Circular Economy in Emergency Housing: Eco-Efficient Prototype Design for Subaşi Refugee Camp in Turkey and Maicao Refugee Camp in Colombia: A Research Strategy of Climate Change 9783031327728, 9783031327704

Citation preview

SpringerBriefs in Climate Studies Pilar Mercader-Moyano · Paula Porras-Pereira

Circular Economy in Emergency Housing: Eco-Efficient Prototype Design for Subaşi Refugee Camp in Turkey and Maicao Refugee Camp in Colombia A Research Strategy of Climate Change

SpringerBriefs in Climate Studies

SpringerBriefs in Climate Studies present concise summaries of cutting-edge research and practical applications. The series focuses on interdisciplinary aspects of Climate Science, including regional climate, climate monitoring and modeling, palaeoclimatology, as well as vulnerability, mitigation and adaptation to climate change. Featuring compact volumes of 50 to 125 pages (approx. 20,000–70,000 words), the series covers a range of content from professional to academic such as: a timely reports of state-of-the art analytical techniques, literature reviews, in-depth case studies, bridges between new research results, snapshots of hot and/or emerging topics Author Benefits: SpringerBriefs in Climate Studies allow authors to present their ideas and readers to absorb them with minimal time investment. Books in this series will be published as part of Springer’s eBook collection, with millions of users worldwide. In addition, Briefs will be available for individual print and electronic purchase. SpringerBriefs books are characterized by fast, global electronic dissemination and standard publishing contracts. Books in the program will benefit from easy-to-use manuscript preparation and formatting guidelines, and expedited production schedules. Both solicited and unsolicited manuscripts are considered for publication in this series. Projects will be submitted to editorial review by editorial advisory boards and/or publishing editors. For a proposal document please contact the Publisher.

Pilar Mercader-Moyano • Paula Porras-Pereira

Circular Economy in Emergency Housing: Eco-Efficient Prototype Design for Subaşi Refugee Camp in Turkey and Maicao Refugee Camp in Colombia A Research Strategy of Climate Change

Pilar Mercader-Moyano Department of Building Construction I, Higher Technical School of Architecture University of Seville Seville, Spain

Paula Porras-Pereira Department of Building Construction I, Higher Technical School of Architecture University of Seville Seville, Spain

ISSN 2213-784X     ISSN 2213-7858 (electronic) SpringerBriefs in Climate Studies ISBN 978-3-031-32772-8    ISBN 978-3-031-32770-4 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-32770-4 This work was supported by GRUPO PUMA S.L. (research project art. 68/83 LOU ref. 4544/0632) © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

No one leaves home until home is a sweaty voice in your ear sayingleave, run away from me now I don’t know what I’ve become but I know that anywhere is safer than here. Extract of the poem Home by Warsan Shire

Preface

In recent years, there has been an upsurge in the number of forced displacements due to natural disasters, armed conflicts, and pandemics, which has favoured an increase in the number of temporary accommodations. Although the provision of shelter after an emergency situation is one of the priorities of humanitarian aid, the reality is that the conditions in which people in a situation of forced displacement live are absolutely precarious and overcrowded. Nowadays, this type of housing tends to have a short lifespan, deepening the environmental impact and the generation of waste. Likewise, added to this great problem is the linear economic system implemented worldwide, which also causes a high rate of waste. This investigation will develop an eco-efficient design protocol which determines the basic premises in any emergency situation, therefore avoiding the precarious nature to which those in forced displacement are exposed. Moreover, the research will investigate different constructive solutions that can respond to situations of natural catastrophes or humanitarian disasters where emergency housing is needed as well as the possible alternatives from the point of view of circular economy. Eco-efficient and environmentally correct solutions will be sought, which can be adaptable to the different scenarios where emergency housing may be needed, thus creating a rapid, easy, functional, and environmentally correct architecture, adaptable to these types of situations. The study will show that the factors that characterize emergency architecture can be an excellent example where the issues around the sustainability factor are applied in a practical way. Seville, Spain  Pilar Mercader-Moyano Seville, Spain  Paula Porras-Pereira

ix

Contents

1

Introduction����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    1 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    5

2

Materials and Methods����������������������������������������������������������������������������    7

3

 Identification of the Problem������������������������������������������������������������������    9 3.1 Emergency Situations ����������������������������������������������������������������������    9 3.2 The Need for Emergency Housing����������������������������������������������������   18 3.3 Refugee Camps ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������   19 3.3.1 What Are they? How they Arise?������������������������������������������   19 3.3.2 Refugee Camps in Europe����������������������������������������������������   24 3.3.3 Refugee Camps in Latin America ����������������������������������������   26 3.3.4 Research Locations ��������������������������������������������������������������   27 3.4 A Necessary Transition: From Linear to Circular Economy������������   34 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   37

4

 Identification of the Minimum Habitability Conditions����������������������   43 Reference ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   45

5

 Analysis of Contemporary Emergency Housing����������������������������������   47 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   65

6

 Definition of the Sustainability Criteria in the Materials Used: Cradle-to-­Cradle Certified Products�����������������������������������������������������   67 6.1 Definition of the Design Protocol for Emergency Housing��������������   69 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   70

7

Results and Discussion����������������������������������������������������������������������������   73 7.1 Identification of the Minimum Habitability Conditions ������������������   74 7.2 Definition of the Sustainability Criteria in the Materials Used: Cradle-­to-­Cradle Certified Products ������������������������������������������������   76 7.2.1 Galvanized Steel ������������������������������������������������������������������   77 7.2.2 Natural Wood and OSB Sandwich Panels and Rock Wool Insulation����������������������������������������������������   78 xi

xii

Contents

7.2.3 Cellular Polycarbonate����������������������������������������������������������   81 7.2.4 Definition of the Sustainability Criteria in the Materials Used: Sphere Manual������������������������������������������������������������   83 7.3 Emergency Housing Prototype Design ��������������������������������������������   84 7.3.1 Prototype Assembly Process ������������������������������������������������   87 7.3.2 Production Process����������������������������������������������������������������   89 7.3.3 Prototype’s Lifespan ������������������������������������������������������������   89 7.4 Comparative Table Between the Prototype and Other Case Studies ��������������������������������������������������������������������   92 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   96 8

Conclusions����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   99 Reference ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  102

Appendices A1: Design Protocol for Emergency Housing (Table A1)��������  103 Appendices A2: Architectural Design and Constructive Details of the Prototype (Figs. A1, A2, A3, A4, A5, A6, and A7) ������������������������������  107 References ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  115

Chapter 1

Introduction

Abstract  In recent years, there has been an upsurge in the number of forced displacements due to natural disasters, armed conflicts, and pandemics, which has favoured an increase in the number of temporary accommodations. Although the provision of shelter after an emergency situation is one of the priorities of humanitarian aid, the reality is that the conditions in which people in a situation of forced displacement live are absolutely precarious and overcrowded. Nowadays, this type of housing tends to have a short lifespan, deepening the environmental impact and the generation of waste. However, while trying to solve this great problem, there is another that could also be mitigated along with solving the lack of emergency housing, the preservation of the environment. Nowadays, the linear economic system implemented worldwide causes a high rate of waste, hence it is crucial to adapt the current economy system to an ecological future, focusing on design and production with the aim of implementing circular economy, thus ensuring that the resources used last in the economy for as long as possible. Keywords  Emergency situation · Sustainability · Circular economy · Emergency housing In the last two decades, 9235 natural disasters have occurred in the world causing 1.35 million deaths, of which 90% were caused by climate change [1, 2]. Besides, over the last decade, more than four out of every five newly displaced refugees, asylum seekers and internally displaced people (IDPs) have originated from countries that are highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change [3]. As a result of persecutions, social conflicts, violence, human rights violations, natural disasters, and pandemics, the number of forced displacements has been increasing worldwide. According to the most recent data from the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), at the end of June 2022, 10.3 million people were forcibly displaced, representing above 1% of the world’s population and the highest number ever registered and an increase of 13.6 million compared to © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 P. Mercader-Moyano, P. Porras-Pereira, Circular Economy in Emergency Housing: Eco-Efficient Prototype Design for Subaşi Refugee Camp in Turkey and Maicao Refugee Camp in Colombia, SpringerBriefs in Climate Studies, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-32770-4_1

1

2

1 Introduction

the end of 2021. As of mid-2022, 1 in 77 people in the world were forcibly displaced, more than twice as many as a decade ago [3, 4]. These include people who survived a natural catastrophe, people who are persecuted for political, economic, ideological reasons or flee from war, poverty, or a life without a future. The provision of accommodation after an emergency situation is one of the priorities of humanitarian aid, although the reality is that the conditions in which people in a situation of forced displacement live are absolutely precarious and overcrowded, mainly due to the quality and quantity of the means extended, although the damage caused could be mitigated thanks to a quick and planned action. Housing, aside from a fundamental right, is a critical factor that directly affects the survival of victims in the initial phases of a disaster or in displacement due to a conflict, since it provides security, protection against climatology, and resistance to possible diseases. Moreover, a lodging maintains human dignity and sustains family and community life, allowing affected populations to recover faster after a disaster. For that reason, an emergency house must be a place that meets at least the minimum requirements in terms of habitability, providing a safe and healthy environment to live with privacy and dignity. The use of prefabrication procedures for this type of accommodation, thus seeking speed and ease of construction, efficiency, and durability, will improve the response to situations arising after disasters. These dwellings, in addition, must adapt to the geographical, climatological conditions and the cultural and social practices of the population to which they are intended, without abandoning the sustainable character that is intended to be provided in this research (Fig. 1.1–1.3). Given these global conditions, the objective of architecture is clear: to provide accommodation in emergency situations. However, while trying to solve these problems, there is another that could also be mitigated along with solving the lack of emergency housing, the preservation of the environment. Most of the emergency housing provided in situations of forced displacement or after a catastrophe have a lifespan of a maximum of three years, something that increases the environmental impact and the generation of waste. The reuse of this type of housing would help to decrease the time of action after a catastrophe and at the same time that waste would be reduced. This would be possible thanks to circular economy. Several experts from the Spanish Ministry of Environment define it as, ‘Circular economy is none other than that economy in which available resources, both material and energy, are maximized so that they remain in the production cycle for as long as possible. The circular economy aspires to reduce the generation of waste as much as possible and to make the most of those whose generation could not be avoided’ [5]. Circular economy could reduce waste from certain industrial sectors and their greenhouse gas emissions by up to 99%, thus helping to protect the environment and combat climate change [6]. In addition, the use of circular economy in emergency housing will help manage waste and raw materials generated by construction, one of the sectors that generates the most waste. For instance, 806.6 million tons of waste was generated in Europe in 2020 in this field and thus is a priority when it comes to reducing waste [7]. Circular economy could also increase the recycling rate of this type of waste by establishing action bases for other emergency

1 Introduction

3

Fig. 1.1–1.3  Accommodation in the Subaşi settlement (Turkey)

situations, since the construction of temporary buildings using new plant materials generates a high impact on the ecosystem, as has been seen in the recent case of the construction of temporary hospitals around the world to alleviate the CoVid-19 pandemic. For these processes to be carried out, regulations are essential, such as the recent European Circular Economy Action Plan that aims to adapt the current economy system to an ecological future, focusing on design and production with the aim of implementing circular economy, thus ensuring that the resources used last in the economy of the European Union for as long as possible [8]. In this line, the European Union draws up the European Green Deal that marks an ambitious path towards a climate-neutral circular economy, in which economic growth does not imply an increase in the use of resources. Circular economy reduces the pressure on natural resources and is a necessary condition to reach the goal of climate neutrality by 2050 and mitigate the loss of biodiversity. Half of total greenhouse gas emissions and more than 90% of biodiversity loss and water stress are due to resource extraction and treatment [9]. But the current situation is very different, since the Spanish economy generated 105.6 million tons of waste in 2020, among which 4.9% of the total waste was generated in the EU in 2020 [7]. Considering that in 2018 137.8 million tons of waste were generated, this figure has been reduced by 20.7% within two years. Most of the waste generated, as seen in Fig. 1.4, came from construction, 30.8%, and water supply, sanitation, waste management and decontamination, 20.8% and in 36.0% of cases they ended up in landfills, compared to 54.7% that was recycled or reused (Fig.  1.5), 12.2% below the average of the European Union. The percentage of recycled waste out of total waste treated increased 16.4 points between 2015 and 2020, although in 2020 this percentage was reduced by 3.7% compared to 2019 [10, 11]. The previous data demonstrate that, currently, almost half of the waste generated in Spain is wasted and is far from complying with European regulations that required that at least 50% of the waste produced is recycled. So today, our economy remains almost entirely linear, with the least part of secondary materials and resources re-­ entering the economy. The data provided by the European Environment Agency exposed in Fig.  1.6 shows the evolution of the municipal waste recycling rate in the recent years in the

4

1 Introduction

Fig. 1.4  Waste generated by activity sectors and households in 2020

Fig. 1.5  Waste treatment in 2020

different European countries as a percentage. Noteworthy is the fact that only eight countries met the recycling rate in 2019 established by the European Union of 50%, with more than half of the countries far from reaching this value. In addition, it can be seen how the countries that in 2004 had a negligible recycling rate, and have been able, in most cases, to solve the situation and increase this percentage notably [12].

1 Introduction

5

Fig. 1.6  Municipal waste recycling rates in Europe by country

References 1. EM-DAT, the International Disaster Database. Available online: https://public.emdat.be/data. Accessed on 28 July 2022 2. UN (2016, October) Cerca de 1,35 Millones de Personas Murieron en Los Últimos 20 Años Debido a Desastres Naturales. Available online: https://news.un.org/es/story/2016/10/1366641. Accessed on 20 March 2020 3. UNHCR (2022, June) Global Trends Report 2021. Available online: https://www.unhcr. org/62a9d1494/global-­trends-­report-­2021. Accessed on 29 July 2022

6

1 Introduction

4. UNHCR (2022, October) Mid-Year Trends 2022. Available online: https://www.unhcr.org/statistics/unhcrstats/635a578f4/mid-­year-­trends-­2022. Accessed on 16 Dec 2022 5. Ministerio de Agricultura, Pesca y Alimentación. Economía circular: objetivo cero residuos. Ambienta: La revista del Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, ISSN 1577-9491, N°. 117, 2016, pág. 5. Available online: https://www.mapa.gob.es/ministerio/pags/biblioteca/revistas/pdf_ AM%5CPDF_AM_Ambienta_2016_117_completa.pdf. Accessed on 15 July 2022 6. UN (2018, December.) ¿Qué es la economía circular y cómo cuida del medio ambiente? Available online: https://news.un.org/es/interview/2018/12/1447801. Accessed on 30 July 2022 7. Eurostat. Generation of waste by waste category, hazardousness and NACE Rev. 2 activity. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/ENV_WASGEN__custom_3137567/default/line?lang=en. Accessed on 30 July 2022 8. Residuos Profesional (2020, March) La CE aprueba el nuevo plan de acción para la economía circular. Available online: https://www.residuosprofesional.com/ce-­aprueba-­plan-­accion-­ economia-­circular/. Accessed on 30 July 2022 9. iResiduo (2020, March) La Unión Europea pondrá fin a la obsolescencia programada con su proyecto de Economía Circular. Available online: https://iresiduo.com/noticias/comision-­ europea/20/03/12/union-­europea-­pondra-­fin-­obsolescencia-­programada-­proyecto. Accessed on 30 July 2022 10. EAE NEWS (2018, September) 43.3% of waste in Spain is recycled or reused, 8.7 points below the average of the European Union. Available online: https://www.eae.es/en/news/ eae-­news/433-­waste-­spain-­recycled-­or-­reused-­87-­points-­below-­average-­european-­union Accessed on 30 July 2022 11. INE (2021, April) Other environmental accounts: Waste accounts Year 2017. Available online: https://www.ine.es/prensa/cma_2017_res.pdf. Accessed on 30 July 2022 12. European Environment Agency (2021, August) Municipal waste recycling rates in Europe by country. Available online: https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-­and-­maps/daviz/municipal-­waste-­ recycled-­and-­composted-­5#tab-­chart_5 Accessed on 02 August 2022

Chapter 2

Materials and Methods

Abstract  The methodology proposed for this investigation will lead to the main objective of the research: to develop an eco-efficient and environmentally sustainable theoretical model that can respond to the needs of victims of natural disasters and conflicts, meeting the minimum standards of habitability. The step-to-step methodology followed to accomplish it is divided into five phases, each of which is essential to achieve this objective. Keywords  Methodology · Emergency housing · Sustainability · Circular economy The main objective of this research is to provide an eco-efficient and environmentally sustainable theoretical model that can respond to the needs of victims of natural disasters and conflicts, meeting the minimum standards of habitability. Therefore, an emergency housing prototype based on circular economy will be designed. To accomplish this objective, the methodology illustrated in Fig. 2.1 will be followed. Firstly, the problem that must be answered will be identified. Then, a theoretical model will be developed, with the objective for it to be used as a guide for future interventions of these characteristics. Within it, the necessary strategies to be implemented in emergency situations will be listed. Lastly, the efficacy and adaptability of the model will be demonstrated using a real case as an example. Thus, the steps to take are the following: 1. Identification of the problem, presented in the introduction, to know the impact of forced displacements worldwide and the current production system on the environment. 2. Identification of the minimum habitability conditions, with the purpose of knowing the main universal strategies applicable to these situations that satisfy the needs of its users. 3. Analysis of contemporary emergency housing, which makes it possible to publicise their shortcomings and adaptability to the environment.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 P. Mercader-Moyano, P. Porras-Pereira, Circular Economy in Emergency Housing: Eco-Efficient Prototype Design for Subaşi Refugee Camp in Turkey and Maicao Refugee Camp in Colombia, SpringerBriefs in Climate Studies, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-32770-4_2

7

8

2  Materials and Methods

Fig. 2.1  Methodology workflow of the research

4. Definition of the circular economy criteria in emergency architecture, to know and be able to meet the objectives proposed by different organizations at the European and global level. 5. Definition of the sustainability criteria in the materials used: Cradle-to-Cradle Certified Products, to select the materials that best adapt constructively and environmentally to the emergency housing prototype. Once these steps are completed, the results obtained at each stage will be included in an environmentally sustainable emergency housing prototype proposal, based on circular economy and regenerative sustainability, which can respond to situations of natural or humanitarian disasters, thus accomplishing the objective of the research. This research is a qualitative study, not a quantitative one, since it deals with non-­ numerical data to measure the results. Following that, each of the phases of the proposed methodology is developed.

Chapter 3

Identification of the Problem

Abstract  As a result of persecutions, social conflicts, violence, human rights violations, natural disasters, and pandemics, the number of forced displacements has been increasing worldwide. According to the most recent data from the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, at the end of June 2022, above 1% of the world’s population was forcibly displaced. The International Institute of Human Rights recognizes the right of everyone to an adequate standard of living, including decent housing, although a large number of people around the world who do not have decent housing far exceeds 1000 million. The numerous forced population displacements around the world have favoured the creation of an infinity of settlements and refugee camps, with the main objective to provide protection and safe and decent living conditions for those fleeing their country. This research is based on two very contrasting scenarios: an unorganized settlement in Izmir, in Turkey and an UN organized settlement in Maicao, a Colombian municipality bordering Venezuela. Likewise, added to this great problem is the linear economic system implemented worldwide, which also causes a high rate of waste. Moreover, the construction industry is considered one of the major sources of environmental damage in the world, hence the role of construction in addressing climate change issues becomes highly important at the global level. Keywords  Emergency situation · Social · Emergency housing · Refugee · Refugee camp · Circular economy

3.1 Emergency Situations An emergency is a situation out of control caused by a disaster, whether of natural origin or generated by human activity, to which the response is made with the available local resources. An emergency includes the circumstances given in a specific © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 P. Mercader-Moyano, P. Porras-Pereira, Circular Economy in Emergency Housing: Eco-Efficient Prototype Design for Subaşi Refugee Camp in Turkey and Maicao Refugee Camp in Colombia, SpringerBriefs in Climate Studies, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-32770-4_3

9

10

3  Identification of the Problem

period of time and space that causes a great impact on the way a population functions, causing serious alterations that are reflected in the number of deaths, in the loss or destruction of individual belongings and/or collective, and in the damage produced in the environment [1]. A disaster is defined as a sudden or foreseeable calamitous event that seriously disrupts the functioning of a community or society and causes human, material, economic or environmental losses that exceed the capacity of the affected community or society to manage the situation through their own resources [2]. Disasters can be classified according to their origin, which may be natural, such as hurricanes and volcanic eruptions or human-made, such as armed conflicts, nuclear accidents, or most fires, although the limit in catastrophes between the natural and the human origin is different and all have a part of both components. Only in 2021, there were 432 catastrophic events worldwide, of which 306 were natural and 126 were man-made [3] (Fig. 3.1). In any emergency situation, there is a direct relationship between the risk, whether natural or man-made, and a vulnerable condition [4]. The United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR) defines disaster risk as the potential losses that a disaster would cause in terms of lives, health conditions, livelihoods, goods and services and that could occur in a particular community or society at a specific period of time in the future [5]. The extent of a risk will depend, therefore, not only on the relationship between the threat and the degree of exposure, but also on the degree of vulnerability to which a place is subjected (Fig. 3.2), understanding a threat as a dangerous phenomenon, substance, human activity or condition that can result in death, injury, or other health impacts as well as property damage, loss of livelihoods and services, social and economic disruption, or environmental damage [4]. Therefore, the degree of exposure will be the one of the population, properties, systems or other elements present in the areas where threats exist and, consequently, are exposed to experiencing potential losses. Additionally, vulnerability is given by

Fig. 3.1  Occurrence of disasters in 1970–2021

3.1  Emergency Situations

11

Fig. 3.2  How is displacement risk calculated? [4]

Fig. 3.3  World Risk Index by country in 2021

the characteristics and circumstances of a community, system or asset that make them susceptible to the damaging effects of a threat [4]. Based on the displacement risk model proposed by the Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre, which provides the average number of people likely to be displaced each year by sudden-onset hazards, in Fig. 3.3 areas where large numbers of people would be exposed to lose their homes and be displaced can be identified [6]. Disaster risk can be reduced by carrying out measures focused on reducing the level of exposure to hazards, reducing the degree of vulnerability of the population and buildings, and increasing the level of preparedness of communities [7]. Forced displacement is one of the most common and immediate consequences of disasters and, in certain cases, takes place even before the threat manifests itself [8]. Just in 2021, a total of 432 natural catastrophic events were recorded by the Emergency Event Database (EM-DAT), a number considerably higher than the average of 357 annual catastrophic events for the period of 2001–2020. Overall, these accounted for 10,492 deaths and affected 101.8 million people [9]. Figure 3.4 shows a comparison of the occurrence, number of deaths and number of affected population by disaster type between the disastrous events recorded in 2021 and the average of the 2001–2020 period. Floods were the predominating events, with 223

12

3  Identification of the Problem

Fig. 3.4  Occurrence, number of deaths and number of affected population by disaster type

occurrences, up from an average of 163 annual flood occurrences recorded across the 2001–2020 period, although many storms were frequently recorded as well, with 121 events recorded, a number also above the 2001–2020 average of 102 entries per year. Floods were also the main catastrophic events in terms of deaths, since during the monsoon season. India, China and Afghanistan experienced a series of deadly floods resulting in miles of deaths and millions of people affected. In contrast to floods and storms, relatively few extreme temperature events were recorded during the past year, just 3, compared to 21 events per year on average between 2001 and 2020. However, the consequences of these events were significant. Although EM-DAT reported 28 earthquakes in 2021, due to the absence of any mega-earthquakes, the number of deaths and people affected by earthquakes was lower in 2021 than the average for the past 20 years. As a continent, Asia was the most severely impacted, suffering 40% of all disaster events and accounting for 49% of the total number of deaths and 66% of the total number of people affected.

