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Cinema Beyond Film: Media Epistemology in the Modern Era
9089640835; 978-9089640833

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. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 h t t p :/ /s ite . e b ra ry .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m th e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 5 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 5 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 6 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 6 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 7 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 7 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

A c k n o w le d g m e n ts

T h e ed i t o r s ar e gr at ef u l t o T h o m as El saesser f o r m ak i n g t h i s p u b l i sh i n g p r o j ect p o ssi b l e, an d t h ey w an t t o em p h asi z e t h at t h e U n i v er si t y o f L au san n e ( U N I L ) , t h e Facu l t y o f H u m an i t i es o f U N I L an d t h e R eseau / N et w er k C i n em a C H co n t r i b u t ed t o t h e r eal i z at i o n o f t h i s p r oj ect . T h ey t h an k t oo t h e ed i t o r s at A U P, Jer o en So n d er v an an d Jaap W agen aar , f o r so l v i n g p r o b l em s o f an y sor t .

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 8 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 8 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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In tr o d u c tio n to an E p is te m o lo g y o f V ie w in g a n d L is te n in g D is p o s itiv e s

Fr ançois A l ber a and M ar i a Tort ajada

Fo r so m e y ear s n o w , sch o l ar s w o r k i n g i n t h e H i st o r y an d A est h et i cs o f t h e C i n em a D ep ar t m en t o f t h e U n i v er si t y o f L au san n e's Facu l t é d es L et t r es h av e b een act i v el y en gaged i n r esear ch an d t each i n g t h at st em s f r o m t h ei r b el i ef t h at , at t h e p r esen t m o m en t i n t i m e, o n e can n o l o n ger r est r i ct o n e's ap p r o ach t o ci n em a t o t h e n ar r o w f i el d an d sp eci f i c o b ject t h at w er e est ab l i sh ed i n t h e ear l y d ecad es o f t h e 20 t h cen t u r y, an d t h at cu l m i n at ed i n t h e sem i o t i cs ap p r o ach o f t h e 19 70 s. Par ad o x i cal l y en o u gh , t h i s ap o t h eo si s o ccu r r ed j u st as t h e m o d el t h at i n ci r ca 19 0 6 h ad r ef l ect ed t h e i n d ep en d en t an d sp eci f i c n at u r e o f ci n em at o g r ap h y an d t h e ci n em at o gr ap h i c i n st i t u t i o n w as cl ear l y b eco m i n g ob so l et e w i t h t h e m u l t i p l i cat i o n b o t h o f t h e m o d es o f cap t u r i n g f i l m ( f i r st v i d eo , t h en t h e D V D , co m p u t er s, m o b i l e t el ep h o n es, et c.) an d o f au d i o v i su al co m m u n i cat i o n su p p o r t sy s t em s an d m ed i a (i n p ar t i cu l ar t el evi si o n , an d m o r e r ecen t l y t h e I n t er n et ) . T h e 'r et u r n ' t o h i st o r y on t h e o n e h an d 1 an d t h e h i st o r i ci z i n g o f aest h et i cs o n t h e o t h er h an d - w i t h t h e l at t er t h er eb y b y p assi n g an essen t i al i st , o n t o l o gi cal ap p r o ach - ar e b ased o n a n ew ap p r o ach t o t h e ar ch i v e. T h ey al l o w t h e r e sear ch er t o w i d en t h e f i el d o f i n v est i gat i o n an d ex am i n e an ew t h e d i f f er en t q u est i o n s r el at ed t o ci n em at o gr ap h i c 'l an g u ag e' an d t h e p r o b l em at i cs o f r ep r e sen t at i o n — i .e., t h e p r act i ces an d t h eo r i es o f v i ew i n g an d l i st en i n g w h i ch d ev el o p ed d u r i n g t h e 19 t h cen t u r y an d w er e l i n k ed t o t h e r ap i d i n d u st r i al an d t ech n o l o gi cal d ev el o p m en t

o f w est er n

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i n st r u m en t s t h at co n d en ses a w h o l e ser i es o f d i st i n ct i v e ch ar act er i st i cs o f i n d u s t r i al an d t ech n o l o gi cal so ci et y ( ser i al i sat i o n , t h e d i v i si o n o f w o r k , m u l t i p l i ca t i on , m ech an i sat i o n , st an d ar d i sat i o n , sp eed , gl o b al i z at i o n , et c.) - w h er e a w h o l e ser i es o f q u est i o n s co n v er ges —f r o m t h e so ci al t o t h e p o l i t i cal , t h e m ed i cal t o t h e i d eo l o gi cal , t h e ar t i st i c t o t h e an t h r o p o l o gi cal , et c. Si n ce t h e m i d d l e o f l ast cen t u r y, i t can b e sai d t h at t h e f i el d h as b een b r o ad en ed b y t h e ar r i v al o f t h e 'm ass m ed i a' an d m ass co m m u n i cat i o n i n t h ei r r el at i o n t o n ew m ed i u m s an d m ed i a - t h e f o cu s h as m o v ed f r o m t el ev i si o n t o t h e I n t er n et , d i gi t al t ech n o l o gi es, an d f u r t h er b ey o n d , t o t h e i ssu e o f cl o n i n g. T h e k ey p o si t i o n t h at ci n em a o ccu p i ed i n t h e 19 50 s h as co n seq u en t l y b eco m e r el at i v i z ed , ev en t h o u gh i t s 'm o d el ' co n t i n u es t o o r gan i se m u ch o f t h e i m agi n at i o n i n t h e sh ap e o f t h e p r o ced u r es i n v o l v ed i n t h e m ean s o f co m m u n i cat i o n an d m ed i a r ep r esen t at i o n .

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 0 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 0 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

10

F r a n ç o is A lb e r a a n d M a r ia T o r ta ja d a

O n ce o n e i s aw ar e t h at t h e p ar ad i g m h as sh i f t ed , o n e can , co r r el at i v el y, t ak e a f r esh l o o k at t h e 'ci n em a' seq u en ce i t sel f an d ap p r o ach i t f r o m o t h er an gl es. Resear ch i n t o 'ear l y ci n em a' h as p av ed t h e w a y f o r t h i s r e- ex am i n at i o n b y h i g h l i gh t i n g i t s p r i m ar i l y h et er o gen eo u s asp ect s t h at b o t h t h e h i st o r y an d t h e aes t h et i cs o f l egi t i m at i o n h ad su p p r essed . T h ese t r ai t s h ad b een p ar t l y en v i sag ed i n cer t ai n l i n es o f r esear ch - i n cl u d i n g t h e n o w ad ay s d i sr eg ar d ed b u t i m p o r t an t w o r k o f t h e I n st i t u t de Fil m ol ogi e ( 19 4 7- 19 6 2) — w h i ch al l o w ed o n e i n p ar t i cu l ar t o m ak e a h eu r i st i c d i st i n ct i o n b et w een 'ci n em at i c f act ' an d 'f i l m i c f act ', w h i l e m ai n t ai n i n g a r est r i ct i v e m o d el o f t h e 'ci n em at i c'.2 I n t h e w ak e o f o u r co n t act s w i t h 'ear l y ci n em a' sp eci al i st s su ch as L au r en t M an n o n i , T o m G u n n i n g, A n d r é G au d r eau l t an d T h o m as El saesser , an d as a r esu l t o f o u r i n t er est i n n ew t h eo r i es st r ad d l i n g t h e h i st o r y o f ar t , p h o t o g r ap h y an d t h e m ean s o f co m m u n i cat i o n d ev el o p ed b y su ch sch o l ar s as Jo n at h an Cr ar y, Fr i ed r i ch A . K i t t l er , Ph i l i p p e H am o n an d St ef an A n d r i o p o u l o s, w e d eci d ed t o f o cu s o n an ep i st em o l o gi cal r ef l ect i o n o n t h ese q u est i o n s i n o r d er t o p r o d u ce a r ev i t al i sed co n cep t u al f r am ew o r k f o r o u r h i st o r i cal an d t h eor et i cal r esear ch , co v er i n g b o t h t h e h i st o r y o f ci n em a an d t h e aest h et i cs o f ci n em a an d i t s l an gu age. T h e f r am ew o r k t h at h as b een d ev el o p ed ar i ses o u t o f a h y p o t h esi s, t h e '19 0 0 ep i st em e', w h i ch ep i t o m i ses t h i s b o d y o f p h en o m en a, d i sco u r ses an d p r act i ces, m an y o f w h o se d i st i n ct i v e f eat u r es w er e i n co r p o r at ed i n t o 'ci n em a' o v er a p er i o d o f sev er al d ecad es. T h e f o u n d at i o n o f o u r r ef l ect i o n i s a r ed ef i n i t i o n o f t h e q u est i o n o f t h e 'd i sp o si t i v es', w h i ch can b e u sed t o co n st r u ct a sch em a t h at t h en b eco m es an i n st r u m en t o f r esear ch .

D is p o s itiv e , e p is te m o lo g y

W e sh al l n o w cl ar i f y t h e t w o k ey t er m s t h at w e u se: 'd i sp o si t i v e' an d 'ep i st em o l -

°gy'T h e t er m 'd i sp o si t i v e' h as co m e i n t o En gl i sh acad em i c d i sco u r se t h r o u gh t h e t r an sl at i o n o f w o r k s b y su ch sch o l ar s as M i ch el Fo u cau l t . T h e d i sp o si t i v e i s a n et w o r k o f r el at i o n s. T h e Fr en ch eq u i v al en t , 'd i sp o si t i f , w as o r i g i n al l y u sed i n l egal co n t ext s, an d t h en sp r ead t o i n cl u d e t h e i d ea o f d i sp o si t i o n , w h et h er o f t r o o p s o r i n t h e f i el d o f m ech an i cs. T h e w o r d i s so gr eat l y ex p l o i t ed i n Fr en ch t o d ay t h at so m e o f i t s o r i gi n al f o r ce h as b een d i l u t ed . I t m ay d esi gn at e an y t y p e o f t ech n i cal o r gan i sat i o n o r co n st r u ct i o n , o r an y ar r an gem en t , i n cl u d i n g w i t h h u m an act o r s, as l o n g as i t co r r el at es act an t i al p o si t i o n s an d r el at i o n s. I n Fr en ch , i t w as q u i ck l y t ak en i n t o t h e r eal m o f sci en t i f i c o r t ech n i cal ex p er i m en t s

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 11 h t t p :/ /s ite . e b ra ry .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 1 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

I n t r o d u c t i o n t o a n E p is t e m o lo g y o f V ie w in g a n d L is t e n in g D is p o s it iv e s

( w h er e o n e al so sp eak s o f ex p er i m en t al 'p r o t o co l s') an d i s w i d el y u sed i n co n t em p o r ar y ar t t o sp eak o f an 'i n st al l at i o n '. T h e n o t i o n o f d i sp o si t i v e i s o f p ar t i cu l ar i n t er est h er e as i t i n cl u d es ev er y t h i n g t h at i s l ai d o u t i n f r o n t o f t h e sp ect at o r , t o get h er w i t h al l t h e el em en t s t h at al l o w t h e r ep r esen t at i o n t o b e v i ew ed an d h ear d . T h e d i sp o si t i v e i n v o l v es b o t h t h e m ak i n g an d t h e sh o w i n g. T h e t er m i s u sed w h en o n e o r o t h er o f t h ese asp ect s i s ad d r essed , o n co n d i t i o n t h at i t i s co n si d er ed as a n et w o r k o f r el at i o n s b e t w een a sp ect at o r , t h e r ep r esen t at i o n an d t h e 'm ac h i n er y ' t h at al l o w s t h e sp ec t at o r t o h av e access t o t h e r ep r esen t at i o n (cf. 'T h e 19 0 0 Ep i st em e') . H o w ev er , t h e t ask o f r en ew i n g t h e h i st o r i o g r ap h y o f t h e ci n em a an d , m o r e gen er al l y , t h e au d i o v i su al d o m ai n v i a t h e n o t i o n o f d i sp o si t i v e i m p l i es co n st r u ct i n g a k n o w l ed g e ( savoi r ) t h at r ed u ces t h e co n cep t n ei t h er t o a st r i ct h i st o r i cal act u al i z at i o n n o r t o a cau sal gen eal o gy . I t i s i m p o r t an t t o st r ess t h at d i sp o si t i v es h av e b o t h a co n cr et e ex i st en ce — a ci n em a au d i t o r i u m act u al l y exi st s — an d a d i scu r si v e exi st en ce. Fo r ex am p l e, a p ar t i cu l ar p h o n o gr ap h i c p r act i ce m ay o n l y b e f o u n d i n d i sco u r se, e.g., i n l i t er ar y d i sco u r se. M o r eo v er , o u r l o n g- t er m ai m i s n ot t o d escr i b e t h e d i sp o si t i v es t h em sel v es, b u t t h e n et w o r k o f n o t i o n s, t h eo r i es, b el i ef s an d p r act i ces t h at ar e w o v en i n t o t h e d i sco u r ses d i r ect l y r el at ed t o t h e el em en t s o f t h e d i sp o si t i v es, w h i c h ar e t h em sel v es p u t i n r el at i o n w i t h i n t h ese d i sco u r ses. B y ap p r o ach i n g d i sp o si t i v es f r o m t h e an gl e o f d i sco u r ses, w e ar e ai m i n g t o co n st r u ct t h e co n d i t i o n s o f p o ssi b i l i t y o f t h e d i sp o si t i v es t h em sel v es as co n st i t u t ed k n o w l ed ge. Fo r M i ch el Fo u cau l t , t h e n o t i o n o f d i sp o si t i v e cam e t o b e i n cr easi n gl y asso ci at ed w i t h a st r at egi c p er sp ect i v e, an d t h en a p er sp ect i v e o f p o w er ; m o r eo v er , t h e t ech n o l o gi es o f co n t r o l (t h e k ey ex am p l e b ei n g t h e pan opt icon) d o n o t t h em sel v es d ef i n e t h e cat eg o r y o f disposit i ve, w h i ch i s w i d er , i .e., t h e d i sci p l i n ar y r e gi m e o r sexu al i t y. I n o t h er w o r d s, f r o m Fo u cau l t 's p o i n t o f v i ew , n ei t h er 'ci n em a' n o r t h e w h o l e co l l ect i o n o f au d i o an d v i su al 'm ach i n es' i n t h em sel v es co n st i t u t e 'd i sp o si t i v es' b u t w o u l d h av e t o b e seen as b el o n g i n g t o an al l - en co m p assi n g w h o l e. W h en Pau l V i r i l i o i n t r o d u ced t h e p r o b l em at i c o f a 'l o gi st i cs o f p er cep t i o n ', h e h er al d ed su ch a w h o l e, w h i ch w o u l d h av e si t u at ed d i sp o si t i v es o f v i ew i n g ( an d , f o r u s, l i st en i n g) w i t h i n a h i st o r i cal w h o l e. Bu t h i s i d ea h as b een o n l y v er y p ar t i al l y d ev el o p ed . O u r d ef i n i t i o n o f d i sp o si t i v e h as t h er ef o r e n o t b een si m p l y b o r r o w ed f r o m Fo u cau l t : i t co m es n o t o n l y f r o m t h e ex ch an ges i n t h e f i el d o f t h e h i st o r i o g r ap h y o f ci n em a, an d p ar t i cu l ar l y 'ear l y ' ci n em a, b u t al so f r o m t h e b r o ad en i n g o f t h e d i sci p l i n e, w h i c h h as f r eed i t sel f f r o m sem i o t i c o r aest h et i c d i sco u r se on t h e on e h an d an d a p u r el y t ech n i cal (i .e., h i st o r i cal o r f u n ct i o n al i st ) d i sco u r se on t h e ot h er . T h i s i s t h e b ack gr o u n d o f o u r sp eci f i c ep i st em o l o gi cal ap p r o ach .

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 12 h tt p ://s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 2 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

12

F r a n ç o is A lb e r a a n d M a r ia T o r ta ja d a

W h en on e d ef i n es t h e d i sp o si t i v e as a n et w o r k o f r el at i o n s t h at go es b ey o n d t h e d i sp o si t i v e i t sel f, o n e i s al r ead y i n a sen se i m p l y i n g a m et h o d f o r d ef i n i n g t h e ob ject . I t i s al so i m p o r t an t t o cl ar i f y o u r u se o f t h e t er m 'ep i st em o l o g y '. Back i n 19 6 9 , Fo u cau l t p r ef er r ed t o sp eak o f 'ar c h aeo l o g y ', as a r ef l ect i o n o f h i s d eci si o n t o w o r k on t h e m ar g i n s o f t h e sci en ces, o n w h at G ast o n Bach el ar d h i m sel f r ej ect ed as an 'ep i st em o l o gi cal o b st acl e' (i .e., t h e d i sco u r ses an d i m ag i n ar y b el i ef s t h at o b st r u ct t h e t h eo r et i cal an d st r ai gh t f o r w ar d co n st i t u t i o n o f t h e sci en t i f i c co n cep t ) , an d L o u i s A l t h u sser r ej ect ed as i d eo l o gy . T h e p r esen t b o o k co v er s si m i l ar t er r i t o r y: t h e 'k n o w l ed g e o f d i sp o si t i v es', t h ei r co n d i t i o n s o f p o ssi b i l i t y , i s a d i f f u se k n o w l ed g e t h at i s n o t d et er m i n ed b y a t y p e o f en u n ci at i o n o r i n st i t u t i o n . D i sp o si t i v es i n t er sect w i t h m an y d i sco u r ses - m an y m o r e t h an t h o se d i sco u r ses t h at ar e f i gh t i n g f o r t h e i n st i t u t i o n al i zat i o n o f d i sp o si t i v es t h em sel v es - su ch as ci n em a an d p h o t o gr ap h y . T h e d i sco u r ses t h at ap p ear i n t h e f o l l o w i n g ch ap t er s ar e l i t er ar y, sci en t i f i c an d t ech n i cal , an d m ay i n v o l v e v ar i o u s o t h er f i el d s ( l egal an d eco n o m i c) , so ci al p r act i ces ( t o u r i sm , sp o r t i n g even t s) an d , o f co u r se, cu l t u r al p r act i ces an d sp ect acl es (t h eat r e, t h e ci r cu s, et c.) . I n o t h er w o r d s, t h e k n o w l ed g e o f d i sp o si t i v es i s n o t o n l y co n st r u ct ed w i t h i n t h e h et er o gen ei t y o f so u r ces an d d at a, b u t al so i n t h e co n f r o n t at i o n b et w een t h e d i scu r si v e an d t h e co n cr et e h i st o r i cal ob ject , t h e so ci al p r act i ce t h at i t i m p l i es, an d so on . A r c h aeo l o g y i s u sed h er e t o m ean an ep i st em o l o gy t h at d o es n o t ai m at sci en t i fi c co h er en ce - b u t i t i s n o t t h e ep i st em o l o gy o f a t ekne. I t ai m s t o co n st r u ct an epi st em e - a k n o w l ed g e t h at i s co n f r o n t ed w i t h p r act i ces.

I

‘T h e

1900 E p is te m e ’

T h e o p en i n g ch ap t er o f t h e v o l u m e, 'T h e 19 0 0 Ep i st em e', i s a p ap er t h at Fr an ço i s A l b er a an d M ar i a T o r t aj ad a g av e at a D o m i t o r I n t er n at i o n al A sso ci at i o n sy m p o si u m . I t b u i l d s o n t h e h y p o t h esi s t h at t h e n ew co n d i t i o n s o f v i ew i n g t h at ar o se o u t o f t h e i n d u st r i al so ci et y o f t h e 18 t h an d 19 t h cen t u r i es r ef o r m u l at ed t h e 'sp ect at o r - sp ect acl e' sch em a b y i n t r o d u ci n g t h e q u est i o n o f t h e di sposit ive, w h i c h assi g n s a n ew p l ace t o t h e v i ew er w i t h i n a t r i p ar t i t e spect at or -m ach iner epr esent at ion. T h i s t r i p ar t i t e r ep r esen t at i o n m u st b e co n st r u ct ed as an epist em ic schem a an d , as su ch , i n t egr at ed w i t h i n a n et w o r k , a w i d er ep i st em i c co n f i gu r a

t i on (t h at o f ci n em at i cs, M ar ey 's p h y si o l o g y o f m o v em en t , or so ci al p r act i ces su ch as t h e r ai l w ay j o u r n ey an d t h e sp ect acu l ar i sat i o n o f t h e l an d scap e, b r i n g i n g t o get h er an i m m o b i l e sp ect at o r , a m o b i l e sp ect acl e an d a f r am ew o r k o f v i si on ) . Fu r t h er m o r e, i n i t s cap aci t y o f sch em a, i t p r o v i d es a m o d el n ot o n l y w i t h i n t h e r est r i ct ed f i el d o f v i ew i n g an d l i st en i n g d i sp o si t i v es, b u t g o i n g b ey o n d t o

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 3 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 3 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

I n t r o d u c t i o n t o a n E p is t e m o lo g y o f V ie w in g a n d L is t e n in g D is p o s it iv e s

13

en co m p ass t h at o f v i su al i t y ( p ai n t i n g, l i t er at u r e) an d ev en t h at o f t h o u gh t ( 'ci n em a', a m o d el o f k n o w l ed g e acco r d i n g t o Ber gso n , a m o d el o f t h e p sy ch i c ap p a r at u s f o r so m e p sy ch o l o gi st s o r p sy ch o an al y st s) . T h e ep i st em i c sch em a t h u s co m b i n es t h e sp eci f i cat i o n o f t h e concr et e elem en t s o f t h e v ar i o u s d i sp o si t i v es w i t h t h e concept s t h at ar e l i n k ed t o t h em , f o r ex am p l e, t h e n o t i o n s o f b r eak i n g d o w n m o v em en t , t em p o r al i m m ed i acy o r d ef er r ed b r o ad cast i n g, et c. Fi n al l y, i n o r d er f o r t h e sch em a t o b e co n st r u ct ed , i t i s v i t al si m u l t an eo u sl y t o d ev el o p a st u d y o f d i sco u r ses, a st u d y o f co n cr et e d i sp o si t i v es, an d a st u d y o f t h e i n st i t u t i o n al an d so ci al p r act i ces t h at ar e b o t h en gaged b y an d en gage t h ese d i sp o si t i ves. Fr an ço i s A l b er a's ch ap t er en t i t l ed 'Pr o j ect ed C i n em a ( A H y p o t h esi s o n t h e C i n em a's I m agi n at i o n ) ' f o l l o w s o n f r om t h e p er sp ect i v e o u t l i n ed i n 'T h e 19 0 0 Ep i st em e' b y ex am i n i n g a h i st o r i cal an d t h eo r et i cal ap p r o ach t o t h e p r o b l em at i c o f t ech n i cal i n v en t i o n t h at r ev o l v es ar o u n d au d i o an d v i su al d i sp o si t i v es. H i s v i si o n en co m p asses n o t o n l y l i t er ar y t ext s ( V i l l i er s d e l 'I sl e A d am , d e C h o u sy an d Ju l es V er n e) , i co n i c t ext s ( Ro b i d a) , an d sci en t i f i c p o p u l ar i sat i o n ( Cam i l l e Fl am m ar i o n ) , b u t al so w r i t er s an d p h i l o so p h er s ( Rab el ai s, C am p an el l a, So r el an d C y r an o d e Ber ger ac) w h o w er e act i v e l o n g b ef o r e t h e em er gen ce o f ci n em a an d w h o t h u s b el o n ged t o a d i f f er en t t op i c, an d o t h er s w r i t i n g i n t h e w ak e o f t h e ad v en t o f ci n em a ( Ray m o n d Ro u ssel , Sai n t - Po l - Ro u x, Ren é B ar j av el an d B i o y C asar es, as w el l as G i u sep p e L i p p ar i n i , M au r i ce Ren ar d , M au r i ce L eb l an c, L éo n D au d et an d m an y o t h er s) . H i s h y p o t h esi s i s t h at t h e 'u t o p i as' o f co m m u n i cat i o n t ech n o l o gi es ar e n ot so m u ch i m agi n at i o n s o f p r ecu r so r s o r p r o sp ect i v e f an t asi es as st ages o f t h e i n v en t i o n i t sel f t h at t ak e t h e sh ap e o f act u al i z at i o n s o f t h e p o t en t i al i n h er en t i n t h e t ech n o l o gi es o f t h e d ay. L eav i n g asi d e t h e f act t h at t h ese f i ct i o n al w o r k s w er e p ar t an d p ar cel o f t h e i n v en t i o n t h at w as ab o u t t o co m e i n t o b ei n g, t h ey o f f er fer t i l e gr o u n d f o r ex p er i m en t at i o n , a sp ace f o r ex t r a p o l at i o n b ased o n r esear ch an d ex i st i n g ap p ar at u ses o r m ach i n es, an d t h u s t h ey b ear w i t n ess b o t h t o t h e i m ag i n ar y si d e o f t h ese t ech n o l o gi es an d t h e ex p ect a t i o n s t o w h i ch t h ey g i v e r i se. I n t h e w ak e o f G i l b er t Si m o n d o n 's r ef l ect i o n s o n t h e 'm o d es o f ex i st en ce o f t ech n i cal o b j ect s', o n e m ay i n d eed su g g est t h at t h e 'g en esi s' o f t h e i n v en t i o n i s co n st i t u en t o f it . T h ese 'f i ct i o n s' co n seq u en t l y r ev eal cer t ai n d i m en si o n s o f ex i st i n g t ech n o l o gi es f r o m w h i ch t h ey b o r r o w , b u t w h i ch t h e cat al o gu e o f h i st o r y - t h at g i v es p r eced en ce t o o n e o f t h e ch o sen u sag es f ai l s t o r eco r d . W h at w e h av e h er e i s b o t h t h e p o t en t i al r el at ed t o t h e m ed i u m or m ach i n e ( on ce on e h as m o v ed f r o m sm al l - scal e p r o d u ct i o n o r t h e p r o t o t y p e t o gen er al i sat i o n ) an d t h e ex p ect at i o n s t h at t h ey cr eat e, w h et h er so ci al , i m ag i n ar y o r p r agm at i c. T h e t w o t y p es o f d i sco u r se ( f i ct i o n al an d l ear n ed o n t h e o n e si d e, t ech n i cal o n t h e ot h er ) m u st t h u s b e p i t t ed on e agai n st t h e o t h er w i t h i n a sp ace t h at i s co m m o n t o b o t h . T h i s l ead s t o t h e r eco n f i gu r i n g o f t h e au d i o - v i su al f i el d , w h i c h g r ew o u t o f so ci al , i n d u st r i al o r i d eo l o gi cal 'sp ec i al i sat i o n s' t h at si m p l y

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 4 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 4 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

14

F r a n ç o is A lb e r a a n d M a r ia T o r ta ja d a

i gn o r ed n o t o n l y p r o j ect s, b u t al so t r an si t o r y ex p ect at i o n s o r r eal i sat i o n s. I n t h i s r egar d , o n e can ci t e t h e ex am p l e o f 'p h o t o scu l p t u r e' o r t h e 't h eat r o p h o n e'. F i n al l y, t h ese co n f r o n t at i o n s r ev eal t h e sp aces o f i n t el l i gi b i l i t y o f t h e n ew t ech n o l o gi es an d t h e co n cep t u al an d sem an t i c f i el d t h at i s asso ci at ed w i t h t h em , an d t h u s d ef i n e t h e m en t al f r am e o f t h e i n v en t i o n an d i t s r ecep t i o n ( A p o l l i n ai r e ex t r ap o l at ed v i r t u al i m ag er y f r o m t h e gr am o p h o n e, w h i l e Sai n t - Po l R o u x cam e u p w i t h h u m an cl o n i n g f r o m t h e ci n em a- m ach i n e) . I n 'T h e C ase f o r an Ep i st em o gr ap h y o f M o n t age: T h e M ar e y M o m en t ', A l b er a set s o u t t o r ed ef i n e t h e co n cep t o f 'm o n t age'. T h i s i n v o l v es r e- ex am i n i n g t h e M ar e y q u est i o n o r M ar e y 'm o m en t ' i n t h e h i st or y, p r eh i st o r y o r ar ch aeo l o gy o f

ci n em a. A l b er a d i st i n gu i sh es b et w een o n t h e o n e h an d t h e t ech n i cal - aest h et i c d i sco u r se o n m o n t age (t h e e p is t e m o n o m ic al l evel ) , w h i ch cr eat es a set o f l i m i t s an d co n t r o l p r i n ci p l es an d 'r u l es', an d o n t h e o t h er h an d t h e p r escr i p t i v e d i s co u r se o f ci n em a cr i t i ci sm an d t h eo r y (t h e e p is t e m o c r it ic al l ev el ) , w h i ch d ef i n es t h e p r o cesses o f i n cl u si o n i n o r ex cl u si o n f r o m t h e co n cep t o f m o n t age. T h i s l ed h i m t o co n st r u ct t h e ' e p is t e m o lo g ic al' l ev el o f m o n t age. O n t h i s l ev el , i t i s v i t al n ot o n l y t o p i n p o i n t t h e f i el d s o f ap p l i cat i o n o f t h e co n cep t s an d r u l es o f u sage, b u t al so t o i d en t i f y t r an sf o r m at i o n s an d v ar i at i o n s, i n o r d er t o r el at e t h em t o t h ei r co n d i t i o n s o f p o ssi b i l i t y . T h e ai m i s t o u n d er st an d h o w t h e co n cep t u al f i el d o f m o n t age h as b een t r an sf o r m ed ( v i a su ch n o t i o n s as en d , p i ece, m o m en t , i n t er v al , i n t er m i t t en ce, p au se, p h ase, p o si t i o n , j er k , sh o ck , d i sso ci at i o n , cu t , b r eak , i n t er r u p t i o n , d i sco n t i n u i t y, j o i n i n g, assem b l i n g, co l l age, l i n k , co n t i n u i t y, ar t i cu l at i o n , su ccessi o n , et c.) b y l eav i n g b eh i n d t h e p u r el y i n t er n al , d escr i p t i v e o r p r e scr i p t i v e d ef i n i t i o n s an d b y go i n g b ey o n d o b st acl es o f t h e t ech n o l o gi cal t y p e w h i c h i m p ed e o r l i m i t co m p r eh en si o n . T h i s m ak es i t p o ssi b l e b o t h t o i d en t i f y t h e co n t o u r s o f a m o n t age f u n ct i o n , w h i ch m ay n o t b e g i v en t h at n am e b u t w h i ch n eed s t o b e l i n k ed t o v ar i o u s p r o ced u r es, p r act i ces an d u t t er an ces, an d t o l o cat e t h e t h i n k i n g r el at ed t o m o n t age i n t h e sy st em o f co n cep t s an d p r act i ces w h er e i t h as i t s r oot s, an d su b seq u en t l y en v i sag e i t s ex t en si o n an d v ar i ab i l i t y . I n t h i s p er sp ect i v e, t h e M ar ey 'm o m en t ' i s a k ey el em en t o f t h e p u z z l e: n o t o n l y w as h e o u t si d e ci n em at o gr ap h i c t el eo l o gy an d y et p r esen t i n t h e seq u en ce o f 'ci n em a' i n v en t i o n s ( b ot h co n cep t u al l y an d t ech n i cal l y sp eak i n g) an d g av e t h e 'i n v en t i o n ' b o t h sci en t i f i c an d so ci al r esp ect ab i l i t y ( A c ad é m ie d e s s c ie n c e s , C o llè g e d e F r an c e ) , b u t h e b el o n ged t o a f i el d - p h y si o l o g y - t h at h ad b een w el l ex p l o r ed

i n co n cep t u al t er m s an d w as t h e scen e o f f u n d am en t al co n t r o v er si es b et w een o p p o si n g t en d en ci es, ab o u n d i n g i n a b o d y o f n o t i o n s, co n cep t s an d p r act i ces t h at w as t o p r o v i d e an 'i n t er f ace' w i t h t h e t o y s an d m ach i n es u sed f o r an i m at ed i m ages. M ar ey 's m e c h an is t ic co n cep t i o n (t h e 'an i m al m ach i n e') w o u l d l ead t o h i s d i sc o v er y o f a m ac h in ic d i sp o si t i v e t h at i s an al o g o u s t o h i s ob ject as an i n st r u m en t o f o b ser v at i o n - t h e 'ci n em a' m ach i n e.

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 5 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 5 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

I n t r o d u c t i o n t o a n E p is t e m o lo g y o f V ie w in g a n d L is t e n in g D is p o s it iv e s

15

M ar i a T o r t aj ad a's t w o co n t r i b u t i o n s, 'T h e " C i n em at o g r ap h i c Sn ap sh o t " : R e r ead i n g Et i en n e- Ju l es M ar ey ' an d 'T h e C i n em at o g r ap h v er su s Ph o t o gr ap h y , or C y cl i st s an d T i m e i n t h e W o r k o f A l f r ed Jar r y ', set o u t t o d ef i n e t h e idea o f ci n em a an d t h e idea o f p h o t o gr ap h y , t w o d i sp o si t i v es t h at w er e si m i l ar at ar o u n d t h e t u r n o f t h e 20 t h cen t u r y an d y et i n o p p o si t i o n t o each ot h er . W h en ci n em a em er ged , i t w as p h o t o g r ap h y t h at p l ay ed a p ar t i n d ef i n i n g i t s co n cep t s an d t h e i m ag er y asso ci at ed w i t h i t. Ph o t o g r ap h y f o u n d ed t h e 'ci n em a', o r a cer t ai n i d ea o f t h e ci n em a at t h i s m o m en t i n t i m e. M ean w h i l e, p h o t o g r ap h y i t sel f t o o k o n a n ew st at u s i n i t s co n f r o n t at i o n w i t h ci n em a. Ex am i n i n g t h e r el at i o n s b et w een t h e t w o d i sp o si t i v es m ean s ex p l o r i n g t h e m ech an i cal so u r ces o f m o d er n i t y, si n ce t h e n o t i o n o f d i sp o si t i v e i s i n t r i n si cal l y l i n k ed t o m ech an i cs an d ci n e m at i cs - m o v em en t an d sp eed ar e asso ci at ed b o t h w i t h ci n em a an d p h o t o g r a p h y i n a v ar i et y o f w ay s. Et i en n e- Ju l es M ar ey 's r esear ch i s a k ey f act o r f o r u n d er st an d i n g 'ci n em a' at t h e ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h i c st age an d p r o v i d es a m ean s o f o b ser v i n g h o w ci n em a b r o k e aw ay f r o m p h o t o gr ap h y . I t can b e ar g u ed t h at o n e can n o t co n cei v e o f ci n em a w i t h o u t t ak i n g ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h y i n t o acco u n t . B y m ast er i n g t h e t ech n i q u e o f t h e p h o t o gr ap h i c sn ap sh o t , M ar ey co n cei v ed o f a k i n d o f 'ci n em a' t h at w as d et er m i n ed b y t h e co n cep t u al an d m et h o d o l o gi cal p r em i ses o f h i s sci en t i f i c ap p r o ach . T h e p h o t o gr am i s gen er al l y co n si d er ed a f i x ed i m ag e t h at i s o p p o sed t o t h e r eco n st i t u t ed m o v i n g i m age t h at d ef i n es ci n em a. H o w ev er , w h en o n e r e- r ead s M ar ey, o n e b egi n s t o see t h at w h at f u n d am en t al l y d i st i n gu i sh es ci n em a f r o m p h o t o g r ap h y i s n ot si m p l y t h e i l l u si o n o f m o v em en t . T h e v er y st at u s o f p h o t o gr ap h y , o f t h e f i x ed i m age, i s t r an sf o r m ed b y t h e ci n em at o gr ap h i c d i sp o si t i v e t h e p h o t o gr am i s a sn ap sh o t w h o se n at u r e i s a p ar ad o x i cal on e. T h e an al y si s p u t f o r w ar d h er e i s b ased o n a r ed ef i n i t i o n o f t h e n o t i o n o f i n st an t , asso ci at ed w i t h t h e t ech n i q u e o f t h e p h o t o gr ap h i c sn ap sh o t an d d et er m i n ed b y t h e ex p o su r e t i m e. T h e ai m o f t h e ch ap t er i s t o sh o w t h at o n e can co n cei v e o f an in st ant t hat last s. T h i s i s w h at t r an sp i r es w h en o n e b egi n s t o co n st r u ct t h e co n cep t s

l i n k ed w i t h t h e i n st an t o f i l l u m i n at i o n i n M ar ey 's w r i t i n gs. O n e can see h o w t h ese co n cep t s m ak e u p a sy st em o f r el at i o n s w i t h i n h i s v ar i o u s sci en t i f i c p r o p o sal s r el at ed t o t h e p h o t o gr ap h i c sn ap sh o t an d ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h y o n f i xed p l at es an d f i l m . T h i s i s t h e i d ea t h at Ber gso n d i sm i ssed w h en h e r ad i c al l y sep a r at ed t h e i n st an t f r o m t h e f l o w o f t i m e. A l f r ed Jar r y i s asso ci at ed w i t h o n e o f t h e m aj o r t h em es o f m o d er n i t y : m e ch an i zat i o n . H i s n o v el , The Su per m ale ( 19 0 1) , i s an ex cel l en t ex am p l e o f a ser i es o f r ef l ect i o n s o n 'b ach el o r m ach i n es'. T h er e ar e o n l y a l i m i t ed n u m b er o f ex p l i ci t r ef er en ces t o t h e ci n em at o gr ap h , b u t o n e can n ev er t h el ess sh o w j u st h o w i m p o r t an t i t w as t o Jar r y. H i s w o r k i s o f i n t er est b ecau se h i s w r i t i n gs, w h et h er f i ct i o n o r j o u r n al i sm , ex p l o r e t h e p o t en t i al o f ci n em a t h at el u d es n o t o n l y m o st

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 6 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 6 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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F r a n ç o is A lb e r a a n d M a r ia T o r ta ja d a

asp ect s o f t h e ci n em at o gr ap h i c d i sp o si t i v e o f h i s co n t em p o r ar i es, b u t al so w h at w as t o d ev el o p l at er an d b eco m e d o m i n an t t od ay. Jar r y 's w o r k s g i v e co n cr et e f o r m t o so m e o f ci n em a's u n ex p l o r ed p o t en t i al , as t h ey u se ci n em a t o co n cei v e an d r ep r esen t a cer t ai n ex p er i en ce o f t i m e an d sp eed l i n k ed t o m o d er n i t y. T h ey u se ci n em a t o p r o j ect t h em sel v es i n t o a p h i l o so p h i cal fi ct i o n , Jar r y 's 'p at ap h y si cs'. Jar r y 's i d eas ar e a cl ear i l l u st r at i o n o f t h e f act t h at d i sp o si t i v es sh o u l d b e u n d er st o o d w i t h i n a sy st em o f r el at i o n s. C i n em a an d p h o t o g r ap h y ar e b r o u gh t t o get h er b y m ean s o f t h e p r esu p p o si t i o n s t h at t h ei r r ep r esen t at i o n s set i n m o t i on . I n sh o r t , t h ey st an d i n o p p o si t i o n t o sev er al o f t h ei r d ef i n i n g ch ar act er i s t i cs, w h i ch l i n k t h em t o a n et w o r k o f n o t i o n s o r p r act i ces b el o n gi n g t o t h e h i g h l y p ar ad o x i cal m o d er n i t y t h at Jar r y d escr i b es. T h e r ef er en ces t o p h o t o g r ap h y an d ci n em a m ay t h u s b e p u t i n p ar al l el . Be t w een a co n cep t i o n o f t h e i n st an t an d a co n cep t i o n o f m o v em en t an d sp eed , b et w een Z en o an d Ber gso n , Jar r y p l ay s w i t h t h e p ar ad o x es o f t i m e b y m ak i n g t h em m at er i al i se as r ep r esen t at i o n s t h at can o n l y b e f u l l y u n d er st o o d b y r ef er en ce t o t h e d i sp o si t i v es o f v i ew i n g an d l i st en i n g.

2

T h e e x h ib itio n

T h e seco n d sect i o n o f t h e b o o k ex am i n es t h e d i sp o si t i v e o f t h e 'ex h i b i t i o n ' an d i t s r el at i o n t o t h e ci n em at o gr ap h i c d i sp o si t i v e. O l i v i er L u go n 's t w o ch ap t er s t ak e t h e r ead er b ey o n d ci n em a p r o p er b y st u d y i n g t h e w a y i n w h i ch ci n em a w as t ak en b ey o n d i t s o w n l i m i t s w h en i t cr o ssed p at h s w i t h o t h er m ed i a. H e d ev el o p s t w o ex am p l es: t h e ex h i b i t i o n an d t h e l ect u r e, cal l i n g o n t w o o f t h e k ey f i gu r es o f m o d er n i sm , H er b er t B ay er f o r t h e ex h i b i t i o n an d L e C o r b u si er f o r t h e l ect u r e. Bo t h ex p l i ci t l y r ef er r ed t o ci n em a as a m o d el , an d esp eci al l y t o t h e i d ea o f a cer t ai n d i sp o si t i v e w h o se v ar i o u s el em en t s t h ey u t i l i sed i n o r d er t o ex p l ai n d i f f er en t asp ect s o f t h ei r o w n d esi gn s. T h ese i n cl u d e a t em p o r al an d r h y t h m i c d ef i n i t i o n o f v i su al ar t , t h e seq u en t i al n at u r e o f t h e f i l m , t h e ev en t - l i k e ch ar act er o f t h e p r esen t at i o n o f l u m i n o u s i m ages, t h e p l ay o f si l en ce an d o f t h e v o i ce, an d t h e ef f ect s o f su r p r i se o r sh o ck t h at ar e at t r i b u t ed t o m o n t age. T h ese ar e al l f o r ces t h at can b e u sed t o cap t u r e t h e sp ect at o r s' at t en t i o n an d can t h u s b e h i g h l y ef f i ci en t f o r t h e co m m u n i cat i o n o f i d eas. T h ese t w o ex am p l es sh o w u s h o w co m m u n i cat i o n i n t h e 20 t h cen t u r y r el i ed n o t o n l y o n t h e f o r m s o f r ep r esen t at i o n , b u t al so o n t h e co n t r o l o v er t h e d i sp o si t i v e o f 'sh o w i n g ' an d t h e m eet i n g b et w een t h e sp ect at o r an d t h e i m age. T h e sp eci f i c n at u r e o f t h e sp at i al an d t em p o r al f r am ew o r k u sed t o p r esen t t h e i m age, i .e., w h at su r r o u n d s an d su p p o r t s i t , m ay b e as i m p o r t an t f o r co n st r u ct i n g i t s m ean i n g as w h at i t act u al l y co n t ai n s.

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 7 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 7 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

I n t r o d u c t i o n t o a n E p is t e m o lo g y o f V ie w in g a n d L is t e n in g D is p o s it iv e s

17

T h i s i s t h e case w i t h p h o t o gr ap h y , w h i ch i s an al y sed t h r o u gh t h e w ay i t i s ex p l o i t ed i n t h e st agi n g o f H er b er t B ay er 's ex h i b i t i o n s. I n 'D y n am i c Pat h s o f T h o u gh t : Ex h i b i t i o n D esi gn , Ph o t o g r ap h y an d Ci r cu l at i o n i n t h e W o r k o f H er b er t B ay er ', L u g o n d escr i b es B ay er 's car eer as an ar t i st , gr ap h i c d esi g n er an d ex h i b i t i o n d esi gn er f r o m G er m an y i n t h e 19 20 s t o t h e U S o f t h e 19 4 0 s. H e l o o k s at t h e t h eo r et i cal f o u n d at i o n o f B ay er 's w o r k an d t h e w a y i t ev o l v ed o v er t h e y ear s, w i t h p ar t i cu l ar at t en t i o n p ai d t o t h e o m n i p r esen t q u est i o n o f t h e sp ect a t o r 's m o b i l i t y an d ci r cu l at i o n . H er e i s t h e v er y cen t r e o f B ay er 's st r at egi es, w h er e h e t u r n s t h e m o v em en t s o f v i si t o r s i n t o a t ool o f co m m u n i cat i o n . H e cr e at es scen ar i o s b y b u i l d i n g ci r cu i t s, d ev el o p i n g n ar r at i v e an d em o t i o n al se q u en ces b y set t i n g o u t a r o u t e an d ch an n el l i n g sp ect at o r s t h r o u gh i t. T h i s can b e seen i n t h e M o M A 's 19 4 2 p r o p ag an d a exh i b i t i o n , Th e Road to Vict or y, w h er e t h e p r i n ci p l e o f ci n em a i s r ev er sed b y l o cat i n g t h e d ev el o p m en t o f t h e m o n t age, n ar r at i o n an d em o t i o n al d r am a i n t h e sp ect at o r s' v er y m o v em en t s. T h u s, p h y si cal m o b i l i t y est ab l i sh es a p ar t i cu l ar f o r m o f 'ci n em a' w h i c h b y cl ai m i n g t o l ead t o gr eat er p ar t i ci p at i o n i n f act t en d s t o i n cr ease t h e p sy ch o l o gi cal h o l d i t ex er ci ses o v er t h e sp ect at o r s. 'T h e L ect u r e: L e C o r b u si er 's U se o f t h e W o r d , D r aw i n g an d Pr o j ect i o n ' l o o k s at t h e l ect u r e as a d i sp o si t i v e an d m u l t i m ed i a 'sp ect acl e' t h r o u gh L e C o r b u si er 's ex t en si v e ex p er i en ce as a l ect u r er . H e d ev o t ed f o r t y y ear s t o h i s 'l ect u r e t ech n i q u e' b y d ev el o p i n g m u l t i p l e an d ch an gi n g f o r m s o f i n t er act i o n o f v o i ce, d i r ect d r aw i n g , an d t h e p r o j ect i o n o f f i x ed an d m o v i n g i m ages. H e t h u s em b el l i sh ed h i s scen i c an d p er f o r m at i v e ar t b y ex p l o i t i n g m ech an i cal f o r m s o f sh o w i n g i m ages, t h e ai m b ei n g t o d ev el o p a f o r ce o f p er su asi o n t h at w o u l d g o b ey o n d t h e act u al ev en t i t sel f b y m ean s o f f u r t h er p u b l i cat i o n s an d ex h i b i t i o n s, w h i ch w er e t h em sel v es ch ar act er i sed b y t h ese scen i c d i sp o si t i v es an d co m p l ex f o r m s o f p r o j ect i o n acco m p an i ed b y sp o k en co m m en t ar y.

3

V o ic e /b o d y

T h e t h i r d sect i o n o f t h e b o o k l o o k s at q u est i o n s t h at r el at e t o h o w m an i f est a t i o n s o f h u m an p r esen ce m at er i al i se w i t h i n t h e r ep r esen t at i o n s t h at em er ge f r o m d i sp o si t i v es i n v o l v i n g m ach i n es. A l ai n Bo i l l at an d L au r en t G u i d o ex am i n e t h e m ech an i cal ev o l u t i o n o f t h e h u m an el em en t w i t h i n an t h r o p o cen t r i c au d i o v i su al d i sp o si t i v es an d co n cen t r at e o n t w o el em en t s - t h e v o i ce an d t h e b o d y t h at b el o n g t o d i f f er en t asp ect s o f sp ect acu l ar p r act i ces. O n t h e o n e h an d , co n si d er at i o n s o f t h e v o i ce's st at u s h av e b een co m m o n w i t h i n t h e m aj o r p ar ad i g m s t h at d et er m i n ed t h e d ev el o p m en t o f t ech n o l o gi cal an d cu l t u r al ser i es an d t h at sh ar e m u ch w i t h t h e 'ci n em a' ser i es - i n p ar t i cu l ar t h e m ean s o f r ep r o d u ci n g

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 8 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 8 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

18

F r a n ç o is A lb e r a a n d M a r ia T o r ta ja d a

an d b r o ad cast i n g so u n d s d u r i n g t h e seco n d h al f o f t h e 19 t h cen t u r y. T h ese co n si d er at i o n s h av e d et er m i n ed h o w t h e i n t er act i o n s b et w een t h e au d i t i v e an d v i su al d i m en si o n s o f t h e r ep r esen t at i o n w er e en v i sag ed (i .e., t h e i m age o f t h e t al k i n g su b ject ) . O n t h e o t h er h an d , t h e i ssu e o f t h e b o d y r ef er s n o t o n l y t o cer t ai n m o d es o f an al y si n g an d r ep r esen t i n g h u m an m o v em en t t h at w er e d ev el o p ed o v er t h i s sam e p er i o d , b u t al so t o cer t ai n scen i c ap p r o ach es t h at w er e ad o p t ed w i t h i n p ar t i cu l ar d i sp o si t i v es an d t h at t h ese d i sp o si t i v es t h em sel v es i n f l u en ced . T h er e i s, o f co u r se, a f u n d am en t al d i f f er en ce b et w een t h e d i sem b o d i ed v o i ce o f t h e p h o n o g r ap h or t el ep h o n e an d t h e p h y si cal p r esen ce o f t h e b o d y sh o w n b y v i ew i n g d i sp o si t i v es. N o n et h el ess, b o t h v o i ce an d b o d y ar e m an i f est i n t h e 'p r esen ce- ab sen ce' sch em a t h at i s i n h er en t t o ev er y r ep r esen t at i o n , t h o u gh i n v a r y i n g d egr ees an d i n acco r d an ce w i t h a v ar i et y o f m o d al i t i es. M an i f est at i o n s o f t h e v o i ce an d t h e i m age o f t h e b o d y ar e so m et i m es t r an s p o sed i n t i m e an d / o r sp ace an d m ay al so b e f i r m l y l o cat ed i n t h e h ie et n u n c o f p r o d u ct i o n - r ecep t i o n . A l ai n Bo i l l at d r aw s a d i st i n ct i o n b et w een t al ki ng ci n em a an d spoken ci n em a i n o r d er t o acco u n t f o r t h i s d i st i n ct i o n b et w een t h e f i x i n g o f t h e v o i ce b y t h e m ach i n e an d t h e l i v e si t u at i o n o f o r al i t y. T h ese t w o sy st em s can n o t b e d i v i d ed i n t o st r i ct p er i o d s, ev en i f t h e l ect u r er o f ear l y ci n em a d i d b eco m e a m aj o r f i gu r e o f t h e t al k i e, b u t can b e ex am i n ed f r o m t h e p er sp ect i v e o f 'ci n em a' ar ch aeo l o gy . Q u o t at i o n m ar k s sh o u l d b e u sed h er e, as t h e o b j ect i v e i s t o d i sm an t l e t h e 'ci n em a' o b ject i n o r d er t o ex am i n e t h e t ech n o l o gi cal ser i es or p ar al l el t r ad i t i o n s o f t h e sp ect acu l ar , su ch as t h e t al k i n g o r d an ci n g au t o m at o n , t h e p h o n o gr ap h , o p er a, et c. I n 'T h e L ect u r er , t h e I m age, t h e M ach i n e an d t h e A u d i o - Sp ect at o r : T h e V o i ce as a C o m p o n en t Par t o f A u d i o v i su al D i sp o si t i v es', Bo i l l at r ef l ect s o n t h e u se o f 'so u n d s b ef o r e t h e t al k i e' b y f o l l o w i n g t w o l i n es o f en q u i r y. Fi r st l y, h e f o cu ses o n t h e o f t en o v er l o o k ed v o i ce, w h o se sp eci f i c ch ar act er i st i cs h av e t o b e st u d i ed i n o r d er t o u n d er st an d t h e p h en o m en a t h at i t i n v o l v es. Seco n d l y, h e u ses A l b er a's an d T o r t aj ad a's co n cep t o f t h e v i su al d i sp o si t i v e t o ex am i n e t h e r o l es o f t h e l i v e sp eak er , w h o i s a v er i t ab l e m ed i at o r b et w een t h e au d i en ce an d t h e scr een . T h i s seco n d p r em i se m ean s ad ap t i n g A l b er a's an d T o r t aj ad a's p ar am et er s t o i n cl u d e i n t er act i o n s b et w een i m ages an d so u n d s — i .e., m ak i n g t h e n et w o r k o f r el at i o n s r esu l t i n g f r o m t h e si m u l t an eo u s p r esen ce o f t h e t h r ee p o l es o f t h e d i sp o si t i v e m o r e co m p l ex an d b r o ad en i n g t h e 'm ach i n er y ' t o i n cl u d e a w i d er w h o l e, w i t h h u m an act o r s an d t h e p r o d u ct i o n sp ace o f t h e au d i o v i su al r ep r esen t at i o n . Bo i l l at al so l o o k s at w h at o r al i t y i m p l i es w h en i t i s an i n t egr al p ar t o f a p r o d u ct i o n sp ace t h at i s p ar t l y m achin ic i n ch ar act er . T h e t h eo r et i cal f r am ew o r k i s b ased o n t h e co n t em p o r ar y acco u n t s or t h e h y p o t h eses o f ear l y ci n em a h i st o r i an s, an d al l o w s o n e t o en v i sag e h o w t h e l ect u r er 's d i f f er en t f u n ct i o n s v ar i ed acco r d i n g t o t h e p l ace t h at w as at t r i b u t ed t o h i m . T h e ci n em at o gr ap h i c sp ect acl e i s n o t en v i sag ed f r o m o n e v i ew p o i n t b u t cal l s o n t h e d i v er si t y o f t h e d i sp o si t i v es u sed .

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 9 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 9 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

I n t r o d u c t i o n t o a n E p is t e m o lo g y o f V ie w in g a n d L is t e n in g D is p o s it iv e s

19

T h e w o r l d o f f i ct i o n — w h er e t h e p o ssi b l e can t ak e co n cr et e sh ap e - w as t h e p r ef er r ed m ean s o f ex p r essi o n f o r t h e i m agi n at i o n an d t h e i m ag i n ar y w o r l d s t h at em er ged f r o m t h e sp r ead i n g o f ( au d i o ) v i su al t ech n o l o gi es. T h u s, t o an sw er t h e q u est i o n s r eg ar d i n g cer t ai n sp eci f i c d i sp o si t i v es, o n e n eed s t o t ak e i n t o ac co u n t t h e l i t er ar y t ext s t h at f eat u r e m ach i n es t h at p er f o r m b ef o r e an au d i en ce i n a f i ct i o n al con t ext . W r i t i n g t h u s b eco m es a m ed i at i o n t h at m i r r o r s t h e au d i o v i su al p r o d u ct i o n p r o d u ced b y a d i sp o si t i v e, w h i l e o f f er i n g an i n d i cat i o n o f h o w t h e d i sp o si t i v e m i gh t b e r ecei v ed . I n 'O n t h e Si n gu l ar St at u s o f t h e H u m an V o i ce: T o m o r ro w ' s E v e an d t h e C u l t u r al Ser i es o f T al k i n g M ach i n es', A l ai n Bo i l l at h i gh l i gh t s t h e i ssu e o f t h e i n scr i p t i o n o f t h e v o i ce b y ex am i n i n g V i l l i er s d e l 'l sl e A d am 's n o v el , T o m o rr o w ' s E v e , w i t h i t s w el l - k n o w n ex am p l e o f 'p r o j ect ed ci n em a'. H e u ses t h e p er sp ect i v e o f t h e ar ch aeo l o gy o f t al k i n g 'ci n em a' t o ex am i n e t h e p l ace an d f u n ct i o n o f t h e v o i ce v i a an t h r o p o m o r p h i c si m u l acr a - a g en u i n e au d i o v i su al d i sp o si t i v e —i n d e V i l l i er s's n o v el an d , m o r e gen er al l y , t h e sp e ci f i c ch ar act er i st i cs o f t h e v o i ce co n si d er ed as an af f i r m at i o n o f t h e p r esen ce o f t h e h u m an i n t h e m ach i n e. W h en t h e v o i ce i s r ep r o d u ced v i a t h e p h o n o gr ap h , i t l ead s t o a sy st em o f 'p r esen ce- ab sen ce' t h at can b e co m p ar ed t o C h r i st i an M et z's w r i t i n g s o n t h e 'i m p r essi o n o f r eal i t y ' i n t h e ci n em a. I n T o m o rr o w ' s E v e , Ed i so n 's i n v en t i o n s - w h i ch , i n ep i st em o l o gi cal t er m s, ar e o b ser v ed i n al l t h ei r d i v er si t y ( an d n o t j u st t h e o f t - q u o t ed d escr i p t i o n o f st er eo sco p i c p r o j ect i o n ) — ar e asso ci at ed w i t h t h e p r i n ci p l e o f d e lin k in g t h at i s g en er al l y h i d d en i n t al k i n g ci n em a b ecau se o f t h e p r i m ar y p o si t i o n acco r d ed t o t h e u n i q u e sp eak i n g su b ject . T h e an g u i sh b r o u gh t ab o u t b y t h e d eh u m an i z i n g ex h i b i t i o n o f t h e m ac h in ic d i m en si o n seem s b o t h t o u n d er p i n t h e n o v el i st 's f et i sh i st i c d escr i p t i o n o f t h e t ech n o l o g y an d en co u r age i n t er est i n t h e occu l t , w i t h V i l l i er s cal l i n g o n a s p ir it is t ar g u m en t t h at w as sy m p t o m at i c o f t h e w a y r eco r d ed v o i ces w er e u n d er st o o d at t h e en d o f t h e 19 t h cen t u r y. L au r en t G u i d o 's ch ap t er en t i t l ed 'D an ci n g D o l l s an d M ech an i cal Ey es: T r ack i n g an O b sessi v e M o t i v e f r o m Bal l et t o C i n em a' u ses a si m i l ar ap p r o ach . G u i d o h i gh l i gh t s cer t ai n v ar i at i o n s i n a d i sp o si t i v e w h er e t h e sp ect acl e o f t h e d an ci n g b o d y i s m ed i at i sed v i a a v i ew i n g t ech n i q u e t h at set s o u t t o en l ar ge an d ex am i n e t h e d et ai l s o f a p h y si cal p er f o r m an ce. H e i n v est i gat es t h e r ep r esen t at i o n s t h at r ef er f i r st an d f o r em o st t o l i t er ar y w r i t i n g s t h at w er e m ar k ed b y t h e Ro m an t i c r eact i o n t o t h e m ech an i st i c m o d el ( H o f f m an n , K l ei st ) , an d t h en co n cen t r at es o n t h e i m ag i n ar y w o r l d o f l i b r et t o s an d cer t ai n p r o cesses t h at ar e p ar t i cu l ar t o Fr en ch b al l et . H e al so ex am i n es t h e t h eo r et i cal q u est i o n s t h at d o m i n at ed t h e ar t s t h at w er e i n sp i r ed b y b o d y m o v em en t s w h en t h e ci n em at o gr ap h w as b ei n g d ev el o p ed . T h er e em er ges t h e co n cep t i o n o f a h u m an —u su al l y f em al e - f i gu r e t h at i s p r o g r essi v el y r ed u ced t o i t s m ech an i cal d i m en si o n , an d l i m i t ed i n p ar t i cu l ar t o t h e r h y t h m i c p ar am et er s t h at em er ged f r o m t h e sci en t i f i c st u d y o f m o v em en t , w h er e t h e b o d y w as t r eat ed as a m er e ob ject . T h e ch r o n o p h o t o -

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 0 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 0 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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F r a n ç o is A lb e r a a n d M a r ia T o r ta ja d a

gr ap h i c an d t h en ci n em at o gr ap h i c cam er a w er e d ev el o p ed as an al y t i cal i n st r u m en t s, b ef o r e f i n al l y est ab l i sh i n g t h em sel v es as t h e p r o st h et i c t ool p ar e x c e lle n c e , co v er i n g f u n ct i o n s t h at w er e p r ev i o u sl y o ccu p i ed b y su ch t ech n o l o gi es as t h e o p er a gl ass. H o w ev er , on e sh o u l d n o t co n f i n e o n esel f t o t h e i m ag i n ar y r ep r esen t at i o n s o f d i sp o si t i v es b u t , w h en co n si d er i n g t h e b o d y, b ear i n m i n d a m o r e p r agm at i c co n si d er at i o n o f t h e v ar i o u s w a y s i n w h i ch t h e ci n em at o gr ap h i c r ep r esen t at i o n r ef o r m u l at es cer t ai n f u n d am en t al ch ar act er i st i cs o f v i ew i n g i n t h e scen i c ar t s. O n e o f t h e k ey m o d el s t h at i n f l u en ced t h e aest h et i c an d so ci al r ef l ect i o n s o n t h e au d i o v i su al sp ect acl e w as t h e o p er a, esp eci al l y W agn er 's u t o p i an G e s am t ku n s t w e r k an d i t s i d eal o f a r h y t h m i c i n t er act i o n b et w een t h e d i f f er en t m o d es o f

ex p r essi o n . H o w ev er , i t i s t h e l ess r eco gn i sed f o r m s o f t h eat r e an d d an ce (i .e., t h e m u si c h al l , acr o b at i cs an d t h e ci r cu s) w h i ch , f r o m a h i st o r i cal p er sp ect i v e, w er e t h e k ey f act o r s t h at i n f l u en ced t h e w ay t h e b o d y w as h an d l ed i n t h e ci n em a. T h i s can b e seen i n t h e sh o r t act s r eco n f i gu r ed f o r t h e cam er a i n ear l y f i l m s o r t h e co u n t l ess m u si cal s an d ch o r eo gr ap h i c p er f o r m an ces sh o w n i n ci n em as or o n t el evi si o n . I r r esp ect i v e o f w h et h er t h ese p er f o r m an ces co n st i t u t e t h e f i l m 's m ai n t h em e o r ar e si m p l y p ar t l y au t o n o m o u s m o m en t s o f at t r act i o n , t h ey r ef er t o t w o can o n i cal m o d es o f r ep r esen t at i o n o f t h e b o d y . O n t h e o n e h an d , t h er e i s t h e r esp ect f o r t h e i n t egr i t y o f t h e o r i gi n al p h y si cal p er f o r m an ce. O n t h e o t h er h an d , t h e p er f o r m an ce i s ed i t ed an d i n ser t ed i n a d y n am i c ser i es o f sh ot s. Bo t h o f t h ese i m p o r t an t p ar ad i g m s m ak e u p v ar i ed an d s e c o n d ar y act u al i sat i o n s o f p r im ar y d i sp o si t i v es r el at i n g t o t h e co d e o f b o d y m o v em en t s i n scen i c sp ect a-

L au r en t G u i d o , i n h i s ch ap t er en t i t l ed 'Fr o m Br o ad cast Per f o r m an ce t o V i r t u al Sh o w : T el ev i si o n 's T en n i s D i sp o si t i v e', co n cen t r at es o n o n e o f t h e r el at i o n sh i p s b et w een t w o su ccessi v e d i sp o si t i v es. H e ai m s sy st em at i cal l y t o i d en t i f y so m e o f t h e aest h et i c an d d r am at i c i m p l i cat i o n s o f h o w t en n i s i s f i l m ed an d ed i t ed w h en i t i s b r o ad cast l i ve, i n o t h er w o r d s t h e m ed i a d i sp o si t i v e t h at t u r n s i t i n t o a t el ev i si o n sp ect acl e. Par t i cu l ar at t en t i o n i s p ai d b o t h t o t h e r el at i o n sh i p b et w een t h e s c e n ic r ep r esen t at i o n t h at i s em p l o y ed i n t h e st ad i u m an d t o t h e seq u en ci n g o f t h e d i f f er en t v i ew p o i n t s t h at m ak e u p t h e f i l m v er si o n , b y i n cr easi n g t h e n u m b er o f cam er as u sed . T h e r ecu r r i n g f i gu r es t h at st an d o u t d u r i n g t h i s l i v e c u t t in g ar e o r gan i sed b y sw i t ch i n g b et w een t h e al l - en co m p assi n g an d geo m et r i cal v i si o n o f t h e m at ch ( o v er v i ew f r o m ab o v e o r ev en f r o m t h e ai r ) an d a ser i es o f sh o t s t h at co n cen t r at es o n t h e i n d i v i d u al gest u r es an d em o t i o n s, w h i c h ar e m ai n l y f i l m ed at co u r t l ev el . W h i l e ex am i n i n g d i f f er en t b r o ad cast s o f t h e W i m b l ed o n t en n i s t o u r n am en t o v er t h e p er i o d 19 9 7- 20 0 7, G u i d o al so ad o p t s a h i st o r i cal p er sp ect i v e t h at h i gh l i gh t s h o w so m e t r ad i t i o n al u ses an d m o d es o f r ep r esen t at i o n h av e b een m ai n t ai n ed o v er a l o n g p er i o d , w h i l e o t h er s h av e ch an ged . T h i s ch an ge i s esp eci al l y ev i d en t i n t h e n o t i o n o f 'p l u r i f o c al i t y '

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 21 h t t p :/ /s ite . e b ra ry .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 1 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

I n t r o d u c t i o n t o a n E p is t e m o lo g y o f V ie w in g a n d L is t e n in g D is p o s it iv e s

21

an d t h e q u est i o n o f t h e an al y si s an d an i m at i o n o f 'i n v i si b l e' gest u r es t h at ar o se w i t h t h e f i r st p h o t o gr ap h i c an d ci n em at o gr ap h i c i m ages o f sp o r t s ev en t s, f r o m G eo r ges D em en y t o L en i Ri ef en st ah l .

O v e rtu re

T h e co n t r i b u t i o n s i n t h e cu r r en t v o l u m e ar e p ar t o f a b r o ad er r esear ch p r o j ect b ei n g co n d u ct ed at t h e U n i v er si t y o f L au san n e. A ser i es o f r el at ed d ev el o p m en t s h av e b een u n d er t ak en ei t h er b y t h e au t h o r s o f t h e p r esen t b o o k ( b i b l i o gr ap h i cal d et ai l s o f w h o m can b e f o u n d b el o w ) o r b y r esear ch er s, l ect u r er s an d Ph D st u d en t s w h o ar e cu r r en t l y w o r k i n g o n si m i l ar t h em es. So m e ex am p l es o f cu r r en t r esear ch p r o j ect s i n cl u d e m ed i cal d i sco u r ses l i n k ed t o t h e ap p ear an ce o f t h e ci n em a at t h e en d o f t h e 19 t h cen t u r y, t h e ar ch aeo l o gi cal ap p r o ach t o v o y eu r i sm , w h i ch ev o l v ed i n t o o n e o f t h e r ecu r r en t co n cep t s o f ci n em at o gr ap h i c st u d i es, t h e i n t r o d u ct i o n o f au d i o v i su al t ech n o l o gi es i n co n t em p o r ar y t h eat r e an d h o w t h ey h av e af f ect ed n o t o n l y t h e act o r 's b o d y b u t al so t h e t el ev i si o n d i sp o si t i v e as i t sp r ead i n t h e 19 50 s, an d f i n al l y Sw i ss n at i o n al ex h i b i t i o n s, w h er e b o t h ci n em at i c an d au d i o v i su al m ean s h av e b een r eg u l ar l y em p l o y ed . T h i s b o d y o f r esear ch st ar t s w i t h ci n em a w h i l e at t em p t i n g t o b r o ad en t h e f i el d an d p er cei v e i t at a cr o ssr o ad s o f o t h er cu l t u r al , co gn i t i v e o r so ci al ser i es. T h i s i s u n i q u e w i t h i n Fr en ch - sp eak i n g Eu r o p e, w h er e sch o l ar s ar e oft en co n cer n ed w i t h st ay i n g w i t h i n t h e b o u n d ar i es o f co n v en t i o n al ci n em a st u d i es as d ef i n ed b y ci n em a cr i t i cs an d t h e gen er al p u b l i c. I t i s cl ear , h o w ev er , t h at v ar i o u s t r an sf o r m at i o n s, w h et h er o n t h e t ech n o l o gi cal l ev el o r t h o se i n v o l v i n g cu s t o m s an d so ci al p r act i ces, h av e sh i f t ed t h e b o u n d ar i es o f t h i s r est r i ct ed 'm o d el ' o n ce an d f o r al l . I t w o u l d , h o w ev er , b e f o o l i sh t o d en y t h at t h e m o d el i t sel f i s g o i n g t h r o u gh a cr i si s. T h e f i el d o f ar t h as ab so r b ed ci n em a w i t h i n a m ed l ey o f d i sp ar at e cat ego r i es; t h e n ew m ed i a h av e em p l o y ed ci n em a f o r o t h er p u r p o ses an d co n n ect ed i t w i t h o t h er so u r ces. Ev en t h e p ar am et er s o f ci n em a's can o n i cal ex p l o i t at i o n ar e ch an gi n g w i t h t h e n ew , m i n i at u r i z ed m ean s o f r ep r o d u ct i o n . W h en w e ex am i n e t h e 19 t h - cen t u r y n o v el i st s w h o 'p r o j ect ed ' t h e f u t u r e ci n em a an d t h e asp i r at i o n s an d u n d er t ak i n gs o f av an t - gar d e ar t i st s an d t h eo r i st s su ch as L i ssi t z k y , Gan , V er t o v, K l u t si s, A r v at o v , et c., w e see t h at 'ci n em a' p o t en t i al l y co n t ai n ed t o d ay 's d i v er si f i cat i o n , o r h i n t ed at p o ssi b i l i t i es t h at w er e n ev er f u l l y d ev el o p ed . A r c h aeo l o g y i s t h u s a m ean s o f co n st r u ct i n g t h e p r esen t .

