Circuit Design and Simulation Quick Start Guide 9781484295816, 9781484295823

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MAKER I N N O VAT I O N S SERIES

Circuit Design and Simulation Quick Start Guide Create Schematics and Layout Electronic Components — Ashraf Said Ahmad AlMadhoun

Maker Innovations Series

Jump start your path to discovery with the Apress Maker Innovations series! From the basics of electricity and components through to the most advanced options in robotics and Machine Learning, you’ll forge a path to building ingenious hardware and controlling it with cutting-edge software. All while gaining new skills and experience with common toolsets you can take to new projects or even into a whole new career. The Apress Maker Innovations series offers projects-based learning, while keeping theory and best processes front and center. So you get hands-on experience while also learning the terms of the trade and how entrepreneurs, inventors, and engineers think through creating and executing hardware projects. You can learn to design circuits, program AI, create IoT systems for your home or even city, and so much more! Whether you’re a beginning hobbyist or a seasoned entrepreneur working out of your basement or garage, you’ll scale up your skillset to become a hardware design and engineering pro. And often using low-cost and open-source software such as the Raspberry Pi, Arduino, PIC microcontroller, and Robot Operating System (ROS). Programmers and software engineers have great opportunities to learn, too, as many projects and control environments are based in popular languages and operating systems, such as Python and Linux. If you want to build a robot, set up a smart home, tackle assembling a weather-ready meteorology system, or create a brand-new circuit using breadboards and circuit design software, this series has all that and more! Written by creative and seasoned Makers, every book in the series tackles both tested and leading-edge approaches and technologies for bringing your visions and projects to life.​ More information about this series at https://link.springer.com/ bookseries/17311

Circuit Design and Simulation Quick Start Guide Create Schematics and Layout Electronic Components

Ashraf Said Ahmad AlMadhoun

Circuit Design and Simulation Quick Start Guide: Create Schematics and Layout Electronic Components Ashraf Said Ahmad AlMadhoun Gaza Strip, Israel ISBN-13 (pbk): 978-1-4842-9581-6 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-9582-3

ISBN-13 (electronic): 978-1-4842-9582-3

Copyright © 2023 by Ashraf Said Ahmad AlMadhoun This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. Trademarked names, logos, and images may appear in this book. Rather than use a trademark symbol with every occurrence of a trademarked name, logo, or image we use the names, logos, and images only in an editorial fashion and to the benefit of the trademark owner, with no intention of infringement of the trademark. The use in this publication of trade names, trademarks, service marks, and similar terms, even if they are not identified as such, is not to be taken as an expression of opinion as to whether or not they are subject to proprietary rights. While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication, neither the authors nor the editors nor the publisher can accept any legal responsibility for any errors or omissions that may be made. The publisher makes no warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein. Managing Director, Apress Media LLC: Welmoed Spahr Acquisitions Editor: Miriam Haidara Development Editor: James Markham Coordinating Editor: Jessica Vakili Distributed to the book trade worldwide by Springer Science+Business Media New York, 1 NY Plaza, New York, NY 10004. Phone 1-800-SPRINGER, fax (201) 348-4505, e-mail orders-ny@ springer-sbm.com, or visit www.springeronline.com. Apress Media, LLC is a California LLC and the sole member (owner) is Springer Science + Business Media Finance Inc (SSBM Finance Inc). SSBM Finance Inc is a Delaware corporation. For information on translations, please e-mail [email protected]; for reprint, paperback, or audio rights, please e-mail [email protected]. Apress titles may be purchased in bulk for academic, corporate, or promotional use. eBook versions and licenses are also available for most titles. For more information, reference our Print and eBook Bulk Sales web page at http://www.apress.com/bulk-sales. Any source code or other supplementary material referenced by the author in this book is available to readers on the Github repository: https://github.com/Apress/Circuit-Design-andSimulation-Quick-Start-Guide. For more detailed information, please visit https://www.apress. com/gp/services/source-code. Paper in this product is recyclable.

Table of Contents About the Author���������������������������������������������������������������������������������ix About the Technical Reviewer�������������������������������������������������������������xi Chapter 1: Microcontroller�������������������������������������������������������������������1 Introduction�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������1 Embedded Microcontroller������������������������������������������������������������������������������������3 Microcontroller and Microprocessor���������������������������������������������������������������������4 More on Microcontrollers and Microprocessors���������������������������������������������������9 Microcontroller: The Silent Commanders��������������������������������������������������������9 Microprocessor: The Computational Powerhouses���������������������������������������10 Symbiosis and Distinction�����������������������������������������������������������������������������11 Microcontroller and Microprocessor Comparison�����������������������������������������������12 Central Processing Unit���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������13 Machine Cycle�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������14 Fetching Instruction and Its Execution����������������������������������������������������������������16 Address, Data, and Control: The Buses���������������������������������������������������������������18 Control and Monitoring Devices��������������������������������������������������������������������������20 Control Devices���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������21 Monitoring Devices����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������21 Integration and Connectivity��������������������������������������������������������������������������22 Challenges and Considerations���������������������������������������������������������������������22 Control Devices���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������23

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Monitoring Devices����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������24 Integration and Connectivity��������������������������������������������������������������������������24 Challenges and Considerations���������������������������������������������������������������������25 Future Prospects�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������26 Microcontroller Types������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������26 Microcontroller: 8 Bit������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������27 Microcontroller: 16 Bit����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������29 Microcontroller: 32 Bit����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������30 Embedded Microcontroller����������������������������������������������������������������������������������32 Microcontroller with External Memory���������������������������������������������������������������34 The Architectural Specifications of Microcontroller��������������������������������������������35 Von Neumann Architecture���������������������������������������������������������������������������������37 Harvard Architecture�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������39 Basic Principles���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������40 Key Characteristics����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������40 Advantages����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������41 Applications���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������41 CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computer) Architecture for Microcontroller��������42 Key Characteristics and Features������������������������������������������������������������������44 Advantages of CISC Architecture for Microcontrollers����������������������������������45 Challenges and Considerations���������������������������������������������������������������������46 RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer) Architecture for Microcontroller�������47 SISC (Specific Instruction Set Computer) Architecture for Microcontroller���������50 Applications of Microcontrollers�������������������������������������������������������������������������51

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Chapter 2: Basics�������������������������������������������������������������������������������57 Exporting Design in EAGLE.BRD Format�������������������������������������������������������������62 Exploring Component Manuals���������������������������������������������������������������������������62 Generating a Shareable CSV File������������������������������������������������������������������������65 Interacting with the CSV File�������������������������������������������������������������������������������66

Chapter 3: Explaining the Interface and Simulating Your First Circuit���������������������������������������������������������������������������������69 Unveiling the Intricacies�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������69 Editing Components and Parameters������������������������������������������������������������������70 Editing Components��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������71 Observing the Circuit’s Ensemble������������������������������������������������������������������72 Crafting a Traffic Light Application����������������������������������������������������������������72 Establishing Connections������������������������������������������������������������������������������73 The Unveiling of the Inspector�����������������������������������������������������������������������73 Bringing Realism to Your Application�������������������������������������������������������������74 Configuring Resistance Properties����������������������������������������������������������������74 Embarking on the Simulation Journey����������������������������������������������������������76 The Art of Tinkering���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������76 Exploring Resistance and Brightness������������������������������������������������������������77 Charting the Course Ahead����������������������������������������������������������������������������77 Wiring Components���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������78 Crafting the Ensemble�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������78 Guided by Color and Practice������������������������������������������������������������������������78 A Choreography of Arrangement�������������������������������������������������������������������79 Adding Components��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������80

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Chapter 4: Breadboard and RGB LEDs������������������������������������������������85 Chapter 5: Ohm’s Law�������������������������������������������������������������������������91 Chapter 6: Series and Parallel Circuits�����������������������������������������������97 Chapter 7: Arduino Output Basics����������������������������������������������������107 Arduino Digital Output: LED Control������������������������������������������������������������������107 Arduino Dealing with Multiple LEDs and Breadboard���������������������������������������112 Arduino Analog Output: Fading LED������������������������������������������������������������������117

Chapter 8: Arduino Input Basics�������������������������������������������������������129 Reading Digital Input�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������130 Reading Analog Value����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������137

Chapter 9: Dealing with RGB LED with Potentiometers��������������������147 Chapter 10: Arduino Serial Monitor��������������������������������������������������163 Conclusion: Navigating the Circuit Design Odyssey������������������������������������������171 Exploring Boundless Horizons: Beyond Circuit Design and Simulation�������������173

Index�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������177

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About the Author Ashraf Said Ahmad AlMadhoun is an educator, a mechatronics engineer, an electronics and programming hobbyist, and a maker. He hosts the popular EduEng YouTube channel and has authored four books on microcontrollers. As a Chief Educational Engineer since 2007 for the Educational Engineering Team, a company he founded, Ashraf’s mission is to explore new trends and technology and help educate the world and make it a better place. Educational Engineering offers educational courses and bootcamps, articles, lessons, and online support for electronics hobbyists, programming hobbyists, microcontroller hobbyists, STEM students, and teachers. His passion for microcontrollers and programming and in particular for the world of Arduino, PIC microcontroller, and the Raspberry Pi has guided his personal development and his work through Educational Engineering.

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About the Technical Reviewer Massimo Nardone has more than 22 years of experience in security, web and mobile development, cloud, and IT architecture. His true IT passions are security and Android. He has been programming and teaching how to program with Android, Perl, PHP, Java, VB, Python, C/C++, and MySQL for more than 20 years. Massimo also holds a master of science degree in computing science from the University of Salerno, Italy. He has worked as a project manager, software engineer, research engineer, chief security architect, information security manager, PCI/SCADA auditor, and senior lead IT security/cloud/SCADA architect for many years. His technical skills include security, Android, cloud, Java, MySQL, Drupal, Cobol, Perl, web and mobile development, MongoDB, D3, Joomla, Couchbase, C/C++, WebGL, Python, Pro Rails, Django CMS, Jekyll, Scratch, etc. Massimo also worked as visiting lecturer and supervisor for exercises at the Networking Laboratory of the Helsinki University of Technology (Aalto University). He holds four international patents (PKI, SIP, SAML, and Proxy areas).  

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CHAPTER 1

Microcontroller Introduction In the vast landscape of technological innovation, microcontrollers emerge as the unsung champions orchestrating a symphony of digital wonders that shape our modern lives. These unassuming yet powerful devices have left an indelible mark on our world, influencing everything from our daily routines to the intricate machinery that drives industries forward. The journey of microcontrollers is one of transcending boundaries, seamlessly blending into the fabric of our existence while simultaneously driving progress and innovation. Picture this: You enter a bustling restaurant, the rhythmic clatter of cutlery and the warm ambience enveloping you. Little do you know that microcontrollers silently facilitate the swift transactions at the cash register, ensure the precision of weighing scales, and even manage the ambient lighting that sets the mood. These ubiquitous data processors quietly synchronize each element, enhancing your experience without seeking recognition. In the realm of domestic comfort, microcontrollers continue to weave their magic. They are the enigmatic brains behind your oven, meticulously preparing your meals to perfection, and the washer/dryer, expertly handling your laundry with care. Not to be overlooked, the trusty alarm clock that gently rouses you from slumber is another creation indebted to these miniature powerhouses. © Ashraf Said Ahmad AlMadhoun 2023 A. S. A. AlMadhoun, Circuit Design and Simulation Quick Start Guide, Maker Innovations Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-9582-3_1

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As you dive further into the world of entertainment, microcontrollers reveal their versatility once again. Toys spring to life under their guidance, VCRs spin tales of cinematic delight, and stereo systems amplify emotions through sound. Even in corporate settings, they remain indispensable, managing everything from the rhythmic keystrokes of keyboards to the ceaseless operation of copy machines and escalators. Industry, too, bows to the prowess of microcontrollers. They serve as the bedrock of automation, ensuring that factories hum with efficiency and safety. Their reach extends to the intricate systems that grace your automobile, from stop signs to complex automotive systems, enhancing both safety and performance. But what constitutes the essence of these digital maestros? Enter the microcontroller, an embodiment of complexity distilled into a compact form. Differing from their more recognized counterparts, the microprocessors, microcontrollers are specialized for a spectrum of tasks, often tailored to excel in a particular domain. They are versatile, multifaceted, and possess the unique ability to process, store, and execute instructions, all while interfacing with a plethora of peripherals. This chapter stands as the gateway to understanding this intricate universe of microcontrollers. It beckons you to explore their nuances, distinguishing them from the larger microprocessors that often hog the spotlight. Beyond this introduction, a labyrinthine world of commercial microcontrollers awaits, each offering its own set of capabilities and potential. As you embark on this journey, you’ll navigate the realm of microcontrollers, unearthing their potential through programming and unveiling strategies to interface with them. In essence, microcontrollers are the unsung architects of our digital lives, embedding intelligence and sophistication into devices that surround us. The art lies in deciphering their intricacies, selecting the perfect tool for a specific task, and harnessing their potential through skillful programming. So, let us delve deeper, peeling back the layers of these unassuming devices to reveal the brilliance and innovation that they bestow upon our world. 2

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Embedded Microcontroller An embedded controller is an integral component within a broader system, playing a crucial role in managing and directing specific functionalities of the overall device. This specialized computing unit is intricately woven into the fabric of the device, geared toward executing a particular function beyond the realm of general-purpose computing. It is imperative to differentiate between the terms “embedded controller” and “microcontroller,” as the former encompasses a wider array of computing entities that extend beyond the latter’s boundaries. Microcontrollers are a subset of embedded controllers, encompassing a specific category of computing devices characterized by their compactness, integration of processing, memory, and input/output components onto a single chip. While the terms are sometimes used interchangeably, it’s essential to recognize that not all embedded controllers fit the microcontroller mold. The 68000, 32032, and x86 are prime examples of embedded controllers that don’t fall under the microcontroller umbrella due to their larger scale and more versatile computing capabilities. The scope of an embedded controller’s responsibilities is impressively diverse. These controllers oversee an assortment of tasks, ranging from the intricate regulation of household appliances like microwave ovens to the intricate management of critical systems such as car braking mechanisms or even military-grade hardware like cruise missiles. This capacity for multifaceted control showcases the adaptability of embedded controllers in responding to vastly different operational requirements. One common thread shared between microcontrollers and embedded controllers is their effective utilization of on-chip resources. By capitalizing on the integrated capabilities of their hardware components, these controllers streamline their operations, contributing to optimized performance and efficient resource management. The symbiotic relationship between hardware and software intricately woven into 3

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the design of embedded controllers enables them to achieve seamless coordination and real-time response in executing their designated functions. The landscape of embedded systems is remarkably rich and varied, often leveraging both microcontrollers and microprocessors to accomplish their objectives. While microcontrollers maintain a predominant presence due to their energy-efficient characteristics, microprocessors also find relevance in scenarios where more computational power is required. The selection between microcontrollers and microprocessors hinges on the specific needs of the embedded system, guided by considerations such as power consumption, computational complexity, and real-time responsiveness. In conclusion, an embedded controller operates as the linchpin within a complex web of devices, exerting specialized control over distinct functions that extend far beyond the realm of traditional computing. The distinction between embedded controllers and microcontrollers is critical, as the former encapsulates a broader spectrum of computing entities. The embodiment of an embedded controller’s capabilities is showcased in its role as the orchestrator of tasks spanning from everyday conveniences to high-stakes systems, all united by the mastery of on-chip resources. This dynamic landscape harmonizes both microcontrollers and microprocessors, optimizing their contributions based on the unique demands of each embedded system.

Microcontroller and Microprocessor The intricate task of orchestrating and supervising a process finds its fulfillment through the adept utilization of a controller, a masterful conductor of various operations. In a bygone era, controllers emerged as substantial and unwieldy constructs, bearing witness to a time when their creation rested solely upon the assembly of logic components. However, 4

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the landscape underwent a dramatic metamorphosis with the assimilation of microprocessors, an evolution that ushered in a new era where an entire controller could be seamlessly encapsulated onto a solitary circuit board. Even amidst the modern technological panorama, a diverse assortment of controllers continues to harness the computational might offered by a myriad of microprocessors, each wielding distinct attributes and capabilities. Within this vibrant tapestry, prominent figures such as the Zilog Z80, Intel 8088, Motorola 6809, and an array of other contenders stand as embodiments of technological prowess, contributing their unique strengths to the rich tableau of controller innovation. As the march of progress continued, the trend toward miniaturization took center stage, leading to a watershed moment where all constituent elements of a controller converged onto a single microchip. This marked the genesis of the microcontroller, often colloquially referred to as a “one-­ chip computer,” encapsulating a harmonious symphony of functionalities within a remarkably diminutive package. It is worth noting that the nomenclature “microprocessor” is expressly reserved for the central processing unit (CPU) seamlessly integrated onto a solitary Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) chip, encapsulating prodigious computational prowess within its compact confines. A perusal of Figure 1-1 reveals a simplified yet comprehensive block diagram of a CPU, offering a glimpse into the intricate choreography of operations transpiring within its silicon heart. Nestled within this compact chip are a plethora of essential components, ranging from the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) that executes mathematical and logical operations to the Instruction Decode and Control Unit that choreographs the execution of instructions. An Instruction Register, Program Counter (PC), clock circuit for synchronization, reset circuit for initializing states, and a constellation of ancillary components further enrich the composition of this microcosm. This microprocessor realm encompasses an array of specifications, boasting 8-bit exemplars like the Intel 8085 and 16-bit counterparts such as the Intel 8086/8088, each calibrated to cater to specific computational demands. 5

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Figure 1-1.  Microprocessor block diagram At its core, the central processing unit (CPU) of a microprocessor stands as a versatile, digital titan, proficient in executing an expansive gamut of tasks. This versatile entity constitutes the bedrock of a microcomputer, a marvel constructed by amalgamating a general-purpose CPU with an ensemble of peripheral hardware. This fusion of CPU and peripherals empowers microcomputers with the versatility to traverse a broad spectrum of computing endeavors, thus emerging as adaptable, multifunctional tools poised to navigate a myriad of contexts and requirements. The term “microcomputer” encapsulates the essence of a digital computing system where a microprocessor takes center stage as the central processing unit (CPU), synergizing seamlessly with input/output devices and memory resources. This amalgamation creates a holistic computational entity that finds its embodiment in the digital landscape. The intricate structure of a microcomputer finds representation in the block diagram illustrated in Figure 1-2, delineating the orchestration of its constituent elements. 6

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Figure 1-2.  Block diagram of microcomputer The microcomputer realm, however, intersects with the domain of microcontrollers, which are exemplified by integrated chips. These microcontrollers epitomize compact marvels, incorporating a comprehensive suite of components necessary for the functioning of a controller onto a solitary chip. Beyond the central processing unit (CPU), a tapestry of integral features coalesces, encompassing Random Access Memory (RAM), Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EPROM)/Programmable Read-Only Memory (PROM)/Read-Only Memory (ROM), and a dynamic array of input/ output (I/O) capabilities that encompass both serial and parallel paradigms. This ensemble extends further to include timers that govern temporal precision and interrupt controllers that facilitate seamless transitions between different processing tasks. Microcontrollers possess an innate ability to assimilate these features into their architecture, culminating in a holistic and self-­contained control solution.

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As a testament to the diversity within the microcontroller spectrum, notable instances emerge to illuminate this landscape. The Intel 8051 stands as an exemplar of an 8-bit microcontroller, harnessing its compact architecture to achieve intricate control tasks. In contrast, the Intel 8096 emerges as a 16-bit microcontroller, harnessing enhanced computational capabilities to navigate more complex computational demands. These distinctions, while nuanced, underscore the intricate interplay between microcontrollers’ architecture and their specific applications. In essence, the convergence of microcomputers and microcontrollers underscores the dynamism within the realm of digital computing. The microcomputer stands as a versatile hub where microprocessors coalesce with memory and input/output functions to enable a broad spectrum of computational endeavors. On the other hand, microcontrollers represent the epitome of compact integration, harmonizing a suite of pivotal components on a singular chip, thus endowing them with the capacity to orchestrate intricate control processes. The alignment between these two constructs provides a multifaceted toolkit for addressing diverse computational requirements. The economic advantage inherent in microcontrollers is manifest in their modest cost, as they encapsulate solely the essential elements requisite for their designated task of control. This streamlined approach ensures that extraneous components are excluded, leading to a resource-­ efficient solution tailored to the specific task at hand. Microcontrollers, by design, often incorporate specialized instructions for bit manipulation, thereby facilitating nuanced control over individual bits within registers. Additionally, they exhibit direct access to input/output (I/O) operations, enabling seamless read and write interactions with peripheral devices. The integration of efficient interrupt processing capabilities further amplifies their utility, enabling rapid transitions between different tasks and ensuring real-time responsiveness.

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A microcontroller’s architecture finds visual articulation in the block diagram showcased in Figure 1-3. This diagram presents a coherent representation of the intricate interplay between the microcontroller’s constituent components, offering a window into the underlying mechanics of its functionality. This synergy between architecture and functionality within microcontrollers underscores their pivotal role in the realm of digital control. By judiciously incorporating only the components necessary for a specific task, microcontrollers strike a balance between resource optimization and targeted performance. This approach ensures that each microcontroller stands as a specialized entity, armed with tailored capabilities that empower it to meet the unique demands of its assigned control responsibilities.

More on Microcontrollers and Microprocessors Microcontroller: The Silent Commanders Imagine a device that not only processes data but also interacts with the physical world, executing a predefined set of tasks with precision and finesse. Enter the microcontroller, a versatile yet compact computing marvel that operates as a self-contained system on a chip (SoC). At its core, a microcontroller encapsulates a central processing unit (CPU), memory, input/output (I/O) ports, and often other essential peripherals. Microcontrollers are the architects of embedded systems, orchestrating a symphony of tasks in devices that span from consumer electronics to industrial automation. Their design philosophy revolves around specialization; they are tailored to excel in specific applications, optimizing power consumption, size, and cost. Microcontrollers are the workhorses behind the scenes, executing dedicated functions without the need for external support. 9

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Intricacies aside, the beauty of microcontrollers lies in their real-world application. They power your smart home devices, regulate temperature in thermostats, guide the automation of manufacturing lines, and even navigate your car’s intricate systems. With their diverse range of functionalities, microcontrollers bring an unparalleled level of intelligence to devices that surround us, ensuring efficiency, accuracy, and interaction.

Microprocessor: The Computational Powerhouses While microcontrollers epitomize efficiency and specialization, microprocessors stand as computational powerhouses, capable of executing complex algorithms and handling large amounts of data. These components, the brainchildren of Moore’s Law, boast immense processing power, making them the go-to choice for general-purpose computing tasks. Microprocessors are often found at the heart of computers, laptops, and servers, performing tasks ranging from browsing the web to running intricate simulations. Their architecture consists of arithmetic logic units (ALUs), control units, and caches, meticulously designed to handle the intricate dance of data manipulation, storage, and control. In the realm of personal computing, microprocessors enable multitasking, rapid data processing, and seamless user experiences. These processors are not limited by specialization; rather, they thrive on adaptability and the ability to handle a vast array of applications.

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Symbiosis and Distinction The relationship between microcontrollers and microprocessors is both symbiotic and distinct. While microcontrollers cater to the embedded world, microprocessors rule the domain of general-purpose computing. Their symbiosis emerges in scenarios where both are integrated into a system, with the microcontroller handling specific real-world tasks and the microprocessor managing higher-level computation. As technology advances, the boundary between these entities blurs, with some microcontrollers embracing more powerful processing capabilities and microprocessors incorporating specialized features for specific applications. This fusion expands their applicability, offering greater flexibility and efficiency. In summary, microcontrollers and microprocessors epitomize the essence of modern computing. They drive innovation, shape industries, and enrich our lives in ways that often go unnoticed. Microcontrollers, through their specialization, bring intelligence to embedded systems, while microprocessors provide the computational muscle needed for diverse applications. Together, they form the backbone of a digital world that continues to evolve, empowering us to navigate the complexities of the modern age.

Figure 1-3.  Microcontroller block diagram 11

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Microcontroller and Microprocessor Comparison

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All of the circuitry needed to build a complete microcomputer can be found on a single chip in a microprocessor.

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Additional hardware such as an interrupt scheduler and timer are included in the microcontroller, which is a single chip.

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Although it is less than a typical microcomputer’s RAM, this amount is plenty for the programs that will run on it.

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Microcontrollers must be able to react immediately to control-oriented devices, which necessitates the use of interrupt systems. When the door of a microwave oven is opened, for example, the operation is halted. An external component is usually required for most microprocessors to implement powerful interrupt schemes. As the CPU in microcomputers, microprocessors are the most popular choice. The use of microcontrollers in small, low component designs for control-oriented activities has become commonplace.

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Processing-intensive microprocessor instruction sets need high-capacity addressing modes and instructions that can handle enormous amounts of information. A byte is a single unit of measurement used by these programs. Inputs and outputs are controlled by instruction sets on microcontrollers. A single bit is all it takes to execute their instructions. A 1-bit output port may be used to switch a motor on and off, for example.

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Before delving into the specifics of microcontrollers, it’s a good idea to brush up on some of the most often used terms.

Central Processing Unit At the heart of the computer system resides the formidable Central Processing Unit (CPU), an intricate electronic marvel that stands as the supreme conductor orchestrating a symphony of system activities with unparalleled finesse. This commanding entity not only presides over the entire computational landscape but also dons the mantle of executing a myriad of data operations, breathing life into the system’s inherent potential. Operating ceaselessly like the pulsating heart of the system, the CPU stands unwavering in its dedication to the perpetual cycle of obtaining and executing commands, embodying a perpetual dance that fuels the system’s operational prowess. Within this grand choreography, the CPU’s command interpretation and execution prowess hinge upon its mastery of an intricate lexicon: the instruction set. This compendium of binary codes serves as the very language that the CPU fluently speaks and comprehends, functioning as a bridge between human intent and machine action. Through the instruction set’s artful assembly of binary codes, the CPU deciphers the nuanced intentions embedded within commands, unraveling their complexities with unerring precision. With each execution, the CPU embarks upon an eloquent ballet of transforming abstract notions into tangible actions, rendering the digital realm a canvas for human aspirations to unfold. The ceaseless interplay between the CPU, its commanding instruction set, and the vast spectrum of data operations paints a tapestry of computational prowess. Each binary command is akin to a brushstroke upon this canvas, conveying not just mathematical manipulations but a symphony of intentions and desires. As the CPU tirelessly navigates 13

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its role as the digital maestro, it transforms these commands into a seamless symphony of logic and action, unfurling the limitless potential that lies within the realm of computing. The intricate ballet of command interpretation, execution, and result generation underscores the CPU’s central role as the linchpin of computational endeavors, propelling the digital universe forward with every flicker of its electronic pulse.