3.1  Emergency Situations

13

Generally, although the number of deaths and the number of people affected were below their 20-year averages, 2021 was marked by an increase in the number of disaster events [9]. Due to this current situation of forced displacement, several terms have emerged to describe the affected groups that often tend to be confused, such as refugee, migrant, internally displaced person and climate refugee. These terms are defined and clarified below. • Refugee. Any person who, due to the well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion, is outside the country of his nationality and is unable or, due to such fear, unwilling to avail himself of the protection of that country or who, lacking nationality and being, as a result of such events, outside the country where he previously had his habitual residence, is unable or, due to such fear, unwilling to return there [10]. • Migrant. Any person who moves outside their habitual place of residence, either within a country or across an international border, temporarily or permanently, and for various reasons [10]. Generally, they choose to relocate not because of a direct threat of persecution or death, but primarily to improve their lives by finding work or for education, family reunification, or for other reasons. Unlike refugees, who cannot return home safely, migrants continue to receive protection from their government [11]. • Internally displaced. Individuals or groups of people who have been forced or compelled to escape or flee their home or place of habitual residence, as a result of the effects of armed conflict, situations of generalized violence, human rights violations or natural or man-made disasters, or to avoid such effects, and that have not crossed an internationally recognized state border [10]. • Climate refugee. Movement of a person or group of people who, mainly due to a sudden or gradual change in the environment as a result of climate change, are forced to leave their place of habitual residence, or decide to do so, temporarily or permanently, within a country or across an international border [10]. All these groups of people are likely to make use of emergency housing, since they all have common needs and deficiencies. Therefore, the emergency housing will have characteristics that adapt to all of them, because within the displaced groups there is not always a common cause of displacement; even if they have the same country of origin, each person has their own reason and justification for their displacement. This research will mainly work with the term refugee, as in the locations for which the prototype will be developed, which will be explained in successive points, it is the principal affected group found. The plight of refugees is a common concern of society, as the scale and complexity of these situations have increased, and they need urgent protection, assistance, and solutions [12]. As a result of persecutions, social conflicts, violence, human rights violations, natural disasters, and pandemics, the number of forced displacements has been

14

3  Identification of the Problem

increasing worldwide. According to the most recent data from the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), at the end of June 2022, 10.3 million people were forcibly displaced, representing above 1% of the world’s population, the highest number ever registered, and an increase of 13.6 million compared to the end of 2021 [13, 14]. As of mid-2022, 1 in 77 people in the world were forcibly displaced, more than twice as many as a decade ago (1 in 167 in 2012) [13]. Of the total number of displaced people (10.3 million) at the end of June 2022, 32.5 million were refugees, 53.1 million were internally displaced people and 4.9 were asylum seekers. In 2022, internal displacement continued to have a dramatic increase compared to recent years, more than 9.6 million new internal displacements were reported by UNHCR in the first six months of the year, more than double the same period in 2021. Most of these new displacements, at least seven million, were in Ukraine, where the Russian invasion of Ukraine has created the fastest and one of the largest displacements of people since the Second World War [4, 13] (Fig. 3.5). Millions of children and young people have no alternative but to flee their houses every year, which means they are forced to stop attending school and live under conditions of poor hygiene, with little food, unable to access healthcare, and exposed to potential abuses and violence against them. In particular, 33 million people under 25 are currently living in internal displacement, 25.2 million of them being children under 18 and 11.4 million being young people between 15 and 24  years old. Moreover, these children are traumatized not only by the events that they have witnessed, but also by the shock of seeing their families being torn apart [4]. This leads to not only short-term problems, in terms of their education, prosperity and safety, but also to long-term ones, such as their inability to contribute to an equitable society and to stimulate the economy [4] (Fig. 3.6). People displaced inside their own countries due to armed conflicts, generalized violence or human rights violations continue to constitute most of the forcibly displaced population globally. Known as internally displaced people, or IDPs, they

Fig. 3.5  Global forced displaced population in 2010–2022 [15]

3.1  Emergency Situations

15

Fig. 3.6  Demographics of forcibly displaced groups of people in 2021 [16]

account for almost 70 percent of all people displaced [12]. At the end of 2021, out of the 59.1 million internally displaced people across the world, 53.2 million were displaced as a result of conflict and violence (Fig. 3.7) and 5.9 million as a result of natural disasters (Fig. 3.8) [4]. Conflicts, violence, and disasters triggered 38 million internal displacements across 141 countries and territories just in 2021, being the global figure for conflict and violence to be the highest ever recorded at 14.4 million. Conflicts and violence are not the only cause of these forced displacements. In addition to gross human rights abuses, many of the world’s current displacements are due to climate-related causes and natural disasters. Some of the most frequent causes are droughts, floods, or desertification, which aggravate the effects of war and force thousands of people around the world to flee their homes [17]. Despite the fact the global figure for disaster displacements, at 23.6 million, was lower than in 2020, as shown in Fig. 3.9, disasters caused more than 60 percent of the internal displacements recorded worldwide. More than 94 per cent were the result of weather-related hazards such as storms and floods. At 12.5 million, most of the displacements associated with conflict and violence in 2021 were triggered by armed conflict [4]. Currently, the first country of origin of forcibly displaced people in the world is Syria, due to a conflict that has lasted more than eight years, which has claimed approximately 500,000 lives and forced 6.7 million people to flee the country [4]. Although this previous data is focused on forced displacement in 2021, it is impossible to ignore more recent events in early 2022. The numbers mentioned above do not reflect displaced people due to the war in Ukraine. At the time of writing, January 2023, more than seven million Ukrainians have been forcedly displaced

16

3  Identification of the Problem

Fig. 3.7  Total number of IDPs as a result of conflicts and violence as of end of 2021

Fig. 3.8  Total number of IDPs as a result of disasters as of end of 2021

within their country and more than six million refugee movements from Ukraine have been registered, thus evolving into the largest displacement crisis in the world. It is one of the largest forced displacement crises since World War II and definitely the fastest [4]. Throughout 2021, Covid-19 continued to affect people and economies across the world and had negative impacts on IDPs’ lives. Even though there is a lack of comprehensive data, the results from numerous researches and studies have proved that Covid-19 has contributed to aggravate social inequalities and, therefore, threatened the lives of displaced people, who are prone to being more vulnerable to precariousness. The measures and restraints imposed by governments to prevent the spread of the virus have had an impact on IDPs’ income, food, fulfilment of their basic needs

3.1  Emergency Situations

17

Fig. 3.9  Internal displacements breakdown by conflict, violence and disasters in 2021 [4]

as well as on the possibility of going back to their homes or moving to safer housing [4]. On many occasions, these restrictions, along with the traumatic situations migrants, refugees and asylum seekers often face from the reasons that forced them to flee and the difficulties endured during migration, leave physical and psychological traces. Generally, the visible consequences are the first to be attended to, but gradually, mental health becomes a priority in the treatment of those forced to flee far from home [18]. Several psychological researches show that immigrants experience unique stressors that last long after leaving the borders of the conflict, related to the conditions that led them to flee their home countries, the often-harrowing journey, and the constant stress of starting a new life away from family and culture. They are often marginalized, which can lead to prejudice, discrimination, and ultimately more additional stress [19, 20]. The harshness of life in the camps, the feeling of insecurity and helplessness and the deplorable quality of life in them exacerbates the psychological problems refugees have and creates new ones. Depression, anxiety and psychosis are prevalent among the refugee population and there has been an increase in self-harm and suicide attempts [19]. Immigrants are disproportionately likely to experience stress and other mental health problems, which can be exacerbated by harmful public policies, particularly those that enforce family separation. For this reason, it becomes essential to advocate for humane and sensible immigration policies that take into consideration the needs of immigrants and specifically families, focusing on minimizing the negative

18

3  Identification of the Problem

psychological impact that results from the separation of immigrant families due to deportations [20]. Deportation is a major concern for recently arrived undocumented immigrants. Different on-site researches show that immigrants who fear deportation are much more vulnerable to suffer from heart disease, asthma, diabetes, depression, anxiety and post-traumatic stress and evidence that their children are more likely to suffer from psychological problems, academic difficulties and developmental disorders [20]. Forced displacement can cause disruption at many levels, social, family and institutional, with specific consequences for the youngest. Children in a situation of forced displacement, as a consequence of an armed conflict or disaster, simultaneously suffer all the most critical losses for regular development [20]. The data suggests that the longer parents and children are separated, the greater the symptoms of anxiety and depression are. Some of the negative factors for these children are housing instability, food insecurity, interrupted schooling, and adverse behavioural/emotional responses. Prolonged separation from parents also predicts ongoing difficulty trusting adults and institutions as well as reduced educational achievement [20]. In addition, younger children are more prone to nightmares, bed-wetting, or developmental delay. Older children, especially adolescents, share the feeling of loneliness and fear of their siblings and are more likely to experience frustration, indignation and shame. Likewise, the loss of dignity is something common among these young people. Girls experience helplessness more directly, ranging from feelings of insecurity outside their homes to parental restrictions within them [21]. Presently, there is an absolute absence of protection measures that can prevent abuses of children’s rights which have serious consequences for their mental health. It is necessary to ensure compliance with article 9 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child and establish effective measures that make possible the family reunification of people in the process of forced migration. It is impossible to ensure the mental health of these children if this right is not guaranteed [21]. However, many authors point out the enormous capacity for resilience of the refugees and show that although psychological intervention measures in the field are important, it is essential to offer them dignified and healthy living conditions as soon as possible, this being one of the main objectives of this investigation. In this type of context, it is essential to be attentive to their concerns and create spaces where they can express themselves physically, through social areas and meeting centres [21].

3.2 The Need for Emergency Housing The International Institute of Human Rights recognizes the right of everyone to an adequate standard of living, including decent housing. Although this is a fundamental human right in the global legal system, the number of people who do not have

3.3  Refugee Camps

19

decent housing far exceeds 1000 million. A large number of people around the world live in conditions harmful to life or health, crowded into makeshift settlements, or in other conditions that do not respect their human rights or dignity. In addition, every year millions more people are forced to be evicted from their homes or are threatened with it [22]. The right to decent housing is not the only right displaced people have had violated. Displaced people, whether they are refugees, asylum seekers, internally displaced people, or migrants, are particularly vulnerable to a wide range of human rights violations, suffering from discrimination, whether it is racism or xenophobia, which further prevents their access to adequate living conditions [22]. When speaking of emergency housing, reference is made to a structuring habitat to accommodate victims that needed to flee from their homes and need a temporary place to stay, where their basic needs are fulfilled and where they are protected from the exterior and the harmful events taking place [23]. It is also referred to as a minimum habitat, not in terms of being incomplete housing or a habitat related to poverty, but due to its function; it fulfils the basic needs of the refugees in the event of a catastrophe. These are minimal in terms of dimensions, materials, costs, construction times, and permanence [24]. Accordingly, emergency housing needs to respond to the following basic conditions: protection against meteorology and the possible replicas of the disaster, storage capacity, safety and privacy preservation, adaptability to users from different cultures and with different backgrounds, use of materials available locally, and reuse and recycling of these materials [23]. The architect and UN advisor Ian Davis, expert in refugee camps for wars and catastrophes, claimed that emergency architecture has to be able to diminish the impact of unforeseen and extreme events where the time factor is the background against which it is necessary to act [25]. The periodicity of most forms of catastrophe is so long that it has no influence on local construction techniques or on the location of towns [6]. Therefore, emergency architecture is that entity capable of cushioning extreme and unexpected situations where the time factor is the backdrop against which action must be taken [25].

3.3 Refugee Camps 3.3.1 What Are they? How they Arise? The numerous forced population displacements around the world have favoured the creation of an infinity of settlements, some more formal than others, with the main objective being to provide protection and safe and decent living conditions for those fleeing their country [26, 27]. We are currently witnessing the highest levels of displacement ever recorded, 103 million people displaced worldwide. As a direct consequence of these displacements, refugee camps arise, whose main objective is that people fleeing their country have a safe place with decent living conditions [27].

20

3  Identification of the Problem

The moment a person is forced to flee their country, whether due to conflict or a natural disaster, and starts living in a refugee camp, it is difficult to predict how long will remain in it, but the reality is that many spend long periods of time there [28]. Refugee camps are places, intended as temporary solutions, to host people for a limited period of time, in order to keep them safe and provide them with a shelter as a temporary solution to forced displacement. Therefore, one of the basic aspects of immediate care in refugee camps is the granting of a shelter so that families who have left their homes because of the war can find rest and protection there [29]. Although refugee camps are essentially intended to be temporary solutions until their inhabitants can return to their countries of origin, the reality is that the vast majority spend long periods of time there. Therefore, when refugees have to spend long periods of time in the camps, it is essential to take into account their long-term needs. As a result of most people spending much more time in these camps than what they originally planned, new situations that need to be addressed arise, such as the challenge of providing access to education, job training or adequate electricity and water. In this way, refugee camps become communities whose residents have aspirations for the future, bringing them closer to a normalized life [27]. Refugee camps are built on the spur of the moment because displacement occurs unexpectedly. The construction of a refugee camp requires the participation of different specialists, such as engineers, surveyors, or hydrologists [27]. In addition, it is necessary to consider certain factors when planning and building a refugee camp in order to facilitate its maximum use: • Ground conditions. The topography of the land should allow easy drainage, in order to prevent flooding. Rocky and impervious terrain should be avoided, along with steep slopes, valleys and ravines. Whenever possible, land where cultivation is possible should be chosen [27]. • Water sources. It would be highly recommended to choose a location close to a suitable water source so that the field can be supplied with water, both to live and to cultivate [27]. • Accessibility. It is vitally important that the refugee camps are easily accessible by road, so that the necessary help can arrive without difficulty. Whenever possible, a location close to towns, markets and health services should be chosen [27]. • Security. Refugee camps must be located far from international borders, conflict zones and areas potentially susceptible to violence. Locations where there are extreme weather conditions or potential for dangerous disease outbreaks should also be avoided [27]. • Environment. It is important to ensure that refugee camps have sufficient vegetation, as it provides shade and protects from weather agents [27]. Although there are refugee camps all over the world, there are some that stand out for the large number of refugees they welcome, reaching an area similar to a city [30]. The following examples are just some of the biggest refugee camps in the world (Fig. 3.10).

3.3  Refugee Camps

21

Fig. 3.10  Kutupalong-Balukhali camp in Bangladesh

• Kutupalong-Balukhali camp (Bangladesh) Nowadays, it is the largest refugee camp in the world, with 867,000 inhabitants [30]. This refugee camp emerged in 2017, as a result of conflicts between two minorities, one Muslim and the other Buddhist, which forced most Muslims to flee to Bangladesh in search of safety. According to UNHCR, it is the fastest and largest humanitarian crisis in recent decades [30–32]. In this refugee camp, the homogeneity in terms of materiality and design of the houses stands out, being all rectangular with gabled roofs and built with hurdles. The changing topography of the land is another noticeable aspect of the camp, since the houses are at a higher level than the passageways between them. In the construction of these houses, a use of local resources is perceived and as well as the use of traditional construction techniques, thus favouring the circular economy and the empowerment and sense of ownership of its inhabitants, by being able to participate in its construction and possible repairs. Despite the fact that the arrangement of the houses seems somewhat unplanned, they are forming streets in which central channels at a lower level are perceived, thus allowing the passage of water without damaging the exterior of the houses and much less its interior. This difference in height between the houses and the level of the exterior paths is clearly perceived in the background of the image. Something very alarming worth mentioning is the extreme lack of vegetation and therefore of shady outdoor areas to mitigate the high temperatures that are reached in this location (Fig. 3.11). • Dadaab camp (Kenya) Kenya is one of the countries that hosts the most refugees in Africa: 539,084 refugees and asylum seekers, data from 2021 [31]. This refugee camp is located in northern Kenya, 80 kilometres away from the border with Somalia. In 2019, more than 200,000 people lived in this camp created in 1991. Most of the refugees in this

22

3  Identification of the Problem

Fig. 3.11  Dadaab camp in Kenya

camp are Somali and have been there since the 1990s, when they fled the country’s conflicts [30]. Despite its large dimensions, the camp has become small, and its inhabitants have problems obtaining water, food and even a job to earn a living. The Kenyan government has attempted to close the camp and return the inhabitants to their home countries on several occasions [30]. In this refugee camp, the flatness and the infinity of divisions of the land are striking. This camp, unlike the one in Bangladesh, does not have any system for evacuating rainwater, since the houses are at the same level as the outside areas. Undoubtedly, the most noticeable aspect is the different plots delimited with vegetation. They appear to be ordered but have random shapes and dimensions in which the dwellings are distributed without any apparent order. This arrangement of parcelling resembles a city, since streets of different widths are perceived, creating separations between what could be different neighbourhoods with the same configuration. In terms of materiality and design of these houses, in this field, a great variety of both can be seen, with rectangular and square tents of various sizes with gabled roofs and circular tents, distinguishing houses built based on base structure covered with canvases and houses built with panels of, what seems, propylene. Most of these tents seem to be supplied by humanitarian aid organizations. Moreover, something worrying in this field is the extreme lack of vegetation and, therefore, of shady outdoor areas to mitigate the high temperatures that are reached in this location. The configuration and order of this camp suggest that it has been functioning for decades and has been adapting to its growth, although the houses, due to their materiality, have the temporary nature of refugee camps (Fig. 3.12).

3.3  Refugee Camps

23

Fig. 3.12  Dollo Ado camp in Ethiopia

• Dollo Ado camp (Ethiopia) Ethiopia is the third African country that hosts the largest refugee population, hosting more than 210,000 Somali refugees, data from 2021. Dollo Ado, located in southeastern Ethiopia and close to the border with Somalia and Kenya, has the second largest concentration of refugees in Africa. About 170,000 people, divided into five camps, are registered in the Dollo Ado refugee camps [33]. In Dollo Ado, which has hosted refugees since 2009, there are mostly Somalis who emigrated due to famine and drought in their country. In addition, the terrorist group Al-Shabbaab, linked to the Islamic State, worsens the situation in Ethiopia, as it uses violence against the population. However, it is also possible to find refugees from South Sudan and Eritrea [30]. In this refugee camp, the flatness of the land, the non-existent order and the housing configuration are striking. This refugee camp, as happened in Kenya, does not have any system for evacuating rainwater, since the houses are at the same level as the outdoor areas. Although, the most remarkable aspect is the unplanned arrangement of the houses, implying that the origin of the camp was disorganized and sudden and that it has been functioning for a relatively short period of time. In terms of materiality and design of these dwellings, as in Kenya, a great variety of both can be seen in this camp, with rectangular and square tents of various sizes with gabled roofs and circular tents, although in this case the vast majority of tents are built based on a base structure covered with canvases. Most of the tents also seem to be supplied by humanitarian aid organizations. In this field, unlike the other two previous examples, structures larger than the houses that could be used as

24

3  Identification of the Problem

common spaces can be seen. The extreme scarcity of vegetation continues to be striking in this camp as well. Undoubtedly, this refugee camp is, of the three examples, the one with the most temporary nature, due to its planning disorder and the material nature of its housings, although this does not mean that it will not be functioning for many years.

3.3.2 Refugee Camps in Europe Historically, southern European countries are the ones that have received the most immigrants, even though the Mediterranean routes have the greatest number of mortalities for the highest number of migrants, as has been remarked by numerous media. A total of 2026 people died or went missing at sea on their way to Europe in 2021, according to data from the Missing Migrants project of the International Organization for Migration (IOM). Despite these alarming data, these routes are still the most used to arrive in Europe, due to the proximity of the southern European countries with the African continent and the Middle East, areas where a high number of displacements due to disasters and conflicts concentrate [34] (Fig. 3.13). In 2019, Greece became the principal entry point for displaced people to Europe through the Mediterranean Sea, as shown in Fig. 3.14, with 65,829 people arriving to the country and Lesbos being the island that received the most arrivals. A third of the people who reached Greece arrived in Lesbos. Most of these entries to Europe were made from Izmir, a coastal Turkish city that is part of the eastern Mediterranean migration route and in which the migrant population has increased due to the pact

Fig. 3.13  Main Mediterranean migration routes

3.3  Refugee Camps

25

Fig. 3.14  New arrivals to Europe and Greece in 2019

between the European Union and Turkey, which prevents the passage of migrants to Europe and returns those who arrive to the Greek islands back to Turkey [34]. In 2021, Turkey hosted the largest number of refugees globally: nearly 3.8 million people, 15 per cent of all people displaced across borders globally. In such a manner, Turkey remains the main host country for refugees in the world [13]. Resulting from the great importance of Turkey and specially the city of Izmir in the refugee and displaced population, one of the focuses of the research will be this city.

26

3  Identification of the Problem

Since 2014, a total of 1,217,266 people have reached the Greek shores. In 2019, Greece became the main irregular gateway to Europe through the Mediterranean, out of a total of 65,829 arrivals, of whom 52,719 were by sea, while 13,110 were by land. Just in September 2019, a total of 12,530 people arrived, more than double of that in September 2018. Lesbos was the Greek island that received the most arrivals last year, and of the 65,829 people who arrived in Greece, a third made it to Lesbos. Most of the boats that the island receives come from the Turkish coast [34].

3.3.3 Refugee Camps in Latin America In the history of Latin American nations, three major migratory patterns can be identified: the first pattern corresponds to foreign immigration, the second refers to intraregional migration and the third pattern is related to the emigration of Latin Americans to developed countries [35]. In recent years, intraregional migration has become an option for millions of Latin Americans. Several regional agreements, adopted within the framework of regional integration processes, contributed to promoting migration within the region and access to social rights for migrants [35] (Fig. 3.15).

Fig. 3.15  Main Latin America and Caribbean migration routes

3.3  Refugee Camps

27

Just in 2021, the Americas region hosted more than 5.1 million people displaced across borders (20 per cent of the global population), with 86 per cent being Venezuelans. The number of displaced Venezuelans increased sharply compared to the previous year as COVID-19-related travel restrictions eased in the region. At the same time, cross-border and pendular movements of Venezuelan refugees and migrants to and from their country also increased [13]. Colombia has witnessed the departure of millions of refugees and migrants from Venezuela, the largest crisis of forced displacement in Latin America. As of mid-2022, Colombia hosted the second largest number of refugees and other people in need of international protection, 2.5 million people, although it continued to report the largest number of internally displaced people, 6.7 million, of which 23 per cent were children [13, 36].

3.3.4 Research Locations Apart from a fundamental right, housing is a critical factor that directly affects the survival of victims in the initial stages of a disaster or in displacement resulting from a conflict, providing security, protection against climatology and resistance to possible diseases, in addition to maintaining human dignity and sustaining family and community life, permitting affected populations to recover rapidly after a disaster. After an emergency, one of the priorities of humanitarian aid is the supply of accommodation, although the reality is that the conditions in which people in situations of forced displacement live are precarious and overcrowded, principally due to the quality and quantity of the extended means [37]. Most of the damages caused could be mitigated using a rapid and planned approach. Most people who arrive at the borders asking for asylum live in already established refugee camps organized by different humanitarian aid organisations. In addition to these camps, there are unorganized settlements that also house many of these people. It is a less well-known situation, but no less inhuman for that, since this large number of people are helpless due to the scant humanitarian and legal aid they receive. This research is based on two very contrasting scenarios: an unorganized settlement in the province of Izmir, in Turkey and an UN organized settlement in Maicao, a Colombian municipality located in the centre-east of the department of La Guajira, bordering Venezuela. In the following paragraphs, both these locations are described as well as the emergency housing utilised and the lifestyle of its inhabitants. • Subaşi camp, Izmir. The first location is an unorganized settlement, Subaşi camp, which is located in the province of Izmir in Turkey and which can be seen in Fig. 3.16. This will be one of the locations for which the emergency house prototype will be designed.

28

3  Identification of the Problem

Fig. 3.16  Location of the Subaşi settlement in Turkey

Nowadays, 15 Syrian families of about five members each have lived in this 2849  m2 space for six years, but approximately 400 families live in this type of settlement in the area. The inhabitants of Subaşi have as their main source of income agriculture in the adjoining lands, although it is mainly the men from the camp who work there. Even though most of the year they live on this plot, they change their location depending on the agricultural season, a crucial aspect to consider when designing the prototype of the emergency housing (Fig. 3.17). An on-site analysis of the characteristics of the current accommodations of the inhabitants of this settlement was performed. These homes are built on the basis of

3.3  Refugee Camps

29

Fig. 3.17 Subaşi settlement map (Turkey)

a removable galvanized steel structure of tubular profiles that form a gable roof, without a firm and solid anchor to the ground, on which they place fabrics, blankets, and plastics to form the envelope which serves as little protection. Several of these dwellings have wooden pallets on the ground to slightly raise the floor and avoid the water entering when the plot is flooded, since the interior and exterior spaces are at the same level. These lodgings have a single rectangular space of about 7 m2 without interior divisions and a single passage opening that gives access to the interior, which hinders the independence, privacy, and family life of its users. Only a few of these accommodations have an opening in the roof which facilitates ventilation when cooking inside. In addition, these homes do not have any access to water or electricity. The following photographs show the general characteristics and limitations of the location and the housings (Fig.  3.18), and in the subsequent collage (Fig. 3.19), the lifestyle of its inhabitants is presented. The plot on which this settlement is located complies with some basic characteristics to guarantee its maximum use, but in certain aspects it has many scarcities. As stated previously, the conditions of the terrain are essential to facilitate the life of the users. In this case, as can be seen in Figs. 3.18 and 3.19, the terrain does not allow easy and rapid drainage, causing floods that make the use of the outdoor common areas impossible, even flooding the interior of the houses, which are located at ground level. Definitely, this is the most serious problem that the settlement has.

30

3  Identification of the Problem

Fig. 3.18 (a) Plot conditions at the Subaşi settlement. (b) Dwellings at the Subaşi settlement. (c) Plot conditions at the Subaşi settlement. (d) Dwellings at the Subaşi settlement

Another negative aspect of this location is the lack of vegetation that would provide protection against climatic agents such as the sun and wind. The plot has few trees located at its ends, so they are not very useful considering the location of the houses. In addition, due to the fact that the climatic conditions can become extreme, the lack of vegetation added to the poor quality of the existing houses with no insulating capacity, and so life is more exhausting at certain times of the year. Finally, the lack of health standards caused by the conditions of the land and the lifestyle in these settlements are factors that increase the possibility of outbreaks of dangerous diseases, such as CoVid-19. On the other hand, the plot has a very close water supply, since it is located in an area surrounded by isolated single-family homes. This factor greatly facilitates the lives of families. In addition, another positive factor of this location is its distance from international borders and conflict zones as well as its easy access from the adjoining highway and from the capital Izmir. Its location next to towns and points of sale will favour the arrival of the necessary help. • Maicao camp, Maicao. The second location is an UN organized settlement, Maicao camp, which is located in the province of La Guajira in Colombia and which can be seen in Fig. 3.20. This will be another of the locations for which the emergency house prototype will be designed.

3.3  Refugee Camps

31

Fig. 3.19  Lifestyle of the Subaşi settlement’s inhabitants in Turkey

As of today, around 1400 women, children, elderly and other vulnerable people have lived in this 43,330 m2 space since its opening in March 2019. The inhabitants of Maicao usually arrive with nothing with them, but in the camp, access to food, water, education and health services is facilitated for those who need it most. This settlement is meant to be a fleeting solution, providing a maximum stay of one month to the most vulnerable, which emphasizes the need for emergency housing in the area [38, 39] (Fig. 3.21). An on-site analysis of the characteristics of the current accommodations of the inhabitants of this settlement was performed. These homes, displayed by UNHCR, are built on the basis of three central galvanized steel tubular profiles and several perimetral supports, braced by means of external tensioners anchored to the ground. Its envelope is made up of two canvases, one exterior and one interior, made of a mixture of polyester and cotton. Although both canvases are waterproof and resistant to solar radiation, they serve as little protection. The outer canvas has two ventilation openings at the top of both vestibules. These lodgings have an interior surface that is 23 m2, divided into a 16 m2 space for the main floor area and two 3.5 m2 vestibules, although it has a footprint of approximately 61 m2 due to assembled guy ropes. The main space has no interior divisions, which hinders the independence, privacy, and family life of its users. In addition, these homes do not have any access to water or electricity. The following photographs show the general characteristics and limitations of the location and the housings (Fig. 3.22). Likewise in Subaşi, the plot on which this organized settlement is located complies with some basic characteristics to guarantee its maximum use, but in certain aspects it has many scarcities.

32

3  Identification of the Problem

Fig. 3.20  Location of the Maicao camp in Colombia

As stated previously, the conditions of the terrain are essential to facilitate the life of the users. In this case, as can be seen in Fig. 3.22, the terrain does not allow easy and rapid drainage, causing floods that make the use of the outdoor common areas inconceivable, even flooding the interior of the houses, which are located at ground level. Definitely, this is the most serious problem perceived in the settlement.