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 2 h tt p ://s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 2 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

22

F r a n ç o is A lb e r a a n d M a r ia T o r ta ja d a

N o te s

1.

2.

Th e per spect i ve i s qui t e di fferen t fr om t hat of t he pi on eer s w h o fough t for r ecogn i t i on of t he m edi um . Th e em ergence of fi lm st udi es, laun ch ed b y Gi lber t Coh en -Seat i n 1946, coin ci ded w i t h t he dom i n at i on of ci nem a over the au d i ovi su al fi eld an d beyon d, t he 'm ass m edi a'. It s 'en d ' coi nci ded w i t h t elevi si on t ak i n g over t he dom i n an t posit i on, and the fact t hat soci ologi st s t ook ot her m ass m edi a i nt o accoun t (the i llust r at ed press, phot ogr aph s, ad ver t i si n g etc.). Rolan d Bart hes, w h o t ook par t i n r esearch w or k at the Inst it ut de Filmologie, w r ot e about t hi s 'm ove', w h i ch he h i m sel f m ade, i n h is r evi ew of the 'Fi r st I nt ernati onal Con fer en ce on V i su al I nfor m at i on , M i lan ' (9-12 Ju l y 19 61) ( Communicat ions no. 1, 19 61) - he calls on people to quest i on 't h e i m per i al i sm of t he ci nem a over t he ot her m ean s of vi su al i nfor m at i on '. 'Ci n em a’s dom i n a t i on i s dou bt less just i fi ed "h i st or i cal ly"', he cont inues, 'bu t i t can not be just i fi ed epi st em ologi call y'. O ne year pr evi ou sly, h e st at ed t hat ci n em a w as 'r ecogn i sed as the m odel of t he m ass m ed i a' ('Les "u n i t es t r au m at i qu es" au cinem a. Pr in ci pes de recher che', Revue int emat ionale de Filmologie, no. 34, July-Sept em ber i960).

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 3 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 3 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 4 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 4 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

7 a9 5 6 f 5 f f al 0 e 5 8 1 6 7 e 5 f 7 b 4 0 3 4 8 7 0 0 1 eb rary

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. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 5 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 5 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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Fr an çois A l ber a and M ar i a Tort ajada

In tro d u c tio n

T h e t ech n i cal so ci et y t h at cam e i n t o b ei n g i n t h e 17t h cen t u r y an d b ecam e t h e f l o u r i sh i n g i n d u st r i al so ci et y o f t h e 19 t h cen t u r y i n t r o d u ced a ser i es o f n ew co n d i t i o n s i n t o t h e f i el d o f i m ag e an d so u n d . T h ese co n d i t i o n s i n f l u en ced f i r st l y t h e e ffe c t s t h at w er e so u gh t an d p r o d u ced . T h er e w as a m o v e b o t h t o r eco r d an d

r ep r o d u ce r eal i t y as ex act l y as p o ssi b l e an d , o n t h e co n t r ar y, t o cr eat e t h e f an t as t i c an d em b o d y fan t asy. T h er e w as t h e p o r t r ay al o f su ch p h en o m en a as m o v e m en t , su ccessi o n an d t h e f l o w o f t i m e. Seco n d l y, an d m o r e si gn i f i can t l y , t h e n ew co n d i t i o n s h ad an i m p act o n t h e m e an s u sed , i n o t h er w o r d s, t h e d ev i ces an d m ach i n es. T h e m e c h an ic al m o d el , w h i ch b egan w i t h D escar t es an d d e l a M et t r i e, o v er t u r n ed A r i st o t l e's p h y si cs an d o p en ed u p a n ew co n cep t u al sp ace t h at g av e r i se t o a ser i es o f p r o p o si t i o n s co n cer n i n g t h e m o d es o f ap p r eh en si o n o f b o t h ob ject s an d b ei n gs, w i t h i n p ar t i cu l ar t h e d i v i si o n i n t o d i scr et e u n i t s, w h i ch co u l d t h en b e co m b i n ed . T h i s co n cep t u al sp ace al l o w ed f o r t h e b o d y 's m o b i l i si n g p o w er an d d y n am i cs t o b e l o cat ed o u t si d e o f i t . T h e i m p o r t an ce o f t h e p ar ad i g m o f t h e cl o ck i n t h e sev en t een t h cen t u r y i s w el l k n o w n — t h e cl o ck w i t h i t s w ei g h t s an d t h e sp r i n g - d r i v en w at ch w er e m i cr o - m ech an i sm s t h at i n au gu r at ed a n ew st at e t h at co m b i n ed t w o t y p es o f m o v em en t s an d st o p m ech an i sm s t o ach i ev e r eg u l ar i t y ; i t s ef f ect i s t o t r an sf o r m m o v em en t i n t o i n f o r m at i o n . O n e m i gh t sp eak o f a 'cl o ck - m ak i n g' e p is t e m e sp r ead i n g i m p l i ci t o r st at ed k n o w l ed g e i n v ar i o u s w ay s, i n v ar i o u s sect o r s o f k n o w l ed ge, i d eas, p r act i ces an d i n st i t u t i o n s, k n o w l ed g e b ased o n d i sso ci at i o n , assem b l i n g, ar t i cu l at i o n , au t o m at i sm , et c. (t h e cl ock o r w at ch m ak er w as a cen t r al ch ar act er i n t h e 18 t h cen t u r y t o get h er w i t h cl o ck s an d al so au t o m at a, r i gh t u p t o M él i ès's R o b e r t - H o u d in t h eat r e) .2 W e sp eak h er e o f e p is t e m e . T h e t er m , co i n ed b y M i ch el Fo u cau l t , i s p r o b l e m at i c, p ar t l y b ecau se o f t h e w a y i t 'co m p et es' i n t h i s ch ap t er w i t h t h e n o t i o n s o f 'm o d el ' an d 'p ar ad i g m ' w i t h w h i ch i t i s o f t en co n f u sed . Fo u cau l t 's e p is t e m e h as a ch ar act er i st i c w h i ch d i st i n gu i sh es i t f r o m t h e p ar ad ig m ( d escr i b ed b y T h o m as S. K u h n ) 3 an d a f o r t i o r i f r o m t h e m o d e l, i n t h at i t d o es n o t d ef i n e a st at e o f k n o w l ed g e - w h et h er sci en t i f i c o r p h i l o so p h i cal — at a p ar t i cu l ar m o m en t , b u t t h at w h i ch m ak es a t h eor y, p r act i ce o r o p i n i o n p o ssi b l e.

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 6 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 6 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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F r a n ç o is A lb e r a a n d M a r ia T o r ta ja d a

T h u s, o n e can say t h at t h e r ep r esen t at i o n o f t h e 'm ech an i cal er a' w as 'f i t t ed o u t w i t h t o o l s', 'en gi n eer ed ', an d n o l o n ger u sed i t s o w n t ech n i q u es ( t h o se o f t h e p ai n t er o r scu l p t o r , t h ei r sav o i r - f ai r e) b u t , i n st ead , u sed i n st r u m en t s an d t ech n i q u es d esi g n ed f o r o t h er en d s. T h i s 'eq u i p m en t ' o f t h e p r o cesses o f r ep r esen t a t i on r ep r esen t s o n e o f t h e t r an sf o r m at i o n s o f t h i s p er i o d , w h i c h w as ch ar ac t er i sed b y t h e p r o m o t i o n o f ( exi st i n g) ap p ar at u ses f r o m t h e st at u s o f in s t r u m e n t t o t h at o f m ac h in e ( D i i r er em p l o y ed ap p ar at u ses, as d i d t h e p e r s p e c t e u r s , b u t t h ey w er e co n t r o l l ed b y t h ei r o w n h an d s) .4 I t i s t r u e t h at Baz i n saw t h i s m o v e t o au t o m at is m as t h e d i sp o ssessi o n o f m an as cr eat or , b u t h e i m m ed i at el y b r o u gh t

b ack Pr o v i d en ce i n t o t h e l i b er at ed sp ace: t h e p h o t o gr ap h i c i m p r i n t i s t h e V ei l o f V er o n i ca, b u t t h er e i s n o l o n ger an i n t er m ed i ar y (it i s t h e ar t i st 's 't em p er am en t ' t h at i s i n t er p o sed as a p r i sm i n Z o l a's f am o u s ex p r essi o n t h at i s r ef er r ed t o h er e) . Bazi n , co n t r ar y t o W al t er Ben j am i n , b el i ev ed t h at o n e sh o u l d d o w it h o u t t h e ap p ar at u s b ecau se V er o n i ca's V ei l i s n ot t h e scr een , i t r ecei v es i t s i m p r i n t u si n g n ei t h er l en s n o r ex p o su r e t i m e, n o r d ev el o p m en t , p r i n t i n g, cal i b r at i o n , et c. ( an d y et w h en N i ep ce t o o k h i s f i r st p h o t o gr ap h , h e w as i m m ed i at el y su b j ect ed t o t h e w ei gh t o f t h e t ech n i cal d i sp o si t i v e o f h i s m ach i n e w i t h i t s t w o sh ad o w s - al r ead y t h e v er y 'f i r st ' l an d scap e i s n o t an i m p r i n t i n Baz i n 's u se o f t h e w o r d : i t r eco r d s sev er al t i m e- p er i o d s b ecau se o f t h e v er y n at u r e o f t h e m a ch i n e) . W h en Can al et t o i n t r o d u ced h i s C am er a O b scu r a i n V en i ce's p iaz z e an d , as i t w er e, 'f i x ed ' t h e l an d scap es, h e w as t ak i n g p ar t i n t h i s au t o m at i sm ; w h en h e co m b i n ed d i f f er en t i m ages, ad d ed a c am p an ile t ak en f r o m el sew h er e, m o v ed a ch u r ch o r a p al ace, i t w as b ecau se h e w as ab l e t o co n cei v e o f t h e p r o cess o f d i sso ci at i n g an d r eassem b l i n g a v i ew o n t h e b asi s o f p r esu p p o si t i o n s t h at w er e n o t b ased o n t h o se o f El G r eco , w h o 't u r n ed ' a b u i l d i n g ar o u n d i n h i s p ai n t i n g o f t h e T o l ed o l an d scap e.5 A n d a fo r t i o r i t h e p h o t o gr ap h er G u st av e L e Gr ay, w h o 'm o u n t ed ' h i s i m ages f r o m sev er al n egat i v es. T h e i n t r o d u ct i o n o f t h i s eq u i p m en t l ed t o a n ew t y p e o f r el at i o n b et w een o b ject , ap p ar at u s, r ep r esen t at i o n an d sp ect at o r , w h i ch w as t o t ak e co n cr et e f o r m at a cer t ai n m o m en t i n t h e d is p o s it iv e s o f v ie w in g an d lis t e n in g (i .e., an o r g an i sa t i on t h at assi g n s p o si t i o n s t o i t s p r o t ago n i st s) —t h e ci n em at o gr ap h , p h o t o gr ap h , t el evi si o n , p h o n o gr ap h , t el ep h o n e, et c., each o f w h i ch assu m ed v ar i o u s st r u c t u r es an d sh ap es. B y ex am i n i n g t h e co n d i t i o n s o f p o ssi b i l i t y o f t h ese d i sp o si t i ves, w e sh al l co n st r u ct w h at w e cal l t h e 19 0 0 e p is t e m e . T h an k s t o t h i s an al y si s o f t h e ep i st em o l o gy o f d i sp o si t i v es, w e sh al l b e i n a p o si t i o n t o en t i r el y r est r u c t u r e t h e f i el d o f m o d es o f r ep r esen t at i o n , i n cl u d i n g t r ad i t i o n al m ed i a su ch as p ai n t i n g o r l i t er at u r e.

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 7 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 7 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

T h e 19 0 0 E p is te m e

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D is p o s itiv e s a n d m a c h in e s : h y p o th e s e s

O t h er sch o l ar s h av e en v i sag ed t h ese d i sp o si t i v es an d m ach i n es. Fr o m o u r p o i n t o f v i ew , h o w ev er , n o n e o f t h ei r ap p r o ach es i s sat i sfact o r y. W e ar e r ef er r i n g h er e f i r st l y t o t h e v i si o n o f t h e 19 70 s, w h en sch o l ar s su ch as Jean - L o u i s B au d r y an d Jean - Pi er r e O u d ar t co n cen t r at ed o n t h e ci n em at o gr ap h , w h i ch w as o n l y ex am i n ed f r o m t h e p o i n t o f v i ew o f t h e p er cei v i n g su b j ect w i t h a L acan i an p er sp ec t i ve. Seco n d l y, t h er e i s Fr i ed r i ch K i t t l er 's t r an sf er r i n g o f t h e L acan i an t r i ad ( i m a gi n ar y, sy m b o l i c, r eal ) on t o t h at o f t h e gr am o p h o n e, ci n em a an d t y p ew r i t er , an d t h i r d l y Jo n at h an C r ar y 's an al y si s6 w h i ch , d esp i t e i t s Fo u cau l d i an p r em i se, n ot o n l y f ai l s t o ad d r ess t h e r el at i o n b et w een c o n c r e t e ‘ m a c h in id d i sp o si t i v es an d t h e d i sco u r ses h e an al y ses, b u t al so ch an ges d i r ect i o n b y f i x i n g o n t h e st er eo sco p e as t h e p l ace o f r u p t u r e an d em er gen ce o f a p h en o m en o l o gi cal m o d el o f t h e su b ject . C r ar y sees t h e i n t r o d u ct i o n o f su b j ect i v i t y w i t h t i m e an d d u r at i o n , an d f o cu ses o n t h e su b j ect r at h er t h an an al y si n g t h e co n st r u ct i o n o f t h e su b j ect v i a t h e d i sp o si t i v e ( f o r M i ch el Fo u cau l t , t h er e i s n o ( p h en o m en o l o gi cal ) su b ject , b u t d i sc u r si v e d i sp o si t i v es w h i ch assi g n a p l ace t o t h e su b j ect an d co n st i t u t e i t as su ch —'t h e d i sp o si t i v e i s ab o v e al l a m ach i n e w h i ch p r o d u ces su b j ect i v at i o n s') .7 O u r h y p o t h esi s i s t h er ef o r e t h at t h e n ew co n d i t i o n s o f v i ew i n g an d l i st en i n g t h at em er ged o u t o f i n d u st r i al so ci et y h av e r ed r aw n t h e sp ect at o r - sp ect acl e sch em a b y i n t r o d u ci n g t h e q u est i o n o f t h e di sposit ive, w h i c h assi g n s a n ew p o si t i on t o t h o se w h o v i ew . T h i s can b e seen n o t o n l y i n t h e i n t r o d u ct i o n o f m a ch i n es an d t o o l s t h at i n cr ease v i si o n ( f r o m t h e t el esco p e t o t h e m ag i c l an t er n ) , an d r eco r d i n g o r cap t u r i n g d ev i ces ( p h o t o gr ap h y , t h e gr am o p h o n e) , b u t al so i n t h e p r o m o t i o n - sp ect acl e o f t h e m an u f act u r ed ob ject , i t s exh ibit ion ( as Ph i l i p p e H am o n h as sh o w n w h en w r i t i n g ab o u t u n i v er sal ex h i b i t i o n s) ,8 t r af f i c co n d i t i o n s ( sp eed ) an d u r b an r el at i o n s ( sh ock s) , as w el l as i n t h e co m m en t ar i es t h at h i g h l i gh t su ch p h en o m en a. T h er e i s n o sh o r t age o f ex am p l es o f t h i s 'r egu l at i o n ' b y t h ese ap p ar at u ses an d m ach i n es, w h i c h b el o n g t o a w h o l e ser i es o f f i el d s t o w h i ch t h ey w er e p r e v i o u sl y n o t co n n ect ed —t h e r egu l at i o n o r d o m i n at i o n p r o ceed i n g f r o m t h e P r äg n an z o f t h ei r m o d es o f f u n ct i o n i n g. Fél i x Fén éo n w r o t e ab o u t t h e sh ad o w t h ea t r e i n 18 8 7 as f o l l o w s: M . H en r y Ri vi èr e h as ci vi li sed t he p r evi ou sl y r ud i m en t ar y art of t he sh adow t heat re. Befor e hi m , t he sh ad ow s filed past li k e ch ar act er s on fr i ezes or 'Par on i es'. W hen he h ad to en gi n eer M . Car an d 'A ch e's Epopée, h e posi t i on ed t hem w i t h an effect of per spect i ve at ever -gr eat er dist an ces, an d t h ough t u p m ast er ly an d i n st ant aneous t ri cks to h ave t he gr oup s of charact er s ad van ce and t hen di sappear . Gran t ed, t he scr een st ill on ly sh ow ed bl ack silhouet t es, bu t at least it w as n o lon ger a n aïve sur face, and

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 8 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 8 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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F r a n ç o is A lb e r a a n d M a r ia T o r ta ja d a

ach i eved dept h. A n d n ow t here i s d eci si ve p r ogr ess w i t h t he add i t i on o f ever y colour - i n for t y m inut es, for t y t ableaus h old t heir ow n .9 Em i l e V er h aer en co m m en t ed si m i l ar l y o n C l au d e M o n et 's w o r k s - t h e p i ct o r i al r eal i t y - v i a M ar ey 's ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h i c m ach i n e. A s i t w as t h e r ep r esen t at i o n o f a l an d scap e, h e ev o k ed i t s 'su c c essi v e asp ect s, ar r est ed i n f l i gh t b y an ey e o f ex t r ao r d i n ar y ac u i t y '.10 M o n et 's ey e b eco m es t h e p h o t o gr ap h i c gu n , i t cap t u r es ob ject s i n m i d - ai r , i n cl u d i n g ob ject s t h at ar e n o t n ecessar i l y b i r d s. A s W h i st l er w r o t e t o Fan t i n - L at o u r i n 18 6 2: 'Y o u cat ch i t [ t h e i n st an t ] i n f l i gh t j u st as y o u k i l l a b i r d i n t h e ai r '. T h ese ar e so m e ex am p l es o f m achin ic el em en t s t h at m ak e u p t h e d i sp o si t i v e b ef o r e t h e ad v en t o f t h e cinem a, an d t h at t h e ep i st em i c sch em a al l o w s u s t o f o r m u l at e, av o i d i n g t h e co n t en t - b ased , t el eo l o gi cal ap p r o ach w h i ch w o u l d h av e Fén éo n 'an t i ci p at e' t h e su ccessi v e i m ages o f t h e ci n em at o gr ap h i n Ri v i er e's sh ad o w t h eat r e, o r V er h aer en an d W h i st l er b e 'u n d er t h e i n f l u en ce' o f o r i n sp i r ed b y ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h y . T h e q u est i o n i s o f an o t h er o r d er , an d i n d eed r e f er s t o t h at 'i m p l i ci t k n o w l ed g e' t h at m ak es su ch st at em en t s p o ssi b l e. T h e q u est i o n t h u s b eco m es: w h at d i d on e cal l 'r ecr eat ed m o v em en t ' i n t h e n i n et een t h cen t u r y befor e t h e ap p ear an ce o f t h e k i n et o sco p e an d t h e ci n em at o gr ap h , an d aft er w ar ds? T h i s m ay seem t o b e a so m ew h at u n r ef i n ed v ar i ab l e, b u t t h e an sw er i s b y n o m ean s a st r ai gh t f o r w ar d on e. T h e n o t i o n o f m o v em en t , or ev en t h at o f b r eak i n g o u t o f t h e f r am ew o r k o f t h e r ep r esen t at i o n , w as so m et h i n g t h at co u l d b e ef f ect i v el y r eal i sed b ef o r e t h e ac t u al p r o d u ct i o n o f m o v em en t b y t h e m ach i n e o r t h e ef f ect o f m o v em en t b y m ean s o f o p t i cal i l l u si o n . T h e en r ap t u r ed cr i t i c, st an d i n g i n f r o n t o f o n e o f G u s t av e L e G r ay 's p h o t o gr ap h s, 't h e G r eat W av e' ( 18 58 ) , w r o t e t h at t h e sp ect at o r st an d i n g i n f r o n t o f t h e i m age w as su b j u gat ed b y i t s ex act n ess an d i t s r en d er i n g, 'an d w o u l d b e t em p t ed t o st ep b ac k w ar d i n o r d er n o t t o b e t o u ch ed b y i t s f u r i o u s m o m en t u m '.11 W h en d i scu ssi n g su ch a r eact i o n , on e can , o f co u r se, t ak e i n t o acco u n t t h e l i t er ar y gar r u l o u sn ess o f t h e cr i t i c. T h i s i s, af t er al l , w h at h e w r o t e af t er t h e ev en t , an d h e w as n ot act u al l y cau gh t i n t h e act o f b ack i n g aw ay i n t h e m an n er o f t h e f i r st sp ect at o r s at t h e Gr an d Café r eact i n g i n f r o n t o f t h e i r r u p t i o n o f t h e l o co m o t i v e. Bu t t h e f act r em ai n s t h at t h e cr i t i c can n o t d escr i b e su ch a r eact i o n w i t h o u t a cer t ai n agr eem en t , w i t h o u t i t b ei n g accept able t o r ead er s ( i r r esp ect i v e o f w h et h er t h ey h av e seen t h e p h o t o gr ap h ) . I t sh o u l d , m o r e o ver , b e n o t ed t h at l i k e L e Gr ay , t h e L u m i èr e b r o t h er s set o u t t o 'f i x ' t h e m o v e m en t o f w av es w h i ch , l i k e t h at o f sm o k e, w i n d r u st l i n g l eav es, w at er f al l s, et c., p r o d u ces a gr eat er ef f ect t h an t h at o f p eo p l e p ar ad i n g p ast , l i k e i n t h e sh ad o w t h eat r e. T h e n o t i o n o f effect i s a cr u ci al o n e f o r cer t ai n p h o t o g r ap h er s an d , t o a l ar ge ext en t , ad d r esses t h e r el at i o n b et w een t h e r ep r esen t at i o n an d t h e sp ect a t or . L e G r ay en t er s i n t o so m e d et ai l o n t h e q u est i o n i n h i s t r eat i se o f 18 50 .12

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 9 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 9 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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M o v em en t can b e i n f er r ed f r o m ef f ect i f t h e ef f ect f i x es so m et h i n g m o v i n g w i t h p ar t i cu l ar f o r ce ( as i s t h e case f o r a w av e) . T h i s n o t i o n o f effect al so al l o w s u s t o u n d er st an d h o w b l ack - an d - w h i t e p h o t o g r ap h y i n 18 50 co u l d b el o n g t o t h e p r o b l em at i c o f t h e co l o u r i st p ai n t er s, w h o b r o k e w i t h t h e su p r em acy o f d r aw i n g i n f av o u r o f w o r k o n t h e 'eco n o m y o f l i gh t ', co n t o u r s, n u an ces o f t h e sam e co l o u r , o r m ass p r o cessi n g w h i ch al o n e su i t ed co l o u r , as Bau d el ai r e w r o t e i n h i s Sal on o f 18 4 6 ( T I L O n C o l o u r ') .13 Su ch agr eem en t i n t h e t y p e o f r eact i o n s ar o u sed b y a r ep r esen t at i o n can d o u b t l ess b e ex p l ai n ed b y t h e ch an ge b r o u gh t ab o u t b y p h o t o g r ap h y w h en co m p ar ed t o a p i ct o r i al r ep r esen t at i o n , l ead i n g t o a p h en o m en o n o f 'absor bm en t ' (t h e m ean i n g b ei n g a l i t t l e d i f f er en t f r o m M i ch ael Fr i ed 's 'ab so r p t i o n ') , sev er al ex am p l es o f w h i ch w er e g i v en b y D i d er o t i n h i s d escr i p t i o n s (h e co n st r u ct ed a n ar r at i v e w h i c h i n v o l v ed p en et r at i n g i n si d e t h e p i ct u r e an d n av i g at i n g w i t h i n i t — an d ev en l o si n g o n esel f i n si d e i t ).14 T h e p h o t o gr ap h i c p ar ad i g m t h u s b eco m es t h e i n t er p r ét an t o f t h e d i f f er en t v i su al p h en o m en a. I n L e G r ay 's w o r k , t h i s effect o f b r eak i n g o u t p r o d u ced t h e d i sso ci at i o n o f t h e t w o p l an es (t h e sea an d t h e sk y) , ev en i f t h e d i sso ci at i o n i s n ot l i t er al l y en act ed b u t 'f ak ed '. Si n ce t h e t w o el em en t s ar e n ot co n t i n u o u s, t h ey p r o d u ce t h e d eh i s cen ce w h i ch sees t h e b o t t o m t h r eat en i n g t o d et ach i t sel f f r o m t h e t op b ecau se t h e r esp ect i v e p r eci si o n o f t h ei r ex ecu t i o n m ak es t h em d i sso ci ab l e, i n a m an n er o f sp eak i n g. T h e ack n o w l ed g ed i n fl u en ce o f t h e p an o r am a m o d el o n L e G r ay can b e seen h er e, w h er e t w o o r t h r ee h o r i z o n t al z o n es w er e su p er p o sed - t h e sk y, t h e sea an d t h e sh o r e, w h er e n o t h i n g l i m i t ed t h em o n t h e si d es. H er e w e ar e i n a 'm ach i n e' ( w i t h f ak i n g b y m ean s o f t w o j u x t ap o sed n egat i v es) an d a d i sp o si t i v e (t h e sp ect at o r i s i n v i t ed t o d i sco v er an ef f ect o f p r eci si o n t h at ex ceed s t h e co d es t h at ar e i n f o r ce an d i s t h u s b r o u gh t t o a 'n ew v i si o n ' o f a p h en o m en o n t h at w as n ev er t h el ess w el l k n o w n an d r ep r esen t ed ) . T h u s, w e see t h at p h o t o g r ap h y ad o p t ed so m et h i n g o f t h e d i sp o si t i v e o f t h e p an o r am a, b ef o r e p ai n t i n g b o r r o w ed i t f r o m p h o t o g r ap h y i n t h e w o r k s o f W h i st l er , Co u r b et , M an et an d Bo u d i n . A s W al t er Ben j am i n w r o t e / 5 L e G r ay 's w av e sp r ead i n p ai n t i n g, w h er e C o u r b et i n p ar t i cu l ar w o n t h e r ep u t at i o n o f h av i n g f i x ed an i n st an t an eo u s sn ap sh o t .16

R e s e a rc h a im s

W e h av e d eci d ed n ei t h er t o esp o u se t h e ap p r o ach es o f t h e 19 70 s, n o r t o f o l l o w i n t h e f o o t st ep s o f su ch sch o l ar s as C r ar y — w h o se ex am p l e, d esp i t e o u r r e ser v es, i s an i n t er est i n g o n e - b u t t o ex am i n e t h e ci n em at o gr ap h i c d i sp o si t i v e. Fo r t h e p u r p o ses o f o u r d em o n st r at i o n , i t h as b een r ed u ced h er e t o t h e 'v i ew -

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 3 0 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 3 0 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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i n g ' d i sp o si t i v e al o n e, i m p l y i n g t h at t h e 'l i st en i n g ' d i sp o si t i v e st i l l h as t o b e co n st r u ct ed . O u r ai m i s t h u s t o d escr i b e an d ap p r eh en d t h i s d i sp o si t i v e: 1. as an epist er nic schem a ( d efi n i t i o n ) ; 2. as b el o n gi n g t o a n et w o r k , a w i d er ep i st er n i c co n f i gu r at i o n ( t h at o f ci n e m at i cs, o f M ar ey 's p h y si o l o g y o f m o v em en t , w h i ch b r eak s d o w n b o t h an i m al an d h u m an m o v em en t i n t o d i f f er en t p h ases; or t h at o f so ci al p r act i ces, su ch as b ei n g i n a t r ai n w i t h t h e sp ect acu l ar i sat i o n o f t h e l an d scap e, b r i n gi n g t o get h er an i m m o b i l e sp ect at o r , a m o b i l e sp ect acl e an d a f r am ew o r k o f v i si o n ) ( i n cl u si o n ) ; 3. as p r o v i d i n g a m o d el - a p ar ad i g m - n o t o n l y w i t h i n t h e r est r i ct ed f i el d o f v i ew i n g d i sp o si t i v es, b u t go i n g b ey o n d i t t o t h e b r o ad er f i el d o f v i su al i t y (i. e., p ai n t i n g an d l i t er at u r e) , an d ev en t o t h at o f t h o u gh t (t h e 'ci n em a', a m o d el o f k n o w l ed g e acco r d i n g t o Ber gso n , a m o d el o f t h e p sy ch i c ap p ar at u s f o r so m e p sy ch o l o gi st s o r p sy ch o an al y st s) ( ext en si on ) . T o d ev el o p t h ese t h r ee p o i n t s: 1. W h at i s an ep i st er n i c sch em a i n t h e co n t ext o f o u r r esear ch ? A f o r m at i o n or ep i st er n i c sch em a d ef i n es t h e f o r m al i sat i o n o f a ser i es o f v i ew i n g d i sp o si t i v es — t o b e u n d er st o o d as m ach i n es/ d i sco u r ses/ p r act i ces - t h at w e m u st co n st r u ct .17 2. O n ce t h e sch em a i s m ad e ex p l i ci t as a n et w o r k o f r el at i o n s, t h at i t h as t h e st at u s o f a t h eo r et i cal ob ject , si n gu l ar d i sp o si t i v es ap p ear as em p i r i cal si n g u l ar act u al i sat i o n s o f t h i s sch em a. 3. T h e sch em a t h at b r i n gs t o get h er al l t h e el em en t s asso ci at ed w i t h t h e ci n em a t o gr ap h i c d i sp o si t i v es w i l l b e t h e 'ci n em a' sch em a, i t b ei n g u n d er st o o d t h at t h e t er m d o es n o t m at ch cin em a seen as an em p i r i cal ob ject . O u r d ef i n i t i o n o f t h e v i ew i n g d i sp o si t i v e i s su f f i ci en t l y b r o ad t o en ab l e u s t o o p en u p t o r esear ch b ey o n d an y p ar t i cu l ar si n gu l ar h i st o r i cal v ar i at i o n o f t h e ci n em at o gr ap h i c d i sp o si t i v e. W e co n si d er t h at a v i ew i n g d i sp o si t i v e f o r m al i ses t h e l i n k s b et w een sp ect at o r , m ach i n er y an d r ep r esen t at i o n . B y m ach i n er y w e m ean n o t o n l y t h e v i ew i n g m ach i n e as a t ech n i cal ob ject ( f or ex am p l e, t h e p r o j ect i o n ap p ar at u s) b u t al so al l t h e el em en t s u sed t o sh o w (i n t h e w i d er sen se o f t h e t er m ) : f o r ex am p l e t h e scr een , t h e m i r r o r o f t h e p h en ak i st o sco p e, p h o t o gr am s, t h e ch em i cal p r o cess o f p h o t o gr ap h y . T h e ep i st er n i c sch em a b r i n gs t o get h er t w o d i st i n ct l ev el s i n i t s d ef i n i t i o n : t h e sp eci f i cat i o n o f t h e concr et e el em en t s o f t h e v ar i o u s d i sp o si t i v es, an d t h e concept s t h at ar e l i n k ed t o t h em — f o r ex am p l e, t h e n o t i o n s o f t h e b r eak i n g d o w n o f m o v em en t , t em p o r al i m m ed i acy o r d ef er r ed b r o ad cast i n g. W e b el i ev e t h at i n o r d er t o co n st r u ct su ch a sch em a, i t i s v i t al t o b r i n g t o get h er sev er al ap p r o ach es, w h i c h w e can su m m ar i se as f o l l o w s: a) t h e st u d y o f

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 31 h t t p :/ /s ite . e b ra ry .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 3 1 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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d i sco u r ses, b) t h e st u d y o f co n cr et e d i sp o si t i v es, ev en i f t h i s i s t oo si m p l i st i c a f o r m al i sat i o n , as i n b o t h cases d i sco u r ses m ay al l o w k n o w l ed g e (savoi r ) t o b e co n st r u ct ed , an d c) t h e st u d y o f i n st i t u t i o n al an d so ci al p r act i ces t h at ar e b o t h en g ag ed by, an d t h at en gage, t h ese d i sp o si t i v es. T h e f i r st t w o w i l l b e d ev el o p ed f u r t h er .

S tu d ie s o f d is c o u rs e s

A n ep i st em o l o gi cal p er sp ect i v e w i l l b e t ak en t o st u d y t h e d i f f er en t d i sco u r ses, an d t o d i st i n gu i sh t h e v ar i o u s sp aces o f en u n ci at i o n : 1. t h e sci en t i f i c d i sco u r ses o f i n v en t o r s, en gi n eer s an d p o p u l ar i ser s; 2. t h e t ech n i cal ( p r escr i p t i v e) d i sco u r ses o f t ech n i ci an s, sal esm en , et c.; 3. t h e d i sco u r ses o f u ser s ( sp ect at o r s, ev en t m an ager s) co n si d er ed w i t h i n t h ei r i n st i t u t i o n al

f r am ew o r k

(im p lyin g

h i er ar ch i es,

l egi t i m at i n g

d i sco u r ses,

p o w er r el at i o n s, et c.) ; 4. l i t er ar y d i sco u r ses t h at p r o d u ce v ar i at i o n s o f t h e d i sp o si t i v e w i t h i n an i m a gi n ar y w o r l d ( V er n e, V i l l i er s d e l 'l sl e A d am , Jar r y, A p o l l i n ai r e, Ro u ssel ) ; 5. d i sco u r ses o f t h e sp ect acu l ar ( m agi c an d co n j u r i n g, i .e. M el i es) . W e ai m t o i d en t i f y t h e d i f f er en t v i ew i n g d i sp o si t i v es i n t h ese d i sco u r ses, w h at ev er t h ei r n at u r e ( an d n ot o n l y t h ose d eal i n g w i t h ci n em at o gr ap h y i n t h e st r i ct sen se o f t h e t er m ) an d t h u s p i n p o i n t t h e co n st i t u en t s o f t h e ep i st em i c sch em a t o w h i c h ci n em a i n i t s v ar i o u s f o r m s co n t r i b u t es as a si n gu l ar h i st o r i cal d i sp o si t i ve. W e sh al l , m o r eo v er , n ot o n l y set o u t t o i d en t i f y t h e v ar i o u s co n st i t u en t s o f t h e d i sp o si t i v e su ch as t h ey ar e ev i n ced i n t h ese d i sco u r ses, b u t al so p i n p o i n t t h e d i f f er en t v ar i at i o n s, ex t en si o n s an d l i n k s t h at ar e est ab l i sh ed w i t h i n t h e d i f f er en t d i sco u r ses b et w een su ch el em en t s o f t h e d i sp o si t i v e an d o t h er f i el d s o f k n o w l ed g e o r p r act i ces. Fi n al l y, w e sh al l d et er m i n e t h e p l ace g i v en t o each v i su al d i sp o si t i v e i n each d i sco u r se. T h i s w i l l , f o r ex am p l e, en t ai l d ef i n i n g t h e f u n ct i on g i v en t o t h e p ar t i cu l ar d i sp o si t i v e. I s i t a t ool , a m o d el o f t h o u gh t o r t h e act u al o b ject o f st u d y ? V ar i o u s ex am p l es o f t h i s k i n d o f i n v est i gat i o n can b e en v i sag ed - t w o asp ect s ar e p r esen t ed i n t h e b r i ef acco u n t t h at f o l l o w s: l ) W h at d o es a p ar t i cu l ar d i s co u r se r et ai n o f t h e v i ew i n g d i sp o si t i v e t h at i t est ab l i sh es? 2) W h at f u n ct i o n d o es i t g i v e t o t h i s/ t h ese d i sp o si t i v e( s) i n i t s d i sco u r se?

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 3 2 h tt p ://s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 3 2 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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M a r ey M ar ey ap p r o ach ed t h e d i f f er en t v i ew i n g d i sp o si t i v es t h at h e u sed o r d ev el o p ed ( f r o m t h e gr ap h i c n o t at i o n m et h o d t o ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h y ) b y st ar t i n g f r o m h i s i n t er est i n locom ot ion. H i s ai m w as t o n ot e, b r eak d o w n an d t r an scr i b e an i m al an d h u m an m o v em en t i n d i scr et e u n i t s. H e w as ab so l u t el y u n co n cer n ed w i t h per cept ion , w h i ch , i n fact , h e av o i d ed b ecau se i t d i d n o t cap t u r e t h e r el ev an t

ar t i cu l at i o n s. T h e z o et r o p e an d ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h y p r o v i d ed h i m w i t h a m ean s o f ch eck i n g an d f i n e- t u n i n g h i s n o t at i o n s. T h e i n cr ease i n p h ases an d gr eat er f r agm en t a t i on w er e a r esu l t o f t h e so u gh t - af t er cor r espon dence b et w een p h en o m en a an d n o t at i o n s. — Fo r h i m , t h e d i sp o si t i v e w as d ef i n ed b y t h e ci n em at i c t r ai t s o f t h e o b ser v ed p h en o m en o n , an d i t s t r an scr i p t i o n w as g r o u n d ed i n t h e f r am ew o r k o f p h y si o l o gy. - T h e d i sp o si t i v e w as t h e m o d el o f t h e ob ject t h at h e w as an al y si n g (h e h i g h l i gh t ed t h e r el ev an t ch ar act er i st i cs) . H o w ev er , r esear ch i n t o t h e co r r esp o n d en ce b et w een t h e p h ases o f t h e p h en o m en o n an d t h e i n st an t s t h at w er e ch o sen w as co m p l i cat ed b y t h e q u est f o r a scal e o f t em p o r al n o t at i o n b ased on t h e r eg u l ar i t y o f t h e i n t er v al s. W h en t h e ch o sen m o m en t s co r r esp o n d t o t h e i n t er v al s o f t h e cl ock , w h at i s n o t ed i s si m p l y an y an d n o t o n l y r em ar k ab l e - i n st an t s: 'p h o t o g r am s' b r eak d o w n t h e m o v em en t w i t h o u t co n si d er i n g t h e r el ev an ce o f t h e cu t s. M o r eo v er , t h i s cu t t i n g u p i s v er i f i ed b y t h e r eco n st i t u t i o n o f t h e m o v em en t , w h i c h i s ap p ar en t d u r i n g p r o j ect i o n an d ad j u st ed acco r d i n g t o t h e p er cep t i o n o f t h e sp ect at o r . ®

T h e l o gi c o f t h e ap p ar at u s - i .e., i t s f u n ct i o n i n g - su p p l an t s t h e l o gi c o f t h e p h en o m en o n u n d er an al y si s, t h u s t h e v i su al d i sp o si t i v e i s d ef i n ed i n o t h er t er m s.

W h en M ar ey ad o p t ed a v ect o r o f r eg u l ar i t y ( i .e., eq u i d i st an t i n t er val s) t h at i s o u t si d e t h e act u al p h en o m en o n , h e w as b r o u gh t b ack t o p er cep t i o n , an d t h u s t o i l l u si o n . - I t t h u s b ecam e n ecessar y t o d ev el o p a t h i r d p h ase - m an i p u l at i n g t h e p r o j ec t i on ap p ar at u s, w h i ch can b e sl o w ed d o w n , sp eed ed u p o r st o p p ed t o co m e b ac k t o an al y si n g m o v em en t i n sci en t i f i c t er m s. T h ese ch ar act er i st i cs o f t h e 'ci n em a' d i sp o si t i v e, w h i ch M ar ey sy st em at i z ed , w o u l d i n p ar t b e i n t egr at ed i n t o t h e ci n em a as en t er t ai n m en t ( r ever si o n , sl o w m o t i o n , an d accel er at ed m o t i o n as at t r act i o n s f o r t h e L u m i èr e b r o t h er s) , an d t h en sci en t i f i c ci n em a (t h e g r o w t h o f f l o w er s, et c.) .

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 3 3 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 3 3 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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B e rg s o n

M ar ey 's ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h y w as a v i ew i n g d i sp o si t i v e t h at p l ay ed a k ey r ol e f o r Ber gso n , as t h e d i sp o si t i v e det er m i n ed t h e v i ew p o i n t h e w as t o d ev el o p : h e ai m ed t o go b ey o n d i t i n t h e n am e o f h i gh er k n o w l ed ge. I n t h e co n t ext o f p h i l o so p h i cal d i sco u r se, Ber gso n r ef er r ed t o a v ar i et y o f v i ew i n g d i sp o si t i v es - f o r ex am p l e, t h e p h o t o gr ap h , 'al r ead y t ak en , al r ead y d ev el o p ed ', t h at h e u sed t o m o d el 'p u r e p er cep t i o n , an d t h e 'd i scer n m en t ' t h at i t i m p l i es; o r t h e p r o cess o f p h o t o gr ap h i c f o cu si n g, w h i ch r ef er s t o t h e act i v i t y o f t h e m em o r y .3® H e u sed t h e r ef er en ce t o ci n em a b y co n si d er i n g cer t ai n o f i t s asp ect s - t h e m ech an i cal el em en t , t h e p h o t o gr am m at i c, t h e p h en o m en o n o f t h e b r eak i n g d o w n o f m o v em en t an d i t s r eco m p o si t i o n . H e w as t h u s p ar t i cu l ar l y i n t er est ed i n t h e m ach i n er y, r at h er t h an t h e r ep r esen t at i o n al si d e. I t w as a d i sp o si t i v e t h at w as p ar t o f t h e p r o j ect t h at Ber gso n d ev el o p ed , h i s ai m b ei n g t o cr i t i ci se t h e an al y t i cal p r o cess o f sci en ce - an d i t g av e h i m a m o d el o f t h e f u n ct i o n i n g o f sci en t i f i c t h o u gh t . I t w as t h u s a cen t r al p i l l ar o f Ber gso n 's d i sco u r se, an d b ecam e n o t o n l y t h e i l l u st r at i o n o f a h i st o r i cal p h en o m en o n , b u t al so a m o d el , i n essen ce a co n cr et e ep i st em i c sch em a t h at w as p r o p er t o t h e co m p l ex p h i l o so p h i cal sy s t em t h at h e el ab o r at ed . T h at , o f co u r se, d o es n o t m ean t h at t h i s m o d el o f t h e ci n em a co r r esp o n d s t o t h e ep i st em i c sch em a t h at w e w i sh t o co n st r u ct , b u t i t i s i n t er est i n g t o n ot e t h at i n t h e h i st o r i cal co n t ext o f 19 0 0 , t h e v i ew i n g d i sp o si t i v e i n q u est i o n acq u i r ed t h i s st at u s. T h e ep i st em i c sch em a t o b e co n st r u ct ed w i l l h av e t o t ak e t h i s asp ect i n t o accou n t .

Ja r r y A l f r ed Jar r y t ak es u s i n t o t h e w o r l d o f l i t er ar y d i sco u r se w h i ch i n n o w a y cl ai m s t o co n st i t u t e a t y p e o f k n o w l ed g e ( connn issance), an d y et w h i ch i n v en t s a t y p e o f k n o w l ed g e (savoi r ) v i a t h e i m ag i n ar y w o r l d t h at i t d ev el o p s. T h u s, t h r o u gh Jar r y 's v ar i o u s f i ct i o n s, w e can co n st r u ct a cr i t i ci sm o f Ber gso n 's t h eo r y o n t h e ex p er i en ce o f m o v em en t as con t i n u i t y, t h an k s, i n p ar t i cu l ar , t o r ef er en ce t o t h e ci n em at o gr ap h i c d i sp o si t i v e. T h e ci n em at o gr ap h i c d i sp o si t i v e i s f o r m u l at ed i n a v ar i et y o f w ay s i n Jar r y 's w o r k , w h i ch d i st an ce i t f r o m t h e h i st o r i cal m o d el t h at sp ect at o r s at t h e t u r n o f t h e cen t u r y w er e f am i l i ar w i t h . H e ex p l o i t ed t h e m ach i n e, t h e ser i es o f p h o t o gr am s, t h e p r o j ect o r 's an d ci n e- cam er a's r o t at i n g m o v em en t s, an d t h e i m p act o f sp eed . A b o v e al l , Jar r y b r eak s u p t h e d i f f er en t f i el d s o f k n o w l ed g e an d ex p er i en ce b y p i t t i n g t h em agai n st each ot h er , m i x i n g t h em t o get h er an d p l ay i n g w i t h p ar ad o x . H e ex p l o i t s t h e v ar i o u s m ach i n es o f t h e m o d er n w o r l d - t r ai n s, au t o m o b i l es an d cy cl es o f al l t y p es ar e p r esen t , w h et h er i n h i s p l ay s, n o v el s o r n ew s-

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 3 4 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 3 4 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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p ap er ar t i cl es. T h e i m ag i n ar y v ar i at i o n s o n t h e ci n em at o gr ap h i c d i sp o si t i v e co m e f ace t o f ace w i t h o t h er v i ew i n g d i sp o si t i v es, su ch as p h o t o gr ap h y , as i s t h e case i n so m e o f t h e t ext s i n la C h an d e lle v e r t e . Bu t t h er e ar e al so o t h er sci en t i fi c f i el d s - i n le S u r m âle ( T h e S u p e r m ale ) , Jar r y st ages a co m b at b et w een t w o gi an t s, o n e em b o d y i n g k i n em at i cs v i a t h e ci n em at o gr ap h , t h e o t h er el ect r i ci t y v i a t h e d y n am o . B et w een t h e l i n es, o n e can sp o t t h e t r aces o f t h e co n cep t u al b at t l e b ei n g f o u gh t o u t b et w een t h e t w o k ey d o m ai n s o f p h y si cs — m ech an i cs an d el ect r o m agn et i sm - w h i ch w en t t h r o u gh a ser i o u s cr i si s at t h e en d o f t h e 19 t h cen t u r y, t h at w o u l d u l t i m at el y b e r eso l v ed b y Ei n st ei n 's d i sco v er i es o f r e st r i ct ed r el at i vi t y. Jar r y t est ed b o t h p h i l o so p h i cal an d sci en t i f i c co n cep t s i n h i s l i t er ar y w r i t i n gs an d b y m ean s o f i n v en t i n g m ach i n es - 'h i s' ci n em at o gr ap h b ei n g o n e o f t h e m o st i m p o r t an t o n es. H i s p r o p o sal s co n cer n i n g v i ew i n g d i sp o si t i v es en t er i n t o t h e ex t en d ed ep i st em i c sch em a t h at w e seek t o con st r u ct , an d al l o w u s t o gau g e h i s cap aci t y o f d ef i n i n g a cer t ai n 'm o d er n i t y '.

Apol l i n a i r e A p o l l i n ai r e's i n t er est i n t h e ci n em a i s r eg u l ar l y ev o k ed b y sch o l ar s w h o m en t i o n t h e co l u m n ab o u t f i l m s t h at h e st ar t ed w r i t i n g i n t h e 19 10 s i n le s S o ir é e s d e P ar is , an d t h e r o l l s o f f i l m t h at ar e k ep t at t h e B ib lio t h è q u e N at io n ale . T h ey al so n ot e t h at h e co m p o sed a scr i p t - la B r é h at in e — t h at w as 'n o t m ean t f o r f i l m i n g' - as Ben j am i n Fo n d an e l at er p o i n t ed o u t i n d ef i n i n g a 'g en r e' t h at w as p o p u l ar w i t h t h e D ad ai st s an d Su r r eal i st s. L i k e h i s co n t em p o r ar y , t h e h u m o r i st C am i , A p o l l i n ai r e p ar o d i ed ci n em a's act i o n - p ack ed st o r i es. Sch o l ar s al so m en t i o n t h e i n t er v i e w h e g av e t o S IC i n 19 16 an d h i s l ect u r e at t h e T h e at r e du V ieu x C o lo m b ie r i n 19 17 , w h er e h e ex t o l l ed t h e v i r t u es o f 'ar t n o u v eau ', 'p o p u l ar ar t p ar ex cel l en ce'. Bu t n o w h er e i s m en t i o n m ad e o f t h e st o r y en t i t l ed 'l e Ro i - L u n e' (t h e 'M o o n K i n g') , w h i ch w as p u b l i sh ed at t h e sam e t i m e i n t h e M e r c u r e d e F r an c e . 19 H e u sed m ach i n es t h at co m b i n ed so m e o f t h e ch ar act er i st i cs o f t h e ci n em at o gr ap h an d t h e p h o n o gr ap h . T h ese i n cl u d ed r eco r d i n g an d t h e ab i l i t y t o r ep r o d u ce a so u n d o r i m age t ak en , an d t h u s f u r n i sh ed t h e p o ssi b i l i t y o f r e- l i v i n g a p ast even t , cr eat i n g t h e i l l u si o n o f r eal i t y, et c. H e t h u s d ev el o p ed t w o asp ect s w h i ch an t i ci p at ed t h e f u t u r e t o com e: v i r t u al i t y an d si m u l t an ei t y. Fi r st l y, t h e f i l m i n g o f i m p r o b ab l e i m ag es o f p eo p l e l i v i n g i n t h e p ast (i .e., gr eat i n am o r at a) cau gh t i n i m p r o b ab l e si t u at i o n s ( sex u al p l easu r e, f o r ex am p l e) p r o d u ces a si m u l at ed ac t i v i t y t h at i s r eal l y ex p er i en ced ( m o v i n g f r o m si m u l acr a t o si m u l at i o n ) . Sec o n d l y, co m m u n i cat i o n v i a a m i cr o p h o n e w i t h t h e w h o l e o f t h e p l an et f r o m a cen t r e p o i n t ( t h an k s t o t h e t el egr ap h i c w i r e, w h i ch t ak es t h e p l ace o f t h e r ad i o w av es t h at w i l l co m e l at er ) b r i n g s ab o u t t h e gen er al i sed i n t er co m m u n i cat i o n w i t h i n t h e 'g l o b al v i l l ag e'. A p o l l i n ai r e t h u s co n cei v ed o f o p er at i o n s t h at on e

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 3 5 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 3 5 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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w o u l d n o w u su al l y r el at e t o t h e ad v en t o f 'n ew t ech n o l o gi es' b y u si n g 'o l d n ew t ech n o l o gi es'. H i s n ar r at o r d escr i b es a b o x, a k i n d o f ap p ar at u s t h at en ab l es on e t o i n t er act w i t h v i r t u al i m ag es ( 'I co u l d l o o k at , t ou ch , i n a w o r d I co u l d p l ea su r e ... t h e b o d y w i t h i n m y r each , w h er eas t h e b o d y h ad n o i d ea t h at I w as t h er e, as i t h ad n o pr esen t r eal i t y ') . M o r eo v er , t h e o r gan b el o n g i n g t o t h e M o o n K i n g ( L o u i s I I o f Bav ar i a) , w h i ch i s co n n ect ed b y 'so p h i st i cat ed m i cr o p h o n es ... so as t o b r i n g i n t o t h i s u n d er gr o u n d p l ace t h e n o i ses co m i n g f r o m t h e f u r t h est o u t p o st s o f t er r est r i al l i f e', b r i n gs h i m d i r ect l y u p t o d at e w i t h t h e m u r m u r s, f r acas, an d w o r d s f r o m t h e r est o f t h e w o r l d : 'N o w i t w as t h e m u r m u r s o f a Jap an ese l an d scap e ... T h en ... w e w er e t r an sp o r t ed ... T h en ... w e f o u n d o u r sel v es at Pap eet e m ar k et , ... n o w w e ar e i n A m er i ca ... I t i s f o u r o 'cl o ck . I n Ri o d e Jan ei r o a car n i v al - l i k e cav al cad e go es p ast ... I t i s si x o 'cl o ck o n Sai n t - Pi er r ed e- l a- M ar t i n i q u e . .. Sev en o 'cl o ck , Par i s', et c. I n o t h er w o r d s, w e ar e p r esen t ed w i t h an au r i cu l ar , i m m o b i l e t o u r o f t h e w o r l d . A p o l l i n ai r e t h u s u sed so m e o f t h e ch ar act er i st i cs o f t h e ci n em at o gr ap h i c an d p h o n o g r ap h i c d i sp o si t i v es an d t h ei r v ar i ab l es r el at ed t o v i ew i n g o r l i st en i n g ap p ar at u ses t h at p r eced ed o r ar e co n t em p o r ar y t o t h e ci n em a. H e p r o d u ced n o v el co m b i n at i o n s t h at co n v ey h o w t h e i m ag i n ar y w o r l d o f t h e 'ci n em a' i n cl u d es f u n ct i o n s an d f acu l t i es t h at w o u l d l at er b e d i st r i b u t ed d i f f er en t l y ( b y sp ec i f y i n g t h at a p ar t i cu l ar m ach i n e w o u l d d eal w i t h a p ar t i cu l ar t ask ) acco r d i n g t o i n d u st r i al o r co m m er ci al d et er m i n at i o n s.

T h e p r o p o s e d m o d e l f o r s tu d y in g c o n c r e te d is p o s itiv e s

A p ar t f r o m t h ese d i sco u r ses, i t i s n ecessar y t o st u d y n ot o n l y t h e co n cr et e f u n c t i o n i n g o f t h e v ar i o u s v i ew i n g d i sp o si t i v es, b u t al so t h e m ach i n es t h em sel v es as m at er i al ob ject s, t o get h er w i t h t h e sp eci f i c d i sp o si t i v es i n t h ei r h i st o r i cal an d st r u ct u r al d i m en si o n s, an d f i n al l y t h e so ci al d i m en si o n o f sp ect at o r s. I n o r d er t o en su r e o p t i m u m co m p r eh en si o n an d d escr i p t i o n o f t h e d i f f er en t d i sp o si t i v es, a m o d el h as b een d ev el o p ed t h at al l o w s f i n e d i st i n ct i o n s t o b e m ad e b et w een t h e p o ssi b l e v i su al d i sp o si t i v es. T h e m o d el i s f o u n d ed on t h e t h r ee t er m s t h at t h em sel v es co n st i t u t e t h e d ef i n i n g co n st an t s o f v i ew i n g an d l i st en i n g d i sp o si t i v es - t h e spect at or , t h e m ach in er y an d t h e r epr esent at ion. I t i s i m p o r t an t t o st r ess f i r st l y t h at 'm ach i n er y ' d o es n o t si m p l y b o i l d o w n t o t h e m ach i n e, seco n d l y t h at t h e p r o b l em at i cs o f t h e t h eo r y o f r ep r esen t at i o n ar e i n cl u d ed i n 'r ep r esen t at i o n ', an d t h i r d l y t h at 'sp ec t at o r ' i n cl u d es t h e v ar i o u s p sy ch o l o gi cal , so ci o l o gi cal an d co gn i t i v e ap p r o ach es t o t h e n o t i o n . M o r eo v er , t h e t h r ee l ev el s h av e t o b e r ed ef i n ed each t i m e.

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 3 6 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 3 6 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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I t i s a u sef u l m o d el i n t h at i t cl ear l y d i st i n gu i sh es b et w een t h e t h r ee l ev el s an d h i gh l i gh t s d at a t h at ar e u sed t o d ev el o p p r o b l em at i cs t h at co u l d n o t t ak e sh ap e i f t h ey w er e si m p l y ad d r essed f r o m t h e v i ew p o i n t o f cu r r en t ap p r o ach es. M an y au t h o r s w h o h av e ap p r o ach ed t h ese q u est i o n s an ew i n ser t t h e d i sp o si t i v e i n t o p r e- ex i st i n g t h eo r i es, w h i ch , m o r e o f t en t h an n ot , en d s u p si m p l y b y ch eck i n g t h at t h e t h eo r i es f u n ct i o n p r o p er l y r at h er t h an act u al l y ex p l o r i n g t h e ch ar act er i st i cs o f t h e d i sp o si t i v e.20 T h e m o d el sh o u l d , f o r ex am p l e, al l o w o n e t o l eav e b eh i n d so m e o f t h e cl assi c o p p o si t i o n s su ch as t h e al t er n at i v e b et w een t h e sp ec t at o r 's act i v i t y an d p assi v i t y , o r b et w een t r an sp ar en cy an d m ed i at i o n , i .e., h i d d en an d d i sp l ay ed m ed i at i o n , an d t h o se en d l ess d eb at es ar o u n d t h e n o t i o n o f r eal i sm . T h ese i ssu es ar i se an d b egi n t o d o m i n at e b ecau se t h e an gl e f r o m w h i ch t h ey ar e ap p r o ach ed i s a r ep r esen t at i o n al on e. W i t h o u t d en y i n g t h e p er t i n en ce o f su ch an an gl e, w e b el i ev e t h at i t i s n ot al w ay s p r i m o r d i al i n t h e u n d er st an d i n g o f v i ew i n g an d l i st en i n g d i sp o si t i v es. I t i s t h u s p o ssi b l e t o en v i sag e d escr i b i n g so m e asp ect s o f d i sp o si t i v es b y o n l y d eal i n g w i t h t h e r el at i o n b et w een sp ec t at o r an d m ach i n er y. T h i s i s t h e case, f o r ex am p l e, w h en o n e i so l at es a cr i t er i on su ch as sp ect at o r m o v em en t o r i m m o b i l i t y i n r ecep t i o n m o d e. H en ce t h e u sef u l n ess o f t h e m o d el , w h i ch i d eal l y ev i n ces t h e m ax i m u m n u m b er o f t h e d i v er se asp ect s t h at d ef i n e t h e d i sp o si t i v es. O n e m ay st u d y t h e d i sp o si t i v e as a m ean s o f d et er m i n i n g each r el ev an t l evel . O n e ex am p l e i s m ach i n er y, w h er e o n e w i l l ex am i n e t h e sp eci f i cat i o n o f t h e m a ch i n e (i f i t ex i st s, o f co u r se) , d escr i b e h o w i t w o r k s an d f u n ct i o n s; t h e t y p e o f su p p o r t u sed f o r t h e r ep r esen t at i o n m u st b e d ef i n ed - w h et h er o n p ap er , b y p r o j ect i o n , b y m ean s o f t h e act o r 's b o d y i n t h e t h eat r e, f o r i n st an ce, o r b y m ean s o f an ef f i g y su ch as a w ax o r st o n e st at u e o r a m an n eq u i n . A t t h e sp ect at o r l ev el , t h e d ef i n i t i o n o f t h e sp ect at o r s' i n st i t u t i o n al an d so ci al p o si t i o n can b e ex am i n ed — w h et h er t h ey ar e sci en t i st s, g am e o p er at o r s o r t ech n i ci an s; o r t h ei r ch ar act er i st i cs, i n t er m s o f i d en t i t y, gen d er o r cu l t u r al t r ai t s. U l t i m at el y, t h e r ep r e sen t at i o n w i l l b e d ef i n ed acco r d i n g t o i t s i n t r i n si c f u n ct i o n i n g an d f o r m al t r ai t s, t o get h er w i t h t h ei r p o ssi b l e co m b i n at i o n s. I t sh o u l d , h o w ev er , b e p o i n t ed o u t t h at w h at d ef i n es t h e d i sp o si t i v e i s n ot o n l y w h at ch ar act er i ses each o f t h e t h r ee l ev el s as su ch , b u t t h e r elat ions t h at t h e d i sp o si t i v e l ead s t o w i t h i n t h e t h r ee l ev el s i t i s co m p r i sed of. T h eo r et i cal l y, on e can p r o d u ce t h e f o l l o w i n g co m b i n at i o n s: — T h e r el at i o n b et w een t h e sp ect at o r an d t h e m ach i n er y ; — T h e r el at i o n b et w een t h e sp ect at o r an d t h e r ep r esen t at i o n ; - T h e r el at i o n b et w een t h e r ep r esen t at i o n an d t h e m ach i n er y ; - T h e r el at i o n b et w een t h e sp ect at o r an d t h e w h o l e - (t h e m ach i n er y an d t h e r ep r esen t at i o n ) .

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 3 7 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 3 7 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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T h e i d ea h er e i s n o t t o p r esen t a si m p l e co m b i n at i o n o f el em en t s o f an eq u i v a l en t t y p e - sp ect at o r , r ep r esen t at i o n an d m ach i n e - b u t t o l i n k t o get h er t h ese t h r ee t er m s i n t h ei r d i v er se v ar i at i o n s w h i l e b ear i n g i n m i n d t h e p u r p o se o f t h e v i ew i n g an d l i st en i n g d i sp o si t i v es an d t h u s t h e f u n ct i o n t h at each o f t h e t h r ee t er m s h as i n r el at i o n t o t h e o t h er s: -

T h e sp ect at o r s ar e t h e el em en t t h at m ak es t h e d i sp o si t i v e f u n ct i o n o r f o r w h o m t h e d i sp o si t i v e f u n ct i o n s; t h ey ar e t h e o n es f o r w h o m t h e r ep r esen t a t i on i s gi v en .

— T h e r ep r esen t at i o n i s w h at t h e d i sp o si t i v e p r o d u ces o r sh o w s. -

T h e m ach i n er y g i v es access t o t h e r ep r esen t at i o n an d m ak es p o ssi b l e t h e sh o w i n g ( i n t h e w i d est sen se o f t h e t er m ).

O u r m o d el an al y si s o f t h e v i ew i n g an d l i st en i n g d i sp o si t i v es i s b ased o n t h ese cr i t er i a ( h i gh l i gh t i n g esp eci al l y t h e v i ew i n g d i m en si o n ) . So m e ex am p l es f o l l o w b el o w . 1

T h e r e la tio n

b e tw e e n th e s p e c ta to r s a n d th e m a c h in e r y

1. 1 T h e r el at i o n b et w een sp ect at o r s' b o d i es an d t h e m ach i n er y —t h e q u est i o n o f p l aces. a. A l o n e sp ect at o r o r g r o u p o f sp ect at o r s ( m agi c l an t er n sp ect at o r v s. t h e st er eo sco p e) . b . M o b i l e o r i m m o b i l e sp ect at o r s ( zo et r o p e, w h er e m o v em en t i s p o ssi b l e v s. t h e d o m i n an t m o d el o f ci n em a) . c. Sp ect at o r s w h o m o v e. 1.2 T h e r el at i o n b et w een t h e sp ect at o r 's b o d y an d t h e m ach i n er y - t h e q u est i o n o f si z e an d p r esen t at i o n o f t h e m ach i n er y. a. Sp ect at o r s i n cl u d ed i n l ar ge- scal e m ach i n er y ( m agi c l an t er n , ci n em a, d i o r a m a, p an o r am a) . b . Sp ect at o r s h an d l i n g an ap p ar at u s, a k i n d o f v i su al p r o st h esi s ( k al ei d o sco p e, so m e st er eo sco p es) . c. T h e sp ect at o r f aced w i t h an ef f ect o f t h e m ech an i sm - h i d d en i n a 'b o x ' (k i n et o sco p e) v s. t h e sp ect at o r f aced w i t h a m ach i n e i n t h e p r o p er sen se o f t h e w o r d , w i t h a v i si b l e m ech an i sm ( f o r ex am p l e, t h e p r ax i n o sco p e) . 2

T h e r e la tio n

b e tw e e n , o n th e o n e h a n d , th e s p e c ta to r s a n d ,

o n th e o th e r , th e m a c h in e r y a n d t h e r e p r e s e n ta tio n

2 .1 W h at t h e sp ect at o r s see o f t h e r ep r esen t at i o n an d / o r t h e m ach i n er y, a.

T h ey see b o t h l ev el s at o n ce ( zoet r op e) .

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 3 8 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 3 8 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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b . T h ey o n l y see t h e r ep r esen t at i o n (t h e i l l u si o n o f t r an sp ar en cy, i f t h e t ech n i q u es o f t h e r ep r esen t at i o n t en d t o ef f ace t h e t ech n i q u es) . c. A b o r d er l i n e case i s w h en t h ey o n l y see t h e m ach i n er y ( as i n ex p er i m en t al ci n em a) . T h i s al so co v er s t h e ex h i b i t i o n s o f ap p ar at u ses o u t si d e t h ei r f u n c t i on as v i ew i n g an d l i st en i n g d i sp o si t i v es. T h ey ar e t h en i n t egr at ed i n t o an o t h er t y p e o f d i sp o si t i v e - t h at o f t h e ex h i b i t i o n i t sel f , w i t h i t s m u l t i p l e m o d al i t i es. T h e d em o n st r at i o n o f t h ese ap p ar at u ses al so b el o n gs h er e. 2.2 T h e sp ect at o r s' m o d e o f access t o w h at i s seen . T h e ai m h er e i s t o d ef i n e t h e p o i n t f r o m w h i ch o n e co n si d er s t h at t h e sp ect at o r s 't r y o u t ' t h e d i sp o si t i v e. a. Sp ect at o r s see t h e t w o l ev el s su ccessi v el y ( on e b ei n g su b st i t u t ed f o r t h e ot h er ) ( st er eo sco p e, ci n em a) . b . Sp ect at o r s ar e f aced w i t h a p r o g r essi v e p r o c e s s o f acco m m o d at i o n : t h ey ev en t u al l y see w h at i s r ep r esen t ed af t er h av i n g l o o k ed f o r t h e p o i n t f r o m w h er e i t can i n d eed b e seen ( ex am p l es i n cl u d e an am o r p h o si s, t r o m p e l 'oei l, an d t h e st er eo sco p e) . c. T h e m ach i n er y an d w h at i s r ep r esen t ed ar e i m m ed i at el y v i si b l e ( zoet r op e, p h en ak i st o sco p e) . 2.3 Sp ect at o r s t ak i n g act i o n o r r em ai n i n g i n act i v e i n r el at i o n t o t h e m ach i n er y. a. A ct i o n t ak en o n t h e m ach i n er y t o p r o d u ce t h e i m age. b . 'A c t i o n ' i n t h e f o r m o f a si m p l e m o v em en t i n , o r i n r el at i o n t o, t h e m ach i n er y an d r ep r esen t at i o n . c. N o act i o n i s t ak en o t h er t h an p er cep t i o n . 3

T h e r e la t io n b e tw e e n th e s p e c ta to r s a n d th e r e p r e s e n ta tio n

T h i s p ar t i n cl u d es q u est i o n s o f co gn i t i o n — d eci p h er i n g an d d eco d i n g v i su al si gn s - an d t h e sp eci f i cat i o n o f t h e sp ect at o r s' v ar i o u s sy st em s o f b el i ef s i n r el a t i on t o t h e aest h et i c ch o i ces i m p l i ed b y t h e 't ech n i q u es' o f t h e r ep r esen t at i o n . T h eo r i es o f r ep r esen t at i o n , w h i ch t u r n r ep r esen t at i o n i t sel f i n t o a 'p r o x y ' o f r eal i t y - o r t o b e m o r e p r eci se, a 'r ep r esen t ed ' an d a r ef er en t — ar e r el ev an t h er e. 4

T h e r e la t io n b e tw e e n th e m a c h in e r y a n d th e r e p r e s e n ta tio n

4 .1 T h e m at er i al i sat i o n o f t h e r ep r esen t at i o n . a. W h at i s sh o w n (or r ep r esen t ed ) h as n o m at er i al su p p o r t i n t h e d i sp o si t i v e ( t el esco p e, m i cr o sco p e) . b . T h e r ep r esen t at i o n i s m at er i al i sed i n o n e w a y o r an o t h er o n a su p p o r t .

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 3 9 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 3 9 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

T h e 19 0 0 E p is te m e

c.

39

T h e r ep r esen t at i o n r el i es o n a m u l t i p l e an d co m b i n ed su p p o r t : i t i s p r o d u ced b y el em en t s ( act or s, ob ject s, p ai n t ed o r p h o t o gr ap h ed el em en t s, et c.) t h at ar e t h em sel v es seen v i a a cer t ai n d i sp o si t i v e ( t h eat r e, st er eo sco p e) .