Machine Cycle Embarking upon the journey of executing a command, the processor traverses a carefully choreographed sequence of phases, each imbued with its own unique significance. This intricate symphony of computational activity commences with a poignant first act: •

Instruction Retrieval: Within the vast expanse of memory, the sought-after command finds its abode. Herein, nestled amidst a sea of data lies the instruction waiting to be brought to life. As the processor awakens, it casts its gaze upon the memory’s tapestry, seeking the elusive code that shall guide its next steps.

Having procured the instruction, the processor embarks upon the second movement: •

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Instruction Decoding: The instruction, often cryptic in its binary form, holds the blueprint of the task at hand. It is the processor’s role to imbue these binary whispers with meaning, meticulously translating them into a sequence of actions to be undertaken. In this act of decipherment, the processor wields its intellect to grasp the very essence of the command.

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With the essence of the instruction now unveiled, the processor proceeds to the third act: •

Execution of Command: The heart of the matter lies here—where commands metamorphose into actions. Guided by the now-comprehended instruction, the processor navigates a labyrinth of logic gates and data pathways, orchestrating the dance of electrons that engenders the desired outcome. In this ballet of data manipulation, the processor becomes an artist, breathing life into the digital canvas.

As the final crescendo approaches, the processor enters the penultimate movement: •

Result Recall and Memory Update: The fruits of the executed command, tangible in their numerical essence, are embraced by the processor’s grasp. These results, a testament to its computational prowess, are etched into memory, a testament to the journey that has transpired. The memory banks, once tranquil, now bear witness to the transient passage of data, preserving the echoes of digital accomplishment.

The culmination of these four carefully choreographed movements births the machine cycle, an elegant construct that defines the rhythm of computational endeavors. It is in this rhythmic cycle that the processor experiences its moments of inception, comprehension, execution, and preservation. In the intricate dance of the machine cycle, the processor finds its raison d’être. Yet, the tempo of this dance is not set in stone. It is shaped by the clock cycle, the pulse that governs the processor’s every move. In most scenarios, one machine cycle resonates with X clock cycles, where X is a value contingent upon the specific command in play. A shorter clock cycle, a 15

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swifter beat, leads to a briefer machine cycle—a testament to the efficiency with which instructions are transmuted into action. Thus, the processor’s cadence directly influences the pace of computation, with a rapid clock cycle yielding a CPU that races through tasks with unbridled swiftness, a digital sprinter poised to conquer the challenges of modern computing.

Fetching Instruction and Its Execution Unfurling the veiled intricacies of the fetching process, one discovers a sequence orchestrated with remarkable precision—a harmonious symphony of electronic gestures woven into the fabric of computation. This symphony commences with the initial movement: •

Address Retrieval and Connection: At the dawn of this process, the spotlight shines upon the contents residing within the Program Counter (PC), a numeric sentinel pointing toward the next destination in the digital landscape. These contents, brimming with potential, are elegantly connected to the address bus—a metaphorical conduit that guides the processor to its intended memory address.

With the address in hand and the stage set, the process advances to the second act: •

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Read Activation: In a pivotal moment, the signal “READ” echoes through the system, a clarion call summoning the retrieval of data. This signal illuminates the pathways, directing the processor’s gaze toward the Random Access Memory (RAM) where sought-after treasures lie dormant.

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As the memory doors open, the third stanza unfolds: •

Data Extraction and Transmission: The RAM yields its bounty—a symphony of bits forming an instruction opcode—transmitting it to the data bus, an intricate network akin to digital synapses. Within this matrix, the data makes its journey, coursing through digital veins, poised to bestow meaning upon the upcoming endeavors.

The fourth movement, marked by finesse, awaits: •

Opcode Lodging in the Instruction Register: Like a key sliding into a lock, the opcode—now endowed with significance—gracefully finds its place within the internal instruction register of the CPU. This hallowed vessel becomes the cradle for the instruction’s essence, a reservoir from which actions will emanate.

And as this tableau approaches its culmination, the final note reverberates: Program Counter Advancement: The Program Counter, once an emblem of the past, now rises to meet the future. Elevated by the very act it catalyzed, the PC readies itself for the forthcoming memory retrieval, its numeric fingerprint ever-evolving to shepherd the processor along its computational odyssey. However, this process transcends mere form; its substance finds its roots in the ALU—Algebraic Logic Unit—a nexus of computation. During execution, the ALU’s internal registers engage in a complex dance, their graceful entrance and exit orchestrated in perfect harmony. As the choreography unfolds, a decisive command resonates—a siren’s call that prompts the ALU to set its gears in motion, embarking upon the specified action with meticulous precision.

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In this grand symphony of electronic ballet, fetching emerges as a fundamental passage—a prelude that sets the stage for the forthcoming computational symphony. Its interplay of gates, signals, and data pathways forms the tapestry upon which the processor’s every action rests—a digital overture that heralds the dawn of computation’s intricate narrative.

Address, Data, and Control: The Buses •

The digital tapestry of information transmission is intricately woven through the existence of a BUS—a congregation of cables, each a lifeline transmitting data, collectively bound by a shared purpose. In this symphony of connectivity, a BUS emerges as the conductor orchestrating the harmonious exchange of digital messages, nurturing the network’s vitality. Within this expansive landscape, a rhythmic cadence emerges as the CPU conducts its dialogue with the memory, a sequence that unfurls as follows: •

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Addressing and Control: In the first movement, the CPU steps onto the stage, bearing in hand the key to the memory’s treasury—a numeric address brimming with intent. With deliberation, the CPU imparts this address onto the address bus—a conduit of purpose that guides the data’s journey. Concurrently, the control bus vibrates with signals, conveying the nature of the CPU’s query—be it a quest for insight through reading or a directive to inscribe through writing.

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As the address and signals traverse the digital avenues, a second act takes center stage: •

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READ Operation: With the address bestowed upon the address bus, the memory’s portal is unlocked, yielding a byte of data in response to the CPU’s inquiry. This operation is akin to plucking a carefully chosen note from a symphonic score. The retrieved data embarks on a journey—a digital odyssey—transiting from the memory through the CPU’s data bus, a channel carved for the very purpose of this exchange.

Within the CPU’s inner sanctum, a third movement commences: •

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Data Repository and Retrieval: As the data alights within the CPU’s domain, an internal register steps forward—a keeper of the retrieved byte, a guardian entrusted with safeguarding the essence of the memory’s offering. This register deftly stores the retrieved data, ensuring it remains within reach, poised to infuse computational endeavors with newfound meaning.

And as the tale approaches its zenith, the final movement unfolds: •

WRITE Operation: When the CPU aspires to inscribe its digital essence into the memory’s annals, it bequeaths its data onto the data bus—a conveyor for its transformative message. With grace, the data traverses the digital byways,

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reaching its destined station within the memory. Here, ensconced amidst the memory’s chambers, the data nestles, its presence etched into the memory’s fabric, ready to influence future computational symphonies. •

In essence, the BUS—an ethereal web of cables—acts as a bridge for digital interaction, forging a communion between the CPU and memory. Each interaction is a carefully choreographed pas de deux—a dance of digital dialogue that shapes the narrative of computation. As the CPU raises its address, signals resonate, and data journeys, the BUS manifests its role as the lifeblood of digital connectivity—a pulsating force underpinning the symphony of information exchange.

Control and Monitoring Devices •

If a voltage or current is applied to a control device, it may have an effect on the environment.

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It is the responsibility of monitoring devices to transform the signals generated by sensors such as these into voltages or currents that can be read by a computer.

Control and monitoring devices play a pivotal role in modern technology, shaping the way we interact with machines, systems, and processes. These devices bridge the gap between human intention and the functioning of various devices, enabling us to manipulate and oversee complex operations with ease and precision. Their applications are ubiquitous, spanning industries such as manufacturing, healthcare, transportation, energy, and beyond. 20

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Control Devices Control devices are designed to influence the behavior of machines, equipment, or systems according to specific requirements or commands. They empower users to direct processes, adjust parameters, and initiate actions. These devices act as the interface through which human input is translated into actionable commands for machines to execute. One common example of a control device is the remote control used to manage televisions, home theaters, and other entertainment systems. It allows users to change channels, adjust volume, and navigate menus, all from a comfortable distance. In industrial settings, control panels are used to oversee manufacturing lines, regulating speed, temperature, and other critical factors to ensure optimal product quality and efficiency. Advanced control devices, such as Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs), are widely employed in industrial automation. PLCs are programmable devices that can execute complex sequences of operations based on input from sensors, switches, and other devices. They enable real-time adjustments, error detection, and consistent execution of tasks without human intervention.

Monitoring Devices Monitoring devices are designed to collect, display, and convey information about the status, performance, or condition of a system, process, or environment. They provide critical insights to users, enabling them to make informed decisions and take appropriate actions based on real-time data. Consider environmental monitoring devices, such as weather stations, which measure temperature, humidity, wind speed, and other atmospheric conditions. This data is essential for predicting weather patterns, studying climate trends, and making informed decisions related to agriculture, construction, and disaster management. 21

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In the healthcare sector, wearable fitness trackers monitor heart rate, steps taken, sleep patterns, and more. These devices empower individuals to track their well-being and make adjustments to their lifestyle for improved health outcomes. Industrial sectors benefit from monitoring devices as well. Sensors placed in machinery can monitor vibrations, temperature, pressure, and other indicators, enabling predictive maintenance. By analyzing data from these sensors, companies can anticipate equipment failures and schedule maintenance before critical failures occur, minimizing downtime and optimizing efficiency.

Integration and Connectivity Modern control and monitoring devices are often equipped with connectivity features, enabling them to communicate with other devices, systems, and the cloud. This integration allows for centralized management, remote control, and data analysis. The Internet of Things (IoT) has amplified the capabilities of control and monitoring devices, enabling seamless communication and data exchange between devices and applications.

Challenges and Considerations While control and monitoring devices offer immense benefits, their design and deployment come with challenges. Ensuring data security, especially in interconnected systems, is paramount to prevent unauthorized access or data breaches. Moreover, designing user interfaces that are intuitive and user-friendly is essential for effective human-device interaction. In conclusion, control and monitoring devices have revolutionized the way we interact with our surroundings, offering unparalleled control, insights, and efficiencies across various domains. As technology continues to advance, these devices will play an increasingly vital role in shaping the way we manage and optimize complex processes and systems. 22

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Control and monitoring devices are foundational components in the realm of automation, enabling us to manipulate, supervise, and optimize various systems and processes. Their significance extends across diverse industries, from manufacturing and energy to healthcare and smart homes. Let’s delve deeper into the concepts, types, integration, challenges, and future prospects of these devices.

Control Devices Control devices facilitate human intervention in the operation of machines, equipment, and systems. They can be as simple as switches and buttons or as complex as advanced industrial controllers. Examples include •

Switches and Buttons: These basic control elements allow users to turn devices on/off or trigger specific functions. From light switches to elevator buttons, these ubiquitous components provide direct control.

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Thermostats: Used in heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems, thermostats maintain temperature settings by regulating heating/cooling equipment based on user preferences.

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Motor Controllers: These devices manage the speed and direction of motors. Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs) are commonly used in industrial settings to control motor speed and energy consumption.

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Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs): PLCs are specialized computers programmed to automate industrial processes. They monitor sensors and inputs, execute logic, and control outputs to optimize manufacturing operations. 23

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Monitoring Devices Monitoring devices gather data from sensors and present it in a comprehensible format for analysis and decision-making. Examples include •

Sensors: These devices detect changes in physical properties like temperature, pressure, humidity, and light. They provide real-time data that forms the basis of monitoring systems.

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Data Loggers: These devices record data over time for analysis and trending. They are useful for tracking environmental conditions, energy consumption, and equipment performance.

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Cameras and Surveillance Systems: Video cameras capture visual information for security and surveillance purposes. Advanced systems use computer vision and artificial intelligence to analyze scenes and detect anomalies.

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Medical Monitors: Used in healthcare, these devices track vital signs, such as heart rate, blood pressure, and oxygen levels. They provide clinicians with real-time patient information for diagnosis and treatment.

Integration and Connectivity Control and monitoring devices are increasingly equipped with connectivity features that enable them to communicate with other devices and systems. This interconnectedness enables

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Remote Control: Users can operate devices and systems remotely, enhancing convenience and efficiency. Smart home devices, for example, allow users to control lights, thermostats, and appliances via smartphones.

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Data Sharing: Devices can exchange data with each other and with cloud-based platforms. This enables central data storage, analysis, and insights, fostering informed decision-making.

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Automation: Integrated systems can trigger actions automatically based on predefined conditions. For instance, a temperature sensor can activate a cooling system when the temperature exceeds a threshold.

Challenges and Considerations As control and monitoring devices become more sophisticated, several challenges emerge: •

Security: Ensuring data confidentiality and protecting against unauthorized access is crucial. Vulnerabilities in connected devices can lead to data breaches and compromises.

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Usability: Designing intuitive user interfaces is vital for effective human-device interaction. Users should be able to easily understand and navigate control and monitoring interfaces.

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Interoperability: In interconnected ecosystems, devices from different manufacturers need to communicate seamlessly. Industry standards and protocols help ensure compatibility.

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Future Prospects The future of control and monitoring devices holds promising developments: •

Artificial Intelligence: Integration of AI will enable devices to learn from data, make predictions, and automate decisions based on complex patterns.

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Edge Computing: Devices will process data locally (at the “edge” of the network) to reduce latency and reliance on cloud services, enhancing real-time decision-making.

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5G Connectivity: The rollout of 5G networks will enable faster and more reliable communication between devices, enabling new applications and use cases.

In conclusion, control and monitoring devices are integral to modern life and industries. Their continuous evolution will shape the landscape of automation, enhancing efficiency, safety, and convenience across various sectors. As technology advances, these devices will become more intelligent, interconnected, and integral to the seamless functioning of our complex world.

Microcontroller Types The internal bus width, architecture, memory, and instruction set of microcontrollers may be used to categorize them. Figure 1-4 shows the many microcontrollers available.

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Figure 1-4.  Microcontroller types

Microcontroller: 8 Bit In the realm of computational orchestration, a pivotal player takes the stage—the microcontroller—a digital virtuoso designed to seamlessly execute intricate commands with finesse. Among the ranks of microcontrollers, an 8-bit microcontroller stands as a remarkable manifestation of computational prowess, its ALU—an Algebraic Logic Unit—wielding its arithmetic and logical acumen with remarkable precision upon 8-bit bytes. This dexterity ensures that operations unfurl upon a canvas composed of 8 bits, a realm that caters to the fine granularity of data manipulation.

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This embodiment of computational elegance encompasses not only the ALU’s capabilities but also extends to the internal bus width—a digital thoroughfare that navigates the microcontroller’s inner realms. In the domain of 8-bit microcontrollers, the internal bus width is a harmonious 8 bits wide, mirroring the domain upon which the ALU operates. This symbiosis between ALU and bus width bestows a sense of unity to the microcontroller’s inner workings, each element aligned in pursuit of computational brilliance. Stepping into the pantheon of microcontroller legends, exemplars emerge that embody the essence of 8-bit microcontrollers. Among these, the Intel 8051 series radiates its impact with resounding clarity, its architecture and capabilities painting a portrait of digital prowess that has left an indelible mark on the computational landscape. Motorola’s MC68HC11 series, equally illustrious, stands as another sentinel of 8-bit excellence, its influence resonating through the annals of microcontroller history. Beyond their discrete implementations, 8-bit microcontrollers represent more than just units of computation; they are the embodiment of digital artistry. The choreography of bits and the interplay of logic gates harmonize within their circuitry, giving rise to a symphony of control and precision. These microcontrollers materialize as the conductors of digital symphonies, orchestrating data’s intricate dance and harmonizing operations with unparalleled grace. With every byte manipulated, every gate traversed, 8-bit microcontrollers infuse the digital realm with a sense of calculated elegance. As they thread the fine line between efficiency and versatility, their influence extends far beyond mere computational boundaries. They are the architects of automated symphonies, the architects of digital logic’s triumphs, and the heralds of a new era in control and precision. The legacy of these 8-bit marvels is etched into the very fabric of computational progress, forever intertwined with the evolution of microcontroller technology. 28

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Microcontroller: 16 Bit Within the realm of digital marvels, the microcontroller emerges as a virtuoso, its capabilities attuned to the intricate dance of commands and data. Amidst this array of computational artisans, the 16-bit microcontroller takes its place as a luminary—a beacon of heightened precision and computational prowess. The heart of this distinction rests within its ALU—an Algebraic Logic Unit—a domain where mathematics and logic converge upon a 16-bit stage, orchestrating a symphony of actions with an expanded palette of bits. At the core of the 16-bit microcontroller’s elegance lies its intrinsic alignment with a word’s magnificence—16 bits of data delicately interwoven, capable of conveying complexities beyond the scope of their smaller 8-bit counterparts. These microcontrollers embrace their role with unparalleled finesse, embracing instructions that beckon the ALU to embark upon a journey across these 16-bit landscapes, unraveling the nuances of data and command interaction. This intrinsic synergy extends beyond mere instruction execution, weaving itself into the very fabric of the microcontroller’s architecture. Beneath the surface, a digital thoroughfare stretches—its lanes widened to accommodate the magnificence of 16 bits. This internal bus, 16 bits wide, parallels the grandeur of the microcontroller’s word length, facilitating the fluid passage of data across its intricate network. Venturing into the annals of microcontroller history, exemplars rise to the fore, etching the essence of 16-bit microcontrollers into the very framework of digital evolution. The Intel 8096 series, an emblem of computational sophistication, exemplifies the heights that can be achieved with a 16-bit architecture. In parallel, the Motorola MC68HC12 and MC68332 families cast their legacy upon the sands of time, emblematic of 16-bit excellence that reverberates through the ages.

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The distinction between 8-bit and 16-bit microcontrollers becomes more than just a matter of bit width—it’s a metamorphosis of computational potential. This transformative shift breathes newfound life into the realm of control and precision, infusing operations with a heightened sense of accuracy and performance. The tapestry of 16-bit microcontrollers weaves a narrative of progression, where bytes expand into words, and possibilities unfurl with every instruction executed. It’s in the realm of performance that 16-bit microcontrollers truly shine, their computational capabilities elevated by their expanded bit space. The very essence of data manipulation becomes a canvas for intricate masterpieces, executed with unprecedented finesse. In comparison to their 8-bit counterparts, 16-bit microcontrollers stand as beacons of improved accuracy, threading the fine line between efficiency and detail with remarkable aplomb. Thus, the 16-bit microcontroller emerges as a testament to digital evolution—an exemplar of computational advancement that transcends the boundaries of mere bytes. It is a symphony conductor, orchestrating mathematical nuances and logical intricacies upon a stage illuminated by 16-bit brilliance. With every bit traversed, every operation executed, the 16-bit microcontroller inscribes its mark upon the legacy of computational progress, forever altering the landscape of control, precision, and performance.

Microcontroller: 32 Bit Within the intricate tapestry of computational ingenuity, a remarkable archetype emerges—the 32-bit microcontroller—a beacon of computational might and precision. This titan of digital orchestration draws its potency from a pivotal source—the Algebraic Logic Unit (ALU)—a veritable crucible where the magic of 32-bit arithmetic and logical operations unfurls. In a single instruction, this ALU navigates the expanse of 32 bits, conducting a symphony of calculations with remarkable finesse. 30

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The defining attribute of the 32-bit microcontroller lies within its very essence—a 32-bit internal bus width—a digital thoroughfare that mirrors the grandeur of the ALU’s operations. This widened path stands as a testament to the microcontroller’s capacity, facilitating the harmonious flow of data within its circuitry. This internal network becomes the stage upon which the symphony of computational mastery is enacted—a realm where bits intermingle, giving rise to nuanced results of unparalleled complexity. Embarking upon the annals of microcontroller heritage, certain luminaries claim their position among the 32-bit elite, etching their impact upon the continuum of technological advancement. The Intel 80960 family stands as a testament to precision and power, a progenitor of 32-bit excellence that has shaped the course of computational history. Meanwhile, the Motorola M683xx and Intel/Atmel 251 families also grace this pantheon, their very existence a nod to the splendor of 32-bit architecture. However, this distinction transcends mere nomenclature—it’s a metamorphosis of computational might. The leap from 16 bits to 32 bits elevates the microcontroller’s capabilities to unprecedented heights, facilitating complex operations with remarkable efficiency. The very architecture of the microcontroller undergoes a transformation, accommodating the intricacies of 32-bit operations and opening the doors to a realm where computations occur with breathtaking precision. In the domain of performance, 32-bit microcontrollers truly shine, harnessing their expanded bit space to usher in a new era of computational power. With each instruction executed, the ALU grapples with a realm of complexity, orchestrating calculations that transcend the limitations of their predecessors. This heightened computational prowess propels the microcontroller to new heights, positioning it as a harbinger of precision, speed, and efficiency.

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In comparison to their 16-bit counterparts, 32-bit microcontrollers stand as luminous beacons of improved performance. Their architecture and capabilities resonate with a sense of digital majesty, navigating the intricate dance of data with unparalleled mastery. They are the virtuosos of computation, the architects of mathematical marvels, and the standard-­ bearers of a new era in computational excellence. Thus, the 32-bit microcontroller ascends as a symbol of digital evolution—a triumph of architectural advancement that reshapes the boundaries of computation. It wields its 32-bit essence as a tool of empowerment, executing intricate calculations with precision and speed that elevate the very essence of control and power. In the grand symphony of technological progress, the 32-bit microcontroller carves its legacy, an indomitable force that has forever redefined the landscape of computational capabilities.

Embedded Microcontroller Embedded microcontrollers emerge as the silent architects of seamless functionality within the intricate tapestry of embedded systems. These microcontrollers, residing as minuscule chips, harbor within their confines a symphony of essential functional components—nurturing the very essence of embedded systems with finesse and precision. At the heart of their design lies the harmonious interplay of diverse elements, including program and data memory, weaving a digital fabric that empowers embedded systems to flourish. Central to this paradigm is the notion of integration—a concept that finds its apex within the microcontroller’s architecture. It is the embodiment of all necessary functional blocks onto a solitary chip that renders a microcontroller “embedded.” This self-contained entity assumes the role of a master conductor, orchestrating the nuanced interactions that define an embedded system’s capabilities. Among these, the venerable 8051 microcontroller shines as an exemplar—a testament to the transformative impact of this embedded architecture. 32

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Within the microcontroller’s heart, the symphony of functionality converges, setting the stage for an embedded system’s symphony. In a seamless symphony of digital interplay, program and data memory interweave, each byte resonating with purpose, each instruction poised to trigger an elegant cascade of actions. This orchestration finds its crescendo in the concept of an “embedded microcontroller”—a microcosm of computational prowess. Indeed, the embedded microcontroller emerges as a cornerstone of modern technology—a phoenix that rises from the ashes of isolated components, bestowing an embedded system with an inherent sense of unity. In the embrace of integration, the microcontroller’s performance transcends mere computation, imbued with the potential to galvanize a vast array of tasks, from automotive control systems to medical devices. The fusion of microcontroller and embedded system begets a symbiotic relationship—each enhancing the other’s capabilities. With all functional blocks harmoniously united on a single chip, the embedded microcontroller becomes a maestro of digital orchestration, breathing life into the intricate symphony of an embedded system. The 8051 and its contemporaries serve as vanguards of this ethos, embodying the fusion of form and function within the domain of embedded microcontrollers. In the grand narrative of technological evolution, the embedded microcontroller emerges as a unifying force—an artisan that shapes the very fabric of embedded systems. Through its seamless integration, it bestows upon these systems an aura of efficiency and cohesion. In the continuum of modern innovation, the embedded microcontroller’s legacy persists as a testament to the power of integration—an embodiment of transformation that has forever altered the landscape of embedded systems design.

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Microcontroller with External Memory breed of microcontrollers—the “external memory microcontroller.” This nomenclature encapsulates a microcontroller variant that bears a unique architectural signature—one that diverges from the conventional norm. In the symphony of microcontrollers, an “external memory microcontroller” emerges as a distinct movement—a composition where the functional blocks, integral to its operation, are dispersed across a broader canvas. At the very heart of this concept lies a fundamental divergence from the standard—where the encapsulation of all requisite functional elements onto a single chip is eschewed. Instead, the functional components that traditionally find harmony on a solitary chip are disassembled, distributed across a broader landscape, and connected through a symphony of interfaces. This architectural intricacy begets a microcontroller that orchestrates its actions through a dance that involves interplay with memory units beyond its immediate confines. In this architectural ballet, the “glue circuit” emerges as a protagonist—a maestro of interfacing prowess. This circuitry, akin to a conductor’s baton, bridges the gap between the microcontroller’s internal landscape and the external memory units that fuel its functionality. This interfacing marvel navigates the realms of connectivity, ensuring a seamless dialogue between the external memory microcontroller and the vast world that envelopes it. Amidst this intricate interplay, the 8031 microcontroller stands as an embodiment of the “external memory microcontroller” ethos. Herein, the absence of on-chip program memory sets the stage for an engagement with external memory units. This dance of data retrieval and storage takes on a unique flavor, as the 8031 microcontroller defies convention, orchestrating its memory operations through a harmonious alliance with external memory units. In the broader tableau of microcontroller orchestration, the “external memory microcontroller” serves as a reminder of architectural 34

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diversity—a testament that innovation extends beyond the bounds of tradition. This architectural paradigm transcends the notion of a singular chip and embraces a broader canvas, where connectivity and interfacing become the protagonists of the narrative. In a world where cohesion and integration define microcontroller design, the “external memory microcontroller” stands as an enigmatic outlier—a testament to the limitless permutations that architectural exploration can unearth. The 8031 and its counterparts embody the symphony of connectivity, external memory engagement, and architectural divergence, etching their names onto the tapestry of embedded systems with a unique resonance that echoes through the corridors of technological evolution.