3.3  Refugee Camps

33

Fig. 3.21  Maicao settlement map (Colombia)

Fig. 3.22 (a) Plot conditions at the Maicao settlement (b) Dwellings at the Maicao settlement

Another negative aspect of this location is the lack of vegetation that would provide protection against climatic agents such as the sun and wind. In addition, due to the fact that the climatic conditions can become extreme, the lack of vegetation added to the poor quality of the existing houses with no insulating capacity, and so life is more exhausting at certain times of the year. In addition, although the inhabitants have temporary access to basic medical care, the lack of health standards caused by the conditions of the land and the lifestyle in these settlements are factors that increase the possibility of outbreaks of dangerous diseases, such as CoVid-19.

34

3  Identification of the Problem

Finally, its location, near the international border with Venezuela and conflict zones can induce stressful situations although it facilitates the arrival of forcibly displaced people, an aspect that should be taken into account considering that the majority of displacements to Colombia are from Venezuela. On the other hand, the plot has access to water supply, since it is an organized UNHCR settlement. This factor greatly facilitates the lives of families. In addition, another positive factor of this location is easy access from the adjoining highway and from the city centre of Maicao. Its location next to different towns and points of sale will favour the arrival of the necessary help.

3.4 A Necessary Transition: From Linear to Circular Economy In this current outlook, the research question is: would it be possible to implement sustainability into emergency housing? The preservation of the environment along with situations of forced displacement caused by man-made or natural catastrophes must be contemplated. It is also necessary to consider the ephemeral nature of these settlements, which occasionally become large, inhabited towns generating a significant waste and environmental impact. The construction industry is considered one of the major sources of environmental damage in the world [40]. In the developed world, building construction consumes 40% of the world’s material resources and primary energy demand [40], while the construction industry generates 35% of industrial waste [41] and 40% of total global emissions [42–44]. In the European Union (EU), construction and its industry consume 50% of natural resources for manufacturing materials and generate 35% of waste [45]. Greenhouse gas emissions from these activities are estimated at 5–12% of the total, while a more efficient use of materials could reduce them by 80% [46]. In the EU, construction and demolition waste (CDW) represents the largest flow in terms of mass at 1/3 of 3 trillion tonnes per year. On account of the exposed data, the role of construction in addressing climate change issues becomes highly important at the global level. Actions based on circular economy such as the standardization of materials composed of secondary raw materials and the dissemination of information among the intervening actors have the potential to contribute to avoid an increase in the production of CDW and to increase the amount and quality of recycling [47]. Such is the case of the Spanish Circular Economy 2030 strategy that establishes the basis to promote a new production and consumption model in which the value of products, materials, and resources is preserved in the economy for as long as possible, minimizing waste generation and maximizing the extent of those that cannot be avoided [48]. The aforementioned led us to the idea of implementing the Circular Economy concepts of the 2030 Agenda for this type of dwelling, i.e., design an emergency

3.4  A Necessary Transition: From Linear to Circular Economy

35

housing construction prototype, following sustainable criteria, through the application of reused and recycled materials. Accomplishing a design that allows the standardization of its production process will not only help society, helping those most disadvantaged and adapting it to their needs, but also reduce the time of action after a catastrophe with local and recycled materials, which will contribute to the minimization of the environmental impact of these settlements. To fulfil the change from a linear economy model to a circular one, it is essential to reduce the waste generated [49], but especially to ensure that this waste will be turned to new materials, reducing the use of raw materials and foment the reduction of energy consumption [45]. The construction sector is the largest producer of waste when compared to other economic activities, representing 35% of the total waste generation in the European Union, which is equivalent to four times more than total household waste [50]. Construction and demolition activities are estimated to account for 30–40% of the total waste produced in China, reaching 3037 billion tonnes in 2021, 850 million tonnes of physical waste in the EU, and more than 600 million tonnes in the United States in 2018. In terms of reuse and recycling rates of this CDW waste, China reused and recovered only around 10%, while the EU and the US achieved higher recovery rates, around 79% and 76%, respectively [51–54]. Additionally, circular economy decreases the pressure on natural resources and is an indispensable condition to achieve the climate neutrality objective for 2050 established in the European Green Deal and to mitigate the loss of biodiversity. Half of the total greenhouse gas emissions and more than 90% of the loss of biodiversity and water stress are due to the extraction and treatment of resources [55]. In Spain, to diminish waste, the State Waste Management Framework Plan (PEMAR) has been approved for the years 2016 to 2022, which establishes the general strategy of the waste policy in the country as well as the minimum objectives to be met by prevention and preparation for reuse, recycling, recovery, and disposal. Although the plan reflects the drastic reduction in CDW generation, from about 42 million tons in 2007 to 25 million tons in 2018, it is still necessary to follow guidelines to continue this reduction [56–58]. Circular economy, from an architecture perspective, must commence during the design phase, considering functional systems that contemplate modularity and adaptability of construction elements which take into account the change in needs throughout the life of the building and understanding the result as an actual living space [59]. Circular economy applied to emergency housing would imply a remarkable decrease in the percentage of CDW waste recovered, a decrease in greenhouse gas emissions and energy consumption, and would help to preserve the environment and its biodiversity. The CDW waste recycling rate could be increased by stablishing the basis of action for other emergency situations, considering that currently the construction of temporary buildings using new materials generates a high impact on the ecosystem, as has been demonstrated in the recent case of the construction of temporary hospitals worldwide to alleviate the Covid-19 pandemic. Multiple scientific publications confirm the need for implementing circular economy as a current economic model, in everyday life [60] and in the construction

36

3  Identification of the Problem

sector [61], as the problems generated by the increase of waste are being faced [62]. Others investigate new construction solutions in emergency housing [63] or present new prototypes adaptable to the different realities of these situations [64], even in the event of natural disasters [65]. Nevertheless, none of them address the necessity for global economic regeneration required in a world affected by Covid-19, which has caused a great impact on the economy. As shown in Fig. 3.23, this has caused one of the deepest recessions for many countries [66] since the last crisis in 2009. Despite the final impact still being uncertain, the graphic shows a contraction of 5.2% in the world gross domestic product (GDP) for the year 2020 but a significant growth of 5.7% in 2021, the forecast predicts a recession during the first quarter of 2023, making it urgent to adopt measures that cushion the consequences [67]. Knowing the serious consequences in the global economy, the need to incorporate circular economy into the current economic system becomes even more indispensable. This change would allow, among other aspects, the preservation of raw materials and an increase in job generation and in the economic value of natural resources. Faced with this bleak outlook in developed countries, the situation in the most disadvantaged locations and the impact that it will have on them are of special concern. Therefore, the objective of the investigation is to propose an eco-efficient prototype for emergency housing, from the point of view of circular economy and regenerative sustainability, that can respond to situations of natural or humanitarian disasters. The research develops a universal eco-efficient design protocol adaptable to diverse circumstances as required, creating a rapid, easy, functional, and environmentally correct architecture, closely committed to the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals of the 2030 Agenda, thus helping to achieve equality among people, protect the planet, and ensure prosperity. The investigation develops an

Fig. 3.23  Evolution of GDP 2006–2022 (in US dollars)

References

37

eco-­efficient design of emergency housing for the Subaşi and Maicao settlements, through in situ field work, which validates the previous established protocol and demonstrates the possibility of designing an environmentally correct protocol for future emergency situations, therefore avoiding the precarious nature to which those in forced displacement are exposed. Despite the necessity of emergency housing and the implementation of circular economy, two subjects of unquestionable actuality, no research has ever proposed the merge of the two, presenting a solution that would improve both aspects. This investigation becomes essential for the correct evolution towards sustainability and respect for the environment, in relation to emergency housing.

References 1. Dirección general de Arquitectura y Vivienda, Junta de Andalucía. Viviendas para situaciones de emergencia. Sistematización de un procedimiento para la actuación en situaciones de emergencia. Available online: https://ws147.juntadeandalucia.es/obraspublicasyvivienda/ davwebviv/Proyectos%20de%20Investigacion/03%20Vivienda%20para%20situaciones%20 de%20emergencia.%20Sistematizaci%C3%B3n%20de%20un%20procedimiento%20 para%20la%20actuaci%C3%B3n%20en%20situaciones%20de%20emergencia/PROYEC~1. PDF. Accessed on 20 March 2020 2. IFRC. ¿Qué es un desastre? Available online: https://www.ifrc.org/es/que-­es-­un-­ desastre#:~:text=Los%20desastres%20ocurren%20cuando%20una,desastres%20pueden%20 y%20deben%20evitarse. Accessed on 13 July 2022 3. Bevere L (2022, March) Natural catastrophes in 2021: the floodgates are open. Swiss Re Institute. Available online: https://www.swissre.com/institute/research/sigma-­research/ sigma-­2022-­01.html. Accessed on 30 July 2022 4. Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (2022, July) Global report on internal displacement 2022. Available online: https://www.internal-­displacement.org/sites/default/files/publications/ documents/IDMC_GRID_2022_LR.pdf. Accessed on 30 July 2022 5. UNDRR (2009, May) Terminología sobre Reducción del Riesgo de Desastres. Available online: https://www.unisdr.org/files/7817_UNISDRTerminologySpanish.pdf. Accessed on 20 April 2020 6. OCHA (2021, September) World risk report 2021 – focus: social protection. Available online: https://reliefweb.int/report/world/worldriskreport-­2021-­focus-­social-­protection Accessed on 31 July 2022 7. UNDRR (2018, July) Desplazamiento por desastres: cómo reducir el riesgo, hacer frente a sus efectos y fortalecer la resiliencia. Available online: https://www.refworld.org.es/ pdfid/5b3d41d24.pdf. Accessed on 10 April 2020 8. IOM.  Términos fundamentales sobre migración. Available online: https://www.iom.int/es/ terminos-­fundamentales-­sobre-­migracion. Accessed on 20 April 2020 9. EM-DAT (2022, April) 2021 Disasters in numbers. Available online: https://cred.be/sites/ default/files/2021_EMDAT_report.pdf Accessed on 27 July 2022 10. Edwards A (2016, July) ¿‘Refugiado’ o ‘Migrante’? ¿Cuál es el término correcto? UNHCR.  Available online: https://www.acnur.org/noticias/noticia/2016/7/5b9008e74/ refugiado-­o-­migrante-­cual-­es-­el-­termino-­correcto.html Accessed on 10 May 2020 11. UNHCR (2018) Pacto mundial sobre los refugiados. Available online: https://acnur. org/5c782d124#_ga=2.258913090.979831693.1586346355-­1 351368421.1586346355. Accessed on 10 May 2020

38

3  Identification of the Problem

12. UNHCR (2019, June) Global Trends. Forced displacement in 2018. Available online: https:// acnur.org/5d09c37c4#_ga=2.230972438.821505533.1586516854-­1796902904.1582463453. Accessed on 10 May 2020 13. UNHCR (2022, June) Global trends report 2021. Available online: https://www.unhcr. org/62a9d1494/global-­trends-­report-­2021. Accessed on 29 July 2022 14. Comisión Española De Ayuda Al Refugiado. Situación Refugiados. Available online: https:// www.cear.es/situacion-­refugiados/. Accessed on 22 March 2020 15. UNHCR.  Refugee Data Finder. Available online: https://www.unhcr.org/refugee-­statistics/ download/?url=2lN23s. Accessed on 31 July 2022 16. UNHCR.  Refugee Data Finder. Available online: https://www.unhcr.org/refugee-­statistics/ download/?url=Z0snWJ 2lN23s. Accessed on 31 July 2022 17. Díaz R (2019, June) Más refugiados por el clima que por la guerra. El Mundo. Available online: https://www.elmundo.es/extras/2019/06/05/5cf78bff21efa0aa118b4613.html. Accessed on 29 March 2020 18. Riaño J (2021, February) Refugiados y salud mental, las cicatrices psicológicas del desplazamiento. France 24. Available online: https://www.france24.com/es/programas/ migrantes/20210223-­refugiados-­salud-­mental-­cicatrices-­desplazamiento. Accessed on 15 Jan 2023 19. Peñacoba P (2017, July) El daño psicológico de ser refugiado en Europa. Público. Available online: https://www.publico.es/internacional/dano-­psicologico-­refugiado-­europa.html. Accessed on 15 January 2023 20. Infocop (2018, June) La APA alerta de las consecuencias psicológicas negativas de la separación de familias inmigrantes. Available online: https://www.infocop.es/view_article. asp?id=7546. Accessed on 15 January 2023 21. Díaz Rodríguez M (2017) Menores refugiados: impacto psicológico y salud mental. Apuntes de Psicología 35(2):83–91 22. Gordillo Bedoya, Fernando. Hábitat transitorio y vivienda para emergencias. Revista Tábula Rasa. Bogotá, Colombia, n° 2: 145–166, enero-diciembre de 2004. Available online: http:// www.revistatabularasa.org/numero-­2/gordillo.pdf. Accessed on 30 March 2020 23. Ballent A, Liernur J (2014) La casa y la multitud: Vivienda, política y cultura en la Argentina moderna. In Estudios Sociales del Estado; FCE: Buenos Aires, Argentina, 1, pp.  267–269. Available online: https://fce.com.ar/wp-­content/uploads/2020/11/BallentyLiernur-­LCYLM. pdf. Accessed on 15 Sept 2020 24. Palero JS González Chipont ME (2017) La vivienda ante emergencias. In VI Jornadas de Investigación. Encuentro y Reflexión: Investigación, Enseñanza y Transferencia: Patrimonio Intelectual; Amanda Pollet: Córdoba, Argentina, pp.  255–265. Available online: https://rdu. unc.edu.ar/bitstream/handle/11086/5753/2.13.%20La%20vivienda%20ante%20emergencias. pdf?sequence=30&isAllowed=y. Accessed on 15 Sept 2020 25. Davis I (1980) Arquitectura de Emergencia, 1st edn. Gustavo Gili, Barcelona, Spain. Available online: https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Arquitectura+de+Emergencia&auth or=Davis,+I.&publication_year=1980. Accessed on 18 Sept 2020 26. López JM, Gamboa LC (2013) Participatory and sustainable emergency settlements: new prototypes. Int J Technol Knowl Soc 9:49–65. Available online: https://scholar.google.com/scholar_ lookup?title=Participatory+and+sustainable+emergency+settlements:+New+prototypes&au thor=L%C3%B3pez,+J.M.&author=Gamboa,+L.C.&publication_year=2013&journal=Int. +J.+Technol.+Knowl.+Soc.&volume=9&pages=49%E2%80%9365&doi=10.18848/1832-­ 3669/cgp/v09i02/56367. Accessed on 15 Sept 2020 27. Rodríguez S (2019, August) ¿Qué Son los Campos de Refugiados? UNHCR. Available online: https://eacnur.org/blog/que-­son-­los-­campos-­de-­refugiados-­tc_alt45664n_o_pstn_o_pst/. Accessed on 6 March 2020 28. De la Fuente Callejo M (2020) Temporalidad indefinida en campos de refugiados: el caso de Zaatari. Ph.D. Thesis, Polytechnic University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain. Available online:

References

39

https://oa.upm.es/57936/1/TFG_20_Fuente_Callejo_Marina_de_la.pdf. Accessed on 12 July 2022 29. UNHCR (2017, March) ACNUR e IKEA idean nuevos tipos de casas en los campos de refugiados. Available online: https://eacnur.org/blog/acnur-­e-­ikea-­idean-­nuevos-­tipos-­casas-­los-­ campos-­refugiados/. Accessed on 12 May 2020 30. Cormand G (2019, June) Los campos de refugiados más grandes del mundo. La Vanguardia. Available online: https://www.lavanguardia.com/vida/junior-­report/20190620/462515222932/ campos-­refugiados-­mas-­grandes-­mundo.html. Accessed on 17 July 2022 31. RTVE (2021, December) Cox’s Bazar, Dadaab, Bentiu: los mayores campos de refugiados del mundo no están en Lesbos. Available online: https://www.rtve.es/noticias/20211205/ coxs-­bazar-­dadaab-­bentiu-­mayores-­campos-­refugiados-­del-­mundo-­no-­estan-­lesbos/2235407. s h t m l # : ~ : t ex t = E l % 2 0 d e % 2 0 C o x ' s % 2 0 B a z a r % 2 0 e s , B i r m a n i a % 2 0 s u m a n % 2 0 907%2C766%2C%20seg%C3%BAn%20ACNUR. Accessed on 17 July 2022 32. UNHCR (2020, July) Kutupalong: el campo de refugiados más grande del mundo. Available online: https://eacnur.org/blog/kutupalong-­el-­campo-­de-­refugiados-­mas-­grande-­del-­ mundo-­tc_alt45664n_o_pstn_o_pst/. Accessed on 17 July 2022 33. Shire A Campos de refugiados en Dollo Ado. Available online: https://alianzashire.org/ campos-­d e-­r efugiados-­e n-­s hire/#:~:text=Dollo%20Ado%2C%20ubicado%20al%20 sudeste,ACNUR%20en%20mayo%20de%202021 Accessed on 17 July 2022 34. El País (2019, November) MORIA, la Cruel Bienvenida de Europa a los Refugiados. Available online: https://elpais.com/internacional/2019/11/26/actualidad/1574777275_996732.html Accessed on 29 Mar 2020 35. Migration Data Portal (2021, October) Datos migratorios en América del Sur. Available online: https://www.migrationdataportal.org/es/regional-­data-­overview/datos-­migratorios-­en-­ america-­del-­sur. Accessed on 15 Jan 2023 36. UNHCR (2022, October) Mid-year trends 2022. Available online: https://www.unhcr.org/statistics/unhcrstats/635a578f4/mid-­year-­trends-­2022. Accessed on 16 Dec 2022 37. iResiduo (2020, March) La Unión Europea pondrá fin a la obsolescencia programada con su proyecto de Economía Circular. Available online: https://iresiduo.com/noticias/comision-­ europea/20/03/12/union-­europea-­pondra-­fin-­obsolescencia-­programada-­proyecto. Accessed on 30 July 2022 38. Rotunno M (2019, April) Venezuelans living in the streets find safety at new reception Centre in Colombia UNHCR. Available online: https://www.unhcr.org/news/stories/2019/4/5cb48f934/ venezuelans-­living-­streets-­find-­safety-­new-­reception-­centre-­colombia.html. Accessed on 17 Jan 2023 39. George A, Fanchiotti M (2020, May) CAI Maicao reception Centre: environmental scoping report and recommendations UNHCR.  Available online: https://www.eecentre.org/wp-­ content/uploads/2020/05/UNHCR-­CAI-­Maicao-­Environmental-­Scoping-­Report_FINAL.pdf. Accessed on 17 Jan 2023 40. Vasilca I-S, Nen M, Chivu O, Radu V, Simion C-P, Marinescu N (2021) The Management of Environmental Resources in the construction sector: an empirical model. Energies 14:2489. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14092489 41. Hendriks C, Pietersen H (2000) Sustainable raw materials: Construction and demolition; RILEM: Cachan, France. Available online: https://books.google.es/books?hl=es&lr=&id=Q sIxakWiIFkC&oi=fnd&pg=PR9&dq=Sustainable+raw+materials:+Construction+and+demo lition+waste.&ots=jsIP17MndD&sig=l8YC9mtg3t9APYTjX6NZSeqK0P0#v=onepage&q= Sustainable%20raw%20materials%3A%20Construction%20and%20demol. Accessed on 25 July 2020 42. Osmani M, Villoria-Sáez P (2019) Chapter 19—current and emerging construction waste management status, Trends and Approaches. Waste 2:365–380. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-­0-­12­815060-­3.00019-­0. Accessed on 27 July 2020

40

3  Identification of the Problem

43. Maia Guzenski F (2012) Impactos Ambientales del Sector de la Construcción. Master’s Thesis, Polytechnic University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain. Available online: https://scholar. google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Impactos+Ambientales+del+Sector+de+la+Construcci%C 3%B3n&author=Maia+Guzenski,+F.&publication_year=2012 Accessed on 27 July 2020 44. León M (2016) La Arquitectura en la Economía Circular. Cómo Diseñar de Manera Circular. Fundación Arquia. Available online: https://blogfundacion.arquia.es/2016/11/la-­arquitectura-­ en-­la-­economia-­circular-­como-­disenar-­de-­manera-­circular/. Accessed on 20 Jan 2021 45. Mercader-Moyano, P (2010) Cuantificación de los Recursos Consumidos y Emisiones de CO2 Producidas en las Construcciones de Andalucía y sus Implicaciones en el Protocolo de Kioto. Ph.D.  Thesis, University of Seville, Seville, Spain. Available online: https://scholar. google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Cuantificaci%C3%B3n+de+los+Recursos+Consumidos+ y+Emisiones+de+CO2+Producidas+en+las+Construcciones+de+Andaluc%C3%ADa+y+su s+Implicaciones+en+el+Protocolo+de+Kioto&author=Mercader-­Moyano,+P.&publication_ year=2010. Accessed on 27 July 2020 46. Internal Market, Industry, entrepreneurship and SMEs. Buildings and construction. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/growth/industry/sustainability/built-­environment_en. Accessed on 6 April 2021 47. European Commission (2020, March) A new circular economy action plan for a cleaner and more competitive Europe. Available online: https://eur-­lex.europa.eu/resource.html?uri=cell ar:9903b325-­6388-­11ea-­b735-­01aa75ed71a1.0017.02/DOC_1&format=PDF. Accessed on 1 March 2021 48. Gobierno de España, Ministerio para la Transición Ecológica y el Reto Demográfico. Estrategia Española de Economía Circular. Available online: https://www.miteco.gob.es/es/calidad-­y-­ evaluacion-­ambiental/temas/economia-­circular/estrategia/. Accessed on 8 March 2021 49. Climent Salvador A (2018) Economía Circular Aplicada a la Arquitectura. Espejismo o Realidad. Ph.D. Thesis, Polytechnic University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain. Available online: https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Econom%C3%ADa+Circular+Aplicada+ a+la+Arquitectura.+Espejismo+o+Realidad&author=Climent+Salvador,+A.&publication_ year=2018. Accessed on 18 April 2021 50. Eurostat. Generation of waste by waste category, hazardousness and NACE Rev. 2 activity. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/ENV_WASGEN__custom_3137567/default/line?lang=en. Accessed on 30 July 2022 51. Huang B, Wang X, Kua H, Geng Y, Bleischwitz R, Ren J (2018) Construction and demolition waste management in China through the 3R principle. Res Conserv Recycl 129:36–44., ISSN 0921-3449. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2017.09.029 52. Environmental Educational Information Platform (2021, June) China construction and demolition waste industry Market report. Available online: https://us.envguide.com/china-­ construction-­and-­demolition-­waste-­industry-­market-­report/#:~:text=As%20China's%20 urbanization%20has%20continued,4%20billion%20tons%20in%202026. Accessed on 1 Aug 2022 53. Eurostat (2020, November) Energy, transport and environment statistics. 2020 Edition. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/3217494/11478276/KS-­DK-­20-­001-­EN-­N. pdf/06ddaf8d-­1745-­76b5-­838e-­013524781340?t=1605526083000 Accessed on 1 Aug 2022 54. BigRentz (2021, April) 23 construction waste statistics & tips to reduce landfill debris. Available online: https://www.bigrentz.com/blog/construction-­waste-­statistics. Accessed on 1 Aug 2022 55. iResiduo (2020, March) La Unión Europea pondrá Fin a la Obsolescencia Programada Con su Proyecto de Economía Circular. Available online: https://iresiduo.com/noticias/comision-­ europea/20/03/12/union-­europea-­pondra-­fin-­obsolescencia-­programada-­proyecto. Accessed on 22 March 2020 56. INE. Banco de series temporales. Residuos generados. Construcción. No peligroso. Available online: https://www.ine.es/consul/serie.do?s=DCEF25&c=2&nult=0 Accessed on 1 Aug 2022

References

41

57. Gobierno de España, Ministerio de Agricultura, Alimentación y Medio Ambiente. (2015, November) Plan Estatal Marco de Gestión de Residuos (PEMAR) 2016–2022. Available online: https://www.miteco.gob.es/es/calidad-­y-­evaluacion-­ambiental/planes-­y-­estrategias/ pemaraprobado6noviembrecondae_tcm30-­170428.pdf. Accessed on 1 Feb 2021 58. Federación Española de la Recuperación y el Reciclaje (FER) (2015, September) El Plan Estatal Marco de Gestión de Residuos. Objetivos y Principales Características. Available online: https://www.recuperacion.org/el-­plan-­estatal-­marco-­de-­gestion-­de-­residuos-­objetivos-­ y-­principales-­caracteristicas/. Accessed on 1 Feb 2021 59. Comisión Europea (2020, September) Objetivo 2050: la UE, primer continente climáticamente neutro. Available online: https://spain.representation.ec.europa.eu/noticias-­eventos/noticias-­0/ objetivo-­2050-­la-­ue-­primer-­continente-­climaticamente-­neutro-­2020-­09-­21_es. Accessed on 23 May 2021 60. D’Adamo I (2019) Adopting a circular economy: current practices and future perspectives. Soc Sci 8:328. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci8120328 61. Rahla KM, Mateus R, Bragança L (2021) Implementing circular economy strategies in buildings—from theory to practice. Appl Syst Innov 4:26. https://doi.org/10.3390/asi4020026 62. Bagheri M, Esfilar R, Golchi M, Kennedy C (2020) Towards a circular economy: a comprehensive study of higher heat values and emission potential of various municipal solid wastes. Sustain Cities Soc 101:210–221. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2019.09.042 63. Shi Y, Zhai G, Xu L, Zhu Q, Deng J (2019) Planning emergency shelters for urban disasters: a multi-level location–allocation modeling approach. Sustainability 11:4285. https://doi. org/10.3390/su11164285 64. Maffei R (2013) Sheltering in Emergency: Processes and Products. Ph.D. Thesis, Polytechnic University of Milan, Milan, Italy. Available online: https://scholar.google.com/scholar_look up?title=Sheltering+in+Emergency:+Processes+and+Products&author=Maffei,+R.&publicat ion_year=2013 65. Bachiller Alva Sánchez PA (2019) Gestión de Refugios con Estructuras Tensegrity en caso de Desastres Naturales, Huaicos en el Distrito de Chosica—Lima 2017. Ph.D. Thesis, Ricardo Palma University, Lima, Peru. Available online: https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup? title=Gesti%C3%B3n+de+Refugios+con+Estructuras+Tensegrity+en+caso+de+Desastres+N aturales,+Huaicos+en+el+Distrito+de+Chosica%E2%80%94Lima+2017&author=Bachiller+ Alva+S%C3%A1nchez,+P.A.&publication_year=2019 66. Fondo Monetario Internacional (2020, June) Actualización de las Perspectivas de la Economía Mundial. Available online: https://www.imf.org/es/Publications/WEO/Issues/2020/06/24/ WEOUpdateJune2020 Accessed on 7 Nov 2020 67. Banco Mundial (2022, June) Global economic prospects. Available online: https://www.bancomundial.org/es/publication/global-­economic-­prospects. Accessed on 7 July 2022

