Civil Engineer`s Reference Book [4 ed.]

Table of contents :
Index......Page 0
Front Matter......Page 1
Preface to the Fourth Edition......Page 3
List of Contributors......Page 4
1. Mathematics and Statistics......Page 9
1.1.3 Newton's Method......Page 11
1.1.6 Permutations and Combinations......Page 12
1.2.2 Positive and Negative Angles......Page 13
1.2.4 Measurement of Angles......Page 14
1.2.11 Relations Between Sides and Angles of a Triangle......Page 15
1.3.1 Definitions......Page 18
1.3.2 Properties of Spherical Triangles......Page 19
1.4.3 Inverse Hyperbolic Functions......Page 20
1.5.1 Straight-Line Equations......Page 21
1.5.3 Polar Coordinates......Page 22
1.5.4 Lengths of Curves......Page 23
1.5.6 Plane Area by Approximate Methods......Page 24
1.5.8 Properties of Conic Sections......Page 25
1.6.1 Sign Convention......Page 28
1.6.4 Equations of a Straight Line......Page 29
1.7.1 Differentiation......Page 30
1.7.5 Successive Integration......Page 31
1.7.7 Integration by Transformation......Page 32
1.7.8 Integration by Parts......Page 33
1.7.9 Integration of Fractions......Page 34
1.8.6 Simultaneous Linear Equations......Page 36
1.10.2 Observation - Observed Value......Page 37
1.12.1 Measures......Page 38
1.14.1 Confidence Limits for a Mean Value......Page 39
1.14.4 Analysis of Variance......Page 42
1.15 Tolerance and Quality Control......Page 43
1.17 Computers......Page 44
1.17.1 The Use of Computers by Civil Engineers......Page 45
1.17.2 Nontechnical Computing......Page 46
1.17.5 Computers and Management......Page 47
Bibliography......Page 48
2. Strength of Materials......Page 49
2.2.1 Internal Stress......Page 50
2.2.2 Strain......Page 52
2.2.3 Elastic Stress - Strain Relations......Page 54
2.2.4 Analysis of Elastic Bodies......Page 55
2.2.5 Energy Methods......Page 56
2.2.6 Measurement of Strain and Strain......Page 57
2.3.2 Cross-Section Geometry......Page 59
2.3.3 Stress Resultants......Page 62
2.3.5 Beams Subject to Pure Bending......Page 63
2.3.6 Beams Subject to Combined Bending and Shear......Page 65
2.3.7 Deflection of Beams......Page 68
2.3.8 Bars Subject to a Uniform Torque......Page 69
2.3.9 Nonuniform Torsion......Page 71
2.3.10 Bars Subject to Compressive Forces (Columns)......Page 72
2.3.12 Note on the Limitations of the Engineering Theory of the Bending of Beams......Page 76
References......Page 77
Further Reading......Page 78
3. Theory of Structures......Page 79
3.1.2 Force-Displacement Relationships......Page 80
3.2.1 Introduction......Page 81
3.2.3 Method of Tension Coefficients......Page 82
3.3.1 Introduction......Page 83
3.3.2 Evaluation of Flexibility Coefficients......Page 84
3.3.3 Application to Beam and Rigid Frame Analysis......Page 85
3.3.5 Comments on the Flexibility Method......Page 87
3.4.2 Member Stiffness Matrix......Page 88
3.4.3 Assembly of Structure Stiffness Matrix......Page 89
3.4.5 Some Aspects of Computerization of the Stiffness Method......Page 90
3.4.6 Finite Element Analysis......Page 91
3.5.2 Distribution Factors, Carry-Over Factors and Fixed-End Moments......Page 93
3.5.3 Moment Distribution Without Sway......Page 94
3.5.5 Additional Topics in Moment Distribution......Page 95
3.6.2 Influence Lines for Beams......Page 96
3.6.4 Influence Lines for Statically Indeterminate Structures......Page 97
3.6.7 Application to Model Analysis......Page 98
3.6.8 Use of the Computer in Obtaining Influence Lines......Page 99
3.7.2 Single Degree of Freedom Vibrations......Page 100