T he Architectural Specifications of Microcontroller Within the intricate tapestry of computational paradigms, the realm of processors emerges as a pivotal divide—a juncture that delineates the trajectories of computation. At its core, this division crystallizes into two luminous archetypes: the Von Neumann, also known as the Princeton architecture, and the Harvard architecture. These two luminaries, each with its own constellation of attributes, unfurl a duality that echoes through the annals of computing history. The nuances of data and application storage and retrieval become the touchstones that define this architectural divergence. In the realm of Von Neumann architecture, a fluid synergy emerges, with data and applications akin to ephemeral spirits that inhabit a common domain. Here, the memory reservoir serves as an abode—a repository where both data and instructions mingle harmoniously. A procession of fetch, decode, execute, and store unfolds, each step orchestrated within the confines of a unified memory space. 35

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Yet, the Harvard architecture dances to a different tune—a melody of separation that finds resonance in distinction. In this realm, data and applications exist as discrete entities, each inhabiting their own dedicated spaces within the memory realm. Here, the memory landscape bifurcates into separate realms—a stage for data and a canvas for instructions. This partitioning begets a distinct choreography—a dance where data and instructions waltz in tandem but without the intimate coexistence of their Von Neumann counterpart. The Von Neumann and Harvard architectures are not mere paradigms; they represent entire ecosystems with implications that ripple through the realms of computation. The Von Neumann architecture, with its symbiotic fusion of data and instructions, resonates with a sense of cohesion, where the memory’s embrace nurtures both elements within its embrace. This approach, while elegant, does carry the weight of potential bottlenecks—a consequence of data and instructions vying for the memory’s attention. In contrast, the Harvard architecture basks in a realm of separation—a digital realm where clarity reigns supreme. The dedicated memory spaces for data and instructions yield a streamlined orchestration, unfurling a computational ballet marked by precision and speed. While it sidesteps the Von Neumann architecture’s potential bottlenecks, it does introduce complexities in managing the segregation—a challenge that requires meticulous choreography. In the grand narrative of computational history, the tale of these architectures is etched—a dichotomy that has sculpted the evolution of processors. They are not just paradigms; they are the architects of computational landscapes, each shaping the trajectory of computation in its unique way. In choosing between Von Neumann and Harvard architectures, designers tread a path marked by implications, trade-offs, and possibilities—a decision that reverberates through the annals of digital innovation.

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Thus, the journey through processor architectures transcends mere technicalities; it is a voyage through the essence of computation itself. Von Neumann and Harvard architectures stand as a testament to the myriad ways in which computation can be structured—each a narrative that weaves its unique spell upon the digital tapestry of technological evolution.

Von Neumann Architecture In the intricate fabric of microcontroller architectures, the interplay of instructions and data unfurls as a symphonic ballet—a dance that echoes the very essence of computational orchestration. At the heart of this narrative lies the Von Neumann architecture, an embodiment of this harmonious interplay, a landscape where instructions and data traverse the same paths, rendering their synchrony as a hallmark of design. This architectural dance unfurls with elegance—a melody composed of shared pathways. In the realm of Von Neumann-based microcontrollers, the very veins of computation bear witness to the marriage of instructions and data, as they traverse the same data bus, transcending the boundaries that often segregate them. Here, data and program instructions coalesce within a single central memory unit—a symposium of unity where they dwell as cohabitants within the corridors of a common digital abode. In the life of a microcontroller under the Von Neumann paradigm, the controller’s role becomes a journey of two phases—an interplay of fetches that shape its actions. An instruction’s voyage begins as the controller fetches the directive, followed by a subsequent retrieval of the requisite data to support an address in the realm of main memory. This intricate duet of fetches, while ensuring the unity of data and instructions, introduces a pacing, a tempo that slows the controller’s cadence as it steps through its choreography.

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The symphony of the Von Neumann architecture is brought to life in Figure 1-5—an illustrated testament to the interwoven pathways that define this microcontroller landscape. Its visual representation is more than mere lines and shapes; it encapsulates the unity that underscores the architecture’s design philosophy. This depiction resonates with a narrative that transcends mere technicality—a narrative that celebrates the harmony of design. This unity, intrinsic to the Von Neumann architecture, reverberates through the realm of microcontroller design, bringing a symphony of simplification. Through its orchestration, a single memory becomes the focus of access, streamlining the design process and rendering the intricate landscape of microcontroller design less complex. This unification extends to memory usage as well, where Random Access Memory (RAM) emerges as a vessel for both data and program instructions—a sanctuary where they coexist, harmonizing their roles within the microcontroller’s realm. A paragon of the Von Neumann architecture finds its embodiment in the Motorola 68HC11 microcontroller—a microcosm where these architectural principles find their expression. Within this realm, an instruction itself stands as an example—a testament to the architecture’s functionality. This instruction paints a canvas of action, invoking the accumulator to reach out to memory, drawing forth a byte to be read and subsequently enveloped within its digital embrace. This intricate dance of fetch and execution takes place over cycles, a rhythmic cadence that defines the microcontroller’s journey. Cycle 1 sets the stage—a time of familiarization with instructions, a moment where the microcontroller acquaints itself with the directives that shape its actions. Cycle 2 brings data from the hallowed halls of RAM, retrieving and storing it within the accumulator—a microcosm of computation itself, a testament to the harmonious coexistence of data and instructions within the symphony of the Von Neumann architecture.

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In this grand narrative of computational ballet, the Von Neumann architecture assumes a role of prominence—a conductor of unity where data and instructions merge within the memory’s embrace. This architecture isn’t just a technical paradigm; it’s a philosophy that shapes the digital symphony of microcontrollers, orchestrating a dance that marries the realms of data and instructions in harmonious coexistence.

Figure 1-5.  Von Neumann architecture

Harvard Architecture Harvard architecture, a fundamental concept in computer architecture, plays a pivotal role in defining how a computer’s processor interacts with memory and executes instructions. Named after the Harvard Mark I relay-­ based computer from the 1940s, this architecture has evolved over the years and continues to influence modern computer designs. Let’s delve into the details of Harvard architecture, its characteristics, advantages, and applications.

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Basic Principles Harvard architecture is characterized by its separation of memory for instructions and data, maintaining distinct pathways for fetching and processing instructions and data. In this architecture, there are separate memory units and buses for instruction memory (program memory) and data memory, ensuring that the processor can simultaneously access both instruction and data.

Key Characteristics Separate Memory Spaces: In a Harvard architecture system, instruction memory and data memory are physically separate. This separation allows for concurrent access to both instruction and data, improving overall system efficiency. Dedicated Buses: Harvard architecture systems employ separate buses for fetching instructions and reading/writing data. This parallel access increases throughput and reduces potential bottlenecks. Instruction Pipelining: The distinct memory paths enable efficient pipelining, where multiple instructions can be in various stages of execution simultaneously. Fixed Instruction Length: Harvard architecture often uses fixed-length instruction formats, simplifying the decoding process and improving predictability in instruction fetch and execution. Performance: The architecture’s parallelism and efficient memory access contribute to improved performance, making it well-suited for applications that require high-speed processing.

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Advantages Faster Throughput: The parallelism offered by Harvard architecture enables faster execution of instructions, as instructions can be fetched while data is being processed. Predictable Timing: The separation of instruction and data memory simplifies timing analysis, leading to more deterministic execution times. Reduced Bottlenecks: Dedicated buses for instructions and data eliminate contention for memory access, reducing potential bottlenecks in the system. Higher Performance in Specific Applications: Harvard architecture is well-suited for applications with heavy instruction access, such as embedded systems, digital signal processing, and microcontrollers.

Applications Embedded Systems: Many microcontrollers and digital signal processors (DSPs) use Harvard architecture due to its efficiency in real-time applications. Signal Processing: DSPs and multimedia processing units benefit from Harvard architecture’s ability to simultaneously handle complex instruction sequences and data manipulation. Microcontrollers: Low-power microcontrollers often employ Harvard architecture, optimizing their processing capabilities while minimizing energy consumption. Specialized Processors: Harvard architecture is used in specialized processors for tasks like encryption, graphics processing, and network packet handling. In modern implementations, some architectures use a modified Harvard architecture, where aspects of Von Neumann architecture (a unified memory for data and instructions) are integrated with the Harvard approach. This modification can balance the advantages of both architectures to suit specific requirements. 41

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In conclusion, Harvard architecture’s separation of instruction and data memory, along with its dedicated buses, offers advantages in terms of performance, throughput, and predictability. Its influence can be seen across a wide range of applications, from microcontrollers to specialized processors, where efficient instruction execution and data processing are essential.

Figure 1-6.  Block diagram of Harvard architecture

 ISC (Complex Instruction Set Computer) C Architecture for Microcontroller Within the intricate architecture of modern microcontrollers, an overarching paradigm emerges—an archetype that guides their design, dictates their orchestration, and shapes the very essence of their computational choreography. This paradigm, known as CISC—Complex Instruction Set Computer—finds its embrace within the vast majority of contemporary microcontrollers, a testament to its pervasive influence within the digital realm. 42

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At its heart, the CISC architecture isn’t just a design philosophy; it’s a symphony of instructions, a symposium where the orchestra of computational actions takes center stage. This architecture paints a landscape where instructions find their distinct roles, a tapestry woven with multiple addressing modes for a multitude of operations. Be it arithmetic and logical operations, data transfer, or memory access, the CISC architecture weaves a digital melody that resonates with the complexity of computation. One hallmark of the CISC architecture is the rich palette of instructions it offers—a bounty that extends to over 80 distinct directives. Within this vibrant spectrum lies a diversity of commands, each tailored to a specific facet of computation. Some are versatile, their purpose spanning a broad swath of applications. Others, however, are artisans of specialization— precision instruments designed to perform intricate control tasks with finesse. The realm of CISC microcontrollers isn’t a monolith; it’s a realm of nuances, where instructions respond to a symphony of stimuli in a diverse manner. Specific address spaces and registers find allegiance within certain instructions, while distinct addressing modes find recognition within others. This mosaic of recognition and allegiance weaves a landscape of complexity, where each instruction reacts to its environment with distinct behavior, orchestrating the dance of computation with precision. An intriguing facet of the CISC architecture is its propensity for macro-­ like instructions—a realm where complexity conceals elegance. Here, instructions assume the guise of macros, offering a singular command that encapsulates the actions of multiple simpler ones. This macro-like behavior doesn’t just simplify programming; it elevates the very essence of instruction design, offering a window into the synthesis of complexity and simplicity.

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In the pantheon of CISC microcontrollers, a luminary emerges—the Intel 8096 series. This microcontroller stands as a testament to the CISC design ethos—a realm where complexity meets artistry. Within the Intel 8096 series, the symphony of CISC architecture unfurls, orchestrating the journey of computation with elegance and precision. In the grand narrative of microcontroller evolution, the CISC architecture assumes the role of a guiding star—a compass that directs the trajectory of design and implementation. It’s more than an architecture; it’s a philosophy that paints a landscape where complexity is embraced, where instructions dance in harmony with data, where a tapestry of precision and specialization is woven within the digital realm. Through the embodiment of microcontrollers like the Intel 8096 series, the legacy of CISC architecture shines—a testament to the symphony of complexity that underlies the world of modern computation. Complex Instruction Set Computer (CISC) architecture is a prominent design approach used in microcontrollers and processors, aiming to provide a wide array of powerful and versatile instructions within a single instruction set. CISC architectures contrast with Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC) architectures, which prioritize simplicity and efficiency by using a smaller set of basic instructions.

Key Characteristics and Features Multifunction Instructions: CISC architectures offer instructions that can perform complex operations in a single instruction. These instructions can involve memory access, arithmetic operations, logical operations, and control flow manipulation, reducing the number of instructions needed to accomplish a task. Memory Access Modes: CISC architectures often support various addressing modes, allowing instructions to access memory in diverse ways, such as direct addressing, indirect addressing, and indexed addressing. This flexibility simplifies programming but may also result in more complex hardware. 44

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Hardware Emphasis: CISC architectures put a significant load on hardware components to decode and execute complex instructions. This approach aims to shift the complexity from software to hardware, making the microcontroller more capable of performing intricate tasks. Rich Instruction Set: CISC architectures can have hundreds of instructions, including specialized instructions tailored for specific operations. This rich instruction set enables developers to write compact and feature-rich code. Variable-Length Instructions: Instructions in CISC architectures can have varying lengths, with some instructions requiring more memory than others. This adaptability allows the architecture to accommodate different levels of complexity. Microcoding: In CISC architectures, complex instructions are often implemented using microcode. Microcode is a sequence of simpler instructions that the microcontroller executes to perform the desired complex operation.

 dvantages of CISC Architecture A for Microcontrollers Higher-Level Abstractions: The rich instruction set and complex instructions of CISC architectures enable developers to write more concise and expressive code, translating high-level abstractions directly into instructions. Reduced Memory Footprint: With complex instructions, fewer instructions are required to perform a task, leading to a smaller memory footprint for programs. Optimized for Code Density: CISC architectures excel at optimizing code density, enabling the execution of a wide range of operations with fewer instructions.

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Ease of Programming: CISC architectures simplify programming by providing instructions that combine multiple operations. This can save time and effort in software development. Efficient for Certain Applications: CISC architectures are well-suited for applications that require a mix of general-purpose and specialized operations, such as signal processing, control systems, and data manipulation.

Challenges and Considerations Complexity: The complexity of the instruction set and hardware required to execute complex instructions can lead to more intricate and harder-to-­ predict behavior. Power Consumption: The increased hardware complexity of CISC architectures can result in higher power consumption compared to simpler architectures like RISC. Instruction Decoding Overhead: The decoding of complex instructions can introduce overhead and potentially slow down the instruction fetch and execution process. Limited Parallelism: The complexity of instructions can make it challenging to execute multiple instructions in parallel, limiting the potential for instruction-level parallelism. Design and Verification Complexity: Developing microcontrollers based on CISC architectures demands thorough design and verification efforts due to the intricacies of instruction execution and the potential for corner cases. In conclusion, CISC architecture for microcontrollers offers a trade-­ off between hardware complexity and software efficiency. It provides a diverse set of instructions to cater to various application requirements and allows developers to write more concise code. However, it also comes with challenges related to complexity, power consumption, and potential performance trade-offs. CISC architectures continue 46

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to be relevant in microcontroller design, especially for applications where the advantages of a rich instruction set outweigh the associated complexities.

 ISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer) R Architecture for Microcontroller •

Amidst the ever-evolving landscape of microprocessor design, a tide of innovation ushers forth—a shift that navigates the currents of progress toward new horizons. Within this dynamic realm, the RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer) architecture stands as a guiding beacon—a paradigm that draws designers and engineers toward a new era of computational orchestration.

•

In the world of microcontroller design, the transition to RISC architecture signals a reimagining of the very essence of computation. This transformation culminates in the birth of RISC microcontrollers— digital entities defined by a discerning characteristic: a curated instruction set that boasts a limited array of address modes, meticulously chosen to support an array of arithmetic, logical, and data transfer operations.

•

The allure of RISC architecture rests in its simplicity—a simplicity that yields profound implications. This design ethos, characterized by reduced complexity, begets a cascade of benefits. A RISC microcontroller wears its simplicity as a badge of honor—a badge that translates into tangible results: a smaller chip 47

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footprint, a reduction in the number of pins required, and a commendably low power consumption. In this symphony of design, the harmony of simplicity and efficiency resonates.

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Delving deeper into the tapestry of RISC architecture, we encounter the Harvard architecture—a realm that embodies distinct traits that distinguish it from the norm. One hallmark of this architecture is the unique synergy it fosters—a realm where program and data harmoniously coexist, accessed simultaneously. This concurrent access isn’t just an architectural feat; it’s a testament to the RISC processor’s ability to transcend traditional constraints, ushering in a symphony of streamlined processing.

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Within the realm of the Harvard architecture, an artful overlaying of activities unfolds—a process where various activities are interwoven to hasten the pace of processing. This orchestration is more than just optimization; it’s a dynamic choreography that demonstrates the versatility and adaptability of the RISC architecture, transcending limitations to unlock new realms of efficiency.

•

Execution speed receives a turbocharged boost through the orchestration of instruction pipelining—an intricate dance of computation where the stages of instruction execution overlap, propelling the microcontroller into a realm of accelerated processing. This ballet of instructions unfolds seamlessly, epitomizing the synergy that resides within the microcontroller’s architecture, transforming ordinary actions into a symphony of speed and efficiency.

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•

In the realm of RISC architecture, a symmetrical—or orthogonal—set of instructions prevails, a design philosophy that bestows the gift of simplicity upon programmers. This symmetrical design doesn’t just streamline programming; it becomes a conduit for creativity, empowering programmers to wield a diverse array of instructions with an elegance that defies complexity. In this symphony of instruction, RISC microcontrollers paint a canvas where programming becomes an art of precision and creativity.

•

Further exemplifying the ethos of versatility within the RISC architecture, the realm of addressing modes and registers unfurls with a unique proposition—a proposition that endows any instruction with the liberty to choose any register or addressing mode. This democracy of versatility shatters boundaries, offering programmers a palette of choices that transcends the traditional confines of instruction usage.

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In the grand tapestry of microcontroller evolution, RISC architecture assumes its rightful place—a paradigm that crafts a symphony of efficiency and elegance. Through the embodiment of RISC microcontrollers, the industry steers toward a new dawn, embracing simplicity and versatility as guiding stars. As we traverse this landscape of innovation, the legacy of RISC architecture unfurls—a legacy that sings the song of streamlined efficiency, harmonious coexistence, and the artful ballet of computation.

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 ISC (Specific Instruction Set Computer) S Architecture for Microcontroller Amidst the labyrinthine corridors of computational concepts, a pivotal notion takes center stage—an entity known as RISC, an acronym that embodies a transformative paradigm. At its core, a RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer) isn’t merely an architectural design; it’s a microcontroller in its very essence—a marriage of design principles that culminate in a symphony of computational elegance. However, an alternative perspective emerges—one that challenges nomenclature and invites contemplation. A thought springs forth, suggesting that perhaps a more apt appellation for this entity might be a SISC (Specific Instruction Set Computer). This notion, while a departure from convention, encapsulates a nuanced essence—a recognition that the heart of this machine lies in its specificity, its tailored instructions that resonate with a purposeful orchestration. The birth of the microcontroller, at its core, carries a singular mission—to restrain the ambitions of the CPU, curbing its capacities to accommodate an entire digital realm within the confines of a solitary chip. This orchestration isn’t just an exercise in efficiency; it’s an act of architectural brilliance—a harmonious convergence of memory, I/O operations, and interrupts within the boundaries of a single chip. Yet, in this symphony of design, a choice is made—a sacrifice is tendered at the altar of versatility. The allure of general-purpose instructions, the very essence that lends simplicity to renowned microprocessors like the 8088, 68000, and 32032, is traded for a different tune. Instead, a symphony of instructions emerges, tuned to the rhythm of control, an arrangement that brings forth a microcontroller designed for precision in steering specific tasks.

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In the grand tapestry of computational evolution, this dance of design principles and purpose yields the microcontroller—a harmonious blend of specificity and restraint. It’s more than a mere machine; it’s a testament to the synergy of intent and design, a nod to the precision that underscores the world of microcontrollers. As we gaze upon the realm of RISC, this convergence of specificity and architectural ingenuity resonates—a legacy that beckons to a world of purposeful orchestration. Through the lens of SISC, the microcontroller steps forth as a torchbearer—a sentinel that encapsulates the heart of specific instruction, transforming it into a symphony of control, a choreography of precision.

Applications of Microcontrollers In the intricate web of embedded systems, a quintessential element takes center stage—the microcontroller, a digital maestro that orchestrates a symphony of functions within these intricate constructs. Within this realm, a microcontroller isn’t merely a cog in the wheel; it’s the driving force that empowers home monitoring systems, breathing life into their functionality and ensuring seamless operation. Beyond its foundational role in home monitoring, the realm of microcontrollers extends its grasp across a multitude of domains, each a canvas for its versatile capabilities. From the automotive sector to the domain of household appliances—microwave ovens, refrigerators, televisions, and VCRs—the microcontroller dons myriad roles, weaving a tapestry of precision and automation. The automobile landscape witnesses the microcontroller’s prowess in engine control and climate diagnostics, while the factory floor becomes an arena where microcontrollers orchestrate operations with finesse. From the realms of instrumentation to the expanse of aerospace, the microcontroller’s touch is felt—an indelible mark that transforms ordinary devices into instruments of efficiency and precision. 51

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In the dance of functionality, robotics emerges as a realm where microcontrollers hold sway—an orchestra of automation where countless microcontrollers collaborate to execute an array of tasks. In this symphony of mechanical movement, communication takes center stage as microcontrollers converse with one another, linked by a central microcontroller or even a colossal computer. This dialogue isn’t mere chatter; it’s a choreography that enables processing, information exchange, and collaboration within the system—a testament to the microcontroller’s role in the realm of robotics. In the world of data, microcontrollers emerge as virtuosos—adept at the art of logging and capturing environmental nuances. Data logging becomes their forte, a domain where they excel with remarkable finesse. Placed within diverse environments, from corn fields to floating balloons, these chips become sentinels of information, recording environmental factors with precision—temperature, humidity, rain, and more. Their compact size, frugal power consumption, and adaptability render them ideal companions for unattended data monitoring—a testament to their versatility in capturing and recording data. In the grand narrative of digital evolution, the microcontroller emerges as a linchpin—a nexus where technology and functionality converge. Beyond its role as a component, it becomes a beacon of automation, a facilitator of precision, and a harbinger of innovation. Within embedded systems and beyond, the microcontroller weaves its magic—a testament to the harmony between engineering and imagination. Microcontrollers find applications in a wide range of fields and industries due to their compact size, low power consumption, and ability to control and interact with various systems. They serve as the “brains” of many devices, enabling automation, control, and intelligence. Here are some key applications of microcontrollers:

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1. Embedded Systems: Microcontrollers are the heart of embedded systems, powering devices like washing machines, microwave ovens, thermostats, and digital cameras. They handle tasks such as sensing inputs, processing data, and controlling outputs, making these devices smarter and more efficient. 2. Consumer Electronics: Microcontrollers drive various consumer electronics, including smartphones, tablets, smart TVs, and wearable devices. They manage user interfaces, touchscreens, wireless communication, and power management. 3. Automotive Systems: Microcontrollers are essential in modern automobiles for engine control, antilock braking systems (ABS), airbag deployment, infotainment systems, navigation, and advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS) like adaptive cruise control and lane departure warning. 4. Industrial Automation: Microcontrollers play a crucial role in industrial automation, controlling processes in factories, robotics, assembly lines, and manufacturing equipment. They enable real-time monitoring, data collection, and precise control over machinery. 5. Internet of Things (IoT): IoT devices rely on microcontrollers to connect to the Internet and exchange data. From smart thermostats to wearable fitness trackers, microcontrollers facilitate communication and data processing, enabling remote control and monitoring. 53

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6. Medical Devices: Microcontrollers are used in medical equipment such as heart rate monitors, insulin pumps, blood glucose meters, and medical imaging devices. They enable accurate data collection, analysis, and treatment delivery. 7. Home Automation: Microcontrollers power smart home devices like smart locks, lighting systems, security cameras, and voice-controlled assistants. They allow users to control and monitor their homes remotely. 8. Renewable Energy Systems: Microcontrollers are integrated into solar inverters, wind turbines, and energy management systems to optimize energy production, monitor system performance, and ensure efficient energy utilization. 9. Communication Systems: Microcontrollers enable wireless communication in devices such as Bluetooth headphones, wireless speakers, and remote controls. They process and transmit data over radio frequencies. 10. Entertainment and Gaming: Microcontrollers drive gaming consoles, handheld gaming devices, and arcade machines. They handle graphics, sound, user input, and game logic. 11. Aerospace and Defense: Microcontrollers are used in aerospace applications for flight control, avionics, satellite communication, and navigation systems. In defense, they play a role in radar systems, drones, and secure communication.

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12. Educational Tools: Microcontrollers like Arduino and Raspberry Pi are popular platforms for teaching electronics, programming, and engineering concepts. They provide hands-on experience in building projects and prototypes. 13. Agriculture: Microcontrollers find use in precision agriculture for monitoring soil conditions, irrigation, weather data, and crop health. They help optimize resource usage and enhance crop yield. 14. Biometrics and Security: Microcontrollers are used in biometric authentication devices such as fingerprint scanners, retinal scanners, and facial recognition systems. They ensure secure access and identity verification. 15. Environmental Monitoring: Microcontrollers are employed in environmental monitoring systems to track air quality, water quality, weather conditions, and pollution levels. The versatility and adaptability of microcontrollers make them essential components in countless applications across industries, driving innovation, efficiency, and convenience in our daily lives. As technology continues to advance, microcontrollers will likely play an even more significant role in shaping the future of various fields.

