASP) , photo 8

Beam, flying the, 23 Benefits: awarded WASPs, 156; denied WASPs, 8 Bergemann, Claric e (WASP) , 15, 26, 33 , 126

Biggs Field, 59 Blytheville Army Air Base, 22 Bogart, Joan (WASP) , 104 Boylan, Margaret Kerr (WASP) , testimony before Senat e Committee o n Veterans Affairs, 14 9 Brehm, Representative Walter, on WASP bill, 99 British Women's Auxiliary Air Force, 49 Brooks, Representative Charles, 132 Bryan Army Field, 27 Buckingham Army Air Field, photo 8 Burton, Senato r Harold, o n WASP bill, 81

Butler, Judith, 160-161 Camp Davi s WASP Press Event, 60-6 2 Carter, Presiden t Jimmy: opposition t o WASP militarization bill , 140; order to Veterans Administration t o oppose militarization bill , 144; signing of WASP militarization bill , 156 Central Flying Training Command , training sites for WASPs, 17,18 Chayes, Antonia, Air Force Assistant Secretary, authorizes official dis charges for the WASPs, 156 Civil Aeronautics Administration : Arnold testifyin g agains t false claims of, 78 ; attacks against WASPs, 64, 66, 68,107; depictions of women mem bers in Life, 48 Civil Air Patrol, depictions of women i n Life, 48, 49, 50; in contrast t o WASPs, 149-150; fear that WASP militarization would lead to its militarization, 142; male pilots' salaries, 15 ;

Index I 22 9 WASP status within, 15 Civil Defense Air Wardens, women depicted in Life, 49 Civilian Pilo t Training Program, women trained in , 11 Cochran, Jacqueline: attempts to commission WASPs in WAF, 135; Avenger Field visit to notify o f disbandment, 116; Congressional bil l for militariza tion, 76; contact o f Allied nations t o find flying jobs, 118,123; director of American women within ATA, 13, 55 ; disapproval of placing WASPs under WAC, 39, no; disbandment plans, 115; fear o f WASP media depictions, 56; final WASP graduation, 124-126, photo 15 , photo 16 ; Hudson bombe r flight to England, 55 ; invitations t o women pilots, 14; media, attack s against, 64 , 65, 66, 67, 69, 71, 72, 91 , 98,108; media reports of disbandment, 117,127; media reports of issuance of ultimatum, no ; militariza tion, importance of, 28 ; newspaper articles, 55, 57, 58, 60, 61, 90; purported feud with Love, n, 82 ; rank requested, 41 ; recommendation fo r demobilization o f WASP, no; recom mendation fo r one-da y militarizatio n before disbandment , 112 ; receipt of Distinguished Servic e Medal, 27; relationship with Ovet a Culp Hobby , 30; rumor o f incorporation unde r WAC, 123; stranded WASPs, conversations with, 103-104; WAF, 136; WASP proposal, 7,11,12,13, 31 ; WASP recommendations, 111-112; WASP requirements, 15; WASP twoyear status report, 110-113; WFTD Director, 13 Cole, Jean Hascall (WASP) , account of WASP development, 11

Combat Pilot s Association, endorse ment of WASP bill, 142 Committee on Civil Service. See Ramspeck Committe e Committee on Military Affairs. Se e House Committee on Military Affair s Congress, hostility towards women's military involvement, 42 Congressional Appropriations Commit tee, 122 Costello, Representative John: defens e of WASP bill, 75, 92, 94-95, 98, 99, 100; letter to Jacqueline Cochran, 76; media attacks against, 71, 72; on Ramspeck Report, 89 Craig, Major Genera l M. A., recom mendation t o disband WASPs afte r German defeat , 114 Cranston, Senato r Alan, on WASP militarization bill , 143-144 Crawford, Joan, 106 Crew, Nancy (WASP) , 137 D'Ambly, Mis s (WASP), 129 Davis Army Air Field, photo 12 D-Day, ai r operations, 102 Dean, Paul , article in support o f WASP, 145-146 de Beauvoir, Simone, 166 de Laurentis, Teresa, 161 Delays caused by WASP disbandment, 23 Department o f Defense, authorizatio n of official discharge s for th e WASPs, 156 Disabled American Veterans, testimon y before Hous e Veterans Affairs Com mittee, 153-154 Distinguished Servic e Medal, 27 Dyer, Elsie (WASP), photo 11 Earhart, Amelia, support fo r women pilots in military, 10