Chapter 4

Identification of the Minimum Habitability Conditions

Abstract  As of today, there is no universal solution to give refuge to people in situations of forced displacement, but there are distinct methods that attempt to mitigate the damage to those who have lost everything. One such method that tries to improve the quality of its actions during disaster responses is the Sphere Project, created by a group of humanitarian non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, in order to develop a set of universal minimum standards in essential areas of humanitarian responses. The Humanitarian Charter and minimum standards will not certainly stop humanitarian crises from happening, nor they can prevent human suffering. What they offer, though, is an opportunity for the enhancement of assistance with the objective of making a difference to the lives of people affected by a disaster. Keywords  Emergency situation · Social · Humanitarian · Habitability conditions · Emergency housing · Sphere standards Humanitarian aid is defined as assistance to the most vulnerable groups to save lives, alleviate suffering and maintain and protect human dignity, in emergency and/ or rehabilitation situations, in addition to preventing them [1]. According to the United Nations, humanitarian principles constitute the fundamental basis for humanitarian action. Heretofore, there is no universal solution to give refuge to people in situations of forced displacement, nonetheless there are distinct methods that attempt to alleviate the damage to those who have lost everything. One such method that strives to improve the quality of its actions during humanitarian responses is the Sphere Project, founded by a group of humanitarian non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, for the purpose of developing a set of universal minimum standards that improve the quality of their humanitarian responses and are accountable for their actions [1]. This project is the oldest initiative in the field of humanitarian standards and has developed into © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 P. Mercader-Moyano, P. Porras-Pereira, Circular Economy in Emergency Housing: Eco-Efficient Prototype Design for Subaşi Refugee Camp in Turkey and Maicao Refugee Camp in Colombia, SpringerBriefs in Climate Studies, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-32770-4_4

43

44

4  Identification of the Minimum Habitability Conditions

one of the most widely referenced humanitarian resources globally, leading the actions of the clear majority of humanitarian organizations for more than twenty years [1]. For this reason, its two fundamental principles will be taken as a basis in the investigation: 1. People affected by disaster or conflict have the right to live with dignity and, therefore, the right to assistance. 2. All possible steps should be taken to alleviate human suffering arising out of disaster or conflict. The Sphere Project envisions a world in which the population affected by a disaster or conflict is able to restore their lives and recover their livelihoods in ways that respect and promote their dignity. In order to achieve the aforementioned, the Sphere Handbook is developed, containing The Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards, which put these core beliefs into practice; The Protection Principles, which inform about all humanitarian actions; and the Core Humanitarian Standard, which contains commitments to support accountability across all sectors [1]. The Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards will not certainly cease humanitarian crises from occurring, nor they can avert human suffering. Nevertheless, what they propose is an opportunity for the improvement of assistance with the purpose of having a significant impact to the lives of people affected by an emergency situation. However, the Sphere Handbook has a particular place within the extensive sphere of humanitarian action, which surpasses providing instant relief and encompasses a variety of activities that begins with disaster preparedness, then includes humanitarian response, and ultimately covers early recovery [1]. The minimum standards encompass the four main sectors of humanitarian aid: water supply, sanitation and hygiene promotion; food security and nutrition; shelter and settlement; and health [1]. Nonetheless, in this research, the subsequent minimum standards, described in the Sphere Project, that emergency housing must fulfil concerning the design of the different spaces and the election of the materiality will be considered: Shelter and settlement standard 2: location and settlement planning. The location and planning of informal, host, after return or temporary communal settlements should promote secure, adequate and accessible living spaces that offer access to essential services, livelihoods and opportunities to connect to a broader network [1]. Shelter and settlement standard 3: living space. People must have access to living spaces providing thermal comfort, ventilation, physical security and climate protection, safeguarding their health, privacy, safety, dignity and health and enabling essential household and livelihood activities to be undertaken with dignity [1]. Shelter and settlement standard 5: technical assistance. Local safe building practices, available materials, professional expertise, and technical capacities are used wherever possible, maximising the active involvement

Reference

45

and engagement of the affected community and local livelihood opportunities, thus promoting the effectively, efficiently and ethically management of resources and safer building practices to meet current shelter needs and reduce future risks [1]. Shelter and settlement standard 7: environmental sustainability. Shelter and settlement assistance, solutions adopted, material sourcing and construction techniques utilised must minimise any adverse programme impact on the natural environment [1].

Reference 1. UNHCR (2011, November) El Proyecto Esfera: Carta Humanitaria y Normas Mínimas para la Respuesta Humanitaria. Available online: https://www.acnur.org/fileadmin/Documentos/ Publicaciones/2011/8206.pdf?view=1. Accessed on 14 April 2021

Chapter 5

Analysis of Contemporary Emergency Housing

Abstract  Refugee camps are not intended to be a long-term solution; the assistance provided in them is temporary, that is, until the circumstances are favourable for the refugees to be able to return to their countries of origin in dignified conditions. The type of accommodation available to displaced people who arrive searching for a safer place depends on the time that these people will be using it and on different environmental and anthropological factors. In these situations, the essential purpose is to cover the need of a shelter in a space that provides warmth, security, and comfort to its users, and where they can progressively resume their lives until they can return to their country of origin. Already knowing the characteristics of the settlements in which this research is focused, an exhaustive analysis of different case studies already executed or recently designed was accomplished. Mainly, dwellings and prototypes that have already been used in a disaster or conflict situation have been selected to be able to compare their effectiveness. Furthermore, some of the prototypes selected have not yet been mass-produced, due to their academic nature or because they are still in an evaluation process, but which show some aspects of interest. Keywords  Emergency housing · Social · Construction · Ephemeral Refugee camps are not intended to be a long-term solution; the assistance provided in them is temporary, that is, until the circumstances are favourable for the refugees to be able to return to their countries of origin in dignified conditions [1]. The type of accommodation available to displaced people who arrive searching for a safer place depends on the time that these people will be using it and on different environmental and anthropological factors. In these situations, the essential purpose is to cover the need of a shelter in a space that provides warmth, security, and comfort to its users, and where they can progressively resume their lives until they can return to their country of origin [2].

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 P. Mercader-Moyano, P. Porras-Pereira, Circular Economy in Emergency Housing: Eco-Efficient Prototype Design for Subaşi Refugee Camp in Turkey and Maicao Refugee Camp in Colombia, SpringerBriefs in Climate Studies, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-32770-4_5

47

48

5  Analysis of Contemporary Emergency Housing

Ian Davis, author of the book ‘Emergency Architecture’, explains that there are four questions donor governments and relief teams should ask themselves before sending any type of emergency housing to a disaster-stricken area: How long will it take to occupy them, how much work will generate their construction, to what extent are they universal and how much they cost [3]. Already knowing the characteristics of the settlements in this research, an exhaustive analysis of different case studies already executed or recently designed was accomplished. Mainly, dwellings and prototypes that have already been used in a disaster or conflict situation have been selected to be able to compare their effectiveness. Furthermore, some of the prototypes selected have not yet been mass-­ produced, due to their academic nature or because they are still in an evaluation process, but which show some aspects of interest. • Family tent – UNHCR (Fig. 5.1) This example of tent is the standard tent used by three of the main humanitarian organizations, UNHCR, ICRC and IFRC. Family tents are designed as a short-term shelter solution, particularly in support to emergency situations and is not a substitute for a permanent shelter [4]. Its interior surface is 23 m2, divided into a 16 m2 space for the main floor area and two 3,5 m2 vestibules, although it has a footprint of approximately 61 m2 due to assembled guy ropes. It is designed for a maximum of 3 people, and it can be expected to have a minimum of a 1-year lifespan [4, 5]. The tent has a structure form of three central galvanized steel tubular profiles and several perimetral supports, braced by means of external tensioners. Its envelope is made up of two canvases, one exterior and one interior, made of a mixture of polyester and cotton. Both canvases are waterproof and resistant to solar radiation. The outer canvas has two ventilation openings at the top of both vestibules. This prototype has a maximum headroom of 2,20 meters and dividing walls that separate the main room from the two vestibules. Moreover, a fireplace can be easily attached [4, 5]. In cold environments the tent is difficult to keep warm as it loses heat very quickly, so its use should be avoided in these climates. It will be necessary to complete it with a stove and an insulating mat on the ground [4].

Fig. 5.1  UNHCR Family tent

5  Analysis of Contemporary Emergency Housing

49

Both UNHCR, IFRC or ICRC also use variants of this tent such as the Self-­ Standing Family Tent (Fig. 5.2) or the Framed Tent (Fig. 5.3). The Framed Tent is used only if the Self-Standing Family Tent is not appropriate because there is not enough space for it to be anchored, the seating surface is hard or when more interior space is needed. The Framed Tent is heavier and more expensive than the Self-­ Standing Family Tent, although is ideal to be used in urban areas. It weighs approximately 87 kg and has an approximate cost of 700 US$, excluding transport, almost 30 kg and 300 US$ more than the Self-Standing Family Tent [5]. Some of the most interesting aspects of these systems are their ability to be assembled as a kit, which reduces assembly time and facilitates installation; their flat package for easy transport and storage when not in use and their easy assembly by its users using simple tools and slight training. Moreover, other excellent

Fig. 5.2  Self-Standing Family Tent Fig. 5.3  Framed Tent

50

5  Analysis of Contemporary Emergency Housing

characteristics are their ability to adapt to different uses, thus adapting to the different needs of the field in which they are located, and their ease of relocation, due to their compact packaging and their easy assembly. On the contrary, although it has a shelf-life of about 5 years, the maximum reasonable time that a person should live in emergency housing, this life expectancy makes it complicated to reuse it in other situations. In addition, both the Family Tent and the Self-Standing Family Tent need plenty of surface to be installed due to the anchors needed. Likewise, its null elevation above the ground does not allow it to be adapted to uneven terrain and hinders their correct functioning on impermeable terrain with difficult drainage. Finally, its inability to adapt to hot and cold climates makes their use in these locations impossible. • Refugee housing unit – UNHCR + IKEA (Fig. 5.4) The IKEA Foundation has designed a prototype of emergency housing with the intention of improving the quality of life of thousands of refugees internationally. This prototype is the result of a research & development project undertaken by Better Shelter, Sweden, and UNHCR with the support of the IKEA Foundation [6]. This emergency housing model of 17,5 m2 has the capacity to accommodate up to five people. These emergency housing modules have been designed to be lightweight and easily transportable in a flat pack, as well as designed to be assembled quickly and in approximately four hours [6]. This prototype has a maximum headroom of 2,80 meters and an internal dividing wall, in addition, a fireplace or a toilet area can be easily attached. Each unit has an estimated price of 1150 euros and a useful life of about 3 years if properly maintained [5]. Under these premises, they have been designed with a self-supporting structure of galvanized steel tubular profiles where the insulated and waterproof polypropylene panels are fixed, forming a gabled roof. The shelter is made from a new type of polymer coating, Rhulite, which lets in light during the day, but at night keeps light inside without casting shadows outside, a privacy issue with current UN tents [5]. Most of the advantages mentioned in the previous case study, the UNHCR Family tent, can also be found in this system, such as its ability to be assembled in Fig. 5.4 Refugee housing unit

5  Analysis of Contemporary Emergency Housing

51

a kit, which reduces assembly time and facilitates its installation; its flat packaging to facilitate transport and storage when not in use and its ability to adapt to different uses and being modular, thus adapting to the different needs of the field in which they are located (Fig. 5.5). On the contrary, one of the main disadvantages of this case study is its short life expectancy, reduced to about 3 years, which, although it is designed for unforeseen and temporary situations, these situations tend to drag on over time, so this life expectancy makes it complicated to reuse it in future scenarios. Another negative point of this emergency housing is its complex assembly, requiring specialized people for it, reducing the independence of its users. In addition, the structure of this house makes it difficult to relocate, since it is only suitable for sites without slopes. Likewise, its null elevation above the ground does not allow it to be adapted to uneven terrain and hinders their correct functioning on impermeable terrain with difficult drainage. Finally, another main disadvantage, which is not appreciated until not in use, is its poor climatic adaptability. During the work site on the island of Lesbos, in Greece, various volunteers from several refugee camps commented that this model was uninhabitable as a housing due to the extreme temperatures that were reached inside, so, in most cases, they ended up being used as simple storage modules. • The Hex House - Architects for society (Figs. 5.6 and 5.7) Natural and man-made disasters have caused millions of people around the world to lose their homes. The victims and the thousands of refugees from the humanitarian and natural catastrophes were the main motivation for the “Architects for Society” studio to look for a decent and low-cost housing solution to these situations [7]. The Hex House is a 47 m2 unit, which has a useful life of between 15 to 20 years. It is conceived as a low-cost, sustainable, rapidly deployable structure and dignified accommodation. The Hex House can be shipped flat pack, is easily assembled by

Fig. 5.5  Refugee housing unit

52

5  Analysis of Contemporary Emergency Housing

Fig. 5.6  The Hex House

Fig. 5.7  The Hex House

the users and has the flexibility to be a permanent or temporary structure. Each unit has an estimated price of between $15,000 and $20,000 [7, 8]. Each single unit contains two bedrooms, a kitchen, a bathroom, a living room, and a small terrace. The structure is easily modifiable and with minimal disruption some can be joined together to form a group of units or a larger dwelling, giving families the ability to expand their space over time. By streamlining construction processes and allowing users to be part of the process, using well-designed prefabricated elements, a quality structure can be achieved at substantial cost savings [7] (Fig. 5.8). Each unit has sustainable features included like solar panels, passive cooling, rainwater harvesting and composting & biogas toilets, giving families more independence, minimizing their carbon footprint and adding operational savings. Furthermore, the house’s thermal insulation can be customisable according to geographic location, withstanding the coldest to the warmest climates on earth [8].

5  Analysis of Contemporary Emergency Housing

53

Fig. 5.8  The Hex House

The inherent structural stability of the hexagonal form and the rigid construction of Structural Insulated Panels (SIP) prevent the use of added structural support. The wall and roof panels are designed to be self-supporting and form a rigid structural shell. The basic building components are glue laminated beams (or aluminium) for the base, Structural Insulated Panel (SIP) for walls, floor and roof which can be customized with various insulation values depending on the location [8]. This system has exceptional advantages compared to the cases studies previously seen, although there are some common ones. This housing also has a kit mounting capability, which reduces assembly time and makes it easy to install, and a flat packaging for easy transport and storage. The novelties that it presents compared to other systems are its elevation above the ground by means of steel legs, allowing its adaptation to uneven terrain and being practical for impermeable terrain with difficult drainage. In addition, the prototype has a modular system design, thus adapting to the different needs of the field in which they are located and of the users who inhabit it. Another feature of this system, very innovative in the field of emergency housing, is its customizable ability, in term of walls, roof, floors and ceiling finishes; its adaptation to the number of users, since it is a modular system with grouping capacity; and its thermal insulation adaptation depending on its location. Its sustainable nature is another of its great advantages, since its ecological footprint is very small, it incorporates passive systems and allows the reuse of its components, allowing prolonged use up to 15–20 years. The main disadvantage of this case study is its high cost, since the price of a complete unit is around 60,000 US$. Another negative point of this housing is its permanent nature, which could lead to refugee camps no longer being temporary places. Another unfavourable aspect is the thermal insulation adaptation, that makes the unit only work optimally in locations with the same climatic needs. Although the customization capacity is a positive aspect that allows

54

5  Analysis of Contemporary Emergency Housing

these houses to feel more like a home, this could lead up to a delay the start-up of them. • CMAX System - Nicolás García Mayor (Figs. 5.9 and 5.10) Cmax is an emergency shelter system that provides immediate accommodation for the victims. It was designed by Nicolás García Mayor to dignify and improve the quality of life of refugees from natural disasters or armed conflicts [9]. This system provides housing modules of 17,2 m2 for up to 10 people, and has all the conditions for them to live, eat and sleep, also including a core sanitary facility for 3 people separated by plastic walls [9]. Each module comes with a drop-down Fig. 5.9  The Hex House

Fig. 5.10  CMAX System

5  Analysis of Contemporary Emergency Housing

55

table, chairs and survival kits that contain water containers, water purifiers, sleeping bags, flashlight, solar radio, first aid kit, mosquito nets and non-perishable food. Each unit has a lifespan of about 3 years if properly maintained [10]. The Cmax system can be deployed in a matter of hours after the occurrence of an event, without the use of tools or cranes. As few as two people can easily set up one of these shelters in 11 minutes, due to their efficient and lightweight design. In addition, the same modules can be joined together and thus hospitals or schools can be set up [10]. There is a specific module design as mobile clinics and pre-triage units that provide a clean, safe, and scalable environment to support all levels of medical and health care needs, that can be used as well as Intensive Care Units [11]. A great advantage of the Cmax system is that, as it is raised from the floor by means of telescopic legs, it adapts to any type of ground and environment, without exposing users to damp floors that transmit dirt, germs and cold [9, 10] (Fig. 5.11). The Cmax system is made up of a housing module with a rigid central structure, made of polypropylene, aluminium and polyester fabric, and two wings of flexible material that quadruple their size when unfolded. These shelters withstand strong winds and are waterproof and easy to transport, since they are light and foldable [10, 12].

Fig. 5.11  CMAX System

56

5  Analysis of Contemporary Emergency Housing

Most of the advantages appreciated in the previous case studies can be found in this system as well, such as its flat packaging to facilitate transport and storage and its ability to adapt to different uses, being also modular, thus adapting to the different needs of the field in which they are located and of the users who inhabit it. Likewise, this system allows to accommodate a large number of users and has an elevation above the ground, thus allowing it to adapt to uneven terrain and is very useful for impermeable terrain with difficult drainage. An advantage of this system, not found in other case studies, is the ease of assembly by users without the use of tools or the need for prior training due to its light design, which provides independence to residents and ease of use and change of location. The main disadvantage of this case study is its poor climatic adaptability, which makes it impossible to use in locations with hot and cold climates. In addition, its life expectancy, due to its materiality, is assumed to be less than 5  years, which makes it very difficult to reuse it in future emergency situations. Finally, the interior space of this system is excessively small, designed solely for rest, making it impossible to carry out daily life inside (Fig. 5.12). • Deployable emergency housing modules - Gastón Saboulard & Federico Ortiz (Fig. 5.13) The creators of this system, the designers Gastón Sabouard and Federico Ortiz, believe that in an emergency situation there are two types of response that have to be given in parallel: the rapid installation of a system that serves to temporarily accommodate people, being essential that these be light, easily transportable and easy to put into operation; but in addition, it is equally important to ensure the dignity of people, that is why it is essential to try to reproduce in the best possible way an impression of normality [13]. The prototype proposed is a system of compact, light, transportable emergency micro-capsules of immediately commissioning available in public facilities at night, in this way, people will be truly sheltered, protected and will have access to basic services. During the hours in which the facilities must fulfil their original functions, the system can be easily collected and stored as a piece of furniture in the storage spaces of the buildings [13]. These capsules, in their closed state, have the appearance of a cabinet on wheels, so that they are easily storable and transportable. The materials with which they are

Fig. 5.12  CMAX System

5  Analysis of Contemporary Emergency Housing

57

Fig. 5.13  Deployable emergency housing modules

manufactured are plywood boards and pine strips. The spaces are closed with folding awning-type covers made by reusing plastic tarpaulins previously used for street advertising. This awning has a translucent plastic strip that allows light to enter and prevents the feeling of isolation inside the modules. In addition, its commissioning is immediate since it is only necessary to open the side covers to unfold the living space: two small rooms, one on each side of the central closet, with two single beds, a nightstand and a shelf each [13]. The system proposed can accommodate between one and two people, although due to the fact that both rooms are connected by a door, the capsules could accommodate up to four people. During the day the beds can be used as sofas and the solid area of ​​the accommodation serves as storage space. Although they are initially designed to be used in covered public spaces in the different cities in which they are installed, they could be waterproofed for an outdoors use [13] (Fig. 5.14). Some of the advantages of this system is its compact design and flat packing for easy transport and storage. Likewise, this system has an elevation above the ground, although somewhat reduced, thus allowing it to be adapted to terrain with a slight unevenness and is very useful for impermeable terrain with difficult drainage. Another advantage is its ease of assembly by users without the use of tools or the

58

5  Analysis of Contemporary Emergency Housing

Fig. 5.14  Deployable emergency housing modules

Fig. 5.15  Telescopic Tent

need for prior training, due to its lightweight design, which provides residents with independence and ease in changing their location. A very striking aspect of this design is the ability to reuse and recycle its components, in addition to the incorporation of recycled elements in the prototype. The main disadvantage of this case study is its impossibility of using it in exterior spaces, since refugee camps do not usually have interior spaces to house the dwellings. In addition, the interior space of this system is too small, designed solely for rest, making it impossible to carry out daily life inside. • Telescopic Tent  – Dong Jia, Wu Jiahao, Qiao Song, Feng Ming, Chen Yu, Su Fangyu, Li Siyao y Zhao Chenyuan (Fig. 5.15) This emergency shelter design features a collapsible compression mechanism, offering a new type of emergency tent in the event of a disaster. Each unit can be stretched out in length, with the help of only two people, to create a sturdy and durable shelter. When not in use, it can be compressed back for easy storage [14].

5  Analysis of Contemporary Emergency Housing

59

This new system offers an emergency solution that can be easily assembled. When folded, the compressed tent’s thickness is only one twentieth of its expanded state, making it convenient and space-efficient to store and transport. On the contrary, when fully expanded, each tent module stretches out into two sections, reaching a total length of 8 meters. In case a larger space is needed, each module of the tent can be buckled to another to form a larger module. Each of the tent modules has a maximum headroom of 2,5 meters and a 2 meters width [14, 15] (Fig. 5.16). The Telescopic Tent is made with a highly resistant and elastic waterproof nylon material. The inflation structure of the tent is strong enough to support the addition of window frames along its length. Each tent has a door which frame, made of a lightweight high-strength plastic structure, supports the tent body. Two handles on each doorframe facilitate a place to pull for expansion, and to hold the compressed tent when retracted. Through a port at the lower right corner, the tent can be further inflated to prevent it from deforming [15]. This emergency housing prototype also features a compact design and flat packaging for easy transport and storage. Moreover, it is a modular system with grouping capacity, thus adapting to the different needs of the field in which they are located and of the users who inhabit it. In addition, due to its light design, it is easy to assemble by users without the use of tools or the need for prior training, which provides independence to residents and ease in changing their location. A very striking aspect of this design is the ability to reuse and recycle its components. The main disadvantage of this case study is its null elevation above the ground, which does not allow its adaptation to uneven terrain and makes it difficult to use it correctly in impermeable terrain with difficult drainage. In addition, the design of the interior space of this system is very longitudinal, not very usable for a large number of users. • Takk - Mireia Luzárraga + Alejandro Muiño (Fig. 5.17) This prototype is structured through modules that unfold forming the house itself. The dimensions of the modules have been adapted to those of the vehicle that transports them to the place of destination. This system allows the house to be much

Fig. 5.16  Telescopic Tent

60

5  Analysis of Contemporary Emergency Housing

Fig. 5.17 Takk

Fig. 5.18 Takk

more flexible depending on the needs of the future inhabitants and allows the manufacturing and transport price to be adjusted to the maximum, since the modules are always the same, maximizing the capacity of the vehicle [16]. A conventional house is usually formed of about six basic modules: living room, dining room, bathroom, kitchen, single room and/or double room. According to the needs of its inhabitant or the demands of the situation where they will be used, this system can be designed by adding or subtracting modules. In this way, a house already installed in the final location can later be transformed by adding or subtracting a particular module [16] (Fig. 5.18). This design aims to achieve a minimal dwelling that is flexible, easy and economical to build and transport and can be adapted to different regions and cultures [16].

5  Analysis of Contemporary Emergency Housing

61

The principal advantages of this emergency shelter prototype also feature a compact design with a flat packing and standard measurements for easy transport and storage and a modular system with the ability to add or subtract modules, thus adapting to the different needs of the field in which they are located and of the users who inhabit it. Additionally, it is easy to assemble by users without the use of tools or the need for prior training and due to its lightweight design, provides its residents with independence and ease in changing their location. A very interesting aspect of this design is the ability to reuse and recycle its components (Fig. 5.19). The main disadvantage of this case study is its null elevation above the ground, which does not allow its adaptation to uneven terrain and makes it difficult to use it correctly on impermeable terrain with difficult drainage. In addition, the design requires the construction of a concrete floor on which the house is located, generating a great impact on the ground and making installation difficult for the users themselves. Finally, the use of this prototype in an outdoor space is doubtful due to the questionable tightness of its closures and the impermeability of its envelope. With these case studies, collected in Table 5.1, it is intended to have a wide variety of contemporary emergency housing solutions. Consequently, a comparison of the most important characteristics in an emergency accommodation has been made between them, assessing how the selected case studies respond to these features. This will serve as a complement to the manuals and standards seen previously, in order to develop an emergency housing prototype that brings together all the fundamental aspects of this type of architecture and situations. After exposing these case studies, it can be appreciated that most of them are prototypes of an academic nature or that they are in the process of evaluation, so they have not yet been produced in series, but they show processes, characteristics, and singularities of great interest. As general conclusions of the analysis, it can be assumed that all the designs have a flat packaging to simplify their transport and the change of location, and the majority of them also use a system that allows easy and quick assembly by their users, without the need for tools, special nor qualified personnel, providing independence to its users. Another important characteristic of some prototypes is the elevation above the ground, allowing their adaptation to terrains with unevenness, its protection against impervious terrain and meteorological agents that give rise to the deterioration of the soil and the improvement of health standards of the dwellings and the land. Several of these designs have a modular design which allows its adaptation to any other purpose that the field may need or to family nuclei of different sizes and types. Fig. 5.19 Takk

UNHCR + IKEA

Architects for society

Nicolás García Mayor

Gastón Saboulard + Federico Ortiz

Refugee Housing unit

The hex House

C-max System

Foldable Emergency Housing Modules

Image

UNHCR

Prefabrication typology Organization / Designers

Family tent

Model

In use / In production / prototype

During 47 the design + assembly

During 17,5 the assembly

During 23 the assembly

Area (m2)

Prototype

Weight (kg)

No

–

Plywood boards and pine slats and recycled plastic tarps

Assembly (People / Time)

Yes

No

Yes 1 unqualified Yes person / 1 min

Yes 2 unqualified Yes people / 11 min

5 qualified people / 8 days

Yes 4 qualified people / 6 hours

No

No

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

No

Yes

No

Yes

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

No

Yes

No

Yes

UNHCR [5]

Relocatable, UNHCR [6] reusable

Relocatable

Subsequent use –

3

Relocatable, Beta reusable, Architecture recyclable [13]

Relocatable, Cmax reusable system [11]

20 Relocatable, The hex reusable, house recyclable, [7] resalable

3

5

Elevated above ground Group capacity Resettlement capacity Exterior use Climate adaptability Life cycle (years)

Yes 3 unqualified No people / 30 min

Light design

Base: Wood or No aluminium beamsenclosures: Structural insulated panels (SIP)

Galvanized steel structure + insulated polypropylene panels

Galvanized steel structure + polyester and cotton canvas

Materiality

Light Polypropylene and aluminium central structure and polyester fabric

Yes –

Yes 160

Yes 55

Sufficient interior space

10 No

4

5

5

Occupants

During 11,25 4 the assembly

In During 14 production the assembly

In use

In use

In use

Community participation

Table 5.1  Comparative table between case studies

Principal references

Dong J. + Wu J. + Qiao S. + Feng M. + Chen Y. + Su F. + li S. + Zhao C.