4 .2 T h e t em p o r al r el at i o n o f t h e sh o w i n g i s i m p l i ed b y t h e d i sp o si t i v e: si m u l t a n ei t y di ffer an ce'. a. I m m ed i at e t r an sm i ssi o n ( i m m ed i acy : cam er a o b scu r a, t el evi si o n , m i cr o scop e) . b . D ef er r ed b r o ad cast i n g ( t i m e g ap : p h o t o gr ap h y , ci n em a) . 5

T h e o v e r a ll q u a lific a tio n o f th e d is p o s itiv e

5 .1 T h e 'n at u r e' o f t h e d i sp o si t i v e p r o d u ci n g r el at i o n s b et w een t h e t h r ee l ev el s: a. m ech an i cal b . co m p u t er - b ased c. t h eat r e p r o d u ct i o n d . ex h i b i t i o n — h an g i n g ( on a w al l ) — 'i n st al l at i o n '. T h i s m o d el i s m er el y a t o o l t h at n eed s t o b e r et h o u gh t , co m p l et ed o r r eo r ga n i sed d u r i n g t h e r esear ch st age i n acco r d an ce w i t h each d i sp o si t i v e ex am i n ed . T h e ai m i s n o t t o b u i l d u p an ex h au st i v e d escr i p t i v e m o d el , b u t t o h av e an ad e q u at e t o o l f o r each sp eci f i c set o f q u est i o n s. T h e o u t l i n e t h at w e ar e p r esen t i n g h er e u n d er l i n es t h e r el at i o n s b y m ai n l y ad o p t i n g t h e sp ect at o r s as a p o i n t o f r ef er en ce. T h ey m ay b e d ef i n ed em p i r i cal l y b y co n f r o n t i n g each d i sp o si t i v e w i t h t h e d i st i n ct i v e cr i t er i a o f t h e m o d el . I n p ar al l el t o an y t h eo r et i cal o r ab st r act d i sco u r se, on e can u n d er st an d t h e v er y co n cr et e r o l e o f t h e d i f f er en t el e m en t s i n v o l v ed - f o r ex am p l e, sp ect at o r s can b e seen as sp at i al b o d i es o ccu p y i n g a sp eci f i c p l ace i n r el at i o n t o t h e m ach i n e o r t h e w h o l e d i sp o si t i v e. Su ch sp ect at o r ch ar act er i sat i o n sh o u l d al l o w o n e t o r ef l ect o n t h e su b ject , t h e r ecei v er o f t h e r ep r esen t at i o n . I t m i gh t ev en u p h o l d C r ar y 's o r i gi n al t h eor y, w h en h e saw i n t h e o p t i cal i n st r u m en t s o f t h e f i r st h al f o f t h e n i n et een t h cen t u r y t h e si g n o f a n ew co n cep t i o n o f t h e su b ject , a n ew m o d e o f v i ew i n g , 'a su b j ect i v e v i si o n ' g r o u n d ed i n t h e 'o b ser v er 's' o w n b o d y - sh e o r h e i s d ef i n ed as b ei n g m o b i l e, n o t j u st h av i n g o n e v i ew p o i n t , ex p er i m en t i n g w i t h an ap p r eh en si o n o f t h i n gs t h at i s o p p o sed t o t h e m o d e o f co n t em p l at i o n , as Ben j am i n p u t i t . T h i s i d ea go es h an d i n h an d w i t h t h e n o t i o n o f t h e d ecen t r i n g o f t h e sp ect at o r , w h i ch C r ar y al so en v i sag es i n r el at i o n t o t h ese o p t i cal i n st r u m en t s ( st ar t i n g f r o m t h e an al y si s o f t h e st er eo sco p e) . A n essen t i al asp ect m u st b e ad d ed t o t h i s d ef i n i t i o n : t h e cl assi f y i n g o f t h ese d i sp o si t i v es w i t h i n al l o f t h e co er ci v e m o d es o f v i ew i n g , i m -

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 4 0 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 4 0 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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F r a n ç o is A lb e r a a n d M a r ia T o r ta ja d a

p l y i n g su b m i ssi o n t o t h e m ach i n er y t h at i s co m p ar ab l e t o t h e pan opt icon an a l y sed b y M i ch el Fo u cau l t . H o w ev er , a co n cr et e ap p r o ach t o d i sp o si t i v es - w h en o n e t r i es t o ch ar act er i se t h em i n f i n er d et ai l b y co m b i n i n g sev er al d escr i p t i v e cr i t er i a — l ead s t o q u es t i o n s ab o u t h o w i n t u n e t h ey ar e w i t h t h e d ef i n i t i o n t h at C r ar y b o r r o w s f r o m Fo u cau l t an d ab o v e al l Ben j am i n . T h e z o et r o p e, p h en ak i st o sco p e, t h au m at r o p e, d i o r am a, st er eo sco p e, an d k al ei d o sco p e ar e ex am i n ed t o sh o w h o w t h ey co n t r i b u t e t o t h e ch an gi n g o f t h e m o d e o f v i ew i n g . So m e o f t h ese ap p ar at u ses sh ar e t h e ch ar act er i st i c o f m ak i n g sp ect at o r s an el em en t o f t h e m ach i n e,21 w h i ch su b m i t s t h ei r b o d i es t o a p r act i ce o f v i ew i n g , b u t al so o f co n st r u ct i n g a n ew m o d el o f t h e sp ect at o r as so m eo n e w h o i s m o b i l e, d ecen t r ed , et c. H o w ev er , i f o n e r e ex am i n es t h e cr i t er i o n o f m o b i l i t y, i t i s cl ear t h at t h e sp ect at o r 's ex p er i en ce i n r el at i o n t o t h ese d i f f er en t d i sp o si t i v es i s n ot t h e sam e: w h i l e t h e p h en ak i st o sco p e r eq u i r es t h e sp ect at o r n o t t o m o v e, as C r ar y p o i n t s o u t - as d o es t h e st er eo sco p e — t h e z o et r o p e al l o w s h er o r h i m t o m o v e ar o u n d t h e r o t at i n g m e ch an i sm at t h e v er y m o m en t w h en i t i s p r o d u c i n g t h e an i m at ed r ep r esen t at i o n . W h i l e r et i n al p er si st en ce i s t h e m o d el t h at ex p l ai n s t h e r ep r esen t ed m o v em en t a m o d el t h at w as u sed i n t h e n i n et een t h cen t u r y i n co n n ect i o n w i t h Pl at eau 's ex p er i m en t s f o r sev er al o f t h ese v i ew i n g d i sp o si t i v es - i t can n o t h i d e t h e f u n d a m en t al d i f f er en ce t h at set s t h em ap ar t .22 T h e f act t h at so m e ar e b ased o n m o b i l i t y an d o t h er s o n f i x ed n ess i s al l t h e m o r e si gn i f i can t as t h e essen t i al cr i t er i o n o f m o d er n i t y i s p r eci sel y t h e m o b i l i t y o f t h e p o i n t o f v i ew . T h e sp ect at o r 's ex p er i en ce i s sh ap ed i n a si gn i f i can t l y m o r e m ean i n gf u l w a y b y t h e co n cr et e m o v e m en t i m p o sed o n t h e b o d y b y o n e o r o t h er d i sp o si t i v e t h an b y t h e p er cep t i v e ( an d n ot i m m ed i at el y an al y sed ) 'm o v em en t ' t h at i s at t r i b u t ed t o r et i n al p er si s t en ce. W h en o n e w i sh es t o d ef i n e t h e su b j ect i n r el at i o n t o h er o r h i s exp er i en ce, t h e an al y si s o f sci en t i f i c d i sco u r ses an d t h eo r i es i s n o su b st i t u t e f o r t h e co n cr et e p h en o m en o n i m p o sed b y t h e d i sp o si t i v e i n i t s m at er i al i t y. A f u r t h er p o i n t sh o u l d al so b e ad d ed , w h i ch o u r m o d el i n co r p o r at es: f r ee d o m o f m o v em en t i s n o t t h e sam e i n t h e z o et r o p e, t h au m at r o p e an d d i o r am a, an d t h i s i s t h e r esu l t o f a si gn i f i can t d i f f er en ce. I n so m e cases, t h e ap p ar at u s i s a t ool t h at r em ai n s o u t si d e t h e sp ect at o r s' b o d i es — at b est i t i s a p r o st h esi s t h at i s ap p l i ed t o t h e ey es ( l i k e t h e k al ei d o sco p e o r so m e 'st er eo sco p e- gl asses') , w h i ch t h ey can t h u s h an d l e at w i l l ; i n o t h er cases, sp ect at o r s ar e i n cl u d ed i n a d i sp o si t i v e t h at i n co r p o r at es t h em — t h at i s, w h en o n e r ef er s t o sp ect at o r s as 'el em en t s o f a m ach i n e'. T h e n at u r e o f t h e m o v em en t an d t h e p h y si cal an d p h en o m en o l o gi cal r el at i o n o f t h e sp ect at o r t o t h e d i sp o si t i v e ar e v er y d i f f er en t each t i m e, an d o n e m ay w el l ask i f t h i s d o es n o t co m p l et el y ch an ge t h e ascen d an cy o f t h e d i s p o si t i v e, i t s su p p o sed co er ci o n . T o p u t i t v er y b l u n t l y : i n o r d er t o i n t r o d u ce t h e m o d el t h at Fo u cau l t b ases o n t h e pan opt icon , i s i t su f f i ci en t t o r et ai n t h e f act t h at t h e su b j ect s ar e m an i p u l at ed b y a cer t ai n p o l i t i cs o f t h e b o d y ? I s i t n o t n ecessar y

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 41 h t t p :/ /s ite . e b ra ry .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 4 1 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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t o en v i sag e t h e v er y st r u ct u r e o f t h e d i sp o si t i v e i n o r d er t o p o st u l at e t h e ef f ect o f co n t r o l p r o d u ced b y m ach i n er i es t h at ar e si m p l y n ot d ef i n ed i n st i t u t i o n al l y as i n st r u m en t s i n t en d ed f o r su ch a f u n ct i o n ? I t i s h ar d sy st em at i cal l y t o p i n p o i n t t h e k n o w n an d al r ead y est ab l i sh ed cr i t er i a o f m o d er n i t y i n d i sp o si t i v es, g i v en t h at o n e m i gh t r ef u t e su ch cr i t er i a af t er ex am i n i n g t h e d i sp o si t i v es cl osel y. A go o d ex am p l e i s t h e st er eo sco p e, an ap p ar at u s t h at i m p o ses f i x ed n ess. H er e t h e n ew su b j ect o f v i ew i n g i s co n st r u ct ed t h an k s t o t h e d ecen t r i n g o f t h e sp ect at o r , w h i ch can b e d em o n st r at ed v i a an an al y si s o f t h e r ep r esen t at i o n t h at t h e st er eo sco p e o f f er s. Bu t as w e ar e sp eak i n g o f t h e sp ect at o r 's 'ex p er i en ce', sh o u l d on e n o t al so t ak e i n t o acco u n t all t h e d i sp o si t i v e, t h e v er y co n d i t i o n o f t h e sp ect at o r 's p er cep t i o n , ev en b ef o r e on e ad d r esses t h e i ssu e o f r ep r esen t a t i o n ? Fo r w h en i t co m es t o p er cep t i o n , t h e st er eo sco p e i m p o ses t h e cen t r i n g o f t h e sp ect at o r , o n t h e o n e h an d w i t h r egar d t o t h e f i x ed n ess o f h er o r h i s p l ace i n f r o n t o f t h e l en ses, w i t h o u t m o v i n g, an d o n t h e o t h er h an d i n t h e n eed t o ac co m m o d at e h er o r h i s v i ew i n g t o t h e o n l y p o i n t w h er e i t w i l l b e p o ssi b l e t o see t h e 'd ep t h ' o f t h e o b ject s p r esen t ed . T h i s t y p e o f ex p er i en ce r eq u i r es a cer t ai n t y p e o f cen t r i n g, ev en i f t h i s i s n o t d ef i n ed acco r d i n g t o t h e co d es o f p er sp ect i v e. T h e an al y si s o f t h e d i sco u r ses o n w h i c h an ep i st em o l o gi cal ap p r o ach i s b ased m u st p r o ceed b y g au g i n g t h e t h eo r et i cal d ev el o p m en t agai n st t h e co n cr et e d i m en si o n o f t h e o b ject o f t h ese d i sco u r ses, sp eci f i cal l y w h en t h e ai m i s t o d ev el o p an u n d er st an d i n g o f t h e su b j ect t h at h as b een co n st r u ct ed as a b o d y su b m i t t ed t o an ex p er i en ce. O n e can n o t t u r n a b l i n d ey e t o t h e act u al co n d i t i o n s o f t h i s ex p er i en ce an d t h ei r p l u r al n at u r e, i n o r d er t o w ei g h t h em ag ai n st t h e t h eo r et i cal d i sco u r ses t h at su r r o u n d t h em i n a p ar t i cu l ar con t ext . T h e m o d el r ep r esen t s a m ean s t o av o i d an ap p r eh en si o n o f a d i sp o si t i v e t h at w o u l d b e t oo r ap i d , t oo p ar t i al an d n o t su f f i ci en t l y co n cr et e i n t h e d esi g n o f a t h eo r et i cal , ep i st em o l o gi cal an d t h u s a fo r t i o r i co n cep t u al d i sco u r se. I t i s t h u s a k i n d o f saf eg u ar d . Bu t , m o r e p o si t i v el y sp eak i n g, i t sh o u l d p r o v i d e a m ean s o f d i sp l aci n g an d r en ew i n g t h e p r o b l em at i cs t h at q u est i o n t h e v i ew i n g an d l i st en i n g d i sp o si t i v es, w h i l e ex p l o i t i n g t h e l ar gest n u m b er o f t er m s t h at can b e u sed t o set u p t h e ep i st em i c sch em a o f t h e 'ci n em a' i n c. 19 0 0 .

N o te s

1.

2.

Th is art icle i s a r ewr it t en , devel op ed an d m odi fi ed ver si on of t he pap er pr esen t ed at t he D om i t or Sym posi u m (M ont real), w i t h a n um ber of corr ecti ons and addit ion s. Som e of t he publi cat i on s t hat pr esen t t hese i deas can be foun d in t he bi bli ograph y. The Fr en ch et ym ology of 'm on t age' com es fr om t he clock w h ose w ei gh t s m ust be w ou n d u p ( mont er ), i s sai d t o be w ou n d up (t nontee), an d m et aph or i cally sp eak i n g

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 4 2 h tt p ://s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 4 2 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

42

3. 4.

5.

6.

7.

8. 9. 10.

11.

12. 13.

F r a n ç o is A lb e r a a n d M a r ia T o r ta ja d a

i n Fr en ch on e uses t he ver b remont er w h en one sp eak s o f w i n d i n g (up) t he clock's successor - t he w at ch. Fr an çoi s D agogn et h as ad dr essed t he place o f t he 'clock m od el' i n t he h i st or y of t echni ques, i n h i s l ’Essor technologique et l ’idée de progrès, Par i s: A r m an d Coli n , 1997, pp. 46-50. Regar d i n g t he ext en si on of aut om at a, see Jean Cl au d e Beaune, / 'Aut omat e et ses mobiles, Par i s: Flam m ar i on , 19 81. Th om as S. Kuh n , The St ruct ure of Scient ific Revolut ions, Ch i cago: U n i ver si t y of Ch i ca go Pr ess, 1962. Pi er re Fr an cast el h as un der li n ed Br unelleschi 's use of an opt i cal i nst r um en t sever al t i m es as 'a k i n d of li tt le b ox' w i t h a hole for t he eye an d a m i r r or reflect in g a vi ew of Florence, or Poussi n 's m an i pul at i on of a scen ogr aph i c box w h i ch he used to st u d y the effect s o f li gh t on t he people he pai nt ed (see 'D est r uct i on d 'u n espace plast i que', i n Et udes de sociologie de l'art , Par i s: D enoël/ Gont hi er, 'M éd i at i on s', 1970). Regar d i n g t he m ult i pli cat i on of vi ew p oi n t s an d t hei r m on t age i n El Gr eco's w or k , see S. Ei senst ei n, 'El Gr eco y el ci ne', i n Cinématisme, Di jon: Les Pr esses d u Réel, 2009 [ 1980] ), passim. O n Canalet t o an d h is 'm on t aged ' Veni ce, see A n d r é Cor boz, Venezia immaginaria, M ilan: Elect a, 1985, 2 volum es. See Fr i edr i ch A . Ki t t ler , Gramophone, Film, Typewrit er, Palo A lt o: St an for d U n i ver si t y Pr ess, 1999 [ 1986] and Jon at h an Cr ar y, I ’A r t de l'observat eur, N îm es: Jacqueli n e Ch am bon, 1994 [ 1990]. Gi or gi o A gam ben , Qu'est -ce qu'un disposit if?, Par i s: Ri vages-Poch e, 2007, p. 42. O ne could add t hat , m or e recent ly, w e h ave not been con vi n ced b y t he 'p h i l osop h y' of the appar at u s as espou sed b y Jean -Loui s D éot t e, w h er e per spect i ve w i t h a un i que van i sh i n g poi n t i s con si der ed to be 'ap p ar at u s' t hat for m s 't h e base of m od er n i t y'. H e al so speculat es on t he m ove fr om t he t echnical appar at u s to t he aest het i c and t hen t he cult ur al ap par at u s (see i n part i cular : J.-L. Déot t e, l'Epoque des appareils, Par i s: Li gn es & M ani fest es, 2004). Ph i li pp e H am on , Exposit ions, lit t érat ure et archit ect ure au X I X e siècle, Par i s: José Cor ti , 1989. F. Fénéon, "'Cal en d r i er d e décem bre 1887", Ci r ques, Th éât r es, Pol i t i ques', Œuvr es plus que complètes, Gen eva: D r oz, Tom e II, p. 720-1. P. Verh aer en , M er cur e de France, O ct ober 1902, r epri nt ed i n Sensat ions d'art , Par is: Séguier, 1989, p. 208. Th e r elat i on bet w een i m pr essi on i st pai n t i n g and ph ot ogr ap h y i s t h us ver y di fferen t fr om w h at Bazi n descr i bes i n h i s 'O n t ologi e de l 'i m age phot o gr aph i que', w h er e ph ot ogr ap h y 'd el i ver s' pai n t i n g an d al lo w s i t to gai n i t s ‘ aes t het ic au t on om y' ( Qu'est -ce que le cinéma ?, Par i s: Cer f, 1985, pp. 16 - 17) - a posi t i on t hat w as popul ar i sed b y M al r au x i n h is w r i t i n gs on art i n t he 1940s. H en r y d 'A u d i gi er , la Pat rie, 25 Ju l y 1858 (quot ed i n Syl vi e A u ben as (ed.), Gust ave Le Gr ay (1820-1884) , Par i s: BN F-Galli m ar d, 2002, pp. 366-7). Cézan n e's com m ent s, as n ot ed b y Joach i m Gasquet i n front of on e of Cour bet 's 'W aves', ar e si m i lar i n t heir i ntent ion. Gu st ave Le Gr ay, Traité prat ique de phot ographie sur papier et sur verre, Par i s: Baillèr e, 1850 (at: galli ca.bnf.fr )). Regar d i n g sever al of t he poin t s b r i efly r ai sed her e ab out Le Gr ay, see Syl vi e A u b e n as (éd.), op. cit. Th is 'col ou r i sm ' of t he ph ot ogr ap h st an ds in opposi t i on to the ph ot ogr ap h y cr it ici sm of such scholar s as Rod ol ph e Topffer , w h o con t r ast s it w i t h the gr eat er effi ci en cy of dr aw i n g.

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 4 3 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 4 3 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

T h e 19 0 0 E p is te m e

14.

15.

16.

43

See h i s Salons, w h i ch w er e com par ed to pai n t i n gs i n t he exhi bi t ion en t i t led 'D i d er ot et l 'A r t , de Bouch er à D avi d . L es Sal on s 1759 - 178 1' (Hôtel de la M onnaie (Pari s), O c t ober 1984-Jan uar y 1985). Th i s i s an i m por t ant quest i on an d should st i m ulat e an ew t he quest i on of t he effect 'b r eak i n g ou t ' h as on t he spect at or s of t he L a Ci ot at t rai n in t he Lum i èr e brot her s' fi lm . Yu r i Tsi vi an , w h en di st i n gu i sh i n g bet w een reception an d percept ion, t hough t t hat t he recept i on o f The A r r ival o f a Train at La Ciot at in Ru ssi a w as, as i t w er e, 'over det er m i n ed' for cult i vat ed spect at or s b y t he descr i pt i on of A n n a Kar en i n a's sui ci de i n Tolst oy's n ovel. (See t he four t h chapt er of h i s Istoriceskaja recepcia kino. Kinematogr a f v Rossii 1896-19 30 [ Ri ga, 19 9 1] , an d t he si xt h chapt er of t he En gli sh t ranslat ion, Early Cinema and its Cult ural Recept ion, t r an slat ed b y A l an Bodger , Lon d on an d N ew Yor k : Rout led ge, 1994, 'T h e Recept i on of the M ovi n g I m age'). It could also be sai d t hat t he Par i si an or Fr en ch spect at or s r ecei ved t he sam e fi lm vi a a p assage from M au passan t 's n ovel Une Vie (A W oman's Life), or, i n an y case, pat t erns of com pr eh en si on t hat ar e com m on to t he t ext an d t he film . O ne can cl ear l y see t hat M aupassan t 's descri pt ion r ecoun t s al l the ph ases of t he film , an d on e can t hus conject ur e t hat the effect of sur pr i se, or even of pan ic, t hat oft en al leged ly t ook place w h en t he t r ai n left t he for egr ou n d of t he scr een encount er ed concept ual fr am ew or k s in t he spect at or s' br ai n s t hat w er e per fect ly w el l est ablished, an d w as t hus r ecei ved and un der st ood w i t h ou t sur pr i se: 'N ot h i n g w as vi si ble on t he t rack. Su d d en l y she saw a cloud of w h i t e sm oke, t hen un d er it a black spot , w h i ch gr ew l ar ger as i t app r oach ed at full speed. A t last t he h u ge en gi n e, slow i n g up, r oar ed past Jean n e; she k ept her eyes on t he car r i age door s. Sever al of t hem opened an d passen ger s got out , peasan t s i n t heir blouses, far m er s' w i ves w i t h basket s, sm all sh opk eeper s in soft felt h at s.' (Gu y de M au passan t , Une Vie, Par i s, Le L i vr e de Poche no. 478, 1962; A W oman's Life, t r an s lat ed, w i t h an i n t r oduct ion b y H .N .P. Slom an, H ar m on d sw or t h , Pen gui n Books, 1965, p. 201) . H ow ever , t he 'sam e' m ovem en t fr om t he r ear to t he fr on t agai n st a black back gr oun d - as M él i ès p or t r ays i n h i s M an wit h a Rubber H ead - t ak es on a di fferen t m eani ng: i f t he t r ai n get s lar ger as i t appr oaches, t he spat i al di st ance r epr esent ed (set u p b y expect ati on, a for t ior i, i f on e begi n s b y pr oject i ng t he st at i on ar y i m age of t he per spect i ve of t he r ai l s di sappear i n g i nto t he di st ance) al lo w s on e t o assu m e a per m an en ce in t he si ze o f t he m ovi n g object an d t o be assu r ed o f its m ovem en t ri gh t up to t he m om ent w h en it leaves t he fr am e. O n the cont rary, M éli ès's m ovem en t on a bench faci n g a cam er a loses its charact er i st ics of m ovem en t , since t here ar e no poi n t s of spat i al r eference, an d si m p l y ap p ear s to ch an ge size. In t hi s case, the m ag n i fyi n g effect bor der s on t he m on st r ous or on an om aly, an d m ay gi ve r i se to fear (fear of t he h ead bur st i n g, w h i ch t hen act ually happen s). The bu r st i n g t akes place i n si de t he fr am e, w h er eas t he ar r i val 'i n t he h all' t hat t he t rai n i s sup p osed to accom pli sh h as to h app en off-cam era. Tsi vi an , follow i n g A r n h ei m on t hi s point , not es t hat as t he fi gu r e appr oach es, it spreads acr oss t he sur face of t he screen. A n d t his i s w h at h app en s to M éli ès i n excess. Si m i lar ly, t he w ave - i f i n deed on e can com par e it to t he t rai n - clear ly get s i t s for ce an d t he effect of r eali t y fr om t he d u al pr esen ce of the t w o aspect s of t he landscape. A n d it i s t he fact of its br eak i n g away t hat pr od u ces the effect o f br eak i n g out. O ne of h i s 'W aves' i s speci al, i n t hat t here i s an ext r em ely sh ar p h or i zon line, agai n st w h i ch t hree elem ent s ar e ju xt ap osed : 1) the sk y u n fold i n g w i t h ver y de-

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 4 4 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 4 4 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

44

17.

18.

19. 20.

21. 22.

F r a n ç o is A lb e r a a n d M a r ia T o r ta ja d a

t ai led clouds; 2) a r ou gh sea w i t h h i gh, foam y w aves; an d 3) a st r i p o f lan d w i t h t w o m oored boat s, cr eat i n g an effect of ver t i cali zat i on o f t w o-t h i r ds o f t he pai n t i n g (the sk y an d t he sea), w h i ch t he per cept i on of t he lan d r edi st r i but es i n dep t h because of i ts i n it iat i ng place i n t he for egr oun d an d it s br ow n i sh t onalit y, w h i ch st an ds out agai n st t he w h i t en ess of t he foam . O ur st ar t i n g poi n t i s M i chel Foucault 's defi ni t i on i n l ’Archéologie du savoir (Paris: Galli m ar d , 1976; Archeology of Knowledge, En gli sh t r anslat i on b y A l an M . Sh er i dan Sm it h, Lon don and N ew Yor k : Rout ledge, 2002, p. 211) : 'By episteme, w e m ean, in fact , t he t ot al set of r elat i on s t hat uni t e, at a gi ven per i od, t he di scu r si ve pract i ces t hat gi ve r i se t o epi st em ologi cal fi gur es, sci ences, an d p ossi bly for m ali zed sys t em s ... The epist em e i s n ot a form of k n ow led ge (connaissance) or t yp e of r at i on ali t y w hi ch , cr ossi n g the boun dar i es of t he m ost var i ed sciences, m an i fest t he sover ei gn u n i t y of a subject , a spi ri t , or a per i od; it i s t he t ot ali t y of r elat i on s t hat can be di s cover ed, for a gi ven per i od, bet w een t he sci ences w h en on e an alyses t hem at the level of di scu r si ve r egular i t i es.' H enr i Bergson, M at ière et mémoire, 1896, p. 35, p. 148; M at t er and M emory, t ran slat ed b y N an cy M ar gar et Pau l an d W . Scot t Palm er , Lon don: Geor ge A l len an d U n w i n , 19 11, p. 31, p. 78. Gu i ll au m e A pol li n ai r e, 'l e Roi -Lun e', M er cur e de France, no. 440, 16 O ct ober 19 16, pp. 609-624. W e ar e t hi n ki n g her e of sch olar s such as Cr ar y (who, w i t h ou t w ar n i n g, pr esen t s r epresent at i on al cr i t er i a w h i le gi vi n g t hem a m ean i n g t hat n eed s to be debat ed h i s use of t he n ot i on of 'r efer en t ' in par t icular ) or Kit t ler, w h o assum es t he Lacan i an app r oach - but on e could also m ent i on D eleu ze's Ber gson i sm (only A l ai n Badi ou h as espou sed t he i d ea t hat Cinema 1 an d 2 w er e i n n o w ay book s 'on ' t he ci nem a or, as D eleu ze sai d, 'o f ' t he ci nem a - bu t a r ead i n g of Ber gson t hat w as i nt ended to br i n g h i m u p to dat e an d fi n d a w ay r oun d t he p r od i gi ou s ph en om en ologi st obst a cle - See h i s Deleuze, Par i s: H achet te, 1997). Th e di or am a, phen ak i st oscope and zoet r ope ar e speci fi cal ly cit ed (op. cit., p .163). L eavi n g asi d e t he fact t hat , for sever al decades, i t s i m por t ance h as been r elat i vi sed on t he basi s of t he exper i m en t al r esear ch of psych ologi st s (i n cludin g t hose w or k i n g at the Inst it ut de Fihnologie [ 1947-19 61] ).

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 4 5 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 4 5 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

P ro je c te d C in e m a ( A

H y p o th e s is o n th e

C i n e m a ’s I m a g i n a t i o n )

Fr ançois A lber a

W h en o n e ex am i n es v er y d i f f er en t k i n d s o f st at em en t s ( én on cés) ( sci en t i fi c an d t ech n i cal d o cu m en t s, w o r k s o f p o p u l ar i sat i o n , l egal , m o r al o r p o l i t i cal t ext s) w r i t t en d u r i n g t h e 19 t h an d 20 t h cen t u r i es an d n ot b el o n gi n g t o m ai n st r eam i n st i t u t i o n s o r p r act i ces d eal i n g w i t h t h e t ech n o l o gy i n v o l v ed i n r eco r d i n g, r e p r o d u ci n g an d t r an sm i t t i n g so u n d s an d i m ages, o n e f i n d s a co n si d er ab l e l i t er a t u r e d ev o t ed t o t h e f i el d - w h et h er n o v el s, t al es, am u si n g o r i l l u st r at ed st o r i es, sk et ch es, an d so on . T h ey ar e p er i p h er al i n r el at i o n t o t h e i n st i t u t i o n al f i el d ( co v er i n g i n ven t i o n , ex p l o i t at i o n an d sp ect acl e) b u t 'ex p l o i t ' t h e t ech n i cal o b ject s o f co m m u n i cat i o n w i t h i n t h ei r o w n sp ace - an d t h ei r st o r i es - an d i m agi n e n ew o b ject s t o su i t t h ei r an t i ci p at o r y n at u r e an d p u r p o se. D esp i t e t h ei r ap p ar en t l y seco n d ar y o r ev en f u t i l e p l ace - o n e m i gh t t h i n k t h at t h ey ar e r ed u ced si m p l y t o q u o t i n g o r u si n g w h at sci en ce an d t ech n o l o gy h av e i m p l em en t ed - t h ey n o n et h el ess h av e t h ei r o w n w o r t h , w h i ch , i n t h e p er sp ec t i v e I sh al l d ev el o p h er e, i s co m p ar ab l e t o t h at o f t h e o t h er s. I n b o t h n ew sp ap er ar t i cl es an d acad em i c p ap er s o n t h e ci n em a an d l at er o n t el evi si o n , r ef er en ce w as q u i ck l y , an d i n cr easi n gl y oft en , m ad e t o t h e m o st f a m o u s o f t h em - V i l l i er s d e L 'l sl e A d am 's T o m o rr o w ' s E v e - j o i n ed m o r e r ecen t l y b y Ju l es V er n e's C ar p at h ian C as t le an d A d o l f o B i o y C asar es's T h e In v e n t io n o f M o r e l —f o r t h ei r p r esen t i m en t ab o u t 't h e' o r ' a' ci n em a t o com e.

B u t t h er e ar e o t h er w o r k s t h at h av e b een cat al o gu ed w i t h i n t h e gen r es o f sci en ce fi ct i o n , o r f u t u r i st i c ( an t i ci p at o r y ) an d u t o p i an w o r k s.1 W h en on e l o o k s an ew at t h i s su n d r y an d m u l t i f ar i o u s set o f w o r k s, on e f i n d s - w h en t ak i n g t h e w i d est p o ssi b l e p er sp ect i v e — at l east t w o gr o u n d s f o r p u r su i n g r esear ch : a) t h e t ext s d o b u i l d u p a d i eget i c u n i v er se — t h er e i s t h u s v er i si m i l i t u d e, cap ab l e o f m ak i n g t h e r ead er b el i ev e i n t h e w o r l d p u t f o r w ar d — w h i ch t h ey f i l l w i t h t ech n o l o gi cal o b ject s t h at ar e seen as ev er y d ay an d o r d i n ar y, t o b e u sed b y o n e an d al l an d t h u s ev en co m m o n p l ace; b ) t h e an t i ci p at o r y g ap so m et i m es o f o n l y a f ew y ear s, so m et i m es a cen t u r y - o r t h e geo gr ap h i cal d i s t an ce (a m y st er i o u s i sl an d , an o t h er p l an et ) u n d er l i n e cer t ai n ch ar act er i st i cs o f t h ese ob ject s w h o se f u n ct i o n s an d p r o p er t i es ar e 'p r o l o n g ed ' as t h ey ar e d ev el o p ed an d p er f ect ed i n r el at i o n t o t h e p r esen t m o m en t ( o f t h e w r i t i n g) . T h ese t w o p o i n t s m er i t f u r t h er at t en t i o n as t h ey p r o v i d e cl u es t o t h e p l ace o ccu p i ed b y t h ese t ech n i cal o b ject s i n ev er y d ay l i f e o f t h e p er i o d u n d er co n si d -

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 4 6 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 4 6 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

46

F r a n ç o is A lb e r a

er at i o n , w h at i s ex p ect ed o f t h em , an d t h e w a y i n w h i ch o n e m ay ap p r eh en d t h em - i .e., t h ei r i n t el l i gi b i l i t y f r am ew o r k . O n t h e o n e h an d , b y st r i p p i n g t h em o f t h ei r ex p er i m en t al an d ex cep t i o n al n at u r e, t h ey ar e i n scr i b ed i n a t ech n i cal i m agi n at i o n , l i n k i n g t h em w i t h gen er al (i .e., i n t el l ect u al , sci en t i f i c o r p ar a- sci en t i fi c, m o r al , et c.) cat ego r i es t h at d ef i n e t h ei r so ci al d i m en si o n . O n t h e o t h er h an d , i t can b e sai d t h at t h i s l i t er at u r e p r o v i d es t ech n o l o gi es t h at ar e st i l l m at u r i n g o r o n t h e d r aw i n g b o ar d w i t h a sp ace f o r ex p er i m en t at i o n , al l o w i n g u n p r o v ed h y p o t h eses o r sci en t i f i c f act s t o b e l i n k ed t o get h er ( ast r o n o m y an d p h o t o gr ap h y , f o r ex am p l e) .2 O n e m ay co n j ect u r e t h at t h an k s t o t h ese t w o asp ect s, 'f u t u r i st i c' l i t er at u r e n ot o n l y t ak es p ar t i n t h e gen esi s o f t h e t ech n i cal i n v en t i o n , b u t al so d et er m i n es so m e o f t h e t ot al n u m b er o f d i r ect i o n s an d w ay s i n w h i ch i t m ay d ev el o p . H en r i Fesco u r t an d Jean - L o u i s Bo u q u et n o t ed i n t h ei r p am p h l et en t i t l ed 'l 'I d ée et l 'Écr an ' t h at : at a t im e w h en t he i d ea of t he subm ar i n e h ad al r ead y been float ed, Ju les Ver n e d r ew u p t he plan of h i s Naut ilus. It r em ai n s t he w or k o f a n oveli st , h ow ever i n gen i ou s w e m ay fi nd t he descr ipt i on . It di d n ot con t ri but e so m uch as an i ot a t o sol vi n g t he pr ob lem , and i n t he end Gu st ave Zéd é h ad t he m er i t of r eali si n g it. You say t hat i t i s a per i od o f pr ecur sor s? It is ab ove al l a per i od o f n ovel i st s.3 T h e au t h o r s ar e co r r ect i n t h ei r j u d gem en t t h at V er n e d i d n o t h i n g t o f u r t h er t h e act u al t ech n o l o gy o f t h e su b m ar i n e, b u t t h ey ar e w r o n g t o u n d er est i m at e t h e co n t r i b u t i o n o f t h e n o v el an d t h e i n v en t i o n 'o n p ap er '.4 Fi ct i o n s an d i m ages g i v e b o d y t o a h y p o t h esi s an d f u l l y d ev el o p i t s l o gi c. T o d ay 's p r act i ces o f 'p r o j ect i n g' d at a b ack ed u p b y f i gu r es t o co n st r u ct 'm o d el s' (on cl i m at e ev o l u t i o n or t h e sp r ead o f car s i n Ch i n a) , w h i ch , m o r eo v er , co r r esp o n d t o 'scen ar i o s', b el o n g t o su ch a r at i o n al e. I n t h e m o st m ar k ed p r o j ect s p u t f o r w ar d i n t h ese w o r k s, t h e t ech n i cal i n v en t i on i s a k ey el em en t o f t h e fi ct i o n . I n l ess m ar k ed cases i t i s p ar t o f t h e d i eget i c u n i v er se, o n e o f t h e ser i es o f p ar ad o x i cal cl u es em b o d y i n g t h e i m p r essi o n o f r eal i t y o f t h e f u t u r e. T h e t w o can b e f o u n d i n t h e sam e w o r k - i n t h e f i r st p ar t o f T o m o rr o w ' s E v e (18 78 - 1886 ), w e see Ed i so n i n h i s ev er y d ay l i f e w i t h t h e co m m o n p l ace u sag e t o w h i c h h e p u t s t h e v o i ce t r an sm i ssi o n d ev i ces o r w r i t i n g ap p ar at u ses t h at h e h as i n v en t ed .5 T h en o n e r each es h i s sen sat i o n al i n v en t i o n t h e an d r o i d - w h i ch o u t st r i p s t h ese 'g ad g et s' f r o m ev er y p o i n t o f v i ew . I t i s i n st r u ct i v e t o ex am i n e a l ess w el l - k n o w n n o v el b y Ju l es V er n e — l ’Ile à h é lic e ( P r o p e lle r Is lan d , p u b l i sh ed i n

18 9 5 ) - t h at h as at t r act ed l ess cr i t i cal i n t er est

t h an h i s m o st f am o u s b o o k s. U n l i k e h i s P ar is au X X e s iè c le (P ar is in t h e 20 th C e n t u r y , p u b l i sh ed p o st h u m o u sl y b u t w r i t t en b ef o r e

18 6 3 ), t h e f i ct i o n i s o n l y

p r o j ect ed f o r w ar d i n a n ear f u t u r e a f ew y ear s h en ce. M o r eo v er , t h e k ey i ssu es h av e n o t h i n g t o w i t h co m m u n i cat i o n o r so u n d an d i m ag e r ep r o d u ct i o n , w h i ch

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 4 7 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 4 7 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

P r o je c t e d C in e m a ( A H y p o t h e s is o n t h e C in e m a s I m a g in a t io n )

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ar e o m n i p r esen t i n t h e w o r l d o f t h i s i sl an d o f t h e f u t u r e an d i t s cap i t al , M i l l i ar d Ci t y, w h er e ev er y t h i n g w o r k s b y el ect r i ci t y. T h er e ar e t h r ee co m m u n i cat i o n d e v i ces: t h e t e le au t o g r ap h , w h i ch car r i es w r i t i n g i n t h e w ay t h at t h e t el ep h o n e car r i es sp eech ;6 t h e k in e t o g r ap h , w h i ch r eco r d s m o v em en t s; an d t h e t e le p h o t e , w h i ch r ep r o d u ces i m ages. I n ad d i t i o n , t h an k s t o t h e t h e at r o p h o n e , on e can co m m u n i cat e w i t h t h e t h eat r es o f A m er i c a an d Eu r o p e, an d m u si c — a 't h er ap eu t i c agen t ... ex er ci si n g a r ef l ex act i o n o n t h e n er v o u s cen t r es' an d t h e ef f ect o f w h o se 'h ar m o n i o u s v i b r at i o n s d i l at es t h e ar t er i al v essel s, i n f l u en ce t h e ci r cu l a t i on , i n cr easi n g o r d i m i n i sh i n g i t ' —i s t r an sm i t t ed t o p eo p l e's h o m es b y t e le p h o n e f r o m 'm u si cal en er g y st at i o n s'. L ib r ar ie s co n t ai n 'b o o k - p h o n o gr ap h s' t h at on e d o es n o t n eed t o r ead : 'o n e p r esses a b u t t o n an d h ear s t h e v o i ce o f an excel l en t st o r y t el l er w h o r ead s'. N e w s p ap e r s ar e p r i n t ed o n an ed i b l e m i xt u r e w i t h ch o co l at e i n k - 'o n ce r ead , o n e eat s t h em f o r b r eak f ast ' — an d t h e 'n ew s' i s 'd i sp l ay ed ' t e lau t o g r ap h ic alh j o n f acad es.7 A m o n g o t h er ob ject s, on e f i n d s 'a t al k i n g w at ch , a

p h o n o g r ap h i c w at ch ', an d al l t h e i n h ab i t an t s ar e eq u i p p ed w i t h a d ev i ce en ab l i n g t h em t o k eep t r ack o f [their] const it ut i on, [their] m uscular st r engt h m easur ed w i t h a dyn am om et er , [their] lu n g capaci t y m easur ed w i t h a spir om et er , t he for ce o f cont ract i on of [their] h ear t s m easur ed w i t h a sph ygm om et er ... [their] degr ee of vi t al st ren gt h m easur ed b y a m agnet om et er ... M o st o f t h e t ech n i cal ob ject s m en t i o n ed ab o v e can b e r el at ed ei t h er t o ex i st i n g d ev i c es (t h e t h eat r o p h o n e i n v en t ed b y C l ém en t A d er i n 18 8 1, Ed i so n 's k i n et o g r ap h d at i n g f r o m 18 9 0 ) o r p l an n ed (t h e t el eau t o gr ap h ) o r i m ag i n ed ap p ar a t u ses (t h e t el ep h o t e, an i m ag i n ar y m ach i n e i n t r o d u ced b y d u M o n t el i n h i s M i c r o p h o n e , r ad io p h o n e e t p h o n o g r ap h e o f 18 8 2) - an d , o f co u r se, t h e i n st r u m en t s f o r

m easu r i n g t h e b o d y, al l o f w h i ch w er e b o r r o w ed f r o m M ar ey - an d i t can b e n o t ed t h at t h ey al l f u n ct i o n on t h e b asi s o f t r an s fe r s an d m o n t ag e b et w een t ech n i cal ob ject s. T h u s, ad ap t i n g t h e w o r d s o f Ed i so n ( 'd o f o r t h e ey e w h at t h e p h o n o g r ap h d o es f o r t h e ear ') , t h e k i n et o gr ap h i s d escr i b ed as d o i n g f o r t h e i m age w h at t h e p h o n o gr ap h d o es f o r so u n d ; si m i l ar l y, t h e t r an sm i ssi o n o f i m ag es an d w r i t i n g u ses t el ep h o n e t ech n o l o gy w h i c h h er e — w i t h t h e ex am p l e o f m u si c at h o m e —t ak es t h e p l ace o f r ad i o . T h e o t h er p r o cess i n t r o d u ced i s t h e h y b r id iz at io n o f t ech n i cal ob ject s. V er n e w as q u i ck t o i n t r o d u ce t h e t ech n o l o gy o f t h e 't h eat r o p h o n e', b u t h i s f r i en d A l b er t Ro b i d a, i n L e V in g t iè m e S iè c le ( P ar is in t h e 20 th c e n tu ry , 18 8 2) , d ev el o p ed a 'n ew ' t r an sm i ssi o n t ech n o l o gy w i t h t h e t e le p h o n o s c o p e ,

cap ab l e o f d i r ect l y t r an sm i t t i n g a sp ect acl e, t h e i m age o f a co r r esp o n d en t , o r an ev en t b y co m b i n i n g t h e t h eat r o p h o n e, p h o t o g r ap h an d t h e p r o j ect i o n l an t er n .8 A n d D i d i er d e C h o u sy w en t o n e b et t er i n t h e f o l l o w i n g y ear ( 18 8 3) b y d r eam i n g u p t h e t e le c h r o m o p h o t o p h o n o t e t r o s c o p e , w h i ch 'el ect r i cal l y ' r ep r o d u ces 't h e face, sp eech an d gest u r es o f an ab sen t p er so n '.9

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 4 8 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 4 8 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

F r a n ç o is A lb e r a

A l l t h ese ex i st i n g, p r o j ect ed o r i m agi n ed d ev i ces h av e i n co m m o n t ech n i cal an d t ech n o l o gi cal m ean s t h at p eo p l e w i sh ed t o see r eal i sed o r gen er al i sed . Fi f t een y ear s af t er V er n e, O ct av e Bél i ar d ev o k ed 'L a Jo u r n ée d 'u n Par i si en au X X I e si ècl e' - 1 D ecem b er 2 0 10 - i n L e c t u r e s p o u r T o u s ,10 w h er e Ed i so n 's d ev i ces w er e m u l t i p l i ed an d gen er al i sed : a 'p h o n o gr ap h - al ar m ', a m i cr o p h o n e i n a b ed si d e t ab l e f o r o r d er i n g b r eak f ast , t h e m o r n i n g p ap er s t h at o n e 'l i st en s t o '. A l l h o u ses ar e co n n ect ed t o an i n f o r m at i o n cen t r e p r o v i d i n g n ew s f r o m t h e w o r l d o v er at al l h o u r s ( n i gh t d i sp at ch es, gen er al n ew s i t em s, p o l i t i cal an d co m m er ci al i n f o r m at i o n , sci en t i f i c ar t i cl es, l i t er at u r e i n ser i al f o r m , cr i t i cal p i eces) . A t w o r k , ev er y t h i n g f u n ct i o n s b y t el ep h o n e, an d w o r k er s' m o v em en t s ar e r ep r o d u ced b y a 'd y n am o m et er - r eco r d er ' t h at cal cu l at es t h e h o u r s w o r k ed . T h e p o r t r ai t o f a su sp ect i s p r o j ect ed o n scr een s i n t h e st r eet s an d t r an sm i t t ed t o al l p o i n t s o f t h e gl o b e b y w i r el ess t el egr ap h y . T h e scr een s ar e r ef r esh ed . O n e ch ar act er say s: 'I am st u n n ed t o t h i n k t h at at t h i s v er y m o m en t , t h e sam e i n f i n i t el y m u l t i p l i ed t r ai t s ar e b ei n g i m p r i n t ed o n m i l l i o n s o f sen si t i v e p l at es ... N o m an i s t o o sm al l n o t t o b e co n n ect ed t o t h e u n i v er se b y t h e t el ep h o n e, t h e t el egr ap h an d ev en t h e t e le p h o t e - w h i ch i s w i r el ess o f co u r se'.

B él i ar d 's co n t em p o r ar y, G u i l l au m e A p o l l i n ai r e, sp eak s o f L o u i s I I o f B av ar i a i n h i s R o i- lu n e ( T h e M o o n K in g , 19 16 ) — o f w h i c h m o r e w i l l b e sai d l at er — w h o u ses 'g i an t co p p er p i n n ae [ st i ck i n g ou t ] o f t h e w al l ' t o l i st en t o n o t h i n g l ess t h an t h e m u r m u r i n g o f t h e w o r l d t h an k s t o m i cr o p h o n es co n n ect ed t o i t. W i t h t h e h el p o f a d ev i ce eq u i p p ed w i t h a k ey b o ar d , t h e m o n ar ch can p r ess o n w h at ev er k ey h e ch o o ses an d h ear t h e so u n d s t r an sm i t t ed f r o m t h e w h o l e w o r l d ( Pap eet e, Ri o d e Jan ei r o , N ew Z eal an d , A m er i ca, Ch i n a, C h i cago , N ew Y o r k , Bo n n ...) : i n T r i p o l i t ai n e, 'ar o u n d a b i v o u ac fi r e, M ar i n et t i p r act i sed sp eak i n g p i d gi n w h i l e t h e t r o o p s o f t h e H o u se o f Sav o y su r r o u n d ed h i m i n so l d i er l y m an n er , r ead y t o d ef en d h i m i n t h e i m p r o b ab l e ev en t o f an aggr essi o n , f i r i n g a f ew o n o m at o p o ei c sal v o s, an d cl ar i o n cal l s ech o ed ar o u n d t h e cam p ' ... O n e can go o n 'a t o u r o f t h e au r i cu l ar w o r l d - w h i l e r em ai n i n g i m m o b i l e'.11 I n a p ar o d y o f V i l l i er s's n o v el , Jo s u ah E le c t r ic m an n , w r i t t en i n 18 8 3 b y Er n est d 'H er v i l l y , a gen er al i sed sy st em o f co n n ect i o n s o f w o r l d w i d e i n f o r m at i o n w as ex t r ap o l at ed f r o m t h e t el ep h o n e an d t el egr ap h , w i t h a 'n et w o r k o f co n d u ct i n g w i r es co r r esp o n d i n g t o al l t h e t el egr ap h i c st at i o n s o f t h e gl o b e co m b i n ed w i t h a " sc r i b o g r ap h " , " m ech an i cal sec r et ar y " ', et c.12 Ren é Bar j av el , i n h i s 19 4 1 n o v el R av ag e ( t r an sl at ed as A s h e s , as h e s ) , p r o v i d es u s w i t h a t h i r d ex am p l e, as d o es sci en ce f i ct i o n w r i t t en i n t h e 19 50 s ( Ph i l i p K . D i ck , Pi er r e Bo u l l e, R ay Br ad b u r y , et c.) u p t o t h e p r esen t t i m e —t h e o b ser v at i o n s o n e can m ak e w o u l d b e si m i l ar , ev en i f t h e t ech n i cal r ef er en ces h av e ev o l v ed al o n g w i t h t ech n o l o gi cal d ev el o p m en t s. W h at ev er t h e f u t u r i st i c f r am ew o r k o f su ch n o v el s, t h er e ar e a cer t ai n n u m b er o f 'co n v i ct i o n s', b el i ef s, v al u es o r f ear s t h at ar e co n si st en t l y p r esen t . T h e v o i ce

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 4 9 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 4 9 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

P r o je c t e d C in e m a ( A H y p o t h e s is o n t h e C in e m a s I m a g in a t io n )

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t ak i n g o v er f r o m t h e w r i t t en w o r d , f o r ex am p l e, i s o n e o f t h e m o st w i d esp r ead i d eas, go i n g b ack at l east as f ar as C y r an o d e Ber ger ac i n h i s j o u r n ey s t o t h e m o o n .13 T o w h i ch o n e can ad d t h e gen er al d i st r i b u t i o n o f m u si c, i n st an t n ew s f r o m t h e w o r l d o ver , ser v i ces av ai l ab l e at h o m e, et c., al l 'v al u es' t h at t h e I n t er n et h as b o r r o w ed f r o m t h e en d o f t h e 19 t h cen t u r y an d m u l t i p l i ed . Fi n al l y, o n e m ay n o t e t h e i d ea o f gen er al i sed su r v ei l l an ce - t h an k s t o t h e p r eser v at i o n o f i m ages b y l i gh t ( Fl am m ar i o n ) , b y m ean s o f o b ser v at i o n b y o p t i cal d ev i ces an d f i n al l y b y d i n t o f v ar i o u s m ean s o f d i f f u si o n . T h ese ex am p l es cl ear l y sh o w t h at t h e d i v i si o n b et w een d i f f er en t m ed i a an d t ech n o l o gi es - su ch as h as b een est ab l i sh ed an d d ev el o p ed (t o t h e p o i n t w h er e sch o l ar s h av e t h eo r i sed o n t h e p r o cesses o f r em ediat ion o r t o d ay en v i sag e n ew d i st r i b u t i o n s w i t h r egar d t o t h e n ew d i gi t al t ech n o l o gy an d w h at i t al l o w s) h as n o t b een 'r esp ect ed ' b y t h e au t h o r s o f t h ese w r i t i n gs, as t h ey sy st em at i cal l y w i d en t h e f u n ct i o n s g i v en t o t h ese t ech n i cal ob ject s, j u st as t h ey d o n o t 'r esp ect ' t h ei r 'sp ec i f i ci t y ' b u t cr o ss t h ei r ch ar act er i st i cs, t u r n i n g t h em i n t o h y b r i d t ech n i cal ob ject s. T h i s p r o v i d es u s w i t h p r eci o u s cl u es ab o u t t h e w o r l d o f t ech n i cal i m agi n at i o n , t h e co n cep t u al an d so ci al f r am ew o r k s ( cat ego r i es an d i d eo l o gi es) t h at w er e p r ev al en t w h en su ch t ech n i q u es w er e 'i m ag i n ed ' - w h i ch , o n t h e b a si s o f sp eci al i sat i o n d ev el o p ed l at er , w e t en d t o b el i ev e w er e cr eat ed w i t h i n t h e r est r i ct ed , au t o n o m o u s an d sp eci al i sed f r am ew o r k t h at h as b eco m e, o r i s t o b e com e, t h ei r o w n . W e sh al l co m e b ack t o t h i s 't u r n ar o u n d ' i n t h e t h eo r y an d h i st o r i o g r ap h y o f t h e ci n em a an d o t h er co m m u n i cat i o n m ed i a ( t el evi si o n , I n t er n et ...) , f o r t h e h y p o t h esi s o f en v i sag i n g a '19 0 0 ep i st em e' p r o ceed s f r o m t h e co n v i ct i o n t h at , co n t r ar y t o t h e ev er n ar r o w er f o cu si n g o n t h e 'sp ec i f i ci t y ' o f a m ed i u m , i t i s u sef u l t o w i d en t h e d o m ai n i t b el o n g s t o, t o co n si d er i t w i t h i n a b r o ad er f r am ew o r k , i n a w ay t o 'd i sso l v e' i t i n acco r d an ce w i t h t h e cat ego r i es t h at p ass t h r o u gh i t an d t h at l i n k i t t o o t h er cat ego r i es. T u r n i n g n o w t o f i ct i o n al t ext s t h at 'i n v en t ' n ew t ech n o l o gi es m o r e v i v i d l y t h an t h e p r ev i o u s o n es, o n e can c l assi f y t h em acco r d i n g t o sev er al t r en d s - t h e v i su al i sat i o n o f t h e p ast , d i r ect t r an sm i ssi o n ( u b i q u i t y) , t h e v i r t u al i m age, an d 'au d i o v i su al ' cl o n i n g. T h e au d i o - v i su al i sat i o n o f t h e p ast i s cl ear l y t h e d o m i n an t f an t asy p r o d u ced f i r st b y p h o t o g r ap h y an d t h en p h o n o gr ap h y . Si n ce t o d ay w e can f i x, i .e., m ak e f ast , t h e ap p ear an ce o f t h e p r esen t - w h i ch t o m o r r o w w i l l b el o n g t o t h e p ast co u l d o n e n o t f i x a p ast t h at h ap p en ed b ef o r e t h e ar r i v al o f p h o t o g r ap h y an d p h o n o g r ap h y ? V i l l i er s's Ed i so n d ep l o r es t h e f act t h at h e h as 'ar r i v ed t o o l at e'. T h e f i x i n g o f i m ages an d so u n d s an d t h ei r fr ee r ep et i t i o n t r an sf o r m t h e r el a t i o n t o t i m e, m ak i n g p o ssi b l e a cl ai m , w h i ch i s m ad e p o ssi b l e b y t h e co n t em p o r ar y d i sco v er i es i n ast r o n o m y an d t h ei r ef f ect s o n t h e u n d er st an d i n g o f t h e n a t u r e o f l i gh t .14 C am i l l e Fl am m ar i o n w as t h e d o m i n an t f i gu r e i n t h e f i el d o f

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 5 0 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 5 0 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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sci en t i f i c p o p u l ar i sat i o n , b u t al so i t s ex t en si o n s t o w ar d s sci en ce fi ct i o n an d ev en p ar ap sy ch o l o gy . I n t h e 18 6 0 s, Fl am m ar i o n b ecam e i n t er est ed i n t h e q u est i o n o f t h e 'd el ay cau sed i n o u r o b ser v at i o n s o f asp ect s o f st ar s b y t h e t i m e t h at l u m i n o u s r ay s t ak e t o co m e t o u s' an d , co n seq u en t l y, i n t h e f act t h at t h ese r ay s 't el l u s t h e an ci en t h i st o r y o f t h ese st ar s' —as A r ag o p u t i t .15 O n e o f t h e co n cl u si o n s t h at Fl am m ar i o n d r ew f r o m t h e o b ser v at i o n o f t h i s 'd el ay ' an d t h e 'j o u r n ey ' o f l u m i n o u s i m ag es w as t h e p er si st en ce o f t h ese i m ages o f p h en o m en a 'i n t h e co sm o s': 'n o t h i n g i s d est r o y ed ,' 'at t h e m o m en t w h en [ an] act h as b een acco m p l i sh ed , l i gh t sei z es i t an d car r i es i t i n t o sp ace at l i gh t en i n g sp eed . I t i s i n co r p o r at ed w i t h a r ay o f l i gh t ; b eco m i n g et er n al , i t et er n al l y b e t r an sm i t t ed i n t h e i n f i n i t e'.16 Bu t Fl am m ar i o n w as ab o v e al l f asci n at ed b y h i s h y p o t h eses o n 't h e p l u r al i t y o f i n h ab i t ed w o r l d s' - h e w an t ed t o t ak e o f f f r o m ear t h an d f av o u r ed t h e i n t er si d er eal v o y ag e. I n L u m en ( 1884) , h i s sp ecu l at i o n s ab o u t r et r o sp ect i v e v i si o n i n co r p o r at ed t h e m o v em en t o f t h e o b ser v er , w h o go es b ack i n t i m e f ast er t h an t h e sp eed o f l i gh t , w h er eas sy n ch r o n i si n g t h e sp eed w i t h t h e sp eed o f l i gh t al l o w s h i m t o i so l at e a p i ct u r e. Fl am m ar i o n t h u s d o es n o t sp ecu l at e o n t h e m ean s o f cap t u r i n g an d r eco r d i n g t h e i m ag es t h at su r r o u n d u s. T h i s, h o w ev er , i s t h e case o f t h e m an y st o r i es d eal i n g w i t h t h e q u est i o n o f t h e cap t u r i n g d ev i ce o r d ev el o p er scr een al l o w i n g o n e t o v i su al i se an d t h en r eco r d t h ese i t i n er an t i m ages. I n t h e m aj o r i t y o f t h ese st o r i es, t h e n ar r at o r i s t h e sci en t i st w h o p r o v i d es sci en t i f i c ex p l an at i o n s o f t h e p h en o m en a t h at h ap p en ( t h eo r y) an d o f t h e ap p a r at u s h e h as d esi gn ed t o o b ser v e an d f i x t h em ( t ech n o l o gy) . T h ese ch ar act er s an d t h ei r d i sco u r ses ar e co n st r u ct ed b y ad ap t i n g w h at w as b ei n g sai d at t h e t i m e i n sci en t i f i c ci r cl es — as can b e seen b y t h e ap p ear an ce o f Ed i so n 'i n p er so n ' i n so m e o f t h ese st or i es, o r t h e r ep eat ed r ef er en ces t o h i m ( 't h e Fr en ch Ed i so n ') . T h er e agai n , as i n t h e case o f t h e 'N au t i l u s', r at h er t h an l o o k i n g at t h e ex p l an a t i on s, i n v en t i o n s an d d i sco v er i es o f t h ese sci en t i st s, i t w as m o r e i m p o r t an t t o l i n k t h em t o t h e co n cep t s m ak i n g t h em p o ssi b l e - t h u s w i t h l ess em p h asi s o n t h e sol ut ions an d m o r e o n t h e quest ions f r o m w h i ch t h ey st em . I n t h e ex am p l es ex am i n ed h er e, t h ese sci en t i st s b el o n g r esp ect i v el y — o r si m u l t an eo u sl y - t o t h e f i el d s o f ch em i st r y, ast r o n o m y an d p h y si cs. W h en r easo n i n g i s d ev el o p ed o n t h e b asi s o f t h e t h eo r y t h at an al y ses i m ages as a r ef l ect i o n o f t h e l i gh t o f a b o d y , w e h av e n o t ed t h at i t i s ast r o n o m y t h at p r o v i d es t h e h y p o t h esi s o f cap t u r i n g i m ag es o f t h e p ast b y m ean s o f t h e t i m e gap b et w een t h e em i ssi o n an d r ecep t i o n o f t h e l i gh t em i t t ed b y f ar - o f f st ar s.17 T h en p h y si c s i s r eq u i r ed t o d esi gn d ev i ces t o o b ser v e an d cap t u r e i m ages, an d ch em i st r y n ecessar y t o f i n d sen si t i v e su p p o r t s o n w h i c h t h ese em i ssi o n s o f l i gh t m ay b e d ev el o p ed an d r eco r d ed .

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 51 h t t p :/ /s ite . e b ra ry .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 5 1 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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T h e r easo n i n g b eh i n d t h ese st o r i es w as su m m ar i sed i n ex em p l ar y f ash i o n b y M au r i ce Ren ar d , w h o h ad u n d o u b t ed l y r ead Fl am m ar i o n : The past exi st s al w ays in t he or der of li ght an d t he opt ical; but u p to now, ou r past , t hat of t he i nhabi t ant s o f t he Eart h, h as n ot been avai labl e to ou r ow n eyes. Th at does n ot pr even t it fr om goi n g on an d on vi su al ly, li k e all past s w h er e li gh t rei gns. Thus w h en w e ob ser ve t he star s, i t i s t heir past t hat w e see. For, despi t e it s speed of 3,000 ki lom et r es per secon d, i t t akes li gh t year s to com e to u s from t he n earest star, in ot her w or d s to sen d u s t he i m age of t hat star. Consequent ly, in t he fi r m am en t w e on l y see t he st ar s such as t h ey shone ten, t went y, fi ft y or on e h un dr ed year s ago, accor di n g to t he di st ance separ at i n g us fr om t hem , an d n ot such as t h ey shi ne at t he m om ent w h en w e con t em plat e t h em .1* Cl ear l y , t h e p r o b l em at i c o f t h e in s t an t an e o u s im ag e t h at ar i ses i n p h o t o gr ap h y , cau si n g t h e v er y d ef i n i t i o n o f p h o t o g r ap h y t o b e r ed ef i n ed 19 ( p ar t i cu l ar l y i n r el at i o n t o N i ep ce's f i r st ex p er i m en t s w h er e t h e ex p o su r e t i m e r eco r d s t h e p as si n g o f t i m e — o r l at er t h ose o f N ègr e) , i s co r r el at i v e t o t h at o f t h e g ap , t h e d el ay m ad e p o ssi b l e i n t h e i m ag i n ar y w o r l d o f i m age cap t u r i n g o f w h at i s n o l o n ger p r esen t at t h e sam e t i m e as t h e cam er a, w h er eas o n t h e con t r ar y, t h e i n st an t a n eo u s i m ag e ex acer b at es t h i s si m u l t an ei t y o f ex i st en ce i n t h e gu i se o f i m m ed i acy. Fo r f u r t h er ex am p l es o f t h e p r o b l em at i c o f t h e au d i o - v i su al i sat i o n o f t h e p ast , asi d e f r o m M au r i ce Ren ar d 's le M aît r e d e la lu m iè r e ( T h e L ig h t M as t e r , 19 33) , w h i c h p u t s f o r w ar d a p r eci se an d o r i gi n al d i sp o si t i v e t o r each i m ages f r o m t h e p ast : t h e 'su m m ar i es o f t h e p ast ', r ear - v i ew m i r r o r s o r d ev el o p er s, h eav y an d v er y t h i ck o p aq u e p l at es m ad e u p o f an i n f i n i t e n u m b er o f v er y t h i n b l ack or l u m i n o u s l i n es an d o t h er s t h at ar e l i gh t o r d ar k .20 T h r ee n o v el s h av e b een ch o sen : G u i sep p e L i p p ar i n i 's le M aît r e d u t e m p s ( T h e M a s t e r o f T im e , 19 09 ) , M au r i ce L eb l an c's les T rois Y e u x ( T h e T h r e e E y e s , 19 20 ) , an d L éo n D au d et 's B ac c h an t e s ( 19 31) , U si n g t h e ch ar act er o f Pr o f esso r A n t o n i o Sch w ar z , G u i sep p e L i p p ar i n i 21 ev o k es t h e q u est i o n o f t h e 'p h o t o g r ap h y o f t i m e'. Fo l l o w i n g a h an d l i n g er r o r d u r i n g ast r o n o m i cal o b ser v at i o n , i m ag es o f t h e p ast ap p ear . H o w ev er , t h e ex p l an at i o n o f t h e p h en o m en o n i n t r o d u ces a n ew p ar am et er o f t h e e n e r g y d ev el o p ed b y each b o d y i n m o v em en t . T h e h y p o t h esi s i s t h at t h e en er g y m u st 'su b si st '. I n o t h er w o r d s, each o f m an 's act s co r r esp o n d s t o a p r o je c t io n o f t h at act in s p ac e , w h i ch , as Fl am m ar i o n w r o t e, i s p r eser v ed i n t i m e. T h e ci n em at o gr ap h

co n f i r m s t h i s l aw o f p r o j ect i o n (i n sp ace) / p r eser v at i o n (i n t i m e) for : 't h e su r r o u n d i n g ai r i s a v er i t ab l e ci n em at o gr ap h w h er e t h o u san d s o f su ccessi v e p r o j ec t i o n s i n t er sect an d m er g e'.22 Sch w ar z t h u s set s o u t t o f i n d a r ecei ver , w h i ch w i l l en ab l e h i m t o r e c o n s t it u t e t h e act t h at h as p r o d u ced t h ese p r o j ect i o n s. T h e i n st r u m en t , cl o se t o t h e h u m an

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 5 2 h tt p ://s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 5 2 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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ey e, i s a d ar k r o o m . T h e t ask t h en b eco m es t o 'co o r d i n at e t h e d i sp er sed an d b l u r r ed i m ages, an d g i v e b ack an d r est o r e t h ei r i n i t i al co n t i n u i t y '. I n M au r i ce L eb l an c's n o v el ,23 t h e sci en t i st , N o ël D o r ger o u x , i s a ch em i st , an d h e si m p l y co n t r i b u t es t o t h e v i su al i sat i o n o f i m ag es f r o m t h e p ast t h at t h e V en u si an s, w h o h av e r ecei v ed t h em b y r ef l ect i o n , p r o j ect on t o t h e ear t h . T h i s t h u s i n v o l v es f i n d i n g a scr een an d a d ev el o p er f o r 'p h o t o g r am s' t h at on ce ag ai n ar e p r esen t i n t h e su r r o u n d i n g ai r . I n b o t h cases, t h e ex i st en ce o f m i l l i o n s o f i n v i si b l e i m ag es an d so u n d s ci r cu l at i n g i n t h e at m o sp h er e i s t h e r esu l t o f assi m i l at i n g t h ese t w o p h en o m en a w i t h t h e H er t z i an w av es o f w i r el ess co m m u n i cat i o n s. W h i l e b o t h t h e t el ep h o n e an d t h e t el egr ap h f o st er an i m ag i n ar y w o r l d o f t r an sm i ssi o n b y m ean s o f el ect r i c i m p u l ses, a cu r r en t m o v i n g t h r o u gh so m e car r i er ( h o w ev er t h i n t h i s m ay be, su ch as a cab l e o r a w i r e) , r ad i o p h o n y i m p l i es m o v i n g t o a d i f f er en t p h y si cal el em en t , t h at o f f l u x b y em i ssi o n i n t h e ai r w i t h n ei t h er car r i er n o r en er gy, asi d e f r o m t h e i n i t i al en er g y o f t h e w av es. T h i s asp ect o f t h e w av es o f t i m e c ar r y i n g t h e p ast i s ex act l y w h at L éo n D au d et h i gh l i gh t s w h en cr eat i n g h i s p h y si ci st an d 'Fr en ch Ed i so n ', Ro m ai n Ségét an . T h e w av es can b e co m p ar ed t o 'so u n d v i b r at i o n s' - t h ey i n t er p en et r at e w i t h o u t m er gi n g, ap p ear an d d i sap p ear . T h e ai m h er e i s t o cap t u r e t h em , an d t o d o so Ségét an d esi g n s a d ev i ce cal l ed D y o n i so s — t h er e i s scan t d et ai l ab o u t t h i s d e v i ce, b u t w e d o k n o w t h at i t w o r k s i n 'z o n es o f p r ed i l ect i o n ' f o r i o n g - d u r at i o n w av es, si t es t h at ar e p o si t i v el y h au n t ed '; t h ey ar e p l aced cl o se t o 'cer t ai n ar eas o f t h e sk i n t h at ar e esp eci al l y accessi b l e t o sen so r y h y p er aest h esi a'. T h e em p h a si s t h at i s p u t o n t h e 'v i b r at i o n s' an d 'w a v es' - r at h er t h an o n t h e p r eser v at i o n o f t h e i m ag es as su ch ( an d t h u s p r o j ect ed ei t h er f r o m t h e p ast o r f r o m el sew h er e [ V en u s] ) — cau ses h i m t o ad o p t a m en t al m o d el o f v i si o n r at h er t h an an o p t i cal on e. T h e t h eo r i es ab o u t t h e sk i n 's h y p er aest h esi a an d v i si o n v i a t h e sk i n w er e d ev el o p ed b y L o u i s Far i g o u l e [ Ju l es Ro m ai n s] i n 19 19 , i n a w o r k t h at w as si n g u l ar co m p ar ed t o w h at h e w as l at er t o w r i t e an d w h i ch f o u n d l i t t l e f av o u r .24 Cl ear l y , L éo n D au d et - w h o h ad t r ai n ed as a d o ct o r - w as f am i l i ar w i t h it . G u i l l au m e A p o l l i n ai r e t o o k an ear l y i n t er est i n t h e ci n em a - h i s scen ar i o , la B r é h at in e , an d h i s sh o r t st o r y, 'U n b eau f i l m ' ( 'A b eau t i f u l f i l m ', p u b l i sh ed i n l' H é r é s iaq u e ) , p ar o d y act i o n f i l m s w i t h su d d en ch an ges o f f o r t u n e i n t h e w ay

t h at h i s co n t em p o r ar y , t h e h u m o r i st C am i , d i d . H e al so w r o t e t w o m u ch m o r e i n t er est i n g t ext s en t i t l ed 'L e T o u ch er à d i st an ce' ( 'D i st an ce T o u ch ') an d 'l e Ro i l u n e' ( 'T h e M o o n K i n g') . T h e f i r st st o r y ev o k es a 'm essi ah ' cap ab l e o f si m u l t an eo u sl y b ei n g i n a ser i es o f d i f f er en t p l aces. H e h as d esi gn ed a m ach i n e t h at c o m b in e s t h e ci n em at o gr ap h , t h e p h o n o gr ap h , t h e t el ep h o n e an d t h e t el egr ap h an d t h an k s t o w h i ch h e can b e d u p lic at e d i n as m an y p l aces as h e l i k es, o n co n d i t i o n t h at h e h as p l aced a r ecei

v er t h er e sh ap ed l i k e an d t h e si z e o f a n ai l . N o t o n l y d o i m ag e an d so u n d ap -

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 5 3 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 5 3 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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p ear i n t h ese v ar i o u s p l aces, b u t al so a t h r ee- d i m en si o n al f i gu r e t h at can b e t o u ch ed ( t h u s h e r eg u l ar l y m eet s h i s m i st r ess f o r t h ei r w eek l y r en d ez v o u s w i t h o u t h er su sp ect i n g t h at h e co u l d b e at t h e o t h er en d o f t h e w o r l d - an d h e ev en m an ag es t o g i v e h er t h r ee ch i l d r en ) . W h en t h e n ar r at o r f i r es si x sh o t s f r o m a r ev o l v er at w h at h e b el i ev es t o b e t h e ch ar act er 's 'd o u b l e', t h e l at t er d i es si m u l t an eo u sl y i n 800 d i f f er en t p l aces w o r l d w i d e. D u p l i cat i o n an d u b i q u i t y ar e t h u s t h e p ar am et er s o f t h i s st o r y. I n T h e M o o n K in g , A p o l l i n ai r e sp eak s o f d ev i c es t h at d o n o t p r o j ect i m ages, b u t t h at p l u n ge t h ei r u ser s i n t o a v i r t u al w o r l d . T h e i m ages ar e o f f am o u s w o m en f r o m h i st o r y ( C l eo p at r a, H el o i se o r L o l a M o n t ez, et c.) ar e cal l ed u p ( 'a n ak ed b o d y sm i l i n g v o l u p t u o u sl y at h i m t ak es sh ap e b ef o r e h i s d el i gh t ed ey es') an d o f f er ed f o r t h e u ser s' sex u al p l easu r e ( 'T h e h an d s o f t h e y o u n g p eo p l e st r et ch ed o u t i n f r o n t o f t h em an d w an d er ed , as i f t h ey w er e f o n d l i n g l i t h e, t r easu r ed b o d i es, t h ei r m o u t h s g a v e en am o u r ed k i sses t o t h e ai r . So o n t h ey b e cam e m o r e l asci v i o u s an d sp i r i t ed l y u n i t ed w i t h t h e v o i d ') . T h e m ach i n e i s an ex t r ap o l at i o n o f t h e p h o n o gr ap h ( w i t h w h i ch i t sh ar es t h e t u r n i n g 'cy l i n d er s') : t h er e i s a r eco r d i n g o f t h e p ast , w h i c h i s r ei t er at ed f o r i n d i v i d u al u se - i m p l y i n g a cer t ai n i n t er act i o n w i t h t h e m ach i n e. Bu t , ab o v e al l, i t b r eak s w i t h t h e b el i ef i n t h e 'co m m u n i cat i o n ' w i t h t h e i m ag es o f t h e p ast b y i n t r o d u ci n g t h e f act t h at 'I co u l d l o o k at , t ou ch , i n a w o r d I co u l d p l easu r e t h e b o d y w i t h i n m y r each , w h er eas t h e b o d y h ad n o i d ea t h at I w as t h er e, as i t h ad n o p r e s e n t r eal i t y '. T h e cap t u r i n g o f i m ages o f p eo p l e f r o m t h e p ast ( gr eat i n a m o r at as) i n i m p r o b ab l e si t u at i o n s ( sex u al p l easu r e) p r o d u ces a p r esen t , si m u l at ed act i v i t y t h at i s r eal l y fel t ( m o v i n g f r o m si m u l acr a t o si m u l at i o n ) . Fi n al l y, t h e sy m b o l i st Sai n t - Po l Ro u x , w i t h h i s 'l i v i n g ci n em a', an n o u n ced a scr een l ess ci n em a, r em o v ed f r o m t h e p l at i t u d e o f b ei n g sh o w n , g o i n g al l o v er t h e w o r l d as an y o n e m ay, si m u l t an eo u sl y p ai n t i n g an d scu l p t u r e - an d o p en i n g u p t o 'I m m o r t al i t y '. T h i s i s t h e ci n em a o f t o m o r r o w . U p t i ll n o w , t h e i m age w as r ef l ect ed , b u t i n t o m o r r o w 's ci n em a i t w i l l b e cr y st al l i sed , t ak i n g t h e p l ace o f an d su p p l an t i n g b i o l o gi cal r ep r o d u ct i o n , i t i s t h e v ect o r o f a su p er - h u m an i t y t h at i s r ep r o d u ced b y t h e so u n d an d i m age t ech n o l o gy. Sai n t - Po l R o u x t h u s ad d s t h e p r o d u ct i o n o f 'd o u b l es' - cl o n i n g — t o t h e si m u l t an eo u s p r esen ce o f t h e l i v i n g an d t h e d ead .