3.7.3 Multi-Degree of Freedom Vibrations......Page 102
3.8.1 Introduction......Page 103
3.8.2 Theorems and Principles......Page 104
3.8.3 Examples of Plastic Analysis......Page 105
Bibliography......Page 108
4. Materials......Page 109
4.2.1 Cement......Page 110
4.2.2 Aggregates......Page 112
4.2.3 Admixtures......Page 114
4.2.4 Concrete Mix Design......Page 115
4.2.5 Properties of Hardened Concrete......Page 116
4.3.1 Workability Tests......Page 122
4.3.6 Tests on Aggregates......Page 124
4.3.9 Analysis of Hardened Concrete......Page 125
4.4.1 Terminology......Page 126
4.4.3 Mechanical Properties......Page 127
4.4.4 Compounding, Processing and Fabrication......Page 128
4.4.6 Foamed and Expanded Plastics......Page 129
4.5.2 Surface Preparation......Page 132
4.5.4 Coating Types......Page 134
Standards and Codes of Practice Referred to in Chapter......Page 135
Bibliography......Page 136
5. Hydraulics......Page 137
5.1.3 'Non-Newtonian' Fluids......Page 138
5.1.7 Solubility of Gases in Water......Page 139
5.2.2 Force on Plane Areas......Page 140
5.2.3 Force on Curved Areas......Page 141
5.3.1 Energy......Page 142
5.3.4 Pipes of Noncircular Section......Page 143
5.3.6 Formulae for Calculating Pipe Friction (Turbulent Flow)......Page 144
5.3.9 Losses of Head in Pipes Due to Causes Other Than Friction......Page 145
5.3.12 Graphical Representation of Pipe-Flow Problems......Page 146
5.3.14 Siphons......Page 147
5.3.16 Multiple Pipes......Page 148
5.3.17 Flow Measurement in Pipes......Page 149
5.3.19 Flow in Open Channels......Page 150
5.3.20 Orifices......Page 154
5.3.21 Weirs and Notches......Page 155
5.3.22 Impact of Jets on Smooth Surfaces......Page 158
5.3.24 Vortices......Page 159
5.3.26 Dimensional Analysis......Page 160
References......Page 162
Bibliography......Page 163
6. Engineering Surveying......Page 164
6.1.3 Errors in Surveying......Page 165
6.2.1 Angular Measurement Using the Theodolite......Page 166
6.2.2 Distance Measurement......Page 170
6.2.3 Height Measurement Using the Level......Page 174
6.3.1 Horizontal Control Surveys......Page 178
6.3.2 Detail Surveys......Page 180
6.3.3 Vertical Control Surveys......Page 181
6.3.4 Deformation Monitoring Surveys......Page 184
6.4.1 Digital Mapping and Ground Modelling Systems......Page 189
References......Page 191
Bibliography......Page 192
7. Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing......Page 193
7.2.1 Geometry of a Single Photograph......Page 194
7.2.3 Analytical Photogrammetry......Page 195
7.3.1 Cameras......Page 196
7.3.2 Single-Photograph-Based Instruments......Page 198
7.3.3 Approximate Solution Stereoscopic Instruments......Page 199
7.3.4 Rigorous Solution Stereoscopic Instruments......Page 200
7.4.1 Aerial Photogrammetry......Page 202
7.4.2 Close-Range Photogrammetry......Page 204
7.5.1 The Electromagnetic Spectrum......Page 205
7.6.1 Airborne Systems......Page 207
7.6.2 Satellite Systems......Page 210
7.7 Digital Image Processing......Page 214
7.7.2 Software......Page 215
7.8.1 Reconnaissance Level Investigations......Page 218
7.9.1 Satellite Data......Page 219
7.9.2 Aerial Photography......Page 220
References......Page 221
Bibliography......Page 222
8. Geology for Engineers......Page 223
8.1.2 Principles of Stratigraphy......Page 224
8.1.3 Plate Tectonics and Evolution of the Earth......Page 225
8.2.1 Sedimentary Rocks......Page 226
8.2.2 Igneous Rocks......Page 227
8.2.3 Metamorphic Rocks......Page 230
8.3.1 Joints......Page 231
8.3.2 Faults......Page 233
8.3.3 Folds......Page 235