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Basics Embarking on a comprehensive journey to explore the intricacies of circuit simulation, we will navigate step by step through the process using the versatile platform of Tinkercad. Through this detailed guide, you will gain a profound understanding of initiating the simulation process and delving into the immersive world of virtual circuits. Begin by accessing the digital realm of Tinkercad via your web browser. As the official Tinkercad website, tinkercad.com, loads before you, you’ll find an array of possibilities awaiting your exploration. To unlock the full potential of Tinkercad’s circuit simulation capabilities, click the “Sign In” option, which serves as your gateway to a realm of digital creativity and hands-on learning. With your eagerness to delve into circuit simulation, you’ll be prompted to provide your credentials. Input your registered email address and the corresponding password associated with your Tinkercad account. This personalized key grants you access to a world of innovation where you can engage in immersive circuit simulations. Upon signing in, the interface of Tinkercad greets you, presenting an array of options on the left side of the screen. This interface serves as the launchpad for your circuit simulation journey. Among these options, find and click “Circuits,” the guiding star that beckons you to explore the intricate world of circuitry. This is your starting point, your compass to navigate through the intricacies of circuit simulations.

© Ashraf Said Ahmad AlMadhoun 2023 A. S. A. AlMadhoun, Circuit Design and Simulation Quick Start Guide, Maker Innovations Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-9582-3_2

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As you select “Circuits,” a new vista unfolds—an entire section dedicated to the exploration of circuitry. This section is a realm where ideas come to life, circuits are conceptualized, and theoretical knowledge transforms into practical understanding. It’s here that you’ll embark on your journey of learning and exploration. Within the “Circuits” section, a pivotal option stands before you— labeled “Try Circuits.” By selecting this option, you unlock an immersive experience that bridges theory and practice. This interactive platform allows you to simulate circuits, experiment with components, and observe how they behave in different scenarios. As you click “Try Circuits,” the door to the world of simulated circuits swings open before you. Upon entering the simulation environment, a digital canvas unveils itself—a canvas populated with circuit components, wires, and connections. This is where concepts take shape, where you witness the manifestation of theoretical ideas in a virtual form. Amidst this digital landscape, you’ll likely encounter a specific circuit configuration depicted in Figure 2-2. This visual representation serves as a reference point, offering insights into the concepts you’re about to explore.

Figure 2-1.  Tinkercad and Circuits option 58

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Figure 2-2.  Tinkercad circuit As you traverse this simulated circuit landscape, you’re encouraged to interact with the components, initiate changes, and observe their effects. This interactive playground encourages experimentation, providing a safe and dynamic environment to learn through hands-on exploration. Embarking on the journey of electronic circuit simulation within this application, we will delve into the process step by step, unlocking the power to visualize and comprehend electronic phenomena. As you immerse yourself in this exploration, you’ll encounter an initial circuit scenario—a configuration featuring an LED connected to a battery. Through the upcoming instructions, you’ll learn how to initiate the simulator and observe circuit behavior in real-time. The first step is to observe the circuit configuration before you—a simple yet foundational setup involving an LED and a battery. To initiate the simulation, you’ll need to access a vital control—the “Start Simulation” button—positioned conveniently at the top right corner of the screen, highlighted in an inviting shade of green.

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As your cursor hovers over this button, its significance becomes clear—it serves as the catalyst that ignites the simulation process. With a click on the “Start Simulation” button, you unleash a cascade of virtual electrons, initiating the flow of current within the circuit. In this moment, the LED springs to life, emanating its characteristic glow, a testament to the successful commencement of the simulation. As your exploration deepens, you’ll find yourself drawn to the LED, an electronic sentinel that holds a story within its illumination. Upon hovering your cursor over the LED, a note materializes, offering a glimpse into the circuit’s behavior. The note, depicted in Figure 2-3, presents a vital piece of information—the current coursing through the LED. At this juncture, you discover that the LED’s current reads 61.9 milliamperes, a numeric insight into the circuit’s dynamics. However, the information doesn’t stop there. The note also imparts another nugget of knowledge—the recommended maximum current for the LED, pegged at 20 milliamperes. This revelation offers a safeguard against pushing the LED beyond its optimal performance range. This digital ecosystem doesn’t merely simulate a circuit—it educates, elucidates, and empowers. It’s a realm where insight blossoms from every simulated electron, where understanding flows in tandem with current. And thus, your first circuit simulation unfolds—a harmonious dance of electrons, a symphony of data, and a tapestry of insights. As you’ve witnessed, this website is a treasure trove of information, a digital haven that provides a lens into the electronic realm. What you’ve accomplished is a testament to your initiation into circuit simulation. You’ve unlocked the capability to not only visualize but also experiment with circuit designs in a controlled virtual environment. This simulator empowers you to refine your ideas, test your theories, and delve into the intricacies of electronic behavior—transforming your journey into a blend of theory and practice.

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Figure 2-3.  Information about LED Check out the starter circuits which you can find by clicking the Basics options given on top right corner shown on Figure 2-4.

Figure 2-4.  Basic circuits in Tinkercad Navigating the realm of electronic design using the EAGLE software, we now turn our attention to a pivotal aspect—exporting your carefully crafted circuit design in the EAGLE.BRD format. Through this process, you’ll gain the power to preserve your ingenuity and share your creation with the world. Let’s delve into the steps that empower you to take your design beyond the digital canvas. 61

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Exporting Design in EAGLE.BRD Format Embarking on Export: With your circuit design honed to perfection, your next move is to give it a tangible presence in the real world. Locate the “Export” button within the interface—a beacon signaling the transition from digital to tangible. The Art of Sharing: Alongside the Export button, a companion emerges—the “Share” button. This digital envoy enables you to share your circuit design with others, fostering collaboration and knowledge exchange. Additionally, it offers the option to download a snapshot of your circuit, capturing a moment frozen in the electronic continuum.

Exploring Component Manuals A Path to Understanding: Amidst your design journey, you’ll encounter the need to delve deeper into the specifics of components—the building blocks of your circuit. To cater to this need, an option resides on the right side of the interface, extending an invitation to unveil component manuals. This informational portal, as depicted in Figure 2-5, grants you access to a treasure trove of insights.

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Figure 2-5.  Component manual As you engage with the Export and Share buttons, you open gateways to extend the reach of your design. Exporting in the EAGLE.BRD format lays the groundwork for physical realization, inviting the transformation of bits and bytes into tangible circuitry. The Share button, on the other hand, is the conduit for collaboration, facilitating the exchange of ideas and expertise. And there’s more—a feature that illuminates your path toward mastery. On the right side of the interface, a discreet yet invaluable option beckons you—a gateway to component manuals. This gateway provides a roadmap to understanding the intricacies of each component’s functionality, specifications, and optimal usage. With these features at your fingertips, you navigate the intricate landscape of electronic design with finesse. As you stand at the crossroads of exportation, sharing, and in-depth understanding, you wield the tools to shape the course of your circuit design journey. Every click, every choice, and every exploration propels you closer to mastery, transforming the digital into the tangible and expanding the horizons of your electronic creations. 63

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You can click the Basic on Starter menu to simulate some other premade basic circuits as we have shown in Figure 2-4. You can also explore other options given in that menu, for example, Arduino, to simulate Arduino-based circuits. Let’s explore the last option in that menu, named All. Click the LED dimmer circuit. It consists of an LED and a potentiometer to control the brightness of the LED. Now we have a menu on the left top, as you can see in Figure 2-6 with a red rectangle. The first option is used to Rotate component, then we have an option to delete the components, and the next options are for undo and redo. You can also keep some notes by using the Noes option on this menu. On the left side, we have a quick guide that you can use to make sure that you are doing things right. This is mentioned with a blue rectangle in Figure 2-6. The zoom in and out option is given on top left corner and is shown with a green circle on Figure 2-6.

Figure 2-6.  Menu, Quick Guide, and Zoom in and out options

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You can also see and download the component list using the Component List option on the top right menu which is shown in Figure 2-7.

Figure 2-7.  Component List option

Generating a Shareable CSV File Download and Share: With your circuit design aligned and components meticulously placed, the time has come to immortalize your efforts in a shareable format. This is achieved through the art of generating a CSV (Comma-Separated Values) file—a digital vessel that encapsulates your design’s essence.

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Component Details Unveiled: As you delve into the CSV format, the details of your circuit components are poised to take center stage. This file eloquently showcases the names of each component, accompanied by their respective quantities and values. This structured arrangement ensures that your design’s building blocks are comprehensively conveyed. Visualizing the Component List: For clarity and insight, visualize the culmination of your design’s components through the prism of a comprehensive list. This list—akin to a map of your circuit’s landscape— is exemplified in Figure 2-8. It serves as both a reference point and a testament to the meticulous organization of your design.

Interacting with the CSV File A World of Possibilities with Excel: Armed with your CSV file, you have the key to a world of data manipulation and analysis. By employing a tool as versatile as Microsoft Excel, you can seamlessly open the CSV file and explore its contents. Navigating the Content: As the CSV file unfolds within Excel’s interface, you’ll observe the individual components, their quantities, and their corresponding values neatly arranged in columns. This organized presentation empowers you to grasp the holistic picture of your design’s composition. Data Manipulation: Excel’s capabilities extend beyond mere visualization. You can manipulate and analyze the data within the CSV file, applying formulas, generating graphs, and deriving insights that amplify your understanding of the circuit’s nuances.

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Figure 2-8.  Component List

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Explaining the  Interface and Simulating Your First Circuit Continuing our exploration of the dynamic landscape of Tinkercad, we embark on a new chapter—an odyssey of enhanced understanding and mastery. Building upon the foundation laid in the previous chapter, where we delved into the process of setting up your account and acquainting you with the platform’s basic interface, we now transition into a deeper realm of exploration.

Unveiling the Intricacies The Prelude to Depth: As the curtain rises on this chapter, we take a moment to revisit the setting of the stage. In the preceding chapter, you journeyed through the steps of establishing your Tinkercad account—a key to unlocking a realm of digital innovation. Additionally, you were introduced to the basic interface, familiarizing yourself with the tools at your disposal. © Ashraf Said Ahmad AlMadhoun 2023 A. S. A. AlMadhoun, Circuit Design and Simulation Quick Start Guide, Maker Innovations Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-9582-3_3

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Diving into Details: With this chapter, the canvas expands, inviting you to dive deeper into the intricacies of Tinkercad. Here, we navigate beyond the surface, peeling back the layers to reveal the comprehensive toolkit that empowers your creative endeavors.

Editing Components and Parameters A Symphony of Components: Central to your exploration is the art of component editing—a skill that allows you to sculpt and refine your circuit’s building blocks. As you journey through this chapter, you’ll traverse the landscape of different components, manipulating their attributes to align with your design vision. Parameters Unveiled: In your quest for mastery, parameters become your allies. Here, you unravel the significance of each parameter, gaining insight into how they shape the behavior and functionality of components. This knowledge fuels your ability to craft designs that align with your intent. The Edit Canvas: Your journey into component editing is an immersive experience. You’ll interact with an edit canvas—a virtual realm where your creativity takes tangible form. Here, you’ll fine-tune attributes, adjust parameters, and breathe life into your design through nuanced modifications. In essence, this chapter is your portal to deeper mastery within the Tinkercad universe. Through comprehensive exploration, you transcend the basics, navigating through the intricate dimensions that define your creative prowess. As you delve into the art of component editing and parameter manipulation, you ascend from a novice to an adept, equipped with the skills to shape and refine your designs with finesse. This chapter, a chapter of transformation and insight, empowers you to embrace the complexity of circuit design, nurturing your journey toward expertise and innovation. 70

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Editing Components You can start by opening one of the starter kits as shown in Figure 3-1.

Figure 3-1.  Information about LED We will opt the Blink circuit having one red LED in it. Let us place a resistor in series from the basic components, and the final circuit should look like the one in Figure 3-2.

Figure 3-2.  Information about LED Turning our attention to the visual landscape before us, we find ourselves immersed in a circuit—a mosaic of electronic elements that beckon our exploration. At this juncture, we encounter a resistor nestled within this digital terrain—an enigmatic presence whose purpose will be unveiled in due time. For now, our focus is on a foundational lesson—a lesson that unveils the components within your workspace.

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Observing the Circuit’s Ensemble The Resistor’s Prelude: As you gaze upon the circuit’s canvas, your attention may be drawn to the resistor, a seemingly unassuming element that holds a secret purpose. While this purpose remains shrouded for the moment, its significance will gradually unfold as you delve deeper into your learning journey. A Survey of Components: As we embark on this lesson, your primary task is to acquaint yourself with the ensemble of components within your workspace. These elements, each bearing unique attributes, are essential building blocks in your electronic endeavors. Ensuring that your gaze encompasses all these components sets the stage for your next step.

Crafting a Traffic Light Application Embarking on Application: The journey takes a compelling turn as we embark on the creation of a traffic light system—an application that marries theory with practicality. In this endeavor, two additional LEDs will step onto the stage, each playing a role in illuminating the path of understanding. Components from the Arsenal: To bring this application to life, you have a choice—to select these additional LEDs from the basic elements library or seamlessly duplicate existing ones. This choice empowers you to craft your design with flexibility and precision, aligning your vision with the components at hand. Enter the Resistor: As your application takes shape, the resistor takes its rightful place within the circuit—a critical component that contributes to the functionality of the traffic light system. Your circuit, evolving with purpose, mirrors the configuration depicted in Figure 3-3—a testament to your progress.

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Figure 3-3.  Information about LED

Establishing Connections Linking to the Arduino: An essential bridge in your circuit is the connection to the Arduino board. As you weave the threads of connectivity, channel your focus toward the top hole numbers—0, 1, and 2. These entry points hold the key to orchestrating the dance of electronic signals, giving life to your circuit’s behavior. Completing the Circuit: In the realm of electronic symbiosis, grounding is paramount. Ensure that the trio of LEDs maintains its connection to the ground, completing the circuit’s loop. Through this bond, the LEDs find their grounding, anchoring your circuit’s operation.

The Unveiling of the Inspector A Portal to Customization: With a simple click, the Inspector emerges—a virtual portal that grants you control over the intricate nuances of your chosen LED component. Here, a plethora of properties come to light, each ready to be molded according to your design aspirations.

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The Realm of Customization: Within the Inspector’s confines, the canvas of customization unfurls. Properties dance before your eyes—each representing a facet of your component’s identity. From name to color, each property is a brushstroke in the canvas of your circuit’s aesthetics.

Bringing Realism to Your Application Chasing Realism: Your application’s evolution transcends the realm of functionality. As you aim to infuse realism, a key step beckons—altering the color of wires that tether to the grounding, weaving an immersive narrative. The transformation of these wires to black hues marks a conscious stride toward harmonizing aesthetics with function. A Spectrum of LED Colors: In the pursuit of a more authentic traffic light experience, the LEDs become your canvas of expression. The simple act of color alteration transports these components into the realms of red, yellow, and green—a visual symphony that echoes the familiar language of traffic signals.

Configuring Resistance Properties Resistance in Focus: Amidst the symphony of components, the resistor emerges as a pivotal contributor to the circuit’s behavior. With a value of 220 ohms, the resistor becomes a cornerstone in the design’s electrical architecture. And while the possibility for value adjustment exists, for the sake of your current journey, the resonance of 220 ohms will resonate harmoniously. Culmination in Circuit Design: As you sculpt, alter, and refine your components through the Inspector’s gaze, the culmination of your efforts materializes. Your circuit, now intricately adorned with the personalized attributes you’ve bestowed upon each element, takes on the form illustrated in Figure 3-4—a vision transformed into reality.

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Figure 3-4.  Information about LED In this phase of your circuit journey, the Inspector becomes your compass—guiding you through the landscapes of customization. Each property tweak, each alteration, is a brushstroke that shapes your design’s identity. As wires turn to black, LEDs radiate traffic hues, and resistors bear ohmic values, your circuit transcends functionality to embrace a realm where aesthetics and technical precision interlace. It is here that your circuit’s transformation from abstraction to tangible creation finds its vivid expression. If we talk about the programming style, the Tinkercad allows you to code in blocks and in text. Click the option of code as shown in Figure 3-5.

Figure 3-5.  Information about LED

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As you stand at the precipice of coding completion, your journey takes a pivotal turn—one that leads you toward the realm of experimentation and validation. A single click, a simple action, propels you into a world of testing and refinement—a realm where your traffic light circuit comes alive, pulsating with the energy of your coding efforts.

Embarking on the Simulation Journey The Moment of Activation: With your code meticulously assembled, you stand poised to breathe life into your circuit’s behavior. Your gateway to this transformative experience lies in the unassuming “start simulation” button—the beacon of initiation that resides in the top right corner. A simple click sets in motion a sequence of events that encapsulates the essence of your coding endeavors. Venturing into the Simulation: As you heed the call of simulation, your circuit transcends the confines of imagination and ventures into the realm of reality—or rather, virtual reality. Here, the lights dance in sync, embodying the logic you’ve woven into the code. It’s a moment of validation, where the harmonious coordination of components manifests.

The Art of Tinkering Exploring the Playgrounds: In this digital playground, the canvas is yours to tinker with. You’re not confined to a single narrative; instead, the space beckons exploration. The canvas is painted with components—each a thread in the intricate tapestry of your circuit. Dare to experiment; dare to select different components and observe their impact. Unveiling the Component’s Potential: With a curious spirit as your guide, select different components within the design and discover their inherent potentials. Each element, a piece of the puzzle, holds secrets that unravel as you delve deeper. Experimentation becomes a voyage of discovery—a journey that unveils the essence of each choice. 76

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Exploring Resistance and Brightness Resistor’s Enigmatic Role: Amidst this exploration, the resistor emerges as a gatekeeper—a guardian of current flow. Its role is integral, as it modulates the current passing through the LED. An insight awaits: alter the resistance value and witness the dance of brightness. This shift in resistance shapes the luminous tapestry of your LED’s radiance. Illuminating the Brightness: The resistor, as a conduit of current control, becomes a tool for sculpting the LED’s brilliance. As you adjust its value, the luminance of the LED responds in kind—a visual demonstration of the interplay between resistance and brightness.

Charting the Course Ahead A Prelude to Arduino Programming: In the chapters that lie ahead, the curtain rises on a new act—a tale of programming with Arduino. The pages of your journey will unfold to reveal the mechanics of translating code into action, of sculpting logic into motion. The Next Chapter Awaits: As your current chapter draws to a close, a new one beckons—one that promises an exploration of wiring components together, a journey that navigates the path to achieving desired outcomes. Your circuit’s transformation from abstraction to reality inches closer, as you continue to embrace the intersection of knowledge and experimentation. In this chapter, you’ve tasted the thrill of simulation, wielded the power of tinkering, and understood the art of resistance-driven brightness control. As you peer into the horizon of coding and circuitry, each step is a brushstroke in the masterpiece of your learning journey—an opus that unfolds with every click, every adjustment, and every spark of insight.

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Wiring Components Venturing into the next phase of your circuit exploration, the canvas before you awaits the imprint of components—a fusion of elements that breathe life into your design. Your mission begins with the orchestration of a symphony of parts—a breadboard, a 9V battery, a button, and the everessential resistors. These building blocks are your tools, your notes, in this composition of electronic artistry.

Crafting the Ensemble Components Take the Stage: As you embark on this venture, each component assumes its role in the impending performance. The breadboard, the 9V battery, the button, and the resistors—all are poised to contribute to the symphony that will soon resonate. Wiring the Components: Yet, before the symphony plays, the wires of connectivity must be woven. A task lies ahead—connecting these components in harmony, granting them a means to interact, to exchange energy and information. The wires, like the threads of a tapestry, are ready to interlace.

Guided by Color and Practice A Color-Coded Dance: In this electronic ballet, color emerges as a guide—a language that navigates the dance of connections. Tradition dictates a familiar practice—red wires embrace the positive terminal, while black wires grace the negative one. The palette of hues guides the eye and the current alike. Battery and Breadboard Tango: The battery steps forth, its terminals ready to waltz with the breadboard’s embrace. A connection forms—a bridge of energy and potential. And as you’ve learned, the color of the wire is not set in stone; it’s a canvas waiting for your artistic touch. 78

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A Choreography of Arrangement Reshaping the Landscape: As components gather, a choreography of arrangement begins. Each element takes its place in the ensemble—a dance that mirrors your intentions. In this intricate ballet of parts, the scene transforms—rearranging itself to match the blueprint of Figure 3-6.

Figure 3-6.  Basic circuit elements A Glimpse of the Vision: With a deft hand and a keen eye, you mold the components into alignment—a vision realized, a circuit formed. The scene before you takes on the semblance of your design’s blueprint, a testament to your manipulation of digital matter. As you embark on this endeavor, you wield a digital brush—a brush that paints connections and weaves pathways. The components, the wires, and the colors are your medium—a medium that holds the promise of illumination and interaction. Through each click, each connection, you chart a course toward a circuit that echoes your intentions. Connect the circuit in a configuration that LED is connected to resistor and resistor is connected to switch. Do not forget to connect the upper and lower rows of the breadboard to provide positive and negative voltage. The resistance value we are going to use is 220 Ohm. Connect the LED’s second terminal with ground, and the final circuit should look like Figure 3-7.

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Figure 3-7.  Complete circuit Engage the simulation by directing your cursor toward the beckoning “start simulation” button—a digital portal to the world of virtual interaction. With anticipation as your guide, a pivotal moment awaits as the button’s pressure becomes a harbinger of change. When the button yields to your touch, a symphony of electrons orchestrates a dance—a dance that ignites the LED’s luminous presence. In this seemingly simple interaction, a world of achievement unfolds. A circuit’s logic translates into action; your virtual design springs to life, affirming your understanding and mastery. It’s a digital manifestation of cause and effect—a testament to your ability to command the virtual realm. As the LED’s glow envelops the virtual space, it heralds not just illumination, but the illumination of your newfound expertise. With this successful simulation, you’ve ventured beyond the theoretical and navigated the practical—a significant step on your journey through the realm of circuitry and simulation.

Adding Components Let us add some more components and see how other things work. For executing this part, we need to add batteries and a motor. Here we will use two 1.5V battery with the DC motor. Connect these components as connected in Figure 3-8. 80

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Figure 3-8.  Battery with motor When you press the start simulation button, you will see the motor rotating, and the RPMs will also be written on the motor as can be seen in Figure 3-9.

Figure 3-9.  Battery with motor Now let us add a photo-resistor from the components which is basically a sensor. As the name suggests, the resistance of this sensor depends upon the light intensity. Rotate the photo-resistor in order to make the circuit given in Figure 3-10.

Figure 3-10.  Battery with motor and photo-resistor Press the start simulation button. And click the photo-resistor; you will see a slider as given in Figure 3-11. By moving the slider to right and left, the amount striking the sensor is being changed. You should see the changing motor speed as you change the amount of light. The speed of 81

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the motor should be least when the slider is at the opposite side of the sun symbol indicating the least amount of light is present for the sensor. And the speed should be highest when the amount of light is greatest. Congratulations, you have simulated your first interactive circuit design in Tinkercad.

Figure 3-11.  Photo-resistor with its slider Till now, we were suing two 1.5V batteries, but we can alter the power given to the motor by changing the batteries. Go to the components, and select the basic components category; select one 1.5V cell. Click the cell and you will see a menu containing different options related to the battery. You can change the number 4, and you will end up having the configuration given in Figure 3-12.

Figure 3-12.  Four 1.5V cells Reconnect the circuit as given in Figure 3-13 and start simulation again. Here with this circuit arrangements, you should see more RPMs as compared to the one you saw in two battery case. Don’t worry if you have not noted the value; you can simply click on the batter, and change the

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number of batteries parameter to 2, 1, and again 4 and you will see the difference. More voltage causes greater speed, and lesser voltage results in low speed.

Figure 3-13.  Motor, photo-resistor, and four battery cells For you own learning, you can change the type of the battery and see the results; you can also play with other options of different components. Happy learning!

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Breadboard and RGB LEDs Now that we have introduced you with the electronic components and Tinkercad, we can move forward and make simple circuit with a unique type of LED called RGB LED. This unique LED can glow in three different colors, red, green, and blue. In this chapter, we will talk about breadboards and RGB LEDs mainly and see how helpful the tool Tinkercad is. A breadboard is a powerful prototyping tool that will let you take your electronic skills to the next level. With it, you can connect many components together, so let us learn how to use it by testing out a special type of LED called an RGB LED. First create a new design. Go to the basics, search for breadboard, and drag a breadboard. You will see a small breadboard: a mini breadboard and a full-size breadboard as can be seen in Figure 4-1.

© Ashraf Said Ahmad AlMadhoun 2023 A. S. A. AlMadhoun, Circuit Design and Simulation Quick Start Guide, Maker Innovations Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-9582-3_4

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Figure 4-1.  Different types of breadboard in Tinkercad You need to add the full-sized breadboard to the workspace. If you rotate it, you will see two columns on each side called power rails. They are marked with minus and plus signs. These columns are meant to provide power to your components on the breadboard and are connected to the power source. If you hover over any of the holes in the column next to the plus symbol on the breadboard, the entire column turns green. Note that you do not need to click on the holes; you just place your cursor on one of the plus or minus sign’s hole. The column turning green indicates that all the holes in the column are connected to one another. Which means if you connect the supply in one of the holes, you can take out the power from any of the other holes in the same column. You can see the same phenomenon for both plus and minus columns in Figure 4-2.

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Figure 4-2.  Full-sized breadboard with + and – power rails Connect a 9V battery in the workplace. Then rotate and set it below breadboard as shown in Figure 4-3. Connect the positive terminal of the battery to plus in the breadboard and negative terminal of the battery to the minus sign on the breadboard, and change the color of the wires as red (positive) and blank (ground) as illustrated in Figure 4-4.

Figure 4-3.  Battery with breadboard

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Figure 4-4.  Connection of positive and negative terminals of the battery Take a closer look on the breadboard, and you will see alphabets on the corners and numbers on longer sides of the breadboard indicating rows and columns. You can hover over the holes, and the green connected line will indicate the connection between certain holes which can be seen in Figure 4-5. The lines from A to E and F to J are connected, but E and F are not connected with each other.