230 I Index Edmiston, Representative , on WAAC bill, 36 Edwards, Lieutenant Genera l I. H., 136 Eisenhower, Genera l Dwight D., 99 Elastic definition o f combat, 170 Ellington Field , 57 Elliott, Major Richard , planned stages for WASP disbandment, 113-114 Elshtain, Jean Bethke, 164 Enloe, Cynthia, 164,165,17 0 Erickson, Barbara (WASP) , receipt of Air Medal, 27 Evans, Ellen (WASP) , 139 Factory mobilization, 9 FBI investigation int o WAC slander campaign, 38 Feminist historical inquiry, 161-164 Ferrying Command: establishment of , 9; WASP proposal submission, 12 Ferrying Division: commissioning of male pilots, 23, 83,147; creation of, 9 ; delays and expense caused by WASP disbandment, 23,120-123 ; disapproval of placing WASPs within WAC, 39; exploration o f placing WASPs within WAC, 39; mens failures t o pass tests passed by WASPs, 176; planes delivered during World War II, 10; use of civilian pilots, 23, 40; women pilot s proposal, 12, 31; WASPs within, 23 Fifinella, phot o 2 Finley, Ethel (WASP) , 6,14,126,131, 137,182

Fletcher, Representativ e Charles, 135 477 Bombardment Group , 16 Fried, Marcella (WASP) , 107 Fussell, Paul, 167 Gardiner, William, testimony befor e House Veterans Affairs Committee , 153-154

Gardner, Elizabet h (WASP) , photo 9 Gender constructions, 159-161,174,17 6 Gender crisis, 177 George, Major Genera l H. L. : approval of WASP proposal, 12; exploration o f placing WASPs within WACs, 39; request for training of women pilots, 7 Gibbons, Captain Henry , photo 1 GI Bill, 5,12 9 GI Improvement Act, Senate vote to attach WASP veterans status to, 156 Giles, General, 92 Goldwater, Senator Barry: media coverage of, 146; services as Ferrying Squadron pilot, 137; support for WASP militarization bill, 137,144,145,147,149 Gramsci, Antonio, 158 Granger, Byr d Howell (WASP) : account of WASP development, 11 ; presentation of materials before Hous e Veterans Affairs Committee , 155 Gresham, Mary (WASP) , 117 Gulf War, 166,172,17 3 Hanks, Nancy (WASP) , 117 Harlington Army Air Field, photo 6 , photo 10 Harness, Representative Forest, on WASP bill, 100,108 Haydu, Bernic e Falk (WASP), 149 Hearst, William Randolph , articl e in support o f WASPs, 146-147 Heckler, Representative Margaret, support for WASP militarization bill , 145,146 Hegemony, explanation o f cultural forces, 158,162,17 6 Hill, Senator Joseph, on WASP bill, 81 Hillberg, Mary (WASP), negative media portrayal of WASP, 44 Hilldring, Brigadier General John, o n WAAC bill, 36