8.3.4 Some Engineering Aspects of Faults and Folds......Page 236
8.4.2 Engineering Significance of Selected Geomorphological Environments......Page 238
8.4.3 Alluvial Soils of Rivers......Page 246
8.5.1 General Geological Maps......Page 250
8.5.2 Special Geological Maps......Page 251
8.6.2 Unpublished Data......Page 252
References......Page 254
Bibliography......Page 255
9. Soil Mechanics......Page 257
9.1.2 Shear Strength......Page 258
9.1.3 Permeability......Page 259
9.1.4 Consolidation......Page 260
9.2 Design and Limit States in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering......Page 261
9.3.1 Bearing Capacity of Shallow Foundations......Page 262
9.3.2 Bearing Capacity of Deep Foundations......Page 264
9.3.3 Settlement......Page 265
9.3.4 Settlement of Granular Soils......Page 270
9.3.5 Depth Corrections......Page 271
9.4.1 Active and Passive Conditions......Page 272
9.4.2 Active Pressure......Page 273
9.4.5 Strutted Excavations......Page 275
9.4.6 Anchored Bulkheads......Page 276
9.5 The Stability of Slopes......Page 277
9.5.1 Stability Analysis......Page 278
9.6 Seepage and Flow Nets......Page 283
9.6.1 Construction of Flow Nets......Page 284
Appendix 9.1 Laboratory Testing of Soils......Page 285
A9.1.1 Soil Classification: Physical......Page 286
A9.1.3 Soil Compaction......Page 288
A9.1.4 Strength Tests......Page 289
A9.1.5 Consolidation Tests......Page 290
A9.2.1 Groups of Piles......Page 291
A9.3.1 Drainage and Water Lowering......Page 293
A9.3.3 Exclusion of Groundwater......Page 295
A9.3.4 Injection Processes: Grouting......Page 296
A9.3.5 Reinforced Earth......Page 297
A9.3.8 Deep Ground Improvement......Page 298
A9.3.10 Soil Stabilization......Page 299
References......Page 300
Acknowledgements......Page 301
10. Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering......Page 302
10.1.2 Rock Engineering Principles......Page 303
10.1.4 Hydrogeology and Void Space......Page 304
10.1.5 Rock Stress......Page 305
10.2 Rock Tests......Page 306
10.2.1 Laboratory Index Tests......Page 308
10.2.2 Field Index Tests......Page 312
10.2.3 Design Tests......Page 313
10.2.4 Rock As an Engineering Material......Page 315
10.3.1 Rock Mass Classification......Page 317
10.3.2 Strength, Deformation and Failure Criteria......Page 318
10.3.3 Properties of Joints and Discontinuities......Page 320
10.4 Design Methods......Page 324
10.4.2 Physical Models and Analogue Methods......Page 325
10.4.3 Numerical Methods of Analysis......Page 326
10.4.4 Computational Methods of Analysis......Page 327
10.4.5 Slope Design......Page 329
10.4.7 Design of Underground Openings......Page 332
10.5.1 Excavation......Page 333
10.5.2 Rock Support Methods......Page 334
10.5.3 Monitoring......Page 335
References......Page 337
Bibliography......Page 340
11. Site Investigation......Page 341
11.1.5 Environmental Surveys......Page 342
11.3.2 Contaminated Site Hazards......Page 343
11.3.5 Ground Investigation Stages......Page 344
11.3.6 Preliminary Appreciation......Page 345
11.3.7 Main Investigation......Page 347
11.3.8 Construction Review......Page 353
11.4.2 Stratigraphical Methods......Page 355
11.4.3 Measurement of Engineering Properties......Page 356
11.4.4 Ground Investigations Over Water......Page 359
11.5.2 Systematic Soil Description......Page 365
11.5.5 Boreholes and Trial Pit Logs......Page 366
Selected Bibliographies......Page 377
12. Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete Design......Page 378
12.2 Behaviour of Structural Concrete......Page 379