C o n c lu s io n

G i l b er t Si m o n d o n 's r ef l ect i o n s o n t h e 'm o d es o f ex i st en ce o f t ech n i cal o b ject s' an d , m o r e p r eci sel y, o n t h e l i n k i n g o f 'i m agi n at i o n an d i n v en t i o n ' h el p on e t o

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 5 4 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 5 4 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

54

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u n d er st an d t h e 'g en esi s' o f t h e i n v en t i o n co n st i t u t i v e o f it , o r ev en t h at 't h e g en esi s o f t h e t ech n i cal o b ject i s p ar t o f i t s b ei n g '.25 H i s r ef l ect i o n s o n t h e d ef i n i t i o n o f t h e t ech n i cal o b ject m eet t h o se d ev el o p ed b y G eo r ges C an g u i l h em o n t h e h i st o r y o f sci en ces, st r essi n g t h e o r i gi n o f t h e co n cep t r at h er t h an i t s b egi n n i n g, t h e o r i gi n al w ay s b ei n g i n d eb t ed t o c au sal i t i es t h at ar e o u t si d e w h at w o u l d b e co n si d er ed a 'l o g i c o f sci en ce'. T h u s, t h e co n cep t o f r ef l ex d i d n ot ar i se w i t h i n sci en t i f i c d i sco u r se as i f b y i n t er n al en gen d er m en t ( o f t h e H egel i an t yp e) , b u t i n t h e co n t ext o f p at h o l o g y an d t h e cli n i c. I n w h at co n d i t i o n , ask s Si m o n d o n , can t h e t ech n i cal o b ject b e cal l ed su ch ? I t i s n o t w h en I co n t em p l at e i t , n o t w h en i t i s si m p l y u sed , n o t ev en w h en i t i s co n si d er ed o b j ect i v el y f r o m t h e p o i n t o f i t s u se an d f u n ct i o n s, o r co n si d er ed acco r d i n g t o i t s p h y si cal st r u ct u r es: i t i s t h e k n o w l ed g e o f t h e co n cr et i zat i o n o f t h e t ech n i cal o b ject t h at co n st i t u t es i t as su ch . I n t h i s gen esi s, t h er e i s t h e i m agi n at i o n , t h e p r o j ect an d t h e co n cep t i o n — Si m o n d o n cal l s i t an 'i m ag e- p r o d u c i n g gen esi s' - w h i ch h as a v i r t u al d i m en si o n . W hen i t does n ot 'go w r on g', t he i n vent i on can be di st i n gui sh ed fr om t he i m ages t hat pr ecede it b y t he fact t hat it br i n gs about a ch an ge o f scale - it joi n s the m i ddle, w h i ch i t or gan i ses. A n i n vent i on i s an i m age t hat h as succeeded, t hat h as becom e concr et e.26 T h e i n t er est o f f i ct i o n i s n o t so m u ch t h at i t 'an n o u n ces' o r 'p r ef i g u r es' w h at i s t o co m e (i t s p r o p h et i c q u al i t y ) b u t t h at i t t ak es p ar t i n t h i s gen esi s, d o u b t l ess m o r e o n t h e si d e o f 'c r eat i v i t y ', w h i ch i s sy n cr et i c, d i so r d er l y an d ab u n d an t — w h i l e t h e 'i n v en t i o n ' i s d i sco n t i n u o u s, sp r ead o u t o v er t i m e an d t h r o u gh h i st or y. M o r eo v er , t o t h e ext en t t h at su ch f i ct i o n b o r r o w s o r ex p er i m en t s - p u r el y i n w r i t i n g - o n t h e b asi s o f t h e st at e o f k n o w l ed g e o r cu r r en t p r oj ect s, i t h as t h e f acu l t y o f sh ed d i n g l i gh t on so m e d i m en si o n s o f ex i st i n g t ech n o l o gi es t h at ar e a so u r ce o f i n sp i r at i o n , b u t t h at h i st or y, i n i t s cat al o gu ed f o r m , h as n ot r et ai n ed , i n t h at i t h as f av o u r ed u se al o n e, t h er eb y cr u sh i n g o t h er p o ssi b i l i t i es. T h er e ar e at l east t w o asp ect s t o t h ese d i m en si o n s: t h e p o t en t i al p r o p er t o a m ed i u m o r m ach i n e (on ce t h e m o v e f r o m h an d - b u i l d i n g o r p r o t o t y p e t o gen er al i sat i o n h as b een m ad e) , an d t h e so ci al , i m ag i n ar y or p r agm at i c ex p ect at i o n s t h at b o t h r ecei v e an d so l i ci t i t. I n an ar t i cl e p u b l i sh ed i n P ar is - S o ir o n 8 M ay 19 25, M au r i ce Ren ar d co m m en t ed o n t h e n o t i o n o f an t ic ip at io n i n l i t er at u r e an d cam e u p w i t h t h e ad h o c ex p r es si o n o f an t ic ip at io n as a fic t it io u s s o lu t io n : By u si n g n ew dat a, b y pr olon gi n g i nto t he fut ur e t he pr esum ed con t i nuat i on of r e sear ch un der w ay, w r i t er s w i t h m et hodi cal i m agi n at i on s deli gh t ed ... in givin g fict i tious solut ions to cer t ai n pr oblem s t hat people h ad been faci n g for cent uri es, an d ot her

pr oblem s that had on ly just ar i sen t h rough pr ogr ess. Th ey sk i l fu lly busi ed t h em selves w i t h i m agi n i n g t he advent of possibilit ies, som e of w h i ch w er e desi r able and ot her s app al li n g; in short , t h ey absor bed t h em selves in ant icipat ions, a w or d used fir st b y

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 5 5 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 5 5 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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55

W ells i n t hi s w ay (but h e h ad pr edecessors: Poe, Vi lli er s, Ver ne, Flam m ar i on , t he el der Rosn y) .2' I n t h ese 'an t i ci p at i o n s', t h e n ar r at i v e f r am ew o r k i s a f r am e t h at allows t h e ex t r a p o l at i o n s au t h o r i sed b y t h e o b ject u n d er co n si d er at i o n t o u n f o l d . B y u n d er st an d i n g t h e 'ci n em a' at t h e t i m e o f i t s ad v en t t h r o u gh t h e r ep r esen t at i o n s o f i t t h at ar e p r o v i d ed i n f i ct i o n al w o r k s, t o en v i sag e i t as a f i el d o f p o s si b l e d ev el o p m en t s, i n i t s ex t en si o n , o n e m ay d ef i n e i t s v er y co n cep t b ey o n d t h e em p i r i cal d ef i n i t i o n s t h at h av e h el d sw ay . T h i s ap p r o ach l ead s t o a r eo r d er i n g o f h o w t h i n gs ar e d i v i d ed u p b et w een d i f f er en t m ed i a an d t h e b o r d er s b et w een t h em , an d h en ce t h ei r r esp ect i v e ch r o n o l o gi es. T h u s, t h e ex t r em el y r i gi d p ar t i t i o n b et w een 'ci n em a' an d 't el ev i si o n ', w h i ch go t h r o u gh t h ei r r esp ect i v e v al u es an d p u r p o ses o f r ecor din g, st or i n g an d defer r ed r epet it ion o n t h e o n e h an d , an d t r ansm ission, si m u l t an ei t y an d con t i gu i t y o n t h e o t h er h an d , si m p l y r et r o-pr oject s l at er ( an d cu r r en t ) d i st i n ct i o n s

t h at h av e b een est ab l i sh ed b y soci et y, an d w h i ch d ep en d o n ch o i ces, w i t h i n t h e m ed i u m s an d m ed i a u n d er co n si d er at i o n f o r t h e p u r p o ses o f sp eci al i sat i o n s, p r o f i t ab i l i t y, an d so for t h . B y ex am i n i n g 'u t o p i an ' n o v el s o r w o r k s o f ex t r ap o l at i o n , o n e can m easu r e j u st h o w f ar t h ese l at er sp eci al i sat i o n s — w h at ev er t h ei r i m p o r t an ce m ay h av e b een - h av e co n seq u en t l y r et r o - p r o j ect ed b o r d er s an d ch r o n o l o gi es b y co n si d er i n g t h e m ed i a sep ar at el y . T h e o u t l i n e o f d ev el o p m en t s p o st u l at ed b y t h e f i r st h i st o r i an s h as co n t r i b u t ed t o t h i s o v er sh ad o w i n g b y m ak i n g t h e v er y o v er sh ad o w i n g seem l i k e a n at u r al p r o cess - b u t cer t ai n t h eo r i es o f sem i o l o g y o r t h eo r i es o f i n t er m ed i al i t y d o l i k e w i se w h en t h ey set o u t t h e 'p h ases' an d su ccessi v e m o d al i t i es t h at t h ese m ed i a h av e p assed t h r o u gh , t h u s sl o t t i n g t h em i n t o p er i o d s b u t w i t h o u t i n scr i b i n g t h em i n t o a b r o ad er sp ace o f i n t el l i gi b i l i t y.

N o te s

1. 2.

3.

See, for exam ple, Pi err e V er si n s i n h i s Encyclopédie de l'ut opie et de la science-fict ion, Lau san n e, l 'A ge d'H om m e, 19 72 (2nd edi t ion 1984). O ne of Edi son 's i n vent i on s m en t i oned i n p assi n g in Tomorrow's Eve i s an i nst r um en t used to 'm easu r e t he h eat of st ar li gh t ' (p. 156) . M easu r i n g the li gh t em i t t ed b y ext i n gu i sh ed st ar s: 't h e m an w h o look s u p and adm i r es t he st ar s i s oft en look i n g at suns t hat no lon ger exi st , w h i ch h e n on et heless per cei ves as a r esult of t hat phan t om ray, d ar t i n g en dl essly t h r ough t he i llusi on of t he un i ver se' (p. 156). H en ri Fescourt an d Jean -Loui s Bouquet , 'L 'i d ée et l'écran. O pi n i on s su r le ci ném a', pr éface de Fran ci s Lacassi n , Ar chives 99, N ovem ber 2006. Ju les Ver n e k n ew bot h of t he A m er i can Fult on 's subm ar i n e pr oject (1798) an d o f t hat of D elon n ey w h o, in

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 5 6 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 5 6 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

56

4.

5.

6.

7.

8. 9. 10. 11.

12. 13.

F r a n ç o is A lb e r a

1859, r egi st er ed pat ent s t hat h ad no pr act i cal appli cat ions. Seven t een year s aft er t he n ovel w as publi shed, t he Fren ch n aval en gi neer Gu st ave Zed e ( 1825- 189 1) per fect ed an oper at i on al subm ar i n e pr op elled b y elect r icit y and ar m ed w i t h t w o t or pedoes, called t he 'Gym n ot e' (1887). O ne m ay ask w h er e a pr oject d evel op s i f n ot on pap er - an d h ow does one 'dem on st r at e' it i f n ot on pap er b y m ean s of t he descr i pt i on of an exper i m ent - it s n arr at i on, its descri pt ion? For exam ple, t he t eleph on ogr aph i c link w i t h h i s secr et ar y (he does n ot r ep ly d i r ect ly but b y m ean s o f a r ecor ded m essage, an d calls t he secret ar y b y i dent ical m eans) follow i n g t he t r an sm i ssi on o f a w r i t t en di sp at ch ('fax'). In t h is n ovel, w h i ch w as on ly publi sh ed i n 1994, t her e i s t alk of t he 'ph ot ogr aph i c t elegr aph, i n vent ed last cen t ur y b y Pr ofessor Gi ovan n i Casel li of Flor ence, [whi ch] allow ed on e to sen d over di st ances t he facsi m i le of an y w r i t i n g or d r aw i n g an d t hus si gn bi lls of exch an ge or cont ract s at fi ve t h ousan d leagues' di st an ce' (p. 70). In Les 500 millions de In Begum (The Begum M illions, 1879) w h er e t he i deal city, Fr ance-Vi lle, bu i lt from scr at ch i n t he deser t i n t he sout h of O r egon - agai n a k i n d of i slan d - n ot far fr om i t s evi l t w i n city, St ahlst adt , t he Ci t y of St eel, bu i lt b y a Ger m an desp ot an d scien t i st w i t h t he sole aim of dest r oyi n g ever yt h i n g t hat i s n ot Ger m an ic on eart h, w i t h t he h ygi en i c, peace-lovi n g and Eden-li ke Fr ance-Vi lle fi r st on the list. Th e organ i sat i on of t he 'fu t u r i st i c' ci t y i n cludes ult r am oder n ar chi tect ur al, ur ban , i n dust r i al an d agr i cul t u r al di sp osi t i ves (wi t h t he pr i m ar y concern of exclu di n g all m or bi d ger m s fr om t he ci ty) an d t h us a n um ber of ad van ced t echni cal object s in t he field of com m uni cat ion - a ver y d evel op ed t eleph on e syst em en abli n g t he Ci vi c Coun ci l to m eet at a m om en t 's not i ce i n an 'au di o-con fer en ce', w i t h an alm ost i m m edi at e t ranscri pt i on o f d i scussi on s n ot ed i n shor t h an d i n n ew spaper s, a syst em of calli ng u p it s ci t izen s b y m ean s of soun d an d vi su al colum n s (loudspeak er , alarm and lu m i n ous di al) si t uat ed on 85 of the cit y's cr ossr oads. Th e t elephonoscope also ap pear s i n Cam i ll e Flam m ar i on 's la Fin du monde, set i n the 25t h cen t ur y (The End of the W orld, 1894). Ignis, 2n d par t , ch apt er 3. ('Th e D ay of a Par i si an i n t he 21st Cen t u r y') Lect ures pour Tous (13t h year - 3r d i nst alm en t [ D ecem ber 1910] ) . Gu i ll au m e A pol li n ai r e, 'L e Roi -lun e', M er cur e de France, Tom e CX VI I , N o. 440, 16 O ct ober 19 16. M ar i e-Er n est d'H er vi lly, 'Josu ah Elect ri cm an n ', in Timbale d'hist oires a la parisienne (Pari s: M ar pon -Flam m ar i on , 1883). Th e i d ea of fr eei n g on eself fr om w r i t i n g b y r eadi n g t ext s alou d goes back at least as far as Cyr an o de Ber ger ac, w h o en count er s ver y con ven i en t port able m achi nes on the m oon, w h i ch allow hi m to 'li st en ' t o book s. Th e m ove from t he d i sposi t i ve of the book (pr oduced b y t he pr i n t i n g press) to t hat of a d i ffu ser of soun d i s m eant to go beyon d t he obst acle of t he m at er i ali t y of w r i t i n g (let ters, pages, pr int i ng) and its lack of clar i t y in relat i on to t he m eani n g, locat ed w h er e t her e i s t r an spar en cy of the voi ce. Th is br i n gs u s close to Rou sseau's Essay on the Or igin of Language, w h i ch w as st i gm at i sed by D er r i da i n W rit ing and Difference (I'Ecr it ur e et la difference). Th er e is also the fan t asy of bei n g able to st or e t he soun d of a voi ce. Cyr an o, follow s on from Rabel ai s an d Sor el, bu t i n t r oduces a m ech an i sm t hat i s clear ly m odelled on w at ch

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 5 7 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 5 7 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

P r o je c t e d C in e m a ( A H y p o t h e s is o n t h e C in e m a s I m a g in a t io n )

14.

15. 16. 17.

18. 19. 20.

21.

22.

23. 24.

25.

57

m ak i n g, w h i le h i s pr edecessor s ban k ed on n at ur al phenom en a (fr ozen w or ds, w or d s absor bed b y spon ges): (Voyage dans la lune, 1657). O ne can m easur e t he gap bet w een t he t echn ologi cal con cept ual fr am ew or k of this fan t asy an d w h at pr evai l ed som e cen t ur i es ear li er in Rabelai s's or Sor el's w or k s. Rabel ai s exploi t s t he 'n at u r al ' ph en om en on o f t he fr eezi n g o f w or d s an d n oises t hat ar e r educed to st eam b y t he expen d i n g o f b od y en ergy, an d Sor el, b y assi m i lat i n g t he spok en w or d t o a li quid, t r ansfer s t he spon ge's absor pt i on an d r ever si on cap a ci t y vi a pr essur e. (Rabelai s, Quart livre', Sor el, le Cour r ier vérit able) See D an i elle Ch ap er on in her Camille Flammarion. Ent re astronomie et lit t érat ure, Pari s: I m ago, 1998, pp. 48-49. C. Flam m ar i on , 'L a lum i èr e r essusci t ant le passé', M agasin pit t oresque, 18 73 (quot ed b y D. Ch aper on , op. cit., p.65). Th i s i ssue of dead st ar s w as one of t he m ajor t opoi of t he t i m e (cf Baudelai r e); in Ch ar les Cr os's 'd r am e i n t erast ral' (la Renaissance lit t éraire et art ist ique of 14 A u gu st 1872) one m oves fr om t he obser vat i on of plan et s to t he t r an sm i ssi on o f soun d by t elephoni c m ode, an d o f i m ages b y 'ser i es t hat ar e suffi ci en t for t he r epr oduct i on of t he r elief an d t he m ovem en t s' - on e o f t he r ar e cases of t he appli cat i on of t he ast r on om y pr oblem at i c to t he fi eld of sound. M aur i ce Ren ar d, le M aît r e de la lumière [ 1933] , Par i s: Tallandier, 1948 (published in Romans et Contes fant ast iques, Par i s, Laffon t 'Bou qui n s', 1990, pp. 1020-1021) . See A n d r é Gunt hert , 'L a Con quêt e de l'i n st ant an é. A r ch éol ogi e de l'i m agi n ai r e ph ot ogr aph i que en Fr an ce ( 1841-1895) ', D oct or al Thesis, Par i s: EH ESS, 1999. The past her e i s n ot 'p h ot ogr aph ed ' aft er t he even t (as i n Li ppar i n i ), n or r epeat ed u si n g a sup por t t hat h as 'r ep r od u ced ' i t (the ci n em at ogr aph) - i t i s seen li ve, w i t h out pr oject ion, vi a a k i n d of 'm em or y' o f t he plat es. Com par ed to t he par t i t i on be t w een i m m edi acy an d di ffér an ce, i t i s a t hi rd pr op osal - an i m m edi acy of t he past , based on t he m odel of st arli ght - on e sees i t now, but it com es fr om t he past . Gu i sepp e Li p par i n i ( 1877- 19 51?) - t he lack of concret e det ai ls about t hi s aut h or m ay h ave som et hi n g to do w i t h t he m oder n I t ali an m ovem ent , w h i ch w r ot e about M ar inet ti in 1943 (?). H i s n ovel w as publ i sh ed in Fr ance, w i t h t he ap p r oval of Ri ci ot t o Can u do, w h o i n cor por at ed it i nt o t he ser i als publi sh ed b y t he per i odi cal les Annales i n 1909. Th e p assages her e ar e fr om i nst alm ent s 1 an d 2 i n n um ber s 1340 & 134 1 of 28 Febr u ar y 1909 an d 7 M ar ch 1909. The si m i lar i t y of t hi s expr essi on to the one t hat D eleuze i n fer s fr om Ber gson is st r i k i n g (see t he four t h chapt er of h i s Cinema 1. The M ovement -Inmge, t r an slat ed b y Bar bar a H abber jam an d H . Tom li nson , Lon don : A t hlon e, 1986). M aur i ce Leblanc, les Trois Yeux, Par i s: Pi err e Lafi t t e, 1920 Lou i s Far i gou le [ Jules Rom ai n s] , la Vision ext ra-rét inienne et le sens paropt ique: Re cherches de psychophysiologie expériment ale et de physiologie hist ologique, Par i s, Gall i m ar d, 1964 [ 19 19 ] . (En gli sh edi t ion : Eyeless Sight , Lon don , 1924. Repri nt , N ew Yor k : Ci t adel Pr ess, 1978). I n 19 17, Far i gou le, a m edi cal student , st udi ed t he phenom ena of 'ext r a-r et i n al vi si on '. H e w as laugh ed at b y scient i st s, aban don ed h i s research and adopt ed t he pen n am e of Ju les Rom ai n s. I n t he 1960s, Rosa K u lesh ova ( 1955 1978), w r i t i n g in t he U SSR, r et ur ned t o t hi s subject. Gi lber t Sim on don , D u mode d'exist ence des objets t echniques, Par i s: A ubi er , 2001

[ 1958].

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 5 8 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 5 8 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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26. 27.

F r a n ç o is A lb e r a

Gi lber t Si m on don , l'Invent ion dans les t echniques. Cours et conférences, Par i s: Seui l, 2005 ('I m agi n at i on et i n ven t i on ', cou r s de 1965, p. 297). Published i n M aur i ce Ren ar d, le M aît re de la lumière, op. cit.

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 5 9 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 5 9 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

T h e C a se fo r an E p is te m o g ra p h y o f M o n ta g e T he

M a r ey

M om e nt

Fr ançois A l ber a M y l o n g- t er m am b i t i o n i s t o r ed ef i n e t h e co n cep t o f m o n t age i n t h e ci n em a.1 B u t t h i s am b i t i o n i s p ar t an d p ar cel o f a w i d er f i el d o f en q u i r y o f an ep i st em o l o gi cal n at u r e, w h i ch en t ai l s ad o p t i n g a cer t ai n v i ew p o i n t o n t h e M ar ey q u est i o n o r M ar ey 'm o m en t ' i n t h e h i st or y, p r eh i st o r y an d ar ch aeo l o gy o f ci n em a.2 I t st ar t ed t o b eco m e cl ear t h at t h e co n cep t o f m o n t age n eed ed t o b e r ed ef i n ed w h en , i n t h e 19 8 0 s an d 19 9 0 s, sch o l ar s sp eci al i si n g i n ear l y ci n em a saw — f i r st i n t h e f i l m s o f M él i ès, t h en o f L u m i èr e an d Ed i so n - t h at t h er e w er e p r o cesses o f m o n t age t h at st o o d i n st ar k o p p o si t i o n t o t h e doxa asso ci at ed w i t h t h e t er m . Resear ch er s l i k e Jean G i r au d , t h e l ex i co l o gi st - w h o i d en t i f i ed t h e f i r st u se o f t h e t er m i n 19 0 9 3 - an d h i st o r i an s l i k e Jean M i t r y, o r t h e t h eo r i st s an d p h i l o so p h er s o f t h e ci n em a w h o cam e i n h i s w ak e, agr ee t h at m o n t age o n l y ex i st s w h en t h er e i s a cer t ai n n ar r at i v e, d i scu r si v e an d st y l i st i c d ev el o p m en t o f t h e ci n em a, w h et h er i t i s a p r o cess o f n ar r at i v e ( seq u en ce) o r ex h i b i t i o n ( p ar al l el i sm ) , o r a t r o p e ( 'm et ap h o r ', an al o gy , o r ser i es) . B u t t h i s ap p r o ach i s cl ear l y l i m i t ed b y a p r ej u d gem en t o f an aest h et i c n at u r e, an d , h en ce, o b f u scat es t h e v er y co r e o f t h e m at t er an d p r ev en t s o n e f r o m ap p r e h en d i n g t h e t r u e n at u r e o f ci n em a. I n 19 8 4 , w h en A n d r é G au d r eau l t i d en t i f i ed M él i ès as t h e p i o n eer o f t h e l i n k sh ot , Pi er r e Jen n su ggest ed t h at M él i ès's o p er at i o n s o f sp eci al effect s, assem b l ag e an d su b st i t u t i o n b e ex am i n ed i n t er m s o f m o n t age o r p r o t o - m o n t age.4 T h er e i s t h e w el l - k n o w n st o r y - w h i ch M él i ès h i m sel f r ef er r ed t o i n 19 0 75 ab o u t t h e cam er a acci d en t al l y st o p p i n g f o r o n e m i n u t e w h i l e f i l m i n g o n Pl ace d e l 'O p ér a. T h e r esu l t w as t h at an o m n i b u s b ecam e a h ear se an d m en ch an ged i n t o w o m en . T h i s w as seen as t h e b egi n n i n g o f t h e sp eci al ef f ect 'b y su b st i t u t i o n ' an d w as l at er u sed f o r d i f f er en t ef f ect s o f 'co n j u r i n g aw a y ' o r t r an sf o r m i n g a ch ar act er o r o b ject b ef o r e t h e sp ect at o r s' ey es. Bu t w h at i s n o t k n o w n i s t h at M él i ès w r o t e t h at h e o n l y m en t i o n ed t h i s ef f ect af t er h av i n g 'st u c k t o get h er ' t h e f i l m 'w h er e i t b r o k e' - i .e., af t er h av i n g cu t an d m o u n t ed t h e f i l m . L at er i t w as l ear n t t h at , i n an y case, t h e i n er t i a o f t h e h an d l e p o w er i n g t h e cam er a w o u l d h av e m ad e i t i m p o ssi b l e t o h av e a 'm ag i c ' su b st i t u t i o n o p er at i o n b y si m p l y st o p p i n g t h e f i l m an d st ar t i n g i t u p agai n , an d t h at a cer t ai n n u m b er o f p h o t o gr am s t h at p r o g r essi v el y b ecam e d ar k er an d t h en l i gh t er h ad t o b e r em o v ed

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 6 0 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 6 0 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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an d t h e f i l m 'st u ck t o get h er ' i n al l ev en t s. T h e su b st i t u t i o n t r i ck w as t h u s i n sep ar ab l e f r o m a m o n t age o p er at i o n , ev en t h o u gh t h e w o r d h ad n ot y et m ad e i t s ap p ear an ce.6 I t i s m o r eo v er sy m p t o m at i c t h at w h en Ei sen st ei n r ef er r ed t o t h i s ep i so d e, h e saw an ef f ect o f s u p e r p o s it io n , a t er m t h at h e co n si d er ed as t h e v er y 'b asi s' o f m o n t age.7 T h en G au d r eau l t w en t b ack i n t i m e an d cl o sel y st u d i ed t h e o r i gi n al L u m i èr e f i l m s. H e d i sco v er ed t h at t h ey al so h ad d i sco n t i n u i t i es an d b r eak s, so h e w en t o n t o ex am i n e Ed i so n 's w o r k an d t ak e a l o o k at o p t i cal t o y s8 - t h u s co r r o b o r at i n g t h e p o et i cs o f t h e f i l m d i r ect o r W er n er N ek es, w h i c h w as p r ed i cat ed on h i s k n o w l ed g e as an en l i gh t en ed am at eu r an d col l ect or , an d o n h i s w o r k i n ex p er i m en t al ci n em a.9 T h i s t r an sf o r m at i o n i n t h e ap p r o ach t o t h ese f i l m s m ean s n ot o n l y m o v i n g b ack t h e d at e w h en m o n t age f i r st ap p ear ed , i t al so m ean s r ed ef i n i n g t h e n o t i o n s u sed . I n o r d er t o r ew o r k t h e co n cep t o f m o n t age an d t h e asso ci at ed n o t i o n s, on e n eed s t o d r aw u p w h at M i ch el Fo u cau l t i n 19 6 9 cal l ed an 'ep i st em o g r ap h y '. D u r i n g t h e Jo u r n é e s o r gan i sed at t h e In s t it u t e d ' h is t o ir e d e s s c ie n c e s u n d er t h e au s p i ces o f G eo r ges C an gu i l h em , w h er e Fo u cau l t w as sp eak i n g ab o u t 't h e Si t u a t i on o f C u v i er i n t h e h i st o r y o f b i o l o g y ', a d i scu ssi o n t o o k p l ace ab o u t t h e an a l y si s o f t h e 'C u v i er - t r an sf o r m at i o n ' i n T lie O r d e r o f T h in g s . I n h i s r el at i v el y sh ar p r ep l y t o an ex p o sé b y Fr an ço i s D ago gn et , Fo u cau l t p r o p o sed t o d i st i n gu i sh t h r ee l ev el s o f ep i st em o gr ap h y : t h e ep i st em o cr i t i cal ( é p is t é m o c r it iq u e ) , ep i st em o n o m i cal (é p is t é m o n o m iq u e ) an d ep i st em o l o gi cal ( é p is t é r n o lo g iq u e ) l ev el s.10 W e sh al l m ak e t h e f o l l o w i n g d i st i n ct i o n s: a) t h e t ech n i co - aest h et i c d i sco u r se o n m o n t age (t h e e p is t e m o n o m ic al l evel ) , w h i ch co n si st s o f a set o f l i m i t s an d co n t r ol p r i n ci p l es an d 'r u l es'; b) t h e p r escr i p t i v e d i sco u r se o f cr i t i ci sm an d ci n em a t h eo r y (t h e e p is t e m o c r it ic al l evel ) d ef i n i n g t h e p r o cesses o f b el o n g i n g t o o r b ei n g o u t si d e t h e co n cep t o f m o n t age; i n o r d er t o co n st r u ct : c) an ' e p is t e m o lo g ic al ' l ev el , w h i c h i d en t i f i es t h e f i el d s o f ap p l i cat i o n o f t h e co n cep t s an d r u l es o f u sag e r e g ar d i n g m o n t age, an d t h ei r t r an sf o r m at i o n s an d v ar i at i o n s i n o r d er t o l i n k t h em t o t h ei r co n d i t i o n s o f p o ssi b i l i t y. T h e i ssu e h er e i s t o f o st er co m p r eh en si o n o f t h e co n cep t u al f i el d o f m o n t age ( v i a su ch n o t i o n s as en d , p i ece, m o m en t , i n t er val , i n t er m i t t en ce, p au se, p h ase, p o si t i o n , j er k , sh o ck , d i sso ci at i o n , cu t , b r eak , i n t er r u p t i o n , d i sco n t i n u i t y, j o i n i n g, assem b l i n g, co l l age, l i n k , con t i n u i t y, ar t i cu l at i o n , su ccessi o n , et c.) b y l eav i n g b eh i n d t h e p u r el y i n t er n al , d escr i p t i v e o r p r escr i p t i v e d ef i n i t i o n s an d go i n g b ey o n d t h e o b st acl es o f t h e t ech n o l o gi cal t yp e, w h i ch i m p ed e o r l i m i t co m p r e h en si o n . I t w i l l t h en b e p o ssi b l e t o: a) i d en t i f y t h e co n t o u r s o f a m o n t age f u n ct i on , w h i c h m ay n o t b e g i v en t h at n am e b u t w h i ch n eed s t o b e l i n k ed t o v ar i o u s

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 61 h t t p :/ /s ite . e b ra ry .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 6 1 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

T h e C a s e f o r a n E p is te m o g r a p h y o f M o n ta g e

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p r o ced u r es, p r act i ces an d u t t er an ces ( as w e h av e j u st seen w i t h M él i ès an d L u m i èr e) ; b ) l o cat e t h e t h i n k i n g r el at ed t o m o n t age i n t h e sy st em o f co n cep t s an d p r act i ces w h er e i t h as i t s r o o t s, an d su b seq u en t l y en v i sag e i t s ex t en si o n an d v ar i ab i l i t y ; c) an d f i n al l y ad d r ess t h e q u est i o n o f 'w h at gover n s st at em en t s, an d t h e w ay i n w h i ch t h ey gover n each o t h er so as t o co n st i t u t e a set o f p r o p o si t i o n s t h at ar e sci en t i f i cal l y accep t ab l e', i .e., t h e r egi m e an d p o l i t i cs o f t h ese u t t er an ces.11

T h e M a re y ‘m o m e n t’

I n t h e p er sp ect i v e d escr i b ed ab o v e, t h e M ar ey 'm o m en t ' i s cr u ci al f o r sev er al r easo n s: a. h e i s o u t si d e ci n em at o gr ap h i c t el eo l o gy (h e d i d n o t 'at t em p t ' t o 'ar r i v e at ' t h e sp ect acl e o f an an i m at ed i m age t h at w o u l d b e i d en t i f i ed u n d er t h e n am es o f k i n et o sco p e, p h o n o sco p e, ci n ém at o gr ap h e, et c.) ;12 b . h e w as n o n et h el ess p r esen t i n t h e seq u en ce o f 'ci n em a' i n v en t i o n s ( b ot h co n cep t u al l y an d t ech n i cal l y sp eak i n g) an d g av e t h e 'i n v en t i o n ' b o t h a sci en t i f i c an d a so ci al gu ar an t ee ( A c ad é m ie d e s s c ie n c e s , C o llè g e d e F r an c e ); c. h e b el o n ged t o a f i el d - p h y si o l o g y 13 - t h at h ad b een w el l ex p l o r ed i n co n cep t u al t er m s an d t h at w as t h e t h eat r e o f f u n d am en t al co n t r o v er si es b et w een o p p o si n g t en d en ci es, ab o u n d i n g i n a b o d y o f n o t i o n s, co n cep t s an d p r act i ces w h i ch , i n h i s p ar t i cu l ar case, w as t o p r o v i d e an 'i n t er f ace' w i t h t h e t o y s an d m ach i n es u sed f o r an i m at ed i m ag es.14 T h e r esu l t i s a f ai r l y st r i k i n g on e w h en on e r eal i ses t h at M ar ey 's m ech an i st i c co n cep t i o n (t h e 'an i m al m ach i n e') l ed h i m t o en co u n t er a m ac h in ic d i sp o si t i v e t h at i s an al o go u s t o h i s ob ject , as an i n st r u m en t o f o b ser v at i o n - t h e 'ci n em a' m ach i n e:15 t h e 'an i m al m ach i n e' w h o se l o co m o t i o n i s 'd i st i n ct an d su ccessi v e' ( C an gu i l h em ) , an d t h e m ach i n e w i t h '[ d i st i n ct an d ] su ccessi v e i m ag es'. M ar ey t h u s su ccessf u l l y d ev el o p ed t h i s d i sp o si t i v e b y co m b i n i n g t w o el e m en t s: o n t h e o n e h an d , r esear ch ai m ed at b r eak i n g t h i n gs d o w n i n o r d er t o u n d er st an d 'h o w t h ey w o r k ' an d, o n t h e ot h er , a ser i es o f i l l u si o n - p r o d u ci n g m ach i n es, w h i c h h ad b een d ev el o p ed o n o t h er f o u n d at i o n s. I n o t h er w o r d s, t h er e w as t h e co m b i n at i o n o f a co n cep t i o n o f t h e l i v i n g b ei n g a n d a m o d el t o cap t u r e r ep r o d u ci b l e m o v em en t s. A l l o f t h e ear l y ci n em a p r o t ago n i st s b r o k e d o w n an i m al an d h u m an m o v e m en t s, b u t w i t h t h e i n t en t i o n t o r ep r o d u ce t h em as a co n t i n u i t y, esp eci al l y v i a t h e z o et r o p e. T h ey co n si d er ed b r eak i n g d o w n m o v em en t as a t r i ck o r an o p t i cal ex p er i en ce.16 W h en t h e r esear ch an d ex p er i m en t s asso ci at ed w i t h t h i s p r o cess

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 6 2 h tt p ://s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 6 2 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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h ad a sci en t i f i c d i m en si o n , t h ey i n v o l v ed p er cep t i o n an d n ot l o co m o t i o n . Fi r st cam e o b ser v at i o n an d t h en t h e sp ecu l at i o n r eg ar d i n g t h e i n ab i l i t y o f t h e ey e t o d i scr i m i n at e b et w een t h e m o m en t s i n r ap i d su ccessi o n t o f o r ce i t t o 'd i g est ' t h e i l l u so r y sy n t h esi s o r co n t i n u i t y o f t h e t h au m at r o p e, zo et r o p e, p h en ak i st o sco p e, p r ax i n o sco p e, et c. W h i l e Pl at eau an d o t h er s d ev el o p ed t h e sci en t i f i c k n o w l ed g e o f h u m an v i si o n , i .e., i t s p h y si o l o gy , M ar ey 's i n t er est as a sci en t i st w as n ei t h er i n v i si o n n o r i n ast r o n o m y. H e f o cu sed o n m o v em en t .17 Fo r h i m , 'u n d er st an d i n g t h e m o v em en t o f a b o d y ' m ean t 'u n d er st an d i n g t h e ser i es o f p o si t i o n s i t o ccu p i es i n sp ace d u r i n g a su ccessi v e ser i es o f i n st an t s'.18 T h ese i n st an t s ar e d i scr et e an d p er t i n en t el em en t s, w h i ch d ef i n e t h e p r o cess o f l o co m o t i o n , j u m p i n g, et c. W h en Pi er r e Ju l es Jan ssen i m p r o v ed t h e 'ci n em a' d i s p o si t i v e i n o r d er t o i m p r o v e o b ser v at i o n o f V en u s, h e b r o k e d o w n i t s p at h as i t p assed i n f r o n t o f t h e su n i n t o su ccessi v e m o v em en t s, b u t w i t h o u t co n si d er i n g t h e f act t h at t h ey w er e 'r em ar k ab l e' m o m en t s o f t h e p l an et 's p r o gr ess ar o u n d t h e su n . 'C el est i al m ech an i cs' ar e n o t f o u n d o n t h at l ev el . T h ese m o m en t s r esu l t f r o m o b ser v at i o n , an d i t i s su b seq u en t an al y si s t h at w i l l sel ect t h e 'p ar t i c u l ar ' or 'r em ar k ab l e' m o m en t o r m o m en t s.19 M ar ey, h o w ev er , w as co n v i n ced t h at h u m an m o v em en t i s n o t m ad e u p o f a r an d o m ser i es o f m o m en t s b u t o f su ccessi v e p o si t i o n s, w h i ch h e co u l d d et er m i n e o n ce t h ey w er e cap t u r ed .20 H i s ex p er i m en t al p r o t o co l ( cap t u r e, t r an sm i t , an al y se, r est or e) t h u s i n cl u d ed o p er at i o n s t h at b r o k e d o w n ('dém on t age') t h e o b ser v ed p h en o m en o n i n t o i t s p h ases, m o m en t s o r p o si t i o n s, t h en d et er m i n ed i t s 'm ech an i cs', t h en p i eced ev er y t h i n g t o get h er ag ai n (‘ r e-m on t age') f o r t h e p u r p o ses o f d em o n st r at i o n , ai d ed an d ab et t ed b y ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h y an d t h e z o et r o p e or , su b seq u en t l y, u si n g a p r oj ect or . T h er e can b e n o d o u b t t h at M ar ey 's ap p r o ach ( o n l y p ar t l y sh ar ed b y M u y b r i d ge, am o n g ot h er s) p l ay ed a p ar t i n h o w 'ci n em a' w as co n cei v ed i n i t s ear l y y ear s. A f t er al l, h e p r o v i d ed t h e n ew i n v en t i o n w i t h i t s sci en t i f i c co n cep t u al i sa t i on . N o t o n l y w as h e seen as o n e o f t h e i n v en t o r s i n l ear n ed ci r cl es an d i n p u b l i c o p i n i o n ( p o ssi b l y o p p o sed t o an ot h er , co m p et i n g sci en t i st su ch as Ed i so n ) ,21 b u t t h e L u m i èr e b r o t h er s, w h o w er e b o t h en t r ep r en eu r s an d i n v en t o r s, cl ai m ed t h ey w er e h i s f o l l o w er s. A t t h e b egi n n i n g o f t h ei r 't r i u m p h ', t h ey b o r r o w ed h i s t er m o f 'ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h y i n m o v em en t ', w h i ch t h ey co n t i n u ed t o co n st r u ct an d p er f ect u n t i l t h ei r d eat h s. M o r eo v er , t h ey w an t ed t o sh ar e t h e t i t l e o f 'sc h o l ar s' w i t h h i m , a m o v e t h at h e d i d n o t o p p o se.22 A s w e n o w k n o w , i t w as o n l y af t er h i s d eat h t h at M ar ey w as m ar gi n al i z ed , f o r r easo n s t h at w er e o n t h e on e h an d ci r cu m st an t i al ( an d p er h ap s 'so r d i d ') , an d o n t h e o t h er h an d m o r e p r o f o u n d , i .e., l i n k ed t o t h e ev o l u t i o n o f t h e ci n em at o gr ap h i c sp ect acl e. D u r i n g h i s l i fet i m e, h e w as t h e p er so n ask ed t o o r gan i se t h e p h o t o g r ap h y an d ci n em a p a v i l i o n at t h e Par i s Exh i b i t i o n o f 19 0 0 , an d h e cl ear l y m ai n t ai n ed ascen d an cy

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 6 3 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 6 3 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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o v er t h e d i sco u r se o n 'ci n em a', ev en i f h e w as si d el i n ed b o t h i n t ech n i cal an d co m m er ci al t er m s.23 O n e can t h u s h y p o t h esi se t h at M ar ey 's co n cep t i o n o f m o v em en t ( l oco m o t i o n , et c.) w as b ased o n d i sco n t i n u i t y an d ar t i cu l at i o n , an d est ab l i sh ed t h e m ai n gu i d el i n es n o t o n l y f o r t h e n ew m ed i u m , b u t al so f o r t h e t ech n o l o gi cal ap p r o ach t o t h e ap p ar at u s w h o se d ev el o p m en t an d m ech an i cal p r o cesses (t he d r i v e, et c.) w er e f r eq u en t l y d i scu ssed . 'C i n em a' d i sco u r se w as d o m i n at ed b y t o p i cs su ch as t h e f r eeze, i n t er m i t t en ce, i m m o b i l i t y, i n t er val , j er k o r p au se, w h i l e ad m i r at i o n w as si m u l t an eo u sl y b ei n g ex p r essed f o r t h e r eco n st i t u t i o n o f l i v e m o v em en t an d cr eat i n g t h e i m p r essi o n o f r eal l i fe. I t t h u s d o es n o t seem o u t o f p l ace t o p o i n t o u t t h at t h e i d ea o f 'm o n t age', i n t h e v ar i o u s m ean i n gs an d m o d al i t i es l i st ed ab o v e,24 w as i m m ed i at el y em p l o y ed . 'M o n t ag e' p r eced ed 'ci n em a' i n t h e p r o cesses u sed b y M ar ey t o an al y se m o v em en t , an d h e i m m ed i at el y b e gan ex p l o i t i n g t h i s i d ea. H o w ev er , M ar ey 's m o d el w as co n f r o n t ed w i t h an o b st acl e j u st as t h e 'm i r ac u l o u s' sy n t h esi s o f h i s t h eo r y o f m ech an i cs an d t h e ci n em at o gr ap h i c m ech an i sm w as t ak i n g p l ace. I t w as o v er w h el m ed b y t h e m at hesis t o w h i ch i t b el o n ged .25 Pr o j ect i o n i n t r o d u ced an i n st an ce m i ssi n g f r o m M ar ey 's sci en t i f i c ap p r o ach : t h at o f t h e sp ect at o r , t h e su b j ect w h o p er cei v es, t h e 'o b ser v er ', w i t h t h e t w o asso ci at ed asp ect s o f p er cep t i o n an d d u r at i o n . I n d eed , t h e w a y a sp ect at o r p er cei v es p r o v i d es t h e m ean s o f v er i f y i n g h o w m o v em en t s can b e b r o k en d o w n . T h e i so m o r p h i sm b et w een t h e m ech an i sm s o f t h e o b ject an d t h e an al y t i cal ap p ar at u s i s n o t co n t i n u ed i n p er cep t i o n . L o co m o t i on f i n d s i t sel f, as i t w er e, su p p l an t ed b y p er cep t i o n , an d t r an scen d i n g p er cep t i on , w h i c h w as r ei n t r o d u ced b y t h e p r o j ect i o n ap p ar at u s, w as a p r er eq u i si t e o f M ar ey 's sci en t i f i c ap p r o ach ( seei n g b ey o n d co m m o n p er cep t i o n , 'seei n g t h e i n v i si b l e') . T w o o u t co m es w er e en v i sag ed t o ad d r ess t h e f i r st asp ect o f t h i s 'c r i si s', b u t n ei t h er o f t h em ad d r essed t h e act u al i ssu e o f t h e 'co n st i t u t i v e' su b j ect i v i t y t h at w as n o w an o b st acl e. T h e f i r st so l u t i o n l ed M ar ey t o d i sco v er t h e t ech n i q u es t h at r at i o n al i sed h u m an b eh av i o u r ( gym n ast i cs, w o r k m o v em en t s, t h e gen er al 'ec o n o m y ' o f m o v em en t s) .26 T h e o t h er so l u t i o n l ed t o an ev er g r eat er i n t er est i n p h en o m en a t h at ch al l en ged geo m et r y, i n cl u d i n g t h e m ech an i cs o f f l u i d s, t h e f o r m l ess, sm o k e, w h i r l w i n d s an d w av e- l i k e an i m al m o v em en t s (t h e sk at e or j el l y f i sh ) . T h e seco n d asp ect w as t h e ar r i v al o f d u r at i o n , t h e sp ect at o r 's su b j ect i v e ex p er i en ce o f t i m e. U n t i l t h en , M ar ey h ad co n cen t r at ed o n k i n em at i cs ( i n cl u d i n g i t s d y n am i c d i m en si o n ) an d , i n t h e w o r d s o f A l f r ed Jar r y , '[ k j i n em at i cs i s a geo m et r y i n w h i c h ev en t s h av e n ei t h er p ast n o r f u t u r e'.27 T i m e f o r M ar ey w as a scal e o f m easu r em en t . Sci en t i f i c d em o n st r at i o n p r esu p p o ses si t u at i n g o n esel f o u t si d e t h e 'l i v ed ' ex p er i en ce o f t i m e ( t h at Ber gso n w as t o r ei n t r o d u ce) .28

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 6 4 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 6 4 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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T h i s ep i st em o l o gi cal cr i si s b y n o m ean s p r ev en t ed ci n em a f r o m b ei n g 'co n cei v ed o f ' i n t h e 'p h y si o l o g i c al ' t er m s u sed i n t h e m ech an i st i c an al y si s o f l o co m o t i o n , t h at co exi st ed w i t h w o n d er m en t i n f r o n t o f 'l i f e i t sel f '. L at er , ci n em at o gr ap h i c ep i p h an y an d t h e f eel i n g o f d u r at i o n cam e o u t on t op , b u t t h e co m b i n i n g o f t h e m ach i n e w i t h l i f e co n t i n u ed t o g i v e r i se t o t h eo r i es o f m o n t age: K u l esh o v , Ei sen st ei n , t h en W al t er Ben j am i n i n p ar t i cu l ar , co n t i n u ed t o l i n k t h e p h y si o l o g y o f m o v em en t an d l o co m o t i o n an d t h e m ech an i cs o f su cces si v e i m ages. A f t er M ar ey w o u l d co m e o t h er s, su ch as Pav l o v , Bek h t er ev o r T ay l o r .^ A n so n Rab i n b ach , i n h i s H u m an M ot or , t r i es t o 'sn at ch ' M ar ey f r o m t h e n i n e t een t h cen t u r y l an gu age o f sci en ce an d si t u at e h i s i m ag es am o n g t h e f o u n d a t i on s o f t h e can o n s o f t w en t i et h - cen t u r y ar t , an d t o l i n k t h em w i t h t h e t ech n o l o g y o f w o r k ( T ay l o r ) .30 W i t h o u t d en y i n g t h i s o u t r i gh t , i t i s i m p o r t an t n ot t o st r ay t oo q u i ck l y f r o m t h i s sci en t i f i c an d t ech n i cal d i scu r si v e f i el d . A r el at ed — an d accesso r y - ex am p l e, t h at o f t h e Fr en ch sci en t i st an d p h i l o so p h er C h ar l es H en r y, w h o i n sp i r ed b o t h i m p r essi o n i st s an d n eo - i m p r essi o n i st s, sh o w s w h y i t i s i n t er est i n g t o d ev o t e a l i t t l e m o r e sp ace t o t h i s i ssu e. I sh al l n o w d ev el o p t h e v ar i o u s p o i n t s m en t i o n ed ab o v e.

M e c h a n is m

W h en i t w as st at ed ab o v e t h at M ar ey saw t h e ci n em a as a m ach in ic d i sp o si t i v e t h at i s an al o g o u s t o t h e su b j ect h e w as st u d y i n g , w as i t n o t si m p l y st at i n g t h e o b v i o u s? I s i t n o t t r u e t o say t h at t h e m ech an i sm t h at en v i sag es t h e b o d y as a m ach i n e r ed i sco v er s i n t h e m ach i n e w h at i t h ad i t sel f p u t i n t o t h e b o d y ? T h e ci r cu l ar n at u r e o f t h e ar gu m en t , w h en t h e r esu l t i s f o r eseen i n t h e i n i t i al d at a, sh o u l d n o t f o o l u s. Jean - C l au d e Beau n e h as w r i t t en t h at t h e ad v o cat es o f t h e m an - m ach i n e 'm ar v el l ed co n st an t l y t o f i n d o n e o f t h ose " m ac h i n es" si m i l ar t o t h e o n e m ad e b y m an h i m sel f i n t h e h u m an b o d y ... T h er e ar e o n l y p i st o n s, v al v es an d l ev er s'.31 A c c o r d i n g t o M i ch el Ser r es, t h e C ar t esi an m ach i n e i s a 't o p o g r ap h y (a d escr i p t i o n o f t h e sh ap es o f o r gan s) t o w h i ch o n e appl ies a se q u en ce o f m ech an i cal t r an sm i ssi o n s'. I t i s, o f co u r se, t r u e t o say t h at M ar ey t h e p h y si o l o gi st w as a su ccesso r o f D escar t es, H ar v ey , o r Bo r el l i , w h o se q u est i o n s h e m ad e h i s o w n . H e ap p r eh en d ed t h e l i v i n g b ei n g as a m ach i n e an d al l m o v e m en t s as m ech an i cal , al w ay s an al y si n g t h e an i m al m ach i n e, t h e m ech an i sm o f a j u m p , o f t h e o r gan s, o r o f w o r k , t h e m ech an i cs o f l o co m o t i o n , et c.32 Bu t t w o p o i n t s ar e w o r t h r ai si n g h er e. Fi r st l y, i t w o u l d b e w r o n g t o ex ag ger at e Car t esi an n ai v et y — D escar t es's m et h o d w as a co m p ar at i v e on e, an d f o r h i m m ech an i cs h ad as m u ch a r h et o r i cal f u n ct i o n as a h eu r i st i c o n e.33 I t w as a q u est i o n o f t ak -

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 6 5 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 6 5 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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i n g t h e au t o m at o n , t h e cl o ck - b u t al so t h e an i m al — as a st ar t i n g p o i n t f o r r ea so n i n g, i n o r d er t o d i st i n gu i sh , c l assi f y an d t h u s cl ear a sp ace f o r r ef l ect i o n an d r esear ch t h at w as f r ee f r o m t h e i d eo l o gi cal co n st r ai n t s o f t h e t i m e. M ar ey d i d l i k ew i se w h en h e st at ed t h i s ad m i r ab l e an d si m p l e t r u t h at t h e b egi n n i n g o f h i s sci en t i f i c car eer : W hen st u d yi n g t he m ovem en t of blood, w e st ar t fr om t he pr i n ci ple t hat an y m ove m ent is subject to ph ysi cal l aw s, w h at ever t he n at ur e of t he for ce t hat br ough t it i nto bei ng: t hus a st one t h r ow n b y the ar m of m an follow s t he sam e t r aject ory as a projec t i le fi r ed b y a can on -pow der ; an d yet in t he one case i t i s t he w i l l o f a m an, t he con t ract ion of a m uscle t hat h as gi ven t he i m pulsi on , w h er eas in t he ot her i t i s ph ysi cal for ce t hat h as act ed.34 Bo t h m en d escr i b e a sp ace o f o b j ect i v e i n v est i gat i o n i n t h e f ace o f ad v er sar i es w h o , w h en al l i s sai d an d d o n e, ev o k ed t h e u n k n o w ab l e i n t h e n am e o f G o d , t h e so u l o r t h e l i f e for ce. Fr o m t h e m o m en t w h en i t i s est ab l i sh ed t h at i t i s p o ssi b l e t o an al y se m o v em en t an d t h e l i v i n g b ei n g an d ex p er i m en t w i t h t h em , w h at ever for ce has br ought t hem int o bei ng, o n e l eav es b eh i n d t h e co n t r o v er si es o f b e

l i ev er s, an d t h e sci en t i st 's w o r k can b egi n . Seco n d l y, t h e ab o v e q u o t at i o n est ab l i sh es t h at t h er e i s a co m m u n i t y o f p h y si cal l aw s t h at go v er n b o t h 'n at u r al ' an d 'm ech an i cal ' p h en o m en a. I t i s n o t su f f i ci en t t o say t h at o n e ap p l i es t h e l at t er t o t h e f o r m er .35

M a c h in e s

W h en M ar ey sp eak s o f m ach i n es w i t h l ev er s, p i st o n s an d v al v es, h e i s r ef er r i n g t o t h em as i n st r u m en t s f o r n o t i n g m o v em en t s an d f o r c ar r y i n g o u t i n v est i g a t i on s. H e n ei t h er 'r ed i sc o v er s' t h e m ach i n e i n t h e b o d y n o r assi m i l at es t h e b o d y t o a m ach i n e - o n t h e co n t r ar y, h e ext er i or ises. T h e m an u f act u r ed m ach i n e i s n ot u sed as a m o d el f o r t h e an i m al m ach i n e, b u t t h e l at t er l ay s d o w n t h e w a y i n w h i c h t h e f o r m er - w h i ch w i l l b e u sed t o an al y se i t — i s m ad e. T h e ser i es o f ap p ar at u ses t h at h e d esi g n ed o r p er f ect ed b ear s w i t n ess t o t h i s (t h e sp h y gm o gr ap h , p o l y g r ap h , k y m o g r ap h , r eco r d i n g cy l i n d er , et c.) an d ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h y, w h i ch w as m ean t t o b r eak d o w n t h e m o v em en t o f t h e w i n g o r t h e f al l o f a cat , r eco r d ed t h i s m ech an i sm b ecau se i t w as b ased o n it , an d d i d n o t 'cr eat e' i t b y an al o gy. I t w o u l d b e ab su r d t o t ak e t h e co m p ar i so n b et w een D escar t es an d M ar ey an y f u r t h er , as b o t h b i o l o g y an d p h y si o l o g y w er e p r o f o u n d l y t r an sf o r m ed d u r i n g t h e t w o cen t u r i es sep ar at i n g t h em — an d , m o r eo v er , t h er e w as l i t t l e i n co m m o n i n t h ei r ai m s. Bu t t h e m ech an i st i c d o ct r i n e i s co n v en i en t l y b r o u gh t b ack t o i t s

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 66 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 6 6 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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f o u n d i n g f at h er , an d t h e d i st i n ct i o n b et w een M ar ey 's m ech an i sm an d t h at o f D escar t es m u st b e u n d er l i n ed . D escar t es w r o t e: 't h e m o t i o n w h i ch I h av e n o w ex p l ai n ed f o l l o w s as n ecessar i l y f r o m t h e v er y ar r an gem en t o f t h e p ar t s ... as d o es t h e m o t i o n o f a cl o ck f r o m t h e p o w er , t h e si t u at i o n , an d sh ap e o f i t s co u n t er w ei gh t s an d w h eel s'.36 T h i s i s t an t am o u n t t o say i n g t h at h i s d escr i p t i o n s p r o ceed f r o m an at o m y, t h e o b ser v at i o n o f o r gan s, m u scl es, n er v es, et c. w h o se f u n ct i o n i n g h e d ed u ces or u n d er st an d s o n t h e b asi s o f t h ei r ar r an gem en t . T h e co n cer n w i t h f i n d i n g a fo r ce o r en er g y m o v i n g t h ese d i sp o si t i v es (h eat , an i m al sp i r i t s) 37 d o es i n d eed exi st , b u t t h e co n st r u ct i o n r em ai n s a l ar g el y d ed u ct i v e on e. M ar ey, f o r h i s p ar t , i m m ed i at el y p l aces ci n em at i cs w i t h i n d y n am i cs, w h i ch i s n o t en v i sag ed f r o m t h e r at h er m y st er i o u s asp ect o f 'f o r ces' al o n e. M ar ey 's d y n am i cs w as t h e i m p l em en t at i o n an d w o r k i n g o f t h e m ech an i sm .3® T h at p r e cl u d ed cu t t i n g u p t h e b o d y ( an at o m y, v i v i sect i o n ) . H i s i n t er est i n t h e f u n ct i o n i n g o f t h e an i m al m ach i n e t h u s p u t h i m at o d d s w i t h an at o m i st s - w h o w er e o n l y i n t er est ed i n t h e cad av er , an d cl ai m ed t h at t h ey co u l d d ed u ce t h e f u n ct i o n o f o r g an s an d t h ei r st r u ct u r es b y ex am i n i n g t h em 39 - an d b r i n g s h i m cl o ser t o t h e v i t al i st s. Bu t , u n l i k e t h e lat t er , h e d i d n o t g i v e u p o n t h e i d ea o f d i v i d i n g u p t h e b o d y, b u t w i t h o u t cu t t i n g i t t o p i eces, as t h at b r eak s u p b o t h m o v em en t an d fu n ct i on . H i s ap p r o ach d i d n o t i n f r i n ge u p o n t h e m ech an i sm , b u t m ad e i t m o r e co m p l ex , t h e o r gan i sm i s st i l l si m p l y m ad e u p o f a ser i es o f p ar t s, o f p i eces as sem b l ed acco r d i n g t o a sy st em o f l i n k s cr eat i n g a ser i es o f geo m et r i cal an d m ea su r ab l e d i sp l acem en t s. T h e ef f ect i s d o u b l ed , as Fr an ço i s D ago g n et h as n o t ed : r esp ect o f t h e w h o l e n ess o f t h e b o d y an d t h e m o v i n g o b ject ; t h e co n v i ct i o n t h at t h e o b ser v ed p h e n o m en o n m u st i t sel f m ak e n ot e o f i t s r h y t h m s, scan si o n s, an d p au ses b y t h e t r ace i t l eav es40 - t r aces t h at ar e f i r st i n d i ci al ( cu r ves, t r aces, n ot es) , an d t h en i co n o - i n d i ci al (t h e p h o t o gr ap h ) . I f, t o b e as p r eci se as p o ssi b l e, t h e sy st em o f n o t at i o n m u st p r o ceed f r o m t h e m o v i n g o b ject i t sel f (t h e p h en o m en o n in scr ibes it self), i t p r o d u ces r eco r d i n g m a ch i n es t h at ex t er i o r i se an d i m i t at e t h e o b ser v ed t r ai t s o f t h e p h en o m en o n . M a r ey 'c h an g ed an d al i gn ed t h e i n st r u m en t w i t h w h at h e w as t o ev al u at e, n o t t h e o t h er w a y r o u n d '.41 T h i s can b e seen i n t h e f o l l o w i n g si m p l e ex am p l e: To i m it at e t he jerks of h or ses' t ract i on, it m ay be n ecessar y t o m ak e facet s and salient an gles on t he dr um r oun d w h i ch t he r ope i s w ou n d 42 [ m y i t ali cs]. T h ese t w o ch ar act er i st i cs ar e i m p o r t an t as t h ey set M ar ey ap ar t , an d i t i s t h u s i m p o r t an t t o st u d y h o w h i s m ech an i ci sm i s d i f f er en t f r o m t h at o f h i s co l l eagu es, as r esear ch i n t o t h e m ech an i cs o f m o v em en t an d t h e an i m al m ach i n e w er e v er y p o p u l ar at t h e t i m e. T o q u o t e j u st a f ew n am es - t h ey ap p ear i n h i s l et t er s - on e

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 6 7 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 6 7 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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m ay ask w h at m ak es h i m an y d i f f er en t f r o m L o u i s- Fél i x G i r au d - T o u l o n (t he au t h o r o f P r in c ip e s d e la m é c an iq u e an im ale o u E t u d e s s u r la lo c o m o t io n c h e z l' h o m m e e t les an im au x v e r t é b r é s )43 w h o at t ack ed h i m an d w h o m

h e at t ack ed , o r f r o m

Sam u el H au g h t o n ( au t h o r o f P r in c ip le s o f A n im al M e c h an ic s ),44 o r f r o m t h e 'm ech an o t h er ap i st ' D r . F. L ag r an ge, n ot t o m en t i o n G u i l l au m e D u ch en n e d e B o u l o gn e an d h i s M é c an is m e d e la p h y s io n o m ie h u m ain e 45 T h er e i s n o d o u b t t h at M ar ey 's t h eo r i es t o o k sh ap e w i t h i n a w h o l e ser i es o f t ext s, o n l y a sm al l n u m b er o f w h i c h b o r e h i s si gn at u r e, ev en t h o u gh t h er e w er e m an y o f t h em . Bu t w i t h i n t h i s co l l ect i o n , l eav i n g asi d e t h at si m i l ar t er m s o r i d en t i cal t h eo r i es m ay b el o n g t o d i f f er en t sy st em s an d t h u s h av e si gn i f i can t l y d i f f er en t ef f ect s, i t m u st b e u n d er l i n ed t h at M ar ey al o n e l i n k ed h i s p h y si o l o g y t o t h e m ach i n e t h at p r o d u ced su c cessi v e i m ages, t o t h e ex t en t t h at t h i s m ach i n e gu ar an t eed t h at t h e p h en o m en o n u n d er ev al u at i o n co u l d b e b et t er i m i t at ed .