Mireia Luzárraga + Alejandro Muiño

Telescopic Tent

Takk

Prototype

Prototype

During 46 the assembly

During 12 the assembly

4

–

–

Light Elastic nylon

Yes –

No

Yes Qualified people

No

Yes 2 unqualified No people / 1 min

No

Yes

No

No

Yes

Yes

No

No

–

–

Relocatable, Afasia reusable, Archzine recyclable, [16] resalable

Relocatable, Tuvie blog recyclable [14]

64

5  Analysis of Contemporary Emergency Housing

None of the cases studied meet all of the Sphere Standards in terms of area, design and capacity, such as: ensuring safe separations and privacy between genders, different age groups and different families within the same household; ensuring that essential household activities can be carried out within the covered living space; ensuring that all people affected by the disaster have a minimum covered area of ​​3.5 m2 per person and two meters high; providing a space elevated from the ground to prevent water from penetrating into it; guaranteeing a light construction with great thermal capacity in hot and dry climates such as Turkey’s one; providing good and natural ventilation in the dwellings; allowing the participation in the construction of the affected population, ensuring its resistance, and minimizing the negative effects on the local resources and the environment that may cause the production and the construction itself. Moreover, the case studies that do not have divisions in the interior of the dwellings and do not fulfil the minimum surface per user exposed in the Sphere Standards, are those that promote a light design, easy to assemble and transport and that have not yet been used in an emergency situation. Perhaps, in these examples the previous characteristics and an innovative idea have prevailed, and the needs and comfort of the affected population have been left aside. An emergency home must allow the recovery of the affected population and not be a mere storage space, therefore, it is incomprehensible that in some of these prototypes there is not enough space to carry out daily activities inside. As for the material used, it is surprising that, although most use recyclable and reusable materials, such as galvanized steel and wood, plastic products and their derivatives are used regularly, bearing in mind they have a difficult and often unprofitable recycling, generating a great environmental impact. Likewise, these prototypes seek the use of universal materials and easy and inexpensive labour, in many cases without worrying about the environmental impact that transport also causes. Another shocking aspect of almost all prototypes is their fairly low life expectancy, complicating their reuse, increasing in the amount of waste generated and avoiding the long period of time that the affected population used these housing for. Only in one of the examples, The Hex House, it is appreciated that there is the possibility of personalizing the dwelling itself, something that could increase the deadlines and the cost of production and delay the start-up of the houses. Furthermore, the main advantage of these emergency houses is that they can be used by several different families throughout their useful life, so it would not make sense for each family to have the possibility to choose the materiality, since they would be continually changing. It is important to remember that these are dwellings designed only for unexpected and not permanent situations. Likewise, the maximum durability, in most of these cases of temporary emergency housing, is 5 years, a very short useful life, thus generating an increase in the amount of waste. Undoubtedly, the most striking aspect is that most prototypes claim to be universal, trying to solve at once the different climates in which emergency housing may be needed, without considering the climatic conditions of the place. This decision can only result in these houses being uninhabitable in certain locations at certain times of the year, as each site has its own particular requirements. Only one option,

References

65

The Hex House, a permanent emergency housing solution, allows full adaptability depending on the climate zone, as the UNHCR Family Tent offers a questionable functioning climatic conditioning system, through insulating blankets and chimneys. In short, it is impossible, today, for a single prototype to be able to adapt correctly to the different climates existing without undergoing any modification.

References 1. UNDRR (2017, October) National Disaster Risk Assessment. Available online: https://www. unisdr.org/files/52828_nationaldisasterriskassessmentwiagu.pdf. Accessed on 29 June 2021 2. UNHCR (2017, March) ACNUR e IKEA Idean Nuevos Tipos de Casas en Los Campos de Refugiados. Available online: https://eacnur.org/blog/acnur-­e-­ikea-­idean-­nuevos-­tipos-­casas-­ los-­campos-­refugiados/. Accessed on 28 Apr 2020 3. Davis, I. Arquitectura de Emergencia, 1st ed.; Gustavo Gili: Barcelona, Spain (1980) Available online: https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Arquitectura+de+Emergencia&auth or=Davis,+I.&publication_year=1980. Accessed on 18 Sept 2020 4. UNHCR (2016, July) Family tent for cold weather with fire retardant. Available online: https:// cms.emergency.unhcr.org/documents/11982/57181/Family+Tent/c27ba67d-­2 1cd-­4 d72-­ b7e7-­3fc20bb086f6. Accessed on 22 Apr 2020 5. UNHCR (2016, February) Shelter design catalogue. Available online: https://cms.emergency.unhcr.org/documents/11982/57181/Shelter+Design+Catalogue+January+2016/ a891fdb2-­4ef9-­42d9-­bf0f-­c12002b3652e. Accessed on 22 Apr 2020 6. Cruz, D. (2013, July) Fundación IKEA diseña vivienda de emergencia. Available online: https:// www.plataformaarquitectura.cl/cl/626467/fundacion-­ikea-­disena-­vivienda-­de-­emergencia. Accessed on 22 Apr 2020 7. Jenna McKnight. (2016, April) Architects for society designs low-cost hexagonal shelters for refugees. Dezeen Available online: https://www.dezeen.com/2016/04/14/architects-­for-­ society-­low-­cost-­hexagonal-­shelter-­housing-­refugees-­crisis-­humanitarian-­architecture/. Accessed on 22 Apr 2020 8. Architects for society (2015) The Hex House. Available online: http://www.hex-­house. com/#contact. Accessed on 22 Apr 2020 9. Nicolás García Mayor (2001) Cmax System. Available online: https://nicogarciamayor.org/ portfolio/cmax-­system. Accessed on 15 July 2022 10. Fernández M (2016, March) Cmax System: el diseño que revolucionó la vivienda de emergencia. El Definido Available online: https://www.eldefinido.cl/actualidad/mundo/4857/Cmax-­ System-­el-­diseno-­que-­revoluciono-­la-­vivienda-­de-­emergencia/. Accessed on 24 Apr 2020 11. Cmax Innovation for Humanity. Available online: https://cmaxsystem.com/. Accessed on 15 July 2022 12. José Tomás Franco (2013, June) Cmax System: argentino llama la atención de la ONU con un refugio móvil para enfrentar desastres naturales. Plataforma Arquitectura Available online: https://www.plataformaarquitectura.cl/cl/02-­268869/cmax-­system-­argentino-­llama-­la-­ atencion-­de-­la-­onu-­con-­un-­refugio-­movil-­para-­enfrentar-­desastres-­naturales. Accessed on 24 Apr 2020 13. Gastón Saboulard y Federico Ortiz. (2016, December) Módulos de vivienda de emergencia desplegables. Beta Architecture. Available online: http://www.beta-­architecture.com/modulos-­ de-­vivienda-­de-­emergencia-­desplegables-­gaston-­saboulard-­federico-­ortiz/. Accessed on 24 Apr 2020

66

5  Analysis of Contemporary Emergency Housing

14. Dong Jia, Wu Jiahao, Qiao Song, Feng Ming, Chen Yu, Su Fangyu, Li Siyao y Zhao Chenyuan Tienda telescópica: tienda de emergencia modular hecha de material de nylon impermeable elástico. Tuvie Blog. Available online: http://www.tuvie.com/telescopic-­tent-­modular-­ emergency-­tent-­made-­of-­elastic-­waterproof-­nylon-­material/. Accessed on 24 Apr 2020 15. RedDot (2016) Telescopic Tent. https://www.red-­dot.org/project/telescopic-­tent-­26729 Accessed on 15 July 2022 16. Mireia Luzárraga + Alejandro Muiño (2013, August) 79 takk. Afasia Archzine Blog. Available online: http://afasiaarchzine.com/2013/08/79-­takk/. Accessed on 24 Apr 2020

Chapter 6

Definition of the Sustainability Criteria in the Materials Used: Cradle-to-Cradle Certified Products

Abstract In this situation of excessive consumption of natural resources and immoderate production of waste, the importance of establishing a new economic model of a cyclical nature, the circular economy, is evident. This system aims to optimize the life of each material by reducing the environmental impact that generates the production process, thus creating an economy that is both sustainable and profitable. Currently, there is a need to think of new ways of producing and consuming, valuing the components of the products, thus recovering, at the end of their life cycle, the raw materials with which they have been manufactured or reusing their components for new purposes. From this need, the Cradle-to-Cradle Products Innovation Institute was created, whose basic principles are ensuring that materials are safe for humans and the environment, allowing a circular economy through the design of products and processes, preserving the environment, and respecting human rights, thus contributing to a just and equitable society. Considering all the points studied in the previous chapters, an action protocol has been executed for the design of emergencies housing. This design protocol for emergency housing is sectioned in two parts: functionality and materiality. Keywords  Sustainability · SDGs · Circular economy · Construction In a context of excessive consumption of natural resources and immoderate production of waste, the importance of implementing a new economic model of a cyclical nature, the circular economy, becomes clearly necessary. This innovative system intends to optimize the life of every material by reducing the environmental impact that generates the manufacturing process, hence creating an economy that is both sustainable and profitable. Currently, there is a need to think of new ways of producing and consuming, valuing the components of the products, thus recovering, at the end of their life cycle, the raw materials with which they have been manufactured or reusing their components for new purposes. From this need, the Cradle-to-Cradle Products Innovation Institute was founded. The Institute declares that the manner © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 P. Mercader-Moyano, P. Porras-Pereira, Circular Economy in Emergency Housing: Eco-Efficient Prototype Design for Subaşi Refugee Camp in Turkey and Maicao Refugee Camp in Colombia, SpringerBriefs in Climate Studies, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-32770-4_6

67

68

6  Definition of the Sustainability Criteria in the Materials Used: Cradle-to-Cradle…

companies design and make products today has a direct impact on the world we will inhabit tomorrow, so it powers the shift to a circular economy by setting the global standard for materials, products and systems that positively impact people and planet [1]. Therefore, the Institute essential premises are ensuring that materials are secure for humans and the environment, enabling a circular economy through product and process design, generating clean energy and protecting the environment, safeguarding air, water and soil resources and embracing safe, fair and equitable labour practices that advance human rights and strong communities, thus contributing to a just and equitable society [1]. In order to accomplish the aforementioned, a Cradle-to-Cradle Product Certification is used, which provides the framework to assess the safety, circularity and responsibility of materials and products, based on environmental and social performance, across five categories of sustainability performance: material health, product circularity, clean air and climate protection, water and soil stewardship, and social fairness [1]. These essential premises, collected in Fig. 6.1, will be considered when choosing the materiality of the designed prototype. • Material Health: this category helps guarantee that chemicals and materials used in the product are selected to prioritize the protection of humans and the environ-

Fig. 6.1  Cradle-to-Cradle Products Innovation Institute essential premises

6.1  Definition of the Design Protocol for Emergency Housing

•

• • •

69

ment, thus generating a positive impact on the quality of materials available for future use and cycling [2]. Product Circularity: this category aims to eliminate the concept of waste by designing products that can remain in perennial cycles of use and reuse, enabling a circular economy through regenerative products and process design [2]. Products are classified into two cycles, one biological and one technological. Within the first, all products suitable for consumption that contain nutrients and are biodegradable would be found, so that once their useful life is over, they can be returned to nature. The second cycle would encompass all the devices and machinery made up of technological elements, which can be dismantled and returned to the production cycle repeatedly indefinitely [3]. Clean Air & Climate Protection: this category aims to ensure that product manufacturing results in a positive impact on air quality, promotes renewable energy supply, and reduces harmful emissions [2]. Water & Soil Stewardship: this category helps ensuring that watersheds and soil ecosystems are protected, and clean water and healthy soils are available to people and all other organisms, safeguarding clean water and healthy soils [2]. Social Fairness: the goal of this category is to design business practices that respect human rights and contribute to a fair and equitable society [2].

The Cradle-to-Cradle Certified product standard offers a path for product manufacturers to achieve the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) associated with natural resource stewardship, social equity, and sustainable production and consumption, since it establishes a series of rigorous parameters for the product sustainability throughout its life cycle, from the materials used to its reuse [1]. Currently, Cradle-to-Cradle Certified is a globally recognized measure of safer and more sustainable products made for circular economy. It is as an innovative path to design and manufacture products with a positive impact on people and the environment [2]. As a result of the restrictive peculiarities of emergency housing, the range of materials that would function suitably in the final prototype are narrow. Apart from using materials that follow the circular economy standards, these materials must be able to adapt to an ephemeral, flexible and removable architecture, with transportable capacity and that allows the cooperation of its users in the construction process. The importance of applying the circular economy principles of durability and disassembly must not be forgotten.

6.1 Definition of the Design Protocol for Emergency Housing The existing situation requires not only the implementation of a circular economy; but going from being solely sustainable to being regenerative, actively contributing to the regeneration and amelioration of the health of people, society, and the planet [4]. Concurrently, numerous experts advocate the importance of accommodation for the recovery of people after the occur of an emergency.

70

6  Definition of the Sustainability Criteria in the Materials Used: Cradle-to-Cradle…

Considering all the points previously studied, in this section, an action protocol has been executed for the correct design of emergency housing, including the criteria to be considered to respond to all the previous precepts, which are listed in Appendix A. Design protocol for emergency housing. This design protocol for emergency housing is sectioned in two parts: functionality and materiality. The first section comprises aspects concerning the prototype commissioning and minimum habitability standards, ensuring the welfare of its users at all times. The second section encompasses the environmental impact of the materials utilised, defining the characteristics of these materials in order to be functional in emergency housings. Both sections are based on the conclusions drew after the analysis of the case studies, the SDGs, and the Sphere Standards, assuring compliance with the minimum habitability standards. Additionally, the section related to the materiality also incorporates the Cradle-to-Cradle Products Innovation Institute standards and the circular economy premises established in the 2030 Agenda, thus guaranteeing the usage of safer and more sustainable products that follow the circular economy criteria. Some of the most relevant aspects collected in the first section are the facility and celerity of transport, the lessened production time, the adjustability and versatility of the design, the need for adequate interior space for quotidian activities, the guaranty of providing safe divisions and privacy between users protecting their safety, dignity, and humans rights, the quality and comfort of the spaces, and the importance of involving the affected population in planning for temporary community settlements. Furthermore, the second section includes aspects such as ensuring the durability of the prototype and evaluating the specific climatic conditions of the location to offer optimal thermal comfort. Along with encouraging the utilization of sustainable local materials and constructive solutions that are familiar to the affected population, eliminating waste utmost, minimizing the negative effects on local environmental resources, and utilizing circular and sustainable materials that allow the dismantling and relocation of the system. This eco-efficient design protocol determines the essential principles to consider in any emergency situation, therefore avoiding the precarious nature to which those in forced displacement are exposed.

References 1. Cradle to Cradle Products Innovation Institute. What Is Cradle to Cradle Certified™? Available online: http://www.c2ccertified.org/get-­certified/product-­certification. Accessed on 10 Aug 2020 2. What is Cradle to Cradle Certified™? Cradle to Cradle Products Innovation Institute Available online: http://www.c2ccertified.org/get-­certified/product-­certification. Accessed on 10 Aug 2020 3. McDonough, William (2002) Cradle to Cradle: Remaking the Way We Make Things. Available online: https://mcdonough.com/writings/cradle-­cradle-­remaking-­way-­make-­ things/#:~:text=In%20Cradle%20to%20Cradle%3A%20Remaking,eliminates%20the%20 concept%20of%20waste. Accessed on 24 July 2020

References

71

4. The European Portal for Energy Efficiency in Buildings (2018, October) From restorative to regenerative sustainability: state of art and visions for regenerative heritage. Available online: https://www.buildup.eu/en/news/restorative-­regenerative-­sustainability-­state-­art-­and-­visions-­ regenerative-­heritage. Accessed on 2 Feb 2021

Chapter 7

Results and Discussion

Abstract  As previously mentioned, to verify the applicability of the developed protocol, a field work was executed in both an unorganized and an organized settlements that fulfil the characteristics of a refugee camp: Subaşi camp, located in the province of Izmir, in Turkey, and Maicao camp, located in the department of La Guajira, in Colombia. Considering the action protocol executed for the design of emergencies housing, a prototype has been developed to apply the comprised guidelines and hence verify its viability. As a result of the restrictive peculiarities of emergency housing, the range of materials that would work correctly for the final prototype are few, as the materials used have to fit within a circular economy, and must be able to adapt to an ephemeral, flexible, architecture, removable, portable, and cooperative capacity of its users in the construction. The prototype designed prioritises the inhabitants, maintaining human dignity, and sustaining family and community life. Keywords  Habitability conditions · Sustainability · Circular economy · Emergency housing · Emergency architecture · Construction As previously mentioned, to verify the applicability of the developed protocol, a field work was executed in both an unorganized and an organized settlements that fulfil the characteristics of a refugee camp: Subaşi camp, located in the province of Izmir, in Turkey, and Maicao camp, located in the department of La Guajira, in Colombia. An emergency housing design has been developed to apply the guidelines comprised in the developed protocol and hence verify its viability.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 P. Mercader-Moyano, P. Porras-Pereira, Circular Economy in Emergency Housing: Eco-Efficient Prototype Design for Subaşi Refugee Camp in Turkey and Maicao Refugee Camp in Colombia, SpringerBriefs in Climate Studies, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-32770-4_7

73

74

7  Results and Discussion

7.1 Identification of the Minimum Habitability Conditions Displaced people are especially vulnerable to a wide range of human rights violations, which further leads to serious difficulties in their access to proper and sustainable living conditions [1]. Being aware of this concern, the design prioritises the inhabitants, maintaining human dignity, and sustaining family and community life. Among other things, the protocol proposed advocates for a prototype where its users would be able not only to develop essential household and livelihood activities inside, but also, they would have a space to convalesce and feel protected and comfortable, without housing shortages, guaranteeing optimal living conditions and allowing the gradual resume of their life. The design of the prototype must provide its inhabitants with independence, empowerment, and a sense of ownership, without forgetting that that humanitarian response plans must ensure that these temporary housings do not become a permanent housing solution to which it is resorted automatically. The protocol established for the prototype design is includes the minimum standards for humanitarian response determined in the Sphere Manual, the SDGs, the circular economy premises established in the 2030 Agenda, the Cradle-to-Cradle Products Innovation Institute standards, and the conclusions obtained from the analysis of the different case studies. This proposed protocol determines that an emergency housing that responds correctly to the situation in which people live at a refugee camp must fulfil the following key points: Durability An emergency housing with a useful life of approximately 10 years will be proposed. This way it can be used by several families and its materials can be reused and recycled, giving rise to other elements. Easiness and rapidity of transport The proposed prototype will use materials available in the surroundings of the work site in order to considerably reduce the environmental impact of transport. Likewise, the proposed design will be compact and will have flat packaging and standard measurements to facilitate its transport. Easiness of storage and assembly The proposed design will be compact and will have flat packaging and standard measurements to facilitate its storage when not in use. In addition, a system that allows easy and quick assembly by its users, without the need for special tools or qualified personnel for it will be used, so that they have independence to change the location of the house when desired. Reduced manufacturing time Since the materials used are available in the surroundings of the field and at any time of the year, the manufacturing time will be reduced. Moreover, the prototype is not customized in order to minimize production time. (continued)

7.1  Identification of the Minimum Habitability Conditions

75

Participation of the affected population It is essential that the users of the dwellings feel part of them. For this reason, it is important that they be able to participate at the time of assembly, even if they are not qualified to do so. This participation will give them independence by being able to relocate the house without external help and the feeling of empowerment and ownership, which in disaster situations help restore the lives of those affected. Elevation above the ground As we have seen previously, the elevation of the house above the ground generates salubrious spaces, so the proposal will have an elevation by means of adjustable legs that also allow its adaptation to uneven terrain. This elevation is very useful as well in impermeable terrains with difficult drainage, as is the case of the Subaşi and Maicao field, which remains flooded for much of the year. Adaptability and flexibility A modular system with grouping capacity will be proposed, thus adapting to the different needs and uses of the field in which they are located and of the users who inhabit it. Thus, allowing their use to different sizes of families and a wide variety of community activities, without excluding anything or anyone. Quality and comfort Although this prototype is designed to be a temporary solution and not a permanent one, the minimum standards of habitability should not be forgotten, and must be applied in these temporary homes so that their users can experience a decent daily life, since they are expected to spend several years there. Safety and vulnerability The proposed prototype will ensure the safety, dignity and rights of its users, ensuring the protection of their freedom and physical safety in situations that may be threatened by external agents, since certain people may be particularly vulnerable to abuse and discrimination. Compliance with Sphere Standards Since global humanitarian aid organizations take this manual as an example to respond to disaster situations, the housing prototype proposed will comply with the indicators and guidelines set out in it. Thus, ensuring that the affected people they have a place in which to develop with dignity and their urgent needs have been met in a satisfactory way, helping them to re-establish their lives. Surface / occupants / sufficient interior space for daily activities Complying with the Sphere Standards, the proposed prototype will have a minimum interior surface of 3.5 m2 per inhabitant, sufficient surface to be able to carry out daily activities and to install divisions that allow independence between users. It should not be forgotten that emergency housing must allow people to recover and not be a mere storage and overcrowding space. Materiality A system that advocates the use of local materials will be proposed. This decision will reduce the environmental impact, and the accommodation solutions and materials used will be known to the affected population, as well as culturally and socially acceptable, if possible. (continued)

76

7  Results and Discussion Circular materials Environmentally sustainable materials will be used. In addition, they will be materials that allow the prototype to be disassembled and relocated, facilitating its reuse and recycling, thus extending its useful life and, therefore, its economic viability. However, the specific characteristics of the materials to be used will be seen in the successive sections of the investigation. Climatic adaptability The prototype proposed will be designed only for a specific location, although it may work in locations of the same climatic zone. The particular climatic conditions for each season will be evaluated in order to offer optimal thermal comfort, ventilation and protection for that site. Although this model will not be able to function correctly in other locations, in the near future, an envelope that can adapt to different locations will be designed, so that its base structure can continue to be useful.

Following all the precepts of the design protocol for emergency housing aforementioned, the prototype was designed, only in the absence of the choice of materiality, which is thoroughly specified in the subsequent section.

7.2 Definition of the Sustainability Criteria in the Materials Used: Cradle-to-Cradle Certified Products As a result of the restrictive peculiarities of emergency housing, the range of materials that would work correctly for the final prototype are few, as the materials used have to fit within a circular economy, and must be able to adapt to an ephemeral, flexible, architecture, removable, portable, and cooperative capacity of its users in the construction. The importance of applying the circular economy principles of durability and disassembly must not be forgotten. These aspects should be carefully taken into account especially when working on emergency housing, since their inhabitants are economically vulnerable, and the resources must be optimised, promoting material recovery, value retention, and meaningful next use [2]. Following the protocol established in Appendix A. Design protocol for emergency housing, no material in the Cradle-to-Cradle Products Innovation Institute catalogue meets the previous needs, since the vast majority of these are designed for permanent construction or are not adapted to some of the key concepts to achieve in the emergency housing prototype mentioned above. Therefore, it was decided to propose products or materials, which are available in areas close to Subaşi and Maicao camp, and which follow the method of safe and circular redesign of products proposed by the Cradle-to-Cradle Products Innovation Institute. This method explores the implications of material choice in each phase of their life cycle: during production, the use phase, the post-use phase, and when materials are reintroduced into the system. To effectively design a product for its use in closed cycles, it is essential to consider the impact of the choice of materials, for humans or the environment, in each of these stages of the life cycle [3]. In this way

7.2  Definition of the Sustainability Criteria in the Materials Used: Cradle-to-Cradle…

77

it must be guaranteed that the materials used are adaptable to emergency housing use and meet the characteristics and processes necessary to be considered safer and more sustainable products that are manufactured in accordance with circular economy and create a positive impact. In this specific case they will be galvanized steel, already used in the structure of the current homes of the residents of the different settlements; Accoya natural wood panels, OSB panels, and rock wool insulation for the construction of the sandwich panels that will function as the envelope of the prototype; and finally, cellular polycarbonate, for the openings of the accommodation. While the suppliers of OSB panels and rock wool are found in the same province of Izmir, where Subaşi is located, the suppliers of cellular polycarbonate, Accoya natural wood panels, and galvanized steel can be found in Turkey itself. Furthermore, all the suppliers for the Maicao settlement are found within the Colombian borders: the suppliers of cellular polycarbonate and OSB panels are in the same department of La Guajira, where Maicao is located, and the suppliers of Accoya natural wood panels, rock wool, and galvanized steel can be found in Colombia itself. The availability of the materials used in the surroundings of the work sites facilitates and speeds up transport, reducing considerably costs, and environmental impact.