12.3 Philosophy of Design......Page 382
12.3.1 Criteria for Limit State Design......Page 383
12.3.2 Characteristics of Materials......Page 385
12.4.1 Objectives......Page 387
12.4.2 General Assumptions......Page 388
12.4.4 Beams and Slabs......Page 389
12.5.2 Beams......Page 391
12.5.3 Slabs......Page 394
12.5.5 Walls......Page 395
12.5.9 Laps and Joints......Page 396
12.5.10 Curtailment and Anchorage of Bars......Page 397
12.6.1 General......Page 398
12.6.2 Prestress and Serviceability......Page 400
12.6.3 Losses of Prestress......Page 401
12.6.4 Stress Limitations at Transfer and for Serviceability Conditions......Page 402
12.6.5 Beams......Page 403
12.6.6 Other Forms of Member......Page 404
12.6.7 Requirements for Tendons and Reinforcement......Page 405
12.7.3 Beams, Slabs and Frames......Page 406
12.7.6 Composite Concrete Construction......Page 407
12.8 Structural Testing......Page 408
12.9 Fire Resistance......Page 409
Further Reading......Page 410
13. Practical Steelwork Design......Page 411
13.1.1 British Standards and Codes of Practice......Page 412
13.2.1 Fundamentals of the Steelmaking Process......Page 413
13.2.2 Fundamental Properties of Structural Steel......Page 417
13.2.3 Notch Ductility......Page 418
13.2.4 Fatigue......Page 419
13.3.2 European and International Material Standards for Structural Steels......Page 420
13.4.1 British Standards for Structural Shapes......Page 421
13.5 Types of Steel Structure......Page 422
13.5.2 Heavy Industrial Buildings......Page 423
13.5.3 Multistorey Buildings......Page 424
13.5.7 Short-and Medium-Span Bridges......Page 425
13.5.9 Other Miscellaneous Structures......Page 426
13.5.10 Use of Profiled Metal Decking in Some of the Types of Structure Noted in Sections 13.5.1 to 13.5.9......Page 427
13.7.1 Importance of Correct Loading Assessment......Page 429
13.7.4 Consideration of Individual Members......Page 430
13.8 Methods of Design......Page 434
13.10 Limit-State Design......Page 435
13.12 Detailed Design......Page 436
13.13.2 Bolting......Page 437
References......Page 438
14. Aluminium......Page 440
14.1.1 History......Page 441
14.2.2 Wrought Products......Page 442
14.4.1 Alloy Numbering System......Page 443
14.4.3 Heat-Treatable Alloys......Page 444
14.4.5 Alloy Selection - Summary......Page 445
14.5.3 Welding......Page 446
14.5.5 Use of Extruded Sections......Page 447
14.7.1 Principles of Design......Page 448
14.7.3 Resistance of Cross-Section......Page 449
14.7.4 Softening at Welds......Page 450
14.7.5 Buckling......Page 451
Bibliography......Page 452
15. Load-Bearing Masonry......Page 453
15.3 Codes of Practice......Page 454
15.4 Limit State Principles......Page 455
15.5.1 The Mechanism of Failure in Compression......Page 456
15.5.3 Eccentricity of Loading......Page 459
15.5.5 Lateral Loads on Masonry Panels......Page 460
15.5.6 Stability and Robustness......Page 461
15.6.1 General......Page 462
15.6.2 Structural Performance of Reinforced Masonry......Page 463
15.8.1 High-Rise (Small-Cell) Residential Buildings......Page 464
15.8.4 Retaining Walls......Page 465
15.8.5 Bridges......Page 467
References......Page 468
16. Timber Design......Page 469
16.2.1 Species and Use......Page 470
16.2.4 Moisture Content and End Use......Page 471
16.2.6 Natural Resistance to Attack......Page 472
16.3.4 Strength Classes of Timber......Page 473
16.6 Glued-Laminated Timber Assemblies......Page 474
16.8 Timber Fastenings......Page 475
16.12 Storm-Resistant Construction......Page 477
References......Page 478