P h o to g ra p h y , c h ro n o p h o to g ra p h y

T h e i n t er est t h at M ar ey d ev el o p ed f o r p h o t o g r ap h y an d t h e p h o t o gr ap h i c ser i es ( M u y b r i d ge) cl ear l y i l l u st r at es h i s co n cep t i o n o f m o v em en t as so m et h i n g t h at can b e b r o k en d o w n i n t o sp eci f i c m o m en t s o r p o si t i o n s, an d h en ce, h i s v i ew t h at i t w as d i sco n t i n u o u s i n n at u r e an d f u n d am en t al l y i m i t at i v e. Ph o t o g r ap h y —w h i ch , acco r d i n g t o L au r en t M an n o n i , w as a m ean s o f l i b er at i n g t h e gr ap h i c m et h o d 'f r o m i t s l i m i t s an d ev en f r o m i t s t ech n o l o gi cal i m p asse'46 - an d l at er ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h y p r o v i d ed M ar ey w i t h a m ach i n e w h i ch h as ch ar act er i st i cs t h at ar e si m i l ar t o t h e b o d y o r p h y si o l o gi cal p h en o m en a: d i s con t i n u i t y, j er k s an d i n t er val s. H i s act i v i t y w as t h u s d i f f er en t f r o m t h at o f Jan ssen , f r o m w h o m h e d r ew i n sp i r at i o n an d w h o h i m sel f p o i n t ed t o 't h e p h y si o l o gi cal p at h '. H i s p h o t o gr ap h i c r ev o l v er d i st i n gu i sh ed p h ases i n t h e t r aj ect o r y o f V en u s, b u t t h ey w er e t h ose d i ct at ed b y t h e i n st r u m en t t h at t o o k t h em f r o m a co n t i n u u m (t h e t r aj ect o r y) i n o r d er t o cap t u r e t h e 'd ec i si v e' m o m en t w h en t h e t w o p l an et s w er e su p er p o sed . T h i s w as f o l l o w ed b y a scal e o f m easu r em en t t h at al l o w ed t h e ev en t u n d er i n v est i gat i o n t o b e i d en t i f i ed . Si m i l ar l y , A l b er t L o n d e's ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h s at t h e Sal p êt r i èr e cl i n i c ai m ed , i n t h e p h o t o g r ap h er 's o w n w o r d s, t o m eet t h e ch al l en ge o f m an i f est at i o n s o f p ar al y si s, h y st er i a, ep i l ep sy , ch o r ea, et c. t h at w er e h ar d t o d i st i n gu i sh w i t h t h e n ak ed ey e. 'H en ce t h e n eed f o r a sp eci al ap p ar at u s al l o w i n g a n u m b er o f p r o o f s t o b e t ak en at i n t er val s, as cl o se t o get h er o r f ar ap ar t as n ecessar y '.47 T h e b o d y - m ach i n e as en v i sag ed b y M ar ey alr e ad y co m p r i sed t h e d i sco n t i n u i t y m at ch ed i n an d r ep r o d u ced ( an d an al y sed ) b y t h e m ach i n e.48 I so m o r p h i sm

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 68 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 6 8 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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b et w een t h e i n st r u m en t an d o b ject an al y sed w as so u gh t : 't h e t i m e t h e sl o t t ed d i sc t ak es t o r ev o l v e i s co m i n g cl o ser t o t h at o f t h e w i n g ,' h e n o t ed ;49 't h e p h o t o g r ap h m u st g i v e m e t h e v i b r at i o n s o f an i n sect 's w i n g '.50 I n 18 79 , M u y b r i d g e sp o k e o f m o d i f y i n g h i s 'au t o m at i c d i sp o si t i o n s' t o m eet M ar ey 's d em an d s, w h i l e, i n 18 8 2, h e n o t ed t h at h e w as 'f i n d i n g an o t h er m et h o d t h at w o u l d b et t er cor r espon d t o t h e h o r se's r eg u l ar m o v em en t s'.51

Resear ch w as o b v i o u sl y n o t cen t r ed o n t h e i n st an t as a p r i v i l eg ed m o m en t ( t h e p r o b l em at i c o f t h e 'm ean i n g f u l ' i n st an t b el o n g i n g t o t h e f i el d o f ar t i s m ar gi n al h er e) ,52 b u t o n t h e p h o t o gr ap h i c i n st an t t h at coin cides w i t h a p h ase o f t h e m o v em en t - t h e p o si t i o n o r t h e v i b r at i o n . I t i s n o t a q u est i o n o f t i m e o r o f t h e sp eed o f a p h en o m en o n t h at m u st b e gr asp ed , b u t i t s r h y t h m ( sp eed i s m ea su r ed t h an k s t o an ap p r o p r i at e b ack gr o u n d , a scal e) . T h i s i s t h e co m m en t ar y h e m ad e ab o u t M u y b r i d g e's i n st an t an eo u s p i ct u r es: 'T h ese p o si t i o n s, as r ev eal ed b y M u y b r i d g e, at f i r st ap p ear ed u n n at u r al . . . t h ey h av e t au gh t u s t o f i n d at t i t u d es i n N at u r e w e ar e u n ab l e t o see f o r o u r sel v es'.53 T h e 'p o se' ( r ep r esen t at i o n ) i n t er est s t h e ar t i st w h i l e t h e sch o l ar o b ser v es t h e 'i n st an t s' o f t h e p h en o m en o n ,54 j u st as 'at t i t u d es' ( r ep r esen t at i o n ) acco u n t f o r t h e 'su ccessi v e p h ases' o f t h e m o v em en t o f t h e b i r d 's w i n g s.55 Ref l ect i o n o n t h e i n st an t an eo u s p h o t o g r ap h as an y - i n st an t - w h at ev er o f t h e m o v em en t , w h i ch 'r em o v es a n o n - si gn i f i can t m o m en t o f t h e su ccessi o n ',56 co r r esp o n d s t o t h e i so l at ed i m age, w h i ch i s o p p o sed t o L essi n g 's 'p r eg n an t ' m o m en t . Bu t i s t h i s t r u e i n t h e ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h i c ser i es an d , i n p ar t i cu l ar , i n M ar ey 's w o r k ? H e w as seek i n g t o est ab l i sh p r eci sel y w h at h ap p en s i n t h e m e ch an i cs o f m o v em en t , an d n o t si m p l y sel ect a si n gl e m o m en t . T h e r eveal ed p o ses r ev eal w h at w e w er e n ot ab l e t o see about n at u r e: t h ey r ep r o d u ce t h e v ar i o u s asp ect s o f a m o v em en t . M ar ey 's ai m w as n ei t h er t o cap t u r e t h e d eci si v e 'i n st an t ' n o r t o co n f er t h e d i g n i t y o f ar t o n so m e i n st an t o r ot h er . L o n d e m ak es a cl ear d i st i n ct i o n h er e b et w een h i s ap p r o ach an d t h at o f M ar ey : ... as i s w el l k n ow n , [the i n st ant aneous ph ot ogr aph] con si st s i n capt ur i n g t he i m age of an y object i n m ovem en t fr om on ly on e vi ew p oi n t - t hat i s w h at di ffer ent i at es it fr om t he w or k of M . M arey. It i s n ot on l y docum ent ary, but t he ver y p ur pose of the oper at i on .'57 Fo r M ar ey, n o t o n l y w as t h e ob ject n o t j u st an y r an d o m o b ject an d t h e asp ect n o t u n i q u e, b u t t h e p h o t o w as n o t an en d i n i t self .

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 6 9 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 6 9 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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T e m p o r a litie s

T h e q u est i o n r em ai n s o f w h et h er t h i s d i v i si o n o f t i m e est ab l i sh es a d i f f er en t t y p e o f t em p o r al i t y f r o m t h at o f t h e an i m al m ach i n e, f r o m t h e m o m en t w h en t h e r el ev an t p h ases, p o i n t s an d i n st an t s d i v i d i n g o r sh ap i n g t h e p h en o m en o n ar e su b j ect ed t o t h e r eg u l ar i t y an d m ech an i cal r ep et i t i o n o f t h e in s t r u m e n t i t s e l f W h en M u y b r i d g e sp o k e o f m ak i n g h i s 'su c c essi v e ex p o su r es at r eg u l ar i n t er v al s b y m ean s o f a cl o ck ' t o o b t ai n m o r e p r eci si o n , h e ad j u st ed h i s cam er a i n r el at i o n t o an ex t er i o r m ach i n e - t h e cl o ck — an d n o l o n ger t o t h e an i m al m a ch i n e t o w h i ch h e w i sh ed i t t o 'co r r esp o n d '. T h e i n st an t an eo u s p h o t o gr ap h s t h u s b ecam e an y - i n st an t s- w h at ev er . N o w , 'an y - i n st an t - w h at ev er ' i s r eq u i r ed b y t h e p r o j ect o r , w h i ch n eed s t o u se r i g o r o u sl y eq u al i n t er v al s an d eq u i d i st an t i m ag es i n o r d er t o r eco n st i t u t e m o v em en t an d cau se t h e caesu r a t o d i sap p ear t h i s i s t h e p h o t o gr am . H o w ev er , t h e p h o t o gr am o p er at es at a d i f f er en t l ev el f r o m t h e ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h i c sh o t s t h at M ar ey w as i n t er est ed i n : i t s p o t en t i al f o r r ecr eat i n g ap p ar en t m o v em en t d o es n ot co m e f r o m i t s co r r esp o n d en ce t o a r el ev an t ar t i cu l at i o n o f t h e g al l o p o r t h e w al k , a d i scr et e u n i t o f l o co m o t i o n - i t cu t s u p at a l o w er l ev el , ev en i f i t co n t ai n s t h e u n i t as w el l . T o b e m o r e p r eci se, M ar ey 's p r o j ect (t h e t h eo r y) d i f f er ed f r o m t h e i d ea o f r eg u l ar l y cap t u r i n g an y i n st an t s w h at ev er , b u t h i s p r act i ce, i .e., t h e act u al r eco r d i n gs, d i d j u st t h at , si n ce h e u sed ser i es o f t w el v e an d t h en t w en t y i m ages p er seco n d an d co n st an t l y w o r k ed o n t h e sp eed an d r eg u l ar i t y o f t h e i n t er v al s. T h e i n t er v al s al l o w ed i m p r o v em en t s i n t h e r eco r d i n g o f t h e p h en o m en o n as t h ey b ecam e m o r e an d m o r e d i sso ci at ed f r o m t h e caesu r a t h at ch ar act er i sed i t . T h e t h eo r y w as b ased o n m e d iat io n , an d ch ai n i n g: i t i s cl ear t h at 't h e ser i es o f s u c c e s s iv e i m ag es r ep r esen t i n g

t h e d iffe r e n t p o si t i o n s ... o ccu p i ed b y a b o d y d u r i n g a ser i es o f su ccessi v e i n st an t s' ( d ef i n i t i o n s fr o n t b o t h 18 78 an d 18 8 2 [ m y em p h asi s] ) co r r esp o n d ed b et t er t o M ar ey 's ai m w h en i t w as set o u t 'o n t h e sam e p l at e' ( a 'f i gu r e- m o v em en t ') t h an i n an im m e d iat e m o v i n g i m age w h i c h m o v es f o r w ar d w i t h o u t an i n t er m ed i ar y ( an 'i m age- m o v em en t ') . I n t h i s case, i t w as t h en n ecessar y t o ad d an o p er at i o n t o t h e r est i t u t i o n i n o r d er t o m ak e t h e p h en o m en o n co m p r eh en si b l e: 'm an i p u l at i n g ' t h e ser i es b y sl o w - m o t i o n o r f r eez e- f r am es. T h i s 'r et u r n ' o f t h e sp ect at o r , i m p l i ed b y t h e m ach i n e t ak i n g su ccessi v e sh ot s, cast s d o u b t n o t o n l y o n t h e o b j ect i v i t y o f t h e o b ser v at i o n an d t h e m ech an i cal m o d el gu ar an t eei n g i t , b u t al so o n t h e p l ace o f t h e o b ser v i n g su b ject . I f t h e sp ec t at o r d o es n o t p er cei v e t h e b r eak i n g d o w n o f t h e f l i gh t i n t o st at i c i n st an t s, b u t cap t u r es 't h e ex h i l ar at i n g p o w er o f f l y i n g ... t h e m ael st r o m o f f eat h er s', it m ean s t h at su b j ect i v i t y m u st b eco m e at t u n ed t o t h e p r o j ect i o n m ech an i sm , t o av o i d , as M er l eau - Po n t y p u t s i t , 't h e d i sp er si o n o f t h e sel f '58 an d m ai n t ai n an i m ag i n ar y u n i t y i n t h e i m ag i n ar y w o r l d o f t h e sp ect acl e.

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 7 0 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 7 0 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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O n e m ay ask w h et h er t h e ev o l u t i o n o f t h e ci n em a w o u l d si m p l y i n v al i d at e t h i s q u est i o n , t h an k s t o a 'n at u r al i sat i o n ' o f t h e r ep r esen t at i o n o f m o v em en t . T h i s i s cl ear l y n ot t h e case, h o w ev er . Sp eci al i st s w h o an al y se gest u r e an d g es t i cu l at i o n h av e en co u n t er ed t h e sam e p r o b l em i n t h ei r st u d i es o f k i n et i cs, i .e., w h et h er a d an cer 's gest u r e i s 't h e m o v em en t f r o m o n e p o si t i o n t o an o t h er ', an d w h at i s t h e 'u n i t o f t h e st ep '. I t t h u s b eco m es n ecessar y t o m ak e a d i st i n ct i o n b et w een st r u ct u r al ar t i cu l at i o n s an d p er cep t u al ar t i cu l at i o n s. I n t h e 19 70 s, sem i o t i ci an s u sed t h e co m m u n i cat i o n m o d el t o set u p an o p p o si t i o n b et w een t h e sen d er (t h e d an cer ) , d ef i n ed b y k in e s t h e s ic p at t e r n s , an d t h e r ecei v er (t h e sp ect a t or ) o f t h e v is u al p a t t e r n s .59 M ar ey 's t h eo r y w as t h u s at a cr o ssr o ad s. O n e en t i r e asp ect o f h i s r esear ch co u l d b e co n si d er ed t o b e l i m i t ed t o t ech n i q u es, a t ech n o l o gy o f t h e b o d y. D em en y , t h e ad v o cat e o f gy m n ast i cs, b o r e w i t n ess t o t h i s, as d i d t h e st u d i es o n h o w t h e f o o t so l d i er m ar ch es o r t h e w a y i n w h i ch M ar ey ap p r o ach ed t h e b i cy cl e.6 Bu t i n p ar al l el , M ar ey w as p u r su i n g 'p u r e' r esear ch t h at , w i t h r eg ar d t o h i s co n cep t u al t o o l s, w as ev er r i sk i er . H e t o o k a gr eat er i n t er est i n f l u i d s t h an so l i d s, i n u n d u l at i n g p h en o m en a w h o se m o v em en t , o n e co u l d say, 'd ef i n es' t h em m o r e t h an t h ey m o v e o n t h e b asi s o f t h e p o t en t i al o f t h ei r st r u ct u r es. A c co r d i n g t o Jak o b v o n U ex k i i l l , 'a n am o eb a i s l ess o f a m ach i n e t h an a h o r se', an d i t w as i n d eed f o r m l ess o r g an i sm s su ch as t h e sk at e, t h e j el l y f i sh , t h e v ei l an d b r eat h t h at M ar ey w o u l d ex am i n e. Sh o u l d on e co n si d er t h i s an i n t r u si o n o f n o n - C ar t esi an p h y si cs o r ev en u n d u l at o r y m ech an i cs?61 T h i s cl ash b et w een t h e M ar ey m ech an i sm an d 'ci n em a' sh o u l d l ead t o a r ef o r m u l at i o n o f t h e co n cep t o f m o v em en t at t h e v er y m o m en t i t o ccu r s. M ar ey 's r ef l ect i o n an d w h at h e h as b eq u eat h ed t o t h e ci n em a as a r at i o n al sy st em o f co m p r eh en si o n d o es n o t b eco m e l ess i m p o r t an t b ecau se 'I t i s w h en a co n cep t ch an ges i t s m ean i n g t h at i t i s m o st m ean i n gf u l ' ( Bach el ar d ) .62 I t s t r u e i m p o r t an ce can b e seen i n t h e f act t h at t h i s d i sso ci at i v e an d su ccessi v e - i n o t h er w o r d s, d i sco n t i n u o u s - co n si d er at i o n o f t h e 'ci n em a', t h i s r ef l ect i o n o n t h e p ar ad o x es o f i m m o b i l i t y an d m o v em en t , q u i ck l y b ecam e a m o d el , i n cl u d i n g f o r t h e co n t em p o r ar y ar t s o f t h e t i m e. W h at Ei sen st ei n cal l ed 'ci n em at i sm ' m ak es t h e ci n em at o gr ap h i c m ech an i sm a gen er al o p er at o r .63 A l f r ed Jar r y, w h o se D o c t e u r F au s t r o ll co n t ai n s ev o cat i o n s t h at ar e su g g est i v e o f a 'm ach i n i c' ar t ,64 i m p o ses a d i st i n ct i o n b et w een l i t er at u r e, w h i ch 'i s o b l i ged t o m ak e t h e ob ject s i t d escr i b es f i l e p as t i n su ccessi o n , on e b y o n e' an d 't h e p ai n t i n g o r st at u e' w h i c h ' c ap t u r e s an d f i x e s a m o m e n t o f t h e d u r at i o n '. 'L i t er at u r e' an d 'p ai n t i n gscu l p t i n g' h er e ar e m o d al i t i es o f t h e ci n em a an d p h o t o gr ap h y , w h i ch i m p l e m en t t h e q u est i o n o f t i m e an d m o v em en t i n an u n u su al m an n er .65

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 71 h t t p :/ /s ite . e b ra ry .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 7 1 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

T h e C a s e f o r a n E p is te m o g r a p h y o f M o n ta g e

71

N o te s

1. 2.

3. 4. 5. 6.

7.

8.

See also 'Pou r un e épi st ém ogr aph i e du m on t age: pr éal ab les', Cinémas, Jour nal of Film St udies, vol. 13, N o. 1-2, A u t u m n 2002, pp. 11- 32. I w ou ld li k e to ack n ow led ge m y i n debt edn ess to t he aut h or s of t he st udi es on M ar ey I h ave con sult ed: M ichel Fr i zot , E-J. M arey, la phot ographie en mouvement , Par i s: Cen t r e Geor ges Pom pi dou, 19 77 an d Et ienne-Jules M arey, chronophotographe, Par is: N at han-D elpi r e, 2001; Fr an çoi s D agogn et , Et ienne Jules-M ar ey: La Passion de la trace, Par i s: H azan, 1987; M ar t a Braun , Pict uring Time: the W ork of Et ienne-Jules M arey, Ch i cago an d Lon don: U n i ver si t y of Ch i cago Press, 1992; Lau r en t M an non i, Et ienne-Jules M ar ey: La M émoire de l'œil, Par i s an d M ilan : Ci n ém at h èque fr an çaise-M azzot t a, 1999. The Fr ench ver b 'm ont er ' gen er al ly i s t hough t to m ean 'assem bl e' or 'com pose' (see Jean Gi r au d, Le Lexique du cinéma des origines à 1930, Par i s: CN RS, 1958). A t t he sym posi u m i n Cer i sy, A u gu st 19 8 1: 'M él i ès et la n ai ssan ce d u spect acle ciné m at ogr ap h i que' (published un der sam e t itle b y Kli n ck si eck , Par i s, 1984). G. M éli ès, 'L es vu es ci n ém at ogr aph i ques' in A nnuair e général et int ernat ional de la Photographie, Par i s: Pi on, 1907, pp. 390-1. A ccor d i n g to M éliès, t he Gau m on t -D em en ÿ cam er a w as n ot sui t able for cr eat in g effect s b y st oppi n g t he cam er a as it w as n ot suffi ci en t ly pr eci se, an d it s lack of 'fr ee d om ' let the cat out o f the bag (see Jacqu es M alt hêt e, Lau r en t M an n on i [eds.] M éliès, magie et cinéma, Par i s: Espace Elect ra ED F, 2002, p. 154). A n d r é Gau d r eau lt and m ore r ecen t ly Lau r en t Le For est i er stat e t hat b l u r r y or fogged i m ages w er e always cut an d r eassem bled w h en t here w as a so-called 'st op-cam er a' subst i t ut ion (Ibid., p. 220). It t h us does not seem p ossi ble t hat t he effect w as di scover ed b y project i ng a film shot b y accident ! 'Geor ge M éli ès's M i st ak e' ([O shi bka Geor ga M el'e] , Soviet skoïe kino no. 3-4, 1933, publi sh ed in Select ed Works, vol . 1 o f W rit ings, 19 22-19 34, ed. and t rans. Ri ch ar d T ayl or (London: BFI, 1988), pp. 258-60. Ei senst ei n, t oget her w i t h t he exper i m en t al fi lm m ak er W er ner N ek es at a lat er date, object ed to t he t er m i n ology of li n k i n g or even subst it ut ion, an d spok e of 'sup er p osi t i on ' - 'each su ccessi ve elem en t is not posi t i oned next t o t he last , bu t above' - super posi t i on creates a cer t ai n t ensi on, con t r adi ct ion, n on -con gr uence, etc. of t he elem en t s br ough t i nt o p l ay (see 'D r am at u r gi e der fi lm -for m ' i n F. A l ber a, Eisenst ein et le const ruct ivisme, Lau san n e: L 'A ge d'H om m e, 1989, p. 68). A ser i es of i nfer en ces could be d r aw n fr om t he i nscr i pt i on of 'm on t age' i n a concept ual fr am ew or k such as t hat of 'sup er posi t i on ', st art in g w i t h t he fact t hat t hi s t yp e of art i culat i on belon gs t o ot her 'ser i es' of i m ages in m ovem en t - i n par t i cular the m agi c lan t er n an d opt i cal t oys. Cf. t he 'lan t er n ' or 'ci n em at ogr aph i c' m et aphor used b y M ar cel Pr oust , w h o m ak es a clear di st inct ion bet w een super(i m )posi t i on (in percept i on) an d successi on (on t he m at eri al m edi um , as i t w er e): ' . . . t he super i m posi t i on ... of t he successi ve i m ages w h i ch Alber t i n e h ad been for m e ,... i n a ger m i nat ion, a car n al efflor escen ce' (La Prisonnière, Par i s: Galli m ar d-Pléi ade, 1965, t r an slat ed b y C.K . Scot t M on cri eff, The Capt ive, , accessed 2 1 Sept em ber 2008). See, i n par t icular , 'L es t r aces de m on t age dan s la pr oduct i on Lu m i èr e' [ 1995] in P. D u jar di n , A . Gar di es, J. Ger st enk or n , J.-C. Segu i n (eds.), l'Avent ur e Lumière Act es

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 7 2 h tt p ://s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 7 2 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

72

9.

10.

11.

12.

13. 14.

15.

16.

17.

F r a n ç o is A lb e r a

du Congrès mondial Lumière, Lyon : A léas, 1999, pp. 299-306 (t he ar t i cle cont ai ns a b i b li ogr ap h y of pr evi ou s paper s) an d 'Fr agm en t at i on et segm en t at ion dan s les "vu es an i m ées'" i n F. A lber a, M . Br aun , A . Gaud r eaul t (eds.), St op M ot ion, Fragmen tation of Time, Lau san n e: Payot , 2002, pp. 225-245. In t he begi n n i n g of t he 1970s, W er ner N ek es began defi n i n g m on t age as an ar t i cula t i on bet w een t w o ph ot ogr am s (the kineme). H e gave w ei gh t t o t hi s i d ea b y i n scr ib i n g it i n a l ar ge collect i on of t oys an d m achi nes, goi n g fr om t he si m plest - t he t haum at rope - to t he m ost com pl ex - t he cin em a. See W . N ekes, 'W h at ever h appen s bet w een the pi ct ur es', Aft erimage (N ew Yor k ), vol . 5, no. 5, N ovem ber 1977, pp. 7 13. N ek es w as t he fir st per son t o ext r apolat e Ei senst ei n's i deas, as set out in 'D r am a t ur gi e der fi lm -for m ' (1929). Fr ançoi s D agogn et 's paper , fol low ed b y M i chel Foucault 's cont ri but ion, can be found in: F. D agognet , Les Out ils de la réflexion [Epist émologie], Le Plessis-Robi nson , les Em pêch eur s de pen ser en r on d, 1999 (pp. 214- 231) an d Foucault 's cont ri but ion t oget her w i t h t he w h ole of t he di scussi on - i n cludi n g t he ot her par t i ci pan t s - in: M . Foucault , Dit s et écrit s 19 34-1988, Par i s: Galli m ar d , 1994, vol . II (pp. 27-66). A . Font ana, P. Pasqui n o, "I n t er vi st a a M i chel Foucau lt " i n M icrofisica del pot ere: in t er vene polit ici, Tor ino, Ei n audi , 19 77 (also publ i sh ed i n M . Foucault , D it s et écrit s, op. cit., vol. III, p. 143). En gli sh ver si on : The Essent ial Works of M ichel Foucault , 19 54 1984. vol. 4 Pow er , edi t ed b y Jam es D. Faubion, Tr an slat ed b y Rober t H u r ley and ot hers, Lon don : A l len Lan e-Pen gui n , 2001. Th e quot at i on i s on p. 114 . Even t h ou gh h e is som et i m es cri t icised on t hese gr ou n ds, or t hi s t eleology i s for ced upon hi m : 'H e lost int erest in t he ci n em at ogr aph t hat w as bot h called for an d n eces sit at ed b y h i s w or k ... The Lu m i èr e br ot h er s stole h i s vi ct or y fr om h i m ’ (F. D agog net); 'E.-J. M ar ey ... w as un able t o go to t he en d o f t he pat h t hat led to t he ci nem at o gr aph ' (M . Sicar d). M ar ey w as one o f t he 't h i r d gener at i on ' of successor s of Cu vi er at t he Collège de France (chai r of n at ur al h i st or y of or gan i sed bodi es). Th ese t hree poi n t s m er it fur t her develop m en t - w h i ch can not be un der t ak en her e as t hey lead to a h i st or y an d an ep i st em ology o f t he 'ci n em a'. O ne m ay si m ply poi nt out t hat once on e h as si deli n ed t he con cept i on of h i st or y as a chr onologi cal seri es pr od uci n g its r esult s fol low i n g t he logi c of w h at en gen der s w h at , or h ow t h i n gs fit t oget her - and it h as been sever el y crit ici sed du r i n g t he last t w en t y year s - t here r em ai n s t he quest i on of t he 'lo gi cal ' const ruct i on w i t h w h i ch ep i st em ology pr o ceeds, st art in g fr om t he presen t . O n t hi s subject , see: M i ch el Fi chant , 'l 'I d ée d 'u n e hi st oir e des scien ces' in: M . Fi chant , M . Pêcheux, Sur l'hist oire des sciences, Par i s: M asp ér o (coll. Théori e), 1969, pp. 49-139. I use t hi s all-en com passi n g expr essi on for con ven ien ce, bu t w i t h ou t a fi n ali sed m eani ng. 'Ci n em a' (i n quot es) i s nei t her ci n em at ogr aph n or cinem a. It i n cludes bot h t he zoet r ope an d ch r onoph ot ogr aph y. See t he m ost recent lar ge-scale syn t h esi s on t he subject un d er t ak en b y Lau r en t M annoni , i n t he En gli sh t r anslat ion b y Ri ch ar d Cr an gle: Great A r t O f Light A n d Shadow: Archæology of the cinema, Exet er : U n i ver si t y of Exet er Pr ess, 2000. Th i s for m ulat i on i s ob vi ou sl y n ot i nt ended to over look t he close li n k s t hat i n deed exist bet w een t he p h ysi olo gy of per cept i on , ast r on om y and the st u d y of m ovem en t . Pi er re-Jules César Jan ssen , an ast r on om er w i t h a doct or at e i n ph ysi cal sci ences h ad, m or eover , defen ded h i s Ph D on vi sion.

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 7 3 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 7 3 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

T h e C a s e f o r a n E p is te m o g r a p h y o f M o n ta g e

73

18.

La M ét hode graphique dans les sciences expériment ales et principalement en physiologie et

19.

en médecine, Par i s: M asson , 1885 [ 1878] , p. XI. 'Par t i cu lar m om en t ' is an expr essi on used b y M ar ey i n Le M ouvement , Par i s: Jacqu e li ne Ch am bon, 1994 [1894] ; M ovement , t r an slat ed b y Er i c Pri t ch ar d, Lon don : W i l

20.

21.

22. 23.

24.

25. 26.

27.

28.

li am H ei nem an n, 1895, P- 5 4 A t fir st si ght , t he m ovem en t of an 'i n an i m at e' - so to speak - m ovi n g body, such as a 'br i gh t ball' t h r ow n w i t h i n t he ap par at u s's fi eld of vi si on (this i s M ar ey's exam ple i n h i s defi ni t i on o f ch r on oph ot ogr aph y) can be di st i n gui sh ed fr om t he m ovem en t of an 'an i m at e' m ovi n g body, an d it s t r aject ory should com e close t o t hat of celesti al m echani cs, bu t i n t he case of t he ball, M ar ey exam i n ed t he p h ases of i m m obi li t y t hat m ar k t he en d of t he m ovem en t in one di rect i on, an d t he i m m i nen ce o f i t s st art in g up agai n in t he ot her di r ect ion - w h i ch h e calls 'd ead poi n t s' (M ovement , op. cit. p. 1 7 7 )A lp h on se A l lai s's sar cast i c r em ar k s about Ed i son speak ch apt er s ab out t he i m por t ance o f n at i on al com pet it ion bet w een i n vent or s (see 'Ch ez Edi son ' i n Le Parapluie de l'escouade (1893), Œ uvr es ant humes, Par i s: Rober t Laffon t "Bou q u i n s", 1989, pp. 330 331, w h i ch fi n d an ech o i n Per r i got 's i n di gn at i on w h en t he Sw i ss N at i on al Exh i bi t ion of 1896 cont em plat ed feat ur i n g t he Ci n em at ogr ap h i n t he Edi son pavi l i on . 'I f t here w er e a M ar ey pavi l i on , w e w ou ld be able to h ouse ou r selves u n der t he French flag' (Jacques Ri t t aud-H ut t i net , Yvel i ze D en t zer (eds.), August e et Louis Lumière Cor respondances 18 90-1953, Par i s: Cah i er s du Ci n em a, 1994, pp. 139-140). See h i s let t er t o t he M i ni st er o f Com m er ce of 22 M ay 1900 (A ugust e et Louis Lumière Correspondances 18 90-1953, op. cit., p. 173). L eavi n g asi de D em en ÿ's at t em pt to m ar k et h i s syst em o f d r i vi n g t he fi lm an d h i s ow n pr oject ion app ar at u s, M ar ey t ri ed i n vai n to sell t he pat ent ed pr ocesses of the ch r on oph ot ogr aph t o t he Lu m i èr e br ot her s (Let t er o f 18 A u gu st 1899 in: A ugust e et Louis Lumière Correspondances 18 90-1953, op. cit., p. 171) . The (great er) m ajor i t y of t he t er m s list ed ar e p ar t of M ar ey's vocabular y, pi ck ed out d u r i n g t he r eadi n g of h i s m ai n w or k s: D u M ouvement dans les fonct ions de la vie, Animal M echanism an d M ovement . In t he sen se put for w ar d b y M i ch el Fou cault in The Or der o f Things: A n Archeology of the H uman Sciences. Lon d on an d N ew Yor k : Rou t l ed ge 2002, p. 79 ff. Th i s i s t he dom i n at i on of t he m achi ne over t he b od y b y r at i on ali sat ion of t he an i m al m echani sm , poin t ed out b y Si egfr i ed Gi edeon i n La M écanisat ion au pouvoir, Par is: Cen t r e Pom pi d ou, 1980 [M echanizat ion Takes Command, N ew Yor k : O xfor d U n i ver si t y Pr ess Inc., 1948] an d d evel op ed b y A n son Rabi n bach, The H uman M ot or: Energy, Fat igue, and the Origins of M odernit y, N ew Yor k : Basi c Book s, 1990. A l fr ed Jar r y, 'H o w to Const r uct a Ti m e M ach i ne' ('Com m en t ai r e pou r ser vi r à la con st ruct i on pr at i que de la m achi ne à explor er le t em ps', M er cur e de France, no. n o , Feb r u ar y 1899, pp. 387-396), t ranslat ed by Roger Shat t uck, , accessed 21 Sept em ber 2008. 'I n ki nem at i cs, dur at i on p l ays t he par t o f an i n dependent var i able, of w h i ch t he co or di n at es of t he poin t s con si der ed ar e a fun ct i on ' (A. Jar ry, Ibi d.) The 't i m e m ach ine' t hat Jar r y m en t i ons i n t hi s t ext i s m ean t t o fost er 'absolu t e' k n ow l ed ge based on i m m obi li t y an d t r an sparen cy. Sever al al lusi on s to opt i cal m ach i nes can be foun d in t hi s t ext (i n cludi n g ci nem a i n t he form of 'r ever si bi l i t y of phen om en a' an d 't h e visual aspect o f successi on' - 'O n e sees t he ap p le boun ce back u p i nt o t he tree, the dead

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 7 4 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 7 4 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

74

29.

30. 31.

32.

33.

34.

35.

36.

F r a n ç o is A lb e r a

m an com es t o life, an d t he can non ball r e-ent ers t he cann on .' [op. cit .] - w h i ch w i ll lat er be t he sour ce of such i n spi r at i on for Jean Epst ei n) w i t h speci al em ph asi s put on pan or am a (op. cit.). Reflect i on s li n k i n g t he quest i on of b od y m ovem en t , w al k i n g an d dan ci n g t o t heir fi lm i n g b y K u lesh ov (see: L'A r t du cinéma et autres écrits ( 19 17-19 34) , Lau san n e: L 'A ge d'H om m e, 1990), Ren oi r (r egar di n g Nana) and Ben jam i n (on Ch apli n ), and m or e w i d el y ad d r essi n g t he pr oblem s of 'exp r essi ve m ovem en t ' (Ei senst ein-Tret iak ov). A . Rabi n bach, op. cit., p. 115. J.-C. Beaune, L'Aut omat e et ses modèles, Par i s: Flam m ar i on , 1980, p. 223. In 1886, i n a let t er to D em en ÿ, h e m en t i oned t he plan of a lect ure ent it led t he 'ap p l i cat i on of m echani cs to b i olo gy'. Elsew h er e h e speak s o f the 'm ech an i cs o f or gan s' and t he 'm ech an i cs of t he jum p' (see G. D em en ÿ, Les Origines du cinématographe, Pari s: H en r y Pauli n , 1909, p. 47. The lect ur e w as called: 'Bi ologi e. Collège de Fr ance - H i st oi re n at ur elle d es cor ps or gani sés, leçon d'ou ver t ur e. D es loi s de la m écani que en bi ologi e.' Revue scient ifique 3. VI I. 1886 no. x, quot ed i n T. Lefebvr e, J. M althêt e, L. M an n on i (eds.), Let t res d'Et ienne-Juks M ar ey à Georges Demenÿ, 1880-1894, Par i s: A FRH C-BI FI , 1990, p. 189 not e x). 'A n d on e can w el l com par e the n er ves of t he m ach i ne t hat I am descr i bi n g t o the t ubes o f t he m ech an i sm s o f t hese foun t ai ns, it s m uscles an d t en don s to d i ver s (sic) ot her en gi n es an d spr i n gs w h i ch ser ve to m ove t hese m ech an i sm s ...' (L'H omme, Œuvr es philosophiques I, Par i s: Gam i er , 19 9 7, p. 390; Treatise o f M an, Fren ch t ext w i t h t ran slat ion an d com m en t ar y b y Th om as St eele H all, Cam br i dge, M A , H ar var d U n i ver si t y Pr ess, X972, p. 22). J.-E. M ar ey, Recherches sur la circulat ion du sang à l ’état physiologique et dans les mala dies, doct oral t hesis i n m edi cin e of 1859, quot ed b y L. M an non i, Et ienne-Jules M arey: La M émoire de l ’œil, op. cit., p. 25. Cf. D escart es (speak i n g of t he fun ct i on s in the 'm ach i n e' such as t he di gest ion , t he beat i n g of t he heart , food an d t he gr ow t h of its m em bers): ' ... i t is n ot n ecessar y to con ceive i n it an y ot her veget at i ve or sen si t i ve soul ... t han its bl ood an d i t s spi ri t s, agi t at ed b y t he heat of t he fir e t hat bu r n s con t i n u ally i n it s h ear t ...' (Q uot ed b y F. D agogn et , Philosophie biologique, Par i s: Presses U n i ver si t ai r es de Fr ance, 1955, p. 7, En gli sh t r anslat ion , accessed 2x Sept em ber 2008). The sam e ar gu m en t at i on can be foun d i n Les Passions de l'âme (xst par t , ar t icle 5, Œuvr es philosophiques III, Par i s: Gam i er , 1989, p. 954). Fr an çoi s Jacob i n La Logique du vivant (Pari s: Galli m ar d , 1970) evi n ces t hi s con di t ion o f possi bi l i t y of k n ow led ge i n t he classi cal per i od li n k ed to t he m ech an i sm an d t hat i s cur t ailed b y vi t ali sm , n ot w i t h st an di n g t he fact t hat G. Can gui l h em h as an alysed t he par adoxi cal 'li b er at i n g' fun ct i on t hat vi t ali sm w as able to h ave, in par t i cul ar for Cl au d e Bern ar d. Can gu i l h em , h ow ever , agr eed aft er r eadi n g Jacob t hat vi t ali sm w as hencefor th 'ou t of t he r un n i n g' (see 'L ogi q u e du vi van t et hi st oi r e de la bi olo gi e', Sciences, no. 71, M ar ch -A pr i l 19 71, p. 23). Discours de la méthode in: Œuvr es philosophiques I, Par i s: Gam i er , X997, p. 6 23; A D is course on M et hod, Tr an slat ed b y Joh n Vei t ch, LL.D ., I n t r oduct ion b y A .D . Li ndsay, London: J.M . D ent & Son s Lt d., N ew Yor k : E.P. D ut t on & Co. Inc., 19 53 ( 19 x2) . But it i s also n ecessar y to w i n d u p t he w at ch, t he aut om at on or t he m achi ne, i .e., it con t ai ns 't h e cor por eal pr i n ci ple o f t hose m ovem en t s for w h i ch i t i s desi gn ed al on g

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 7 5 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 7 5 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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w i t h all t hat i s r equi si t e for it s act i on ' an d not 'br ok en ' (dead, inert). (The Philosophi cal Works of Descart es I, r en der ed i nt o En gli sh b y Elizabet h S. H aldan e, CH , LLD , an d G.R.T. Ross, M A , D Phi l, Lon d on : Cam br i d ge U n i ver si t y Pr ess, 19 31 ( 19 11) , 37. 38.

39.

40.

4 1. 42.

43. 44. 45. 46. 47.

48. 49. 50. 51.

52.

P- 3 3 3 )See t he Discourse on M et hod 5t h par t - t he descr i pt ion of t he fun ct i on i ng of the heart - for exam ple. 'T o say t hat t he successi ve ph ot ogr ap h s - l eavi n g asi de t he ci nem at ic solut i on t hat t hey con t ain - w ou ld en com pass t he dynamic solut i on i f one w er e able to phot o gr ap h t he su ccessi ve posi t i on s of t he cent re of gr avi t y' (quot ed in: T. Lefebvr e, J. M alt hêt e, L. M an non i, op. cit., p. 140). M y it alics. Cl au d e Ber n ar d 'd en oun ces t he st u d y of or gan i c fun ct i on s b y an at om i c deduct i on , t he subor di n at i on of p h ysi olo gy to anat om y,' w r ot e G. Can gui lh em ('Clau de Ber n ar d et Bi chat ' in Et udes d'H ist oire et de Philosophie des Sciences, Par i s: Vr i n, 1970, p. 16 1) , bu t h i s ph ysi ologi cal funct ionalism sti ll r em ai n s 'n ar r ow l y an alyt i cal b e cause t oo fai t h ful to m or ph ologi cal decom posi t i on ' (Ibid). In fact , he r ecom m en ds vi vi sect i on . Pau l V al ér y con gr at ulat ed h im on r eplaci n g t he 'd i scr eet si gn s t hat ar e ar bi t r ar i ly est abli sh ed' b y t he 't r aces of t he t h i n gs t h em selves or even b y t r an sposi t i on s or i n scri pt ion s d er i vi n g fr om t hem di r ect ly' ('N ot es et di gr essi on s', 19 19 , Œuvr es, vol . I, Par i s: Galli m ar d " L a Pléi ad e", p. 1266). F. D agogn et , Et ienne-Jules M ar ey ... op. cit., p. 137. Let t er to G. D em en ÿ of 2 1 N ovem ber 1884, i n T. Lefebvr e, J. M alt hêt e, L. M annoni , op. cit. p. 137. Th e d r u m i n quest i on i s a cyli n der ar oun d w h i ch t he r ope t hat t r an s m i ts t he 'i n for m at i on ' to t he appar at u s t hat m easur es t he h or ses' p aces i s w ou n d. Par i s: Bai lli èr e et fi ls, 1858. Lon don : Lon gm an s Gr een & Co., 1879. Par i s: Ren ouar d, 1862. L. M an n on i , op. cit., p. 80. A lb er t Lon de, 'A p p ar ei l phot o-élect ri que', Bullet in de la Société Française de Phot ogra phie no. 5, vol . 30, M ay 1883, p. 127 (quot ed b y D en i s Ber n ar d & A n d r é Gunt hert , in l'Inst ant rcvé Alber t Londe, Par i s: Jacqueli n e Ch am bon, 1993, p. 134)The evolut i on fr om t he ph ot ogr aph of t he docum en t t o t he r esearch i nst r um en t i s an alysed b y D en i s Ber n ar d & A n d r é Gunt her t , op. cit., chap. 3. 'L e Vol des oi seau x', La Nat ure, Ju n e 1883, p. 37 (quot ed F. D agogn et , M arey, op. cit., p. 78)M ar ey t o D avan n e in: A lp h on se D avan n e, 'I n ven t i on s et appli cat i on s d e la phot o gr aph i e' ( 1891) (quot ed b y D en i s Ber n ar d an d A n d r é Gunt h er t op. cit., p. 153) . Q uot at i on fr om La Nat ur e (22 M ar ch 1879) an d The H orse in M ot ion, quot ed in J. M i t r y (éd.), 'L e ci n ém a des or i gi n es', Cinéma d'aujour d'hui, no. 9, aut um n 1976, p. 60. M y i t ali cs. N ot t hat M ar ey d oes n ot r efer to i t - on t he cont rary, he w as k een bot h to gi ve sci ent i fi c dat a t o sci ent i st s an d exact r eferences t o pain t er s, w h om h e r egu l ar l y i n t r oduced as ben efi ci ari es w h en set t i n g out h i s di scover i es (t here i s an exam ple i n La M achine animale, [ 1873] P- 15^)- b u t one can n ot d r aw con clusi on s about M ar ey's con cept uali sat i on o f m ovem en t - it i s m or e a quest i on of soci al ut i li t y an d allu si on to a t ype of r epresent at i on w i t h i n ever yon e's r each (D escar t es also uses t he com pari son w i t h t he pai n t er in h i s Discourse, an d befor e h im Galileo). It i s a secon dar y benefit .

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 7 6 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 7 6 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

76

53. 54.

55. 56. 57. 58.

59.

60.

6 1.

62. 63. 64. 65.

F r a n ç o is A lb e r a

M ovement , op. cit., pp. 194-5.

A dist in ct i on i s m ade bet w een t he t w o t er m s w h en t he ai m s of t he exper i en ces set out in la M achine animale ar e put for w ar d : 'fr om t he ph ysi ologi st 's poi n t o f vi ew one m ust ask t hem t o expr ess act i on s an d r eact i ons at gr eat speed, t he en er gy an d d u r a t i on of each m ovem en t , t he r h yt hm of t hei r successi ons. But t he ar t ist i s n ot less i nt er est ed t o k n ow exact ly t he at t i t ude cor r espon di n g to each i nst ant of a w al k in or d er to r epr esen t it fai t h fu lly w i t h t he var i ou s poses t hat ch ar act er i se it .' (op. cit., p. 158). M ar ey speak i n g of M u ybr i d ge, la Nat ure, 28 D ecem ber 1878 (quot ed b y L. M an non i, op. cit., p. 155). D . Ber n ar d, A . Gunt h er t , op. cit ., p. 174. A lb er t Lon de (1888) quot ed b y A . Gunt her t , 'Est h ét i que d e l'occasi on ', Et udes phot o graphiques no. 9, M ay 2001, p. 87, not e 31. M . M erleau-Pon t y, Phénoménologie de la percept ion, Par i s: Galli m ar d "T el ", 1994 [ 1945] , p. 318. Ber gson w as a con t em por ar y of M ar ey's, an d w as t hus m i n dful of the 'ci n em at ogr aph i c m ech an i sm ', w h er eas M er l eau-Pon t y n o lon ger t ook t he m echan i sm i nt o accoun t bu t on l y the effect , or 'm elo d y' as he put it. Even a st r ong ad vocat e of t he el usi ve 'p h ot ogen y', such as Epst ei n, saw t hi s as 'a spar k , an except i on caused b y jer k s' (Bonjour cinéma!). See N i cole Scot to di Car lo, 'A n al yse sém i ologi que des gest es et m i m i ques des chan t eur s d'op ér a', Semiótica IX, 4, 19 73 (pp. 289-317) , Pau l Ek m ar, W allace V. Fri esen, Si lvan S. Tom k in s, 'Faci al A ffect Scor i n g Techn ique: A Fi r st V al i d i t y St u d y', Semiót i ca III, 1, 1974 (pp. 37-58) an d especi all y M ar got D. Lash er , 'Th e Pau se in t he M ovi n g St r ucture of D an ce', Semiótica 22, 1/ 2, 1978, pp. 197-126, fr om w h om I h ave bor r ow ed t he expr essi on s i n i t ali cs. See t he di scu ssi on on t he bi cycle du r i n g t he m eet i ng of 18 Sept em ber 1894 at the Académie de médecine. M ar ey, w h o qu i ck l y st ressed t hat he w as no cycli st , i m m edi at ely t hough t of i m p r ovi n g t he cycli st 's per for m ance b y calculat i n g t he m ovem en t of t he ped al s i n r elat i on to t he bod y's cent re o f gr avi t y (Bullet in de l'Académie de médecine, 1894, pp. 278-280). It should be n ot ed t hat i n 1864, Lou i s D ucos du H aur on pat ent ed an appar at u s cap able of cap t u r i n g 'an y scen e w i t h all t he t r an sfor m at i on s t hat it h as un der gon e d u r i n g a speci fi c ti m e per i od', an d un der li n ed i t s capaci t y to capt ur e 't h e m ovem en t s of a dancer, one or sever al soldiers, a m achi ne, faci al expr essi on s, a m ar i t i m e scene, w aves, cl ou ds m ovi n g or t he erupt i on of a vol can o ...' (quot ed b y G.-M i ch el Coissac, H ist oire du cinémat ographe, Par i s: Edi t i on s d u Cin éopse, 1925, pp. 89-91). Gast on Bachelar d, The N ew Scient ific Spirit , t r an slat ed by A r t h u r Goldh am m er , for e w or d b y Pat r i ck A . H eelan , Boston: Beacon Pr ess, 1984, p. 54. See, i n par t icular , S.M . Ei senst ei n, Cinémat isme Peint ur e et cinéma, Di jon: Les Presses du Réel: 2009, [1980] an d Le M ouvement de l'art , Par i s: Cer f, 1989. A . Jar ry, Gest es et opinions du doct eur Faust roll, 'pat aphysicien, r om an néo-scient i fique, Par i s: Galli m ar d "Poési e", 1980 [ 18 9 7- 19 11] . A . Jar r y, Le Temps dans l'ar t (lect ure of 8 A p r i l 1902 at t he Société des Art ist es Indépen dants), Par i s: L'Ech op pe, 1995. Speak i n g of t he legend of L o f s w i fe, he w r ot e: 'Th en the Lor d sai d: "M o ve n o m or e!"' (p. 9). In Lenz, Geor g Bi i ch n er 's fasci n at i n g un fi n i shed t ext fr om 1778, t he epon ym ou s poet un der t ak es a som ew h at fr en zi ed w al k in the m oun t ai n s t hat leaves h im qui t e br eat h less an d exh aust ed, an d m uses on the

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 7 7 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 7 7 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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77

si gh t s an d i m ages (evok i n g 't h e p lay of sh ad ow s', 'scen es' an d al so 'i n st an t s') l ead i n g h i m t o t he fol low i n g observat i on : 'Yest er d ay as I w al k ed u p t he val ley I saw t w o gi r ls si t t i ng on a st one, on e put t i n g u p her hai r, t he ot her h elp i n g ... Sometimes one would like to be a M edusa's head to be able to t urn such a tableau to stone, then shout to everyone to come and look. Th ey st ood up, t he beaut i ful t ableau w as gon e for ever ; but as t hey clam ber ed d ow n am on gst t he r ock s there was yet anot her pict ure. The most beaut iful images, the most resonant harmonies, coalesce, dissolve. O n ly on e t hi ng abides: an i nfi ni t e beau t y t hat passes fr om form t o for m , et er n ally changed and r evealed afresh, t h ou gh n eedless t o say you can't capt ur e it and sti ck i t i n m useum s ...' Com plet e Plays, Lenz and Ot her W rit ings: D ant on's Death; Leonce and Lena; Woyzeck; Lenz; the H essian M essenger; on Cranial N er ves; Select ed Let ters, t r an slat ed b y Joh n Reddi ck , H ar m on dsw or t h , Pen gui n Classi cs, 1993 [ m y i t alics]. Th e desi r e to be a 'M ed u sa's h ead ', to t ransfor m people t hat on e m eet s int o st one st at ues in or der to sh ow t hem t o ot her s, por t r ays t he place of ph ot ogr aph y - an d even of cinemat ography ('t her e w as yet an ot her pi ct ur e').

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 7 8 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 7 8 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

b e l 6 7d c 29 b l 5e 7d 8 2 23a 7c 2b Sb e d 0 e 0 0 ebr ar y

b e l 6 7d c2 9 b l 5e 7d 8 2 2 3a 7c 2 b 8 b e d 0 e 0 0 ebr ar y

b e l 6 7d c 29 b l 5e 7d 8 2 23a 7c 2b Sb e d 0 e 0 0 ebr ar y

b e l 6 7d c 29 b l 5e 7d S22 3a 7c2 b 8 b e d 0 e 0 0 ebr ar y

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 7 9 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 7 9 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

T h e ‘C in e m a to g ra p h ic S n a p s h o t’ R e r e a d in g E tie n n e - J u le s M a r e y

M ar i a Tort ajada

T h e b ack gr o u n d t o o u r d i scu ssi o n i s t h e o p p o si t i o n b et w een p h o t o g r ap h y an d ci n em a: b et w een t h e f i x ed i m age an d t h e i m age i n m o v em en t . I n 19 70 , w h en Ro l an d Bar t h es at t em p t ed t o p i n d o w n t h e sp eci f i c n at u r e o f ci n em a i n t h e p h o t o gr am — t h e f i x ed i m age t h at m u st b e assem b l ed as a ser i es f o r ci n em at o gr ap h i c p r o j ect i o n — h e u n d er l i n ed t h at h i s ap p r o ach w as an o r i gi n al on e. H e w r o t e t h at i t w en t agai n st 'ev er y d ay o p i n i o n ', w h i ch i d en t i f i es t h e p r o j ect ed m o v em en t o f i m ag es as t h e 'sacr ed essen ce' o f ci n em a.1 T h er e i s n o sh o r t age o f r ef er en ces su p p o r t i n g w h at t o d ay st i l l seem s t o b e t h e p r ed o m i n an t 'i d ea' o f ci n em a, an d w h er e t h e i n f l u en ce o f Ber gso n i sm can b e f elt . I n t h i s v i si o n , m o v e m en t i s seen as con t i n u i t y. A n d r e Baz i n an d G i l l es D el eu z e ad o p t ed t h i s ap p r o ach , l eav i n g t h ei r i m p r i n t o n ci n em a t h eor y. Baz i n d eem ed ci n em a su p er i o r t o p h o t o gr ap h y , as f o r h i m , f i l m t ak es o n t h e i m p r essi o n o f m o v em en t . D el eu z e co n cen t r at es o n w h at h e cal l s t h e 'm ean i m ag e',2 w h i ch i s co m p r i sed o f co n t i n u i t y an d f l u x, as o p p o sed t o t h e 'st i l l cu t s' o f t h e p h o t o gr am s. I n o r d er t o co n j u r e u p t h e i l l u si o n o f co n t i n u o u s m o v em en t i n t h e ci n em a, a ser i es o f p h o t o gr ap h i c i m ages w er e p r o j ect ed v er y q u i ck l y. I t can t h u s b e sai d t h at p h o t o g r ap h y i s an i n t egr al p ar t o f t h e ci n em at o gr ap h i c d i sp o si t i v e.3 Ph o t o g r ap h y al so p l ay ed a k ey r o l e i n t h e w ay ci n em a cam e i n t o b ei n g. Et i en n e- Ju l es M ar ey p l ay ed a v i t al p ar t i n t h i s p r o cess. H i s w o r k o n ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h y l ai d t h e t ech n i cal an d t h eo r et i cal f o u n d at i o n f o r t h e sy n t h esi s o f m o v em en t . B y m as t er i n g t h e t ech n i q u e o f t h e sn ap sh o t , h e co n cei v ed o f a k i n d o f 'ci n em a' t h at w as d et er m i n ed b y h i s co n cep t u al an d m et h o d o l o gi cal p r em i ses. T h i s st at e o f t h e 'ci n em a', as act u al i z ed i n sy m b o l i c an d d i scu r si v e t er m s, i n t u r n l ead s t o t h e co n st r u ct i o n o f an 'i d ea' o f p h o t o gr ap h y . Ev en i f t h e d ev el o p m en t o f w h at w as k n o w n as 'an i m at ed p h o t o g r ap h y ' i s a si n e q u a n o n o f t h e ci n em at o gr ap h , t h e k e y d iffe r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e c in e m at o g r ap h an d p h o t o g r ap h y is n o t s im p ly t h e illu s io n o f m o v e m e n t . A n ep i st em o l o gi cal ap p r o ach r ev eal s t h at t h e t w o p r o ced u r es can al

r ead y b e d i st i n gu i sh ed i n t h e v er y st at u s o f t h e p h o t o gr ap h i c i m age t h at i s sp e ci f i c t o each - t h e p h o t o gr am i s a sn ap sh o t w h o se n at u r e i s a p ar ad o x i cal on e.

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 8 0 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 8 0 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

80

M a r ia T o r ta ja d a

T h e p a r a d ig m

o f th e c o n tin u o u s a n d th e d is c o n tin u o u s -

th e n o tio n o f in s ta n t

H en r i Ber gso n 's p l ace i n t h e d ev el o p m en t o f a ci n em at o gr ap h i c m o d el i s a v er y i m p o r t an t on e. N o t o n l y d i d h e ex p l i ci t l y r ef er t o t h e ci n em at o gr ap h an d p h o t o gr ap h y , h e al so en v i sag ed t h em w i t h i n t h e f u n d am en t al o p p o si t i o n t h at st r u c t u r ed h i s p h i l o so p h y : t h e d i st i n ct i o n b et w een t h e co n t i n u i t y an d d i sco n t i n u i t y o f m o v em en t an d t i m e. T h e o p p o si t i o n b et w een t h e co n t i n u o u s an d t h e d i sco n t i n u o u s i s a r ecu r r i n g t h em e i n t h e h i st o r y o f t h e ci n em a. I t h as b een v er y p r o d u ct i v e i n t h e h i st o r i o gr ap h i cal r ev i v al o f t h e l ast 30 y ear s, b u t w as al so u sed ear l i er , i n p ar t i cu l ar b y t h o se w h o m i gh t b e cal l ed Ber gso n 's o f f sp r i n g. I n 19 83 an d 19 8 5 , D el eu z e r ev i sed h i s r ead i n g o f Ber gso n b y m ak i n g ci n em a t h e r ep r e sen t at i v e o f co n t i n u i t y, w h i l e Baz i n cam e u p w i t h h i s d ef i n i t i o n o f r eal i t y b ased o n Ber gso n 's i n t u i t i o n o f t em p o r al co n t i n u i t y. T h er e i s cu r r en t l y n o sp eci f i c st u d y o f Ber gso n 's p l ace i n t h e h i st o r y o f ci n em a. I t i s, n on et h el ess, i m p o r t an t t o u n d er l i n e t h e ex t en t t o w h i ch Ber gso n 's i d eas p er v ad ed i n t el l ect u al ci r cl es i n t h e

19 10 s an d 19 20 s.4 T h e ci n em at i c m i l i eu w as n o ex cep t i o n t o t h e r u l e. A t a t i m e w h en ci n em at o gr ap h i c cr i t i ci sm w as g r ad u al l y f i n d i n g i t s w a y i n t o t h e p r ess, M ar cel L 'H er b i er , Pau l So u d ay an d Em i l e V u i l l er m o z d i sag r eed ab o u t t h e st a t u s o f ci n em a as ar t .5 T h ey cl ai m ed t o b e f o l l o w i n g Ber gso n ei t h er t o st r ess t h e i m p o r t an ce o f t h e m ach i n e, o r t o co n n ect t h e ci n em at o gr ap h t o Ber gso n 's co n cep t i o n o f l i f e. A n o t h er ex am p l e i s Jean Ep st ei n , w h o , i n 19 46 , d r ew i n sp i r at i o n f r o m B er gso n i n a w o r k en t i t l ed L ' in t e llig e n c e d ’u n e m ac h in e .6 T h e t i t l e o f t h e seco n d p ar t o f h i s b o o k w as 'T h e M i su n d er st an d i n g co n cer n i n g t h e Co n t i n u o u s an d t h e D i sco n t i n u o u s'. I n o t h er w o r d s, Ber gso n w as n o t o n l y ci t ed b y t h ose w h o ex t o l l ed co n t i n u i t y an d f l u x, b u t h e w as al so ci t ed f o r h i s an al y si s o f t h e ci n em at o gr ap h i c m ach i n e as an ab st r act m o d el . Sch o l ar s o f t en r ef er t o t h e w el l - k n o w n f o u r t h ch ap t er o f C r e at iv e E v o lu t io n ( l' E v o lu t io n c r é at r ic e ,

19 0 7 ), w h i ch u ses t h e 'ci n em at o gr ap h i cal m ech an i sm ' as

t h e m o d el o f h o w t h o u gh t f u n ct i o n s, an d o f sci en ce. Ber gso n w as an excel l en t an al y st o f t h e d i sp o si t i v e. H e asso ci at ed t h e ci n em at o gr ap h i c m ach i n e's b r eak i n g d o w n o f m o v em en t an d t h e ser i es o f p h o t o gr am s w i t h t h e an al y si s o f m o v e m en t as p r o p o sed b y sci en ce - w h er eb y w h at ex i st s si m p l y as co n t i n u i t y an d d u r at i o n i s b r o k en d o w n . Sci en ce sp l i t s u p i n t o d i scr et e i n st an t s w h at m u st b e d escr i b ed as t h e i m m ed i at e ex p er i en ce o f t i m e. B er gso n f i r st ex p r essed t h i s v i si o n i n T im e an d F r e e W ill: A n E s s ay o n t h e Im m e d iat e D at a o f C o n s c io u s n e s s ( L e s d o n n é e s im m é d iat e s d e la c o n s c ie n c e ,

18 8 9 ) v i a h i s cr i t i ci sm o f Z en o 's p ar ad o x es. I n

C r e at iv e E v o lu t io n , t h e ci n em a i s t ak en as a n egat i v e m o d el : t h e p h o t o gr am — i .e.,

t h e f i x ed i m age t h at f r eez es m o v em en t an d t h at Ber gso n , i n fact , cal l ed a 'p h o t o g r ap h ' - i s an i m age w h i ch i s eq u i v al en t t o Z en o 's i n st an t , t h e p l ace an d m o -

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 81 h t t p :/ /s ite . e b ra ry .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 8 1 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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81

m en t w h er e m o v em en t i s n u l l i f i ed . T h e d i sco n t i n u i t y o f ci n em a, w h i ch o n l y p r o d u ces t h e i l l u si o n o f m o v em en t t h r o u gh a ser i es o f i n st an t s, st an d s i n o p p o si t i o n t o Ber gso n 's p h i l o so p h y , w h i ch i s b ased o n t h e i n t u i t i o n o f d u r at i o n . T h e i n st an t , f o r Ber gso n , i s p r eci sel y t h at i m age, t h at 'v i e w t ak en ' f r o m m o v em en t , a st o p p age, a geo m et r i cal p oi n t . T h e i n st an t , w h i ch i s asso ci at ed w i t h t h e p h o t o gr ap h i c i m age, i s i m p l acab l y o p p o sed t o d u r at i o n an d co n t i n u o u s m o v em en t . I t can b e sai d t h at Ber gso n 's co n cep t o f t h e i n st an t r ad i cal i z es t h e m ean i n g o f t h e t er m , w h i ch i s co m m o n l y o p p o sed t o t h at o f d u r at i o n . T h e r esu l t i s t h at Ber gso n 's m o d el o f t h e ci n em at o gr ap h i m p o ses a cer t ai n d ef i n i t i o n o f t h e p h o t o gr am w h i ch , as a sy n o n y m o f t h e i n st an t , b eco m es t h e u l t i m at e el em en t t h at can n o t b e b r o k en d o w n , t h e p l ace w h er e b o t h d u r at i o n an d m o v em en t ar e i m p o ssi b l e. It can b e sai d t h at t h i s i d ea ex t en d s acr o ss t h e h i st o r y o f t h e ci n em a, an d t h at Ber gso n 's p h i l o so p h y p r o v i d es i t s su b t ext . A n so n Rab i n b ach 7 h as sh o w n t h at Et i en n e- Ju l es M ar ey 's r esear ch l i es at t h e b asi s o f t h i s cr i t i ci sm o f t h e b r eak i n g d o w n o f m o v em en t . M ar ey w as a p h y si o l o gi st an d sci en t i st o f r ep u t e, w h o d ev o t ed h i s w o r k t o u n d er st an d i n g m o v e m en t . H e b egan h i s st u d i es o f m o v em en t b y u si n g t h e gr ap h i c m et h o d , w h i ch h e su m m ar i z ed i n 18 78 , t h en t u r n ed t o w h at h e cal l ed ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h y , w h i ch , f o r h i m , ser v ed as a sci en t i f i c m et h o d 8 an d al l o w ed h i m t o p er f ect ap p a r at u ses t h at r eco r d ed m o v em en t b y b r eak i n g d o w n i t s p h ases. C h r o n o p h o t o g r ap h y al l o w s o n e t o t ak e a ser i es o f p h o t o gr ap h i c i m ag es o f a m o v i n g b o d y at a cer t ai n f r eq u en cy an d t h u s d ep i ct v ar i o u s m o m en t s o f t h e m o v em en t b y m ean s o f j u x t ap o si n g an d al i gn i n g t h e f i x ed i m ages o b t ai n ed i n a ser i es. T h e m an w h o r u n s o r j u m p s o v er an ob st acl e, t h e b i r d f l y i n g o r t h e h o r se g al l o p i n g, ar e al l cap t u r ed i n a ser i es o f j u x t ap o sed p h o t o gr ap h i c f i gu r es, w h i ch r ef l ect 'p ar t i c u l ar ' m o m en t s ( t h at M ar ey cal l ed 'i m ages') :9 ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h y m u st 'd ef i n e t h e v ar i o u s p o si t i o n s o f t h i s b o d y o n t h e t r aj ect o r y at an y p ar t i cu l ar m o m en t '.10 T h ese ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h s, m o r eo v er , i n f l u en ced 20 t h - cen t u r y ar t , a su b j ect t h at go es b ey o n d t h e p r esen t ch ap t er 's d o m ai n . M ar ey i m p o sed an essen t i al el em en t o n ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h y : h e w an t ed t h e i n t er v al b et w een i m ages al w ay s t o b e t h e sam e, i .e., t h at t h e sh u t t er b e o p en ed at a r eg u l ar r at e. T o car r y o u t h i s m easu r em en t s, M ar ey b u i l t i n st r u m en t s t h at al l o w ed h i m t o co n t r o l t h e t i m e v ar i ab l e w h en p r o d u ci n g ser i es o f i m ages. T h i s co n d i t i o n n ot o n l y f o r m s t h e b asi s o f M ar ey 's sci en t i f i c ap p r o ach b u t i s al so on e o f t h e co n d i t i o n s u n d er p i n n i n g t h e ci n em at o gr ap h , b ecau se t h e r egu l ar r at e m ak es i t n o t o n l y p o ssi b l e t o b r eak d o w n t h e p h o t o g r ap h ed m o v em en t , b u t al so t o sy n t h esi z e i t an d p r o j ect an i m at ed i m ages. T h i s essen t i al el em en t d i st i n gu i sh es M ar ey f r o m M u y b r i d g e.11 T h e sy n t h esi s o f m o v em en t w as al so an i m p o r t an t st age f o r M ar ey .12 Fr o m t h e v er y b egi n n i n g o f h i s r esear ch , h e u sed ap p ar at u ses t h at w er e b ased o n t h e p r i n ci p l e o f t h e r et i n al p i ct u r e.13 T h ese ap p ar at u ses - z o et r o p es o r p h en ak i st o sco p es - ar e cl assi f i ed i n t h e cat ego r y o f

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 8 2 h tt p ://s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 8 2 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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ear l y ci n em a. T h ey al l o w m o v em en t t o b e r eco n st r u ct ed f r o m f i x ed i m ages, b y t r an sf o r m i n g d i sco n t i n u o u s i m ag es i n t o an an i m at ed i m age w i t h co n t i n u o u s m o v em en t . Bo t h B er gso n an d M ar ey asso ci at ed t h e t er m 'i n st an t ' w i t h t h e p h o t o gr ap h i c i m age - t h e eq u i v al en t o f t h e p h o t o gr am . Ber gso n 's d esi gn at i n g o f an i n st an t v i a a geo m et r i cal p o i n t can b e i l l u st r at ed b y a cer t ai n t y p e o f ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h y . I n o r d er t o ex p l ai n h o w ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h y b r eak s d o w n t h e m o v em en t o f a m o v i n g ob ject , M ar ey co m p ar es t h e i n st an t p h o t o g r ap h o f m o v em en t t ak en w i t h o n l y o n e o p en i n g o f t h e sh u t t er , a cu r v ed l i n e an d t h e ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h o f t h e sam e m o v em en t , w h i ch p r o d u ces a ser i es o f p o i n t s ( f i g. 1) . F ig u r e l

Le mouvement,

N îm e s , J. C h am b o t i, 20 0 2 , p .

3 7 ( p- 5 5 ) in o r ig in a l e d it io n o f

Le mouvement ( P ar is ,

72 . T h is f i g u r e is n u m b e r G . M a s s o n , 18 9 4 ). Ja c q u e

lin e C h a m b o n ' s e d it io n h as t n o d ifie d illu s t r a t io n s

2 9 . T r a je c t o i r e s i m p l e e t t r a je c t o i r e c h r o n o p h o to g r a p h i q u e d ’u n e b o u le b r illa n te q u i s e d é p la c e d e v a n t u n c h a m p o b s c u r.

T h ese p o i n t s r ef l ect a ser i es o f i n st an t s i n t h e m o v em en t o f a b al l . T h er e ar e sev er al v ar i at i o n s o f t h i s d em o n st r at i o n , w h i ch w as r eg u l ar l y u n d er t ak en b y M ar ey w h en h e w as d eal i n g w i t h w h at h e cal l ed t h e p h o t o g r ap h y o f t r aje c t o r ie s . T h e co m p ar i so n r ev eal s a v er y ef f i ci en t r ep r esen t at i o n o f t h e o p p o si t i o n b e t w een t h e co n t i n u u m o f m o v em en t an d t h e d i sco n t i n u i t y o f t h e Ch r on op h ot o gr ap h i e t r ace. T h u s, i f t h e 'i n st an t ', i n i t s o p p o si t i o n t o d u r at i o n , i s a sy n o n y m f o r t h e m o m en t ex t r i cat ed f r o m t h e m o v em en t o f a m o v i n g ob ject , i f t h e i n st an t i s a n o t i o n asso ci at ed w i t h an i n st an t an eo u s p h o t o gr ap h i c i m age, o r sn ap sh o t , i f, w h en al l i s sai d an d d o n e, t h i s t er m h as t h e sam e m ean i n g w h en u sed b y b o t h Ber gso n an d M ar ey, i t can n o n et h el ess b e sh o w n t h at t h e co n cep t o f t h e i n st an t act u al l y ch an ged b et w een M ar ey 's u se o f i t an d t h at o f Ber gso n .