Figure 4-5.  Alphabets and numbers on the breadboard 88

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Now add the RGB LED and some resistors in the design. Search LED RGB from the search bar and drag into the workspace. Rotate it so that each pin is in a separate hole on the breadboard. The four pins are red, green, blue, and cathode which can be seen by bringing the cursor onto each pin of the LED. Now we will add a resistor to the cathode leg and connect resistor’s other terminal with the ground on the power 480 Ohm, and the circuit will look like Figure 4-6.

Figure 4-6.  RGB LED with resistor on breadboard As we saw it earlier that the gap between the two sides of the breadboard separates the connection, we will make use of it while connecting the push button. Push button is a momentarily switch, which makes connection momentarily when pressed. Search a push button from the search bar, and connect it onto the breadboard such that two legs (1a and 2a) are on one side of the gap and other two (1b and 2b) are on the other side preventing to get short. Connect one side with the positive supply and other side of the button to the red pin of the LED as illustrated in Figure 4-7.

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Figure 4-7.  Push button connection After clicking the Simulate button, press the pushbutton, and the LED should turn red whenever the button is pressed. Once it is done, add two more pushbuttons, and connect them to green and blue pins of the LED as shown in Figure 4-8. On pressing each pushbutton, one of the three colors of the LED should glow. This is how we simulated the RGB LED with the help of one resistor, a batter, and three pushbuttons turning on each light at a time.

Figure 4-8.  RGB LED circuit 90

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Ohm’s Law It is high time that we learn about a fundamental concept in circuit designing which is known as Ohm’s law. In this chapter we are going to discuss about its concept and its application to safely light up a LED. Figure 5-1 shows a simple circuit that will be used for demonstration purposes in this chapter, and it contains only four components, battery, resistor, LED, and a switch. You should know that electric current flows from the positive terminal of a power source, i.e., a battery, to the negative terminal completing its path. This is denoted by “I” and demonstrated by a dashed arrow in Figure 5-1, and we can the direction of the current as arrow is headed from the positive to negative terminal. Another important and related concept of electricity is voltage. When current flows through a component like LED or resistor, there is an associated change in potential energy across that component; this potential difference is known as voltage denoted by “V” in Figure 5-1. The amount of voltage drop across the component depends on its resistance which is simply the amount of the obstruction it causes in the flow of current. Resistance can be seen denoted as “R” in Figure 5-1. Resistance, although seems an unwanted quantity because it hinders the flow of current, plays a very important role in circuit theory. It makes sure that your electronic components do not fry because of the access current in the circuit. If you directly connect an LED with a battery, without a resistance in the circuit, your LED will be burnt away. So adding resistance into the circuit is crucial, but how much resistance should we add? What if we add a lot of resistance that only a

© Ashraf Said Ahmad AlMadhoun 2023 A. S. A. AlMadhoun, Circuit Design and Simulation Quick Start Guide, Maker Innovations Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-9582-3_5

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few milliampere of current can flow through the circuit? Your LED will not glow then. Here is when Ohm’s law comes into play. It helps us to find the right combination of resistance, current, and voltage. It formally states that “the voltage across a conductor is directly proportional to the current flowing through it.” The mathematical expression of this law is given in Equation 5.1.

V = IR 

(5.1)

where V is voltage in Volts, I is current in amperes, and R is resistance in Ohms.

Figure 5-1.  A simple electronic circuit Let us get back to Tinkercad to see the Ohm’s law in action. Add an LED and a battery in the workspace and connect them like Figure 5-2. the positive terminal of the 9V battery is connected to anode and negative terminal to the cathode of the LED. Press Start Simulation button to see what will happen with our LED.

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Figure 5-2.  LED and battery As expected, the LED seems damaged, and if you hover over the LED, the message says that current through the LED is 915 mA while absolute maximum is 20 mA. So, it has too much current which it could not handle and thus damaged. This scenario can be seen in Figure 5-3.

Figure 5-3.  Damaged LED

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What do you think how can we prevent this from happening? You have guessed it right; we are going to employ Ohm’s law here. We have voltage of 9V, and LED can safely handle a current of 20mA (0.02A). So, we put these values in the formula to calculate the resistor value that can help us save our LED from damaging.

V = IR



R =V /I



R = 9 / 0.02



R = 450 Ohms

The resistance that we need is 450 Ohms for this circuit. This means that if we want to ensure that there is only 20 mA of current flowing through the LED, we need to add a resistor with a value of 450 Ohms to our circuit. Let us check this out in simulation by adding a resistor to the circuit, and it will look like Figure 5-4.

Figure 5-4.  Complete circuit

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As our next step, we click on Simulation button, and see that the LED turns red without getting damaged by the excessive current. Let us see if we reduce the resistor value from 450 Ohms. In Figure 5-5, we can see that we add 10 Ohms, and the LED still blows away because there is 395 mA current across it while the maximum is 20 mA.

Figure 5-5.  Resistor and LED What do think will happen if we change the places of LED and resistor, like if we connect the resistor at cathode instead of anode of LED? It actually does not matter whether the resistor comes before or after; either way it will limit current flow, but it may not be true for other cases and arrangements of circuit elements. You can test this out for yourself if you want. Did you notice how the color bands on the resistor change when we change their values? If not, then you can quickly change the resistor value and see it yourself. This is called color coding of resistor. All of these color bands represent some value and together they make the overall value of the resistor. There exists a table representing the associated values of different colors on a resistor. It is up to you now to search it yourself. Happy learning!

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Series and Parallel Circuits In this lesson, we will talk about series and parallel circuits. We will learn about two fundamental types of circuits, series and parallel circuits, and find out how to apply them most efficiently to light up multiple LEDs. Let us start with the series circuits. Let us say we have a circuit with a single LED, but we know we want to be able to light up more than one LEDs. Your first thought may be to add another LED directly to the circuit. Changing it to an existing LED circuit and you are thinking why not. Create new circuit in Tinkercad from the green button given in Figure 6-1.

Figure 6-1.  Tinkercad workspace

© Ashraf Said Ahmad AlMadhoun 2023 A. S. A. AlMadhoun, Circuit Design and Simulation Quick Start Guide, Maker Innovations Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-9582-3_6

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Let us add one LED. Now let us add another one. Then add a 3V battery and rotate it like Figure 6-2. Then let us a meter to measure the voltage and current through the circuit. For this, add multimeter once, and then copy and paste it or add another one.

Figure 6-2.  LEDs and battery cell Now connect these elements together as given in Figure 6-3. You can change the wire color to red and black to specify different terminals and connection as in Figure 6-3. The rule for connecting the multimeter is different for measuring voltage and for measuring current. The meter to measure voltage is also known as “Voltmeter,” and the meter used to measure quantity of current is called “Ammeter.” With this, we can move on to the connection rule. As for voltmeter, we need to measure the voltage, we connect with the same two leads of the LED as the above multimeter (one on the left side) is connected in Figure 6-3. For measuring Ammeter, we need to break the circuit where LED is connected; connect one terminal of the meter to the LED and the other terminal to the point where we broke the circuit. In our case, the break point is the positive terminal of the battery, so the connections would look like ones given with the multimeter on the right side in Figure 6-3. Surprisingly, we have created a series circuit in Figure 6-3. By definition, a series circuit is one in which components are connected end to end, and there is only one path of the current. If we closely see the circuit in Figure 6-3, the LEDs, battery,

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and a multimeter are connected in series, as their one leg is connected to one component and the other is connected to the other. In series circuits, the current through each component is the same, but the voltage may vary. But in our case, we have used only LEDs and they are both alike, so the voltage will also be the same. We have connected multimeters to measure current and voltage through this series circuit. In the figure, you can see that on each multimeter, on the right side, there are letters A, V, and R. These are for measuring current (A), voltage (V), and resistance (Ohms). You must make sure that you choose the right quantity by clicking on the multimeter.

Figure 6-3.  Series ciruit Run the simulation and you will see the results similar to Figure 6-4. We can see that the voltage is 1.5V, and the current seems to be very low as 0A. This configuration is called series, where we have a single path for current. The current enters from positive terminal of the battery, enters to the first LED, leaves the first LED, enters the second one, and then leaves the second LED to back to negative terminal.

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Figure 6-4.  Simulation result Now, let us talk about the second part of this chapter, parallel circuit. Let us add the necessary components. We need four LEDs, a battery, and a multimeter like Figure 6-5.

Figure 6-5.  Circuit components Wire up the LEDs in parallel circuit such that both the leads of all LEDs should be connected to each other. The parallel circuits are those in which there are multiple paths for current, each for each component. For example, in our case, we have four LEDs; there must be four paths for the current. If you see the circuit, each LED is directly connected to the battery cell as can be seen in Figure 6-6.

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Figure 6-6.  Wiring of the circuit Now, change the color of the wires as given in Figure 6-7 to indicate the positive and negative connection of the supply. Unlike the series circuit, the current goes from the battery and comes back to it after moving through one LED only. In parallel circuits, the voltage is same across all the components. So, we can measure voltage only across one component, and we will know the voltage across all. In Figure 6-6, we have connected a multimeter as ammeter to measure the current through an LED as the current varies in parallel components, but as we have connected the same components in this circuit, the current will also be the same.

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Figure 6-7.  Parallel circuit Do not forget to change the multimeter setting to Ammeter; otherwise, it will show some garbage value in volts. Now run the simulation to see the results given in Figure 6-8. The LEDs take around 22.6 milli Ampere to light up.

Figure 6-8.  Simulation result It is now time to measure the voltage across the LEDs. Connect a multimeter as voltmeter as given in Figure 6-9.

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Figure 6-9.  Voltmeter connection Now run the simulation, to see the measured voltage and current. The voltage is around 2.10V. The voltage across each LED will be the same because of the parallel connection.

Figure 6-10.  Voltage and current measurement Figure 6-11 shows the running simulation of both series and parallel circuits with measured voltage and current.

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Figure 6-11.  Series and parallel circuit The main difference between a series and parallel circuit is that series circuit has only one path between the positive and negative terminal of the battery, but the parallel circuit has its own separate path between the positive and the negative terminal. Now you have learned about some of the basic differences between series and parallel circuits. You can continue tinkering by practicing hooking up additional LEDs in this circuit. You can try changing the battery type or adding additional batteries in series to remember voltage should add up in a series circuit. You may have to adjust the resistor value or add a resistor in some cases to make sure that your circuit is running effectively and correctly. If you closely see, there is a warning on the LED due to excessive current. If you want to get rid of this warning, you can add a resistor. Let us add a 100 Ohm resistor. Now as you can see in Figure 6-12, we no longer have any warning in here.

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Figure 6-12.  Added resistor in the circuit But since we did not take the Ohm law in the previous lesson, let us measure how much of the resistor we need to use. Here we have a 3V power source, and we know that we only need 20 mA to go through this LED. So, by Ohm’s law, V = I*R, and thus, R = V/I and by putting V=3V and I=20mA. Thus, R = 3/0.02 equals to 150-ohm resistor to make sure that our LED were lighting up correctly. I hope that you now have a clear idea about series and parallel circuits.

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Arduino Output Basics Have you ever been curious how each light of the traffic light gets turn on and off for a particular time duration? If yes, then this chapter is for you in which you will first learn how you can control the blinking of an LED, then learn how to handle multiple LEDs and their on and off timing, and at the end, you will learn to control the brightness of the LED. We will learn all these by creating circuits on the Tinkercad platform.

Arduino Digital Output: LED Control Let us control the blinking of the LED by using Arduino. Arduino Uno, LED, and resistor are required to control LED blinking. We will create our circuit in Tinkercad. First, place all required components from the component tab into the Tinkercad workspace. Let us make a circuit. Connect the cathode of LED to the ground pin of Arduino as mentioned as GND on the Arduino board and the anode of LED to the resistor, and connect another end of the resistor to digital pin 13 of Arduino as shown in Figure 7-1. In real life, the LED’s long and slightly curved leg is the anode, and the straight leg is the cathode. Carefully, visualize the resistor value by reading its strip colors, as we can see color code is brown, black, red, and gold which is equal to 1k ohms ±5 %. Let’s assign a color to wires, set © Ashraf Said Ahmad AlMadhoun 2023 A. S. A. AlMadhoun, Circuit Design and Simulation Quick Start Guide, Maker Innovations Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-9582-3_7

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the red color to the anode of the led and wire connected to digital pin 13, and set the black color to the cathode of the led. Now run the simulation. What do you visualize? LED is blinking, and its blinking duration is decided by the default code of Arduino. We will soon see how it is getting on and off and how we can change its on and off duration, but before that let’s understand the placement of components. If you reverse the LED connection by connecting its anode to the ground and cathode to a resistor which is followed by digital pin 13, your LED would be paralyzed because its legs get connected in a certain way. Although the placement of the resistor does not matter, you may connect it between the cathode of LED and the ground or in the same way as shown in Figure 7-1. The resistor is needed to limit the flow of current that will prevent LED from burning.

Figure 7-1.  Connect LED with Arduino digital pin 13 Now let’s understand how LED is blinking in a certain way and how can you control it in your desired way. So, in the upper tabs part as shown in Figure 7-2, you can see there is a drop-down menu mentioned as block or text or block + text any of the abovementioned would appear to you in your Tinkercad platform. Once you click the blocks option, you will see multiple options that would be visible to you, different colors for each block set like blue for Output, Control, green for Math, black for Notation,

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and so on. If you hate coding, you can control your output just by using these blocks. You can click any of these, and you get a heap of options here as you can see all that you need to do we input and output is simply drag and drop. As you can see, there are already some blocks connected in a certain way, and it is showing the default code of Arduino that is controlling the LED connected to digital pin 13 of Arduino.

Figure 7-2.  Blocks arrangement showing how blinking of the LED is controlled Now let us dive deep and understand what is written for us. In blue blocks you can read blue blocks as set built-in LED to high or low is written. From the drop-down, you change its state to either high or low. High means logic 1 or positive voltage signal, and low means logic 0 and Ground. And orange blocks are control blocks by using them; we add the delay mentioned as wait in Figure 7-2; 1-sec delay is set high. From the drop-down option unit from secs to milliseconds can be changed and can write the wait value instead of 1, vary the delay value, and run the simulation you can visualize the on and off period of LED. As you can see here, everything is working just fine. You can connect the blocks logically the way you want just by dragging existing blocks to the trash and dragging new blocks and drop into the workspace and then connecting as you want. 109

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Now if we go to the text area, you can see that we have this code written for us as shown in Figure 7-3; this code is written concerning the arrangement of blocks as we saw earlier. So, when you draw a block, it will turn to code and burn it to this algorithm board.

Figure 7-3.  Text for coding the Arduino In the text, you can see the void setup to set the pin mode of Arduino either as input or output. Here, pin 13, i.e., LED_BUILTIN, is set as the output pin which means that we can send signals from the Arduino board to this pin and do not receive signals from it. Then in the void loop, we write the code that we want to repeat forever; digitalWrite(LED_BUILTIN, HIGH) sends a digital signal 1 to piPIN3 which will turn on the LED; the delay of one thousand minute seconds which means one second is written as we added in the block area, and digitalWrite(LED_BUILTIN, LOW) sends a digital signal 0 to PIN 13 which would turn off the LED. The on-­ and-­off period is determined by delay. Now we have seen how the blinking of the LED is controlled by opening this text and blocks. What you need to do now is start this thing out for yourself. You can easily download the code from the download icon beside the blocks menu. You can open the downloaded code by Arduino IDE as shown in Figure 7-4 and then burn it to an Arduino board, and see how it works on our real-life Arduino board. 110

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Figure 7-4.  Arduino IDE You can also add libraries in your Tinkercad code. To see available libraries, click on the library icon; some of the libraries are shown in Figure 7-5.

Figure 7-5.  Library icon showing some of the libraries available on Tinkercad

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 rduino Dealing with Multiple LEDs A and Breadboard In the realm of exploration, where wires become bridges between worlds and components blend into a symphony of electrons, we delve into the art of controlling multiple LEDs with Arduino’s guiding hand. As we journey through this section, we shall learn to orchestrate the dance of light using the canvas of a breadboard, weaving together LEDs, resistors, and the Arduino Uno. With anticipation, we lay the foundation of our circuit. The stage is set—a collaborative ensemble of an Arduino board, three LEDs, three valiant resistors, and a breadboard. This assembly of elements shall transform into an intricate tapestry of illumination. As we bring power to the forefront, the breadboard’s power rail becomes a stage, hosting the grand entry of 5 volts and its accompanying performer, the ground wire. In a visual spectacle of color, red signifies vitality as it breathes life into the 5-volt power stream, while black embodies the grounding connection that anchors our ensemble. With the curtain raised, our LEDs take center stage, each waiting for its cue. One by one, they align—a trinity of red, yellow, and green. As the script commands, each LED stands adorned with a 220-ohm resistor, a shield against the torrent of current. These resistors become the silent guardians, ensuring a delicate balance between luminance and longevity. They unite with the digital pins of destiny—pins 11, 12, and 13—bridging the gap between the ethereal and the tangible. The cathode, the LED’s source of light, finds kinship with the ground rail—a common realm for all three performers. The anode, eager to illuminate, seeks companionship with its dedicated resistor and digital pin—a partnership that holds the promise of vibrant display.

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Amidst this arrangement, a circuit is born—each LED poised for expression, each resistor a guardian of equilibrium, and each digital pin a conduit of control. The scene is set, the players ready. Behold, the stage, a tapestry of wires and components, is transformed into an arena of illumination, where light dances through diodes and resistors stand sentry. Our circuitry, meticulously constructed, stands as a testament to the art of harmonizing control and creativity, guided by Arduino’s insight. So, in this journey, we find ourselves at the precipice of understanding, ready to embrace the interplay of electricity and artistry. The circuit is more than wires and components—it is a canvas where LEDs become performers, resistors become guardians, and the Arduino becomes the maestro of light. As we venture forth, we shall wield this knowledge to bring forth new realms of illumination, shaping our own narrative in the symphony of electrons.

Figure 7-6.  Arduino with multiple LEDs and breadboard

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In the realm of coding, the stage is set for our LEDs to take their cues, their choreography scripted with lines of logic. As the curtain rises on the “Code” tab, we are presented with two distinct paths to wield our artistic control—text or blocks, each poised to translate our intentions into the language of electrons. Now, let our intention take form. Imagine a scenario where one LED must bask in its luminance while its companions await their moment in the shadows. With this vision in mind, we embark on crafting the symphony of commands that shall animate our LEDs. As the script unfurls, a clear pattern emerges—akin to the rise and fall of performers on a stage. Each section of code is an act, a sequence of commands carefully orchestrated to manifest our vision. Picture the stage: three LEDs, waiting in the wings, their brilliance poised to shine. In this act, the prologue of “void setup” plays out—a prelude to the grand performance. With each line, a pin’s role is defined—a stage manager allocating cues to performers. As we traverse the threshold of the “void loop,” our script takes on a rhythmic cadence, a loop that encapsulates the essence of our story. Within this loop, the “digitalWrite” command becomes our conductor’s baton, summoning a single LED to grace the stage. As the first LED takes its bow, it bathes the scene in its luminous glow, its performance set to last precisely 1000 milliseconds. But the stage is vast, and other LEDs await their cues. Like clockwork, the command “delay” invokes a hushed pause—a moment of anticipation before the next performer emerges. As the LED’s brilliance recedes, another light takes its place, basking in a one-second spotlight, its aura pulsating through the circuitry. The script continues its waltz, each LED taking its turn in a sequence of brilliance, a dance of light and dark, illumination and obscurity. And as the loop draws to a close, the cycle begins anew—LEDs ascending the stage in a harmonious rhythm, a symphony of illumination.

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And so, dear scriptwriter, you stand at the crossroads of text and code, poised to breathe life into your electronic narrative. Each line a note, each command a step, as your LEDs perform their roles in this grand electronic ballet. With every iteration of the loop, the LEDs enact their dance—a dance crafted by your intentions, shaped by your code, a dance that exemplifies the interplay of creativity and technology that Arduino brings to life.

Figure 7-7.  Code to control multiple LEDs As we delve into the intricate lines of code, a narrative of control and illumination unfolds, intricately woven into the fabric of Arduino’s logic. Within the “void setup” realm, a symphony of pin configurations takes shape—pins 11, 12, and 13 are bestowed the role of digital outputs, ready to serve as conduits of our commands. Each pin, a potential gateway to a realm of illumination, stands poised for its cue. In the heart of the “void loop,” a choreography of commands unfurls. It is here that our intentions manifest as digital signals, coursing through the veins of wires and components. As the curtain rises, the initial state of all pins is set to logic 0, casting a canvas of darkness. With the deftness of a maestro, the “digitalWrite” command takes center stage, sending forth a high logic signal to the first actor—pin 13. A spotlight of brilliance illuminates the red LED, its radiance resonating for precisely 1000 milliseconds, before gracefully dimming to obscurity. 115

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As this luminary recedes, another emerges from the wings—the yellow LED, waiting in the wings at pin 12. Its performance is orchestrated with equal precision—a one-second reign of illumination, followed by a moment of repose. The grand finale draws near as the baton of control passes to pin 11—a green LED poised to captivate the audience. A crescendo of brilliance engulfs the stage for another fleeting second, painting the canvas with hues of green. And yet, this performance is far from finite, for the loop shall continue to weave its tale ad infinitum. As the green LED gracefully yields, the cycle begins anew—the red, yellow, and green LEDs taking their turns in the spotlight, a dance of light and shadow. Now, as the curtains of simulation rise, this symphony comes to life. The red LED, a beacon of vibrancy, illuminates its surroundings, followed by the warm glow of yellow, and the verdant allure of green. Each LED’s performance is marked by a distinct duration, a choreography of light orchestrated by the digital commands. As the sequence unfolds, an intricate interplay of darkness and illumination is etched into the canvas of the breadboard—a canvas transformed into a realm of dynamic expression. And so, dear explorer, you witness the magic of multiple LEDs, each awaiting their cue to shine upon the stage. The Arduino’s code and your circuitry collaborate in a dance of orchestrated brilliance, showcasing the harmonious marriage of technology and creativity. In this ever-revolving loop, the LEDs take their turns to captivate, mesmerize, and relinquish the spotlight, reminding us that within the realm of electronics, every line of code and every connection is an opportunity to craft a symphony of light, a testament to the artistry that Arduino brings to life.

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Arduino Analog Output: Fading LED Within this segment of our exploration, we shall embark on a voyage into the realm of LED modulation, where the luminous threads of creativity intertwine with the versatile analog pins of the Arduino. Prepare to delve into the art of crafting LED brilliance by harnessing the subtleties of analog signals. While we have previously mastered the art of conveying binary signals through digital output pins to illuminate LEDs, the horizon now beckons us to wield the power of Arduino’s analog outputs for a more nuanced approach. In the symphony of electronic orchestration, we encounter the concept of “fading.” Much like the ebb and flow of musical notes, fading entails adjusting the luminosity of an LED, invoking a mesmerizing dance of light. Yet, what sets this endeavor apart is the utilization of select digital pins adorned with a waveform-like symbol, signifying their aptitude for producing analog signals. Picture the Arduino Uno before you, adorned with a constellation of pins. Amidst them, a distinctive symbol adorns a subset—digital pins 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, and 11. These pins, much like enchanted conduits, possess the remarkable ability to emulate analog signals—a seamless transition between the binary realms of high and low. These pins stand ready to serve as a gateway to the realm of analog expression, where gradients of luminosity are meticulously woven. The beauty of this technique lies in its potential to orchestrate LED brilliance with the finesse of a maestro. No longer constrained to stark illumination or complete darkness, we find ourselves endowed with the power to navigate the spectrum of light, painting our canvas with gradients that evoke emotions and atmospheres. As we stand on the threshold of this creative journey, we are armed with the knowledge that the aforementioned pins shall serve as our conduits to this world of analog modulation. With every pulse of code, every subtle alteration in voltage, we shall wield the power to craft dynamic visual narratives that transcend the confines of mere illumination. 117

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So, with the stage set and the analog pins as our allies, let us embark on this journey of LED modulation—a voyage where the symphony of digital precision blends seamlessly with the artistry of light, creating a harmonious dance of luminescence that speaks to the very essence of creativity. In the vast and intricate tapestry of electronic exploration, we find ourselves on a journey to craft circuits—exquisite tapestries of wires, intricate components, and the harmonious interplay of electrons. It is a symphony of technology and creativity, where the mundane becomes the extraordinary, and the abstract transforms into tangible reality. With Tinkercad as our virtual canvas, we are poised to infuse existence into our digital dreams, to orchestrate the ethereal ballet of light and energy that resides within the realm of electronics.

Figure 7-8.  Pins with wave sign are analog output pins of Arduino As we commence this digital artistic odyssey, the foundation is laid— the Arduino board takes center stage, a conductor of computational prowess. Beside it, the breadboard stands as a platform of limitless connectivity, where pathways of possibility unfurl. And there, our protagonists emerge—the LED, a luminescent luminary, and the resistor, a steadfast sentinel, both awaiting their cues in the grand performance of electronic artistry.