Bibliography......Page 480
17. Foundations Design......Page 482
17.1.3 Foundation Loading......Page 483
17.2.2 Foundation Depths......Page 484
17.2.4 Description of Types of Shallow Foundations......Page 485
17.2.6 The Structural Design of Shallow Foundations......Page 487
17.3.1 Definitions......Page 489
17.3.2 The Design of Basements......Page 490
17.3.4 Caisson Foundations......Page 493
17.4.1 General Descriptions of Pile Types......Page 499
17.4.2 Details of Some Types of Displacement Piles......Page 500
17.4.3 Types of Replacement Piles......Page 503
17.4.6 Pile Caps and Ground......Page 504
17.5.1 General......Page 505
17.5.4 Counterfort Walls......Page 506
17.6.1 General......Page 507
17.7.2 Foundations in Areas of Mining Subsidence......Page 508
17.8.2 Timber......Page 510
References......Page 511
Bibliography......Page 512
18. Dams......Page 513
18.2 Brief History......Page 514
18.3.2 Rockfill Dam with Upstream Reinforced Concrete Membrane......Page 515
18.3.4 Rockfill Dam with Central Asphaltic Core......Page 516
18.3.6 Earthfill Dam - Homogeneous Section......Page 522
18.4.2 Gravity Dams......Page 525
18.4.3 Rollcrete Dams......Page 526
18.4.4 Buttress Dams......Page 529
18.4.5 Arch Dams......Page 535
18.5.2 Embankment Dams with Central Clay Cores......Page 541
18.5.3 Roller-Compacted Concrete......Page 546
References......Page 548
Bibliography......Page 549
19. Loadings......Page 550
19.2 Occupancy Loads on Buildings......Page 551
19.4 Road Bridges......Page 553
19.5 Railway Bridges......Page 556
19.6.1 Meteorological Data......Page 557
19.6.2 Force and Pressure Coefficients......Page 559
19.6.3 Wind-Excited Oscillation......Page 561
19.7 Earthquake Effects......Page 562
References......Page 563
20. Bridges......Page 565
20.2 Economics and Choice of Structural System......Page 566
20.3.1 Theory of Suspension Bridges and Arch Bridges......Page 581
20.3.2 Bridge Girders of Open Section......Page 585
20.3.3 More General Behaviour of Suspension Bridges and Arches......Page 586
20.3.4 Single-Cell Box Girder......Page 588
20.3.5 Boxes with Discrete Diaphragms......Page 589
20.3.6 Box Beams with Continuous Diaphragms......Page 590
20.3.8 Multiple Web Girders of Open Cross-Section......Page 591
20.3.9 Multiple Single-Cell Box Beams......Page 593
20.3.12 Antisymmetrical Loading......Page 595
20.3.13 Design Curves......Page 596
20.4.2 Changes in Thickness and Cut-Outs......Page 597
20.5 Concrete Deck Slabs......Page 598
20.6.2 Curved in Plan......Page 599
20.7 Dynamic Response......Page 600
20.9 Items Requiring Special Consideration......Page 602
References......Page 604
Bibliography......Page 605
21. Buildings......Page 608
21.3 Brief......Page 610
21.5 Landscape......Page 616
21.9 Cost......Page 618
21.10.2 Air-Conditioning......Page 619
21.10.3 Accommodation of Building Services......Page 620
21.10.4 Heating/Cooling Generation......Page 621
21.10.6 Lighting......Page 624
21.10.7 Noise......Page 627
21.11.5 Public Health......Page 629
21.13 Energy......Page 630
21.14.3 Approved Documents and Mandatory Requirements......Page 632
21.14.5 Fire Spread......Page 634
21.15 Building Security and Control......Page 635
21.16.2 Steel......Page 636
21.17.1 External Finishes, Materials and Weathering......Page 637
21.17.3 Roofs......Page 638
21.18 Interior Design and Space Planning......Page 639
21.19.1 Structural Behaviour......Page 641
21.19.3 Wind Effects on Buildings......Page 642
21.19.6 Resistance to Vertical Load......Page 643