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 8 3 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 8 3 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

T h e ‘ C in e m a t o g r a p h ic S n a p s h o t’

I t can i n d eed b e sh o w n t h at M ar ey 's i n st an t - t h e i n st an t t h at i s r ef l ect ed b y t h e p h o t o gr ap h i c i m age i n a ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h i c ser i es - i s n o t Ber gso n 's i n st an t : i t i s a p ar ad o x i c al i m age, b ecau se M ar ey f o r m u l at ed i t as a d u r at i o n . I n o r d er t o co n st r u ct t h e co n cep t o f t h e i n st an t , i t i s n o t su f f i ci en t si m p l y t o n o t e t h at t h e p h o t o gr ap h i c i m age r ef l ect s a p ar t i cu l ar m o m en t i n an ob ject 's m o v em en t . I t i s al so n ecessar y t o ask h o w t h i s r el at i o n i s co n st i t u t ed , b ear i n g i n m i n d t h at i t i s n o t si m p l y a r el at i o n o f si gn i f i cat i o n . T h e ep i st em o l o gi cal ap p r o ach can p r o v i d e an an sw er : t h e co n cep t d ep en d s o n t h e sci en t i st 's p r o j ect an d p r act i ce, o n w h at h e i s l o o k i n g f o r an d w h at h e w i sh es t o an al y se, o n t h e m ean s av ai l ab l e, o n t h e d i f f i cu l t i es h e en co u n t er s an d o n t h e t y p e o f so l u t i o n s h e p r o p o ses. T h e ep i st em o l o gi cal co n cep t i s a w eb o f l i n k s an d r el at i o n s, w h i ch g i v e r i se t o al l t h ese q u est i o n s. It em er ges f r o m t h e Fo u cau l d i an an aly s is o f t he d is c o u r s e s .

W h at i s i m p o r t an t h er e i s n o t si m p l y t o ex am i n e t h e i n i t i al p er i o d o f i n n o v a t i o n s an d d i sco v er i es, b u t t o u n d er st an d w h at M ar ey m ean t w h en h e s p o k e o f t h e p h o t o gr ap h i c i m age, an d t h e t ech n i cal asp ect s t h at h e ch o se t o h i gh l i gh t w h en e x p lain in g h i s ap p r o ach . I t i s o f p ar am o u n t i m p o r t an ce t o o b ser v e t h e v ar i at i o n s i n t h e d ef i n i t i o n s o f ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h y t h at h e p r esen t ed o v er t h e y ear s — t h e p r esen t at i o n o f t h e d ef i n i t i o n m ay ch an ge w i t h o u t t h e t ech n i q u e i t sel f ch an gi n g. T h e ep i st em o l o gi cal co n cep t i s d et er m i n ed b o t h b y a p r act i ce an d a w a y o f sp eak i n g ab o u t t h at p r act i ce. Fo r ex am p l e, i t i s n ot en o u gh si m p l y t o p o i n t o u t t h at t h e p r i n ci p l e o f t h e r eg u l ar i n t er v al i s l ai d d o w n f r o m t h e ou t set . I t i s al so i m p o r t an t t o ex am i n e w h at v ar i es ar o u n d t h i s co r e d ef i n i n g el em en t i n o t h er w o r d s, o n e m u st l o cat e t h e co n cep t w i t h i n t h e v er y p r o cess o f i t s f o r m u l a t i on , an d i n p ar t i cu l ar i d en t i f y t h e p u r p o se t h at g o v er n s i t . W h en G ast o n B ach e l ar d w r o t e ab o u t t h e sci en t i f i c co n cep t , h e n o t ed t h at : 'T h e sam e w o r d can at t h e sam e p er i o d i n t i m e h av e w i t h i n i t v er y m an y d i f f er en t co n cep t s. W h at m i sl ead s u s h er e i s t h e f act t h at t h e sam e w o r d b o t h d en o t es an d ex p l ai n s. W h at i s d e n o t ed st ay s t h e sam e b u t t h e ex p l an at i o n c h an g es.'14 M y ai m h er e i s t o t r y t o sh ed l i gh t o n t h e 'ex p l an at i o n ' o f at l east o n e o f t h e asp ect s o f M ar ey 's co n cep t o f t h e i n st an t . T o t h i s en d , I sh al l b e ex am i n i n g M ar ey 's w r i t i n gs an d q u est i o n i n g t h e st at u s o f t h e sn ap sh o t i n ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h y , w h i ch at t h e en d o f t h e cen t u r y i n cl u d es t h e ci n em at o gr ap h . Fr o m t h i s p o i n t o f v i ew , t h e m o st i m p o r t an t so u r ces ar e n ot t h e sci en t i f i c ar t i cl es, w h i ch g i v e acco u n t s o f each r esu l t o n a d ai l y b asi s, b u t t h e k ey t ext s t h at h av e sy m b o l i c i m p o r t . I h av e ch o sen f o u r o f t h em : 1. D é v e lo p p e m e n t d e la M é t h o d e g r ap h iq u e p ar l' e m p lo i d e la p h o t o g r ap h ie , 18 8 5,15 t h e f i r st sy n t h esi s o f t h e r esear ch on ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h y . 2. L e V ol d e s o is e au x , 18 9 0 .16 3. L e M o u v e m e n t , 18 9 4 ,17 t h e m aj o r sy n t h esi s o f w o r k o n t h i s q u est i o n .

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 8 4 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 8 4 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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4. T h e t ext o f t h e M u sée cen t en n al de la Classe 12 f o r t h e U n i v er sal Exh i b i t i o n o f 19 00. C l ass 12 w as d ed i cat ed t o p h o t o gr ap h y , an d M ar ey w as i t s p r esi d en t . T h i s w as t h e m o st i m p o r t an t p r esen t at i o n i n co n cr et e an d sy m b o l i c t er m s m ad e af t er 18 9 5, t h e y ear o f t h e L u m i èr e ci n em at o gr ap h . I t acco m p an i ed an ex h i b i t i o n o f ob ject s an d i m ag es.lS T h e ai m o f t h ese v ar i o u s w o r k s i s ap p ar en t l y d i f f er en t , b u t t h ey al l co n t ai n a sy n t h esi s o f r esear ch o n

ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h y, w i t h

an ex p l an at i o n

o f t he

m et h o d , a p r esen t at i o n o f t h e ap p ar at u ses w i t h t h ei r v ar i o u s ap p l i cat i o n s, an d a r en ew ed ef f o r t t o w r i t e t h e h i st o r y o f ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h y . M ar ey w as a h i st o r i an o f ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h y , b u t , i n fact , d i d n ot r el at e i t s h i st o r y t h e sam e w ay each t i m e. T o ad d r ess t h e q u est i o n o f i n st an t an ei t y, i t i s i m p o r t an t t o ex am i n e i t s l i n k s w i t h p h o t o gr ap h y . I w i l l o n l y r ef er t o t w o asp ect s. M ar ey ch o se ear l y o n t o w r i t e a h i st o r y o f ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h y , b u t b egan b y l o cat i n g i t w i t h i n t h e h i st o r y of, an d b y p r esen t i n g i t as an ap p l i cat i o n of, p h o t o g r ap h y ( 18 8 5) . M o r eo v er , t h e d em o n st r at i o n i n t r o d u ci n g t h e p r act i ce o f ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h y - an d t h er ef o r e t h e k ey m o m en t w h en t h e m et h o d i s p r esen t ed —al w ay s r ef er s t o t h e p h o t o g r a p h y o f t r aj ect o r i es, w h i ch i s p r eci sel y w h at b r i n gs o u t t h e d i f f er en ce b et w een i n st an t an eo u s p h o t o g r ap h y an d ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h y . I n o t h er w o r d s, b y f o l l o w i n g t h e w a y t h e co n cep t o f t h e i n st an t w as est ab l i sh ed , w e sh al l b e ab l e t o o b ser v e h o w an 'i d ea o f t h e ci n em a' - cal l ed ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h y at t h at p r eci se m o m en t i n t h e p ast - em er g ed f r o m p h o t o gr ap h y . I t w as at t h at t i m e w h en , at t h e t u r n o f t h e cen t u r y, t h e sn ap sh o t f i r st saw t h e l i gh t - an d i t i s, o f co u r se, t h e n o t i o n o f i n st an t an ei t y t h at al l o w s o n e t o co n st r u ct t h e co n cep t o f t h e i n st an t .

T he snaphot

T h e i d ea b eh i n d t h e sn ap sh o t w as on e o f b r ev i t y , so m et h i n g t h at co u l d b e c ap t u r ed o n - t h e- sp o t , su ch as acci d en t s, o r p eo p l e j u m p i n g o r f al l i n g. A n i co n o gr a p h y b egan t o b e est ab l i sh ed i n t h e 18 8 0 s, an d b y 19 0 0 i t h ad b eco m e p o p u l ar . Bu t t h e sn ap sh o t w as al so asso ci at ed w i t h an o t h er t y p e o f i m age p r o d u ced i n sci en t i f i c ex p er i m en t s an d p u b l i sh ed i n t h e p r ess - t h i s i s h o w M ar ey 's f i gu r es b ecam e w el l k n o w n . Fr o m t h e t ech n i cal p o i n t o f v i ew , t h e sn ap sh o t i s al so d e f i n ed b y sp eed — h i st o r y t el l s u s t h at t h e sp eed o f i l l u m i n at i o n an d t h e sp eed o f t h e ch em i cal r eact i o n d ep en d ed o n t h e cr eat i o n o f n ew su p p o r t s, an d o n t h er e b ei n g i n n o v at i o n s i n o p t i cs an d r ad i cal i m p r o v em en t s i n sh u t t er s.19

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 8 5 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 8 5 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

T h e ‘ C in e m a t o g r a p h ic S n a p s h o t’

T h er e i s n o d o u b t t h at p h o t o g r ap h y d i d n o t w ai t f o r t h e t ech n i q u e o f t h e sn ap sh o t t o asso ci at e t h e i m age o b t ai n ed w i t h t h e i d ea o f t h e i n st an t .20 Bu t p ai n t i n g d i d n o t w ai t f o r p h o t o g r ap h y ei t h er i n o r d er t o r ep r esen t an i n st an t . W i t h t h e sn ap sh o t , h o w ev er , t h e st at u s o f t h e i m ag e w as o v er - d et er m i n ed b y o n e el em en t o f t h e d i sp o si t i v e, i .e., a ch ar act er i st i c o f h o w i t w as m ad e. A s can b e cl ear l y seen i n t h e Fr en ch t er m ' in st an t an é', w h at t h e t er m 'sn ap sh o t ' u n d er l i n ed w as t h e b r i ef n at u r e o f t h e m o m en t w h en t h e i m age w as p r o d u ced . A t t h e en d o f t h e n i n et een t h cen t u r y, 'i n st an t an é' m ean t b o t h v er y r ap i d sh u t t er s an d t h e i m ages o b t ai n ed b y m ean s o f a sh o r t ex p o su r e. I n a w o r d , t h e p h o t o gr ap h i c i m age r ef er r ed t o t h e i n st an t n o t o n l y as t h e v er y b r i ef m o m en t o f t h e p h o t o g r ap h ed act i on , b u t al so as t h e i n st an t an eo u s m o m en t o f t h e t ak i n g o f t h e p h o t o gr ap h . T h e o p en i n g o f t h e sh u t t er d ef i n es t h e d u r at i o n o f t h e i l l u m i n at i o n , i .e., t h e ex p o su r e t i m e, t h e m o m en t w h en t h e p h o t o gr ap h i c i m age i s r eco r d ed o n t h e l i gh t - sen si t i v e su r f ace. T h e co n st r u ct i o n o f t h e co n cep t o f t h e i n st an t r e q u i r es an u n d er st an d i n g o f t h i s t ech n i cal p r o cess r el at ed t o t h e ex p o su r e t i m e w h i c h i s w h at I sh al l d ev el o p i n t h e f o l l o w i n g sect i on . W h en t h e ex p o su r e t i m e i s sh or t , w e h av e a sn ap sh o t , an i n st an t an eo u s i m age. Bu t h o w can on e q u al i f y 'sh o r t '? W h en o n e d ef i n es t h e sn ap sh o t , i t i s n ot en o u gh t o m er el y m en t i o n t h e r ap i d i t y. I n st an t an ei t y — t h e t r ai t t h at f o r m s t h e b asi s o f t h e co n cep t o f t h e i n st an t — i s co n cei v ed o f b y m ean s o f a r el at i o n : t h at co n n ect i n g t h e d u r at i o n o f t h e i l l u m i n at i o n t o t h e sp eed o f t h e ob ject 's m o v e m en t .21 I f o n e w i sh es t o o b t ai n a sh ar p i m age o f a m o v em en t , t h e sh u t t er sp eed m u st b e su f f i ci en t l y f ast i n o r d er t h at t h e m o v em en t o f t h e ob ject i s n ot r eco r d ed b y m ean s o f a b l u r o r f u z z i n ess. T h i s r el at i o n ev i n ced b y t h e sn ap sh o t w as p o sed b y M ar ey at t h e v er y o u t set .22 Fo r M ar ey t h e sci en t i st an d f o r al l p h o t o g r ap h er s t ak i n g sn ap sh o t s, t h e sh u t t er o p en i n g w as d escr i b ed as a d u r at i o n an d ev en m easu r ed i n f r act i o n s o f a seco n d . T h i s i s t h e f i el d o f m i cr o - t em p o r al i t y t h at w as ex p l o r ed i n t h e 19 t h cen t u r y, as t est i f i ed b y M ar ey 's en t h u si ast i c w r i t i n g i n L a M ét h ode gr aph iqu e. M i cr o - t em p o r al i t y i m p l i es t h at on e can co n cei v e o f t h e seco n d i n f r act i o n s o f a seco n d , an d t h at a f r act i o n o f a seco n d i s a d u r at i o n t h at can b e b r o k en d o w n ev en f u r t h er .23 I t m ay seem st r an ge w h en sp eak i n g o f a sn ap sh o t t o co n n ect t h e m o m en t t h e i m age i s p r o d u ced t o a d u r at i o n . Fr o m a t ech n i cal p o i n t o f v i ew , t h i s i s i n d eed w h at h ap p en s. T h i s i ssu e i s ev en b r o ach ed i n p h o t o g r ap h y m an u al s — h o w can o n e m ast er t h e d u r at i o n o f t h e ex p o su r e t i m e?24 I n fact , ev er y t h i n g d ep en d s o n t h e p u r p o se f o r w h i ch sn ap sh o t s ar e t ak en . I t i s cl ear t h at w h en t h e d u r at i o n i s i n d i cat ed , i t i s su p p o sed t o b e p ar t i cu l ar l y sh o r t , as can b e seen i n t h e t er m i n o l o gy ‘ sn a p sh o t '/ 'in st an t an é' — an d r ap i d i t y i s co n cei v ed o f i n r el at i o n t o t h e sp eed o f t h e m o v i n g ob ject ( see Sy n t h et i c T ab l e: T h e Sn ap sh o t ) . T h e p u r p o se i s essen t i al f o r co n st i t u t i n g t h e co n cep t o f t h e i n st an t t h at i s asso ci at ed w i t h p h o t o gr ap h y . T h e co n st r u ct i o n o f t h e co n cep t i s n o t j u st a t ech n i cal

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 86 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 8 6 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

86

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q u est i o n — i t i s l i n k ed t o t h e co n t ext d ef i n ed b y t h o se w h o u se t h e t ech n i q u e, w h i ch co n st i t u t es i t s ep i st em o l o gi cal d i m en si o n . I n 18 8 5, M ar ey st r essed h o w m u ch h i s p r act i ce b el o n ged t o t h e h i st o r y o f p h o t o g r ap h y w h i l e si m u l t an eo u sl y i n si st i n g o n t h e n eed f o r a v er y b r i ef ex p o su r e t i m e; i n h i s 19 0 0 p ap er , h o w ev er , h e si m p l y ci t ed 'sn ap sh o t s' ( 'im ages phot o gr aph i qu es in st ant an ées') as a d ef i n i n g el em en t o f ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h y . T h e b r i ef

n ess o f t h e i l l u m i n at i o n i s si m p l y p r esu p p o sed . Fr o m a t ech n i cal v i ew p o i n t , t h i s r eq u i r em en t n at u r al l y r em ai n ed . Bu t w h en h e cam e t o d ef i n e ch r o n o p h o t o gr a p h y, o t h er f act o r s p r ed o m i n at ed , w h i ch r esu l t ed i n ch an ges t o t h e st at u s o f t h e p h o t o gr ap h i c i m ag e w i t h i n ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h y.

T h e c h r o n o p h o to g r a p h ic s n a p s h o t

T h e m ai n el em en t o f t h e sn ap sh o t t ech n i q u e t h at M ar ey k ep t w as t h e sh u t t er , w h i c h i s a k ey el em en t i n t h e co n st r u ct i o n o f t h e co n cep t o f t h e ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h i c i n st an t . I n M ar ey 's w o r k , t h e sh u t t er sp eed h ad t o m eet o t h er r eq u i r em en t s t h at w er e r el at ed t o t h e n at u r e o f ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h y . I f on e w i sh es t o t ak e sev er al i m ages o v er a v er y sh o r t p er i o d o f t i m e (50 i m ages p er seco n d , f o r ex am p l e) , t h e sh u t t er m u st o p en an d cl o se ex t r em el y q u i ck l y i n o r d er t o p r o d u ce a ser i es o f p h o t o gr ap h i c i m ages. H en ce, M ar ey 's n eed t o m ak e a sp eci al sh u t t er b ased o n t h e m o d el o f t h e p h en ak i st o sco p e's sl o t t ed d i sc - w h en i t r o t at es q u i ck l y, t h e i n er t i a o f t h e sy st em i s r ed u ced co n si d er ab l y. T h e cel eb r at ed p h o t o gr ap h i c g u n al o n g w i t h t h e ap p ar at u ses t h at M ar ey ev en t u al l y b u i l t al l u sed t h e sl o t t ed d i sc. T h e d u r at i o n t h at i n t er est ed M ar ey t h e m o st i n h i s m et h o d f o r m easu r i n g t h e m o v em en t o f ob ject s w as, i n fact , t h at o f t h e i n t er val b et w een t h e i m ages o f t h e p h o t o gr ap h i c ser i es. A s d i scu ssed ab o v e, t h e i n t er v al w as essen t i al i n t h e d ef i n i t i on o f ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h y f r o m t h e ou t set , an d M ar ey w as ad am an t ab o u t i t s r egu l ar i t y .25 W h en o n e ex am i n es t h e v ar i at i o n s b et w een h i s v ar i o u s p r esen t at i o n s, t h e m o st si gn i f i can t m o m en t o ccu r s i n M ovem en t i n t h e v er y i m p o r t an t f i r st ch ap t er en t i t l ed 'T i m e'. O n t h i s o ccasi o n , M ar ey t o o k gr eat t r o u b l e i n co n st r u ct i n g t h e n o t i o n o f t i m e i n h i s p r act i cal w o r k , l i n k i n g t o get h er t h e gr ap h i c m et h o d an d t h e ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h i c m et h o d . T h e k ey m o m en t f o r u s co n cer n s t h e ch r o n o m et r i c d i al , w h i ch ap p ear s o n a cer t ai n n u m b er o f ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h s ( fi g. 2) M ar ey h ad b ar el y est ab l i sh ed t h e t ech n i q u e f o r m easu r i n g t h e ex p o su r e t i m e i n a sp eci f i c su b sect i o n w h en h e b egan n o t i n g i t s l ack o f p r eci si o n : By r eason o f t he clear defi ni t i on of t he i m ages, t hey can be accur at ely m easur ed , not by the time of exposure, which is too short to be appreciated, but by the int ervals of time

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 8 7 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 8 7 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

T h e ‘ C in e m a t o g r a p h ic S n a p s h o t'

87

bet w een successi ve exposur es. N ow , t hi s i s t he i m por t ant poi n t in t he m easur em en t s w h i ch w e sh all h ave to m ak e of the dur at i on of cer t ai n ph en om en a.’ *1

F ig u r e 2 C in é m a t h è q u e f r a n ç a i s e , P ar is

T h er e f o l l o w s a su b sect i o n en t i t l ed ‘ M easu r em en t o f t h e I n t er v al s o f T i m e w h i c h sep ar at e Su ccessi v e E x p o su r es'.27 W i t h t h e co m m en t o n t h e b r i ef n ess o f t h e ex p o su r e t i m e, w e i n d eed f i n d o u r sel v es i n t h e r at i o n al e o f t h e sn ap sh o t b u t w i t h on e d i f f er en ce w i t h r egar d t o t h e p h o t o gr ap h i c sn ap sh o t . I n 18 9 4, ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h y w as ex p l i ci t l y p r esen t ed b y M ar ey as i n v o l v i n g troo co r r el a t i v e d u r at i o n s t h at w er e i n t er n al t o t h e m ach i n e. I f o n e o f t h e t w o d u r at i o n s i s t o b e co n si d er ed as an i n st an t — i .e., i f t h e n o t i o n o f i n st an t can b e ap p l i ed t o t h e i m ag es p r o d u ced b y t h e i l l u m i n at i o n av ai l ab l e u si n g an ex t r em el y b r i ef ex p o su r e t i m e — i t s r el at i o n t o t h e o t h er d u r at i o n , i .e., t h e i n t er val , m u st b e d ef i n ed . I n d eed , M ar ey co n si d er ed t h at t h e i n t er v al w as t h e o n l y el em en t t h at co u l d b e m easu r ed an d co n t r o l l ed . T h i s i s a k ey ar gu m en t , as i t sh o w s t h at t h e v er y w ay o f co n cei v i n g o f inst ant aneih / w as m o d i f i ed w h en m o v i n g f r o m p h o t o g r ap h y t o ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h y . C h r o n o p h o t o gr ap h i c i n st an t an ei t y i s ch ar act er i sed as a st r u ct u r al r el at i o n b et w een ex p o su r e an d i n t er val , an d n o l o n ger b et w een ex p o su r e an d t h e m o v i n g o b ject b ei n g p h o t o gr ap h ed . T h e ex p o su r e, o r co n cr et e m o m en t w h en t h e i m age i s m ad e, i s sh o r t er t h an t h e i n t er v al i n t h i s r el at i o n sh i p

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 88 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 8 8 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

88

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( see Syn t h et i c T ab l e: T h e C h r o n o p h o t o gr ap h i c Sn ap sh o t ) . T h i s ch an ge i n t h e r el ev an t r el at i o n sh i p ser v es as t h e co n cep t u al b asi s f o r an i n i t i al sep ar at i o n b e t w een t h e p h o t o gr ap h i c sn ap sh o t an d t h e ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h i c sn ap sh o t . Bu t t h i s i s n o t t an t am o u n t t o say i n g t h at t h e sp eed o f t h e m o v i n g o b ject i s n ot r el ev an t f o r ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h y , as i t s i m p o r t an ce can b e p l ai n l y seen i n on e o f t h e p r o b l em s t h at M ar ey en co u n t er ed . M ar ey 's sci en t i f i c p u r p o se o b l i ged h i m t o f i n d t h e gr eat est p o ssi b l e r ead ab i l i t y o f t h e i m ages. L eav i n g asi d e t h e p o ssi b l e b l u r t h at i s so l v ed b y t h e b r i ef d u r at i o n o f t h e i l l u m i n at i o n , t h er e i s al so t h e p r o b l em o f t h e 'co n f u si o n ' o f t h e i m ag es i n a ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h i c ser i es. I n M ovem en t , a su b sect i o n o f t h e ch ap t er en t i t l ed 'C h r o n o p h o t o g r ap h y o n f i x ed

p l at es' d eal s ex p l i ci t l y w i t h t h e 'I n f l u en ce o f t h e Rat e o f M o v em en t '.28 T h e p r o b l em h er e i s t h at o f sl o w sp eed s an d w h en t h e m o v em en t co m es t o a st an d st i l l , i n w h i c h case t h e i m ag es ar e su p er i m p o sed o n t h e p l at e an d ar e n o l o n ger l egi b l e o r an al y sab l e.29 W h i l e f o r a sn ap sh o t t h e sp eed o f t h e m o v i n g ob ject i s si g n i f i can t f o r set t i n g t h e exposu r e t im e, h i s ar g u m en t em p h asi ses t h e sp eed o f t h e m o v i n g o b ject i n r el at i o n t o t h e i n t er val w h en ad d r essi n g ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h i c sn ap sh o t s. T h e v ar i ab l e t h at i s essen t i al t o t h e p h o t o gr ap h i c sn ap sh o t , i .e., t h e sp eed o f t h e ob ject , i s n o w r el at ed t o t h e i n t er val . T h e sp eed d o es n o t d i r ect l y i n f l u en ce t h e d u r at i o n o f t h e ex p o su r e t i m e, t h e f act o r t h at d et er m i n es t h e co n cep t o f i n st an t . T h e d ef i n i t i o n o f ex p o su r e t i m e, as w e h av e seen , i s so m et h i n g t h at i s i n t er n al t o t h e m ach i n e.

T h e c in e m a to g ra p h ic s n a p s h o t

U p t o t h i s p o i n t an d i n M ar ey 's w ak e, I h av e u n d er l i n ed t h e i m p o r t an ce o f t h e sh u t t er , i .e., t h e v er y b asi s o f t h e sn ap sh o t - t h at w h i ch co n d i t i o n s t h e m o m en t w h en t h e i m age i s m ad e an d i s asso ci at ed w i t h t h e i n st an t . M ar ey su b seq u en t l y co m p l ex i f i ed t h i s l o gi c t h at h e h ad f i r st ap p l i ed t o t h e p h o t o gr ap h i c sn ap sh o t . W e h av e n o w r each ed w h at I h av e cal l ed t h e ci n em at o gr ap h i c sn ap sh o t . T o so l v e t h e p r o b l em o f t h e 'co n f u si o n ' o f i m ages, M ar ey d ef i n ed t w o d i f f er en t w a y s o f p r act i si n g ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h y : ei t h er u si n g a f i x ed sen si t i v e p l at e as a su p p o r t o r b y ex p o si n g t h e ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h i c ser i es o n a m o v i n g su p p o r t , i .e., a d i sk o r a f i l m . T h i s i s h o w t h e L u m i èr e C i n em at o g r ap h en t er ed i n t o t h e h i st o r y o f ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h y , em er gi n g as o n e ex am p l e am o n g o t h er s at t h e 19 0 0 Exh i b i t i o n . T h e p r i n ci p l e o f t h e seco n d ap p r o ach , en ab l i n g o n e t o i n cr ease t h e n u m b er o f sh ar p i m ages, i s as f o l l o w s. T h e i m ag es ar e p r o d u ced su ccessi v el y o n a m o v i n g sen si t i v e su r f ace, w h i ch p au ses i n t er m i t t en t l y i n f r o n t o f t h e l en s. Each t i m e t h e f i l m o r p l at e p au ses, t h e sh u t t er o p en s t o al l o w l i gh t t o en t er , t h u s p r o d u ci n g a

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 8 9 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 8 9 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

T h e ‘ C in e m a t o g r a p h ic S n a p s h o t’

r ap i d ser i es o f sn ap sh o t s. O n e t h u s o b t ai n s d i st i n ct p h o t o gr ap h s, o r p h o t o gr am s as M ar ey cal l ed t h em , ar r an ged i n ser i es o n a d i sk o r f i l m . W h at w as i m p o r t an t f o r M ar ey w as t h e s y n c h r o n y b et w een t h e ex p o su r e t i m e an d t h e p au se t i m e o f t h e f i l m w h i l e t h e sn ap sh o t w as b ei n g p r o d u ced .30 T h e p au se t i m e w as su p er i m p o sed o n t h e ex p o su r e t i m e - b u t w i t h o u t t h ei r d u r at i o n b ei n g i d en t i cal , w h i ch f u r t h er d et er m i n ed t h e su ccess o f t h e sh o t b ecau se t h ey ar e i n t r i n si cal l y l i n k ed . Fr o m a t ech n i cal p o i n t o f v i ew , t h e p au se t i m e i s a n ecessar y co n d i t i o n f o r t h e seco n d ap p r o ach t o ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h y . Bu t t h e p er i o d w h en t h e t ech n i cal el e m en t t o o k o n a sy m b o l i c an d st r u ct u r i n g d i m en si o n i n M ar ey 's m et h o d d i d n ot co r r esp o n d t o t h e m o m en t w h en M ar ey u sed t h e i n t er m i t t en t p au se p r o ced u r e f o r t h e f i r st t i m e - w h i ch M ar ey h i m sel f i d en t i f i ed w i t h t h e p h o t o gr ap h i c gu n , w h er e t h e sen si t i v e p l at e w as a d i sc t u r n i n g i n t er m i t t en t l y o n t h e sam e ax i s as t h e d i sc sh u t t er . Bu t f o r M ar ey i n 18 8 5, w h o h ad b een u si n g t h i s sy st em si n ce 18 8 2, t h e gu n w as n o t p ar t o f ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h y , si n ce t h e v e r y d ef i n i t i o n o f ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h y l i m i t s i t t o t h e u se o f a f i x ed p l at e, an d t h e m o m en t w h en t h e i m age i s p r o d u ced i s d ef i n ed so l el y b y t h e q u est i o n o f t h e sh u t t er .31 T h e cr i t er i a ar e t h e ex p o su r e t i m e, t h e f r eq u en cy o f i l l u m i n at i o n , an d t h e co n t r o l o f t h e r eg u l ar i n t er v al f o r t h e p r o d u ct i o n o f a 'co l l ect i v e i m ag e'.32 I n L e D é v e lo p p e m e n t d e la m é t h o d e g r ap h iq u e , t h e p au se t i m e o f t h e sen si t i v e p l at e i s co n si d er ed a

p r o b l em .33 I n 18 9 0 an d t h e y ear s f o l l o w i n g, t h e g u n b egan t o acq u i r e a st at u s w i t h i n t h e f i el d o f ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h y at t h e sam e t i m e as t h e i n t er m i t t en t p au se w as b e co m i n g m o r e i m p o r t an t . M ar ey 's m ai n ai m w as al w ay s t o i n cr ease t h e n u m b er o f i m ag es w h i l e av o i d i n g t h ei r 'co n f u si o n ' - ch ap t er X o f t h e V ol d e s o is e au x i s cen t r ed o n t h i s q u est i o n . A n ew t ech n i q u e al l o w ed f o r a ch an ge i n t h e st at u s o f t h e p au se, w h i ch w as t h en en v i sag ed as a so l u t i o n t o t h e p r o b l em : i t w as t h e p o ssi b i l i t y o f u si n g a l i gh t w ei gh t su p p o r t - t h e f i l m - r at h er t h an t h e p l at e o f t h e p h o t o gr ap h i c gu n , w h o se i n er t i a p r ev en t ed a l ar ge n u m b er o f i m ages f r o m b ei n g cap t u r ed . T h i s m et h o d 34 w as p r esen t ed as o n e so l u t i o n am o n g m an y, i n cl u d i n g al t er n at i n g i m ages ( p ar agr ap h 96), t h e r ev o l v i n g m i r r o r ( p ar agr ap h 98), m o v i n g t h e ap p ar at u s ( p ar agr ap h 99) an d t h e st r o b o sco p i c m et h o d ( p ar agr ap h 10 1) . Bu t , p ar ad o x i c al l y en o u gh , w h en M ar ey ch o se t o u se su p p l e f i l m r at h er t h an t h e p h o t o gr ap h i c gu n , h e si m u l t an eo u sl y m ad e t h e l at t er p ar t o f t h e ch r on o p h o t o gr ap h i c m et h o d p r o p er - t h e g u n w as h en cef o r t h p r esen t ed as t h e p r i m e m ean s o f d i sso ci at i n g t h e i m ag es b y m o v i n g an d i n t er m i t t en t l y p au si n g t h e sen si t i v e su r f ace.35 T h e sy n t h esi s i n 18 9 4 r ad i cal i sed M ar ey 's st an d p o i n t . I n M o v e m e n t , t h e 'C h r o n o p h o t o g r ap h y o n m o v i n g p l at es' w as g i v en a st at u s i n i t s o w n r i gh t , t ak i n g u p a sep ar at e ch ap t er ( V I I ) af t er 'C h r o n o g r ap h y o n f i x ed p l at es' ( I V ) .

The

p h o t o gr ap h i c g u n t h er eu p o n en t er ed f u l l y i n t o t h e h i st o r y o f ch r o n o p h o t o gr a-

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 9 0 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 9 0 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

90

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p h y 37 — i t w as p r esen t ed ch r o n o l o gi cal l y , af t er M u y b r i d g e, b u t w as d i r ect l y l i n k ed t o t h e q u est i o n o f t h e i n t er m i t t en t p au se, w h i ch w as a f u n d am en t al el e m en t o f t h e f i l m - b ased ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h i c ap p ar at u ses i n v en t ed b y M ar ey. T h e b egi n n i n g o f t h i s 'h i st o r y ' t h at cu l m i n at ed w i t h t h e n ew p o ssi b i l i t i es o f i n t er m i t t en t p au ses i s at t r i b u t ed t o Pi er r e- Ju l es- C ésar Jan ssen : 'T h e h o n o u r i s d u e t o h i m o f h av i n g i n au gu r at ed w h at i s n o w ad ay s cal l ed ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h y o n a m o v i n g p l at e.'38 A f t er t h i s d eci si v e t u r n i n g p oi n t , t h e 19 0 0 Exh i b i t i o n k ep t t h e sam e p r i n ci p l es o f p r esen t at i o n . Jan ssen 's ex p er i m en t w as q u al i f i ed as f o l l o w s: 'T h i s ex p er i m en t seem s t o h av e b een t h e ear l i est ach i ev em en t o f ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h y ',39 an d t h e gu n i s p r esen t ed as i t em n u m b er 6 (N o 6. Phot ogr aphic gu n , 18 8 2) . T h e i n t er m i t t en t p au se i s ag ai n p r esen t ed as essen t i al f o r ad d r essi n g a w ay t o av o i d t h e co n f u si o n o f i m ag es w h en t h ei r n u m b er i s i n cr eased . I n sh o r t , t h e i n t er m i t t en t p au se i s an essen t i al p ar am et er , fi r st l y, b ecau se i t co n d i t i o n s t h e d o u b l e d ef i n i t i o n o f ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h y , w h et h er o n f i x ed or m o v i n g p l at es; seco n d l y, b ecau se t h i s p ar am et er d et er m i n es t h e h i st o r i cal p r e sen t at i o n o f ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h y , w h i ch so m et i m es ex cl u d es an d so m et i m es i n co r p o r at es t h e p h o t o gr ap h i c gu n . T h e i n t er m i t t en t p au se i s n o t o n l y i m p o r t an t f r o m a t ech n i cal v i ew p o i n t , i t i s al so f u n d am en t al f r o m a sy m b o l i c v i ew p o i n t i n o r d er t o en ab l e o n e t o est ab l i sh w h at ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h y en t ai l s. O n ce t h e ep i st em o l o gi cal v al u e o f t h i s q u est i o n h as b een est ab l i sh ed , i t i s f as ci n at i n g t o o b ser v e h o w M ar ey p r o ceed ed . H e t r eat s t h e i n t er m i t t en t p au se as a d u r at i o n , as a n ew p ar am et er i n t h e co n st i t u t i o n o f t h e ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h i c sn ap sh o t , an d t h er eb y o f t h e co n cep t o f t h e i n st an t , w h i ch i s asso ci at ed w i t h i t t h i s i n st an t t h en b eco m es a par adox ical inst an t . W h en h e set o u t t o p r o v i d e d et ai l s, M ar ey cal cu l at ed t h e p au se an d m o v e m en t t i m es o f t h e f i l m as p ar t o f t h e o v er al l d at a i n t h e ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h i c ser i es. I n 18 9 0 , t h e t o t al p au se t i m e i n t h e p r o d u ct i o n o f a ser i es o f ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h i c i m ag es w as eq u i v al en t t o h al f t h e t ot al t i m e t h at t h e f i l m p assed b y t h e f r o n t o f t h e l en s - i n o t h er w o r d s, t h er e w as as m u ch p au si n g i n t h e m ach i n e (t o al l o w t h e ex p o su r e t i m e) as t h er e w as f i l m m o v em en t ( si m u l t an eo u s t o t h e i n t er v al ) .40 I n 18 9 4 , n o eq u i v al en t d et ai l s w er e gi v en . I n 19 0 0 , t h e r el at i o n b et w een m o v em en t an d p au se w as i n v er t ed : t h e d u r a t i on o f t h e p au se w as n o w set o u t as t h e l o n ger on e. O n e can see t h at M ar ey 's m et h o d w as cau gh t b et w een t w o essen t i al an d co m p l em en t ar y en d s: t h e i n t er v al m u st b e as sh o r t as p o ssi b l e, cr eat i n g a l o t o f i m ages; t h e f i l m m u st p au se f o r as l o n g as p o ssi b l e ( sh ar p n ess) . I n t h e p ar ag r ap h en t i t l ed , si gn i f i can t l y en o u gh , 'M u l t i p l i cat i o n o f t h e N u m b er o f Pi ct u r es ... ( N o . 8) ', M ar ey b egan t h u s h i s p r e sen t at i o n : ' A p er f ect an al y si s o f m o t i o n r eq u i r es t h at t h e p h o t o gr ap h s b e t ak en at as shor t in t er val s as m ay he'.41 C o m i n g t o t h e L u m i èr e ci n em at o gr ap h ( N o . 12) ,

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 91 h t t p :/ /s ite . e b ra ry .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 9 1 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

91

T h e ‘ C in e m a t o g r a p h ic S n a p s h o t’

w h i c h h e h ad i d en t i f i ed as p ar t o f t h e ser i es an d v ar i at i o n s o f ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h s, h e st i p u l at ed t h e n at u r e o f t h e al t er n at i o n b et w een t h e m o v em en t an d p au si n g o f t h e f i l m : ‘ D u r i n g t w o-t h ir ds o f t he wh ol e t ime, t he f i l m is at r est '42 i n t h e u n fu r l i n g of t he film . T h e t o t al d u r at i o n o f t h e p au ses w as gr eat er t h an t h e d u r at i o n o f t h e m o v e m en t . So w e m ay i n d eed ask o u r sel v es w h at h as ch an ged i n t h e co n st r u ct i o n o f i n st an t an ei t y an d t h e co n cep t o f t h e i n st an t , b et w een t h e r at i o n al e o f t h e sh u t t er ( ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h y o n f i x ed p l at es) an d t h at o f t h e co m b i n at i o n o f i n t er m i t t en t p au se an d sh u t t er . I n act u al fact , t h e essen t i al t er m s h i gh l i gh t ed b y t h e d i sco u r se ar e n o l o n ger t h e i n t er v al an d ex p o su r e t i m e, b u t t h e i n t er v al an d t h e am o u n t o f t i m e t h e f i l m i s p au sed . I n ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h y w i t h a m o v i n g su p p o r t , t h e ex p o su r e an d p au se t i m es ar e sy n ch r o n o u s - t o get h er t h ey d ef i n e t h e m o m en t w h en t h e sn ap sh o t i s p r o d u ced . Bu t t h ei r r at i o n al e i s t h e o p p o si t e: f o r t h e sak e o f i m age sh ar p n ess, t h e p au se t i m e m u st b e t h o u gh t o f as a su b st an t i al d u r at i o n , w h i l e ex p o su r e t i m e m u st b e v er y b r i ef . A n d , i n M ar ey 's w o r d s, t h e b r i ef n ess o f t h e d u r at i o n o f t h e ex p o su r e t i m e - t h e t ech n i cal r eq u i r em en t o f t h e sn ap sh o t - i s h i d d en b y t h e em p h asi s t h at i s p u t o n t h e n eed f o r a l o n g- l ast i n g p au se o f t h e f i l m (see Syn t h et i c T ab l e: T h e C i n em at o g r ap h i c Sn ap sh o t ) . Sy n t h et i c Table

I n st an t an ei t y

Ex p o su r e t i m e

( c o n cep t o f i n st an t )

A i m o f t h e p r act i ce

Ph o t o gr ap h i c

v er y q u i ck

Ex p o su r e t i m e /

v er y q u i ck

Ex p o su r e t i m e /

sn ap sh o t

K ey el em en t s

M o b i l e ( sp eed )

Chr onophot ogr aphie snapshot

D u r at i o n o f t h e i n t er val

Cinem at ogr aphic

Ex p o su r e t i m e / / Pau se t i m e

snapshot

T h e p a u se t i m e i s v e r y l o n g

I n t er m i t t en t p au se AND D u r at i o n o f t h e i n t er val

A n i m p o r t an t co n cep t u al t en si o n p r esi d es o v er t h e co n st i t u t i o n o f t h e p h o t o gr am , t h e sn ap sh o t p r o d u ced b y ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h y o n a m o v i n g p l at e, w h i ch i s p r eci sel y t h e sam e as f o r t h e ci n em at o gr ap h : w e see t h at t h e i n st an t asso ci at ed w i t h t h i s i n M ar ey 's sci en t i f i c an d h i st o r i c d i sco u r se i s p ar ad o x i cal , b ecau se w h at u n d er p i n s i t f r o m t h e v i ew p o i n t o f t h e d i sp o si t i v e i s p r eci sel y t h e r eq u i r e m en t t h at i t b e b o t h sh o r t an d l o n g. T h i s i s t h e i n st an t an ei t y t h at w e cal l ci n e m at o gr ap h i c. T h e ep i st em o l o gi cal sep ar at i o n b et w een p h o t o g r ap h y an d ci n em a - b et w een p h o t o gr ap h i c an d ci n em at o gr ap h i c p ar ad i g m s - i s p l ay ed o u t i n t h e v al u e o f t h e f i x ed i m age b ef o r e b ei n g p o sed i n t h e r en d er i n g o f m o v em en t an d

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 9 2 h tt p ://s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 9 2 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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t h e i l l u si o n o f con t i n u i t y. T h e p h o t o gr ap h i c sn ap sh o t an d t h e ci n em at o gr ap h i c sn ap sh o t d o n ot co n st r u ct t h e sam e co n cep t o f t h e i m age i n t h e M ar ey er a. I n c. 19 0 0 , so m et h i n g w as b ei n g p l ay ed o u t t h at b y p asses t h e d i st i n ct i o n b e t w een f i x ed an d an i m at ed t h at d i st i n gu i sh es p h o t o g r ap h y f r o m ci n em a. T h i s u n assu m i n g 'ev en t ' co n cer n s t h e st at u s o f t h e sn ap sh o t . W h at h ap p en s t o i t w h en i t en t er s t h e r eal m o f ci n em a v i a ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h y ? I t b eco m es a p ar a d o x i cal sn ap sh o t , t h e p h o t o gr am , w h i ch r eq u i r es b o t h t h e d u r at i o n o f t h e p au se an d t h e b r ev i t y o f t h e i n st an t . Beh i n d t h e p h o t o g r ap h y v s. ci n em a d eb at e, w e

d i sco v er t h at t h er e ar e t w o t y p es o f i n st an t an eo u s p h o t o gr ap h . Bu t i t i s n ot en o u gh si m p l y t o ex am i n e t h e m ed i u m s. W e co m e t o see t h at i n t h e d i scu r si v e u se o f d i sp o si t i v es o f v i si o n , t h e k ey i ssu e i s t h e t r an sf o r m at i o n o f o u r w a y o f co n cei v i n g t h e i n st an t an d i n st an t an ei t y i n t h ei r r el at i o n t o t h e i m age an d r ep r e sen t at i o n . W e ar e t h u s d eal i n g w i t h an i n st an t t h at l ast s, an i n st an t t h at Ber gso n i sm w o u l d h ast en t o si d el i n e —an d w i t h i t t h e h i st o r y o f ci n em a.

N o te s

1.

2.

3.

4. 5.

6. 7.

8.

Rolan d Bart hes, 'L e t r oi sièm e sen s' (1970), L'O bvie et l'obt us, Seui l (Tel Q uel), 1982, p. 59; En gli sh t r anslat ion b y Ri ch ar d H ow ar d : 'T h e Th ir d M ean i n g', i n The Responsi bilit y of Forms, Ber k eley: U n i ver si t y of Cali for n i a Pr ess, 19 9 1. Gi l les D eleuze, L'image-M ouvement , Par i s: M in ui t , 1983, p. 11 (En gli sh t r an slat i on b y H ugh Tom li n son & Bar bar a H abber jam : Cinema 1: The M ovement -Image. Lon don and N ew Yor k : Cont i n uum I nt ernat i onal Publi sh i n g Gr ou p, 2001) an d L'imagetemps, Par i s: M i nui t , 1985 (En gli sh t r anslat i on b y H u gh Tom li n son an d Rober t Gale ta: Cinema 2. The Time-Image. M i n n eapoli s: U n i ver si t y o f M in n esot a Pr ess, 1989). Th e vi ew i n g d i sposi t i ve cover s ever yt h i n g t hat al lo w s t he spect at or to see a r epr e sent at i on, fr om t he m achi ne to the m achiner)', fr om pr oduct i on to pr oject i on and recept ion, fr om t echn ique t o pract i ce an d i nst it ut i on al const rai nt s. The w h ole i n cludes n ot just t echni cal par am et er s, bu t also t he codes of t he r epr esent at i on. See Ju li en Ben da, Sur le succès du bergsonisme. Précédé d'une Réponse aux défenseurs de la doct rine, Par i s: M er cur e de France, 19 14. M ar cel L’H erbi er , 'H er m ès et le si lence (19x7), Int elligence du cinémat ographe, Par is: Cor r éa, 1946, pp. 19 9-212; see Pascal M an uel H eu, 'L a quer elle de 19 17', Le temps du cinéma. Em ile Vuillermoz père de la crit ique cinémat ographique, 19 10- 19 30, Par i s: L'H ar m at tan 2004, pp. 18 7- 212; an d for t he sour ces: ibi d. pp. 220-335. Par i s: Jacqu es M elot , 1946. 'T em p s et m ouvem en t . Et ien ne-Jules M ar ey et la m écani que du cor p s', Le mot eur humain. L'énergie, la fat igue et les origines de la modernit é, Par i s: La Fabr ique, 2004, pp. 146-208. O r i gi n al edi t i on: The H uman Motor, N ew Yor k : Basi c Book s, 1990. M ar t a Br aun sh ow s t he par t i cular scien t i fic n at ur e o f M ar ey's use o f chr onoph ot o graphy, com par ed to M u ybr i d ge, for i nst ance. See Pict ur ing Time. The W ork o f Et ienne-jules M arey, 18 30-19 04, Ch i cago an d Lon don : Ch i cago U n i ver si t y Press, pp. 228-254.

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 9 3 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 9 3 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

T h e ‘ C in e m a t o g r a p h ic S n a p s h o t’

9. 10. 11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16. 17. 18.

19 .

93

In M ar ey's experi m en t s, t he i m ages cam e on t hree differ en t t ypes of suppor t : the fi xed plat e, t he m obi le plat e of t he ph ot ogr aph i c gu n an d t he ci nem at ogr aph i c film . Et ien ne-Jules M arey, Le mouvement , N îm es: Jacqueli n e Ch am bon , 2002 (1894); M ove ment, t r an slat ed b y Er i c Pri t ch ar d, Lon don : W illi am H ei nem an n, 1895, P- 5 4 The not ion of 'm easur em en t ' i s as i n t r i n si cally li n k ed to Ber gson 's ci nem at ogr aph i c m odel as it i s to M ar ey's pr act i cal w or k . But it s con cept ual fr am ew or k i s b y no m ean s t he sam e. See M . Tort ajada, 'Evalu at i on , m esure, m ouvem en t : la phi losoph i e cont re la sci ence et les concept s du ci ném a (Ber gson, M ar ey) ', Revue européenne des sciences sociales, no. 14 1, vol . XXXXVI , 2008, pp. 9 5- 1x1. Sch olar s w or k i n g on M ar ey oft en m i n i m i se h i s i nt erest i n t he syn t h esi s of m ove m ent . Th i s i s even t he case in t he m ost r em ar k able research w or k , i.e., Fr ançoi s D agogn et 's (Et ienne-Jules M arey. La passion de la trace, Par i s: H azan , X987, t r anslat ed by Rober t Galet a an d Jean i n e H er m an, Et ienne-Jules M ar ey: A Passion for the Trace, N ew Yor k : Zon e Book s, 19 9 2) an d M i chel Fr i zot (in par t i cular Et ienne-Jules M ar ey cnronophotographe, Par i s: N at han/ D elpi r e, 200X). Lau r en t M an non i, h ow ever , gi ves w ei gh t t o t he 'fi l m i c' di m en si on of M ar ey's w or k on ch r on oph ot ogr aph y (in par t i cular in Et ienne-Jules M arey. La mémoire de l'œil, M i ln a/ Par i s: M azzot t a/ La Ci n ém at hèque fr an çaise, X999). I beli eve t hat i t i s i m por t an t fr om an epi st em ologi cal vi ew p oi n t to r eassess t he place gi ven t o t he syn t h esi s of m ovem en t in M ar ey's appr oach. I.e., 't h e ph ysi ologi cal pr oper t y of t he r et ina of r et ai n in g for a b r i ef m om ent t he i m pr essi on o f an i m age aft er t he object w h i ch h as pr odu ced it h as d i sap pear ed ' (M ove ment, op. cit. p. 305). Gast on Bachelar d, The Formation of the Scient ific M ind: A Cont ribut ion to a Psychoana lysis of Object ive Knowledge, i n t r oduced, t r an slat ed an d an n ot at ed b y M ar y M eA l l es t er Jones, M an chest er : Cli n am en , 2002, p. 28. Supplément à La M ét hode graphique dans les sciences expériment ales, Par i s: M asson , 1885. Som et i m es on ly t he dat es of t he fi r st edi t i on s ar e in dicat ed for t hese four sour ces. Par i s: M asson , 1890. O p. cit. En gli sh t ranslat ion: M ovement , t rans. E. Pr i t ch ar d, N ew Yor k : A pplet on , 1895; Lon don : H einem ann, 1895. 'Exposi t i on d'i n st r um en t s et d 'i m ages r elat i fs à l'h i st oi r e de la chr onoph ot ogr aph i e', par le D oct eur M arey, m em br e de l'I nst i t ut , M usée cent ennal de la classe 12 (photogra phie) à l'Exposit ion universelle int ernat ionale de 1900 à Paris, M ét rophot ographie et chronophot ographie, Sai n t -Cloud, im pr. Belin, s.d. En gli sh t ranslat ion: 'H i st or y of Ch r on op h ot ogr ap h y' Smit hsonian Report for 19 0 1, W ashi ngt on , D C: Gover n m en t Pr i n t i n g O ffi ce, 1902, pp. 317-340. For r eason s of space, I shall not r efer t o M ar ey's lect ur e t hat synt h esi sed h i s w or k - 'L a ch r on oph ot ogr aph i e. Confér en ce fai t e au con ser vat oi r e n at i on al des ar t s et m ét ier s le di m anch e 29 jan vi er 1899', Annales du Conservat oire des arts et mét iers, 3e séri e, vol . I, Par i s: Gaut h i er -Villar s, 1899, pp. 283 3 18. It confi r m s t he conclusi ons pr esen t ed here. A l l o f t hese quest i on s ar e ad dr essed in t he r esearch pap er s publi sh ed b y A n d r é Gunt hert , M ichel Fr i zot an d François Brunet , and i n part i cular : A . Gunt hert , 'En t r e phot ogr aph i e i n st ant anée et ciném a: A lb er t Lon de', A l exi s M art i n et (éd.), Le Cinéma et la science, Par i s: Ed. d u CN RS, X994, pp. 62-69 an d 'Est h ét i que de l'occasion. N ai s san ce de la ph ot ogr aph i e i n st ant an ée com m e gen r e', Et udes phot ographiques, no. 9, M ay 200X, pp. 64-87; M . Fr i zot , Le temps d'u n mouvement . Avent ur es et mésavent ures

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 9 4 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 9 4 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

94

M a r ia T o r ta ja d a

de ¡'inst ant phot ographique (cat alogue d'exposi t i on), Par i s: CN P, 1986, an d 'V i t esse de

20.

21. 22.

23.

24.

25.

26. 27.

28. 29.

la phot ogr aph i e. Le m ou vem en t et la d u r ée', M i ch el Fr i zot (éd.), Nouvelle hist oire de la phot ographie, Par i s: A d am -Bi r o, Bor das, 1994, pp. 243-255; F. Br unet , 'Refon d a t ions: Le m om ent K od ak ', La naissance de l'idée de phot ographie, Par i s: PU F, 2000, pp. 213-329. See Fr an çoi s A l ber a, M ar i a Tort ajada, 'L'Epist ém è « 1900 »', Le cinémat ographe, nou velle technologie du X X e siècle/ The Cinéma, A N ew Technology for the 20t h Cent ury, L au sanne: Payot , 2004, pp. 47-49, r egar di n g Gu st ave Le Gr ay. M . Fr izot , N ouvelle hist oire de la phot ographie, op. cit. 'L i gh t w as adm i t t ed ni ne t i m es per second, and t he i llum i n at i on t im e ab out 1/ 900 of a second. Th i s br evi t y o f exposu r e t i m e i s once agai n a n ecessar y con di t ion for the sh ar pn ess of the i m ages, for i t pr even t s the bi r d from m ak i n g a n ot i ceable m ove m ent w h i l e t he ph ot ogr aph i s bei n g t aken .' (Développement de la méthode graphique par l ’emploi de la phot ographie, op. cit., pp. 26-27). '[ CJh r on ogr ap h y i s adm i r able; i t i s a t rue m i cr oscope of t i m e an d sh ow s t hat the i n di vi si ble i nstant t hat i s so oft en evok ed does n ot exi st , an d t hat som et i m es r egular , r h yt h m i c an d per fect ly coor di n at ed act s t ak e place w i t h i n on e h un dr edt h of a sec on d', Et i en ne-Jules M arey, La méthode gr aphique dans les sciences expériment ales et par t iculièrement n i physiologie et en médecine, Par i s: M asson , 1878, p. XII. O n t he gr aphi e m et hod, see M . Fr i zot , 'L es cour bes d u t em ps. L'i m age gr aph i qu e et la sen sat i on t em por elle', Pascal Russo (éd.), A u x origines de l ’abst ract ion, (Cat alogue), M usée d'O r say, 2003, pp. 68-83 an d J°ël Snyder, 'V i su al i s at i on et vi sibi lit é. L a m ét hode gr aph i qu e de M ar ey', Ét udes phot ographiques, no. 4, M ay 1998, pp. 64-86. See, for exam ple, w h at A l ber t Lon d e (La phot ographie moderne, Par i s: M asson , 1896 (1888)) w r ot e on 'det er m i n i n g t he dur at i on of exposur e i n i n st ant aneous ph ot ogr a p h y', w i t h r efer en ce to Jam es Jack son 's t ables t hat calculat e t he speeds of di ffer en t m obi le object s (pp. 261-263) an d h i s dou bt s on the useful n ess of k n ow i n g t he abso lut e val u e o f t he t im e of exposur e (p. 143). Fr om 1885 on w ar d s, t he i n t er val w as ei t her based on t he fr equen cy of t he i m ages (8 i m ages per secon d, m ean i n g an i n t er val of i/ 8t h sec. bet w een each i m age), or b y the di st ance separ at i n g t he i m ages w i t h i n t he ch r on oph ot ogr aph i c ser ies, or b y the an gul ar dist an ce m easur ed on t he sh ut t er bet w een t w o w i n d ow s or on t he so-called chr onom et r ic di al. M ovement , op. cit., p. 17, m y it ali cs. Ibi d., p. 17. Ri gh t fr om t he begi n n i n g, M ar ey h ad st r essed t he br evi t y of t he i nt er val. In 1890, t hi s com m en t w as par t an d par cel o f t he defi ni t i on. But i n 1894, w h en he i nt roduced t he fun dam en t al r elat i on (exposur e/ i nt er val), it w as t he exposu r e t i me t hat w as t he br i efer o f t he t wo. Ibi d., pp. 58-60. 'I n di fferen t speeds of t r an slat i on (of t he m ovi n g object), t he n um ber of i m ages w h i ch can be t aken in a gi ven t i m e w i t h out pr od u ci n g con fusion , incr eases as the form er becom e gr eat er.' (i bi d., p. 58). A n d agai n : 'W h en t he object, o f w h i ch succes si ve i m ages ar e to be t aken, con fi nes it s m ovem en t s to on e par t i cul ar spot , con fu sion an d sup er posi t i on ar e b oun d to occur ', (i bi d., p. 63). Th i s pr oblem w as i den t i fied as ear ly as 1885.

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 9 5 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 9 5 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

T h e ‘ C in e m a t o g r a p h ic S n a p s h o t’

30.

31.

32. 33.

34. 35.

36.

37.

38. 39. 40.

4 1.

95

Th i s i s con t r ar y to w h at h app en ed w i t h Edi son 's Ki n et oscope w h er e t he fi lm does not st op. The exposu r e m ust t hen be ext r em ely br ief, t h us n ot al lo w i n g t her e to be project i on. 'A n i n gen i ous t r ick con sist i n g o f t ak i n g a ser i es o f ph ot ogr ap h s of a m ovi n g b o d y at equal t i m e i n t er vals on t he sam e i m m obi le plate, r epr odu ci n g t he m ost com pli cat ed m ovem en t s i n an ext r em ely si m ple for m . / Chrono-photography, such is t he n am e t hat I shall gi ve t o t hi s exper i m en t al pr oced ur e t hat over com es an i m por t an t sh or t com i n g in t he gr aph i c m et h od' ('A ver t i ssem en t ', Développement de la méthode graphique, op. cit., p. V). Ibi d. p. 28. The i ner t ia of t he plat e pr even t s t he n um ber of i m ages fr om bei n g i n cr eased: 'I t is di ffi cult to go beyon d t en to fi ft een i m ages per secon d b y u si n g ap par at u ses in w h i ch a plat e h as to alt er n at ely m ove an d st op to be exposed at di fferent poin t s of it s ci rcum fer ence. Som et i m es I h ave dou bl ed t hi s speed, but the appar at u s t hen star ted vi br at i n g and t he sh ar pn ess of t he i m ages m ay be jeopar di sed' (i bi d., p. 17). The solut i on put for w ar d at t hi s per i od w as t he par t i al ph ot ogr aph , t h ank s to w h i ch t he over l ap p i n g of fi gu r es w as avoi d ed b y r edu ci n g t hei r sur face ar ea t hey occu py on t he ph ot ogr aph i c plat e. Par agr ap h 100: 'D i ssoci at i on des i m ages au m oyen d 'u n e t r anslat ion i m pr i m ée à la sur face sen si ble', Le vol des oiseaux, op. cit., p. 154. Even t h ough it w as in t r oduced i n p ar agr ap h 88 (i bid., p. 132) aft er M uybr i d ge, i.e., u si n g chr onologi cal or der as i n 1885, t he pr oblem s it posed w er e on ly ad dr essed in par agr ap h 100, w h en he i n t r oduced the need t o use a 'l on g ban d o f sen si t i ve p ap er ' (ibid., p. 154). The m et hods of alt ernat in g i m ages, r ot at i n g m i r r or an d m ovi n g t he appar at u s ar e present ed i n t he chapt er en t i tled 'Ch r on oph ot ogr aph y on fi xed plat es' (M ovement , op. cit., pp. 62-66). It sh oul d be n ot ed t hat, at t hi s junct ure, M ar ey w as no lon ger pr esen t i n g t he st r oboscopi c m et hod. The explan at i on i s t he sam e as t hat gi ven i n 1890, w i t h som e addi t i on al i nfor m at ion. M ar ey begi n s t he subsect ion en t i tled 'Pr i n ci p les o f Ch r on op h ot ogr aph y on m ovi n g plat es' b y m ak i n g a list of t he gu n 's defect s: 'Th e w eak poi n t of t he ph ot ogr aph i c gun w as pr i n ci pally t hat t he i m ages w er e t aken on a glass plat e, t he w ei gh t of w h i ch w as exceedi n gl y gr eat . The i nert ia of such a m ass, w h i ch con t i n ually h ad t o be set in m ot i on and br ough t to rest , n ecessar i l y lim i t ed t he n um ber of i m ages. The m axi m um w as 12 i n t he second, an d t hese h ad t o be ver y sm all, or else t h ey w ou ld h ave r equi r ed a d i sc of lar ger surface, an d consequent ly of t oo lar ge a m ass, [ new p ar a gr aph] Th ese di ffi cult i es m ay be over com e b y subst i t ut i ng for t he gl ass di sc, a con t i n uous fi lm ver y sli gh t ly coat ed w i t h gelat i ne an d br om i d e of si lver .' (i bi d., p. 115) . Ibi d., p. 103. 'H i st or y of Ch r on op h ot ogr aph y', Smit hsonian Report for 19 0 1, op. cit., p. 318. 'Th e i nt erval bet w een t w o consecut i ve i m ages w as 18 m i lli m et res, t he n um ber of i m ages fi ft y per secon d. The aver age speed o f t he paper w as t her efor e 18 x 50 m illi m et r es or 900 m i llim et r es p er secon d. The t ot al of t he fi ft y pau ses o f t he paper t aken alon e r epresent ed h alf of t he t ime, t he r esult bei n g t hat d u r i n g t he t ransfer, t he aver age speed w as about 1.80m p er secon d'. (Le vol des oiseaux, op. cit. p. 155, not e 1). 'H i st or y of Ch r on op h ot ogr aph y', op. cit., p. 323 ('Th e per fect an alysi s of a m ove m ent r equi r es t hat t he i m ages be t aken at ver y short time int ervals', m y it alics). Ri gh t

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 9 6 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 9 6 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

96

M a r ia T o r ta ja d a

from t he begi n n i n g of h i s t ext for t he U n i ver sal Exposi t i on, at t he k ey m om ent w h en M ar ey w as gi vi n g t he defi ni t i on of ch r onoph ot ogr aph y, t he i n t er val w as gi ven a double speci ficat ion, w i t h br evi t y bei n g as i m por t ant as equi di st ance: 'By chr ono ph ot ogr ap h y i s m eant a m et hod w h i ch an alyses m ot ions b y m ean s of a ser ies of i n st ant an eous ph ot ogr aph s t aken at ver y sh or t an d equal i n t er vals of t im e', ibi d., p . 3 17 .

42.

Ibi d., p. 328, m y it alics.

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 9 7 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 9 7 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

T h e C in e m a to g ra p h ve rs u s P h o to g ra p h y , o r C y c lis t s a n d T i m e in t h e W o r k o f A l f r e d Ja rry

M ar i a Tort ajada A t t h e en d o f t h e n i n et een t h cen t u r y, sp eed w as b o t h i n v o g u e i n p o p u l ar cu l t u r e an d at t h e h ear t o f sci en t i f i c r esear ch . I n si gh t w as gai n ed i n t o m o v em en t b y m easu r i n g sp eed v ar i at i o n an d b y o b ser v i n g t h e v ar i o u s p o si t i o n s r eq u i r ed b y l o co m o t i o n . T h e en er gy sp en t i n p er f o r m i n g v ar i o u s t ask s w as cal cu l at ed , so m et i m es f o r ci n g p eo p l e's b o d i es t o t h ei r u t m o st l i m i t s. I t w as f ash i o n ab l e t o o r gan i se r aces, o f b i cy cl es o r t r ai n s f o r ex am p l e, en ab l i n g o n e t o co m p ar e sp eed s an d p u t t h e m ach i n es - t h e f l agsh i p s o f i n d u st r y - t h r o u gh t h ei r p aces. V ar i o u s f ai r gr o u n d co n t r ap t i o n s w er e co n st an t l y co m p et i n g t o b e t h e b est , su ch as sw i t ch b ack s l o o p i n g t h e l o o p at b r eak n eck sp eed s. Sp eed as a sci en t i f i c ob ject an d as a so ci al p h en o m en o n f asci n at es - acci d en t s t h em sel v es h av e b eco m e sp ect acl es o f m o d er n i t y — b ecau se o u r u n d er st an d i n g o f i t i s b ased o n t h e t w o co n cep t s o f t i m e an d sp ace t h at w er e co n st an t l y ex p l o r ed an d q u est i o n ed at t h e t u r n o f t h e cen t u r y. Sp eed w as cen t r al t o t h e p ar ad o x es ex p l o r ed b y H .G . W el l s i n h i s l i t er ar y l ab o r at o r y v i a t h e co n t em p o r ar y p o p u l ar t h em e o f t h e f o u r t h d i m en si o n . Sp eed w as al so a co n si d er ab l e co n t r i b u t o r t o t h e f u t u r i st i c n o v el , w h i c h p u t n ew t ech n i q u es t o t h e t est o f t h e i m ag i n ar y w o r l d . W h i l e Et i en n eJu l es M ar ey b r o u gh t t h e p h y si o l o gi st 's ap p r o ach t o t h e q u est i o n s o f m o v em en t , t i m e an d sp ace, w i t h t h e i n v en t i o n o f t h e ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h i c m et h o d an d b y b r eak i n g d o w n m o v em en t cap t u r ed b y m ean s o f p h o t o gr ap h y , H en r i Ber gso n t o o k a st an d agai n st t h e sci en t i f i c v i ew p o i n t i n t h e n am e o f a p ar t i cu l ar ex p er i en ce o f t i m e an d t h e i n t u i t i o n o f d u r at i o n . T i m e an d sp ace w er e n o l o n ger a pr i or i d at a b u t w er e u sed o r r el at i v i sed acco r d i n g t o n o t i o n s o f m easu r em en t ,

ex p er i en ce, p er cep t i o n o r i n t u i t i o n . Sci en t i st s, p h i l o so p h er s an d w r i t er s w o r k ed o n f l esh i n g o u t t h ese n o t i o n s. C i n em a an d p h o t o g r ap h y l i e at t h e cen t r e o f t h ese q u est i o n s. W h en M ar ey m ad e ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h y a sci en t i f i c m et h o d - t h u s d ef i n i n g so m e o f t h e co n d i t i o n s t h at m ad e ci n em a p o ssi b l e —i t w as b y f i x i n g t h e t i m e v ar i ab l e, b y i m p o s i n g a r eg u l ar i n t er v al b et w een each sh o t . W h en Ber gso n d ef i n ed t h e f u n ct i o n i n g o f sci en ce, i t w as b y b u i l d i n g u p t h e 'ci n em at o gr ap h i c m o d el ' o f t h o u gh t . W h en A l f r ed Jar r y b r o u gh t p h o t o g r ap h y an d ci n em a i n t o h i s ch r o n i cl es o r n o v el s, i t w as t o t ack l e t h e p ar ad o x es o f t i m e. I t i s h ar d t o i m agi n e a m o r e r ev eal i n g

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 9 8 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 9 8 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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t h em e t h an t h e b i cy cl e r ace, w i t h t h e sp eed r eco r d s i t i n v o l v es, t o p u t ci n em a an d p h o t o g r ap h y t o t h e t est i n t h ei r cap aci t y t o m o d el t h e co n cep t o f t i m e. A l f r ed Jar r y , f am o u s f o r h i s U bu t h e K in g , t o o k gr eat i n t er est i n t h e t h em es o f m o d er n i t y at t h e en d o f t h e cen t u r y, w h en ci n em a w as j u st b egi n n i n g t o em er ge. I n h i s w r i t i n gs, t h e ci n em at o gr ap h an d p h o t o g r ap h y ar e l i n k ed t o get h er b y m ean s o f a m u l t i t u d e o f m ach i n es an d t h e p h en o m en o n o f sp eed . T h er e w as an ab u n d an ce o f st o r i es o f sp ect acu l ar r aces an d co m p et i t i o n s w i t h t r ai n s, au t o m o b i l es an d b i cy cl es. T h ese d i v er se m o v i n g b o d i es, w h i ch i n cl u d ed t r am s an d o m n i b u ses, t o o k t h e st age t o get h er w i t h t h e m ach i n es t h at Jar r y h i m sel f i n v en t ed , su ch as t h e p h y si cs st i ck i n C ae s ar A n t ic h r is t , t h e p ai n t i n g m ach i n e i n t h e E x p lo it s an d O p in io n s o f D r F au s t r o ll an d t h e l o v e m ach i n e i n t h e S u p e r m ale . A t t h e h ear t

o f t h i s m o d er n i t y t h at Jar r y h i m sel f w as at t em p t i n g t o p i n d o w n , ci n em a an d p h o t o g r ap h y h av e n ei t h er t h e sam e h i st o r i cal f u n ct i o n n o r t h e sam e sy m b o l i c v al u e. Ph o t o g r ap h y an d ci n em a w i l l b e u n d er st o o d h er e as b ei n g d is p o s it iv e s st r u c t u r ed b y a sp ect at o r , a r ep r esen t at i o n an d a 'm ach i n er y ' t h at al l o w t h e sp ect at o r t o h av e access t o t h e r ep r esen t at i o n .1 T o w h at en d ar e t h ese d i sp o si t i v es em p l o y ed w h en t h ey ar e n o t u sed f o r m ak i n g o r sh o w i n g i m ag es an d so u n d s w h en t h ey ar e ex p l o i t ed b y d i sco u r ses t h at ap p r o p r i at e t h em an d t r an sf o r m t h em , ex p l o i t i n g t h em t o co n st r u ct t h ei r o w n ar gu m en t at i o n or set u p a sp eci f i c co n cep t u al i sat i o n ? A n d i n w h at co n cep t u al co n st el l at i o n can t h ey b e i n scr i b ed ? T h ese q u est i o n s can b e ad d r essed u si n g an ep i st em o l o gi cal ap p r o ach . I t i s t h e d et er m i n i n g asp ect s o f t h e d i sp o si t i v es o f ci n em a an d p h o t o g r ap h y t h at i n t er est u s h er e - n ot t o f o st er a gen eal o gi cal t y p e o f i n t er p r et at i o n , b u t t o i d en t i f y t h e el em en t s t h at b el o n g t o t h e sci en t i f i c o r t ech n i cal en v i r o n m en t o f t h e t i m e an d t o t h e ci n em at o gr ap h i c o r p h o t o gr ap h i c m o d el , w h i l e si m u l t an eo u sl y l o o k i n g at t h e r el at i o n s b et w een t h em . T h e d i sp o si t i v es b r i n g v ar i o u s el em en t s i n t o p l ay o t h er d i sp o si t i v es, t h eo r i es, n o t i o n s o r co n cep t s - w i t h w h i ch t h ey ar e t h em sel v es co r r el at ed . W h en seen as a n et w o r k , t h ese el em en t s m ay b e sai d t o m ak e u p t h e cu l t u r al p r esu p p o si t i o n s t h at d et er m i n e n o t o n l y t h e ci n em at o gr ap h i c or p h o t o gr ap h i c d i sp o si t i v e, b u t al so Jar r y 's m ach i n es. Ph o t o g r ap h y an d ci n em a w i l l ap p ear i n p o si t i o n s an d f u n ct i o n s t h at so m et i m es d i f f er f r o m t h e p r act i ces t h em sel v es, t h er eb y p r o d u ci n g o r i gi n al co n f i gu r at i o n s an d p ar al l el s. T h u s, I w o u l d l i k e t o sh o w t h at d u r i n g t h e cl o si n g y ear s o f t h e 19 t h cen t u r y, w h en t h e t h em e o f t i m e i n m o v em en t an d co n cep t i o n s o f p r o gr ess w er e so i m p o r t an t ,2 Jar r y n o t o n l y i n scr i b ed h i m sel f p ar ad o x i c al l y i n t h e m o d er n i t y o f h i s er a, b u t al so cam e t o el ab o r at e t w o co n cep t i o n s o f t i m e t h at w er e i n d ep en d en t o f t h e m o d el o f h i s co n t em p o r ar y, H en r i Ber gso n . I sh al l t h u s b e ex am i n i n g t h e ci n em at o gr ap h i c d i sp o si t i v e as an ep i st em i c m o d el ,3 w h i ch I sh al l co n f r o n t w i t h an o t h er set o f r el at i o n s asso ci at ed w i t h p h o t o gr ap h y , i n o r d er t o co n st r u ct on e o r sev er al 'i m ag es' o f t i m e.