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Figure 7-9.  LED fading using Arduino Connections unfurl, wires weave their intricate dance, and components find their rightful places—a delicate LED finds its home on pin 9, its luminous spectrum destined to manifest in hues of vibrant yellow. The stage is set, the actors in position, as power wires—one ablaze in vivid red, the other in solemn black—usher forth the energies that shall animate this digital canvas. In this symphonic narrative, an oscilloscope takes its place—an enigmatic observer, a portal to the unseen realms of voltage and waveform. Wires resplendent in yellow and dignified in black bridge the realms, ready to convey the enigmatic messages of voltage fluctuations that course through this intricate web of connectivity. And so, the tableau unfolds, as the circuit springs to life, an embodiment of our creative vision. Amidst this dance of electrons, colors, and connections, we stand at the crossroads of imagination and technological prowess. A mere click ignites the choreography of illumination, unveiling the radiant artistry of our circuit’s dance—a homage to our ingenuity and a testament to the marvels of electronic expression. Upon this virtual canvas, we lay the foundation—a tapestry of potentiality. Behold, the Arduino board takes its place, a sentinel of computation. Beside it, a breadboard, a sanctuary for connections and dreams. Our actors await their cues—the LED, a luminescent muse, and a resistor, a silent guardian. 119

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Connections come to life—an LED finds its abode, nestled upon pin 9, its radiance destined to be painted in hues of yellow. The stage set, the players take their positions—the wires of power, one in resplendent red, the other in steadfast black, grounding the realm in potential. An oscilloscope emerges—an enigmatic observer, its purpose to unveil the arcane voltages coursing through the circuit’s veins. Wires of yellow and black once more, a chorus of electrons ready to divulge their secrets. As our circuit unfurls, its artistry akin to Figure 7-8, we stand at the precipice of simulation. An LED poised to respond, to dance, to illuminate. Voltage waves yearning to be seen, to tell their tales of rise and fall. The digital realm reverberates with anticipation. The connections, the colors, the components—they are the palette of creation. In this symposium of electrons, we transmute concepts into reality, and with a click, a circuit springs to life—a testament to our virtual craftsmanship, a harbinger of enlightenment. The canvas of creation beckons, and we stand at the threshold of realization. With a palette of blocks, we shall weave the tapestry of our intent. As novice navigators, we turn to the “block mode,” a gentle breeze to guide us through the labyrinthine corridors of code.

Figure 7-10.  Drag count up block, rename variable name, and set its max and min count

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In the realm of control, a block awaits—the “count-up” block—an incantation of iteration. A journey to traverse, a variable to embody—the variable “brightness” ascends to prominence, its name inscribed upon the altar of transformation. A name, once “i,” now resonates with purpose. We embark upon the act of transmutation—a right-click, a name altered. From “i” to “brightness,” a cosmic rebirth transpires. The blocks, once a medley of potential, now align with our aspirations, a symphony of intent woven into the very fabric of creation. As the sun sets behind the horizon of uncertainty, the count-up block beckons us forward. The variable “brightness,” now an embodiment of luminance, emerges from the shadows of ambiguity. With each iteration, it traverses the realms of possibility, its value ascending to the zenith of brilliance. And so, with a click, a drag, a drop, our narrative unfolds. The blocks, once scattered fragments, now congregate in harmony, their arrangement a reflection of our design. The “count-up” block carries our hopes and dreams, guiding the variable “brightness” on its journey of revelation. In this sanctuary of creation, code is not merely code—it is a language of possibility, a gateway to realization. As we manipulate the blocks, we sculpt the very essence of our desires, beckoning the LED to transcend its confines and radiate with newfound splendor. With each action, each interaction, the canvas evolves. The variable “brightness” dances to the rhythm of the count-up block, an ode to exploration, an anthem of transformation. And as the blocks converge and coalesce, we glimpse the power of creation—a power that lies within each line, each pixel, each intention. With a sense of accomplishment, we survey our handiwork—a constellation of blocks, a constellation of ideas, a constellation of light. In this world of programming, where blocks are our brushes and code is our canvas, we manifest the intangible, sculpting a reality that bridges the realms of imagination and expression.

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In the realm of code, a symphony of variation unfolds—a dance of numbers, an evolution of luminance. Within this rhythm, a counting loop emerges—a maestro orchestrating the transformation of values. Imagine, if you will, a variable named “brightness,” a chameleon of intensity, poised to traverse the spectrum from abyssal darkness to resplendent radiance. From the realm of output, a block materializes—the “set pin” block— an enabler of electronic metamorphosis. A conduit through which digital directives flow, imbued with the power to mold voltages and kindle LEDs to life. And there, in the midst of this intricate choreography, the variable “brightness” makes its entrance—an avatar of transformation. A nexus is formed—a union of code and hardware—a digital soliloquy delivered through the vessel of pin 9. The variable “brightness” steps forth, offering itself to the pin value, a conduit of change. And so, as the counting loop unfurls, the variable “brightness” shifts, metamorphosing from 0 to 255—a journey from obscurity to luminescence. Pin 9, once a dormant bystander, now assumes a role of great significance. Its destiny intertwined with the variable “brightness,” it becomes a harbinger of light. With each iteration of the counting loop, a pulse of transformation courses through the pin, dictating the brilliance of the LED—a ballet of photons that dances to the rhythm of code. The interplay is exquisite—a fluid dialogue between the digital realm and the tangible world. As the loop advances, so does the value of “brightness,” a cascade of brilliance that mirrors the ascent of dawn. The LED, a silent partner, responds to this fluctuating embrace, its luminosity a canvas painted with shades of mathematical elegance. In this grand performance, the code is both conductor and composer—an architect of illumination. It paints a portrait of change, of variation, of the symphony between abstract logic and physical reality. And as the counting loop orchestrates its crescendo, the LED responds with a luminous flourish—an embodiment of the creative potential nestled within the heart of programming.

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Figure 7-11.  Set pin number and its current value With a mere right-click, a symphony of duplication unfolds—an act of cloning, as it were. Behold the newfound twins, an exact replica of their predecessor blocks. Placed side by side in harmonious unison, their purpose remains twofold—to bestow brilliance upon the LED canvas, a partnership of illumination and shadow. And so, these doppelgangers embark on a journey of variable assignment. The variable “brightness,” a malleable vessel, awaits the imparting of its value. Beginning at the pinnacle of radiance, a regal 255—each subsequent cycle diminishes its luminous presence by a single quantum, progressing in a stately procession. A numerical elegy, a dance of dwindling radiance, tracing a path from resplendence to obscurity. Behold the orchestration, a mirror image of the original, a simultaneous occurrence of ascent and descent. As if painting with light, these replicated blocks mirror each other’s cadence, echoing the rise and fall, the crescendo and diminuendo—a visual representation of a diminishing spark. Within this mirroring, a potent lesson emerges—an exploration of code symmetry. Just as a dance of light plays out in perfect resonance, so does the code’s choreography. The twins, a testimony to the beauty of replication, represent an elegant mechanism for repetition and scalability.

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In this ethereal dance of duplicated blocks, we see not just a replication of code but an echo of creativity—a reminder that in the realm of programming, the echo of an action can ripple forth in ever-expanding waves of complexity and artistry.

Figure 7-12.  Set brightness value from 255 to 0 and add wait block The subsequent steps involve the strategic insertion of wait blocks, masterfully calibrated to the precise tempo of milliseconds—let’s say, an enchanting 30 milliseconds. This calculated interlude serves as a poignant pause between each modulation, allowing the effulgent light to grace its allotted brightness before transitioning. A choreographed dance of illumination, gracefully unfolding as if in slow motion. Behold, the initial stage of the code takes shape, a symphony of binary transitions artfully choreographed. Now, immerse yourself in the simulation—an ethereal unveiling, akin to the dawn of light. Observe how the LED emerges from its dormant state, gently illuminating the canvas of your imagination, and then recedes like a fading star. 124

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Witness the orchestration, a digital overture on display. In the realm of the oscilloscope, a square wave signal unfurls, tracing its tale of voltage variance. First, a decisive ascent to the zenith of 5 volts, then a dalliance between the realms of 0 and 5 volts, before descending gracefully to 0 volts once more. This pattern of ebb and flow becomes evident, portraying the LED’s delicate ascent and decline. Ah, but subtlety reigns supreme. In the grand design, the tempo itself holds a secret—a key to the LED’s cadence. What if we, as virtuosi, choose to manipulate this tempo? By rewriting the wait value, the narrative metamorphoses. If 500 milliseconds graces the wait blocks, the performance elongates, rendering each phase distinct and apparent. Yet, as artists, we hold the brush of control. In defiance of languor, we pivot to a faster tempo, the wait value diminished. A flurry of light ensues—a rapid metamorphosis from the darkest depths to the pinnacle of brilliance. Pause to consider the intricate mechanics beneath this spectacle. Digital signals convolute into analog expressions, rendering light in its myriad shades, from the zenith of luminosity to the nadir of darkness. Such is the alchemy—within the bounds of a digital world, a fraction of a spectrum emerges. This is the essence of the analogWrite command, where fractions of the whole manifest in shimmering radiance or retreat into the obscurity of shadow. A fraction of 100% of the 5 volts—the essence of control etched in each microsecond.

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Figure 7-13.  (a) Showing the full brightness mode of LED and (b) and (c) showing how the signal across LED decreases to 0 which results in fading of the LED The technique harnessed in the process elucidated above bears the name of “Pulse Width Modulation,” or PWM in abbreviation. While an Arduino board inherently speaks in the binary language of digital signals— conveying either high or low states—the ingenious analogWrite command serves as the gateway to an entirely new dimension. This command ushers forth a departure from mere on-off toggles, delving into the realm of analog values. Unveiling the depths of this command, you find yourself wielding the capability to dispatch analog values—ranging not solely between the binary extremes of 0 and 1, but encompassing an expansive spectrum stretching from 0 to 255. Picture this digital alchemy illustrated in Figure 7-14—an intricate dance where values intertwine to create a symphony of gradients and nuances. It’s akin to painting with a broad palette, where each value meticulously selected renders a brushstroke of specific shade and intensity. As you deploy analogWrite, the output pins of your Arduino 126

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board come alive with a spectrum of potential intensities, permitting you to orchestrate a crescendo of luminosity, control the rotation speed of motors, or unleash a cascade of sonic frequencies. The command thrives as a bridge between the discrete world of digital code and the continuous canvas of the analog realm. Let this concept unfurl as you traverse the pathways of your Arduino endeavors. Each value, each pulse, breathes life into your creations, infusing them with a granularity that sets your projects apart. From the glow of LEDs to the rhythm of motors, from the melody of sound to the whispers of complex systems, PWM bestows upon you the power to illuminate, move, resonate, and innovate—all by harnessing the harmony of digital precision and analog subtlety.

Figure 7-14.  LED fading code Pulse Width Modulation, commonly known as PWM, stands as a versatile tool in the realm of electronics and digital signal manipulation. This ingenious technique involves the generation of an oscillating digital signal that effectively toggles between high and low states at controlled intervals. Through the precise manipulation of these intervals, PWM empowers us to achieve an illusion of analog behavior, lending finesse to our digital orchestrations.

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Armed with the knowledge of fading and the potent capabilities of pulse width modulation, you stand poised to venture into the realm of more intricate Arduino exercises, each wielding the mighty analogWrite function as its instrument of creation. Within this rich tapestry of possibilities, RGB LEDs shine as a prime example. With the alchemy of analogWrite, you gain the power to command the ratios of red, green, and blue light, blending them into an infinite spectrum of vibrant hues. Through meticulously controlling the brightness of each color, the canvas of your creation is limitless, and the palette at your disposal knows no bounds. But the horizons of analogWrite stretch far beyond the realms of color. As you journey deeper into the Arduino landscape, you’ll discover that this function can be harnessed to dictate the very rhythm of motion. The tempo of a DC motor’s spin is but a command away, and the library of musical notes at your disposal unfolds an auditory odyssey that’s limited only by your imagination. Indeed, the potential is as expansive as the universe itself. The pathway to creation is not confined solely to the realm of code mastery. With just a pair of blocks, you can sculpt intricate symphonies of action, each triggered by your commands and directed by the logic you set in motion. The bridge between code and reality has been crossed, and the fusion of imagination and coding has unlocked a playground where the boundaries are self-imposed and innovation knows no restraint. Embrace this realm of boundless possibilities, for here, your creations can be as intricate as a symphony, as vibrant as a rainbow, or as agile as a motor’s spin. With the amalgamation of your ingenuity and the power of analogWrite, you possess a key that can unlock doors to a world where anything is achievable—a world where the convergence of the digital and the tangible can bring your wildest ideas to life.

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Arduino Input Basics In the vast realm of technology and innovation, the ability to command and orchestrate actions through input signals is a cornerstone skill that traverses a myriad of disciplines. From the intricate domains of electronics and robotics to the fluid landscapes of software development and automation, the art of controlling outputs based on inputs reigns supreme. In this chapter, we shall embark on a journey of empowerment as we delve into the mechanics of harnessing the power of input signals to govern and direct our desired outcomes. At the heart of this chapter lies the artistry of interaction, a dance between input and output that forms the essence of control. As we delve deeper, a simple yet profound example unfurls before us—an example brought to life within the confines of Tinkercad. Here, we shall unravel the enigma of reading the state of a humble push button, a digital sentinel poised to deliver its message through electrical currents and microcontrollers. Within the corridors of code blocks, we shall weave a narrative that transcends the boundaries of digital and tangible worlds. Through a delicate choreography, we shall sculpt a scenario where the blinking of an LED becomes a manifestation of our commands. The canvas we paint is one of adaptability and responsiveness, where a mere press of a button can trigger a symphony of actions—a paradigm that resonates across the spectrum of technological innovation.

© Ashraf Said Ahmad AlMadhoun 2023 A. S. A. AlMadhoun, Circuit Design and Simulation Quick Start Guide, Maker Innovations Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-9582-3_8

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As we voyage through this chapter, we shall unlock the gateway to empowerment. We shall harness the potential to bestow life upon myriad systems—be it regulating the fervor of a fan’s whir, altering the course of a motor’s rotation, or orchestrating a host of other outputs, all guided by the lilt of our control signals. The mastery of this skill shall be our compass, guiding us through the realms of complex control systems, imbued with the essence of adaptability. In embracing the lessons of this chapter, we take on the mantle of creators and directors of our own technological narratives. The tapestry we weave is one of intelligence and receptiveness, a narrative where the interplay between inputs and outputs forms the bedrock of innovation. As we unlock the secrets of controlling outputs through input signals, we open doors to the infinite possibilities that lie ahead—a realm where our creations respond not just to preordained commands, but to the whispers of change and the beckoning of user input. In a world where every press is a catalyst and every signal a conductor, we become the architects of dynamic systems that respond to the ebb and flow of the environment. The symphony we compose is one of empowerment, where intelligence and technology unite to shape a future that is more intuitive, more responsive, and infinitely more extraordinary.

Reading Digital Input Amidst the intricate tapestry of electronic devices, appliances, and machinery, a quiet sentinel stands ready to spring into action at the gentlest nudge—a push button. With its unassuming presence, the push button is a maestro of initiation, summoning forth a cascade of events with a mere touch. This humble switch finds its home in countless scenarios, orchestrating actions that range from activating lights and unlocking doors to initiating intricate processes within machinery.

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The essence of a push button’s magic lies in its very nature—a switch that responds to the gentle pressure of a fingertip, akin to a whisper that stirs a symphony. Once pressed, its innate magic comes to life. As the physical world melds with the realms of electrons, an electrical circuit is seamlessly woven into existence. This circuitry forms the conduit through which a signal embarks on its journey—a signal that carries within it the command to fulfill a predefined task or function. Within the heart of the Arduino, digital input pins slumber, waiting for their moment in the spotlight. These pins possess the remarkable ability to sense the state of input signals, like an oracle interpreting cosmic whispers. The push button’s purpose becomes clear as we bridge the gap between its terminals and the digital input pin. The act of pressing the button forges a connection—a dance that completes the circuit, unleashing an electrical signal that reverberates through the corridors of the control system or microcontroller. A visual narrative emerges as we journey into the realm of circuitry. Behold Figure 8-1—a crystallization of our understanding, a visual tableau that captures the essence of the push button’s union with circuitry. An Arduino takes center stage, surrounded by an ensemble of components—a breadboard, resistors, a push button, and the humble LED. Each element plays its part in crafting this electronic ballet.

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Figure 8-1.  Connect push button and LED with digital pin of Arduino The intricate choreography begins with the placement of resistors—a duet between a 120-ohm resistor and an 18k-ohm resistor. These resistors are tasked with safeguarding the harmony of the circuit—a push-button symphony in which stability is paramount. The pull-down resistor, the 18k-ohm guardian, finds its solace as one end meets the push button’s terminal. Here, it reaches out to the ground—a grounding embrace that whispers serenity into the circuit’s ears. The LED, a luminary of our electronic stage, beckons with its brilliance, awaiting its cue. Positioned with a 120-ohm resistor, it stands ready to embody our code’s ambitions. The LED and its companion resistor gracefully bridge the gap between the digital pin 13 of the Arduino and the world of illumination. As we traverse the corridors of code, a saga of if statements unfolds—a narrative that hinges on the button’s whispered state. Within the realm of code, we wield conditional statements as a scriptwriter wields words, guiding the LED’s destiny. The question posed is simple: Is the button pressed? If the answer is affirmative, then an enchanting sequence 132

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begins—a mesmerizing blink that paints the LED in ethereal rhythms. The button’s command ignites the LED’s radiance, illuminating the path ahead. Yet, if the button rests untouched, the LED remains ensconced in darkness—a realm untouched by the button’s magic. In the grand tapestry of this chapter’s teachings, we find the embodiment of a synergy that spans tactile actions and digital realms. A push button becomes more than a mere switch; it metamorphoses into a conductor, a catalyst that bridges physical and digital worlds. It serves as a beacon of initiation, as a testament to the art of interfacing the tangible with the ethereal. In the labyrinth of electronic possibilities, the push button stands as an emissary of empowerment—a reminder that a single press can unleash a symphony of actions. Delving deeper into this intricate web of electronic orchestration, we unearth the rationale behind the incorporation of resistors with not only LEDs but also push buttons. Let us embark on this exploration to fathom the essence and purpose that underlies the conjunction of a resistor and a push button in this configuration. What beckons our understanding here is the embodiment of the resistor’s role as a “pull-down resistor.” Immerse yourself in the world of pull-down resistors—a remarkable tool harnessed within electronic circuits to ensure a stable voyage for input signals within the realms of digital logic circuits and microcontrollers. Imagine a scenario where an input signal, left untamed, navigates uncertain territories when it is not under the watchful guidance of an active external circuit. The pull-down resistor enters this narrative as a guardian, firmly tethered between the input pin and the grounding sanctuary. In moments of dormancy, when the input signal slumbers, this resistor awakens to provide an unobstructed path to the ground. A path that quells the turbulence of idle signals, paving the way for tranquility amidst the tumult of electrical noise. In the grand tapestry of digital circuits, inputs pulsate with the dichotomy of high and low voltages, mirroring a cosmic dance of binary states. Akin to cosmic bodies, inputs require stability; they yearn for 133

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definition in their state. The pull-down resistor steps onto this stage as a master choreographer, orchestrating equilibrium when no external hand guides the input’s motion. The dance between resistors and input signals becomes profound when we confront the specter of the “floating” state—an ethereal realm where undirected inputs waltz with electrical noise, yielding erratic oscillations between high and low states. Chaos ensues, compromising the circuit’s harmony and injecting unpredictability into its operation. The pull-down resistor emerges as a sentinel against this cacophony, providing a steadfast connection to the ground that quells the unruly cacophony. This practice, while elegant, doesn’t forsake the needs of an active circuit. In moments when the input is called to action by an external circuit, the pull-down resistor steps aside gracefully, allowing the external force to assert its influence without hampering the flow of current. In Figure 8-1, our narrative visualizes this symphony—where a push button and an LED coalesce. When the button remains untouched, the digital pin 2 finds solace in the grounded embrace of the pull-down resistor, eradicating any inklings of a “floating” state. Yet, as the button’s heart beats with intent, a path to power manifests, illuminating the LED and bestowing upon the digital pin 2 the high state. The real triumph of the pull-down resistor surfaces as we unmask the veil of uncertainty that plagues a floating input. The resistor’s presence eradicates the tumultuous dance of electrical noise, allowing the signal’s true intent to prevail. However, the resistor doesn’t just alleviate chaos; it fends off the intrusive cacophony of electromagnetic interference and static electricity, safeguarding the integrity of the input signal and, consequently, the sanctity of the output. Let us also touch upon the counterpart—the pull-up resistor—a guardian of a different realm. These resistors tether inputs to power, creating stability in a world of electric symphonies. In essence, the pull-up and pull-down resistors intertwine to bring forth a state of equilibrium, ensuring that each input dances to the beat of certainty, devoid of noise-­induced disruptions. 134

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Venturing forth, we transition from theory to practice—coding with intent and purpose. With a variable named “buttonState,” we traverse the landscape of digital pins and readings. Our code weaves a narrative of decision-making, where if-then blocks evaluate button states and LEDs pulse in rhythm with button presses. With Figure 8-2 as our guide, we uncover the sequence of events in the code’s ballet. The variable “buttonState” emerges as the recorder of button states—1 or 0, a binary whisper. The if-then block steps in as the conductor, attuned to this dichotomy. As the button state oscillates between pressed and unpressed, the LED’s brilliance follows suit, illuminating and dimming in response.

Figure 8-2.  Code block to read state of push button and to control the LED blinking accordingly As the final curtain descends on this chapter, the resonance of pull-­ down resistors reverberates. A harmonious partnership with push buttons emerges—a delicate balance that illuminates, stabilizes, and guides digital

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narratives. The luminous dance between resistors and inputs, embodied by code, captures the essence of order amidst electronic chaos, a testament to the power of intention and design. As the curtains of this chapter draw to a close, a final act unfolds—a demonstration of the waltz between a push button and an LED. In the grand theater of simulation, we witness a dance of interaction—an LED that bows to the push button’s touch. When the button’s pressure meets the LED’s gaze, a symphony of light commences—illuminating the digital stage. And as the button’s embrace releases, the LED bids its luminous adieu, returning to the shadows. In Figure 8-3, this pas de deux is captured—a visual testament to the code’s orchestration. The LED’s rise and fall, an ethereal manifestation of the button’s press and release, narrates a tale of digital interaction.

Figure 8-3.  Pressing push button results in blinking of LED Through this exercise, the art of reading values as input finds its culmination. The push button—a tangible entity—becomes a conductor of light, initiating and extinguishing the LED’s glow. The code, woven with the fabric of conditional evaluation, becomes the translator between physical touch and digital command.

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With this achievement in our repository, a chapter concludes, but a world of exploration beckons. Armed with this knowledge, the journey extends into the uncharted territory of your creative canvas. The realm of simulation and hardware awaits, inviting you to breathe life into your ideas—transmuting concepts into reality. Your newfound prowess with push buttons and if statements lays the foundation for further adventures. In your explorations, consider a flip of logic—where the LED rests in perpetual brilliance until the button’s touch dims its glow. This inversion of interaction adds yet another layer of dynamic control to your repertoire. As you traverse this realm, the simple becomes the canvas for the complex. Imagine a temperature sensor’s whisper, dictating the fan’s cadence, or a motion sensor’s prompt, conjuring light at a room’s entrance. The echoes of this basic example resound through myriad applications, as it emerges as the cornerstone of intelligent, responsive systems. In this coda, we leave you with the tools to shape the digital world. By understanding how to command outputs based on inputs, you gain the power to create systems that mirror your intent—adaptation, transformation, and response interwoven into the fabric of code. Armed with this skill, you stand at the threshold of innovation—poised to craft solutions that bridge the gap between intention and execution.

Reading Analog Value Venturing further into the realm of Arduino’s capabilities, we are poised to explore the nuances of analog input—an endeavor that delves beyond binary boundaries into the realm of gradients and subtlety. In the chapters prior, we unearthed the art of digital input through push buttons, encapsulating states in stark binaries of 0 and 1. However, the stage expands, beckoning us to a grander performance—one where analog values are not merely read, but embraced and understood. 137

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Welcome, then, to a chapter that unfolds the enigma of potentiometers and analog input—a symphony that plays with the nuances of continuous signals, revealing the Arduino’s prowess as a translator between the analog and the digital realms. In our digital odyssey, we unveil the significance of reading analog inputs—a skill that transforms the Arduino into a discerning observer of the analog world. In this narrative, voltage and current cease to be abstract phenomena, instead taking on the form of digital data that the Arduino can grasp and interpret. This interaction—where analog signals are translated into digital values—stands as a testament to the Arduino’s ability to bridge the worlds of physical sensors and digital command. With every rotation of the potentiometer’s knob, a gradual evolution of electrical signal occurs—a dance that the Arduino is poised to sense and comprehend. This dance, rooted in analog input, opens the gateway to a world of dynamic values, a world that pulsates and shifts in response to our interaction. As we approach the Arduino’s anatomy, we discover the analog pins, nestled opposite their digital counterparts. These analog pins, denoted A0 to A5, act as conduits for the analog signals that traverse the Arduino’s path. They serve as the gatekeepers to the microcontroller’s analog-to-­ digital converter (ADC), an enchanting mechanism that transforms the fluid analog world into discrete digital values. This chapter, a journey of exploration, heralds a new dimension in our Arduino saga. It introduces us to the realm of continuous signals and infinite variability—analog signals that surge through the circuits and settle within the digital microcosm. With the flick of a potentiometer’s knob, we unravel a tale that transcends the confines of binary states—a tale of Arduino’s role as a mediator between the tangible and the digital, the analog and the discrete. To conclude, the mastery of analog input ushers us into a realm of infinite possibilities. The potentiometer becomes our instrument of interaction, allowing us to navigate the gradients of analog voltage. 138

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Arduino’s analog pins serve as portals that channel these signals, while the ADC orchestrates the grand translation into digital data. As we traverse the six analog pins, we open doors to a world where Arduino’s capabilities extend beyond the confines of on and off, embracing the rich nuances of continuous signals. This chapter unveils Arduino’s metamorphosis into a translator between the analog and the digital, broadening the horizons of our journey into electronics and interaction.