21.19.8 Multistorey Construction......Page 644
21.20 Tall Buildings......Page 646
21.20.4 Combined Systems......Page 648
21.20.6 Lateral Movement and Dynamic Effects......Page 649
21.22 Foundations......Page 651
Bibliography......Page 653
22. Hydraulic Structures......Page 655
22.1.1 Basic Concepts......Page 656
22.1.2 Transitions......Page 657
22.1.3 Weirs and Flumes......Page 658
22.1.4 Control Weirs and Barrages......Page 660
22.1.6 Energy Dissipation......Page 663
22.1.7 Scour and Erosion......Page 667
22.2.2 Unlined and Lined-Invert Tunnels in Rock......Page 669
22.2.3 Transitions and Bends......Page 670
22.2.6 Drop Shafts......Page 671
22.3.1 Purpose and Types......Page 674
22.3.4 Low-Level Outlets......Page 675
22.3.5 Bellmouth, Shaft and Closed-Conduit Spillways......Page 676
22.3.6 Siphon Spillways......Page 677
22.3.7 Chutes......Page 678
22.4.1 Intakes......Page 679
22.4.3 Screens......Page 680
22.5.1 Gates......Page 682
22.5.2 Valves......Page 683
References......Page 686
37. Concrete Construction......Page 689
37.2.2 Storage of Cement......Page 690
37.2.6 Mixing Concrete......Page 691
37.2.8 Mixing Efficiency......Page 694
37.3.1 Plant......Page 695
37.3.3 Truck Mixers......Page 696
37.4.2 Wheeled Transport......Page 697
37.4.4 Cranes......Page 698
37.4.6 Concrete Pumping......Page 700
37.4.8 Conveyor Belts......Page 702
37.5.1 Placing......Page 704
37.5.4 Underwater Concreting......Page 705
37.5.5 Compacting Concrete......Page 707
37.6.1 General Observations......Page 708
37.6.2 Conventional Construction......Page 709
37.6.3 Slipform Paving......Page 712
37.7.2 Finishing Techniques......Page 714
37.8.1 Dam Construction......Page 715
37.8.4 Vertical Construction with Sliding Formwork......Page 716
37.8.5 Gunite (Shotcrete)......Page 717
37.8.6 No-Fines Concrete......Page 718
37.8.7 Concrete Diaphragm Walls......Page 719
37.9.3 Cladding Panels......Page 720
37.10.3 Maximum Temperature of the Concrete......Page 721
37.10.4 Protection and Curing of the Concrete......Page 722
37.10.6 Concreting Materials......Page 723
Bibliography......Page 724
38. Heavy-Welded Structural Fabrication......Page 725
38.1 Welding Processes......Page 726
38.2 Weld Details......Page 727
38.3 Weld Defects......Page 728
38.4.1 Correction of Distortion......Page 730
38.5 Assembly......Page 731
38.6 Stud Welding......Page 732
38.8 Significance of Defects......Page 733
References......Page 734
39. Steelwork Erection......Page 735
39.3 The Effect of Plant on Design......Page 736
39.4.1 Camber and Vertical Curvature of a Bridge......Page 738
39.6 Foundations and Temporary Supports......Page 739
39.8 Stockyards and Transport......Page 741
39.9 Manpower and Safety......Page 742
Bibliography......Page 743
40. Buried Pipelines and Sewer Construction......Page 744
40.3.3 Longitudinal Bending......Page 745
40.4.1 Installation Conditions Considered for Design......Page 747
40.6.1 Site Investigation......Page 752
40.6.2 Ground Movement......Page 753
40.6.6 Proprietary Systems......Page 754
40.6.11 Safety......Page 757
40.7.2 Site Investigation......Page 759
40.7.3 Ground Movement......Page 760
40.7.5 Pipe Jacking with Steerable Borers......Page 762
40.8 Man-Accessible Tunnels......Page 763
40.8.4 Precast Concrete Segmental Linings......Page 764
40.8.6 Pipe Jacking......Page 765
40.9 Working in Confined Spaces......Page 766
40.10.1 Inspection and Basic Strategy......Page 768
40.11.1 Project Cost Appraisal......Page 772
40.11.2 Construction Costs......Page 773
Bibliography......Page 774