7.2.1 Galvanized Steel Since the housings currently used in the different settlements chosen for the research are built on the basis of a removable galvanized steel structure of tubular profiles, this material will be utilised for the base structure of the prototype in order to be able to reuse some of the existing ones and thus reduce costs. This decision will facilitate the commissioning of the houses as it is a familiar material for the users and on which they have sufficient technical knowledge and skills for its assembly. Zinc, together with steel, is 100% recyclable and also guarantees, unlike other coatings, the absence of toxic or dangerous chemical substances, not generating impacts on the environment, providing as well exceptional durability and constructive versatility without any conservation cost [4]. In addition, galvanizing plants are completely sustainable, do not generate discharges since recycle all the water they consume, and are climatically efficient since all the heat generated is recovered [5]. Moreover, galvanized steel is capable of resisting inclement weather, it is lighter than many other metals, and its cost is very low, which will favour its acquisition, assembly, and transport by users [5]. The following figure, Fig. 7.1, certify that galvanized steel is a material which meets the requirements and processes necessary to be included in the Cradle-to-­ Cradle Certified catalogue, following the method of safe and circular redesign of products proposed by the Institute. The circular process of this material can change its starting point depending on the state in which the material is found, starting in any of the phases that make up its cycle.

78

7  Results and Discussion

Fig. 7.1  Life cycle of galvanized steel structures

7.2.2 Natural Wood and OSB Sandwich Panels and Rock Wool Insulation For the exterior walls of the prototypes, it is proposed to use sandwich panels made out of OSB wood on the inside and natural wood on the outside with rock wool insulation in between that will be attached to the galvanized steel structure mentioned above by means of some galvanized steel clamps. The choice of a unlike type of wood for the different faces of the sandwich panel is justified only due to the dissimilar characteristics that the interior and exterior of the houses require. The choice of OSB panels lowers the total cost of the prototype, although, due to its limited resistance to humidity, natural wood panels have been used for the outside of the sandwich panels. The choice of OSB for the sandwich panels has numerous reasons: wood is a great thermal and acoustic insulator and is a completely sustainable material that guarantees one of the cleanest and cheapest recycling processes [6]. The use of wood for the cladding of the prototype arises from the fact that it fulfils all the

7.2  Definition of the Sustainability Criteria in the Materials Used: Cradle-to-Cradle…

79

standards of the circular economy: it is renewable, recyclable, reusable, and biodegradable. In addition, it is a natural material, available in large quantities and is easy to produce [7]. It is important to highlight that wood is an important source of carbon retention, contributing to the mitigation of climate change [8]. Additionally, the decision of utilizing sandwich panels, which incorporate insulation, in detachable temporary houses allows an easy and quick transport and start-up, as it has a smaller number of pieces. Likewise, a very positive aspect of wood is that, despite the large amount of low-­ quality wood out there, all of it is reusable, and high-quality materials can be produced by easily converting it into chips or fibres [8]. Unlike natural solid wood, artificial wood has great dimensional stability, since the orientation of the wood fibres of which the boards are composed is alternated so that they do not deform over time. Moreover, artificial wood contributes to circular economy, due to the fact that they incorporate processing waste, low-quality materials or recycled parts, and they contribute to environmental sustainability, since they are incorporate certain remains of other materials, thus avoiding the felling of a large number of trees [9]. Additionally, these panels offer excellent resistance and high load capacity, they do not have knots, holes or other types of weak points, they offer thermal and acoustic insulation capacity and fire resistance similar to those offered by solid wood. The following figure, Fig. 7.2, certify that the OSB panels used on the sandwich panels is a material which meets the requirements and processes necessary to be included in the Cradle-to-Cradle Certified catalogue, following the method of safe and circular redesign of products proposed by the Institute. The circular process of this material can change its starting point depending on the state in which the material is found, starting in any of the phases that make up its cycle. The material for the exterior cladding of the panels, the Accoya group outdoor wood cladding, has been chosen from the Cradle-to-Cradle Institute products registry. This material is already registered by the Cradle-to-Cradle Institute with a gold certification, which guarantees that the materials used and the environmental and social performance in the process of product manufacturing comply with the UN SDGs, which establishes rigorous parameters for the sustainability of the product throughout its life cycle [10]. The selected product is the Accoya group’s exterior wood cladding, sourced from fast-growing and sustainable forests. This material is very durable and resistant to water and rot, characteristics that have been key in its choice. Likewise, it is capable of withstanding any type of climate without visibly distorting, reaching a useful life of 70 years. Also, because this wood is indigestible by a wide range of insect pests, it is highly resistant to insect attack and damage. This cladding does not require maintenance, which facilitates its use in emergency housing, as well as saves time and money to its users [10]. In addition, thanks to its multiple suppliers, we find one close to the worksite, which lowers transport costs and reduces the environmental impact of the product [11]. For its part, rock wool, which is fire and humidity resistant and functions as thermal and acoustic insulation, is fully recyclable, since it comes from a natural rock, basalt. The final product is designed with 70–90% raw materials coming from

80

7  Results and Discussion

Fig. 7.2  Life cycle of OSB panels

reconverted waste from metal manufacturing, power plants and sewage treatment. Likewise, as this material does not degrade over time, its useful life is very prolonged, allowing infinite recycling, giving rise to new products or new rock wool [12, 13]. Another important aspect of circular economy is the utilization of modular construction materials that are simple to disassemble and separate according to the materials, thus allowing their reuse and recycling, without forgetting that works perfectly maintaining optimal temperature in interior spaces, regardless of the weather conditions outside [14]. The following figure, Fig. 7.3, certify that the rock wool insulation used on the inside of the sandwich panels is a material which meets the requirements and processes necessary to be included in the Cradle-to-Cradle Certified catalogue, following the method of safe and circular redesign of products proposed by the Institute. The circular process of this material can change its starting point depending on the state in which the material is found, starting in any of the phases that make up its cycle.

7.2  Definition of the Sustainability Criteria in the Materials Used: Cradle-to-Cradle…

81

Fig. 7.3  Life cycle of rockwool

7.2.3 Cellular Polycarbonate After analysing innumerable materials that could function properly as translucent material for the windows of the emergency housing prototype, since they must be resistant, light, removable, easily accessible, and circular, it is concluded that up to this day, there is not yet a material that is capable of fulfilling all these characteristics, since the field of translucent materials is limited. Presently, the range of translucent materials is restricted to derivatives of polymers or glass, which are either difficult to maintain in a circular cycle or are too brittle and heavy. For this reason, it was decided to choose cellular polycarbonate as the translucent material for the prototype windows. This product is an extruded polymer material with an interior structure similar double T beams, providing the panel with stability, resistance and special thermal properties. Polycarbonate is much stronger than glass, is more cost-effective, and weighs a lot less. In addition,

82

7  Results and Discussion

it has excellent acoustic properties, can be easily installed by unqualified personnel and allows a large amount of light to pass through, blocking ultraviolet radiation [15]. The principal disadvantage of this material lies in its circularity, because, although it is possible to be recycled, it requires very specific technologies. This makes recycling difficult, although not impossible. Moreover, the use of this material will be very limited, allowing the ventilation capacity and lower energy consumption of the design, making it an optimal material for this situation [16]. The following figure, Fig.  7.4, certify that polycarbonate is a material which meets the requirements and processes necessary to be included in the Cradle-to-­ Cradle Certified catalogue. The circular process of this material can change its starting point depending on the state in which the material is found, starting in any of the phases that make up its cycle.

Fig. 7.4  Life cycle of cellular polycarbonate

7.2  Definition of the Sustainability Criteria in the Materials Used: Cradle-to-Cradle…

83

7.2.4 Definition of the Sustainability Criteria in the Materials Used: Sphere Manual As well as to establish the needs in terms of the design of the emergency housing prototype, when choosing its constructive characteristics, the guidelines of the Sphere Manual have also been considered [17]. One of the fundamental aspects in the construction of emergency housing is, as seen above, the participation of the affected population. The Sphere Handbook Standard 4 on Shelter and Human Settlement Construction underscores the importance of using local construction practices, materials, technical knowledge and capacities to maximize the participation of the affected population and local livelihood opportunities [17]. Other key guidelines for the choice of materiality are the possibility of maintenance and improvement of the houses by their users, using locally available tools and resources, thus providing a house resistant to weather conditions and natural hazards. On the other hand, in the field of the environmental impact of constructions, Standard 5 of the Sphere Manual aims to minimize the negative effects on local environmental resources that may be caused by the production and supply of materials of construction and the construction itself, therefore carrying out responsible management of environmental resources, reducing the pressure on the environment [17]. These indications have been key to define, in terms of materiality, the emergency housing prototype: a galvanized steel base structure on which the natural wood and OSB sandwich panels are attached to using galvanized steel clamps. All the materials used can be easily found in the local surroundings, besides being known by the users, since the houses currently used already have a galvanized steel structure. In addition, the selected materials require minimal maintenance, saving users time and money, while offering security in terms of quality, longevity and resistance. The climate of the locations, typically Mediterranean and Tropical, does not entail a climatic risk, moreover, the chosen locations do not present frequent natural hazards that could put the homes and their users at risk. Finally, to ensure that the environmental impact of the houses is as low as possible, materials that follow the guidelines of circular economy and that are available in the surroundings of the work site have been used, thus reducing the negative effects of transport. For all the aforementioned, it is concluded that the materials chosen for the construction of these emergency housing would be suitably adapted to the needs and characteristics of its users, without entailing harmful effects on the environment.

84

7  Results and Discussion

7.3 Emergency Housing Prototype Design After the investigation, it is concluded that emergency housing that responds correctly to the situation in which people find themselves at Subaşi and Maicao camps will have the following key points: ease and speed of transport, durability, reduced manufacturing time, participation of the affected population, ease of storage and assembly, elevation above the ground, adaptability and flexibility, safety and vulnerability, quality and comfort, compliance with the Sphere Standards, sufficient interior space for daily activities, use of local and circular materials, and climatic adaptability. The prototype designed based on the criteria and precepts established in the previous points, which can be seen in Fig. 7.5 and whose planimetry developed to scale is found in Appendix B. Architectural design and constructive details of the prototype, initially consists of a 6 m2 base module, designed for a single person, with annexation capacity that allows a configuration of greater dimensions and adaptable to different uses and/or population groups (Fig. 7.6). These houses have a structure formed by tubular galvanized steel profiles that is anchored to the ground by means of a superficial foundation such as an EasyPAD. Its envelope is constituted of sandwich panels with interior cladding of OSB panels, exterior natural wood cladding for exteriors from the Accoya group and rock wool insulation, along with a natural wooden plank from the same Accoya group that will function as the base of the prototype. This exterior cladding allows the opening of gaps that will facilitate ventilation, the entry of natural light, and the access to the interior of the house. The openings of the house are resolved by a sliding system composed by galvanized steel rails. The two window openings have a wooden panel from the Accoya group on the outside that will block the entry of light and give total privacy to the interior spaces, and a cellular polycarbonate panel on the inside that will allow light to pass through and filter the vision of the interior.

Fig. 7.5  Circulation diagram single module

7.3  Emergency Housing Prototype Design

85

Fig. 7.6  Circulation diagram quadruple module

The interior divisions of this prototype, in case of connecting two or more modules, will be made of OSB panels which will be used to separate the night areas from the main room, providing privacy to the different spaces within the house (Fig. 7.7). These modules are mainly intended to be used as housing in emergency situations, but due to their flexibility they can also be clustered together to form multi-­ unit residences or common use facilities such as schools, activity or bureaucratic centres, or, depending on the kind of emergency situation like pandemics or earthquakes, as field hospitals, vaccination centres, or even morgues. Additionally, using only the structure and the base panel, they can also be used as common outdoor

86

7  Results and Discussion

Fig. 7.7 (a) Perspective of the prototype; (b) sectioned perspective of the prototype; (c) exploded axonometric of the prototype

spaces with customization capacity, much-needed spaces in refugee camps and settlements. The prototype proposed is intended to be a universal solution that can be used in different locations where it may be needed, previously adapting it climatically, hence is a rapidly deployable and easy-to-build dwelling, and it has a culturally neutral design with the capacity for customization by its inhabitants. The neutrality of its design and the use of materials globally used allows all cultures to feel identified and comfortable with it.

7.3  Emergency Housing Prototype Design

87

7.3.1 Prototype Assembly Process This section details the elements used for the final design of the emergency housing prototype and its assembly process. Firstly, EasyPad-type supports will be used as a surface foundation (Fig. 7.8). The main advantages of this element are its easy placement and its non-invasiveness and modification of the terrain on which it is placed, since it will only be necessary to level the support plane. In addition, they have a great load capacity and adjustment to the structure under which they are placed. Lastly, their life expectancy is long, due to the fact that they are not affected by inclement weather. When placing these foundation elements, it will be necessary to make sure that they are all at the same level and that they cannot easily move in any direction, so that the final structure is well stabilized. Once this surface foundation system has been correctly placed, the galvanized steel structure will begin to be installed (Fig. 7.9). The first part of the vertical uprights of the structure will be screwed on the. On these, T-shaped galvanized steel union pieces will be placed, which will serve to assemble the horizontal and vertical pieces of the structure. Finally, threaded galvanized steel screws will be placed, in order to ensure the union between all the pieces. Before continuing with the following steps, it will be checked that all the joints are secure, and the structure is correctly stabilized. Once the lower part of the structure is linked, the Accoya base panel (Fig. 7.10) will be placed, which will function as the floor of the dwelling. The panel has eight Fig. 7.8 EasyPAD superficial foundation

Fig. 7.9  Galvanized steel structure

88

7  Results and Discussion

Fig. 7.10  Base panel: Accoya natural wood panels for exteriors with rock wool insulation

Fig. 7.11  Vertical panel: Accoya natural wood panels for exteriors with rock wool insulation

Fig. 7.12  Galvanized steel clamp

perforations on its perimeter of 8 mm in diameter, the same diameter as the galvanized steel structure. These perforations will allow the previously placed vertical studs to pass through the panel and it will not be necessary to anchor it to any other elements. These panels will add rigidity to the final result and will help tying the different parts of the prototype together. When the base of the dwelling is completed, the structure will continue to be assembled until its completion, following the same process mentioned above: placing joining elements between the different tubulars that constitute the structure. Afterwards, the vertical sandwich panels will be installed (Fig. 7.11). These will be anchored to the main structure by means of clamps (Fig.  7.12) that will be screwed to the panels as shown in Fig. 7.11. Once all the clamps have been placed on the panels, these panels will be placed on the horizontal panel rails, joining the clamps to the vertical uprights by screws. This process will be carried out on all the facades of the houses. This way of placing the exterior sandwich panels will be extrapolated to the interior partitions of OSB boards, in order to provide users with independence. This mechanism is simple enough so the users can change the interior configuration of the houses regularly, if necessary. The last sandwich panel to

7.3  Emergency Housing Prototype Design

89

be placed will be the one that functions as the roof, which will be screwed to the upper horizontal structure using galvanized steel L-shaped plates. Moreover, the roof panel fits in with the vertical sandwich panels through the notches on one of its sides. Finally, the rails of the main door and the windows will be placed, as well as the Accoya wood and polycarbonate panels that close the different openings (Fig. 7.12). The prototypes will be delivered by packs, and each of them will contain a single module, although as many packs as necessary will be provided according to the needs of each family unit. Each pack will contain 8 EasyPads, a galvanized steel structure with 32 tubulars and 24 connecting pieces, an Accoya wood panel for the base, 8 sandwich panels for the walls and a ninth for the roof slab, 54 galvanized steel clamps and a box containing screws and basic tools for the construction. The assembly process for joining together several modules will be exactly the same as for a single module, although extra galvanized steel pieces and clamps will be needed to guarantee the sealing between the different roof panels and the union between the different structures. These extra pieces will be delivered when requesting more than one pack.

7.3.2 Production Process The prototype proposed in this research combines different materials in order to best adapt to the cultural, spatial, and economic needs of its users. Due to this, each material will have a different origin, although as close as possible to the different settlements chosen for the research, in order to reduce the environmental impact of transport and optimize local opportunities. Figure 7.13 shows the origin of the different materials that define the emergency housing proposal of this research for the Subaşi settlement. All materials will be delivered to the Subaşi camp by road. Figure 7.14 shows the origin of the different materials that form the emergency housing proposal of this research for the Maicao settlement. All materials will be delivered to the Maicao camp by road.

7.3.3 Prototype’s Lifespan As mentioned previously, these temporary housings should not become a permanent accommodation solution to which it is resorted automatically, but due to the long lifespan of the materials used in this prototype, these housings will be useful for an extended period of time. Figure 7.15 details the distinct phases these housings will go through throughout their useful life, in order to apply the circular economy standards during their entire process.

90

7  Results and Discussion

Fig. 7.13  Origin of the materials of the emergency housing prototype for the Subaşi settlement

The life cycle of the prototypes is principally divided into three phases: a first phase in which the residents collaborate with qualified personnel, the second one coordinated by the users, and a third phase, carried out by residents, with external support if required, in which a change in use or location of the modules is required. The first phase consists of the arrival of the diverse components of the prototypes at the site; the teaching, by qualified personnel to the first users, the construction skills necessary for the assembly of the houses; the planning of the arrangement of the accommodation in the location and the collaborative construction between residents and qualified workers. This phase will mainly act as a way of bringing the housing construction system closer to its users in order to provide them with enough autonomy for their future solo construction. The second phase, managed only by the users themselves, comprises the personalization and interior planning of the houses, which will contribute to create

7.3  Emergency Housing Prototype Design

91

Fig. 7.14  Origin of the materials of the emergency housing prototype for the Maicao settlement

personal and culturally befitting spaces for the residents in which they feel comfortable developing their life until they procure a permanent residence. Furthermore, during this phase the residents will be the ones who determine when a change in the current planning is required, either due to the demographic increase at the site or due to the need of changing the current program. At this time, the existing residents will instruct any new residents the construction skills they learned in the previous phase so that they themselves can put new modules into operation. The third phase will befall when a change of location is required, when the materials cannot continue to be used in that way or are required for other uses, either because this type of accommodation has become superfluous or because of the wear and tear of the materials with the passage of time. In the case in which the materials

92

7  Results and Discussion

Fig. 7.15  Lifespan of the emergency housing prototype

are not going to be utilised anymore, they will be recycled or reused in other usages so that their life cycle is unlimited, and they can give rise to other products. If, on the other hand, these materials can continue to be used in the prototype, but in a different location, it will be determined to dismantle the houses that require it and transport their components to the new site to start the cycle again. In this case, the first phase, in which the assembly occurs jointly between qualified personnel and the residents, is unnecessary, starting directly at the second phase, since, at this stage, the users already have the essential skills to do it themselves.

7.4 Comparative Table Between the Prototype and Other Case Studies Once the design of the prototype was concluded, including its characteristics and the materials that would be required, an analysis of present-day emergency housing in comparison with the proposal was performed. More precisely, a comparison between the current proposal and the case studies specified in Section 5 was drawn, focused on the efficacy and aptitudes of each prototype. Every prototype was analysed on the basis of the requirements determined throughout this paper in terms of

7.4  Comparative Table Between the Prototype and Other Case Studies

93

their materiality, design, performance and habitability. The results showed that in spite of the wide variety of case studies analysed, all prototypes failed in being a quick, easy and functional emergency housing, or required materials that had a critical environmental impact. Additionally, none of these case studies were closely committed to the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals of the 2030 Agenda: they failed to accomplish either equality among people, the protection of the planet, or the surety of prosperity of people. The following figure, Table 7.1, shows the most important characteristics in an emergency home, assessing how the different prototypes respond to them. Additionally, it will verify whether the proposed prototype meets all the requirements stablished in the design protocol for emergency housing proposed in previous sections. The results of the analysis allow to determine that the proposed prototype meets all the requirements established in the protocol for emergency housing. In the first place, the prototype has a flat packaging, just like most of the case studies do, which facilitates its transport and relocation. Secondly, it is elevated above the ground, so it can be adapted to uneven terrains and is protected against the potential soil deterioration caused by hazardous weather. Thirdly, its construction system allows regular users to assemble the housing without needing special tools or personnel – the basic tools needed, as well as instructions, are provided together with the different pieces of the housing. Moreover, the proposal stands out because of its modular capacity and customizability. These features allow to change the configuration of the housing, adapting it to the needs of its users or turning it into different types of installations: a school, an activity or bureaucratic centre, a hospital, vaccination centre or morgue, depending on the requirements of the emergency situation, or even an outdoor space for common use – in this last case, by using only the structure and base pieces. The minimum standards of the Sphere Standards are not met by any of the case studies analysed, since these designs and prototypes advocated for limited interior spaces with a lack of divisions for privacy and comfortability. This would lead to the inhabitants not being able to recover comfortably and to develop fundamental household and livelihood activities, without housing shortage, in these spaces. The case studies present a second problem that limits their lifespan and makes them harmful to the environment: most of these prototypes do not have recycling capacity, use materials with a high environmental impact, such as plastics, and have a fairly low life expectancy. However, the proposed prototype is designed to be built with reusable and recyclable materials considered safe and sustainable, in accordance with circular economy standards, which allows the housing to have a positive impact on the environment. Moreover, the materials needed are internationally known and are available in the surroundings of the Subaşi and Maicao camp, facilitating and speeding up transport, reducing costs and its environmental impact. The fact that they meet these characteristics is not only remarkable, but also favourable to the reduction of waste generated and the lifespan of the building –unlimited– allowing several different families to own it throughout its useful life.

UNHCR + IKEA

Architects for society

Nicolás García Mayor

Gastón Saboulard + Federico Ortiz

The Hex House

C-Max System

Foldable emergency housing modules

Image

Refugee housing unit

Prefabrication typology

UNHCR

Organization / Designers

Family Tent

Model

In use / In production / prototype

Community participation

During 47 the design + assembly

During 17,5 the assembly

During 23 the assembly

Area (m2)

Prototype

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

10 No

4

5

5

Occupants

During 11,25 4 the assembly

In During 14 production the assembly

In use

In use

In use

–

Plywood boards and pine slats and recycled plastic tarps

Assembly (People / Time)

Yes 1 unqualified person / 1 min

Yes 2 unqualified people / 11 min

5 qualified people / 8 days

Yes 4 qualified people / 6 hours

Yes 3 unqualified people / 30 min

Light design

Base: wood or No aluminium beamsEnclosures: structural insulated panels (SIP)

Galvanized steel structure + insulated polypropylene panels

Galvanized steel structure + polyester and cotton canvas

Materiality

Light Polypropylene and aluminium central structure and polyester fabric

–

160

55

Sufficient interior space Weight (kg)

Table 7.1  Comparative table between the prototype and other case studies

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

No

No

Yes

No

Yes Yes

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

No

Yes

No

Yes

–

3

20

3

5

Resettlement capacity Exterior use Climate adaptability Life cycle (years)

Yes No

No

Elevated above ground Group capacity No

Subsequent use Relocatable, reusable, recyclable

Relocatable, reusable

Relocatable, reusable, recyclable, resalable

Relocatable, reusable

Relocatable

Beta Architecture [22]

Cmax System [21]

The Hex House [20]

UNHCR [19]

UNHCR [18]

Principal references

Mireia Prototype Luzárraga + Alejandro Muiño

Research authors

Takk

Family Tent

Prototype

Dong J. + Prototype Wu J. + Qiao S. + Feng M. + Chen Y. + Su F. + Li S. + Zhao C.

Telescopic Tent

During 6 the assembly

During 46 the assembly

During 12 the assembly

1

4

–

Yes

Yes

No

–

Light steel structure + sandwich panels (natural wood + rockwool + OSB panels)

–

Light Elastic nylon

Yes 2 unqualified people / 2 hours

Yes Qualified people

Yes 2 unqualified people / 1 min

Yes

No

No

No

Yes Yes

No

Yes No

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

No

Unlimited

–

–

Relocatable, reusable, recyclable, resalable

Relocatable, reusable, recyclable, resalable

Relocatable, recyclable

–

Afasia Archzine [24]

Tuvie Blog [23]

96

7  Results and Discussion

The third and most salient concern that arose after analysing the case studies was that the majority of them claim to be universal and adaptable to different locations and climates, yet they fail to meet the requirements for them to be habitable in certain places and seasons. On the contrary, when designing the proposed prototype, its adaptability to different locations and climates was one of the priorities, so the insulation material used was designed to have a different thickness attending to the specific requirements of the location. Even though in terms of interior space there are some bigger pre-existing case studies, the proposed prototype meets the minimum standards of habitability that are recommended by the Sphere manual for a habitat intended to be used only in extraordinary and temporal situations. The prototype proposed is intended to be a universal solution used in different locations where it may be needed. Furthermore, the design of the prototype is culturally neutral and uses globally used material, allowing people from different cultures, who would be able to customize the space, to feel identified and make it as comfortable as possible for them. This way, the protocol establish is validated, demonstrating the possibility of designing a protocol that is environmentally correct for future emergencies, thus avoiding the precarious nature to which those in forced displacement are exposed.