Figure 8-4.  Analog pins of Arduino Within the realm of electronics, the Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC) stands as a transformative sorcerer, weaving spells of translation between the ethereal realm of analog signals and the digital domain. As a warden of conversion, the ADC possesses the uncanny ability to metamorphose the continuum of voltage levels, stretching from 0 to 5 volts, into a regimented battalion of numbers spanning from 0 to 1023. This numerical orchestra arises from the ADC’s ten-bit might, as 2 raised to the power of 10 grants us 1024 possibilities—accounting for the pivotal zero, the ultimate conductor’s cue. In our quest to understand this alchemical transformation, we embark on the construction of a circuit—a bridge between the tangible and the digital. At its heart lies a trusty LED, its luminescent story unchanged from the preceding chapter. However, this time, the dance partner is a

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potentiometer—an enigmatic three-legged entity. The potentiometer’s extremities, steadfast in their resistance, lay the foundation for variation. Between them, the middle leg—the wiper—sweeps across the spectrum of resistance, forging a link between the digital world and the analog realm. This wiper, akin to a conductor’s baton, is summoned to interface with Arduino’s analog pin A0—a gateway to the digital cosmos. Its companions, one tethered to VCC and the other to ground, furnish the potentiometer with power, thus establishing a realm where resistance becomes malleable. As the circuit takes shape, the wiper—a conductor of change—is clothed in verdant green, a visual reminder of its transformative role. With the potentiometer’s knob rotation, the wiper embarks on a journey of resistance alteration, effectively morphing the analog value it presents to Arduino. In this intricate ballet, each rotation becomes a dialogue—a whisper from the physical world translated into the digital lexicon of numbers. The potentiometer, through its variable resistance, bestows upon us the gift of analog change. With each turn, the analog value oscillates—a signal that cascades into the depths of Arduino’s circuitry. Through this interaction, we unveil the heart of analog-digital interplay—a symphony where the real and the digital meet and converse. With each knob’s twist, we orchestrate a unique sequence of numerical pulses—a testament to the ADC’s role as the conduit of translation. This dance, where knobs become code and resistance becomes value, is a ballet that spans dimensions. As the potentiometer’s knob yields to touch, we witness the tapestry of transformation. The dance of resistance finds its digital counterpart in the shifting landscape of analog values. In this narrative, the potentiometer becomes a maestro, dictating the rhythm of interaction—one that elegantly weaves together the physical and the digital. In conclusion, the ADC’s alchemy takes center stage as it converts the nuances of analog voltage into a digital realm of numbers. Our circuit, featuring the LED and the potentiometer, becomes a stage for this transformation—a convergence of analog and digital interaction. This 140

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interplay, where resistance becomes a canvas for value, offers a glimpse into the artistry of electronics—a tale that spans voltage ranges and numerical arrays.

Figure 8-5.  Connecting fixed legs of potentiometer to power rail and wiper to analog pin of Arduino Embarking on a journey through the realm of code, we now find ourselves poised at the threshold of the coding area. Here, the language of instruction and interaction unfolds, enabling us to breathe life into our digital canvas. As we delve into the coding nuances, the stage is set to sculpt interactions and unveil the hidden potential of our potentiometer-­ led duet. In our quest for streamlined precision, we turn our attention to the “clothing” section—a repository of commands that will sculpt our code into a functional masterpiece. With deft motions, the extraneous elements fall away, leaving only the lead command—a sentinel of illumination that awaits our orchestration. 141

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A pivotal transformation beckons as we traverse toward the “variables” section—an enclave that breathes life into data manipulation. Here, amidst the digital enigma, we create a sanctuary for knowledge—a haven for the sensorValue variable. This variable, the keeper of potentiometer’s state, stands ready to encapsulate the analog essence. With the stage set, the “set” block emerges as the harbinger of transformation—a bridge between the analog world and the digital realm. We turn our gaze to the “input” domain, where we pluck the “set” block and position it upon our digital canvas. This block, the catalyst for interaction, bears the responsibility of reading the potentiometer’s whispers. The ritual of command assembly commences—a ritual where variables are woven into the fabric of interaction. Within the “set” block’s parameters, the sensorValue variable finds its purpose—a vessel to capture the potentiometer’s state. The analog pin A0, a conduit of analog potential, is assigned as the value that sensorValue shall cradle. As the LED is beckoned to life, the digital meets the analog in a sublime dance of luminosity. The very essence of analog value now serves as the maestro—a guide for the LED’s cadence. This analog value, a storyteller of potentiometer’s inclination, becomes the pivot upon which the LED’s illumination pivots. The mastery of interaction is further enhanced as we harness the analog value’s potency—a key that unlocks the LED’s radiant embrace. This interaction, a testament to the digital’s ability to translate analog whispers into tangible brilliance, becomes a tale of harmony and illumination. In this symphony of code, the potency of analog value is unveiled—a gateway that bridges the abstract with the tangible, the analog with the digital. Through this dance, we transform the mere on-and-off of an LED into a narrative of interaction, a dialogue between the potentiometer’s state and the LED’s luminosity.

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In conclusion, the act of translating analog value into digital action showcases the Arduino’s remarkable ability to bridge the gap between the analog and digital realms. As we orchestrate the LED’s illumination through the whispers of the potentiometer, we create a nuanced interplay—an interaction that resonates beyond mere code. This journey into coding’s depths underscores the Arduino’s prowess as a conduit of intention, turning analog potential into a canvas of digital brilliance.

Figure 8-6.  Code block to read analog value and to control the delay accordingly In the realm of Arduino exploration, our journey continues as we navigate the landscape of analog inputs and outputs. This chapter unveils the art of harnessing the analog potential of the Arduino to interact with the physical world. Through a captivating dance of code and interaction, we shall learn to read analog inputs from the analog pins, using this data to perform various tasks and craft dynamic applications. As we begin this exploration, our gaze falls upon the input category, a realm brimming with possibilities. Within its depths lies a treasure—a block aptly named “read analog pin.” With a swift motion, we summon this block into our digital realm, a beacon of connectivity between the

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physical and the virtual. As this block emerges, a conduit is created—a channel through which the Arduino can commune with analog signals in the physical world. In parallel, the output category presents itself, and from its midst, we pluck the foundational block that governs the built-in LED. This block becomes a beacon of our digital canvas, a point of interaction where data will manifest as tangible illumination. But what bridges the gap between these interactions? The control category answers this call with the “wait” block—a master of temporal orchestration. With its guidance, we create pauses in our program, allowing the Arduino to navigate the passage of time and embrace the rhythm of the physical world. And now, the heart of the matter—the variables. The “sensorValue,” our vessel of data, emerges as a protagonist, ready to encapsulate the analog essence. This value, harvested from the potentiometer’s subtle nuances, becomes a conduit for interaction, a thread that connects the physical gesture with the digital interpretation. But how does this interaction unfold? Our imagination takes flight as we envision a scenario: the LED, responding to the whispers of the sensorValue. The “wait” block, rather than operating on a fixed schedule, bends to the will of the potentiometer knob. The sensorValue, as dynamic as human intention, becomes the maestro, dictating the tempo of illumination. In this symphony, the LED blinks in harmony with the potentiometer’s whims. A twist to the right, and the LED’s rhythm quickens—a dance of light that resonates with excitement. A turn to the left, and the LED’s cadence mellows—a tranquil interplay of luminosity. The sensorValue, a translator of tactile intention, weaves a narrative that dances beyond the confines of code. In the realm of simulation, our efforts come to life. The LED, a living entity, pulses with vibrancy—its pace a mirror to the potentiometer’s touch. The knob’s journey from one extreme to another paints a picture of interactivity—a union of analog and digital, tangible and virtual. 144

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This ability to glean insights from analog inputs is a cornerstone of Arduino’s prowess. It empowers us to bridge the gap between the digital and physical worlds, shaping the environment according to our intentions. This skill finds its footing in an array of applications: Sensor Monitoring: The Arduino, with its knack for reading analog inputs, becomes a guardian of sensors. Temperature, light, pressure— these sensors yield data that the Arduino interprets, empowering it to control devices or sound alarms in response. Control Systems: Precision finds a home in the Arduino’s ability to read analog inputs. Motors, pumps, intricate mechanical systems—all benefit from real-­time adjustments based on analog data, becoming instruments of orchestrated movement. Data Acquisition: The Arduino, an adept data gatherer, reads analog inputs to collect environmental data. Weather information, environmental conditions—this data can be channeled to computers or cloud services for further analysis and decision-making. In conclusion, this chapter illuminates the fusion of code and interaction, demonstrating how the Arduino’s analog capabilities empower us to interact with the world in myriad ways. By embracing analog inputs, we unlock a realm of interactivity that bridges the gap between the digital and the tangible. This journey into the heart of Arduino’s analog prowess unveils its potential to mold the physical world according to our creative intention—a skill that resonates across applications and industries.

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Dealing with RGB LED with Potentiometers The canvas of our exploration expands, unveiling a realm where creativity and technology converge in a mesmerizing dance of light and color manipulation. Within this chapter’s narrative, we shall delve into the art of crafting diverse lighting effects by wielding the power of RGB LEDs in harmony with the Arduino platform. RGB LEDs, those remarkable Red-Green-Blue Light-Emitting Diodes, stand as the protagonists of our digital saga. These electronic wonders possess the uncanny ability to produce a rich spectrum of colors by orchestrating the primary hues of red, green, and blue. Their versatility has found a home in a plethora of applications, spanning from illumination and visual displays to signage and decorative installations. Comprising three individual diodes, each tinted with its own primary color, RGB LEDs pave the way for an artist’s palette of light. The magic begins when the intensity of each diode is tailored to create an intricate dance of colors. This dance, whether dynamic or static, comes to life through a symphony of voltage modulation. By interfacing these luminous wonders with the Arduino, we embark on a journey of creative potential, where colors are not merely chosen, but sculpted. Our journey commences with the orchestration of a circuit, a virtual creation brought to life in the realm of Tinkercad. The stage is set with an Arduino Uno and a breadboard, their digital veins intertwined to form a © Ashraf Said Ahmad AlMadhoun 2023 A. S. A. AlMadhoun, Circuit Design and Simulation Quick Start Guide, Maker Innovations Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-9582-3_9

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conduit of power. Here, an RGB LED takes center stage, accompanied by the loyal company of three resistors. As if embodying a trinity of light, the RGB LED’s four pins—three anodes and one cathode—stand poised to transform electrical impulses into vibrant illumination. The symbiotic relationship between colors and pins unfolds as each primary color—red, green, and blue—finds a home in one of the RGB LED’s anodes. Like painters of light, these color pins are connected to Arduino’s digital output pins, accompanied by vigilant 220-ohm current-­ limiting resistors. With this arrangement, pulse width modulation (PWM) emerges as the conductor’s baton, enabling us to manipulate the voltage applied to each pin. This modulation, an art form in itself, is the key to birthing various hues from the RGB LED’s diodes. A vivid tableau springs forth in Figure 9-1, a visual representation of our digital symphony. As the RGB LED’s color pins align with Arduino’s digital pins 9, 10, and 11, a synchronized ballet of current and code ensues. The 220-ohm resistors, guardians of luminosity, march in unison, ensuring a harmonious balance between voltage and diode brilliance. The cathode, grounded and unwavering, stands as the foundation of our luminous creation.

Figure 9-1.  Connect RGB LED with PWM pins of Arduino 148

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This stage, set in the realm of the virtual, serves as the canvas upon which our illumination masterpiece shall be painted. Through the interplay of color pins, resistors, and Arduino’s prowess, a new narrative unfolds—one where colors transcend their ordinary boundaries, where technology becomes the brush, and where creativity paints the canvas of light. In closing, the world of RGB LEDs and Arduino beckons us into a realm of limitless potential. Through this harmonious partnership, we become creators of illumination, crafting a symphony of colors that transcends the ordinary. The circuit, a portal between imagination and reality, offers a playground for exploration. As we navigate from connections to code, we journey into a domain where light becomes our medium and colors our brushstrokes—a tale of innovation, transformation, and the boundless fusion of creativity and technology. In the realm of creative coding and luminous expression, we find ourselves ready to craft our own symphony of light. As our journey unfolds, we step into the world of code creation, guided by the pulsating heart of our RGB LED. Let us embark upon this journey, selecting blocks from our digital arsenal to orchestrate a harmonious dance of colors and brightness. With eager anticipation, our gaze falls upon the block window—a treasure trove of possibilities. Within its confines, we find the tools to shape light, to breathe life into our LED canvas. Among the offerings, we discern the RGB LED block—an ambassador of illumination. With a deft hand, we pluck this block from the window and place it upon our digital canvas, as depicted in Figure 9-2.

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Figure 9-2.  Set the brightness of RGB LED With the RGB LED block on our virtual stage, a choice presents itself— the selection of pins to which the colors of our LED are tethered. This decision, akin to selecting a palette, defines the avenues through which light will flow. Figure 9-2 serves as our guide, demonstrating the selection of pins 9, 10, and 11—a trinity of possibility that beckons us to unveil the RGB LED’s true potential. As our brush meets canvas, a new dimension unfurls—a palette of colors bathed in a gradient of luminosity. In Figure 9-3, a color bar emerges—an embodiment of choice and expression. With a simple click, a world of hues unfolds before us. By selecting a hue—let’s say the passionate embrace of red—we set the stage for a captivating transformation. The RGB LED, ever obedient to our commands, responds by adjusting the brightness of each LED diode, crafting a symphony of crimson luminosity.

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Figure 9-3.  Selecting color from the color bar The culmination of our creative endeavor comes to fruition in Figure 9-4. Here, the LED, once radiant with red, undergoes a metamorphosis into a new hue—a testament to the fluidity of artistic expression through code. With the ease of selecting a color, we have painted our digital canvas anew, and in this transformation, we find a reflection of our creative spirit.

Figure 9-4.  Change the color of RGB LED

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In this journey, the blocks become our tools, the canvas becomes our LED, and code becomes our artistry. The process of selection and arrangement, guided by the intuitive interface, transforms the abstract into the tangible. Through a sequence of clicks and choices, we have witnessed the dawn of a new era—an era where colors and light intertwine, where creativity and technology converge in a symphony of vibrant illumination. In conclusion, the narrative woven through the process of code selection and execution showcases the remarkable synergy between creativity and technology. The blocks, those building blocks of expression, empower us to transform the mundane into the extraordinary. The LED, a canvas of light, becomes an instrument of our imagination. As we journey from selection to execution, we unveil a tapestry where the virtual and the tangible intersect—an artful dance where code illuminates our vision. Within the realm of Figure 9-5, a textual tableau unfolds, revealing the inner workings of a symphony of light and shadow, guided by the subtle nuances of PWM (Pulse Width Modulation). This narrative beckons us to embark on an exploration of how the brightness of our LED can be harnessed and manipulated to paint an enchanting canvas of luminosity. As the curtain rises, we are greeted by the resonance of the PWM pins of our Arduino—three digital emissaries designated to partake in the art of illumination. These pins, adorned in the role of outputs, stand ready to transmit the painterly strokes of analog voltages that will transform our LED’s brilliance. The maestro of this luminous opera is the “analogWrite” command— an instrument through which Arduino weaves its magic. This command, akin to a conductor’s baton, orchestrates the transmission of PWM signals to the designated output pins. These PWM signals, reminiscent of ethereal waves, carry values that stretch along a spectrum from 0 to 255—a familiar territory discussed in earlier chapters.

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In this spectrum, each value is a unique brushstroke, an artistic interpretation of intensity. As the command beckons, a dance of voltages commences, delicately modulating the width of the pulses, thereby altering the brightness of our LED. This modulation encapsulates the very essence of artistic expression—a gradation from dark to light, from subtle to intense. The canvas that unfurls is not a static one, but a tapestry of infinite potential. By selecting values within this 0-to-255 range, a world of possibilities opens. Each value crafts a distinct lighting effect—a story of luminosity that resonates with the human touch. The lower values cloak the LED in a gentle glow, a whisper of radiance. As values ascend, the LED’s brilliance swells, casting a radiant glow that bathes the surroundings in an aura of light. In this symphony of values, the LED transcends its binary nature, evolving into an instrument of emotion and ambiance. It becomes a storyteller, whispering narratives of brightness, creating moods that resonate with the creator’s intention. The analogWrite command, a sorcerer’s wand, not only conjures light but transforms it into an entity that communicates, evokes, and enchants. In conclusion, Figure 9-5’s textual tableau opens a window into the realm of creative illumination. Through the manipulation of PWM signals, a language of light emerges—a language that speaks to the artist’s soul. The PWM pins, the conduits of artistic intent, wield the power to translate numerical values into an ever-changing spectrum of luminosity. This exploration redefines the LED as more than a mere component—it is an instrument of expression, a testament to the marriage of technology and imagination.

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Figure 9-5.  Text block to adjust RGB LED brightness In this captivating narrative of control and creativity, a new dimension unfurls as we relinquish the reins of color manipulation to the gentle touch of potentiometers. The stage is set for a more tactile experience, one where the act of varying a knob imparts life to the luminous ballet of the RGB LED, casting a unique enchantment upon its canvas. As we transition into this realm of hands-on control, the embodiment of our intent takes the form of three potentiometers—each a sentinel of artistic expression. Their strategic placement within the circuit marks a pivotal juncture, their essence woven into the fabric of Figure 9-6. These potentiometers, with their fixed ends tethered to the nurturing embrace of power rails—5V and ground—create a bridge between potential and reality. The potentiometers’ wipers, guided by human touch, extend their tactile fingertips to the analog pins of the Arduino. This connection, akin to a spiritual bond, renders the potentiometers as interpreters of intention, translating the fluid motions of human fingers into tangible analog signals. In this tactile symphony, each potentiometer embraces a diode of the RGB LED, poised to bestow upon it a unique aura of brightness. The act of varying the knob, once an action of subtle manipulation, now becomes an instrument of artistic expression. A delicate turn sets in motion a wave of change, a transformation that infuses the LED with varying degrees of luminosity. 154

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The result is a collective masterpiece—a tableau of light and color where each diode dances with its own intensity, weaving a visual tapestry that transcends binary existence. The potentiometers, though diminutive in size, wield immense power, allowing individuals to paint with light and dance with hues, creating a symphony of illumination that resonates with the artist’s touch. In this narrative, the potentiometers emerge as conduits between the ethereal and the corporeal. Their tactile embrace bridges the gap between intention and execution, allowing mere mortals to sculpt light and craft color. The dance of technology and artistry transforms the simple act of knob-turning into a voyage of discovery, where innovation and imagination meld seamlessly. In conclusion, the integration of potentiometers into the RGB LED landscape opens a realm of infinite possibility. Through the touch of a finger, a new dimension of artistic expression is unlocked—a realm where illumination is a canvas and color is the brushstroke. Figure 9-6 serves as a visual testament to this synergy, a moment frozen in time where technology and creativity meld to create a luminous narrative that is both captivating and personal.

Figure 9-6.  Connect potentiometers to analog pins of Arduino 155

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In this captivating chapter of interaction, we venture forth to imbue the RGB LED with the hues of our choice, crafting a symphony of colors through the harmonious dance of potentiometers. Our objective is clear: we shall orchestrate the convergence of technology and creativity by harnessing the analog values from three potentiometers to imbue life into the RGB LED’s vivid canvas. As our journey unfolds, the ensemble of variables emerges as a cornerstone. Like attentive scribes, we summon three variables from the ethereal realm of code to earthly existence. These digital vessels, named sensorValue1, sensorValue2, and sensorValue3, stand poised to encapsulate the analog values emanating from the trio of potentiometers. With variables at the ready, the stage is set for the grand entry of the “set” blocks, each bearing the promise of aligning the variables with their analog counterparts. These blocks, like diligent messengers, facilitate the seamless transmission of data. With precision akin to a maestro’s conducting, we bestow the honor of capturing sensor values upon sensorValue1, sensorValue2, and sensorValue3 through their designated “set” blocks. The saga continues with the “read analog pin” block, a sentinel of interactivity that liaises between the digital realm and the tactile touch of human hands. This block, when summoned from the repository of input components, unfurls its abilities by bridging the gap between code and the potentiometers. With nimble fingers, we allocate A0, A1, and A2 to serve as conduits for the analog values of sensorValue1, sensorValue2, and sensorValue3, respectively, as elegantly portrayed in the visual tapestry of Figure 9-7. In this intricate ballet, each element plays its part. The variables, like guardians of data, nurture the numerical essence of analog signals. The “set” blocks, obedient to their programming, channel this data into the realm of code. The “read analog pin” block, a bridge spanning two worlds, communes with the potentiometers to retrieve their analog interpretations.

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In summary, the symphony commences, harmonizing the ethereal with the tangible, the digital with the sensory. With potentiometers as our muses and code as our conductor, we embark on a journey where the hues of the RGB LED become an extension of our creativity. The potentiometers, guided by human touch, guide the analog values. The variables, those digital sentinels, house the soul of the data. And as the “set” and “read analog pin” blocks come together, a poetic exchange unfolds, giving life to a tale where technology and artistry coalesce in a dance of colors that resonate beyond the boundaries of the screen.

Figure 9-7.  Block Coding: Using blocks instead of writing lines of code What unfolds within this intricate tapestry of code and interaction is a masterful choreography of data and light, where each step and command contributes to an orchestrated symphony of visual display. In the realm of Figure 9-8, the code’s elegance comes to life as it guides us through the dance of the potentiometers and RGB LED. As the narrative continues to unfold, the intricacies of the process are revealed. It’s as if the code has become a storyteller, weaving together the movements of analog values and the luminous response of the RGB LED. It begins with the first potentiometer, the sentinel of A0, where sensorValue1 157

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is conceived. With a gracious gesture, this value is transmitted to the red leg of the LED, found at pin 11. The LED responds, painting the canvas with a hue corresponding to the sensorValue1. The tale then transitions to the second protagonist, the potentiometer overseeing A1. Its role is equally crucial, culminating in the birth of sensorValue2. This value, a sentinel of green luminosity, journeys forth to find its purpose at pin 9, the green haven of the RGB LED. Here, light intertwines with data, giving birth to shades that transcend the binary world. The third potentiometer enters the stage, following the footsteps of its counterparts. A0 and A1 have paved the way, and now it is A2’s turn. Its analog value is cast into the limelight as sensorValue3. Guided by the code’s instructions, this value embarks on a transformative journey, illuminating the RGB LED’s blue domain at pin 10. The culmination of this intricate ballet unfolds within the realm of simulation. Figure 9-8, a window into this ballet’s performance, captures moments frozen in time. The positions of the potentiometer knobs, each a fingerprint of human interaction, are preserved for inspection. The RGB LED, a silent protagonist in this narrative, dons varying robes of light. The display is a testament to the harmony achieved between code and hardware. In the following acts, Figures 9-9, 9-10, and 9-11 cast primary colors— green, blue, and red—into the spotlight. These colors, the building blocks of a vibrant spectrum, become the canvas upon which potentiometer manipulation paints vivid tales. With knobs strategically positioned, each potentiometer unfurls a specific hue upon the RGB LED, invoking emotions and memories that colors evoke. In this symphony of interaction, the code assumes the role of a conductor, orchestrating the harmony between sensor values and color presentation. The potentiometers, those humble interpreters of human intention, guide this dance with graceful precision. And the RGB LED, a willing canvas, absorbs these instructions and emanates light that dances beyond the bounds of digital existence. 158

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In closing, what emerges from this narrative is a testament to the fusion of art and technology. The code, a canvas for human intent, transforms the mundane into the extraordinary. The potentiometers, symbols of tactile interaction, become conduits for creative expression. And the RGB LED, a luminary performer, captivates our senses with its luminous ballet. Through Figures 9-8 to 9-11, a story unfolds—a story of synergy, creativity, and the boundless potential of the marriage between code and the tangible world. Figure 9-11 shows how the primary color, red, can be displayed on RGB LED, which means by keeping two potentiometers at 0 positions varying the knob of the red pin potentiometer will result in the display of red color.

Figure 9-8.  Varying the knob of potentiometer, different lighting effects are observed

Figure 9-9.  Just vary the respective potentiometer of green light results in display of green light

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Figure 9-10.  Just vary the respective potentiometer of blue light results in display of blue light

Figure 9-11.  Just vary the respective potentiometer of red light results in display of red light Illustrated in Figure 9-12, the visual representation of the code materializes the art of orchestrating blocks to orchestrate the luminous dance of an RGB LED under the watchful guidance of a potentiometer. This code exudes a harmonious synchronization between virtual elements and the tangible realm, a symphony orchestrated by meticulous variables and deliberate commands. At its inception, the code bestows definition upon three vital variables. These vessels, named as vessels of analog input, are designed to encapsulate the analog values emanating from the hallowed trinity of

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analog pins: A0, A1, and A2. These pins, like receptive senses, interpret the nuances of the surrounding environment, capturing analog signals that ultimately mold the behavior of our RGB LED. The act of defining pin modes echoes the allocation of roles within a theatrical ensemble. As the curtain rises, the analog pins, aptly poised to interpret the world’s subtle language, are cast into roles of humble observers. Configured as inputs, they await their cues, ready to engage in a dialogue with the surrounding variables. In contrast, the digital pins, electrified with potential, assume the roles of protagonists. Cast as outputs, they bear the responsibility of painting the RGB LED’s canvas with vivid hues. In the symphonic crescendo of code execution, analog values emerge as the conduits of information, flowing into their designated variables. Each variable becomes a chalice, cradling the essence of the analog world it represents. The potency of these variables lies in their ability to encapsulate reality, transforming physical phenomena into digital form. The “analogWrite” command stands as the conductor’s baton, orchestrating a choreography of voltages. As the digital pins, numbered 9, 10, and 11, respond to this command, they imbibe the values encapsulated within the variables. These values serve as instructions, dictating the intensity of the light each diode emits. The result is an enchanting display of luminosity, where the RGB LED emerges as a canvas, painted stroke by stroke with the hues stored within the variables’ depths. In conclusion, the journey through Figure 9-12 unravels a narrative of integration. It is a tale where code bridges the realms of the digital and the analog, and where variables serve as vessels of understanding. The code weaves a tapestry of communication between pins and LEDs, casting a spotlight on the potential for artistic expression through technology. It is within this digital choreography that the RGB LED and the potentiometer dance in unison, each movement guided by the elegantly orchestrated sequence of commands and variables.