Index I 23 1

Hinshaw, Representative John, o n WASP bill, 98 Hobbs, Representative Samuel, on WASP bill, 98 Hobby, Oveta Culp, 30; alleged feu d with Cochran, 30; exploration o f incorporation o f WASPs, 39; rank of, 4 1 Hollywood, deman d o f WASP trainees for flight to, 105-106 Honorable Discharge , receipt of, b y WASPs, 156 Honorable Discharg e Certificate pre sented to House Veterans Affair s Committee, 155 Hope, Bob, 117-118 House Civil Services Investigating Com mittee, 64, 65,108 House Committee on Appropriations: approval of amount requeste d fo r WASPs, 88; on WASP program, 87-88 House Committee on Military Affairs: 1940s, 34, 37, 6j, 75 ; 1940s criticism of findings, 93; 1940s hearing, JJ, 78 , 79, 80; 1940s endorsement of WASP Bill, 82; 1970s opposition to WASP bill, 137 House Resolution 1188 , 37 House Resolution 3277,15 4 House Resolution 3358 , 75, 80 House Resolution 4219, y6, 81 , 89, 90; accusation of being "social legislation," 99; debate on, 92-101 ; defeat of, 101,102 ; impact of newspaper oped pieces on, 98; removal of enactment clause, 100-101; vote on, 101 House Resolution 4906 , 33, 3 4 House Resolution 5087,14 7 House Resolution 6293 , 34, 37 House Resolution 6595,13 7 House Resolution 15035,13 7 House Veterans Affairs Committee : 1940s, 131; 1970s, 137,144,145; 1970s testimony before, 153-155

Houston, Texas, WASP Training Field, 7,17, 57 , photo 1 Hughes, Patricia Collins (WASP) , 142144 Izac, Representative Edward: on WASP bill, 90,100,175; removal of enactment clause , 100-101,175 Johnson, Ann (WASP) , photo 1 Johnson, Representativ e Lyndon, 133 Knight, Florenc e (WASP) , photo 12 Kovic, Ron, 165 Kraus, General Walter R, 31,124,12 5 Lackland Air Base, 138 Ladd, Alan, 106 Ladies Courageous, 71, 7 2 Ledbetter, Julie (WASP), photo 8 Lee, Senator Joshua, on WAC bill, 36 Lend-Lease Agreement, 9 , expansion o f ATC because of, 12 Lennox, Peggy (CAA pilot), Life magazine advertisement, 48 Lerner, Gerda , 159 Lerner, Max, 134 Lesbian, constructing female soldier as, 172

Life magazine: advertising depictions of women i n war effort, 48 ; Arnold, General Henry H., 53 ; depiction o f Air Transport Command , 51 ; depiction o f Army nurses, 51 ; depiction o f Black soldiers, 45, 48; depiction o f military pilots, 51-52; depiction o f military women, 48, 49; depiction o f women i n Civil Air Patrol, 48, 49, 50; depiction o f women i n civilian war effort, 46 ; depiction o f women i n combat, 50 ; depiction o f women war workers, 46; fashion, impac t of

232 I Index women i n war effort, 47 ; Love, Nancy Harkness, 52; readership by military men, 45; return t o prewar standards, 52-54; support fo r wome n as wives and mothers, 47; WAAC, 48, 49, 50 ; WAAC/WAC recruitment ad s within, 48,53; WAC, 53,54; WAFS, 51; WASP, 52, photo 10 ; WAVES, 48, 50; WFTD, 52 Link trainer, 17,126, photo 5 Love, Nancy Harkness, WAFS leader, 7, 55; invitations for pilots, 14; meeting with Ramspeck committee, 82; purported feud with Cochran, 11 , 82; proposal for women pilots program, 10, n, 12,13 , 31; receipt of Air Medal, 27; WAF, joining of, 136 Love, Colonel Robert, 11 Lyngh, Robert, testimon y before Senat e Committee on Veterans Affairs, 151152

Male Air Forces Pilots: accident rate s compared t o WASPs, no; Arnold's testimony against claims made by, j % competition wit h WASPs, 26; fatal accident rate, 26; fatal acciden t rate s compared t o WASPs, no; flight pay, 62; integration o f WASPs within, 81; lobby against WASP program, 81-84; number who served, 7; performanc e during Congressional hearing, 100; reactions of combat pilots towar d WASPs, 22; release of cadets to ground forces , 32, 62; requirements of, 17 ; shortage of, 81 Male civilian pilots: lobbying efforts of , 44, 81-84; performance durin g Con gressional hearing, 100 Maloney, Representative, on WAAC bill, 37 Manhattan Project , 2 6