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 9 9 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 9 9 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

T h e C in e m a t o g r a p h v e r s u s P h o to g ra p h y , o r C y c lis t s a n d T im e in t h e W o r k o f A l f r e d J a r r y

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I n Jar r y 's w o r k , on e f i n d s t w o i m p o r t an t ci n em at o gr ap h i c f i gu r es. T h e f i r st i s I xi o n , a v i ct i m o f t h e t o r t u r e o f H ad es, l i k e T an t al u s an d Si sy p h u s. H e w as ch ai n ed t o t h e p er i m et er o f a w h eel an d d est i n ed t o r ev o l v e f o r al l et er n i t y. H e w as m en t i o n ed i n 19 0 3 i n a t ext p u b l i sh ed i n L a P lu m e , ' L a m écan i q u e d ' Ix io n ' , an d r ep u b l i sh ed i n t h e co l l ect i o n o f Jar r y 's n ew sp ap er ch r o n i cl es, L a C h an d e lle v e r t e . T h e seco n d i s t h e Su p er m al e, t h e h er o o f t h e ep o n y m o u s n o v el p u b l i sh ed

i n 19 0 1, a m an w h o i s so p o w er f u l t h at h e i s cap ab l e o f p r o v i n g h i s v i r i l i t y m o r e t h an 8 2 t i m es i n a si n gl e d ay .4 T h i s t al e o f l o v e t el l s t h e st o r y o f t w o w ag er s - t h e f i r st seek s t o sh o w t h at f i v e cy cl i st s on a f i v e- m an b i cy cl e, fed o n excep t i o n al f o o d , can b eat a l o co m o t i v e o v er a d i st an ce o f 10 ,0 0 0 m i l es. T h e seco n d i n v o l v es p r o v i n g t h e Su p er m al e's v i r i l e p er f o r m an ce.5 I x i o n ap p ear s sev er al t i m es i n Jar r y 's w o r k , b u t i t i s i n 19 0 3 t h at h e i s ex p l i c i t l y co m p ar ed t o t h e ci n em at o gr ap h : A n d let u s fi r st o f al l exam i n e t he t or ture of t he con dem n ed m an fr om the poi nt of vi ew of t he feeli ngs. I xi on, accor di n g to t he poet s, i s t ied t o t he w h eel on t he ext er i or o f t he cir cum ference. It i s i n such m an n er t hat m en -snakes 'r evol ve' in fai r s, t hei r n eck t ouch i ng t hei r heels. W e sh oul d not e t hat I xi on 's eyes ar e t ur ned ou t w ar d s an d t hus r eflect t he w or l d, just li ke t he len ses of a Lu m i èr e ci n em at ogr aph .6 I t i s, o f co u r se, si gn i f i can t t h at L u m i èr e i s m en t i o n ed , b u t eq u al l y i m p o r t an t ar e t h e el em en t s d escr i b i n g t h e t o r t u r e. Fo r w h at i s p i n p o i n t ed r eg ar d i n g t h e ci n e m at o g r ap h i s t h e st r u ct u r e o f t h e m ach i n e — t h e w h eel , w h o se ci r cu l ar sh ap e an d r ev o l v i n g m o t i o n r ecal l t h e sp o o l o f f i l m an d i t s u n w i n d i n g. T h e ci n em at o g r ap h i t sel f i s d esi gn at ed b y i t s l en ses w h i ch , i n t h e p assag e, ar e co m p ar ed t o I x i o n 's ey es as h e r ev o l v es o n t h e w h eel . T h ey r ef l ect t h e w o r l d , i n o t h er w o r d s r ep r o d u ce i t , an d co n st i t u t e t h e r ep r esen t at i o n o f i t i n t h e v er y h ear t o f t h e m a ch i n e. Si n ce I x i o n i s f o r ced t o p ass i n d ef i n i t el y b y t h e sam e p o i n t , h e i s su b m i t t ed t o a r ep et i t i v e p r o cess t h at h e sh ar es w i t h t h e ci n em at o gr ap h . A t t h e t u r n o f t h e cen t u r y, t h i s m ach i n e co n st an t l y ex p l o i t ed r ep et i t i o n , as h ad o p t i cal t o y s su ch as t h e p h en ak i st o sco p e o r t h e zo et r o p e b ef o r e i t. T h e sam e l i t t l e f i l m w as p r o j ect ed sev er al t i m es b o t h f o r w ar d an d b ac k w ar d an d at v ar y i n g sp eed s, t h er eb y i n t r o d u ci n g a m ech an i cal el em en t i n t o t h e h ear t o f t h e ci n em at o gr ap h i c sp ect acl e. I x i o n i s at t ach ed t o a m ach i n e as o n e o f i t s w o r k i n g p ar t s, b u t , at t h e sam e t i m e, h e i s i n t h e p o si t i o n o f t h e sp ect at o r , as h e l o o k s at t h e w o r l d an d t u r n s i t i n t o a r ep r esen t at i o n . C o n t r ar y t o t h e ci n em a, h o w ev er , t h e sp ect at o r i s in si de t h e ap p ar at u s - h i s ey es ar e w o r k i n g p ar t s o f t h e m ech an i cal sy st em t h at

i n co r p o r at es h i m . T h e f i gu r e en act s a co n d en sat i o n o f t h e ci n em at o gr ap h i c d i s-

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 0 0 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 0 0 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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p o si t i v e - t h e sp ect at o r i s n o t i n f r o n t o f t h e p r o j ect ed i m age, b u t i s si m u l t a n eo u sl y t h e p r o j ect o r (or d ev i ce t ak i n g t h e sh ot s, n o d i st i n ct i o n i s m ad e i n t h e t ext h er e) ,7 t h e p er so n w at ch i n g t h e sp ect acl e, an d f i n al l y, t h e p l ace w h er e t h e r ep r esen t at i o n i s m at er i al i sed v i a t h e r ef l ect i o n o f t h e l en ses. A l l t h ese el em en t s ar e co n t ai n ed i n a si n gl e m ech an i cal st r u ct u r e - I x i o n 's w h eel . T h e r o t at i n g m o v em en t w i l l l ead t o I x i o n b ei n g co m p ar ed t o a cycl i st : Th ose w h o m ay n ever h ave been i ni t i at ed i nt o cycli n g h ave doubt less for got t en or si m ply n ot k n ow n t hat t he fi r st m em or able r ecord for t he t im e of t he m i le w as est ab li sh ed b y John son , b y m ean s o f an elli pt i cal cogw h eel t hat , t heor et i cally at least , eli m i n at ed n eut r al - w i t h t he least effor t com i n g fr om the h i gh est gear. A n d i n r elat i on to t his, suffi ce it to i n di cat e t hat I xi on i s t he fat her of m i ddle-di st ance r acers. M iddle-dist ance racers, absolut ely. I xi on t he et er nal n o lon ger r em em bers w h en he

st art ed n or t hat h e st ar t ed. I xi on i s in t he 'st at e of m i n d' of t he cann on ball savou r i n g i t s t raject ory. H e en joys goi n g qui ckly, w i t h ou t pat t i n g h i s ow n back .s T h e ci n em at o gr ap h t h u s f o r g es a l i n k w i t h sp eed , r aces an d a cer t ai n co n cep t i o n o f t i m e, t o w h i ch I sh al l r et u r n b el o w . T h e f am o u s 10 ,OOO-mile r ace i s o f t h e sam e i l k . T h e Su p er m al e i s al so assi m i l at ed t o a m ach i n e an d i n v o l v ed i n r ep et i t i o n . T h e ci n em at o gr ap h i s n o t n am ed i n t h i s scen e, b u t u n d er p i n s t h e t ext .9 T h e r ace i s a co m p et i t i o n b et w een t w o m ach i n es, a t r ai n an d a f i v e- m an b i cy cl e, w i t h t h e cy cl i st s st r ap p ed t o i t as i f t h ey ar e b ei n g t o r t u r ed . V ar i o u s o t h er m o v i n g o b ject s j o i n i n : an au t o m o b i l e an d a f l y i n g m ach i n e t h at p u l l s t h e b i cy cl e, a t r ai l er an d f i n al l y a 'sh ad o w ',10 w h i c h t u r n s o u t t o b e t h e Su p er m al e. T h e t ext u n d er l i n es t h e ex t r ao r d i n ar y sp eed r each ed b y t h e m o v i n g b o d i es an d t h ei r co n st an t accel er at i o n . I t i s n o t b y ch an ce t h at o n e sp eak s o f t h e 'p er p et u al m o t i o n ' r ace, an d t h at t h e d r am at i c t en si o n i s i n cr eased b y t h e co n st an t r ef er en ce t o m easu r em en t s: Th e si lk en t hr ead of t he speedom et er w as st ill qui ver i n g r egularly, t r aci n g a ver t i cal bl ue spi n dle agai n st Cor por al Gi l bey's cheek, an d I r ead on i t s i vor y dial, as h ad been pr edi ct ed for t hat t i me, t he n um ber o f k ilom et er s per h our : 250.11 O r agai n : Th e educat i on o f Jew ey Jacobs h ad t ak en u s a w h ol e day. It w as t he m or n i n g o f the four t h day, t hr ee m i nut es, seven and t w o-fi ft h s secon ds aft er ni ne o'clock, and the speedom et er w as at i t s far t hest lim i t, w h i ch i t h ad n ot been desi gn ed to exceed: 300 k i lom et er s per h our .12 A m o n g t h e m an y cl u es t h at r ef er t o t h e ci n em a, t h e ap p ear an ce o f t h e Su p er m al e i s t h e m o st st r i k i n g - h e su d d en l y ap p ear s l i k e a sh ad o w b o r n o f a sh ad -

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 101 h t t p :/ /s ite . e b ra ry .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 0 1 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

T h e C in e m a t o g r a p h v e r s u s P h o to g ra p h y , o r C y c lis t s a n d T im e in t h e W o r k o f A lf r e d J a r r y

10 1

ow , l i k e a f i gu r e p r o j ect ed on a scr een , i n t h e m i d d l e o f t h ese n u m er o u s m a ch i n es. T h e Su p er m al e i s asso ci at ed w i t h t h e p h en o m en o n o f t h e ci n em at o gr ap h i c i l l u si o n : ... W hen t he lam p w as li t beh i n d us, sw eep i n g ou r sh ad ow for w ar d al on g t he t rack, t he fi ve m em bers of ou r sh ad ow w er e gr ou ped for an i nstant so as to seem , fi ft y yar d s in front of us, li ke a si n gle r acer seen fr om beh i nd, r i di n g i n fr on t of us. O ur si m ult a n eous p ed al st r ok es com plet ed t he i llusi on - w h i ch I h ear d aft er w ar d s w as n ot an i llusi on. W hen ou r sh ad ow w as t h r ow n for w ar d w e all felt sh ar pl y an d di st i nct ly t hat som e silent an d unbeat able oppon ent , w h o m ust h ave been w at ch i n g u s for days, h ad t aken off on ou r r i gh t at the sam e t im e as ou r shadow , h i d d en w i t h i n it, an d k ept fi ft y yar d s ah ead ...13 T h e n ar r at o r si m u l t an eo u sl y p ed al s o n t h e f i v e- m an b i cy cl e an d p l ay s t h e p ar t o f t h e sp ect at o r o b ser v i n g t h e sh ad o w an d r ecal l i n g cer t ai n m em o r i es. H e gi v es v en t t o h i s ast o n i sh m en t : ... I di d n ot not ice t hat t he vi br at i on s cau sed b y ou r speed h ad put out t he lam p, and yet t he sam e od d out li ne, st i ll vi si bl e because t he t rack w as ver y w h i t e an d t he n i ght qui t e clear, w as "lead i n g t he p ack " fi ft y yar d s in front ! It cou ld n ot h ave been project ed b y t he locom ot i ve's h ead lam ps ... Still, t here i s n o such t h i n g as a gh ost - t hen w h at could t h is sliadmv be?14 T h i s n ew m o v i n g b o d y i s, o f co u r se, t h e Su p er m al e, t h e m y st er i o u s r i v al . I n o r d er t o m ak e t h e ap p ar i t i o n ap p ear , t h e t ext set s u p t h e i m ag i n ar y w o r l d o f a p r o j ect i o n . T h e sp ect at o r i s t h u s p l u n ged i n t o d ar k n ess - i t i s n i gh t - t i m e, t h er e i s n o l i gh t , an d t h e t r ack i s w h i t e, l i k e a scr een p r o v i d i n g t h e su r f ace ag ai n st w h i c h t h e f i gu r es st an d ou t . T h e sh ad o w m o t i f i s al so i m p o r t an t h er e. I t i s as i f w e ar e i n t h e w o r l d o f G o r k i , w h o d escr i b ed t h at 'st r an g e si l en ce' o f t h e w o r l d o f si l en t f i l m s: 'Y est er d ay ev en i n g, I w as i n t h e K i n g d o m o f Sh ad o w s',15 i m m ed i at el y l o cat i n g ci n em at o gr ap h i c p r o j ect i o n i n t h e n i gh t o f H ad es. T h e sh ad o w al so r ef er s t o t h e m o d el p u t f o r w ar d b y t h e Pl at o n i c m y t h o f t h e cav e an d t h e d ecep t i v e i l l u si o n , t h at , r i gh t f r o m ou t set , b ecam e a st er eo t y p e o f t h e i m ag i n ar y w o r l d o f t h e ci n em a. A n d i t i s p r eci sel y as a cy cl i st t h at t h e Su p er m al e i s r ep r esen t ed as a p r o j ect ed f i gu r e b o r n o f a ci n em at o gr ap h i c d i sp o si t i v e. T h e m o v i n g o b ject w h i ch f i n al l y ap p ear s i s a r o ad h o g w h o i s f ast er t h an al l t h e o t h er v eh i cl es an d en d s u p b y b ei n g t h e f i r st t o cr o ss t h e f i n i sh i n g l i n e. A n o t h er o f h i s ch ar act er st i cs i s t h at h e av o i d s acci d en t s, ev en w h en h e co l l i d es w i t h t h i n gs an d co m es cl o se t o cat a st r o p h e. O n e o f t h e t w o d escr i p t i o n s p r esen t i n g h i m u n d er l i n es t h i s asp ect — t h e n ar r at o r h as j u st seen t h e r o ad h o g ap p ear an d f ear s t h e w o r st w h en t h e l o co m o t i v e seem s t o b est r i d e h i m :

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 0 2 h tt p ://s it e . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 0 2 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

«02

M a r ia T o r ta ja d a

... t he Road H og, com i n g u p at t he ver y i nstant w h en t he sh ad ow di sap pear ed, and m er gi n g for a secon d w i t h it, cr ossed t he t rack i n fr on t of our m ach i ne w i t h i ncredi ble aw k w ar d n ess but w i t h pr ovi den t i al luck, bot h for h i m an d for us. O n h i s apocalypt i c m achine, h e w en t veer i n g i nt o t he fir st r ai l ... You w ou ld h ave t hought , m y goodn ess, fr om t he am oun t of zi gzaggi n g he w as doi ng, t hat he h adn 't r i dden a bi cycle for m or e t han t hree h our s i n h i s li fe ... he w as car r yi n g out h i s i m beci lic lit t le m an eu ver s in fr on t of a gr eat expr ess t r ai n t hat w as boom i n g d ow n on h i m at m or e t han t hree h u n d r ed k ilom et er s an hour. ... A t pr eci sel y t hat i nst ant t he fr on t of t he m achi ne caugh t u p w i t h h i s r ear w h eel. D u r i n g t hat secon d w h en he w as about to be cr ush ed to pul p, ever yt h i n g about h is com i cal silhouet t e, d ow n t o t he det ai ls of t he spok es i n h i s bi cycle w heels, r em ai ned ph ot ogr ap h i cal ly i m pri n t ed on m y r et inas. Then I closed m y eyes, n ot w i sh i n g to count h i s t en t h ousan d fr agm en t s. H e w or e pi nce-nez, w as pr act i cal ly clean -sh aven , an d h ad ju st a sm all, spar se, cur ly bear d. H e w as dr essed i n a fr ock coat an d w or e a t op h at gr ay w i t h dust . ... Sur p r i sed to h ear the r egul ar cli cki n g [ of t he w heels] , as w ell as t he gr at i n g soun d of t he w or n bear i n gs, a good h alf-m i nut e aft er w h at I h ad su pposed m ust be the cat a st r oph e, I open ed m y eyes agai n an d cou ldn 't beli eve t hem - I cou ldn 't even beli eve t hat t h ey w er e open. The Road H og w as sti ll gl i d i n g al on g on our left , on t he t rack! Th e locom ot i ve w as u p agai n st h i m an d h e seem ed i n no w ay i ncon ven i en ced b y it. Th en I saw t he explan at i on o f t hi s m ar vel: t he w r et ch ed fel low w as n o dou bt u n aw ar e o f t he ar r i val o f t he gr eat t rai n beh i n d h i m ot h er w i se he w ou ld n ot h ave sh ow n such per fect com posure. Th e locom ot i ve h ad bu m ped i nto h i s bi cycl e an d w as n ow p u sh i n g it by the rear mudguard! A s for t he chai n - for of cour se t he r i di cu lous an d sen seless charact er w ou ld n ot h ave been able t o m ove h i s legs at such a speed - t he chain had been sn apped i n t w o b y t he i m pact , an d t he Road H og w as pedali n g joyfu l l y i n space - n eedlessly, m or eover ... N o t h i n g can st o p t h i s ci n em at o gr ap h i c cy cl i st g o i n g at f u l l t i lt . H i s r ace i s m ar r ed n ei t h er b y st o p s n o r acci d en t s. Ev en t h e n ar r at o r 's f ear — h e k eep s t h e f at al i n st an t 'p h o t o g r ap h i cal l y i m p r i n t ed o n [ h i s] r et i n as' b ef o r e t h e f i n al co l l i si o n - p r o v es t o b e f al se: m o v em en t an d sp eed ar e t h e v er y co n d i t i o n s o f t h e cy cl i st asso ci at ed w i t h t h e ci n em at o gr ap h .

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 0 3 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 0 3 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

T h e C in e m a t o g r a p h v e r s u s P h o to g ra p h y , o r C y c lis t s a n d T im e in t h e W o r k o f A l f r e d J a r r y

10 3

P h o to g ra p h y

T h e m ach i n e, t h e t o r t u r e v i ct i m an d t h e cy cl e r ace ar e b r o u gh t t o get h er i n a ch r o n i cl e i n t h e Ch an delle ver t e, w h i ch i s n o l o n ger cen t r ed o n ci n em a b u t o n p h o t o g r ap h y : 'L a Passi o n co n si d ér ée co m m e co u r se d e cô t e' ( 'T h e C r u ci f i x i o n C o n si d er ed A s A n U p h i l l Bi cy cl e R ac e) / 7 p u b l i sh ed b y Jar r y i n L e Can ar d sau vage i n A p r i l 19 0 3, p o r t r ay s t h e cy cl i st p r o t ago n i st as Jesu s C h r i st o n t h e d ay o f

h i s cr u ci f i x i o n . T h e st o r y i s a h u m o r o u s on e, j u x t ap o si n g i n a so m ew h at m o ck i n g m an n er t h e cr u ci f i x i o n w i t h d et ai l s o f m o d em l i f e su ch as t h e b i cy cl e, t h e t y r e an d p h o t o gr ap h y . T w o n ar r at i v e m o d el s ar e i n t er t w i n ed : t h e cy cl e r ace w i t h i t s u n cer t ai n t i es an d Ch r i st 's Passi o n . T h e co m i c an d i co n o cl ast i c ef f ect d e r i v es f r o m t h e w a y i n w h i ch t h e r ead er i s ask ed t o r ead t h e n ar r at i o n o f a sacr ed st o r y as a sp ect acl e, a p o p u l ar co m p et i t i o n . A d o se o f i r o n y i s ad d ed t o al l t h i s, w h i c h i s al l t h e m o r e v i si b l e w h en o n e i s aw ar e o f r aces i n gen er al an d Jar r y 's 'ci n em at o gr ap h i c' cy cl i st s, b ecau se, al t h o u gh b r eak n eck sp eed an d co n t i n u o u s m o v em en t ar e v er y i m p o r t an t t o I x i o n an d t h e Su p er m al e, t h e 'r ac i n g cy cl i st ' Jesu s C h r i st i s ch ar act er i sed b y i n ac t i v i t y an d st o p p i n g. T h e p r o b l em at t h e st ar t o f t h e r ace i n v o l v es t h e w h eel , t h e v er y ob ject t h at f o st er s t h e co m p ar i so n w i t h t h e ci n em at o gr ap h . T h i s i s h o w t h e st o r y b egi n s: Bar abbas, slat ed to race, w as scrat ched. Pi lat e, t he start er, p u lli n g out h i s cl ep syd r a or w at er clock, an oper at i on w h i ch w et h i s h an d s un less h e h ad m er ely spi t on t hem - Pi lat e gave t he send-off. Jesu s got aw ay to a good start. In t hose d ays, accor di n g to t he excellent spor t s com m en t at or St. M at t h ew, i t w as cus t om ar y to flagellat e t he spr in t ers at t he st ar t t he w ay a coachm an w h i p s h i s hor ses. The w h i p bot h st i m ulat es and gi ves a h ygi en i c m assage. Jesu s, then, got off in good for m , bu t he h ad a fiat r i gh t aw ay. A bed of t horns pun ct ur ed t he w h ole ci r cum fer ence o f hi s fr on t t i r e.18 T h e acci d en t — t h e f ai l u r e o f sp eed an d m o v em en t — i s sy m b o l i sed b y t h i s cy cl i st , w h o i s f at ed t o car r y h i s b i k e an d w al k . T h e n ar r at i v e st r at egy em p l o y ed i s t o m ai n t ai n t h e r ead er 's ex p ect at i o n s b y o n l y n ar r at i n g t h e m o m en t s w h en t h e cy cl i st st o p s. A f t er h av i n g m en t i o n ed t h e t y r e i n ci d en t , t h e ch r o n i cl er d escr i b es Ch r i st 's b i cy cl e o u t si d e t h e co n t ext o f t h e r ace, as i f p ar en t h et i cal l y w i t h i n t h e st or y. W e h ad bet t er begi n b y t elli ng about t he spi lls; but befor e t hat the m ach ine i t self m ust be descr i bed.’ 9

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 0 4 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 0 4 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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A f t er a l o n g d et o u r v i a t h e h u m o u r i st i c p r esen t at i o n o f t h e b i cy cl e i n t h e sh ap e o f Ch r i st 's cr o ss, t h e ch r o n i cl er f i n al l y b egi n s t o n ar r at e t h e r ace, w h i ch , si gn i f i c an t l y h e cu t s b ef o r e t h e en d : W e shall ab r i dge t he st or y of t he r ace i tself, for it h as been n ar r at ed i n det ai l b y sp e ci ali zed w or k s an d i llust r at ed b y sculpt ur e an d pai n t i n g vi si bl e in m on um ent s bui lt t o h ouse such art . Th er e ar e four t een t ur ns i n the di ffi cult Golgot h a cour se. Jesu s t ook h i s fir st spi ll at t he t hi rd t urn. H i s m ot her, w h o w as i n t he st an ds, becam e alar m ed.20 W h en h e f i n al l y d o es n ar r at e t h e r ace, h e d o es so i n p o i n t i l l i st f ash i o n , o n l y m en t i o n i n g t h e f al l s - t h e 'sp i l l s' - t h e st o p s, as i t w er e. I t i s i n t er est i n g t o n ot e t h at Jar r y t w i ce r ef er s t o p h o t o g r ap h y w h en st ag i n g t h e even t . I n act u al fact , p h o t o g r ap h y ap p ear s as t h e o p p o si t e o f ci n em a an d i t s d ef i n i n g el em en t s su ch as ar e ex p l o i t ed h er e, i .e., t h e cy cl i st s an d t h e r ace. T h e n o t i o n o f t i m e b ased o n t h e p h o t o gr ap h i c d i sp o si t i v e i s t h u s t h e co n t r ar y t o t h at b ased o n t h e ci n em at o gr ap h i c d i sp o si t i v e. I n La Ch an dell e ver t e, p h o t o g r ap h y i s m en t i o n ed m o r e o f t en t h an ci n em a, an d i t i s oft en asso ci at ed w i t h acci d en t s.21 I t i s t h u s n o su r p r i se t o d i sco v er t h at p h o t o g r ap h y i s p r esen t i n t h e cy cl e r ace sect i o n o f t h e Su per m ale w h en t h e n ar r at o r ex p ect s t h er e t o b e a cat ast r o p h e, f o r eseei n g t h at t h e t r ai n w i l l cr u sh t h e m y st er i o u s cycl i st . T h e acci d en t i s p r eci sel y o n e o f t h e el em en t s t h at d ef i n es p h o t o gr ap h i c p r act i ce as Jar r y saw it. I t i s i m p o r t an t t o n ot e t h at p h o t o g r ap h y h er e i s d i v er t ed f r o m i t s i n d i ci al ch ar act er . Jar r y o ccasi o n al l y m en t i o n s t h e d ar k r o o m on o t h er o ccasi o n s,22 b u t i t i s n ot l i n k ed t o t h e n et w o r k s o f sp eed an d cy cl i n g. Po r t r ai t p h o t o gr ap h y , w i t h i t s p o ses an d co n co m i t an t co n st r ai n t s - t h e d u r at i o n o f ex p o su r e, st i l l n ess o f t h e m o d el , f i n d i n g an at t i t u d e — ar e n ot u sed , d esp i t e t h ei r w i d esp r ead u se i n Fr an ce d u r i n g t h e l ast d ecad es o f t h e n i n et een t h cen t u r y.23 Jar r y w as n o t i n t er est ed i n an o t h er asp ect t h at i n cr eased p h o t o g r ap h y 's st an d i n g at t h e en d o f t h e cen t u r y : i t s cap aci t y t o r ev eal t h e i n v i si b l e, ap p ar i t i o n s an d v i si o n s - a d r eam t h at sp i r i t i st p h o t o g r ap h y cl ai m s t o sat i sf y .24 Jar r y u ses t h e acci d en t t o i n t r o d u ce p r ess p h o t o gr ap h y , w h i ch w as d ev el o p i n g at t h e t u r n o f t h e cen t u r y, an d t o b r i n g o n 'r ep o r t er s'.25 H e i s r eso l u t el y 'm o d er n ' i n t h e w a y t h at h e p o i n t s t o t h e inst ant aneou s n at u r e o f t h e p h o t o gr ap h , an d t h u s t o t h e d ev el o p m en t o f b o t h t h e t ech n i q u es t h at n u r t u r ed t h e i n st an t an eo u s p h o t o gr ap h i c i m age an d t h e w o r l d o f t h e i m agi n at i o n t h at t h r i v ed o n an d st i m u l at ed t h i s d ev el o p m en t . T h an k s t o t h e i n st an t an eo u s i m age, sp eed b eco m es a v i t al el em en t o f t h e p h o t o , as b o t h t h e sp eed o f t h e sh u t t er an d t h e ch em i cal r eact i o n ar e n ecessar y t o cap t u r e m o v i n g su b j ect s.26 I n t h e f i n al n ar r at i o n o f t h e d i f f er en t 'sp i l l s', t h e m en t i o n o f p h o t o g r ap h y - t h e seco n d i n t h e t ext - u n d er l i n es t h i s asp ect .

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 0 5 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 0 5 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

T h e C in e m a t o g r a p h v e r s u s P h o to g ra p h y , o r C y c lis t s a n d T im e in t h e W o r k o f A lf r e d J a r r y

10 5

H i s excellent t rai ner, Si m on t he Cyr en i an , w h o bu t for t he t horn acciden t w ou ld h ave been r i d i n g ou t in fr on t to cut t he w i n d , car r ied t he m achi ne. Jesus, t h ough car r yi n g not hi ng, per spi r ed h eavi ly. It i s n ot cer t ai n w h et h er a fem ale spect at or w i p ed h is br ow, bu t w e k n ow t hat Veronica, a gi r l reporter, got a good shot of him wit h her Kodak.

The secon d spill cam e at t he seven t h t ur n on som e sli p per y pavem ent . Jesu s w en t d ow n for t he t h ir d t i m e at t he eleven t h t urn, sk i d d i n g on a r ai l. The I sraeli t e demimondaines w aved t hei r h an dk er ch i efs at t he ei ght h. The depl or able acciden t fam i li ar to u s all t ook place at t he t w elft h t urn. Jesu s w as in a dead h eat at t he t im e w i t h t he t hi eves. W e k n ow t hat he cont i nued t he race air bor ne but t hat i s an ot her story. (M y i talics) T h u s en d s Jar r y 's ch r o n i cl e. T h i s p assag e i n cl u d es a d o u b l e r ef er en ce t o p h o t o gr ap h y , ex p l i ci t l y w i t h 'K o d ak '27 an d 'sh o t ', an d m o r e p l ay f u l l y w i t h t h e r ef er en ce t o t h e dem im on dain es, w i t h Jar r y p u n n i n g o n t h e w o r d inst ant ané, Fr en ch f o r b o t h sn ap sh o t an d p r o st i t u t e. T h e ch ar act er o f C h r i st i s su r r o u n d ed b y p h o t o gr ap h y . Jar r y i m m ed i at el y ex p l o i t s t h e d o u b t ab o u t t h e l egen d o f V er o n i ca's v ei l an d t h e i m p r i n t o f t h e H o l y Face i n o r d er t o u n d er m i n e t h e i n d i ci al v al u e t h at o n e m i gh t b e t em p t ed t o at t r i b u t e t o p h o t o gr ap h y . I t i s n o t ab l e t h at i n t h e r ef er en ce t o t h e 'sh o t ', t h e m o v em en t o f t h e p h o t o gr ap h ed su b j ect i s o f l i t t l e i m p o r t . Sp eed i s n o t t h e Ch r i st - cy cl i st 's st r o n g su i t . O n e m i gh t t h i n k t h at b y l i n k i n g t h e p h o t o t o t h e acci d en t - w i t h t h e asso ci at ed su r p r i se, t h e l o ss o f b al an ce, t h e u p set t i n g o f an o r d er - t h at t h e t o p i c o f sp eed w o u l d b e m ai n t ai n ed , t o get h er w i t h t h e i m ag i n ar y w o r l d o f f l eet i n gn ess, t h e ep h em er al an d t i m e su sp en d ed . Bu t Jar r y d o es n o t f o l l o w t h at p at h . Ei t h er m o v em en t i s ab sen t , as i n t h i s ex am p l e (t h e o n l y act i o n i s 'Jesu s ... p er sp i r ed o r i t i s n u l l i f i ed b y t h e acci d en t , w h i ch i s d ef i n ed p u r el y i n n egat i v e t er m s an d t h e d en i al o f al l sp eed , si n ce m o v em en t i s ex cl u d ed f r o m t h e l i t er al r ep r esen t a t i on o f t h e f al l s. I n sh or t , t h e i n st an t an eo u s p h o t o h as n o co n n ect i o n w i t h sp eed . T h i s co n cl u si o n , at f i r st si gh t su r p r i si n g, al l u d es t o o n e o f t h e ch ar act er i st i cs o f h o w i n st an t an eo u s p h o t o g r ap h y w as p er cei v ed at t h e t i m e - al t h o u gh t h e i n st an t an eo u s sh o t i s i n v o l v ed i n t h e sp eed , i t f r eez es su b j ect s i n t h ei r m o v em en t an d o f f en d s o b ser v er s, as i f t h e i m m o b i l i t y i t cr eat es i s d i f f i cu l t t o accep t .28 'T h e C r u ci f i x i o n C o n si d er ed A s A n U p h i l l Bi cy cl e Race' seem s t o p o r t r ay t h i s. W h en Jar r y d ev el o p s o n e o f h i s co n t em p o r ar i es' p r ef er r ed t h em es - acci d en t s an d f al l s - h e el i m i n at es al l i d ea o f m o v em en t , an d t h u s m ak es t h e p h o t o gr ap h er - r ep o r t er 's act l au gh ab l e, as al l t h at h as b een cap t u r ed o f t h e acci d en t i s w h at el u d es sp eed , i .e., t h e r ad i cal h al t t h at i s t h e r esu l t . I n sh or t , t h e m o v em en t an d sp eed co n st r u ct ed b y t h e ci n em at o gr ap h i c f i g u r es st an d i n o p p o si t i o n t o t h e h al t an d acci d en t o f a f i gu r e m o d el l ed o n t h e i m ag i n ar y w o r l d o f t h e i n st an t an eo u s p h o t o gr ap h i c i m age. I s t h at t an t am o u n t

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 0 6 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 0 6 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

106

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t o say i n g t h at Jar r y set s u p a co n cep t i o n o f t h e i n st an t t h at w o u l d st an d i n o p p o si t i o n t o t h e f l o w o f d u r at i o n , t h e co n t i n u o u s f l o w t h at i s t h e p r er o g at i v e o f t h e ci n em at o gr ap h ? T h ese ar e t h e t er m s ad d r essed b y h i s co n t em p o r ar y an d f o r m er p r o f esso r , H en r i Ber gso n , f o r w h o m t h e n o t i o n s o f t h e co n t i n u o u s f l o w o f t i m e, m o v em en t an d ex p er i en ce ar e cr u ci al . I t w as b y en h an ci n g t h ei r st at u s t h at h e w as ab l e t o cr i t i ci se n ot j u st t h e b r eak i n g d o w n o f m o v em en t , b u t al so t h e ci n em at o gr ap h an d i t s m ech an i cal n at u r e. B er gso n asso ci at ed p h o t o g r ap h y w i t h st o p p i n g w h en i t d esi gn at ed t h e p h o t o gr am o f t h e ci n em at o gr ap h i c m o d el , su ch as i s p u t f o r w ar d i n C r e at iv e E v o lu t io n (19 0 7 , t r an sl at i o n 19 11) .29 Bu t i t b el o n g s t o an o t h er p ar ad i g m w h en u sed i n M a t t e r an d M e m o r y (1896) 30 - i t i s t h u s l i n k ed t o t h e v er y m o v em en t o f m at t er o f w h i ch i t b eco m es, t h r o u gh ex am p l e, a su b st i t u t e.3’ D u r at i o n , m o r eo v er , i s f u n d am en t al i n t h e p h o t o gr ap h i c f u n ct i o n w h i ch Ber gso n cal l s u p o n t o d ef i n e 't h e v er y m o v em en t o f t h e m em o r y at w o r k ': W h en ever w e ar e t r yi n g to r ecover a r ecollect i on, to call u p som e per i od of our h i s tory, w e becom e con sci ous of an act sui generis b y w h i ch w e det ach our sel ves fr om t he presen t i n order to r eplace ou r selves, fi r st i n t he past i n general, t hen i n a cert ain r egi on of t he past - a w or k of adjustm ent , som et hi n g li ke t he focu ssi n g of a cam era. Bu t ou r r ecollect i on st ill r em ai n s vi r t ual; w e si m ply pr epar e ou r sel ves to r ecei ve i t b y ad opt i n g t he appr opr i at e at t i t ude. Li t t le b y lit t le it com es i nt o vi ew li k e a con den si ng cloud; fr om t he vi r t u al stat e it passes i nt o t he act ual; an d as it s out li nes becom e m or e di st i nct an d it s sur face t ak es on colour, i t t en ds to i m i t ate per cept i on . But it r em ai ns at t ached t o t he past b y it s deepest r oot s ... T h e 'f o c u ssi n g ' ser v es as a m o d el f o r t h e m em o r y : t h e 'p u r e m em o r y ' t h at t h e r eco l l ect ed i m age 'h as p r o g r essi v el y d ev el o p ed '32 i m p l i es a p h o t o gr ap h i c p r o cess t h at i s b ased o n t h e p assi n g o f t h e t i m e n ecessar y f o r d ev el o p m en t , w h i ch Jar r y, h o w ev er , co m p l et el y ab o l i sh es w h en h e ex p l o i t s t h i s m ed i u m . I n t h ese l ast t w o ex am p l es, Ber gso n 's ap p r o ach h as n o t h i n g t o d o w i t h t h e i n st an t an eo u s sh o t as t h e cessat i o n o r st o p p i n g t o w h i ch Jar r y r ef er s. A n d w h en i t i s asso ci at ed w i t h t h e f i x i n g o f t h e co n t i n u o u s m o v em en t i n t h e 'ci n em at o gr ap h i c m o d el ', w e n o t e t h at p h o t o g r ap h y i s d ef i n ed b y Ber gso n in r elat ion t o t h e f l o w o f t i m e. Fo r Jar r y, h o w ev er , i n t er r u p t ed sp eed an d m o v em en t ar e u sed w i t h o u t i m p l y i n g n o t i o n s o f t em p o r al f l o w an d t h e p assag e o f t i m e. T h e i n st an t an eo u s sh o t i s m er el y t h e r ev er se o f sp eed , i t s d en i al . L i k e t h e acci d en t , p ar ad o x i c al l y en o u gh , i t i s d ef i n ed w i t h o u t r ef er en ce t o t i m e.

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 0 7 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 0 7 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

T h e C in e m a t o g r a p h v e r s u s P h o to g ra p h y , o r C y c lis t s a n d T im e in t h e W o r k o f A l f r e d J a r r y

10 7

T w o p a ra d o x e s o f tim e

A n d y et i n t h i s t ext , p h o t o g r ap h y p l ay s i t s p ar t i n d ev el o p i n g an o t h er f o r m o f t i m e. T h e f i r st q u o t at i o n i n t h i s co n t ext o ccu r s i n t h e p ar t p r eced i n g t h e act u al n ar r at i o n o f t h e r ace b y m ean s o f t h e d i f f er en t f al l s. Jar r y d escr i b es t h e m ach i n e — t h e b i cy cl e — at t h e sam e t i m e as h e set s o u t a k i n d o f h i st o r i cal p ar o d y o f t h e sp o r t o f cy cl i n g: Jesus, aft er h i s pun ct ure, clim bed t he slope on foot , car r yi n g on h i s sh ou lder t he bi k e fr am e, or, i f you w i ll , t he cross. Con t em por ar y en gr avi n gs r epr odu ce t his scen e after phot ographs. (M y i talics)33 I t i s a l ap i d ar y co m m en t , b u t r i ch i n m ean i n gs. T h e f i r st i s t h e co m i c n at u r e o f t h e h i st o r i c i n v er si o n . I t i s u n ex p ect ed , t o say t h e l east , t o i n t r o d u ce p h o t o g r a p h y i n b i b l i cal t i m es an d t o t u r n t h e p h o t o g r ap h i n t o a m ean s o f l at er r ep r o d u c t i on . T h e p l ay i s o n t h e r esp ect i v e p o si t i o n s o f t h e o l d an d t h e n ew , t h e b egi n n i n g o f a q u est i o n i n g o f t h e essen ce o f t h e m o d em . Bu t an o t h er r ead i n g m u st b e ad d ed t o t h i s f i r st on e, r el at ed t o t h e h i st o r y o f p h o t o g r ap h y an d t h e w a y i t w o n o v er t h e p r ess, r em i n i scen t o f t h e r egi st er o f t h e 'r ep o r t er p h o t o g r ap h er '. M e ch an i cal r ep r o d u ct i o n h ad st ar t ed t o d ev el o p i n 18 8 0 . Pr ev i o u sl y , o n t h e r ar e o ccasi o n s w h en p h o t o s d i d ap p ear i n n ew sp ap er s o r r ev i ew s, t h ey r el i ed o n t h e t ech n i q u e o f en g r av i n g o n w o o d — t h ese i l l u st r at i o n s b o r e t h e l ab el 'af t er a p h o t o g r ap h '.34 T h e ex p r essi o n u sed b y Jar r y an d t h e al l u si o n t o en g r av i n g s r e f er b ack t o a f o r m er t i m e, b u t r ecen t i n r el at i o n t o t h e t i m e h e w as w r i t i n g (i n 1.903) - a t i m e w h en on e d i d i n d eed m ak e an en g r av i n g f r o m a p h o t o gr ap h , w h er e m o d er n p r act i ce co u l d p ar ad o x i c al l y 'p r eced e' a t r ad i t i o n al p r o ced u r e. T h i s f o r ces u s t o r et h i n k o u r f i r st r ead i n g: t h er e i s n o t o n l y on e p ast , t h at o f t h e cr u ci f i x i o n , an d o n e m o d er n i t y, t h at o f p h o t o gr ap h y , b u t t h er e i s al so a p ast w i t h i n m o d er n i t y, w h i ch m ak es m o d er n i t y i t sel f ap p ear w i t h i n h i st o r i cal t i m e, an d , i r o n i cal l y, acco r d s i t a p l ace p r ev i o u s t o t h e o n e t h at t r ad i t i o n r eser v es f o r i t . T h e r ef er en ce al l o w s u s t o t h i n k o f m o d er n i t y i n a p ar ad o x i cal w ay . Fo r w h at i s m o d em i s an ci en t , f r o m a cer t ai n p o i n t o f v i ew , an d v i ce- v er sa. W h at i s ach i ev ed h er e i s t h e d i so r i en t at i o n o f H i st o r y. W e m u st al so en v i sag e a t h i r d r ead i n g o f t h e sam e sen t en ce. T h e p l ay o n t h e q u est i o n o f r ep r o d u ct i o n i s n ot o n l y si gn i f i can t i n r el at i o n t o su ch a m o d al i t y or p r act i ce o f p h o t o gr ap h y . I t i s al so a cen t r al el em en t ser v i n g t o d ef i n e i t s st at u s as a r ep r esen t at i o n . Repr odu ct i on i n t h i s t ext ap p ear s as t h e i n ser t i n g o f t h e d i f f er en t r ep r esen t at i o n s o f t h e ev en t n ar r at ed w i t h i n a ser i es - a ser i es t h at , m o r e o ver , h as co m e t h r o u gh H i st o r y an d t i m e. Cl ear l y , t h e p h o t o gr ap h t ak en b y t h e K o d ak i s n ecessar i l y t ak en at t h e t i m e o f t h e r ace; i t i s t h e w i t n ess g i v i n g an acco u n t , si n ce t h e r ep o r t er V er o n i ca w as

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 0 8 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 0 8 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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i n d eed t h er e. I t co u l d ap p ear as a m em o r y t ool , an i n st r u m en t ser v i n g t o r eg i s t er al l n o t ab l e ev en t s an d p u t t i n g i t sel f i n t h e ser v i ce o f h i st o r y ,35 Ev en i f w e can i n i t i al l y agr ee t h at t h e p h o t o g r ap h i s a r ep r esen t at i o n t h at i s p r o d u ced at t h e sam e t i m e as t h e ev en t i t sh o w s, ev en i f i t i s o r i g i n al l y p l aced i n a d i r ect r el at i o n , i t i s, h o w ev er , n o t u n i q u e —w e sh al l see t h at i n cer t ai n r esp ect s i t i s n o t ev en t h e f i r st . I t en t er s i n t o a n et w o r k o f r ep r esen t at i o n s t o w h i c h t h e t ext co n st an t l y al l u d es. T h e accu m u l at i o n o f r ef er en ces sp eak s v o l u m es. A p ar t f r o m t h e en g r av i n g s m en t i o n ed i n t h e q u o t at i o n co m m en t ed o n h er e, w e f i n d : It i s not t rue t hat t here w er e an y n ai ls. The t hree t hat on e sees i n t he i m ages belon g to a r api d-ch an ge t ire t ool called t he "Ji ffy."36 ... Th at explai n s w h y t he illust rat ed magazines, in reproducing this celebrated scene, sh ow bi cycles of a r at her i m agi n ar y desi gn (p. 123, m y it alics). Si m i l ar l y , a n et w o r k o f st o r i es o r d escr i p t i o n s, o r r ef er en ces t o o l d t ext s, h i st o r i an s o r m em o r ab l e n am es i n t h e h i st o r y o f r el i gi o n , t ak e o v er f r o m t h e f i g u r a t i v e r ep r esen t at i o n s. Jar r y t h u s u ses t h e w el l - k n o w n p r act i ce o f w r i t i n g a co m m en t ar y o n t h e t ext , co n f i r m i n g o r q u est i o n i n g p r ev i o u s d i sco u r ses: A few people h ave i n si nuat ed fal sel y t hat Jesu s's m ach i ne w as a dr aisi en ne, an un l i k el y m oun t for a hi ll-cli m bi ng cont est . A ccor d i n g t o t he old cycloph i le h agi ogr apher s, St. Br i get , St. Gr egor y of Tour s, an d St. Irene, t he cr oss w as eq ui p ped w i t h a devi ce w h i ch t h ey n am e sup pedan eum . ... Li psi us, Just i n i an , Bosius, an d Er yci u s Put ean us descri be an ot her accessor y w h i ch on e st i ll finds, accor di n g to Cor n eli us Cu r t i u s in 1643, on Japan ese cr osses ... Th i s gener al descri pt ion, fur t her m or e, sui t s t he defi ni t i on of a bi cycle cur r en t am on g t he Ch i n ese ...37 W h en Jar r y set s o u t t o n ar r at e t h e r ace p r o p er , h e u ses a p r et ext - t h at i t h as b een 'n ar r at ed i n d et ai l b y sp eci al i z ed w o r k s an d i l l u st r at ed b y scu l p t u r e an d p ai n t i n g v i si b l e i n m o n u m en t s b u i l t t o h o u se su ch ar t ' - si m p l y t o g i v e a su m m ar y. T h er e i s n o b et t er w a y o f st r essi n g t h e p r o l i f er at i o n o f t h e r ep r esen t at i o n s. I t i s t h u s n o co i n ci d en ce t h at h e ch o o ses t o g i v e t h e acco u n t o f t h e r ace b ased o n i t s f o u r t een b en d s, i .e. t h e w a y o f t h e cr o ss w i t h i t s f o u r t een st at i o n s. T h e w a y o f t h e cr o ss i s al r ead y i n i t sel f a st agi n g o f t h e Passi o n . T h e cr u ci f i x i o n scen e h ad o f co u r se al r ead y b een u sed i n ear l y ci n em a as a m ean s o f t r an si t i o n b et w een a n ar r at i v e st r u ct u r e b ased o n t h e t ab l eau an d t h e l i n ear i z at i o n o f t h e f i l m n ar r a t i v e,3* b u t h er e w e n ot e t h at Jar r y d el i b er at el y ch o se i t i n 19 0 3 f o r i t s n o n - l i n ear f o r m , st r essi n g i t s p l u r i - p u n ct i l i ar an d st at i c n at u r e. Fi n al l y, t h e ev en t i t sel f i s l o st i n t h e n et w o r k o f r ep r esen t at i o n s — ev en b ef o r e b ei n g a u n i q u e, p r i m e h i s t o r i cal f act t h at co u l d h av e b een 'p h o t o g r ap h ed ', t h e r ace- Passi o n al r ead y p r e sen t s i t sel f as a p r e- st r u ct u r ed n ar r at i o n t h an k s t o t h e f o r m o f t h e w a y o f t h e cr o ss. A l l t h at i s l ef t i s a ser i es o f r ep r esen t at i o n s w h er e p h o t o g r ap h y d o es n ot

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 0 9 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 0 9 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

T h e C in e m a t o g r a p h v e r s u s P h o to g ra p h y , o r C y c lis t s a n d T im e in t h e W o r k o f A lf r e d J a r r y

10 9

h av e a cl ear l y d ef i n ed h i st o r i cal p l ace, ei t h er as a m o d er n m ed i u m as w e saw ab o v e o r ev en , at t h e o t h er ext r em e, as an o r i gi n al r ep r esen t at i o n co n t em p o r ar y t o t h e ev en t .39 I n co n cl u si o n , Jar r y saw p h o t o g r ap h y as an i n st an t an eo u s p h o t o gr ap h t h at i s i n co n t act w i t h t h e even t , ev en t h o u gh t h e ev en t v an i sh es i n t h e h i st o r i cal an d n o n - v ect o r i z ed ser i es o f r ep r esen t at i o n s. Ph o t o g r ap h y j o i n s a n et w o r k o f r ep r o d u ct i o n s t h at ar e a t est i m on y, w h i l e si m u l t an eo u sl y h el p i n g t o d i sr u p t t h e l i n k b et w een p ast an d p r esen t . I t t h u s b eco m es p r o b l em at i cal t o co n cei v e o f H i st o r y as an ad v an ci n g o f t i m e t h at i s b o t h v ect o r i z ed an d su b m i t t ed t o p r o gr ess - a p o si t i v e v al u e i n t h e cen t u r y t h at saw t h e i n d u st r i al r ev o l u t i o n . H i st o r y can o n l y b e cap t u r ed o r ap p r o ach ed o n a p o in t - t o - p o in t b asi s t h r o u gh each r ep r esen t at i on . I t i s b ased n ei t h er on d u r at i o n n o r on a t em p o r al u n f o l d i n g o f t i m e. I n 'T h e C r u ci f i x i o n C o n si d er ed A s A n U p h i l l Bi cy cl e Race', t i m e i s t h e p o i n t i l l i st an d p ar ad o x i cal d eep en i n g o f h i st o r y t h r o u gh i t s r ep r esen t at i o n s.40 B u t w h at can on e say o f t i m e i n Jar r y 's ci n em at o gr ap h i c m o d el s? Fo r I xi o n an d t h e Su p er m al e, i t i s co n st r u ct ed t h r o u gh t h e ex p er i en ce o f sp eed . C o n t r ar y t o t h e act o f r ew o r k i n g h i st o r y t h r o u gh t h e d i f f er en t m o m en t s ch o sen , ci n em a t o gr ap h i c f i gu r es ar e in t i m e, t h ey l i v e i n t h e p r esen t b y ex p er i en ci n g sp eed sp eed w h i ch n ev er st o p s b ecau se t h er e can b e n o acci d en t . I n t h e t en - t h o u san d m i l e r ace, t h e acci d en t i s an n o u n ced sev er al t i m es b u t al w ay s av o i d ed —i t i s t h e r ev er se si d e o f Jar r y 's p h o t o gr ap h i c m o d el . T h e 'ex p er i en ce' o f su p er l at i v e sp eed co u l d b r i n g Jar r y cl o ser t o Ber gso n , w h o al so m ak es ex p er i en ce a p ar t i cu l ar m ean s o f k n o w l ed ge, p ecu l i ar t o i n t u i t i o n . H i s r eq u i si t e, sp eak i n g o f t h e i n t el l ect an d t h e k n o w l ed g e o f m at t er , i s t o 'i n st al l i t sel f w i t h i n t h e m o v i n g ' i n st ead o f b r eak i n g i t d o w n o r b u i l d i n g i t u p b y m u l t i p l e st o p p i n g p oi n t s, su ch as t h e p r act i ce o f m o d er n o r an ci en t sci en ce d o es.41 A n d yet , t h e ex p er i en ce o f sp eed i n Jar r y 's w o r k i s al so l i n k ed t o a p ar ad o x . I n t h e r ace i n t h e S u p e r m ale , t h e p r o d i g i o u s v el o ci t y i s co n st an t l y m easu r ed , b u t t h e ef f ect p r o d u ced o n t h e n ar r at o r , si t t i n g o n t h e f i v e- m an b i cy cl e, i s q u i t e d i f f er en t . N o m o v i n g b o d y m an ag es t o o u t d i st an ce t h e o t h er - t h ey ar e al l co r r e l at ed , as i t w er e, an d i n sep ar ab l e, l i k e t h e p ar t s o f a si n gl e an d h u ge m ach i n e t r av el l i n g at an i n cr ed i b l e sp eed . ... t he locom ot i ve, look i n g li ke a bi g, good-n at ur ed an i m al, w as gr azi n g42 i n t he sam e par t of ou r vi su al "fi el d ", n ei t her ad van ci n g n or r ecedi ng. Its on ly appar en t m ot ion w as a sli gh t t r em bli n g o f i t s flan k ... (p.52). The t rai n h ad r et ain ed i t s p r evi ou s posi t i on, w i t h t he sam e appar en t i m m obi li t y ...

(P- 54 )O r agai n : The t rai n k ept u p w i t h us st ead i l y ... (p. 60).

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 1 0 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 1 0 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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W e w er e n ow agai n m ovi n g as befor e ... Th e locom ot i ve w as st i ll at t he sam e level (p. 6 1) .

I n o t h er w o r d s, t h e ex p er i en ce o f sp eed i n t h e p h en o m en o l o gi cal sen se o f t h e t er m i s i m m o b i l i t y .43 T h i s i s m ad e ex p l i ci t i n an o t h er t ext p u b l i sh ed i n La Revu e blanche ( 15 M ar ch 19 0 3) , ab o u t l oopin g t he loop:

W e beli eve t hat w i t h i n a few m ont hs, n ew sw i t ch back s w i ll ad op t t hi s syst em , w h er e t he spect at ors i n seat s i n w agon s w i l l w h i zz ar oun d an i m m obi le 'acr ob at '. A cr obacy an d speed w i ll ver y n at u r ally be, on e day, i m m obi le .. .44 T h at i s h o w t h e f o l l o w i n g d escr i p t i o n o f I x i o n i n t h e 19 0 3 st o r y q u o t ed ab o v e i s t o b e u n d er st o o d : 'I xi o n i s i n t h e 'st at e o f m i n d ' o f t h e can n o n b al l sav o u r i n g i t s t r aj ect o r y. H e en j o y s g o i n g q u i ck l y, w i t h o u t p at t i n g h i s o w n b ack ' (p. 406) . B y r ef u si n g t h e g l o r y o f sp eed ( 'w i t h o u t p at t i n g h i s o w n b ack ') , Jar r y cr eat es an i n su r m o u n t ab l e p ar ad o x , an d t h u s cal l s i n t o q u est i o n b o t h t h e ex p er i en ce an d i t s ex cessi v e v al o r i z at i o n as a p l ace o f k n o w l ed ge. T h e t i m e t h at o n e ex p er i en ces i n m o v em en t i s n o t t h at o f t h e f l o w o f l i f e b u t t h at o f et er n i t y - Jar r y say s t h at I x i o n i s 'et er n al '. W e sh o u l d n ot e, h o w ev er , t h at t h i s i s n ot a r et u r n t o t h e i d eal an d u n ch an geab l e cl assi cal v al u es, as t h ey t o o ar e m o ck ed .45 T h e ch an ce st o p p i n g l i n k ed t o t h e p h o t o gr ap h i s o p p o sed t o t h e i m m o b i l i t y o f sp eed , l i n k ed t o t h e ci n em at o gr ap h . A t i m e t u r n ed t o w ar d s t h e p ast an d t h e p ar ad o x i cal el ab o r at i n g o f h i st o r y ar e o p p o sed t o an eq u al l y p ar ad o x i cal t i m e l i n k ed t o 'ex p er i en ce'. I n t h e f i r st case t h e p ar ad o x b el o n gs t o h i st o r i cal t i m e, co n cei v ed t h r o u gh t h e st o p p i n g o f m o v em en t , t h e acci d en t an d i t s p o i n t i l l i st r eco n st i t u t i o n i n a ser i es o f r ep r esen t at i o n s, n o t f i n al i z ed b y p r o gr ess. I n t h e seco n d case i t st em s f r o m t h e n at u r e o f t h e ex p er i en ce l i n k ed t o sp eed an d m o v em en t . N ei t h er t h e p h o t o gr ap h i c n o r t h e ci n em at o gr ap h i c m o d el s g i v e ac cess t o t i m e as d u r at i o n , u n f o l d i n g o r f l o w . Ev en w h en on e exper ien ces sp eed , o n e i s f aced w i t h i t s n egat i o n . I t i s b ecau se sp eed an d m o v em en t , t h o se essen t i al q u al i t i es o f ci n em at o gr ap h i c m ach i n es, can n o t b e r ed u ced ei t h er t o t h e st o p p i n g o f t h e i n st an t an eo u s sh ot an d t h e p h o t o gr ap h i c acci d en t , o r t o co n t i n u o u s m o v em en t co n cei v ed i n i t s d u r at i o n acco r d i n g t o Ber gso n 's m o d el . Jar r y can t h u s st i m u l at e n ew r ead i n g s o f ci n em a t h eo r y t h at r ecal l t h e i m p o r t an t r o l e p l ay ed b y Ber gso n , w h et h er f o r h i s d et r act o r s - t h e d ef en d er s o f d i sco n t i n u o u s m o v em en t , st o p s an d b r eak s ( as i s p r o p er t o a ci n em a o f t h e p h o t o gr am ) — or t h o se w h o cl ai m t o b e i n f l u en ced b y h i s p h i l o so p h y an d w h o f i n d i n t h e ap p ar en t m o v em en t o f p r o j ect i o n t h e ex p er i en ce o f t h e co n t i n u al f l o w o f li fe.

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 111 h t t p :/ /s ite . e b ra ry .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 1 1 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

T h e C in e m a t o g r a p h v e r s u s P h o to g ra p h y , o r C y c lis t s a n d T im e in t h e W o r k o f A l f r e d J a r r y

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6. 7. 8. 9.

The t erm disposit ive cover s the syst em of r elat i on s t hat i s est ablished bet w een t hese t hree elem ent s, t ak i n g i nt o account t he m ode of pr od uci n g an d sh ow i n g t he r epr e sent at i on. D en is Ber n ar d an d A n d r é Gunt h er t t rack d ow n t hi s m ode of t hough t in t he r elat ion of an at om y an d p h ysi ology: 'A few year s aft er t he Fr en ch publi cat i on of D ar w i n 's Evolut ion of the Species (1862), t hat put for w ar d t he i dea of an alysi n g t he m ovem en t of n at ur e as an evolu t i ve, dyn am i c an d i r r ever si ble process, Cl au d e Ber n ar d's Int ro duct ion cont ri but ed to i m posi n g t he i d ea o f a m ovem en t t hat in t egrat es t he r epr e sen t at i on of t ime, w h er e con t em porari es r ecogn i sed t he ver y i m age of t he for w ar d m ar ch of soci al, sci ent i fi c or i n dust r i al pr ogr ess' ( L 'Inst ant rêvé. Alber t Londe, N îm es/ Laval: Jacqu eli n e Ch am bon , Toi s, 1993, p. 165). See M i ch el Foucault , L'Ar chéologie du savoir, Par i s: Galli m ar d , 1969, pp. 249-250. In ot her w or d s, t he r elat i ons bet w een t he di st in ct elem ent s t hat becom e a hi st or i cal m odel t h r ough t he ci n em at ogr aphi c d i sposi t i ve - t he m ach i nes t hat Jar r y i n ven t ed or m ade h i s ow n m ak e u p di st i nct epi st em i c i nt er pr et at i on s of t hese di st i nct elem ent s. A lfr ed Jar r y, Le Surmâle. Œ uvr e complètes, II, Par i s: Galli m ar d (La Pléi ade), 1987; The Supermale, t ranslat ed b y Ral ph Gl ad st on e an d Bar bar a W r igh t w i t h an i nt roduct i on b y Bar bar a W r ight , Cam br i dge: Exact Ch an ge, 1999. I h ave w r i t t en el sew h er e in som e det ai l on t hese t w o fi gu r es an d t hei r r elat i on w i t h t he ci n em at ogr aph - her e I gi ve a br i ef sum m ar y. See i n par t i cul ar 'L 'om br e pr ojet ée de la vit esse. Le ci n ém at ogr aphe et la cour se des d i x m i lle m i lles dan s Le Surmâle d'A l fr ed Jar r y', Et udes de lettres, 'O n a t ouché à l'espace!' (eds. D. Ch aper on , Ph. M or et ), (U n i versi t é de Lausan n e), no. 1, sum m er 2000; 'M ach i n es ci ném at i ques et di sposi t i fs vi suel s. Ci n ém a et « pr é-ciném a » à l'oeu vr e chez A l fr ed Jar r y ', 1895, no. 40, Ju l y 2003, pp. 5-23. 'L a m écani que d 'I xion', La chandelle vert e, Œ uvr es complètes, Vol. II, Par i s: Gall i m ar d (La Pléi ade), 1987, p. 405. M or eover , t he Lu m i èr e ci n em at ogr aph is bot h cam er a an d project or. 'L a m écani que d 'Ixion', op. cit., p. 406. It i s expli ci t ly associ at ed w i t h t he Super m al e and t he r epet it i on i m posed on h i m in t he scene lead i n g t o t he r evelat i on about love, w h er e a cu r i ous ph on ogr aph -voyeu r p lays a par t . Th e m an an d w om an ar e ab out to r ecom m ence: 'A ph on ogr ap h lou d speak er occupi ed t he cent er of t he t able fr om w h i ch t h ey h ad eaten. Fr om it s horn, n ow st r an gely block ed b y od or s an d colors, t here blar ed for t h a loud si n gi n g t hat fi lled t he hall. / "Br avo, sai d Vi r gi n i e agai n . / The w or d w as i n audible, but the ges t ur e of h er p u d gy h an d s cou ld be seen as t h ey t ried, i r oni cally, to ap p lau d , w i t h out r eli n qui sh i ng t hei r gr i p on h er van t age poi nt . / "W h y n ot — " an d she sh out ed at t he t op of h er voi ce i n an effor t t o be h ear d ab ove t he or gan li k e r oar of t he en or m ou s i nst r um en t — " a ci n em at ogr ap h ?" / Th e gi r l 's li ps w er e m ovi n g, bu t t heir voi ces cou ld n o lon ger be h ear d. / W het her or n ot t h ey h ear d V i r gi n i e, A n d r é and Ellen seem ed di sposed to an sw er h er r equest b y st r i k i n g som e t heat ri cal at t i t udes: t he "I n d i an " h ad plu ck ed a r ed r ose fr om t he bouquet an d offer ed it, w i t h a t erndern ess h u m or ou sly t i n ged w i t h cerem ony, to t he m ask ed w om an on t he di van ; t hen

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 1 2 h tt p ://s it e . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 1 2 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

11 2

10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21.

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M a r ia T o r ta ja d a

t hei r m out h s join ed for a m i nut e, w i t h n o m or e concer n for t hei r audi en ce, w h o w er e n ow unable to t r ouble t hem , and let t h em selves sw ay t o t he flo w i n g rh yt h m of t he m usi c.' (The Supermale, op. cit ., pp. 115-6) . [ Tr anslat or 's not e: I h ave m odi fi ed one par t of t he publi sh ed t r an slat i on of V i r gi n i e's m on ologue, w h i ch r eads: "'W h y don 't you —" [ ...] "sh o w m ot ion pi ct u r es?"'.] Ibi d., p. 66. It i s al lu ded to fr om t he begi n n i n g of t he r ace, bu t w i t h out i den t i fyi n g it: "'Som et h i n g's follow i n g u s!" ' (Ibi d., p. 53) Ibi d., p. 54. Ibid., pp. 59-60. Ibid., p. 65. Ibi d., p. 66. Pr esen t ed b y Jay Leyd a, Kino. H ist oiredu cinét rn russe et soviét ique,Lau san n e:L 'A ge d'H om m e, 1976, pp. 172-174. It sh ould, h ow ever , be n ot ed t hat Jar r y op poses the i m pr essi on of si lence b y i n t r oduci n g t he m et allic n oi se of t he m ach i nes - t he cl an k i n g cr eak in g, etc. The Supermale, op. cit., pp. 67-69. In The Select ed Works of Alfr ed Jarry, edi t ed b y Roger Sh at t uck an d Si m on W at son Taylor , t r an slat ed b y Roger Shat t uck, N ew Yor k : Gr ove Pr ess, 1965, pp. 122-4. O p. cit., p. 122. Ibi d., p. 122. Ibi d., p. 124. For exam ple, t he ar t icle publi sh ed i n t he Revue blanche on 15 M ay 19 0 1, 'L a phot o gr aph i e des acci dent s', La Chandelle vert e, op. cit., pp. 297-298. O r i n Le Canard sau vage (23-29 A u gu st 1903), t he ar t icle en t i tled 'L 'au t o p op ul ai r e': 'N ot a let t er bu t an i llust r at ed post car d w i t h an i n st ant an eous ph ot ogr aph of t he accident " (ibi d., p. 504). Jar r y's i n fat uat i on w i t h accident s - r ew or k ed b y hi m as a n ew s i tem - cover s m ach ines ot her t han bicycles, all of w h i ch ar e on w heels. See in par t icular : 'T h e sw an i s di st i n gui sh ed b y it s w hi t en ess, w h i ch i s n ot com p ar able to t hat of t he li ly w h en ob ser ved i n t he condi t i on s t hat best br i n g it out , such as i n a val ley sh aded fr om t he sun su ffi ci en t ly to be m or e or less t r an sfor m ed i nt o a dar k -r oom ' ('L e chant d u cygn e', i n La Revue blanche of 1 N ovem ber 1902, Ibid., p. 378). Gi sèl e Fr eun d descr i bes t he fad of por t r ai t ph ot ogr aph y d u r i n g t he Secon d Em pi r e and i t s spr ead i n g an d success up to t he en d of t he n inet eent h cen t ury (Phot ographie et société, Par i s: Seui l, 1974, pp. 60, 85 i n part i cular ). W alt er Ben jam i n goes back over di fferent hi st or ic m odes of the pract i ce i n or der t o con cei ve of it s r elat i on w i t h the aur a ('Pet i t e hi st oi r e de la ph ot ogr ap h i e' ( 19 31) , 2. Poésie et Révolut ion, Par i s: D enoël/ Gon t hi er (Let t res n ouvelles), 19 71, pp. 22-25. H e also br i n gs it u p i n 'L 'œu vr e d'ar t à l'époque de sa r epr oduct i on m écani sée' (1936), Ecrit s fr ançais, Par i s: Galli m ar d, 19 9 1, p. 150 (Engli sh t ranslat ion: 'T h e W or k of A r t in t he A ge of M ech an i cal Repr odu c t ion', t r an slat or un k n ow n , publi sh ed on ). A s for Jar ry, m en t i on m ust be m ad e of 'A pr opos d'un albu m ', publi sh ed i n 19 0 1 i n La Revue blanche of 1 M ar ch 19 0 1 (op. cit., pp. 280-281), w i t h refer ence to 'por t r ai t [ i n g] a w r i t er '. I.e. H i ppol yt e Bar aduc: L'A m e humaine, ses mouvement s, ses lumières et l'iconographie de l'invisiblefluidique, Par i s: C. Car r é, 1896.