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Figure 9-12.  Text Window to control RGB brightness by using potentiometers

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Arduino Serial Monitor A serial monitor, a cornerstone tool within the Arduino Integrated Development Environment (IDE), emerges as an indispensable asset in the realm of Arduino programming. This dynamic tool not only serves as a conduit for debugging but also facilitates vital communication with the Arduino board itself. The profound impact of the serial monitor becomes especially apparent when considering its ability to grant us real-time access to the stream of data exchanged between the Arduino and its environment. This real-time insight stands as a formidable aid in untangling the intricate threads of code-related challenges and anomalies. The beauty of the serial monitor lies in its dual nature. It is both a window into the inner workings of the program and a mechanism to communicate with the Arduino in a tangible way. By observing the data transmitted to and from the Arduino, developers and programmers can embark on a journey of discovery, tracking the flow of information and scrutinizing its behavior. This level of insight transforms the often cryptic world of programming into a realm of transparency and comprehension. One of the most compelling applications of the serial monitor is its prowess in the realm of troubleshooting. When coding projects encounter roadblocks, the serial monitor becomes a beacon of light, guiding developers toward the source of the issue. The capability to observe the flow of data in real-time enables swift identification of glitches and anomalies. Thus, what may have seemed like an insurmountable puzzle is demystified through the lens of the serial monitor’s live feedback.

© Ashraf Said Ahmad AlMadhoun 2023 A. S. A. AlMadhoun, Circuit Design and Simulation Quick Start Guide, Maker Innovations Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-9582-3_10

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At the heart of this interaction lies the visualization of variable changes. This becomes especially potent when examining the manipulation of variables within a circuit, as depicted in Figure 10-1. In this case, a circuit comprising an Arduino and a potentiometer is presented. The objective at hand is to translate the knob rotation of the potentiometer into a discernible display of its resistance on the serial monitor. This engagement between tangible manipulation and digital visualization exemplifies the power of the serial monitor as a bridge between the virtual and the physical.

Figure 10-1.  Arduino read the analog value of a potentiometer In essence, the serial monitor transcends its role as a mere debugging tool. It evolves into a co-pilot in the intricate journey of Arduino programming, providing insights, feedback, and clarity at every step. This synergy between human intuition, physical interaction, and real-time data feedback showcases the intersection of technology and understanding, encapsulating the essence of the Arduino ethos: a platform that empowers creativity and exploration through seamless interaction with the digital and material realms.

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Exploring the intricacies of utilizing the code blocks editor in conjunction with an Arduino input pin brings us to a captivating endeavor. Our primary objective is to establish a seamless connection between the Arduino’s input pin and the subsequent display of resistance values within the serial monitor window. The first step in this journey involves employing the code blocks editor to create a responsive mechanism that listens to the fluctuations of an Arduino input pin. This input pin becomes the window through which external information is funneled into our programming environment. As an embodiment of interactivity, this mechanism heralds a new realm of possibilities in code manipulation and understanding. Directing our attention to the serial monitor window, it becomes apparent that its location in the lower segment of the workspace, as depicted in Figure 10-2, serves as a crucial interface. This interface becomes the conduit through which information is relayed from the programming environment to the user. However, as we initiate the simulation, an intriguing observation comes to light: an initial lack of visible output within the serial monitor. This dearth of output serves as an impetus to delve deeper into the intricacies of the system. To remedy this situation and bestow visibility upon our endeavor, the introduction of an essential code block comes into play. Drawing from the reservoir of output-related blocks, the “print serial monitor” block is harnessed, as exemplified in Figure 10-2. This block acts as the catalyst that transforms the latent potential of our program into tangible output, ready for observation and analysis.

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Figure 10-2.  In the bottom, the tab of serial monitor is shown

Figure 10-3.  Block to print on serial monitor 166

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With the strategic placement of the “print serial monitor” block, our simulation embarks on a new phase. Upon initiating the simulation, a transformation unfolds within the serial monitor window. What was once a static “hello world” metamorphoses into a dynamic tapestry of data. Each iteration of the simulation presents an opportunity to witness the responsive interaction between the Arduino input pin and the subsequent display of resistance values. In essence, this immersive experience encapsulates the dynamic interplay between hardware and software. The code, a manifestation of logic and instructions, synergizes with the physical world through the input pin. The ensuing visual feedback, projected onto the serial monitor window, completes the circuit of interaction, transforming the virtual into the tangible. This exploration not only enriches our understanding of code execution and hardware integration but also highlights the role of visual aids in comprehending complex systems. The serial monitor, once a silent observer, becomes a vital medium of communication, bridging the gap between the abstract and the concrete. In conclusion, the journey to extract resistance values from an Arduino input pin and display them within the serial monitor window is an exhilarating odyssey. The symbiotic dance between input and output, the orchestration of code blocks, and the transformation of virtual interactions into real-world observations collectively compose a symphony of technological exploration. This journey underscores the potential of interactive learning environments to nurture a profound understanding of coding, electronics, and their harmonious fusion. To elaborate further on this topic, let’s delve into the process of incorporating the analog potentiometer value into the code and visualizing its effects through the serial monitor. In order to achieve this, we introduce a novel variable known as “sensor value” within the code block. This variable becomes the conduit through which the analog potentiometer’s value is transmitted and subsequently displayed. 167

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Taking a step-by-step approach, we begin by seamlessly integrating the “set sensor value” block into the workspace. This foundational step establishes the connection between the analog potentiometer and the code’s logic. Next, the variable “sensor value” is seamlessly integrated into the code, serving as the bridge that links the measured analog input to the ensuing output. With the groundwork laid, the previously static “hello world” output within the “print to serial monitor” block now metamorphoses into a dynamic representation of the analog potentiometer’s value. This transformation is illustrated in Figure 10-4, where the amalgamation of the “sensor value” variable and the “print to serial monitor” block showcases a new dimension of interactivity. The serial monitor then becomes a canvas upon which the changing ADC (Analog-to-Digital Converter) values of the potentiometer are painted. In the immersive environment of simulation, as the potentiometer’s knob is manipulated toward both extremes, a symphony of changing values unfolds. The ADC value, which ranges from 0 to 1023 due to the inherent 10-bit resolution, is unveiled in Figures 10-5, 10-6, and 10-7. These graphical representations elegantly capture the transition of the potentiometer’s state and its corresponding ADC value, thus providing a tangible visualization of the underlying mechanics. Remarkably, this simulation also underscores a valuable insight: the ADC value’s upper limit is indeed 1023, reaffirming the precision of the ­10-­bit ADC resolution. This observation reaffirms the technical aspect of the system, bolstering the reader’s understanding of the inner workings.

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Figure 10-4.  Define variable to print its value on serial monitor Interestingly, Figure 10-7 introduces a novel facet into the narrative. The duplication of the “print to serial monitor” block, with its accompanying alteration of content to “000000,” showcases a concept that extends beyond the confines of mere programming. This technique, akin to commenting, offers a concise yet effective method of communicating insights to other programmers or readers. By appending descriptive text, the output is endowed with context, thus acting as an interpretive layer that enriches the reader’s comprehension. In summary, the journey from the analog potentiometer’s value to its manifestation on the serial monitor is a multifaceted expedition. The integration of the “sensor value” variable, the dynamic transformation of the output block, and the captivating visualization of changing ADC values through figures all contribute to an enriched understanding of the interplay between hardware and code. This holistic exploration serves as a testament to the power of interactive learning and underscores the versatility of programming as a medium of expression and communication.

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Figure 10-5.  As potentiometer is at zero position, the serial monitor is showing 0 value

Figure 10-6.  Serial monitor is showing ADC value of potentiometer w.r.t the current positon of knob

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Figure 10-7.  Potentiometer knob is at maximum value, serial is showing maximum value of ADC, as well as 000000 is printed on serial monitor

 onclusion: Navigating the Circuit C Design Odyssey Our voyage through the captivating world of circuit design and simulation comes to a close, but it’s not an end; it’s a new beginning. The odyssey we’ve embarked upon has not only equipped us with practical skills but also ignited a spark of creativity and innovation that will continue to illuminate our path in the realm of electronics. In this book, we’ve explored the intricacies of circuitry, from the humble resistor’s role in controlling current to the complex interplay of digital logic gates that drive modern technology. But our journey doesn’t end with understanding the theory; it extends into the realm of real-world applications where our newfound knowledge can spark transformative change. The beauty of circuit design lies in its versatility and applicability across a multitude of industries. Imagine breathing life into a robotic arm that performs intricate surgical procedures with precision, powered by 171

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the very circuits you’ve come to master. Visualize autonomous vehicles navigating bustling streets, interpreting sensor data to make split-second decisions, thanks to the foundation of circuit design principles. Consider renewable energy systems harnessing the power of the sun and wind, converting photons and air currents into usable electricity through circuits you’ve designed. Envision smart homes responding intuitively to occupants’ needs, illuminating rooms, adjusting temperatures, and securing premises, all orchestrated by the circuits you’ve learned to craft. But the impact of circuit design isn’t limited to grand innovations alone; it extends to everyday conveniences. The smartphone that connects us to the world relies on intricately designed circuits that transmit signals and process data. The touch-sensitive interface we interact with daily hinges on capacitive sensors you now comprehend. Even the LED lights that brighten our lives owe their luminance to the pulse width modulation concepts you’ve grasped. As you venture into the world beyond these pages, remember that your journey is boundless. Apply your circuit design prowess to hobbies, unleashing your imagination to create LED art installations that dance to music or crafting wearable gadgets that meld technology with fashion. Prototype and iterate on your ideas, knowing that circuit simulation offers a playground where mistakes are stepping stones to excellence. Collaboration and community play vital roles in this realm. Engage with fellow enthusiasts, join maker spaces, and participate in hackathons to exchange ideas and perspectives. Share your journey on online platforms, inspiring others and gaining insights that foster growth. This book has merely been a gateway, a key to unlocking a universe of creativity and innovation. The circuits you design today could revolutionize industries tomorrow, and the concepts you’ve grasped will continue to evolve with technology’s rapid pace.

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In closing, embrace circuit design and simulation as tools that empower you to reshape the world. Cherish the thrill of creation, the wonder of innovation, and the satisfaction of bringing ideas to life. Continue to learn, experiment, and stretch your limits, for the world of electronics beckons, waiting for your unique imprint. As you journey forth, remember that every circuit has a story to tell, every connection has a purpose, and every innovation has the potential to shape a brighter, more electrifying future. The path ahead is rich with opportunities—embrace them, pioneer them, and let your circuits light the way. Happy designing!

E xploring Boundless Horizons: Beyond Circuit Design and Simulation Congratulations on completing your journey through the captivating world of circuit design and simulation! Armed with knowledge and practical skills, you’re now equipped to explore a myriad of exciting possibilities that extend far beyond the confines of this book’s pages. Here, we unveil the vast tapestry of opportunities that await you in the realm of electronics and innovation. 1. Prototyping and Invention: With circuit design as your foundation, you have the power to transform your wildest ideas into tangible prototypes. Whether it’s a smart wearable, a home automation system, or a novel gadget, you can use circuit design and simulation tools to bring your visions to life. Experiment, iterate, and refine your creations until they reflect your original concept.

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2. Electronics Hobbies: Dive into the realm of electronics hobbies, where your newfound skills can shine. Explore the intricate art of building audio amplifiers, designing custom digital clocks, constructing mini drones, and even crafting musical instruments. The journey of building these projects offers both satisfaction and a continuous learning experience. 3. Robotics and Automation: Unleash your inner engineer by delving into robotics and automation. Design and build robotic systems that can navigate mazes, perform tasks, or mimic human movements. Combining your circuitry knowledge with programming skills will allow you to create robots that interact with their environment intelligently. 4. Internet of Things (IoT): Join the revolution of interconnected devices in the Internet of Things era. Craft smart devices that communicate with each other and with the cloud. Monitor your home security system remotely, control appliances through your smartphone, or create sensor networks for environmental data collection—all using your circuit design expertise. 5. Renewable Energy Solutions: Contribute to sustainable living by designing circuits that harness renewable energy sources. Construct solar-­powered chargers for your devices, design

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wind turbine control systems, or create energyefficient lighting solutions. Your circuits can play a crucial role in reducing carbon footprints and promoting eco-friendly practices. 6. Education and Teaching: Pass on the knowledge you’ve gained by becoming an educator in electronics and circuitry. Inspire future generations to explore the world of circuits through workshops, tutorials, and online courses. Your ability to simplify complex concepts will make learning a captivating adventure for others. 7. Entrepreneurship: Forge your path as an electronics entrepreneur. Identify gaps in the market and develop innovative products that solve real-world problems. From wearable fitness trackers to smart home devices, your circuit design expertise can lay the foundation for a successful startup venture. 8. Research and Innovation: Push the boundaries of knowledge by engaging in research and innovation. Collaborate with interdisciplinary teams to develop cutting-edge technologies that impact fields such as healthcare, telecommunications, and transportation. Your circuits could contribute to groundbreaking discoveries.

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Arduino Serial Monitor

9. Open Source Community: Participate in the vibrant open-source community, where enthusiasts from around the world collaborate on projects that range from basic to highly advanced. Contribute your designs, share your insights, and benefit from the collective wisdom of fellow makers and designers. 10. Lifelong Learning: Remember that the world of electronics is ever-­ evolving. Continue to expand your horizons by staying updated on the latest technologies, tools, and methodologies. Explore advanced topics such as FPGA programming, signal processing, and wireless communication to further enhance your skill set. As you venture into these realms, keep in mind that every challenge you face is an opportunity to learn and grow. Embrace the process of experimentation, accept failure as a stepping stone, and celebrate your successes as milestones of your journey. The path ahead is as diverse as your imagination, and your circuit design knowledge is the compass that guides you toward endless exploration and innovation. The world is your canvas—let your circuits paint the future.

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Index A Adaptive cruise control, 53 ADC, see Analog-to-digital converter (ADC) Address retrieval and connection, 16 Advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS), 53 Aerospace and defense, 54 Aerospace applications for flight control, 54 Agriculture, 55 Airbag deployment, 53 Air quality, 55 Algebraic Logic Unit (ALU), 17, 27, 29, 30 Ammeter, 98, 101, 102 Analog pins of Arduino, 139, 155 Analog-to-digital converter (ADC), 138–140, 168 analogWrite command, 125, 126, 153, 161 Anti-lock braking systems (ABS), 53 Arcade machines, 54 Arduino, 55 analog pins, 154, 155 board, 126 exercises, 128

exploration, 143 IDE, 111 Arduino Analog output, fading LED, 117–127 Arduino digital output algorithm board, 110 breadboard, 112 circuit, 113 code, 108 connect LED with, 108 creativity and technology, 115 LED control, 107 multiple LEDs and breadboard, 113 simulation, 109 text for coding, 110 void setup, 114, 115 Arduino input basics abstract phenomena, 138 analog input, 137–142, 144 circuit’s harmony, 134 code blocks, 129 coding with intent and purpose, 135 intention and execution, 137 LED with digital pin, 132 mechanical systems, 145

© Ashraf Said Ahmad AlMadhoun 2023 A. S. A. AlMadhoun, Circuit Design and Simulation Quick Start Guide, Maker Innovations Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-9582-3

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INDEX

Arduino input basics (cont.) physical sensors and digital command, 138 pull-down resistors, 133, 134 push button, 135 push button’s union with circuitry, 131 technological narratives, 130 Arduino programming, 77, 163, 164 Arduino serial monitor circuit design odyssey, 171–173 resistance values, 167 virtual interactions, 167 Arithmetic logic units (ALUs), 5, 10 Artificial Intelligence, 26 Automation, 9, 10, 23, 25, 51–54, 129, 174 Automotive systems, 2, 53 Avionics, 54

B Basic interface, 69 Battery and Breadboard Tango, 78 breadboard, 87 motor, 81 motor and photo-resistor, 81 positive and negative terminals, 88 Biometric authentication devices, 55 Biometrics and security, 55 Bluetooth headphones, 54 178

Breadboard alphabets/numbers, 88 battery, 87 full-sized, 87 LED, 112–116 RGB LED, 89 with + and–power rails, 87 types, 86 Brightness, 64, 77, 121 BUS, 18, 20 buttonState, 135

C Cameras and surveillance systems, 24 Central processing unit (CPU), 5–7, 9, 13, 14, 19 Choreography of arrangement, 79 Circuit arrangements, 82 definition, 58 design, 74, 173–176 design odyssey, 171–173 elements, 79, 95 Ensemble, 72 exploration, 78 simulations, 57, 60 Clock circuit for synchronization, 5 Code blocks editor, 165 Code density, 45 Coding and circuitry, 77 Color-coded dance, 78

INDEX

Comma-Separated Values (CSV) file, 65, 66 Communication systems, 54 Complete circuit, 80, 94 Complex Instruction Set Computer (CISC) architecture for Microcontroller, 42–44 advantages, 45, 46 hardware complexity and software efficiency, 46 Component manual, 63–65 Component’s potential, 76 Computational complexity, 4 Computational elegance, 28, 50 Computational entity, 6 Computational power, 4, 31 Computational symphony, 18 Consumer electronics, 53 Control and monitoring devices, 20, 22–24 Control devices, 21, 23 Control systems, 145 Crop health, 55 Customization, 74

D Data acquisition, 145 Data and application storage and retrieval, 35 Data collection, 54, 174 Data exchange between devices and applications, 22 Data extraction and transmission, 17

Data loggers, 24 Data manipulation, 27, 30, 46, 66 Data memory, 40 Data repository and retrieval, 19 Data security, 22 Data sharing, 25 Design and verification complexity, 46 Digital circuits, 133 Digital computing, 8 Digital ecosystem, 60 Digital Input, 130, 131, 133 Digital logic circuits, 133 Digital logic gates, 171 Digital maestros, 2 Digital narratives, 135 Digital sentinels, 157 Digital signal processors (DSPs), 41 Digital signals, 115, 125, 126 Digital vessels, 156 digitalWrite, 114, 115 digitalWrite(LED_BUILTIN, HIGH), 110 digitalWrite(LED_BUILTIN, LOW), 110 Distinction, 4, 8, 11, 29, 36

E EAGLE.BRD format, 63 EAGLE software, 61 Edge Computing, 26 Edit Canvas, 70 Editing components, 71 179

INDEX

Educational Tools, 55 Electrical noise, 134 Electronic metamorphosis, 122 Electronic signals, 73 Embedded controller, 3, 4 Embedded microcontrollers, 32, 33 Embedded systems, 41, 53 Energy management systems, 54 Energy utilization, 54 Entertainment and Gaming, 54 Entrepreneurship, 175 Environmental monitoring devices, 21 Environmental monitoring systems, 55 Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EPROM), 7 Evolution of microcontroller technology, 28 Experimentation, 76, 176 Exporting Design in EAGLE.BRD Format, 62 External memory microcontroller, 34, 35

F Facial recognition systems, 55 Fading LED, 117–127 Fingerprint scanners, 55 5G connectivity, 26

G Gaming consoles, 54 180

H Handheld gaming devices, 54 Hardware complexity of CISC architectures, 46 Hardware components, 3, 45 Hardware Emphasis, 45 Harmonizing aesthetics with function, 74 Harvard architecture, 35, 36, 39, 40, 42 memory access, 41 predictable timing, 41 Harvard architecture system, 40 Higher-level abstractions, 45 High-stakes systems, 4 Home automation, 54, 173 Home monitoring systems, 51

I, J, K Industrial automation, 9, 21, 53 Informational portal, 62 Information transmission, 18 Infotainment systems, 53 Input/output (I/O) capabilities, 7 Instruction Decode and Control Unit, 5 Instruction decoding, 14 Instruction decoding overhead, 46 Integrated Development Environment (IDE), 163 Integrated systems, 25 Integration, 22 Intel 8051, 8, 28

INDEX

Intel 8086/8088, 5 Intel 8096 series, 8, 29, 31, 44 Interconnected ecosystems, 25 Internet and exchange data, 53 Internet of Things (IoT), 22, 53, 174 Interoperability, 25 Intuitive user interfaces, 25

L Lane departure warning, 53 LED, 59–61, 75–77, 79, 80, 94 and battery cell, 98 and battery, 93, 98 binary signals, 117 blinking, 136 blinking control, 135 colors, 74 complete circuit, 94 damage, 93 in ethereal rhythms, 133 fading, 117, 119–128 modulation, 117 performance, 116 in perpetual brilliance, 137 and potentiometer, 140 and resistor, 95 series and parallel circuits, 97, 98, 105 tangible entity, 136 Lighting systems, 54 Low-power microcontrollers, 41

M Machine cycle, 14–16 Medical devices, 33, 54 Medical monitors, 24 Memory access modes, 44 Microchip, 5 Microcoding, 45 Microcomputer realm, 7 Microcontrollers, 1, 133 analog-to-digital converter (ADC), 138 applications, 51–55 architectural specifications, 35–37 architecture, 9 architecture and functionality, 9 capabilities, 2 compact integration, 8 computational requirements, 8 control processes, 8 data processing, 42 digital lives, 2 economic advantage, 8 8-bit microcontroller, 27, 28 embedded systems, 9 embedding intelligence, 2 energy-efficient characteristics, 4 external memory, 34, 35 input/output (I/O) operations, 8 input/output (I/O) ports, 9 instruction execution, 42 vs. microprocessor, 12, 13 peripherals, 2 181

INDEX

Microcontrollers (cont.) programming, 2 real-time responsiveness, 4 real-world application, 10 resource-efficient solution, 8 self-contained control solution, 7 16-bit microcontroller, 29, 30 skillful programming, 2 specialized entity, 9 specialized processors, 42 32-bit microcontroller, 30–32 touchscreens, 53 types, 26, 27 user interfaces, 53 versatility and adaptability, 55 visual articulation, 9 wireless communication, 53 Microprocessors, 2, 5 block diagram, 6 computers, 10 control units, and caches, 10 data processing, 10 laptops, 10 multitasking, 10 servers, 10 user experiences, 10 Modern control and monitoring devices, 22 Moment of activation, 76 Monitoring devices, 21, 22, 24–26 Motor controllers, 23 Motorola M683xx and Intel/Atmel 251 families, 31 182

Motorola MC68HC12 and MC68332 families, 29 Motorola’s MC68HC11 series, 28 Motor, photo-resistor, and four battery cells, 83

N Navigation systems, 53, 54

O Ohm’s law, 91–95, 105 On-chip resources, 3, 4 One-chip computer, 5 Opcode Lodging in the Instruction Register, 17

P, Q Parallel circuits, 97, 100–105 Peripheral hardware, 6 Personal computing, 10 Photo-resistor with its slider, 82 Pollution levels, 55 Portal to customization, 73 Potentiometer , 140, 154, 164, 165, 167, 168, 170, See also RGB LEDs analog pins, 155 analog values, 156 blue light, 160 commands and variables, 161 green light, 159

INDEX

lighting effects, 159 power rails, 154 red light, 160 sensorValue1, 157 sensorValue2, 158 symphony of illumination, 155 Power consumption, 4, 9, 46, 52 Power management, 53 Precision agriculture for monitoring soil conditions, 55 Princeton architecture, 35 Print serial monitor block, 166–168 Processing-intensive microprocessor instruction, 12 Program Counter (PC), 5, 16, 17 Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs), 21, 23 Programmable Read-Only Memory (PROM), 7 Program memory, 34, 40 Pulse width modulation (PWM), 126, 127, 148, 149, 152, 153

R Radar systems, 54 Random Access Memory (RAM), 7, 16, 38 Raspberry Pi, 55 Read activation, 16 Read-Only Memory (ROM), 7 READ Operation, 19

Red-Green-Blue (RGB) LightEmitting Diodes,147, See RGB LEDs Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC) architecture for microcontroller, 47–49 Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC) architectures, 44, 50 Reduced memory footprint, 45 Remote controls, 25, 54 Renewable energy systems, 54, 172, 174 Resistance brightness, 77 properties, 74, 76 sensor, 81 Resistor and LED, 95 Resistor’s enigmatic role, 77 Resistor’s prelude, 72 Resource management, 3 Resource usage and enhance crop yield, 55 Retinal scanners, 55 RGB LEDs analog pins of Arduino, 156 anticipation, 149 Arduino beckons, 149 artistic expression, 151 brightness, 150, 154 circuit, 90 color bar, 151 digital vessels, 156 luminary performer, 159 luminosity, 153 183

INDEX

RGB LEDs (cont.) pin modes, 161 potentiometers, 154, 155 PWM pins, 152 with PWM pins, 149 read analog pin, 156, 157 resistor on breadboard, 89 selection and arrangement, 152 Text Window, 162 transformation, 150 value crafts, 153 versatility, 147 visual representation, 160 Rich Instruction Set, 45 Robotics, 52 RPM, 82

S Satellite communication, 54 Security cameras, 54 Sensor monitoring, 145 Sensors, 24 sensorValue3, 156, 158 Separate memory spaces, 40 Serial monitor , 163, See also Arduino serial monitor circuit design and simulation, 173–176 code blocks editor, 165 debugging tool, 164 developers and programmers, 163 dual nature, 163 184

electronics and innovation, 173–176 print serial monitor, 165, 166, 168 step-by-step approach, 168 troubleshooting, 163 variable definition, 169 visualization, 164 window, 165 Series circuits, 97–99, 101, 103, 104 Simulated circuit landscape, 59 Simulation process, 57, 59, 76 Smart locks, 54 Solar inverters, 54 Specific Instruction Set Computer (SISC) architecture for microcontroller, 50, 51 Symbiosis, 11 Symphony of visual display, 157

T Thermostats, 10, 23, 53 Tinkercad circuit, 58, 59 circuit simulation capabilities, 57 library icon, 111 Traditional computing, 4 Traffic light system, 72

U Usability, 25

INDEX

V Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs), 23 Variable-Length Instructions, CISC, 45 VCRs, 10, 51 Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) chip, 5 Virtual design, 80 Voice-controlled assistants, 54 Voltmeter, 98, 102, 103 Von Neumann and Harvard architectures, 36, 37 Von Neumann architecture, 36, 38, 39, 41

Von Neumann-based microcontrollers, 37–39

W, X, Y, Z Water quality, 55 Wearable fitness trackers, 22, 53, 175 Weather conditions, 55 Weather data, 55 Wind turbines, 54 Wireless speakers, 54 Wiring components, 78 WRITE operation, 19

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