Mankin, Representativ e Helen Douglas , on WAAC bill, 35 March Army Air Field, photo 13 , photo 14

Marshall, General G. C : o n WAAC bill 34, 36; on WASP bill, 77 Marx, Captain, officia l WAS P history, n Masculinity and theories of war, 165170,176-177

Mason, Representative Noah, 133 May, Representative, on WASP bill, 6y, 101

McKaughan, R . Earl, 102 Mead, Margaret, 160 Medical Corps of the Army and Navy, women incorporate d within, 42, 68 Memphis Belle , 22 Merchant Marines, fear that WASP militarization would lead to its militarization, 142 Militarization bil l (1940s): proposing incorporation unde r the Women's Army Corps, 30; submitted b y Army Air Forces, 31. See also House Resolu tion 4219 Military Establishment Appropriatio n Bill (1945), 87,122 Miller, Thelma K. (WASP), 6, 20,183 Miller, Representative William: o n WASP bill, 97,153; on Women's Armed Service Reserve Bill, 132,133, 134 Mink, Representativ e Patsy, 137 Minton, Madg e Rutherford (WASP) , 6, 8,14, 21 , 23, 24, 27 , 66, 82,100,18 2

Missions, performed b y WASPs, 6 Mitchell, Charlotte (WASP) , photo 8 Mitchell, William "Billy, " 8 Moon, Doroth y (WASP) , 106 Morgan, Captai n Bob , 22 Morrison, Representativ e James: on Ramspeck Report, 88 ; on WASP bill,

Index I 23 3 68, 88, 95, 96; use of op-ed pieces against WASP, 89-91, 98 Murphy, Audie, 3,165-166

charge Certificate presente d t o Hous e Veterans Affairs Committee , 155 Public Law 38, 42

Nagle, Nadine (WASP) , 15,19, 20, 24, 33> 93 > J56> photo 4 National Association o f Concerned Veterans, support for WASP militarization bill, 141-142 National Maritime Union, 49 Neale, Mary Lou Colbert (WASP) , photo 1 Nelson, Mary A. (WASP), photo 13 New Castle Army Air Base, 12 99th Squadron, 16 Norden Bombsight , 24 Nowland, Brigadie r General Bob: assessment o f cost of WASP disbandment , 122; memorandum requestin g contin uation o f WASP service, 120; memorandum detailin g expense and delays caused by loss of WASPs, 121

Race: blacks in Army Air Forces, 16; blacks in WASPs (policy on), 15,16; Chinese-Americans i n WASPs, 15; depictions of blacks in Life magazine, 45 Racial discrimination i n American mili tary, 16 Ramspeck, Robert: as chair of House debate on WASP bill, 93,101; as Civil Service Committee chair , 82 Ramspeck Civil Service Investigating Committee. See Ramspeck Commit tee Ramspeck Committee, 64 , 82,175; impact on WASP bill, 93,108; impact on WASP training, 103 Ramspeck Report: allegations against WASPs, 84-87, 96; as compared with House Committee o n Appropriations, 88, 93; as entered into Congres sional Record, 88 ; as reported i n media, 88 ; errors in, 89; findings of, 83, 87,102; impact on WASP bill, 93, 96, 98; investigations of , 8 2 Randolph Field , 95 Red Cross: depiction i n Life, 47; recruitment of women into , 32; recruitment of WASP into, 118 Rees, Representative Edward, on WASP bill, 98, 99 Reynolds, Representative, on WAAC bill, 37 Roach, Elaine (WASP) , 61 Roberts, Representative Herbert, o n WASP militarization bill , 144,148 Robertson, Jeanne (WASP) , 71 Rogers, Representative Edith Nourse ,