References 1. Bedoya G Fernando. Hábitat transitorio y vivienda para emergencias. Revista Tábula Rasa. Bogotá, Colombia, n° 2: 145–166, enero-diciembre de 2004. Available online: http://www. revistatabularasa.org/numero-­2/gordillo.pdf. Accessed on 30 Mar 2020) 2. Mercader-Moyano P, Esquivias PM (2020) Decarbonization and circular economy in the sustainable development and renovation of buildings and Neighbourhoods. Sustainability 12:7914. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12197914 3. The Circular Design Guide. Materials journey mapping. Available online: https://www.circulardesignguide.com/post/journey-­mapping. Accessed on 18 Aug 2020 4. Asociación Técnica Española de Galvanización (2020, July) El Galvanizado ES Economía Circular. Available online: https://www.ateg.es/blog/el-­galvanizado-­es-­economia-­circular. Accessed on 10 Aug 2020 5. Obras Urbanas (2020, March) Renovables e internacionalización de la construcción impulsan el sector del acero galvanizado. Available online: https://www.obrasurbanas.es/renovables-­ acero-­galvanizado/. Accessed on 12 Aug 2020 6. Forestal Maderera Luis Cuesta, S.L.  La Madera es un Excelente Aislante Térmico. Available online: https://www.forestalmaderera.com/la-­madera-­excelente-­aislante-­ termico/#:~:text=La%20raz%C3%B3n%20por%20la%20cual,del%20calor%20y%20la%20 electricidad. Accessed on 15 Aug 2020 7. Fernández Farpón R (2019, June) La Madera, Clave en la Economía Circular. LinkedIn Available online: https://es.linkedin.com/pulse/la-­madera-­clave-­en-­econom%C3%ADa-­ circular-­rebeca-­fern%C3%A1ndez-­farp%C3%B3n. Accessed on 15 Aug 2020 8. Arauco S Respetar el Medio Ambiente Forma Parte de Nuestra Naturaleza. Available online.: https://www.sonaearauco.com/es/empresa/sostenibilidad-­y -­c ertificaciones_2458.html. Accessed on 15 Aug 2020

References

97

9. MDEC (2020, December) Maderas artificiales: alternativas a la madera natural. Available online: https://www.emedec.com/maderas-­artificiales-­alternativas-­a-­la-­madera-­natural/. Accessed on 15 July 2021 10. Accoya Unrivalled: Benefits of Accoya. Available online: https://www.accoya.com/why-­ accoya/benefits/. Accessed on 17 Aug 2020 11. Accoya Where to buy: Kritikos Wood (Thiva). Available online: https://www.accoya.com/ location/kritikos-­wood-­thiva-­warehouse/. Accessed on 17 Aug 2020 12. Revista Circle (2019, September). Lana de Roca, ¿el Nuevo Material Sostenible? Available online: https://www.revistacircle.com/2019/09/13/lana-­de-­roca-­el-­nuevo-­material-­sostenible/. Accessed on 15 Aug 2020 13. Rockwool (2018, May) Las 7 Fortalezas de la Roca. Available online: https://cdn01.rockwool. es/siteassets/rw-­es/herramientas/biblioteca-­de-­documentos/el-­grupo-­rockwool/7-­fortalezas-­ de-­la-­roca_es.pdf?f=20181210134413. Accessed on 15 Aug 2020 14. Rockwool (2021, July) Informe de Sostenibilidad 2019: Construidos para Durar. Available online: https://www.rockwool.es/nuestra-­vision/sostenibilidad-­y-­circularidad/economia-­ circular/. Accessed on 15 Aug 2020 15. Houzz (2015, August) Policarbonato: Una Alternativa Rentable al Cristal. Available online: https://www.houzz.es/revista/policarbonato-­una-­alternativa-­rentable-­al-­cristal-­ stsetivw-­vs~52517686. Accessed on 15 Aug 2020 16. Ecoticias Policarbonato. Available online: https://www.ecoticias.com/residuos-­reciclaje/ 21346/noticias-­d e-­h idrogeno-­b iocarburantes-­e cocarburantes-­e tanol-­b iodiesel-­b iomasa-­ biogas-­a ceite-­r eciclado-­a lgas-­b iometanizacion-­c ompost-­m edio-­m edio-­a mbiente-­ medioambiente-­medioambiental-­renovables-­residuos-­rec. Accessed on 15 Aug 2020 17. UNHCR. November 2011. El Proyecto Esfera: Carta Humanitaria y Normas Mínimas para la Respuesta Humanitaria. Available online: https://www.acnur.org/fileadmin/Documentos/ Publicaciones/2011/8206.pdf?view=1 (accessed on 14 April 2021) 18. UNHCR (2016, July) Family tent for cold weather with fire retardant. Available online: https:// cms.emergency.unhcr.org/documents/11982/57181/Family+Tent/c27ba67d-21cd-4d72b7e7-3fc20bb086f6. Accessed 22 Apr 2020 19. UNHCR (2016, February) Shelter design catalogue. Available online: https://cms.emergency.unhcr.org/documents/11982/57181/Shelter+Design+Catalogue+January+2016/ a891fdb2-4ef9-42d9-bf0f-c12002b3652e. Accessed 22 Apr 2020 20. Architects for Society (2015) The Hex House. Available online: http://www.hex-house. com/#contact Accessed 22 Apr 2020 21. Cmax Innovation for Humanity. Available online: https://cmaxsystem.com/. Accessed 15 July 2022 22. Gastón Saboulard y Federico Ortiz (2016, December) Módulos de vivienda de emergencia desplegables. Beta Architecture. Available online: http://www.beta-architecture.com/modulos-de-vivienda-de-emergencia-desplegables-gaston-saboulard-federico-ortiz/. Accessed 24 Apr 2020 23. Dong Jia, Wu Jiahao, Qiao Song, Feng Ming, Chen Yu, Su Fangyu, Li Siyao y Zhao Chenyuan Tienda telescópica: tienda de emergencia modular hecha de material de nylon impermeable elástico. Tuvie Blog. Available online: http://www.tuvie.com/telescopic-tent-modular-emergency-tent-made-of-elastic-waterproof-nylon-material/. Accessed 24 Apr 2020 24. Mireia Luzárraga + Alejandro Muiño (2013, August) 79 takk. Afasia Archzine Blog. Available online: http://afasiaarchzine.com/2013/08/79-takk/. Accessed 24 Apr 2020

Chapter 8

Conclusions

Abstract  The increase of forcibly displaced people in recent years due to natural disasters, armed conflicts, and pandemics has favoured a rise in the number of temporary accommodations. Nowadays, this type of housing tends to have a short lifespan, deepening the environmental impact and the generation of waste. Likewise, added to this great problematic is the linear economic system implemented worldwide, which also causes a high rate of waste. These two current concerns have been addressed in this investigation, reaching the conclusion that the factors that characterize emergency architecture make this an exemplification where concerns around the sustainability factor are applied in a practical way. The study shows that the factors that characterize emergency architecture can be an excellent example where the issues around the sustainability factor are applied in a practical way. The proposed prototype becomes the starting point to continue with this line of work, implementing all the precepts previously seen in existing emergency housing prototypes or in new designs that may arise. Keywords  Emergency situation · Sustainability · Circular economy · Emergency housing · Emergency architecture

The latter, shelter after disasters, only works when it is perceived and driven by a profound understanding that it is not only protection from the elements or somewhere for people to store their belongings. It works when programmes are driven by the realisation that shelter is the foundation block for people’s recovery – Mo Hamza, 2011 [1].

The upsurge of forced displacements in recent years as a result of natural disasters, armed conflicts, and pandemics has favoured a rise in the number of temporary accommodations. Nevertheless, providing adequate shelter is one of the most intractable problems in international humanitarian response, not only during the first days, but even more so during the reconstruction process, a moment in which it is crucial that families can settle in a safe place and resume to a relative normality, since the achievement of a lasting solution could take years. However, granting a © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 P. Mercader-Moyano, P. Porras-Pereira, Circular Economy in Emergency Housing: Eco-Efficient Prototype Design for Subaşi Refugee Camp in Turkey and Maicao Refugee Camp in Colombia, SpringerBriefs in Climate Studies, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-32770-4_8

99

100

8 Conclusions

temporary shelter is also one of the most difficult and expensive actions to carry out. Nowadays, this type of housing is prone to have a short lifespan, deepening the environmental impact and the generation of waste. Likewise, added to this great problematic is the linear economic system implemented worldwide. The manner companies design and make products today has a direct impact on the world we will inhabit tomorrow, therefore it becomes essential to power the shift to a circular economy by setting the global standard for materials, products and systems that positively impact people and planet. These two current concerns have been addressed in this investigation, coming to the conclusion that the factors that define emergency architecture make this an exemplification where concerns around the sustainability factor are applied in a practical way. This study assists to identify the essential aspects to be considered in any emergency situation. First of all, the cause of the displacement must be identified to respond appropriately to the minimum needs of comfort for the affected population in the event of a disaster, comprehending their needs, as well as their lifestyle, cultural and social traditions, therefore they can gradually resume their lives. Subsequently, the minimum habitability conditions, accounting the Sphere Project Standards, must be considered. These minimum standards are intended to provide protection and assistance to the affected population to guarantee the basic dignity living conditions. At the present time, there is no effective universal housing prototype utilised in emergencies, thus it becomes essential to execute an exhaustive analysis of contemporary emergency housing. Mainly, in this analysis, prototypes and temporary workings emergency houses that have been carried out or designed within these first years of the twenty-first century have been taken into account, thus obtaining a wide range of contemporary solutions to evaluate their effectiveness. This study identifies the defective features of these existing prototypes, which will help to set the design basis of the novel prototype in the most effective way possible. Furthermore, the housing must be thermically adaptable to the location where it is required, fulfilling the minimum comfort and habitability conditions. Consequently, the circular economy criteria in emergency architecture have been considered, thus implementing a new way of producing and consuming, valuing the components of the products, and recovering, at the end of their life cycle, the raw materials with which they have been manufactured or reusing their components for new purposes. Firstly, an analysis of the environmental impact of the current linear production system and how it can meliorate substituting it for a circular one was developed, along with how to implement in the prototype materials whose manufacture processes are more sustainable. Lastly, following the Cradle-to-Cradle Products Innovation Institute standards, since it is considered a globally recognized measure of safer and more sustainable products made for circular economy, the sustainability criteria in the materials used was defined. These standards ensure that materials are secure for humans and the environment, enabling a circular economy through product and process design, generating clean energy and protecting the environment, safeguarding air, water and soil resources and embracing safe, fair and equitable

8 Conclusions

101

labour practices that advance human rights and strong communities, thus contributing to a just and equitable society. Once these questions have been addressed, the action protocol, which compiles the conclusions acquire at each phase, was developed. This action protocol advocates for an emergency housing prototype where its users would be capable of not only developing essential household and livelihood activities in the interior spaces, but also, they would have a space to convalesce and feel protected and comfortable, without housing shortages, guaranteeing optimal living conditions and allowing the gradual resume of their life. The design of the prototype provides its inhabitants with independence, empowerment, and a sense of ownership. The existence of clear parameters allows the different humanitarian organizations to make similar decisions within the same context, causing the choice of the temporary housing used to be the correct one and the assistance to the affected people to be equitable. This eco-efficient design protocol determines the basic premises in any emergency situation, therefore avoiding the precarious nature to which those in forced displacement are exposed. Lastly, based on the preceding protocol, this investigation presents a novel emergency housing prototype that could be used as an alternative to current emergency housing, not only responding adequately to the minimum standards of habitability, but also doing so in an eco-efficient, environmentally responsible way, and closely committed to the SDGs and circular economy standards established in the 2030 Agenda. The proposed prototype not only solves the aspect of a rapid commissioning of emergency housing in the required location, meeting minimum standards of habitability and covering the needs that their inhabitants may have, but also providing eco-efficient and environmentally responsible solutions that help closing the life cycle of its materials, incorporating the prototype into a circular cycle that respects the environment and society. Moreover, this novel prototype meliorates the quality of life of forcibly displaced people, allowing them to quickly resume to a progressive normality and protecting them from insalubrious and vulnerable situations. Additionally, this prototype contemplates the precepts of regenerative sustainability, considering that it is a solution that provides economic, social and environmental benefits to its users and the environment. Resuming the investigation question: would it be possible to implement sustainability standards into emergency housing? It can be confirmed that the implementation of circular economy in emergency housing is utterly possible. In any case, it should always be remembered that the implementation of this new temporary housing prototype during an emergency situation must always be done from the maximum knowledge of the existing reality, closely in contact with the affected population, involving the community during the process, taking into account local resources, designing for the present without losing sight of future planning, looking for material solutions along with social procedures and with the necessary coordination of all the agents involved.

102

8 Conclusions

Once the positive performance of the combination of emergency architecture and sustainable aspects has been corroborated, the proposed prototype becomes the commencement of this line of work, implementing all the precepts previously seen in existing emergency housing prototypes or in new designs that may arise.

Reference 1. Davis I (2011) What have we learned from 40 years’ experience of disaster shelter? Environmental Hazards 10(3–4):193–212. https://doi.org/10.1080/17477891.2011.597499

 ppendices A1: Design Protocol for Emergency A Housing (Table A1)

Table A1  Design protocol for emergency housing Design protocol for emergency housing Functionality Facility and celerity of transport, in order to substantially reduce the environmental impact of transportation. Facility of storage and assembly, with flat packaging, conventional measurements, and ease of assembly by the inhabitants themselves. Lessened production time, thence the response to the emergency is as rapid as possible. Adequate interior space for quotidian activities, resulting in spaces that permit people to recover, offering them privacy and independence. Security and vulnerability, guaranteeing the safety, dignity, and humans rights of its users, ensuring the protection of their liberty and physical safety. Elevation above the ground, hence generating salubrious spaces preventing water from entering into the covered living area and allowing its adaptation to uneven terrain. Adjustability and versatility, to adapt to the diverse needs and uses of the field in which they are situated and of the people who inhabit it. Quality and comfort, guaranteeing that living conditions are optimal. Compliance with the Sphere Standards, since they will assure conformity with the minimum habitability standards. Evaluate and analyse the needs in terms of housing and settlement of the affected population. Devise a response plan for accommodation and settlements in collaboration with the competent authorities, and the participation of humanitarian organizations and the affected population. Implement local planning practices that adapt to the type of emergency, the risks it entails and the impact they have on the affected population. Regularly guarantee that accommodations and / or settlements are located at a safe distance from any real or eventual threat and that existing risks are lessened. Assure that there is a secure access to every accommodation and human settlement, as well as to essential services. (continued) © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 P. Mercader-Moyano, P. Porras-Pereira, Circular Economy in Emergency Housing: Eco-Efficient Prototype Design for Subaşi Refugee Camp in Turkey and Maicao Refugee Camp in Colombia, SpringerBriefs in Climate Studies, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-32770-4

103

104

Appendices A1: Design Protocol for Emergency Housing (Table A1)

Table A1 (continued) Design protocol for emergency housing Involve the affected population in planning for temporary community settlements in collaboration with families, neighbours, and community groups, as appropriate. Humanitarian response plans must assure that provisional accommodation does not automatically become a permanent housing solution. Guarantee that adequate interior space and firebreaks are available in intended temporary settlements or settlements implemented by displaced people. Minimize risks corresponding to disease infections. Guarantee that every affected family has a sheltered living space. Ensure safe divisions and privacy between gender identity, different age groups and distinct families, as appropriate, within the same household. Assure that essential household and livelihood daily activities can be accomplished within the sheltered living space or in an adjacent area. All people affected by an emergency situation must have a minimum covered area of 3,5 m2 per person that respects their privacy and minimizes overcrowding. The headroom of the lodging, from floor to ceiling, must be a minimum of 2 meters, 2,6 metres in hot climates, at the highest point. It is essential to offer the possibility of installing subdivisions within collective accommodation. Lodgings should be designed and oriented to maximise ventilation and minimise entry of direct sunlight. The accommodations must use a lightweight construction with adequate insulation according to its location. Materiality Involvement of the population, in order to provide them with independence, empowerment, and a sense of ownership. Durability, to allow for a longer lifespan. Quality and comfort, guaranteeing that living conditions are optimal. Adjustability and versatility, to adapt to the diverse needs and uses of the field in which they are situated and of the people who inhabit it. Compliance with the Sphere Standards, since they will assure conformity with the minimum habitability standards. Evaluate the specific climatic conditions for each location to offer optimal thermal comfort, good ventilation, and protection. Promote the use of sustainable local materials and constructive solutions that are familiar to the affected population, to lessen the environmental impact and, to the fullest extent, that are culturally and socially acceptable to them. Establish a strategy that enables households to maintain, adapt or upgrade the housing, using locally available tools and resources. Involve the affected population, local construction professionals, and competent authorities to agree on safe construction practices, materials, and technical knowledge necessary to optimize livelihood opportunities. Minimize structural risks and vulnerabilities complying material specifications and quality standards supervised by technical specialists. Arrange materials supply, labour hiring, technical assistance, and regulatory authorizations, guaranteeing the appropriate bidding, procurement and construction management processes. (continued)

Appendices A1: Design Protocol for Emergency Housing (Table A1)

105

Table A1 (continued) Design protocol for emergency housing Evaluate and analyse the negative effects of the emergency on the environment, determining environmental hazards and vulnerabilities. Consider the degree of availability of local natural resources when planning the temporary settlement. Minimize the negative impacts on local environmental resources due to the manufacture and supply of building materials and the construction process. Preserve trees and other vegetation, where possible, to stabilise the soil, increase water retention, minimize erosion, and provide shade and climate protection. Re-establish the site of the temporary settlements in the state they originally were, or in better condition, if possible, once they are no longer needed. Compliance with the Sphere Standards, since they will assure the utilization of safer and more sustainable products following the circular economy criteria. Ensure that products are made with chemicals and materials used in products are selected to prioritize the protection of human health and the environment. Decrease waste utmost, ensuring that products remain in continuous cycles of use and reuse. Ensure that the manufacture of products uses renewable energies, reducing or even eliminating the impact of greenhouse gasses in the process. Assure the correct use of water in the production process of products. Design fair and equitable business practices that honour all the people and natural systems involved the manufacture of a product. Utilization of circular and sustainable materials, from an environmental perspective, that permit the dismantling and relocation of the system, and facilitating its reuse, recycling, and economic viability, making its lifespan unlimited. Climate adaptability, therefore the prototype can function optimally in distinct locations where emergency housing may be required.

 ppendices A2: Architectural Design A and Constructive Details of the Prototype (Figs. A1, A2, A3, A4, A5, A6, and A7)

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 P. Mercader-Moyano, P. Porras-Pereira, Circular Economy in Emergency Housing: Eco-Efficient Prototype Design for Subaşi Refugee Camp in Turkey and Maicao Refugee Camp in Colombia, SpringerBriefs in Climate Studies, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-32770-4

107

108

Appendices A2: Architectural Design and Constructive Details of the Prototype…

Fig. A1  Emergency housing prototype: Elevations and floor plans

Appendices A2: Architectural Design and Constructive Details of the Prototype…

Fig. A2  Emergency housing prototype: Sections

109

110

Appendices A2: Architectural Design and Constructive Details of the Prototype…

Fig. A3  Emergency housing prototype: Constructive details. 1. Sandwich panel with thermal bridge break for vertical use, consisting of three layers: an exterior layer of Accoya group natural wood for outdoor use of 2  cm thickness, an intermediate 4  cm thick layer of thermal-acoustic insulation of hydrophobic mineral rockwool and non-hydrophilic, according to UNE-EN 13162, and finally, an interior 2 cm thick layer of OSB panel. Panel is 8 cm thick. 2. Metric thread through, round pan head screw, M26 × 100 mm, with hexagonal steel nut class 8.8, according to UNE-EN ISO 898-1, with zinc-­plated ≥5 μm according to ISO 4042, with M26 hexagonal nut, hardness steel >140 HV, with zinc ≥5 μm according to ISO 4042. 3. Tubular profile of galvanized steel of Øext = 10 cm and 5 mm thickness. 4. Metric thread through, round pan head screw, M26 × 60 mm, with hexagonal steel nut class 8.8, according to UNE-EN ISO 898-1, with zinc-plated ≥5 μm according to ISO 4042, with M26 hexagonal nut, hardness steel >140 HV, with zinc ≥5 μm according to ISO 4042. 5. Galvanized steel type ‘O’ clamp of 10–15 cm of diameter and 5 mm thickness. 6. Special piece of galvanized steel formed by the union of two U-pieces and a junction plate between both of 40 × 160 × 1160 mm and 3 mm thickness for the formation of window carpentry guides, which is anchored to the sandwich panel by M8 × 60 mm oval head sheet galvanized steel screws. 7. Wheel of 3 cm of diameter, with brackets, for sliding window, for anchoring to vertical exterior natural wood panel and cell polycarbonate plate with M8 × 60 mm oval head sheet galvanized steel screws. 8. Accoya group natural wood panel for exterior use of 3 cm thickness and 40 × 50 cm. 9. Transparent cell polycarbonate plate of 3 cm thickness and 40 ×50 cm. 10. Galvanized steel ‘T’ connector of Øint = 10 cm and 5 mm thickness, for joining tubular profiles by metric thread through, round Panhead screws, M26 × 100 mm, with hexagonal steel nut class 8.8, according to UNE-EN ISO 898-1, with zinc-plated ≥5 μm according to ISO 4042, with M26 hexagonal nut, hardness steel >140 HV, with zinc ≥5 μm according to ISO 4042. 11. EasyPAD superficial foundation of 250 × 250 × 190 mm, with galvanized steel head and metric thread with adjustment capacity of 100 mm and a maximum load of 1.5 tonnes. 12. Galvanized steel ‘U’ profile of 50 × 110 × 2750 mm and 1.5 mm thickness for sliding door guide, anchored to the horizontal sandwich panel by M8 × 60 mm oval head sheet galvanized steel screws. 13. Wheel of 3 cm of diameter, with brackets, for sliding door, for anchoring to vertical exterior natural wood panel with M8 × 60 mm oval head sheet galvanized steel screws. 14. Sandwich panel with thermal bridge break for horizontal use, consisting of three layers: two outer layers of Accoya group natural wood for outdoor use of 2 cm thickness, and an intermediate 4 cm thick layer of thermal insulation of hydrophobic mineral rockwool and non-­hydrophilic, according to UNE-EN 13162; 4 cm deep and 8 cm wide slits on three of its consecutive sides for anchoring vertical panels. Panel is 8 cm thick

Appendices A2: Architectural Design and Constructive Details of the Prototype…

Fig. A4  Emergency housing prototype configuration: Elevations

111

112

Appendices A2: Architectural Design and Constructive Details of the Prototype…

Fig. A5  Emergency housing prototype configuration: Ground plan

Appendices A2: Architectural Design and Constructive Details of the Prototype…

Fig. A6  Emergency housing prototype configuration: Roof plan

113

114

Appendices A2: Architectural Design and Constructive Details of the Prototype…

Fig. A7  Emergency housing prototype configuration: Sections

References

1. EM-DAT, the International Disaster Database. Available online: https://public.emdat.be/data. Accessed on 28 July 2022 2. UN (2016, October) Cerca de 1,35 Millones de Personas Murieron en Los Últimos 20 Años Debido a Desastres Naturales. Available online: https://news.un.org/es/story/2016/10/1366641. Accessed on 20 March 2020 3. UNHCR (2022, June) Global Trends Report 2021. Available online: https://www.unhcr. org/62a9d1494/global-­trends-­report-­2021. Accessed on 29 July 2022 4. UNHCR (2022, October) Mid-Year Trends 2022. Available online: https://www.unhcr.org/statistics/unhcrstats/635a578f4/mid-­year-­trends-­2022. Accessed on 16 Dec 2022 5. Ministerio de Agricultura, Pesca y Alimentación. Economía circular: objetivo cero residuos. Ambienta: La revista del Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, ISSN 1577-9491, N°. 117, 2016, pág. 5. Available online: https://www.mapa.gob.es/ministerio/pags/biblioteca/revistas/pdf_ AM%5CPDF_AM_Ambienta_2016_117_completa.pdf. Accessed on 15 July 2022 6. UN (2018, December.) ¿Qué es la economía circular y cómo cuida del medio ambiente? Available online: https://news.un.org/es/interview/2018/12/1447801. Accessed on 30 July 2022 7. Eurostat. Generation of waste by waste category, hazardousness and NACE Rev. 2 activity. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/ENV_WASGEN__custom_3137567/default/line?lang=en. Accessed on 30 July 2022 8. Residuos Profesional (2020, March) La CE aprueba el nuevo plan de acción para la economía circular. Available online: https://www.residuosprofesional.com/ce-­aprueba-­plan-­accion-­ economia-­circular/. Accessed on 30 July 2022 9. iResiduo (2020, March) La Unión Europea pondrá fin a la obsolescencia programada con su proyecto de Economía Circular. Available online: https://iresiduo.com/noticias/comision-­ europea/20/03/12/union-­europea-­pondra-­fin-­obsolescencia-­programada-­proyecto. Accessed on 30 July 2022 10. EAE NEWS (2018, September) 43.3% of waste in Spain is recycled or reused, 8.7 points below the average of the European Union. Available online: https://www.eae.es/en/news/ eae-­news/433-­waste-­spain-­recycled-­or-­reused-­87-­points-­below-­average-­european-­union Accessed on 30 July 2022 11. INE (2021, April) Other environmental accounts: Waste accounts Year 2017. Available online: https://www.ine.es/prensa/cma_2017_res.pdf. Accessed on 30 July 2022

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 P. Mercader-Moyano, P. Porras-Pereira, Circular Economy in Emergency Housing: Eco-Efficient Prototype Design for Subaşi Refugee Camp in Turkey and Maicao Refugee Camp in Colombia, SpringerBriefs in Climate Studies, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-32770-4