Odum, Colone l T. C, opinio n o n WASP militarization, 42 Officer Trainin g School, 28, 33, 8 2 O'Hara, Representative Joseph, on WASP bill, 99 O'Konski, Representativ e Alvin, on WASP bill, 67, 70 Olds, Colonel Robert, 12 Order of Fifinella, 131,132,13 7 Orlando, Florida, trainin g base, 28, 33 , 82

Osbourne, Blanche (WASP) , photo 8 Pateman, Pat (WASP) , 139 Pearson, Drew, 72; newspaper opinio n pieces against WASPs, 90,108,109, 114

Plosser-Prince Air Academy, 18 Porter, Helen (WASP) , Honorable Dis-

131

234 I Index Romulus Army Air Field, photo 5 Roosevelt, Eleanor: media attacks against, 69 , 70; support for women pilots in military, 10 Roosevelt, President Franklin Delano , formation o f Air Corps, 9 Russian Railwa y Service Corps of 1917 and 1918, lawsuit against U.S. Army, 148 Ryan, Peggy, 106 Sabath, Representative Adolph, 133 Saunder, Velma Morrison (WASP) , photo 6 Scharr, Del (WASP) , 60 Schultz, Dorothea (WASP) , 61 Schwab, Donald, testimon y before Sen ate Committee on Veterans Affairs, 151

Scott, Joan, 161,162 Scull, Elaine, 104 Segal, Mady Wechsler, 171,173 Sell, Lieutenant Colone l Manning, 124 Senate Bill 247,148,151 Senate Bill 1345,137 Senate Bill 1641,132 Senate Resolution 495, 37 Senate Resolution 1810 , 81,102 Senate Military Affairs Committee : 1940s, 34,102; 1970s, 137 Senate Veterans' Affairs Committee , 140,143,144; testimony before, 148153 Shafer, Representativ e Paul: on WAAC bill, 36; on Women's Armed Service Reserve Bill, 132 Shaw Field, 126 Sheehy, Ethel (WASP) , 56 Short, Representative Dewey, 134 Showalter, Elaine, 163 Sikes, Representative Robert, o n WASP bill, 93> 94

Sinatra, Frank, 50 Slade, Shirley (WASP), photo 10 Slaughter, Representative Roger, on WASP bill, 92 Sloboda, Lieutenant Maiya , 50 Smith, Brigadier General Luther, 42 Smith, Representative Margaret Chase , 133 Smith Amendment. Se e Women's Armed Services Reserve Bill Soviet women combat pilots, 10 Sparkman, Representativ e John, o n WASP bill, 70 Starbuck, Dorothy , testimony for Veterans Administration, 140,15 0 Steele, Katherine (Kaddy ) Landr y (WASP), 14, 25,130,138,139,156,182 Stefan, Representativ e Karl, on WASP bill, 96-97 Stimson, Henry, 67 , 68; in support o f WASP legislation, 80 , 92 Straughan, Jane (WASP) , photo 1 Strother, Dor a Dougherty (WASP) , photo 12; testimony before Senat e Committee on Veterans Affairs, 149 Strother Field , 155 Succhini, Joyce Sherwood (WASP) , photo 12 Sweetwater, Texas: WASP reunion at , 137; WASPs stranded at , 103-106; WASP trainee protest at, 105-106; WASP training at, 7, 33, 57, photo 2 Swift, Lieutenan t Colonel , 36 Tame, Barbara (WASP) , 56 Tanner, Doris Bricker (WASP) , testimony before Senat e Committee o n Veterans Affairs, 14 9 Technology, impact on role s of women in military, 173 Thomason, Representativ e Robert, o n WASP bill, 100-101

Index I 23 5 332nd Fighter Group, 16 Tibbets, Colonel Paul , 26 To Hell and Back, 3,165-166 Top secret missions, 24 Trebtoske, Joanne (WASP) , photo 5 Tunner, Lieutenant Colonel , 12,13; disapproval of placement o f WASPs under WAC, 39 Turner, Betty Stagg (WASP), 19, 20,103, 116,126,182

Tuskegee Airmen, 16 United Servic e Organization, depictio n in Life, 47-48 Veterans Administration: Arnold's coun tering of testimony, 154; bill recognizing WASPs as veterans, 156; opposition to WASP militarization, 140,141 , 143,149; order of President Carter t o oppose militarization bill , 144; testimony before Senat e Committee o n Veterans Affairs, 150 Veterans Affairs Committee . See House Veterans Affairs Committe e Veterans' benefits, extensio n t o WASPs, 156 Veterans of Foreign Wars: opposition t o WASP militarization, 140,141,142 , 149; testimony before Senat e Com mittee on Veterans Affairs, 151 Veterans' status, Senate's vote for recognition of , 156 Vietnam an d theories of masculinity and war, 165 Vorys, Representative John, on WASP bill, 96 WACs. See Women's Army (Auxiliary ) Corps Wadlow, Elizabeth (WASP) , 103,105 Wadsworth, Representativ e James: on

WASP bill, 98; on Women's Armed Services Reserve Bill, 134 WAFS. See Women's Auxiliary Ferrying Squadron War as cultural proving ground, 168 Ward, Lieutenant Colone l Roy , 124,125 War Department: authorizatio n fo r WASPs, 31; Press Branch release on WASP disbandment, 116 ; Press Branch status report on WASPs, no; survey of WASPs, 118 WASP Military Committee, 137,138, 140,144,155

WASP Public Affairs Office , 14 0 WASP Public Relations Plan, 44, 66, 74; enforced silenc e of WASP, 123,144 WASP training. See Women's Flyin g Training Detachmen t Watterud, Eleano r (WASP) , 103 WAVES, militarization of , 3 0 Weapons usage by WASPs, 24 WFTD. Se e Women's Flying Training Detachment Wheelwright, Julie, 170 White, Representativ e Compton, o n WASP bill, 96 Whitney, Colonel Courtney, expecta tions for WASP militarization, 42 Whore, constructing female soldier as, 172

Wilson, Gil l Robb, opinion piec e in support o f WASPs, 118-120 Women: absence from war narrative, 167173,177-181; as not being defined as persons, 42,179; development of separate classification fro m men, 179; physicians and surgeons in military, 42; recruitment into U.S. military, 10, 28 Women Accepted for Voluntary Emer gency Service (WAVES): creation of , 34; media attacks upon, 74; invitation to WASPs, 106

236 I Index Women Air Force Pilots (1970s), 138 Women Airforce Servic e Pilots: AAF press policy toward, 56 ; absence fro m World War II narratives, 177-181; accident rates as compared t o men, no ; accusations of being glamorized, 68, 69, 72; accusations of costly training, 72; accusations of high failure rates, 73; accusations of high fatality rates, 72; accusations of inexperience, 72; accusation of preventing men fro m obtaining necessary training, 70; accusations of replacing men, 70; as role models to contemporary women military pilots, 182; assignments, 2123; base accommodations, 17,18 , 21 ; burial expenses, 26; combat war mission, 143; commendation, 27 ; cost of disbandment, 122 ; cost of training men t o replace, 121; deaths as compared to other women's military divisions, 109; delays caused by disbandment, 121-122 ; died in service, 8, 26; died in training, 8 ; differences wit h civilian groups in World War II, 143; direct commissioning plans, 41; dogfight training, 26 ; expectations fo r militarization, 27-28 , 33; explorations into possibilities for militarization, 13, 31, 32; fatal acciden t rate, 26; fatal accident rate compared t o male pilots, no; final graduation, phot o 15 , photo 16; first class, photo 1 ; first graduation, 57 ; flight time, 17; graduation, photo 3 , photo 15 , photo 16; hostility toward, 21 ; interviews of candidates, 15; "lost" class, 103-106; media attacks against, 62-73; media depiction of , 174-175; media silence imposed upon , 66; menstruation, 27 ; miles flown, 8; militarization bil l (1940s), 30, 31; mil-