115

116

References

12. European Environment Agency (2021, August) Municipal waste recycling rates in Europe by country. Available online: https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-­and-­maps/daviz/municipal-­waste-­ recycled-­and-­composted-­5#tab-­chart_5 Accessed on 02 August 2022 13. Dirección general de Arquitectura y Vivienda, Junta de Andalucía. Viviendas para situaciones de emergencia. Sistematización de un procedimiento para la actuación en situaciones de emergencia. Available online: https://ws147.juntadeandalucia.es/obraspublicasyvivienda/ davwebviv/Proyectos%20de%20Investigacion/03%20Vivienda%20para%20situaciones%20 de%20emergencia.%20Sistematizaci%C3%B3n%20de%20un%20procedimiento%20 para%20la%20actuaci%C3%B3n%20en%20situaciones%20de%20emergencia/PROYEC~1. PDF. Accessed on 20 March 2020 14. IFRC. ¿Qué es un desastre? Available online: https://www.ifrc.org/es/que-­es-­un-­ desastre#:~:text=Los%20desastres%20ocurren%20cuando%20una,desastres%20pueden%20 y%20deben%20evitarse. Accessed on 13 July 2022 15. Bevere L (2022, March) Natural catastrophes in 2021: the floodgates are open. Swiss Re Institute. Available online: https://www.swissre.com/institute/research/sigma-­research/ sigma-­2022-­01.html. Accessed on 30 July 2022 16. Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (2022, July) Global report on internal displacement 2022. Available online: https://www.internal-­displacement.org/sites/default/files/publications/ documents/IDMC_GRID_2022_LR.pdf. Accessed on 30 July 2022 17. UNDRR (2009, May) Terminología sobre Reducción del Riesgo de Desastres. Available online: https://www.unisdr.org/files/7817_UNISDRTerminologySpanish.pdf. Accessed on 20 April 2020 18. OCHA (2021, September) World risk report 2021 – focus: social protection. Available online: https://reliefweb.int/report/world/worldriskreport-­2021-­focus-­social-­protection. Accessed on 31 July 2022 19. UNDRR (2018, July) Desplazamiento por desastres: cómo reducir el riesgo, hacer frente a sus efectos y fortalecer la resiliencia. Available online: https://www.refworld.org.es/ pdfid/5b3d41d24.pdf. Accessed on 10 April 2020 20. IOM.  Términos fundamentales sobre migración. Available online: https://www.iom.int/es/ terminos-­fundamentales-­sobre-­migracion. Accessed on 20 April 2020 21. EM-DAT (2022, April) 2021 Disasters in numbers. Available online: https://cred.be/sites/ default/files/2021_EMDAT_report.pdf. Accessed on 27 July 2022 22. Edwards A (2016, July) ¿‘Refugiado’ o ‘Migrante’? ¿Cuál es el término correcto? UNHCR.  Available online: https://www.acnur.org/noticias/noticia/2016/7/5b9008e74/ refugiado-­o-­migrante-­cual-­es-­el-­termino-­correcto.html. Accessed on 10 May 2020 23. UNHCR (2018) Pacto mundial sobre los refugiados. Available online: https://acnur. org/5c782d124#_ga=2.258913090.979831693.1586346355-­1 351368421.1586346355. Accessed on 10 May 2020 24. UNHCR (2019, June) Global Trends. Forced displacement in 2018. Available online: https:// acnur.org/5d09c37c4#_ga=2.230972438.821505533.1586516854-­1796902904.1582463453. Accessed on 10 May 2020 25. Comisión Española De Ayuda Al Refugiado. Situación Refugiados. Available online: https:// www.cear.es/situacion-­refugiados/. Accessed on 22 March 2020 26. UNHCR.  Refugee Data Finder. Available online: https://www.unhcr.org/refugee-­statistics/ download/?url=2lN23s. Accessed on 31 July 2022 27. UNHCR.  Refugee Data Finder. Available online: https://www.unhcr.org/refugee-­statistics/ download/?url=Z0snWJ2lN23s. Accessed on 31 July 2022 28. Díaz R (2019, June) Más refugiados por el clima que por la guerra. El Mundo. Available online: https://www.elmundo.es/extras/2019/06/05/5cf78bff21efa0aa118b4613.html. Accessed on 29 March 2020 29. Riaño J (2021, February) Refugiados y salud mental, las cicatrices psicológicas del desplazamiento. France 24. Available online: https://www.france24.com/es/programas/ migrantes/20210223-­refugiados-­salud-­mental-­cicatrices-­desplazamiento. Accessed on 15 Jan 2023

References

117

30. Peñacoba P (2017, July) El daño psicológico de ser refugiado en Europa. Público. Available online: https://www.publico.es/internacional/dano-­psicologico-­refugiado-­europa.html. Accessed on 15 January 2023 31. Infocop (2018, June) La APA alerta de las consecuencias psicológicas negativas de la separación de familias inmigrantes. Available online: https://www.infocop.es/view_article. asp?id=7546. Accessed on 15 January 2023 32. Díaz Rodríguez M (2017) Menores refugiados: impacto psicológico y salud mental. Apuntes de Psicología 35(2):83–91 33. Gordillo Bedoya, Fernando. Hábitat transitorio y vivienda para emergencias. Revista Tábula Rasa. Bogotá, Colombia, n° 2: 145–166, enero-diciembre de 2004. Available online: http:// www.revistatabularasa.org/numero-­2/gordillo.pdf. Accessed on 30 March 2020 34. Ballent A, Liernur J (2014) La casa y la multitud: Vivienda, política y cultura en la Argentina moderna. In Estudios Sociales del Estado; FCE: Buenos Aires, Argentina, 1, pp.  267–269. Available online: https://fce.com.ar/wp-­content/uploads/2020/11/BallentyLiernur-­LCYLM. pdf. Accessed on 15 Sept 2020 35. Palero JS González Chipont ME (2017) La vivienda ante emergencias. In VI Jornadas de Investigación. Encuentro y Reflexión: Investigación, Enseñanza y Transferencia: Patrimonio Intelectual; Amanda Pollet: Córdoba, Argentina, pp.  255–265. Available online: https://rdu. unc.edu.ar/bitstream/handle/11086/5753/2.13.%20La%20vivien%C2%ACda%20ante%20 emergencias.pdf?sequence=30&isAllowed=y. Accessed on 15 Sept 2020 36. Davis I (1980) Arquitectura de Emergencia, 1st edn. Gustavo Gili, Barcelona, Spain. Available online: https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Arquitectura+de+Emergencia&auth or=Davis,+I.&publication_year=1980. Accessed on 18 Sept 2020 37. López JM, Gamboa LC (2013) Participatory and sustainable emergency settlements: new prototypes. Int J Technol Knowl Soc 9:49–65. Available online: https://scholar.google.com/ scholar_lookup?title=Participatory+and+sustainable+emergency+settlements:+New+protot ypes&author=L%C3%B3pez,+J.M.&author=Gamboa,+L.C.&publication_year=2013&jour nal=Int.+J.+Technol.+Knowl.+Soc.&volume=9&pages=49%E2%80%9365&doi=10.18848/ 1832-­3669/cgp/v09i02/56367. Accessed on 15 Sept 2020 38. Rodríguez S (2019, August) ¿Qué Son los Campos de Refugiados? UNHCR. Available online: https://eacnur.org/blog/que-­son-­los-­campos-­de-­refugiados-­tc_alt45664n_o_pstn_o_pst/. Accessed on 6 March 2020 39. De la Fuente Callejo M (2020) Temporalidad indefinida en campos de refugiados: el caso de Zaatari. Ph.D. Thesis, Polytechnic University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain. Available online: https://oa.upm.es/57936/1/TFG_20_Fuente_Callejo_Marina_de_la.pdf. Accessed on 12 July 2022 40. UNHCR (2017, March) ACNUR e IKEA idean nuevos tipos de casas en los campos de refugiados. Available online: https://eacnur.org/blog/acnur-­e-­ikea-­idean-­nuevos-­tipos-­casas-­los-­ campos-­refugiados/. Accessed on 12 May 2020 41. Cormand G (2019, June) Los campos de refugiados más grandes del mundo. La Vanguardia. Available online: https://www.lavanguardia.com/vida/junior-­report/20190620/462515222932/ campos-­refugiados-­mas-­grandes-­mundo.html. Accessed on 17 July 2022 42. RTVE (2021, December) Cox’s Bazar, Dadaab, Bentiu: los mayores campos de refugiados del mundo no están en Lesbos. Available online: https://www.rtve.es/noticias/20211205/ coxs-­bazar-­dadaab-­bentiu-­mayores-­campos-­refugiados-­del-­mundo-­no-­estan-­lesbos/2235407. s h t m l # : ~ : t ex t = E l % 2 0 d e % 2 0 C o x ' s % 2 0 B a z a r % 2 0 e s , B i r m a n i a % 2 0 s u m a n % 2 0 907%2C766%2C%20seg%C3%BAn%20ACNUR. Accessed on 17 July 2022 43. UNHCR (2020, July) Kutupalong: el campo de refugiados más grande del mundo. Available online: https://eacnur.org/blog/kutupalong-­el-­campo-­de-­refugiados-­mas-­grande-­del-­ mundo-­tc_alt45664n_o_pstn_o_pst/. Accessed on 17 July 2022 44. Shire A Campos de refugiados en Dollo Ado. Available online: https://alianzashire.org/ campos-­d e-­r efugiados-­e n-­s hire/#:~:text=Dollo%20Ado%2C%20ubicado%20al%20 sudeste,ACNUR%20en%20mayo%20de%202021 Accessed on 17 July 2022

118

References

45. El País (2019, November) MORIA, la Cruel Bienvenida de Europa a los Refugiados. Available online: https://elpais.com/internacional/2019/11/26/actualidad/1574777275_996732.html Accessed on 29 Mar 2020 46. Migration Data Portal (2021, October) Datos migratorios en América del Sur. Available online: https://www.migrationdataportal.org/es/regional-­data-­overview/datos-­migratorios-­en-­ america-­del-­sur. Accessed on 15 Jan 2023 47. Rotunno M (2019, April) Venezuelans living in the streets find safety at new reception Centre in Colombia UNHCR. Available online: https://www.unhcr.org/news/stories/2019/4/5cb48f934/ venezuelans-­living-­streets-­find-­safety-­new-­reception-­centre-­colombia.html. Accessed on 17 Jan 2023 48. George A, Fanchiotti M (2020, May) CAI Maicao reception Centre: environmental scoping report and recommendations UNHCR.  Available online: https://www.eecentre.org/wp-­ content/uploads/2020/05/UNHCR-­CAI-­Maicao-­Environmental-­Scoping-­Report_FINAL.pdf. Accessed on 17 Jan 2023 49. Vasilca I-S, Nen M, Chivu O, Radu V, Simion C-P, Marinescu N (2021) The Management of Environmental Resources in the construction sector: an empirical model. Energies 14:2489. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14092489 50. Hendriks C, Pietersen H (2000) Sustainable raw materials: Construction and demolition; RILEM: Cachan, France. Available online: https://books.google.es/books?hl=es&lr=&id=Q sIxakWiIFkC&oi=fnd&pg=PR9&dq=Sustainable+raw+materials:+Construction+and+demo lition+waste.&ots=jsIP17MndD&sig=l8YC9mtg3t9APYTjX6NZSeqK0P0#v=onepage&q= Sustainable%20raw%20materials%3A%20Construction%20and%20demol. Accessed on 25 July 2020 51. Osmani M, Villoria-Sáez P (2019) Chapter 19—current and emerging construction waste management status, Trends and Approaches. Waste 2:365–380. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-­0-­12-­ 815060-­3.00019-­0. Accessed on 27 July 2020 52. Maia Guzenski F (2012) Impactos Ambientales del Sector de la Construcción. Master’s Thesis, Polytechnic University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain. Available online: https://scholar. google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Impactos+Ambientales+del+Sector+de+la+Construcci%C 3%B3n&author=Maia+Guzenski,+F.&publication_year=2012 Accessed on 27 July 2020 53. León M (2016) La Arquitectura en la Economía Circular. Cómo Diseñar de Manera Circular. Fundación Arquia. Available online: https://blogfundacion.arquia.es/2016/11/la-­arquitectura-­ en-­la-­economia-­circular-­como-­disenar-­de-­manera-­circular/. Accessed on 20 Jan 2021 54. Mercader-Moyano, P (2010) Cuantificación de los Recursos Consumidos y Emisiones de CO2 Producidas en las Construcciones de Andalucía y sus Implicaciones en el Protocolo de Kioto. Ph.D.  Thesis, University of Seville, Seville, Spain. Available online: https://scholar. google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Cuantificaci%C3%B3n+de+los+Recursos+Consumidos+ y+Emisiones+de+CO2+Producidas+en+las+Construcciones+de+Andaluc%C3%ADa+y+su s+Implicaciones+en+el+Protocolo+de+Kioto&author=Mercader-­Moyano,+P.&publication_ year=2010. Accessed on 27 July 2020 55. Internal Market, Industry, entrepreneurship and SMEs. Buildings and construction. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/growth/industry/sustainability/built-­environment_en. Accessed on 6 April 2021 56. European Commission (2020, March) A new circular economy action plan for a cleaner and more competitive Europe. Available online: https://eur-­lex.europa.eu/resource.html?uri=cell ar:9903b325-­6388-­11ea-­b735-­01aa75ed71a1.0017.02/DOC_1&format=PDF. Accessed on 1 March 2021 57. Gobierno de España, Ministerio para la Transición Ecológica y el Reto Demográfico. Estrategia Española de Economía Circular. Available online: https://www.miteco.gob.es/es/calidad-­y-­ evaluacion-­ambiental/temas/economia-­circular/estrategia/. Accessed on 8 March 2021 58. Climent Salvador A (2018) Economía Circular Aplicada a la Arquitectura. Espejismo o Realidad. Ph.D. Thesis, Polytechnic University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain. Available online: https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Econom%C3%ADa+Circular+Aplicada+ a+la+Arquitectura.+Espejismo+o+Realidad&author=Climent+Salvador,+A.&publication_ year=2018. Accessed on 18 April 2021

References

119

59. Huang B, Wang X, Kua H, Geng Y, Bleischwitz R, Ren J (2018) Construction and demolition waste management in China through the 3R principle. Res Conserv Recycl 129:36–44., ISSN 0921-3449. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2017.09.029 60. Environmental Educational Information Platform (2021, June) China construction and demolition waste industry Market report. Available online: https://us.envguide.com/china-­ construction-­and-­demolition-­waste-­industry-­market-­report/#:~:text=As%20China's%20 urbanization%20has%20continued,4%20billion%20tons%20in%202026. Accessed on 1 Aug 2022 61. Eurostat (2020, November) Energy, transport and environment statistics. 2020 Edition. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/3217494/11478276/KS-­DK-­20-­001-­EN-­N. pdf/06ddaf8d-­1745-­76b5-­838e-­013524781340?t=1605526083000 Accessed on 1 Aug 2022 62. BigRentz (2021, April) 23 construction waste statistics & tips to reduce landfill debris. Available online: https://www.bigrentz.com/blog/construction-­waste-­statistics. Accessed on 1 Aug 2022 63. iResiduo (2020, March) La Unión Europea pondrá Fin a la Obsolescencia Programada Con su Proyecto de Economía Circular. Available online: https://iresiduo.com/noticias/comision-­ europea/20/03/12/union-­europea-­pondra-­fin-­obsolescencia-­programada-­proyecto. Accessed on 22 March 2020 64. INE. Banco de series temporales. Residuos generados. Construcción. No peligroso. Available online: https://www.ine.es/consul/serie.do?s=DCEF25&c=2&nult=0 Accessed on 1 Aug 2022 65. Gobierno de España, Ministerio de Agricultura, Alimentación y Medio Ambiente. (2015, November) Plan Estatal Marco de Gestión de Residuos (PEMAR) 2016–2022. Available online: https://www.miteco.gob.es/es/calidad-­y-­evaluacion-­ambiental/planes-­y-­estrategias/ pemaraprobado6noviembrecondae_tcm30-­170428.pdf. Accessed on 1 Feb 2021 66. Federación Española de la Recuperación y el Reciclaje (FER) (2015, September) El Plan Estatal Marco de Gestión de Residuos. Objetivos y Principales Características. Available online: https://www.recuperacion.org/el-­plan-­estatal-­marco-­de-­gestion-­de-­residuos-­objetivos-­ y-­principales-­caracteristicas/. Accessed on 1 Feb 2021 67. Comisión Europea (2020, September) Objetivo 2050: la UE, primer continente climáticamente neutro. Available online: https://spain.representation.ec.europa.eu/noticias-­eventos/noticias-­0/ objetivo-­2050-­la-­ue-­primer-­continente-­climaticamente-­neutro-­2020-­09-­21_es. Accessed on 23 May 2021 68. D’Adamo I (2019) Adopting a circular economy: current practices and future perspectives. Soc Sci 8:328. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci8120328 69. Rahla KM, Mateus R, Bragança L (2021) Implementing circular economy strategies in buildings—from theory to practice. Appl Syst Innov 4:26. https://doi.org/10.3390/asi4020026 70. Bagheri M, Esfilar R, Golchi M, Kennedy C (2020) Towards a circular economy: a comprehensive study of higher heat values and emission potential of various municipal solid wastes. Sustain Cities Soc 101:210–221. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2019.09.042 71. Shi Y, Zhai G, Xu L, Zhu Q, Deng J (2019) Planning emergency shelters for urban disasters: a multi-level location–allocation modeling approach. Sustainability 11:4285. https://doi. org/10.3390/su11164285 72. Maffei R (2013) Sheltering in Emergency: Processes and Products. Ph.D. Thesis, Polytechnic University of Milan, Milan, Italy. Available online: https://scholar.google.com/scholar_look up?title=Sheltering+in+Emergency:+Processes+and+Products&author=Maffei,+R.&publicat ion_year=2013 73. Bachiller Alva Sánchez PA (2019) Gestión de Refugios con Estructuras Tensegrity en caso de Desastres Naturales, Huaicos en el Distrito de Chosica—Lima 2017. Ph.D. Thesis, Ricardo Palma University, Lima, Peru. Available online: https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup? title=Gesti%C3%B3n+de+Refugios+con+Estructuras+Tensegrity+en+caso+de+Desastres+N aturales,+Huaicos+en+el+Distrito+de+Chosica%E2%80%94Lima+2017&author=Bachiller+ Alva+S%C3%A1nchez,+P.A.&publication_year=2019

120

References

74. Fondo Monetario Internacional (2020, June) Actualización de las Perspectivas de la Economía Mundial. Available online: https://www.imf.org/es/Publications/WEO/Issues/2020/06/24/ WEOUpdateJune2020 Accessed on 7 Nov 2020 75. Banco Mundial (2022, June) Global economic prospects. Available online: https://www.bancomundial.org/es/publication/global-­economic-­prospects. Accessed on 7 July 2022 76. UNHCR (2011, November) El Proyecto Esfera: Carta Humanitaria y Normas Mínimas para la Respuesta Humanitaria. Available online: https://www.acnur.org/fileadmin/Documentos/ Publicaciones/2011/8206.pdf?view=1. Accessed on 14 April 2021 77. UNDRR (2017, October) National Disaster Risk Assessment. Available online: https://www. unisdr.org/files/52828_nationaldisasterriskassessmentwiagu.pdf. Accessed on 29 June 2021 78. UNHCR (2017, March) ACNUR e IKEA Idean Nuevos Tipos de Casas en Los Campos de Refugiados. Available online: https://eacnur.org/blog/acnur-­e-­ikea-­idean-­nuevos-­tipos-­casas-­ los-­campos-­refugiados/. Accessed on 28 Apr 2020 79. UNHCR (2016, July) Family tent for cold weather with fire retardant. Available online: https:// cms.emergency.unhcr.org/documents/11982/57181/Family+Tent/c27ba67d-­2 1cd-­4 d72-­ b7e7-­3fc20bb086f6. Accessed on 22 Apr 2020 80. UNHCR (2016, February) Shelter design catalogue. Available online: https://cms.emergency.unhcr.org/documents/11982/57181/Shelter+Design+Catalogue+January+2016/ a891fdb2-­4ef9-­42d9-­bf0f-­c12002b3652e. Accessed on 22 Apr 2020 81. Cruz, D. (2013, July) Fundación IKEA diseña vivienda de emergencia. Available online: https:// www.plataformaarquitectura.cl/cl/626467/fundacion-­ikea-­disena-­vivienda-­de-­emergencia. Accessed on 22 Apr 2020 82. Jenna McKnight. (2016, April) Architects for society designs low-cost hexagonal shelters for refugees. Dezeen Available online: https://www.dezeen.com/2016/04/14/architects-­for-­ society-­low-­cost-­hexagonal-­shelter-­housing-­refugees-­crisis-­humanitarian-­architecture/. Accessed on 22 Apr 2020 83. Architects for society (2015) The Hex House. Available online: http://www.hex-­house. com/#contact. Accessed on 22 Apr 2020 84. Nicolás García Mayor (2001) Cmax System. Available online: https://nicogarciamayor.org/ portfolio/cmax-­system. Accessed on 15 July 2022 85. Fernández M (2016, March) Cmax System: el diseño que revolucionó la vivienda de emergencia. El Definido Available online: https://www.eldefinido.cl/actualidad/mundo/4857/Cmax-­ System-­el-­diseno-­que-­revoluciono-­la-­vivienda-­de-­emergencia/. Accessed on 24 Apr 2020 86. Cmax Innovation for Humanity. Available online: https://cmaxsystem.com/. Accessed on 15 July 2022 87. José Tomás Franco (2013, June) Cmax System: argentino llama la atención de la ONU con un refugio móvil para enfrentar desastres naturales. Plataforma Arquitectura Available online: https://www.plataformaarquitectura.cl/cl/02-­268869/cmax-­system-­argentino-­llama-­la-­ atencion-­de-­la-­onu-­con-­un-­refugio-­movil-­para-­enfrentar-­desastres-­naturales. Accessed on 24 Apr 2020 88. Gastón Saboulard y Federico Ortiz. (2016, December) Módulos de vivienda de emergencia desplegables. Beta Architecture. Available online: http://www.beta-­architecture.com/modulos-­ de-­vivienda-­de-­emergencia-­desplegables-­gaston-­saboulard-­federico-­ortiz/. Accessed on 24 Apr 2020 89. Dong Jia, Wu Jiahao, Qiao Song, Feng Ming, Chen Yu, Su Fangyu, Li Siyao y Zhao Chenyuan Tienda telescópica: tienda de emergencia modular hecha de material de nylon impermeable elástico. Tuvie Blog. Available online: http://www.tuvie.com/telescopic-­tent-­modular-­ emergency-­tent-­made-­of-­elastic-­waterproof-­nylon-­material/. Accessed on 24 Apr 2020 90. RedDot (2016) Telescopic Tent. https://www.red-­dot.org/project/telescopic-­tent-­26729 Accessed on 15 July 2022 91. Mireia Luzárraga + Alejandro Muiño (2013, August) 79 takk. Afasia Archzine Blog. Available online: http://afasiaarchzine.com/2013/08/79-­takk/. Accessed on 24 Apr 2020

References

121

92. Cradle to Cradle Products Innovation Institute. What Is Cradle to Cradle Certified™? Available online: http://www.c2ccertified.org/get-­certified/product-­certification. Accessed on 10 Aug 2020 93. What is Cradle to Cradle Certified™? Cradle to Cradle Products Innovation Institute Available online: http://www.c2ccertified.org/get-­certified/product-­certification. Accessed on 10 Aug 2020 94. McDonough, William (2002) Cradle to Cradle: Remaking the Way We Make Things. Available online: https://mcdonough.com/writings/cradle-­cradle-­remaking-­way-­make-­ things/#:~:text=In%20Cradle%20to%20Cradle%3A%20Remaking,eliminates%20the%20 concept%20of%20waste. Accessed on 24 July 2020 95. The European Portal for Energy Efficiency in Buildings (2018, October) From restorative to regenerative sustainability: state of art and visions for regenerative heritage. Available online: https://www.buildup.eu/en/news/restorative-­regenerative-­sustainability-­state-­art-­and-­ visions-­regenerative-­heritage. Accessed on 2 Feb 2021 96. Mercader-Moyano P, Esquivias PM (2020) Decarbonization and circular economy in the sustainable development and renovation of buildings and Neighbourhoods. Sustainability 12:7914. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12197914 97. The Circular Design Guide. Materials journey mapping. Available online: https://www.circulardesignguide.com/post/journey-­mapping. Accessed on 18 Aug 2020 98. Asociación Técnica Española de Galvanización (2020, July) El Galvanizado ES Economía Circular. Available online: https://www.ateg.es/blog/el-­galvanizado-­es-­economia-­circular. Accessed on 10 Aug 2020 99. Obras Urbanas (2020, March) Renovables e internacionalización de la construcción impulsan el sector del acero galvanizado. Available online: https://www.obrasurbanas.es/renovables-­ acero-­galvanizado/. Accessed on 12 Aug 2020 100. Forestal Maderera Luis Cuesta, S.L.  La Madera es un Excelente Aislante Térmico. Available online: https://www.forestalmaderera.com/la-­madera-­excelente-­aislante-­ termico/#:~:text=La%20raz%C3%B3n%20por%20la%20cual,del%20calor%20y%20la%20 electricidad. Accessed on 15 Aug 2020 101. Fernández Farpón R (2019, June) La Madera, Clave en la Economía Circular. LinkedIn Available online: https://es.linkedin.com/pulse/la-­madera-­clave-­en-­econom%C3%ADa-­ circular-­rebeca-­fern%C3%A1ndez-­farp%C3%B3n. Accessed on 15 Aug 2020 102. Arauco S Respetar el Medio Ambiente Forma Parte de Nuestra Naturaleza. Available online.: https://www.sonaearauco.com/es/empresa/sostenibilidad-­y -­c ertificaciones_2458.html. Accessed on 15 Aug 2020 103. MDEC (2020, December) Maderas artificiales: alternativas a la madera natural. Available online: https://www.emedec.com/maderas-­artificiales-­alternativas-­a-­la-­madera-­natural/. Accessed on 15 July 2021 104. Accoya Unrivalled: Benefits of Accoya. Available online: https://www.accoya.com/why-­ accoya/benefits/. Accessed on 17 Aug 2020 105. Accoya Where to buy: Kritikos Wood (Thiva). Available online: https://www.accoya.com/ location/kritikos-­wood-­thiva-­warehouse/. Accessed on 17 Aug 2020 106. Revista Circle (2019, September). Lana de Roca, ¿el Nuevo Material Sostenible? Available online: https://www.revistacircle.com/2019/09/13/lana-­de-­roca-­el-­nuevo-­material-­ sostenible/. Accessed on 15 Aug 2020 107. Rockwool (2018, May) Las 7 Fortalezas de la Roca. Available online: https://cdn01.rockwool.es/siteassets/rw-­es/herramientas/biblioteca-­de-­documentos/el-­grupo-­rockwool/7-­ fortalezas-­de-­la-­roca_es.pdf?f=20181210134413. Accessed on 15 Aug 2020 108. Rockwool (2021, July) Informe de Sostenibilidad 2019: Construidos para Durar. Available online: https://www.rockwool.es/nuestra-­vision/sostenibilidad-­y-­circularidad/economia-­ circular/. Accessed on 15 Aug 2020 109. Houzz (2015, August) Policarbonato: Una Alternativa Rentable al Cristal. Available online: https://www.houzz.es/revista/policarbonato-­una-­alternativa-­rentable-­al-­cristal-­ stsetivw-­vs~52517686. Accessed on 15 Aug 2020

122

References

110. Ecoticias Policarbonato. Available online: https://www.ecoticias.com/residuos-­ reciclaje/21346/noticias-­de-­hidrogeno-­biocarburantes-­ecocarburantes-­etanol-­biodiesel-­ biomasa-­biogas-­aceite-­reciclado-­algas-­biometanizacion-­compost-­medio-­medio-­ambiente-­ medioambiente-­medioambiental-­renovables-­residuos-­rec. Accessed on 15 Aug 2020 111. Davis I (2011) What have we learned from 40 years’ experience of disaster shelter? Environmental Hazards 10(3–4):193–212. https://doi.org/10.1080/17477891.2011.597499