itary regulations trainees adhered to, 20, 32; missions, 23-26; number accepted, 14; number applied , 14 ; number graduated, 7,14 ; number wh o served, 7; objectives i n formation, 7 , 55; payment for roo m and board, 15; performance records , 26-27; planes delivered, 7; planes flown, 24; plans for disbandment, 113 ; problems with facilities, 17 ; program proposals, 1012, 31; public relations plan, 57 , 58 , 66y 74; radar tracking missions, 25; recommendation fo r militarization o r cancellation, 113 ; recommendation t o disband, 113-114; recruitment an d expectations, 14-17; request for continu ation of service, 120; requirements for, 15,17 ; return home and problem s with transportation, 126 ; reunions, 136-137,182; sabotage against, 27; sacrifices made , 14; salary, 15; sick calls, 27; strafing missions , 25; towing targets, 25, photo n, phot o 12 ; training male soldiers, 25; transportation t o and from training , 14; treatment of , 21, 22; uniforms, 21 ; use of chemical agents by, 25; Veterans Affairs WAS P Resolution, 131-132 ; WAC, placement under, 38-41; weapons used, 24; Women's Armed Service s Reserve Bill, 135. See also House Resolutio n 4219; House Resolution 15035 ; Senate Bill 1345; Senate Resolution 1810; Women's Flying Training Detachment Women an d war, theories of, 164-17 3 Women i n military: Congressional fea r of combat service, 35; during World War I, 35; gendered roles of, 36,171 , 175-176; number of , durin g World War II, 3

Index I 23 7 Women Marines, militarization of , 3 0 Women Merchant Marines , 49 Women pilots: during World War 1,10 ; number of , i n 1941,11; Soviet combat , 10

Women's Air Force, lack of formal inclu sion of WASPs, 135 Women's Armed Services Reserve Bill, 132-136; provisions for inclusion o f WASPs, 135 Women's Army (Auxiliary) Corps : age of recruits, 36, 40; ban on women wit h dependent children , 40; cultural con struction of , 3 ; development of , 33-38; entry requirements, 40; Goldwater's reference to , 147; invitation t o WASPs, 106; limits on numbers of of ficers within , 41 ; media attacks regarding placement of WASP within, 109; militarization of , 34 , 35, 37, 40; prohibitions agains t flying, 40; recruitment ads , 170; restriction agains t giving orders to men, 37; roles performed within , 34; slander campaig n against, 38, 44, 74; WASP, placement

within, 38-41 , 80; WASP, problems with placemen t within, 39 , 40 Women's Auxiliary Ferrying Squadron, 7; AAF press policy toward, 56 ; allegations of Ramspeck committee towards, 85; creation of, 13 ; media stories on, 55 , 56, 59, 60; military status of, 12 , 31, 40; pay of, 12 ; WFTD training requirement, 13,18-2 0 Women's Flying Training Detachment : AAF press policy toward, 56 ; aerobatics training, 25 ; allegation o f Ramspeck Committee towards, 84; creation of , 7,13,17 ; differences wit h male pilot training, 20 ; discontinuation of training, 102; objectives o f training, 18; physical training, 19; training program, 18-20 ; transition training, 12 Wyall, Marty (WASP) , 15, 22, 33,105, 126; organizing WASP reunion, 136 Yang, Dorothy (WASP) , 57 Yount, Lieutenant Genera l Barton, 124, 125

About the Author

Molly Merryman is the founding director of Kent State University’s Center for the Study of Gender and Sexuality and an associate professor of Sociology. She is also a documentary filmmaker and the Historic Research Producer for the WASP documentary Coming Home (2020). Merryman is the research director for Queer Britain, the UK's national LGBTQ+ Museum.

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