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 1 3 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 1 3 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

T h e C in e m a t o g r a p h v e r s u s P h o to g ra p h y , o r C y c lis t s a n d T im e in t h e W o r k o f A l f r e d J a r r y

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See for exam ple 'M od er n r epor t er s see n o fur t her t han t he en ds of t hei r noses, w h i ch t hey spor t short . / So t h ey t ake ph ot ogr ap h s' ('Fai t s d i ver s', Le Canard sauvage, 27 Septem ber / 3 O ctober 1903, op. cit. p. 519) . A di st i nct ion m ust be m ad e bet w een 'r e por t er s', associ at ed w i t h ph ot ogr aph y, t he i n st ant aneous even t an d also t he accident , and 'obser ver s', w h om Jar r y calls up on i n h i s chroni cles to bear out k n ow led ge t hat he clai m s i s accept ed an d ver i fi ed, bu t w h i ch i n fact al lo w s h im t o devel op a p ar ad ox an d com i c effect . In t he chronicles, t he ob ser ver becom es, as i t w er e, t he part ner i n the act of enunci at i on. For exam ple ' . .. t h us t he m ost super fi ci al ob ser ver could n ot cast doubt on t he fact t hat i f sh oot i n g i s or gan i sed out si de of Par i s, t he vest i ges w i ll be fou n d al on gsi d e t he r ai l w ays' ( 'L a quad r at ur e du di sque', La Chandelle vert e, op. cit., pp. 369-370) or: 'A n y obser ver k n ow s t hat r ai ls, w h i ch ar e guar an t eed to be par allel over a shor t di st ance, joi n u p w h en n ear i n g t he hor izon, t h r ough som e defect or other. Som ew h er e beyon d t he h or i zon t here i s m ost cert ai n ly a poi nt w h er e t hey com e t o get her an d form a V ...' ( 'L ’ai gui llage du ch am eau', i bi d., p. 377). M i ch el Fr i zot defi n es as follow s t he i n st ant an eous i m age: 'T h e accessi on t o inst ant aneit y, w h i ch is not an end i n i t self bu t a m odali t y of t he evolut i on of ph ot ogr aph y, i s defi n ed b y speed, an d m or e pr eci sely t he cou pli n g of t w o speeds: t hat o f t he subject, t hat one can i m agi n e gr eat er and gr eat er, an d t hat o f t he shut t er, t hat elem en t w h i ch det er m i nes t he br evi t y w i t h w h i ch li gh t ent ers i nt o t he ch am ber ' ('Vi t esse de la phot ogr aph i e. Le m ouvem en t et la du r ée', Nouvelle hist oire de la phot ographie (ed. M . Fri zot ), Par i s: Bor das, A d am Bi ro, 1994, p. 244. 'K o d ak ' i s t he n am e of t he cam er a desi gn ed b y East m an. Th er e w er e ot her por t able cam eras at the t i me: the 'D et ect i ves'; t he 'Exp r ess D ét ect ive N ad ar ' (1888), t he 'Véloci gr aph e' (1891) , the Lum i èr e Br ot h er s' 'A u t om at i q ue'. W h at w as speci al about t he K od ak w as t hat i t w or k ed w i t h a fi lm t hat w as en t i r ely d evel op ed i n t he fact ory. The ad ver t i si n g slogan 'Yo u Pr ess t he But t on, W e D o t he Rest ” un der li n es t hi s faci l i t y w h i ch w ou ld ensur e i t s success (Jean -Clau de Gaut r an d, 'Ph ot ogr aph i e à l'im pr ovi st e. I m pr essi on s i nst ant anées', N ouvelle hist oire de la phot ographie, op. cit., pp. 237 238). A n d r é Gun t h er t an d D en i s Ber n ar d w r i t e i n t he follow i n g w ay about t he favou r abl e react i on expr essed b y M ei sson ier , a pai n t er of t he equest r i an genr e, i n favou r of ph ot ogr ap h y an d of w h at i t r eveals about t he horse's gallop: 'Bu t t hi s beaut i ful t ale i s decept i ve. It i s an i solat ed epi sod e i n t he h i st or y of r ecept i on of t he i n st ant aneous shot an d di ssi m ul at es t hat ever -presen t vi olen ce of its i m ages an d t he pr ofoun d r esist ance t o w h i ch t hey h ave al w ays gi ven r i se.' ( L ’Inst ant rêvé. op. cit., p. 172). See t he fam ou s pages o f Ch ap t er I V of Cr eat ive Evolut ion, t r an slat ed b y A r t h u r M i t chell, PhD . N ew Yor k : H en r y H olt an d Com pan y, 19 11: 'W e t ak e snapshot s, as i t w er e, of t he p assi n g r eali t y ..., ( i bi d., p. 306). 'Th e w h ole di ffi cul t y of t he pr oblem t hat occupi es us com es from t he fact t hat w e i m agi n e percept i on to be a k i n d of ph ot ogr aph i c vi ew of t hi ngs, t aken fr om a fi xed poi n t b y t hat speci al appar at u s w h i ch is called an or gan of percept i on - a phot ogr aph w h i ch w ou ld t hen be devel oped i n t he br ain -m at t er b y som e u n k n ow n chem i cal and psych i cal pr ocess o f elaborat i on . Bu t is it n ot ob vi ou s t hat t he ph ot ogr aph , i f phot o gr ap h t here be, i s al r ead y t aken, al r ead y devel op ed in t he ver y h ear t of t h i n gs an d at all the poi n t s o f space?' Bergson, H enri . M at t er and M emory, aut h or i zed t r anslat ion by N an cy M ar gar et Paul an d W . Scot t Palm er , N ew Yor k : Zon e Book s, 1988 (London : D i st ri but ed b y M I T Pr ess, 1988; or i gi n ally publi sh ed: Lon don: Sw an Sonnenschei n,

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 1 4 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 1 4 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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35. 36. 37.

38. 39.

40.

4 1. 42. 43.

44. 45.

M a r ia T o r ta ja d a

19 11) , pp. 38-9. The t r anslat ion i s avai lable on t he I nt ernet at t he follow i n g addr ess: . Th er e are i n deed t w o ph ot ogr aph i c p ar adi gm s, n ot be con fused u n der an y ci rcum st ances. See 'Ph ot ogr aph i e/ Ci n ém a: p ar ad i gm es com plém en t ai res d u début d u XXe si ècle', Colloque Fi xe/ An im é, U n iver si t é de Lau san n e, Sect ion d'h i st oi r e et est hé t ique d u ci ném a, 2007, for t hcom i n g (see w w w .un i l.ch / ci n / page56362.h t m l). O p. cit., p. 134. Tr an slat or 's not e: Roger Shat t uck's t r anslat ion ('fr om ph ot ogr aph s') h as been m od i fi ed here. See Gi sèl e Fr eund, op. cit., p. 10 1, an d Syl vi e A u ben as, 'L a ph ot ogr aph i e est un e est am pe. M ult i pli cat i on et st abi lit é', in M i ch el Fr izot , op. cit., p. 229, an d A n dr é Barr et , Les premiers reporters phot ographes 18 48 -19 14, Par i s: A . Barr et , 1977, p. 6. Th i s w as al r ead y on e of it s fun ct i on s du r i n g t he Secon d Em pi re. See A n d r é Roui llé, L'Em pir e de la phot ographie 1839 -1870 , Par i s: Le Sycom or e, 1982, p. 164. Tr an slat or 's not e: I h ave m od i fi ed t he publ i sh ed t r an slat i on , w h i ch r eads: '[ t] he t hree object s u su al l y sh ow n i n t he ads ...' O p. cit., p. 123. W e m ay al so m en t i on t he presence of a 'fem al e sp ect at or ' - t his is h ow V er on i ca i s desi gn at ed - since t he spor t i n g an d hi st or i c even t i s i n deed t r eat ed as a spect acle-repr esent at i on . See N oël Burch, La lucarne de l 'in fin i. Naissance du langage cinémat ographique, Par i s: N at h an , 1990. Cr eat i n g a ser i es of r epresen t at ions t h r ough a phen om en on o f r epr oduct i on m ay in som e r espect s be com p ar ed to Benjam i n's t h i n ki n g on t he au r a of t he pri m e object, w h et h er w or k o f ar t of n at ur al object - the 'hic et nunc, i t s un i que exist en ce'. W e could t hus say w i t h Ben jam in t hat i n 'T h e Cr u ci fi xi on Con si der ed A s A n U ph i ll Bi cycle Race', t he r epr oduct i on of t he even t 'subst i t u t es a p lu r al i t y of copi es for a un i qu e exi st en ce' ('Th e W or k of A r t i n t he A ge of M ech an i cal Repr oduct i on ', op. cit.). O ne m ust h ow ever under li n e t hat t he n at ur e of r epr oduct i on as en vi saged b y Jar r y di ffer s fr om t hat st udi ed b y Benjam i n, w h o con cen t r at es on m ech an i sed r epr o duct ion an d t he accessi bi li t y t hat it gi ves to t he m asses i n t he syn ch r on y of a per i od (in par t i cul ar b y m ean s of t he i dea of 'u bi qu i t y', ibid). Jar r y for h i s par t w or k ed on ser i ali zi n g r epr oduct i on s i n h i st ori cal t ime, w h i ch h e con fr on t s w i t h t hi s par ad ox. Th e t em pt at i on here i s t o li n k t he breaking down of t im e br ough t about b y t hi s w ay of t reat i ng h i st or y to t he r eal 'br eak i n g d ow n of m ovem en t ' r eali sed b y M ar ey by m ean s of t he chr on oph ot ogr aph i c m et hod, even t h ou gh i n t his m et hod, t here is st ill a r efer er ence to an u n fold i n g of t i m e t hat i s m easur able, an d t h us vect ori zed. Creat ive Evolut ion, op. cit., p. 343 Tr an slat or 's not e: I h ave m odi fi ed t he publi sh ed t ranslat ion, w h i ch r eads 'seem ed to be gr azi n g'. O r a ver y slow m ovem en t , as can be seen in m y ar t icle en t i tled 'L e spect at eur m éca n i que', op. cit. d eali n g w i t h t he st r oboscopi c effect an d t he refer ence to ear ly-ci nem a appar at uses. Textes crit iques divers, Œuvr es complètes, Vol . II, op. cit., p. 674. W i t h a n eat pun Jar ry, i n Faust roll, speak s of 'et h er n i t y', an allusi on to sci ent i fi c t he or i es ab out et her, i n t roduci n g an i roni c t ouch w i t h r elat i on t o t he classic val u es of the I deal t i m e i n w h i ch t he n ot i on of et er ni t y i s i nscr ibed. See Book VIII, ent it led 'L'ét herni t é', Œuvr es complètes, Vol. 1, op. cit., pp. 724-727.

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 1 5 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 1 5 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

b e l 6 7 d c2 9 b l 5 e 7 d 8 2 2 3 a7 c2 b S b e d 0 e 0 0 eb rary

2 Exhibition

b e l 6 7d c2 9 b l 5e 7d 8 2 2 3a 7c 2 b 8 b e d 0 e 0 0 ebr ar y

b e l 6 7d c 29 b l 5e 7d 8 2 23a 7c 2b Sb e d 0 e 0 0 ebr ar y

b e l 6 7d c 29 b l 5e 7d S22 3a 7c2 b 8 b e d 0 e 0 0 ebr ar y

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 1 6 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 1 6 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

b e l 6 7 d c2 9 b l 5 e 7 d 8 2 2 3 a7 c2 b S b e d 0 e 0 0 eb rary

b e l 6 7d c2 9 b l 5e 7d 8 2 2 3a 7c 2 b 8 b e d 0 e 0 0 ebr ar y

b e l 6 7d c 29 b l 5e 7d 8 2 23a 7c 2b Sb e d 0 e 0 0 ebr ar y

b e l 6 7d c 29 b l 5e 7d S22 3a 7c2 b 8 b e d 0 e 0 0 ebr ar y

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 1 7 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 1 7 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

D y n a m ic P a th s o f T h o u g h t E x h ib itio n

D e s ig n , P h o to g r a p h y a n d C ir c u la t io n

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W o rk o f H e rb e rt B ayer

O l i vi er Lugon A l l ex h i b i t i o n s - w h et h er t h ey b e ar t i st i c, co m m er ci al o r d i d act i c, an d h o w ev er d i v er se t h ei r d esi g n - ar e v er y si m i l ar i n on e r esp ect : v i si t o r s ar e su p p o sed t o b e ab l e t o m o v e ar o u n d i n si d e t h em .1 T h e o r d er ed set o f o b ject s o r i m ages o n d i s p l ay en co u r ages t h e sp ect at o r t o en g ag e i n p h y si cal act i v i t y an d w al k ar o u n d . T h e b l o sso m i n g o f t h e ex h i b i t i o n d u r i n g t h e ei gh t een t h an d n i n et een t h cen t u r i es w as i n d eed i n sep ar ab l e f r o m t h e d ev el o p m en t o f t h e w al k —a so ci al p r act i ce t h at w as r eco gn i sed b y t h e b o u r geo i si e. Bu t l eav i n g asi d e t h e f act t h at an ex h i b i t i o n n o r m al l y t ak es p l ace i n si d e, i t co n st i t u t es a sp eci al t y p e o f w al k , g i v en t h at i t m ay o f f er b o t h t h e at t r act i o n o f t h e sp ect acl e an d t h e co gn i t i v e v i r t u e o f t h e book . T h i s p h y si cal an d k i n et i c co m p o n en t h as n ot al w ay s b een g i v en t h e i m p o r t an ce i t d eser v es. A r t i st i c ex h i b i t i o n s i n p ar t i cu l ar h av e l o n g i gn o r ed t h e sp eci f i c n at u r e o f t h e v i si t , t h e p ar t i cu l ar w a y o f l i n k i n g an i n t el l ect u al o r sen so r y p r o cess w i t h t h e sp ect at o r s' m o v em en t s t h r o u gh t h e b u i l d i n g. D u r i n g t h e 19 t h an d 20 t h cen t u r i es, t h e m aj o r i t y o f ex h i b i t i o n s co n t i n u ed t o assi gn t h e su p p o sed f o r ce o f t h ei r i m p act t o a p r e- ex i st i n g an d sel f - su f f i ci en t o b ject - t h e w o r k o f ar t — t ak i n g l i t t l e n o t i ce o f t h e ef f ect s p r o d u ced b y t h e act u al set t i n g u p o f t h e sp ace an d t h e w a y v i si t o r s' m o v em en t s ar e o r gan i sed . T h ey h av e b asi c al l y st ay ed cl o se t o t h e p r i n ci p l e o f t h e sh o p i n t h e w a y t h ey f u n ct i o n - a m an u f act u r er m ak es au t o n o m o u s ob ject s o v er a p er i o d o f m o n t h s o r y ear s, an d t h ey ar e t h en b r o u gh t t o get h er an d p u t o n sal e, si m p l y b y d i sp l ay i n g t h em as ad v an t ag eo u sl y as p o ssi b l e. T h e m o d e o f p r o d u ct i o n o f d i d act i c ex h i b i t i o n s i s a v er y d i f f er en t on e. W h at ev er t h ei r t h em e - si n gi n g t h e p r ai ses o f h y gi en e, h eal t h f o o d , l ei su r e act i v i t i es o r m o d er n h o u si n g, o r set t i n g o u t a p o l i t i cal d i sco u r se - t h ey b egan t o f l o u r i sh i n t h e 19 20 s, p ar t i cu l ar l y i n Ger m an y , an d en j o y ed gr eat p r est i ge am o n g ar t i st i c an d i n t el l ect u al ci r cl es, w h i ch i d en t i f i ed t h em as b el o n gi n g t o t h e n ew , m o d er n m ass m ed i a, al o n gsi d e t h e ci n em a, r ad i o an d i l l u st r at ed n ew sp ap er s. E v en i f t h ey ar e p ar t o f t h e t r ad i t i o n o f t h e n i n et een t h cen t u r y 's f ai r s an d u n i v er sal ex h i b i t i o n s, an d o f t en i n cl u d e a co m m er ci al sect i on , t h ey n o n et h el ess d i f f er o n on e i m p o r t an t p o i n t - ex h i b i t i o n s w er e l ess co n cer n ed w i t h p r esen t i n g p r o d u ct s t h an i d eas. T h e t ask o f ex h i b i t i o n d esi gn er s w en t b ey o n d t h at o f si m p l y p r o v i d -

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 1 8 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 1 8 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

1118

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i n g a set t i n g f o r p r e- ex i st i n g ob ject s. T h ey g en er al l y h ad t o cr eat e f r o m scr at ch b o t h t h e m at er i al an d ar gu m en t at i o n t o b e p u t f o r w ar d , an d t h i n k o u t a set o f gr ap h i c, t ext u al , p h o t o gr ap h i c o r m ech an i cal el em en t s t h at w er e sp eci al l y m ad e f o r t h e d em o n st r at i o n . T h ese el em en t s w er e t h u s i r r el ev an t i n an y o t h er con t ext an d w er e u su al l y d est r o y ed at t h e en d o f t h e exh i b i t i o n . A b o v e al l , d esi gn er s h ad t o u se t h i s sp eci f i c m at er i al t o co m p o se ar gu m en t at i v e o r n ar r at i v e st r u c t u r es, l o gi cal d ev el o p m en t s o r em o t i o n al seq u en ces i n w h i ch each ex h i b i t h ad t o f i n d i t s p l ace, l i k e a sen t en ce i n a sp eech o r a ch ap t er i n a b o o k . A t t h e en d o f t h e 19 20 s, t h i s n ew r esp o n si b i l i t y at t r act ed m an y o f t h e f i gu r es o f m o d er n i sm - ar ch i t ect s su ch as W al t er G r o p i u s an d L u d w i g M i es v an d er Ro h e, gr ap h i c d esi g n er s su ch as M ax Bu r ch ar t z , H an s L ei st i k o w an d Jo h an n es M o l zah n , b u t al so ar t i st s l i k e El L i ssi t z k y , H er b er t Bay er an d L ász l ó M o h o l y N agy , t o get h er w i t h o t h er B au h au s m em b er s su ch as X an t i Sc h aw i n sk y o r Jo o st Sch m i d t . T h ey t h em sel v es ad m i t t ed t h at t h e co n cep t i o n o f l i k e ex h i b i t i o n s w en t f ar b ey o n d t h e si m p l e b r ead - an d - b u t t er con t r act , an d co u l d ev en b eco m e a sp e ci al cen t r e o f i n t er est , a so u r ce o f en t h u si asm t h at w as o f t en gr eat er t h an f o r t h ei r o w n ar t i st i c p r esen t at i o n s, w h i ch so m e o f t h em co n si d er ed t o b e o b so l et e. I n 19 4 1, at t h e en d o f h i s l i fe, El L i ssi t z k y , f o r ex am p l e, r em em b er ed su ch w o r k as h i s 'm o st i m p o r t an t w o r k as ar t i st ', w h i l e H er b er t B ay er d esi gn at ed t h e d i s ci p l i n e 'a s an ap ex o f al l m ed i a an d p o w er s o f co m m u n i cat i o n '.2

B e y o n d p a in tin g

T h e f act i s t h at t h e d i d act i c ex h i b i t i o n cr y st al l i z ed m an y o f t h e h o p es o f m o d er n i sm . I t al l o w ed t h ese ar t i st s, w h o cam e f r o m co n st r u ct i v i sm an d w h o w er e i n t en t o n g o i n g b ey o n d ar t f o r ar t 's sak e an d f o st er i n g a m o r e act i v e co m m i t m en t o f t h ei r p r act i ce w i t h i n soci et y, t o l eav e t h e w o r l d o f p u r e d el ect at i o n f o r an act i v i t y t h at w as m o r e i n p h ase w i t h t h e r eal w o r l d an d co n t em p o r ar y i ssu es. I t seem ed , m o r eo v er , t o i n au gu r at e a n ew an d essen t i al l y v i su al m o d e o f co m m u n i cat i o n , w h i ch w o u l d t h u s b e m o r e ef f i ci en t , i n t en se an d d em o cr at i c t h an t h e w r i t t en m ed i u m : 'N o l o n ger r ead ! See!' p r o cl ai m ed Jo h an n es M oL zah n i n 19 28 .3 T h e ex h i b i t i o n w as su p p o sed t o h av e t h at cap aci t y o f p u t t i n g t o get h er a co h er en t d i sco u r se, l i k e t h e b o o k , w h i l e r em ai n i n g gr o u n d ed i n t h e v i su al . T h i s i s w h at t h e ar t h i st o r i an Fr an z Ro h asser t ed i n 19 30 , f o r w h o m 'i t i s n ot t h e b o o k t h at o f f er s t h e m o st f r u i t f u l l i n k b et w een a p u r el y sen so r y v i su al ex p er i en ce an d a n ecessar y ab st r act i o n - i t i s t h e ex h i b i t i o n '.4 T o t h i s en d , i t n ot o n l y m ad e t h e i m m ed i acy o f t h e v i su al av ai l ab l e f o r t h i s n ew t r an sm i ssi o n o f k n o w l ed ge, b u t al so accu m u l at ed t h e st r en gt h s o f a w h o l e r an ge o f d i sci p l i n es: ar ch i t ect u r e, gr ap h i c ar t s, p h o t o gr ap h y , co l o u r , l i gh t an d m o v em en t , w h i ch i t w o u l d u n i t e i n

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 1 9 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 1 9 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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119

a n ew , t o t al ar t o f u n eq u al l ed p o w er . Fi n al l y , an d ab o v e al l , i t w o u l d al l o w co m m u n i cat i o n t o b e f r eed f r o m t h e t r ad i t i o n al su p p o r t o f ab st r act i o n - p ap er an d can v as —t o m o v e i n t o t h e r e al sp ace o f t h e sp ect at o r , w h er e i t w o u l d i n t er p el l at e h er o r h i m i n an al m o st co r p o r eal f ash i o n . Bet t er t h an an y o t h er m ed i u m , t h e ex h i b i t i o n co u l d t h u s b r i n g t o f r u i t i o n t h e m o d er n i d ea o f p ed ag o g y b ased o n t h e u n i o n o f t h e b o d y an d t h e m i n d an d , t h an k s t o t h e p h y si cal i m p l i cat i o n , w o u l d h el p d r aw sp ect at o r s o u t o f t h ei r su p p o sed l y p assi v e an d d i st an ced co n t em p l at i o n an d t u r n t h em i n t o act i v e an d d y n am i c p ar t i ci p an t s. F ig u r e l . E l L is s it z k y , P r o m t S p ac e , B e r lin , 1 9 2 3

I n fact , ev er y t h i n g i n t h e i n st al l at i o n s o f d esi gn er s su ch as L i ssi t z k y , B ay er or M o h o l y - N ag y t en d ed t o ex al t t h e m o b i l i t y an d p h y si cal co m m i t m en t o f t h e v i si t or . Si n ce t h e b egi n n i n g o f t h e 19 20 s, El L i ssi t z k y h ad t ak en t r ad i t i o n al l y f l at an d st at i c p i ct o r i al w o r k s an d set o u t t o r ed i st r i b u t e t h em w i t h i n sp ace, sh o r n o f an y h i er ar ch y o r p er sp ect i v e ax i s, an d t h u s m u l t i d i r ect i o n al an d d y n am i c. T h i s m ean t t h at h e f i r st h ad t o cr eat e al m o st ar ch i t ect u r al - l i k e p i eces. I n 19 23, h e t h u s r eal i sed t h e Pr o u n Sp ace i n Ber l i n ( fi g. 1) — t h e w o r k o f ar t co v er ed t h e en t i r e ex h i b i t i o n sp ace, n o t f aci n g t h e sp ect at o r s b u t su r r o u n d i n g t h em , an d cal l i n g o n t h em t o m o v e b o t h t h ei r ey es an d t h ei r b o d i es. T h e geo m et r i c sh ap es scat t er ed o v er t h e w al l s w er e n ot t h er e si m p l y t o b e l o o k ed at o r t o cap t u r e on e's l o o k - w h i ch m i gh t seem t o b e t h e m i n i m al f u n ct i o n o f a w o r k o f ar t — b u t o n t h e co n t r ar y t o en co u r age sp ect at o r s t o l o o k ev en f u r t h er , t o g u i d e t h em con -

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 2 0 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 2 0 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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st an t l y t o w ar d s an o t h er p o i n t i n a k i n d o f o p t i cal m er r y - go - r o u n d . Si m i l ar l y , i n h i s 'd em o n st r at i o n sp aces' i n D r esd en an d H an o v er i n 19 26 an d 19 27, t h e su r f ace o f t h e w al l s w as t r eat ed w i t h v er t i cal , t h r ee- co l o u r ed st r i p s, so t h at '[ w ] i t h ev er y m o v em en t o f t h e sp ect at o r i n t h e r o o m t h e i m p r essi o n o f t h e w al l s ch an ges — w h at w as w h i t e b eco m es b l ack an d v i c e v er sa. T h u s an o p t i cal d y n am i c i s gen er at ed as a co n seq u en ce o f t h e h u m an st r i d e. T h i s m ak es t h e sp ec t at o r act i v e'.5 Fo r L i ssi t z k y , su ch t ech n i q u es h ad u n d en i ab l e p o l i t i cal co n n o t a t i o n s - t r an sf o r m i n g co n t em p l at i o n i n t o a p h y si c al p r o cess an d sp ect at o r s i n t o 'ac t i v e' p ar t i ci p an t s i m p l i es aw ak i n g t h em as r esp o n si b l e i n d i v i d u al s an d st i m u l at i n g a m o v em en t w i t h i n t h em t h at sp r ead s b ey o n d t h e sp ace o f ar t , an d t h at r ef l ect s an d acco m p an i es t h e m o v em en t o f h i st or y. F ig u r e 2 . L á s z ló M o h o ly - N a g y ,

Malerei Fotografie Film,

2 n d e d it io n ,

1927

I n t h e seco n d h al f o f t h e 19 20 s, an o t h er f i el d — p h o t o g r ap h y - al so b egan t o t r an scen d st at i c p ai n t i n g, an d d i sp l ay ar t i st i c act i v i t y i n sp ace an d m o v em en t . A l l t h e ar t i st s m en t i o n ed ab o v e u sed p h o t o g r ap h y at t h at t i m e. Fo r t h em , t h e cam er a w as l ess a m ean s o f ex p r essi o n o r r ep r o d u ct i o n t h an a t ool o f v i si o n , t h e agen t o f a n ew p er cep t i o n o f sp ace, w h i ch , f r eed f r o m t h e st r ai gh t ) ack et o f Re n ai ssan ce- st y l e p er sp ect i v e, w o u l d b e m u l t i d i r ect i o n al an d i n f i n i t el y m o b i l e.6 T h i s w as, ab o v e al l , r ev eal ed i n t h e co u n t l ess t i l t ed v i ew s, h i gh an d l o w - an g l e sh o t s t h at w er e n o w p o ssi b l e t h an k s t o sm al l - f o r m at cam er as ( fi g. 2) . T h ese

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 121 h t t p :/ /s ite . e b ra ry .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 2 1 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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i m ag es w er e al w ay s t h e r esu l t an d t h e n ar r at i o n o f a m o v em en t : w h at ev er t h e m o t i f w as, each o n e t est i f i ed t o t h e f act o f h av i n g b een cr eat ed - as i n d an ce - b y t h e r eal i n scr i p t i o n o f t h e su b j ect s i n sp ace, b y t h e m o b i l i t y o f t h ei r b o d y, h ead an d ey es.7 Fr o m t h i s p er i o d o n w ar d s, co n t r act s f o r d i d act i c ex h i b i t i o n s w o u l d g i v e t h ese ar t i st s t h e p o ssi b i l i t y o f b r i n gi n g t o get h er ar ch i t ect u r e an d p h o t o gr ap h y , t h ose t w o p r ev i o u sl y sep ar at ed w a y s o f m o b i l i z i n g sp ace, t h u s al l o w i n g t h em t o i n t e gr at e gr ap h i c ar t an d sp at i al ar t w i t h i n on e si n gl e d o m ai n o f act i vi t y. T h i s i d ea w as a co n st an t so u r ce o f f asci n at i o n f o r t h em , an d f o r B ay er i n p ar t i cu l ar : 'I n t h e case o f ex h i b i t i o n d esi gn t h e f o r m er b o r d er l i n es b et w een t h e gr ap h i c ar t s ( r o u g h l y t y p o g r ap h i c an d ad v er t i si n g d esi gn ) , a d i sci p l i n e o p er at i n g i n t w o d i m en si o n s, an d ar ch i t ect u r e - sp ace d esi gn i n t h r ee d i m en si o n s - h av e b een ex p l o d ed t o f o r m a n ew k i n d , i n w h i ch so m an y m ed i u m s ar e co m b i n ed .'8 Ph o t o gr ap h y , n o n et h el ess, b el o n ged t o p r i n t - r o o m ar t , an d t o b eco m e i n t e gr at ed i n t o ar ch i t ect u r e an d t h e t ech n i q u es o f sp at i al an d d y n am i c exh i b i t i o n , it w o u l d f i r st h av e t o u n d er go so m e m et am o r p h o ses i n i t s f o r m s o f p r esen t at i o n . T h e q u est i o n t h at co n cer n ed t h ese ar t i st s w as h o w t o r el ease t h e p h o t o gr ap h i c m ed i u m f r o m t h e t r ad i t i o n al , f r o n t al an d st at i c m o d e o f co n t em p l at i o n o f t h e gr ap h i c ar t s t o ad ap t i t t o t h e r eal co n d i t i o n s o f t h e ey e i n sp ace - m o b i l e an d m o v i n g f r o m on e ob ject t o t h e n ext . T h e d i d act i c exh i b i t i o n s, i n t h i s r esp ect , w o u l d p r o v i d e an i n f i n i t el y f r eer f i el d o f ex p er i m en t at i o n t h an w as p r o v i d ed b y p h o t o gr ap h i c ex h i b i t i o n s i n t h e st r i ct sen se o f t h e t er m , ev en b y t h e m o st i n n o v at i v e o f t h em su ch as F ilm u n d F o t o i n St u t t gar t o r F o t o g r afie d e r G e g e n w ar t ( Ph o t o gr ap h y o f t h e Pr esen t ) i n Essen , i n 19 29 , p r eci sel y b ecau se t h ey d o n ot d i r ect l y d ep en d o n t h e d o m ai n o f ar t an d d o n ot h av e t o r esp ect i t s co d es. W h en t h e sam e ar t i st s ex h i b i t ed t h ei r o w n p h o t o gr ap h i c w o r k s, t h e m aj o r i t y o f t h em co n t i n u ed t o p r esen t t h em i n a sm al l f o r m at , w i t h f r am es an d a l i gh t - co l o u r ed car d b o ar d b ack gr o u n d , each p h o t o cl ear l y sep ar at ed f r o m t h e o t h er s an d h u n g m o r e o r l ess at ey e- l ev el - i n fact , al l t h e co n v en t i o n s t h at d i d act i c ex h i b i t i o n s w o u l d seek t o b eco m e f r ee of.

L a rg e fo rm a t

T h e f i r st co n d i t i o n o f t h e m o v e t o t h e sp at i al an d d y n am i c ex h i b i t i o n o f p h o t o g r ap h y i s, o f co u r se, t o co n q u er l ar ge d i m en si o n s. T h i s t o o k p l ace q u i t e l at e. U n t i l 19 28 , p h o t o g r ap h y o n l y ap p ear ed r ar el y i n d i d act i c ex h i b i t i o n s w h en co m p ar ed w i t h p o st er s, gr ap h i cs, t ext s o r m o d el s, an d i t r em ai n ed sm al l - scal e. T h e So v i et h al l d esi gn ed b y El L i ssi t z k y f o r t h e P r e s s a Exh i b i t i o n i n C o l o gn e, a l ar ge ex h i b i t i o n o n t h e p r ess i n 19 28 , m ar k ed a t u r n i n g p o i n t . T h e en t i r e p r o p a-

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 2 2 h tt p ://s it e . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 2 2 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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g an d a p av i l i o n cr eat ed a sen sat i o n an d h ad a m aj o r i n f l u en ce o n G er m an ex h i b i t i o n d esi gn , p ar t i cu l ar l y t h at o f Bay er .9 A m o n g t h e m an y i n n o v at i o n s i t i n t r o d u ced , sp ect at o r s w er e p ar t i cu l ar l y st r u ck b y h i s en o r m o u s P h o t o - F r ie s , a p h o t o m o n t age m easu r i n g 4 m et r es h i gh b y 23.5 m et r es l o n g, r u n n i n g t h e w h o l e l en gt h o f t h e en d w al l ( fi g. 3) . W h en p h o t o g r ap h y t ak es o n su ch d i m en si o n s, i t s essen t i al n at u r e i s m o d i f i ed . I t b eco m es an ar ch i t ect u r al el em en t i n i t s o w n r i gh t ; i t i s t r an sf o r m ed i n t o a v er i t ab l e m ass i m age, i n t h at a l ar g e cr o w d o f p eo p l e can l o o k at i t at t h e sam e t i m e, l i k e i n t h e ci n em a; fi n al l y, an d ab o v e al l, it d o u b l y en co u r ages t h e m o b i l i t y o f p er cep t i o n . N o t o n l y can i t b e seen w h i l e w al k i n g ar o u n d t h e exh i b i t i o n , b u t i t s si z e i n t en si f i ed t h e sp ect at o r s' ey e- m o v em en t s w i t h i n i t s ar ea, cau si n g t h e ey e t o f l i t f r o m o n e sect i o n t o t h e n ext , as i t can n o t r em ai n st i l l - an i m p r essi o n t h at i s st r en gt h en ed ev en m o r e b y t h e p r i n ci p l e o f t h e m o n t age an d i t s co n st an t b r eak s.10 T h i s l ast asp ect g av e r i se t o n u m er o u s cr i t i ci sm s, h i gh l i gh t i n g t h e co n f u si o n o f t h e w h o l e p av i l i o n . Bay er , f o r ex am p l e, w o u l d say t h at h e r egr et t ed t h e 'ch ao t i c' asp ect o f t h e exh i b i t i o n , d esp i t e h i s en t h u si asm .11 I n t h e f o l l o w i n g y ear s, as

F ig u r e

3.

E l L is s it z k i/ a n d S e r g e i S e n k in ,

" P h o t o - F r i e s ", Pressa,

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 2 3 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 2 3 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

C o lo g n e , 1 9 2 8

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t h e si z e o f t h ese p h o t o gr ap h i c w al l s i n cr eased t h an k s t o p r o gr ess i n r ep r o d u c t i o n t ech n i q u es, ef f o r t s w er e m ad e t o si m p l i f y i n l i k e p r o p o r t i o n t h e i m ages t h at co n st i t u t ed t h em . O n e ex am p l e a y ear l at er co u l d b e seen at t h e P av ilio n d e r D eu tschen

E le kt r iz it àt s - L ie fe r u n g s in d u s t r ie ( Pav i l i o n

o f t h e G er m an El ect r i ci t y

Su p p l y I n d u st r y ) at t h e Bar cel o n a U n i v er sal Ex h i b i t i o n o f 19 29 , w h er e t h e ar ch i t ect w as L u d w i g M i es v an d er Ro h e an d t h e p h o t o m o n t age w as cr eat ed b y Ed u ar d B l u m ( fi g. 4). T h e i n st al l at i o n w as p ar ed d o w n t o a v ast em p t y cu b e i n w h i ch t h e p h o t o m o n t age t o o k o v er t h e f o u r 8 - m et r e- h i gh w al l s i n t h e r oo m . Co n seq u en t l y , t o av o i d t h e v i su al d i so r d er t h at su ch a p h o t o gr ap h i c cu b e m i gh t p r o d u ce, t h ey t r i ed t o r ed u ce t h e f r ag m en t ar y asp ect o f t h e m o n t age, t o n egat e t h e i n t er r u p t i o n s b y cr eat i n g b l en d s b et w een i t s v ar i o u s p ar t s. I t t h u s r esem b l ed a gi an t si n gl e i m age, i m p o si n g i n i t s m on u m en t al i t y. F ig u r e 4. L u d w ig

Mies v an

d e r R o h e a n d E d u a r d B lu m , P a v ilio n o f G e r m an

E le c t r ic it y S u p p ly in g , B ar c e lo n a U n iv e r s al E x h ib it io n , 1 9 2 9

T h i s t r en d r each ed i t s ap o gee i n t h e p r o p ag an d a ex h i b i t i o n s o f t h e n at i o n al so ci al i st s. T h e T h i r d Rei ch ap p r o p r i at ed m an y o f t h e t ech n i q u es d ev el o p ed b y m o d er n i sm - w h i c h i t cl ai m ed t o h av e ab o l i sh ed — w h i l e m o n u m en t al i si n g t h em i n i t s sear ch f o r a G er m an p r o p ag an d a t h at w as 'p eac ef u l ', 'm agn i f i cen t ', f ash i o n ed o u t o f 'i m m ed i ac y ' an d 'cl ean l i n ess' — as o p p o sed t o t h e su p p o sed Ru ssi an 'c h ao s'.12 T h i s r ace t o w ar d m o n u m en t al i t y b u i l t u p w i t h D ie K at n e r a i n

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 2 4 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 2 4 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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19 33, D e u t s c h e s V olk —D e u t s c h e A r b e it i n 19 34 an d D e u t s c h lan d i n 19 36 , an d f i n al l y cu l m i n at ed w i t h t h e 19 37 Ber l i n exh i b i t i o n en t i t l ed G e b t m ir v ie r Ja h r e Z e it ( G i v e M e Fo u r Year s) . Reco r d f o r m at s w er e ach i ev ed , su ch as t h e n i n e ei gh t m et r e h i gh p h o t o gr ap h i c b o o k s t h at w er e au t o m at i cal l y l eaf ed t h r o u gh i n t h e en t r an ce, o r t h e gi an t p an el o f H al l I I , an d , i n p ar t i cu l ar , a 20 - m et r e- h i gh p o r t r ai t o f H i t l er ( f i g. 5) . T h i s w as a f ar cr y f r o m t h e d y n am i sm so u gh t b y L i ssi t z k y . M o n u m en t al i t y act u al l y en d ed u p b y p r o d u ci n g ex act l y t h e o p p o si t e ef f ect f r o m t h e on e t h at L i ssi t z k y ai m ed t o ach i ev e w h en h e ad o p t ed t h e l ar ge f o r m at . T h ese gi an t i m ages w er e m ean t t o i m p r ess v i si t o r s, w h i ch m ean s t h at t h ey en co u r aged p eo p l e t o st o p an d st ar e f r o m a r esp ect f u l d i st an ce. F ig u r e

5.

E g o n E ie r m an n ,

Gebt mir vier Jahre Zeit,

B e r lin , 1 9 3 7

L ar g e f o r m at i s t h u s n o t i n i t sel f su f f i ci en t t o st i m u l at e t h e m o b i l i t y o f p er cep t i on . I n fact , i n h i s D ie P r e s s a f r i eze, L i ssi t z k y h ad p r o v i d ed an ad d i t i o n al d ev i ce t o p r ev en t sp ect at o r s f r o m r em ai n i n g i m m o b i l e i n f r o n t o f i t . T h e w h o l e l en gt h o f t h e i m age w as m ar k ed o f f b y can v as t r i an gl es t h at p r ev en t ed t h e en t i r e p i ece f r o m b ei n g seen f r o m o n e f i x ed p oi n t , t h u s f o r ci n g v i si t o r s t o w al k i f t h ey w an t ed t o see t h e en t i r e p i ece, h i su b seq u en t y ear s, o t h er t ech n i q u es w er e d e v el o p ed t o b r eak d o w n t h e f r o n t al p er sp ect i v e an d p r ev en t t h e f i x ed v i ew i n g o f i m ages. T h i s w as t h e case f o r H er b er t B ay er 's t h r ee- d i m en si o n al h an g i n g t ech -

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 2 5 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 2 5 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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n i q u e, w h er e p h o t o s l eav e t h e w al l an d sp r ead o u t i n t o sp ace. H e f i r st u sed t h i s t ech n i q u e i n t h e G er m an sect i o n o f t h e Par i s Exh i b i t i o n o f A r t i st D eco r at o r s i n 1.930 - t h e p r i n t s w er e h u n g i n f r o n t o f a w al l , f r o m f l o o r t o cei l i n g, w i t h each o n e set at a d i f f er en t an gl e i n o r d er t o acco m m o d at e t h e v i ew er s' an gl e o f v i si o n , al w ay s ap p ear i n g p er p en d i cu l ar t o t h ei r gaz e ( f i g. 6). T h i s i s w h at B ay er cal l ed t h e p r i n ci p l e o f 'ex t en d ed v i si o n ', i n t h at t h e f i el d o f v i si o n i s b r o ad en ed b ey o n d t h e h o r i z o n t al ax i s al o n e i n w h i ch t h e ex h i b i t i o n i s t r ad i t i o n al l y co n f i n ed , w i t h v i si t o r s i n v i t ed t o m o v e t h ei r h ead s f r om t h e f l o o r t o t h e cei l i n g or , i n a l at er d ev el o p m en t o f t h i s sy st em , i n al l p o ssi b l e d i r ect i o n s ( f i g. 7). F ig u r e 6. H e r b e r t B ay e r , G e r m an s e c t io n , E x p o s it io n d e s a r t is t e s d é c o r at e u r s , P ar is , 1 9 3 0

A n d yet , d esp i t e i t s cr eat o r 's i n t en t i on s, m o b i l i t y w as v er y r el at i v e h er e or t o b e m o r e p r eci se, p ar ad o x i cal . I n o r d er f o r t h e sy st em t o f u n ct i o n p er f ect l y, i .e., f or t h e ey es t o f al l p er p en d i cu l ar l y o n each o n e o f t h e i m ages, t h e sp ect at o r m ay o n l y st an d at a cer t ai n d i st an ce f r o m t h e ar c o f t h e ci r cl e. I n o t h er w o r d s, t h e f act t h at t h e i m ag es w er e h u n g v er y f r eel y i n t h e ex h i b i t i o n sp ace d i d n ot n eces sar i l y m ean t h at v i si t o r s co u l d act u al l y m o v e f r eel y b ecau se t h ey h ad t o st an d i n a p r eci se p l ace t o m ak e t h e m o st o f a p ar t i cu l ar p h o t o . T h i s co n t r ad i ct i o n b e t w een t h e f r eed o m o f t h e ey e an d t h e co n st r ai n t o f t h e p at h w o u l d p r o v e t o b e a cen t r al t r ai t o f B ay er 's w o r k .

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 2 6 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 2 6 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

126

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F ig u r e

7.

H e r b e r t B ay e r , d i a g r a m o f " e x t e n d e d v is io n " , en.

1935

H e d i d , h o w ev er , d ev el o p o t h er t ech n i q u es, w h i ch i n r eal t er m s t r an scen d ed t h e f i x ed p er cep t i o n o f i m ages an d p r o v o k ed a k i n d o f p er m an en t i n st ab i l i t y i n t h e p er cep t i o n o f p h o t o gr ap h y , su ch as t h e p r esen t at i o n o f p r i n t s o n v er t i cal st r i p s ( fi g. 8). T h i s t ech n i q u e w as u sed i n t h e B u i l d i n g U n i o n s' H al l at t h e D e u t s c h e B au au s s t e llu n g i n Ber l i n i n 19 3 1 t h at h e cr eat ed t o get h er w i t h W al t er G r o p i u s

an d L asz l o M o h o l y - N agy . T h r ee d i f f er en t p h o t o g r ap h s w er e m o u n t ed t o get h er i n su ch a w a y as t o su ccessi v el y ap p ear an d d i sap p ear as t h e v i si t o r s m o v ed p ast . T h i s w as d o n e b y af f i x i n g t h e f i r st p h o t o t o a p an el , an d b y i n st al l i n g a ser i es o f v er t i cal st r i p s p er p en d i cu l ar t o t h e p an el . T h e t w o o t h er p h o t o gr ap h s w er e m o u n t ed o n ei t h er si d e o f t h e st r i p s. V i si t o r s w er e t h u s o b l i ged t o p er m a n en t l y 'co n st r u ct ' t h e i m ages t h em sel v es, b y m o v i n g i n o r d er t o f i n d an ad e q u at e p o i n t f r o m w h i ch t o v i ew , t o m ak e t h e i m ag e ap p ear an d t h en d i sap p ear

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 2 7 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 2 7 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

127

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i n f r o n t o f t h ei r ey es t h an k s t o t h e m o v em en t s t h ey m ad e. V i si o n r eal l y b ecam e an act i on , an d v i si t i n g an ex h i b i t i o n a 'p er f o r m an ce', t o u se t h e ex p r essi o n co i n ed i n 19 29 b y Fr i t z C o er p er , a t h eo r et i ci an o f t h e d i sci p l i n e.13 I n t h i s m an n er , B ay er ex t en d ed t h e w o r k o f p h o t o p r o d u ct i o n - ad j u st i n g an d f r am i n g - t o t h e r ecep t i o n o f t h e p h o t o s t h em sel v es - t h e w a y o f co n st r u ct i n g t h e i m age b y m o v i n g b o t h ey e an d b o d y w i t h i n t h e sp ace, o f l o o k i n g an d , as i t w er e, co m p o s i n g w i t h t h e l egs, i n t h e m an n er o f t h e f i gu r e h e o f t en u sed i n h i s ex p l an at o r y d r aw i n g s. M o b i l i t y - ex t o l l ed t o su ch ex t en t i n t h e m o d er n i st t i l t ed v i ew s - w as n o l o n ger j u st illu s t r at e d i n i m ag es w h i ch , w h en al l i s sai d an d d o n e, r em ai n ed st at i c f o r t h e sp ect at o r , b u t w as p r ac t is e d i n t h e v er y p er cep t i o n o f t h em . F ig u r e 8 . H e r b e r t B ay e r , B u ild in g U n io n s ' H all,

Deutsche Bauausstellung,

B e r lin , 1 9 3 1

T h i s t y p e o f f r am i n g w o r k w as t o b e seen i n an o t h er d i sp l ay d ev i ce set u p f o r t h e sam e U n i o n s' h al l (f i g. 9). T h i s t i m e t h e p i ct u r e w as p l aced in s id e t h e w al l , i n a cu t - o u t sect i on , w i t h t h e r esu l t t h at , as w i t h t h e v i ew f i n d er i n p h o t o gr ap h y , t h e l i m i t s o f t h e i m age ch an ge sl i g h t l y w i t h t h e p o i n t o f t h e o b ser v er 's eye, w h o i s ag ai n m ad e aw ar e o f m o b i l i t y. T h e an al o g y w i t h p h o t o g r ap h y h er e i s al l t h e m o r e m an i f est as t h e ci r cu l ar cu t - o u t w as o f t en u sed as a sy m b o l o f t h e m ed i u m , r ep r esen t i n g t h e sh ap e o f t h e l en s, as seen o n t h e f am o u s co v er o f W er n er G r af f 's E s ko m m t d e r n e u e F o t o g r af! ( H er e C o m es t h e N ew Ph o t o gr ap h er !, 19 29 ) , o n e o f t h e m aj o r m an i f est o s o f t h e N ew V i si o n .

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 2 8 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 2 8 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

128

O liv ie r L u g o n

F ig u r e

9.

H e r b e r t B a y e r a n d L d s z lo M o h o ly - N a g y , B u ild in g U n io n s ' H all,

Deutsche Bauausstellung,

B e r lin ,

1931

T h e c in e m a to g ra p h ic m o d e l

D i sp o si t i v es o f t h i s sor t t h u s p l ay ed w i t h t h e t em p o r al an d d y n am i c d i m en si o n o f v i si o n i n su ch a w a y t h at t h e i m ag es ap p ear b ef o r e t h e ey es o v er a sp an o f t i m e. T h i s al l o w ed ex h i b i t i o n ar t n ot o n l y t o p ar al l el p h o t o sh o o t s b u t al so ci n e m at o gr ap h i c v i si o n — t h e r esem b l an ce b ei n g em p h asi sed b y m an y co m m en t a t o r s at t h e t i m e.14 C i n em a at t h at t i m e w as n o t o n l y t h e p r i m e ex am p l e o f a n ew ar t f o r m f o r t h e m asses t h at w as su p p o sed t o b e m o r e p o w er f u l an d d em o cr at i c, b u t al so t h e v er y i n car n at i o n o f m o d er n p er cep t i o n ch ar act er i sed b y m o b i l i t y an d d y n am i sm . T h e ex h i b i t i o n o u gh t t h u s t o t ak e i t as a m o d el an d i n co r p o r at e a v er i t ab l e k i n et i c d i m en si o n . T h i s i s w h at Si egf r i ed K r acau er h i n t ed at i n 19 32, i n h i s cr i t i ci sm o f a p h o t o d i sp l ay t h at f o r h i m w as t oo co n v en t i o n al : T h ey [the phot os] ar e gl u ed on m odest w h i t e car d s ... Th e fact t hat t h ey seem a lit t le st i ff, as i f br ough t to a halt , can doubt less be expl ai n ed b y t he fact t hat our w ay of

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 2 9 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 2 9 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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129

seei ng has been ch an ged b y ci nem a. Fi l m s h ave accust om ed u s n o lon ger to look at object s fr om a fi xed vi ew poi n t , but to t ur n ar oun d t hem and fr eely choose our p er spect i ves. W h at ci nem a i s capable of - fi xi n g t h i n gs i n m ovem en t - r em ai ns d en i ed to phot ogr aphy. Th i s i s w h y ph ot ogr aph y, w h en it st i ll clai m s aut onom y, i s on the w ay to becom i n g a hi st or i cal for m . It i s gr ad u all y l eavi n g t he presen t and alr ead y i s t aki ng on an old-fash i on ed air. In t his i t r esem bles t he r ailway, w h i ch i s to t he aeroplan e w h at ph ot ogr ap h y i s t o film . Rai l w ays an d ph ot ogr aph y - bot h ar e con t em por ar y an d r elat ed in t hat t heir devel opm en t i s com plet e, an d bot h h ave lon g ser ved as t he basi s for n ew developm en t s. T od ay w e h ave fr eed ou r selves fr om t he r ai ls i n the sam e w ay t hat w e h ave fr eed ou r selves fr om t he i m m obi li t y t hat p r evi ou sl y w as indi spen si ble for t he cam er a.15 T o st ay m o d er n , t h e p r esen t at i o n o f p h o t o g r ap h y sh o u l d i n i t s t u r n 'f r ee [ i t self ] f r o m t h e r ai l s' an d b ase i t sel f o n ci n em at o gr ap h i c p er cep t i o n . T h i s p o i n t o f v i ew w as al so p u t f o r w ar d b y Fr i t z C o er p er i n 19 29 , w h o st at ed : 't h e d y n am i c f o r m o f t h e exh i b i t i o n i s a f i el d o f f o r ces an d p o l i t i cal en er g y - sw i t ch ed t o m ax i m u m p o w er ' - i t sh o u l d t h u s seek 'n o t r est , b u t m o v em en t ', i .e., 'n o t t h e i m age an d i m ages, b u t f i l m w i t h accel er at ed an d sl o w m o t i o n '.16 F ig u r e 1 0 . X a n t i S c h a w in s k y ,

Die Schule,

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 3 0 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 3 0 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

M ag d e b u r g ,

1930

n o

O liv ie r L u g o n

F ig u r e 1 1 . H e r b e r t B a y e r a n d L d s z lo M o h o ly - N a g y , B u ild in g U n io n s ' H all,

Deutsche Bauausstellung,

B e r lin ,

1931

T h e st r en gt h o f t h i s ci n em at o gr ap h i c m o d el can b e f el t at sev er al l ev el s. Fi r st , i t g i v es r i se t o p u r e, f o r m al i m i t at i o n s, l i k e t h e ser i es o f i m ages m o u n t ed i n su c cessi o n , as i f u n f o l d i n g b ef o r e t h e sp ect at o r s' ey es. T o st r en gt h en t h i s su g g es t i on , t h ese ser i es o f t en set o u t t o m i m e ex p l i ci t l y a r o l l o f f i l m , i m i t at i n g i t s ch ar act er i st i c p er f o r at i o n s i n d eco r at i v e f ash i o n . X an t i Sch aw i n sk y , a cl o se f r i en d o f B ay er 's, m ad e t h i s o n e o f h i s sp eci al i t i es (fi g. 10 ) . So m e d i sp o si t i v es set o u t t o act u al l y an i m at e t h ese seq u en ces, t o h av e t h em p ass i n f r o n t o f t h e v i si t o r 's ey es acco r d i n g t o t h e p r i n ci p l e o f m o v i n g p an o r am as. Fo r ex am p l e, i n 19 3 1, El l a B r i ggs, an ex h i b i t i o n d esi gn er i n Ber l i n , p r o p o sed a sy st em w h er eb y a r o w o f i m ages w as set u p i n a d ar k , ci r cu l ar sp ace an d sl o w l y l i t u p b y a p r o j ect o r m o v i n g acr o ss i t , l i gh t i n g u p t h e i m ag es o n e b y on e. T h e p o i n t o n ce ag ai n w as t o g i v e a d y n am i c d i m en si o n t o p h o t o m o n t age so t h at sp ect at o r s h ad t h e i m p r essi o n t h at t h e i m ag es w er e t ak i n g sh ap e i n f r o n t o f t h ei r ey es, t h u s b o o st i n g t h ei r f eel i n g o f p ar t i ci p at i o n .17 A si m i l ar r esu l t , st r en gt h en ed ev en m o r e b y t h e v i si t o r s' p h y si cal i n v o l v em en t , w as ach i ev ed b y w i n d i n g sy st em s u si n g a h an d l e, su ch as i n t h e B u i l d i n g U n i o n s' h al l i n t h e 19 3 1 Bau au sst el lu n g ( fi g. 11) .

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 131 h t t p :/ /s ite . e b ra ry .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 3 1 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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131

T h i s v er y m u ch r esem b l es f i l m , an d , i n fact , m o st l ar ge ex h i b i t i o n s so u gh t t o asso ci at e t h e t w o ar t s b y i n cl u d i n g an act u al p r o j ect i o n r o o m . I t w as, n o n et h e l ess, a p r o b l em at i cal asso ci at i o n as i t w as b ased o n a f u n d am en t al h i at u s. C i n em at i c i m ages ar e m o b i l e, b u t seei n g t h em i m p o ses a st at i c act i vi t y. T h at i s t h e o p p o si t e o f t h e ex h i b i t i o n 's ai m - st at i c i m ag es t h at st i m u l at e m o b i l e p er cep t i o n - ci r cu l at i o n . T h er e w er e, o f co u r se, so m e i n d i v i d u al at t em p t s t o ad ap t ci n em a t o a m o v i n g au d i en ce. O n t h e on e h an d , t h e p r o j ect i o n sp ace co u l d b e r ed u ced t o a sm al l p i ece o f f u r n i t u r e, t h e 'ci n em a cab i n et ' (K in o s c h r an k ), w h i ch co u l d b e i n st al l ed i n t h e act u al ex h i b i t i o n r o o m s w i t h o u t h av i n g t o b l o ck o u t t h e l i gh t . T h i s i s w h at El L i ssi t z k y ch o se t o d o i n t h e So v i et H al l o f F ilm u n d F o t o i n St u t t gar t i n 19 29 . A p r o j ect i o n can t h en b e d i v i d ed u p i n t o sev er al sh or t , co n st an t l y p r o j ect ed seq u en ces, t h u s n o l o n ger i n t er r u p t i n g t h e v i si t f o r ex t en d ed p er i o d s. O t h er s, o n t h e co n t r ar y, so u gh t t o co n v er t t h e ci n em a h al l i t sel f i n t o a p l ace o f p er m an en t ci r cu l at i o n . I t w as k ep t as o p en as p o ssi b l e, o n l y p ar t i al l y d ar k en ed , w i t h p eo p l e ab l e t o co m e i n an d o u t d u r i n g p r o j ect i o n s an d ev en w at ch st an d i n g u p , t h an k s t o t h e v er y w i d e r o w s o f seat s an d t h e h i gh p o si t i o n o f t h e scr een . M o h o l y - N ag y d i d t h i s at t h e Par i s Exh i b i t i o n o f A r t i st D eco r at o r s i n 19 30 , an d t h e ar ch i t ect Ego n Ei er m an n w en t t o ex t r em es i n t h e ci n em a b u i l t f o r 2,000 m o b i l e p eo p l e at t h e 19 37 G e b t m ir v ie r Ja h r e Z e it exh i b i t i o n . Su ch en d eav o u r s w er e, h o w ev er , f ew an d f ar b et w een , an d b ef o r e t h e 19 6 0 s, t h e ci n em a h al l w as so m et h i n g o f a f o r ei gn b o d y i n t h ese l ar ge ev en t s b ased o n t h e ci r cu l at i o n o f p eo p l e. T h e ci n em at o gr ap h i c m o d el t h u s l ef t a p r o f o u n d m ar k o n t h ese ex h i b i t i o n s i n a m o r e i n d i r ect m an n er . W h at d esi gn er s en v i ed m o st ab o u t f i l m w as t h e p o ssi b i l i t y o f co n t r o l l i n g a seq u en ce o f i m ages, o f i m p o si n g o n t h e v i si t o r a p l an n ed p r o gr essi o n o f p i ct u r es, i m p r essi o n s an d i n f o r m at i o n . H en ce t h e f o l l o w i n g ch al l en ge: h o w t o ex t en d t h i s p r i n ci p l e o f u n f o l d i n g t o a t h r ee- d i m en si o n al sp ace, h o w t o o r gan i se i m ag es an d i d eas as a f l o w an d t h e ar gu m en t an d p er su asi o n as a w al k ?

‘ T r a ffic c o n t r o l’

W h en d esi g n er s t h o u gh t o f t h e m o d er n ex h i b i t i o n as a d y n am i c p at h , t h ey r ev i t al i sed t h e o l d m et ap h o r o f t h e p at h d esi gn at i n g b o t h t h e p r o cess o f l ear n i n g an d t h e l i n ear ad v an c i n g o f t h o u gh t . So m e p r esen t at i o n s p u r p o sel y ech o ed t h i s i d ea. B y ex p l i ci t l y an n o u n ci n g a 'p at h ' o r a 'r o u t e' i n t h ei r t i t l es, t h ey i d en t i f i ed a v er y r eal i t i n er ar y an d t h e p r o cess o f i n d i v i d u al t r an sf o r m at i o n o r co l l ect i v e p r o gr essi o n t h at w as o r ch est r at ed al o n g t h e ci r cu i t , i n t h e t r ad i t i o n o f t h e w ay o f t h e cr o ss an d t h e s ac r i tn o n ti. I t co u l d , f o r ex am p l e, b e 'T h e Pat h t o t h e N ew

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 3 2 h tt p ://s it e . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 3 2 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

13 2

O liv ie r L u g o n

L i f e' ( D e r W e g z u m n e u e n L e b e n ) o f Ber l i n 's n ew r eal est at e o w n er s ( 19 32) o r t h e 'R o ad t o V i ct o r y ' o f A m er i c a at w ar ( N ew Yo r k , 19 42) . T h e ar ch i t ect u r e cr i t i c, A d o l f Beh n e, u n d er l i n ed t h i s d ef i n i t i o n o f t h e t r an s m i ssi o n o f i d eas as t h e d esi g n o f m o v em en t as ear l y as 19 28 , w h en h e co m m en t ed o n a Ber l i n h o u si n g p r esen t at i o n b y M o h o l y - N ag y u n d er t h e d i r ect i o n o f W al t er G r o p i u s, en t i t l ed B au e n u n d W o h n e n ( Bu i l d i n g an d L i v i n g) , i n w h i ch h e cel eb r at ed : a n ew t yp e of exhi bi t ion . H er e it i s not ju st an y m at eri al pi led up an yh ow in a suffi ci en t ly l ar ge h all an d an yw h er e in front of w h i ch t he vi si t or i s placed ... here, rat her, t he exh ibit i on si gn i fi es the or gan i sed pat h of t he at t ent i ve vi si t or . A n d t hi s pat h al on gsi de par t i cul ar object s, follow i n g a det er m i n ed an d clear di rect i on an d or der, is i den t i cal to the pat h of the exhi bi t or 's t hought s. The pr i nci ples of t he m oder n book layou t ar e her e ap pli ed for t he fir st t i m e to an exhi bi t i on . . . [t]he vi si t or h as t he feeli ng of bei n g en gaged i n a l ei sur el y str oll w h i l e r em ai n i n g aw ar e t hat t here is an ai m . A s he m oves for w ar d , h e sees t h i n gs fr om var i ous si d es - i n a w or d, he follow s t he d y n am i c pat h of t h ough t i n its logi cal t w i st s an d t u r n s.18 T w o y ear s l at er , at t h e Par i s Ex h i b i t i o n o f A r t i st D eco r at o r s, G r o p i u s, M o h o l y N ag y an d B ay er f u r t h er d ev el o p ed t h i s p r i n ci p l e o f t h e 'd y n am i c p at h o f t h o u gh t '. B ay er l at er ev en cl ai m ed t h at t h i s p r esen t at i o n w as 'o n e o f t h e f i r st at t em p t s k n o w n t o m e t o o r gan i se an ex h i b i t i o n acco r d i n g t o an o r gan i c f l o w an d seq u en ce o f ex h i b i t s', 'o n e o f t h e f i r st w i t h p l an n ed ci r cu l at i o n '.19 T h e p r ess ex p r essed ast o n i sh m en t at t h e u n u su al r i gi d i t y o f t h e r o u t e. I t w as ch ar act er i sed as a f o r m o f 'd o g m at i sm ' an d 'p assi o n at e d i d act i ci sm ' t i n ged w i t h d o ct r i n ai r i sm - t h e m o m en t t h e f o r ced i t i n er ar y i s a ' c ir c u lat io n , n ot o n l y f o r t h e f eet b u t f o r t h e m i n d ', as on e Par i s cr i t i c p u t i t .20 I n o r d er t o d i r ect t h e sp ect at o r s' st ep s i n a r i go r o u s m an n er an d ab o v e al l m ak e p eo p l e u n d er st an d t h e i m p o r t an ce o f a l o gi cal an d l i n ear r ead i n g o f t h e exh i b i t i o n , d esi g n er s d i d n o t si m p l y o r gan i se r o o m s i n t h e cl ear est w a y p o ssi b l e. T h e cat al o gu e, w i t h a l ay o u t b y Bay er , i n d i cat ed t h e v i si t o r 's p at h u si n g a t h i n , co n t i n u o u s, w i n d i n g l i n e m ar k ed w i t h ar r o w s, i n d i cat i n g o n e an d o n ly o n e r o u t e t h r o u gh t h e r o o m s - a gr ap h i cal p r act i ce t h at w o u l d so o n b eco m e v er y co m m o n . T h e r o u t e i n t h e ex h i b i t i o n i t sel f w as d esi gn at ed i n a cl ear - cu t f ash i o n b y 'co m m an d i n g ar r o w s' t h at w er e b o t h an i m at ed an d l i t u p - l i gh t i n g u p w h en t h ey m o v ed f o r w ar d , g o i n g o u t w h en t h ey m o v ed b ac k w ar d s — an d w i t h so u n d , p r o d u c i n g 'c r ac k i n g ' an d 'b u z z i n g ' so u n d s/ 1 cu r i o u sl y b l en d i n g t o get h er d i d act i ci sm w i t h b o r r o w i n g s f r o m u r b an co m m er ci al p u b l i ci t y. M o r e t h an an y o t h er d esi gn er , B ay er en su r ed t h at co n t r o l o v er ci r cu l at i o n w as at t h e cen t r e o f h i s p r act i ce. W h i l e L i ssi t z k y co n cei v ed o f h i s ex h i b i t i o n s as t h e su m o f i t s i n d ep en d en t d i sp l ay s, w i t h n o p ar t i cu l ar v i ew i n g o r d er , B ay er w as f asci n at ed b y t h e i d ea t h at o n e can d ev el o p a l i n e o f t h o u gh t b y set t i n g u p

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 3 3 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 3 3 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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an i t i n er ar y - i .e., g u i d i n g p eo p l e's st ep s t o g u i d e t h ei r m i n d s. H e b el i ev ed t h at ex h i b i t i o n d esi gn w as n o t so m u ch an i n t egr al p ar t o f d eco r at i o n o r i n t er i o r ar ch i t ect u r e, as w as t h o u gh t i n t h e 19 t h cen t u r y ; n o r w as i t ev en p ar t o f t h e m u l t i p l e t ech n i q u es o f p u b l i ci t y p r esen t at i o n an d gr ap h i c v i su al i sat i o n t h at h ad b eco m e i n cr easi n gl y i m p o r t an t si n ce t h e 19 20 s; i t w as ab o v e al l a sci en ce o f t r af fi c. I n t h i s co n t ext h e sp eak s d el i b er at el y o f 't r af f i c co n t r o l ',22 a n o t i o n b o r r o w ed f r o m t r af f i c en gi n eer i n g, a d i sci p l i n e t h at w as al so d ev el o p i n g d u r i n g t h e f i r st h al f o f t h e 20t h cen t u r y i n r esp o n se t o i n cr eases i n au t o m o t i v e t r af fi c, t h e sp r ead o f w h i c h at t h at t i m e u n d o u b t ed l y al so h ad an i n f l u en ce o n t h e co n t r o l o f p ed es t r i an f l o w —f r o m ex h i b i t i o n d esi g n t o t h e f i r st su p er m ar k et s. B ay er l i k ed t o r ef er t o t h i s b y p l ay i n g n o t o n l y w i t h co u n t l ess ar r o w s, b u t al so w i t h f l o o r m ar k i n gs, as i n h i s f i r st ex h i b i t i o n i n A m er i ca, t h e Bau h aus 19 19 - 19 28 r et r o sp ect i v e at t h e M o M A i n N ew Y o r k i n 19 38 , t h e y ear t h at h e em i gr at ed t o t h e U S.

T h e c i n e m a in r e v e r s e

B ay er 's w o r k o n ci r cu l at i o n w as t o co m e t o a h ead i n 19 4 2 w i t h h i s seco n d l ar ge i n st al l at i o n at t h e M o M A , t h e R o ad t o V ic t o r y ex h i b i t i o n .23 T h i s p r o p ag an d a ex h i b i t i o n , d i r ect ed b y t h e p h o t o g r ap h er Ed w ar d St ei ch en , w as ai m ed at i n f l u en c i n g p u b l i c o p i n i o n i n d ef en ce o f t h e U S's en t er i n g t h e w ar a y ear ear l i er , af t er t h e at t ack o n Pear l H ar b o u r . St ei ch en 's f i r st i d ea w as t o m ak e a l ar ge p h o t o gr ap h i c p o r t r ai t o f A m er i c a an d i t s ar m y. T h e m ai n w o r k i n g t i t l e u sed f o r t h e exh i b i t i o n w as P an o r am a o f D e fe n c e . M o r e p r eci sel y, t h e ex h i b i t i o n w o u l d h av e b een d o m i n at ed b y a m o d er n f o r m o f t h e p an o r am a, t h e gi an t p h o t o m u r al , a t ech n i q u e t h at , i n t h e 19 30 s, w as ev en m o r e p o p u l ar i n A m er i ca t h an i n G er m an y . I t w as a t ech n i q u e t h at h ad w o n St ei ch en m u ch r en o w n d u r i n g t h at p er i o d . T h e ex h i b i t i o n w o u l d h av e co n si st ed o f a m o n u m en t al co m p o si t e i m age i n f r o n t o f w h i ch sp ect at o r s w o u l d st an d an d st ar e, as t h ey w o u l d b e ab l e t o see t h e en t i r e p i ece f r o m a si n gl e v i ew p o i n t . B ay er w as r ecr u i t ed l at e o n t o g i v e sh ap e t o t h e w h o l e an d t r an sf o r m t h e p r oj ect . H e b el i ev ed t h at t h e p an o r am i c v i ew f r o m a si n gl e cen t r al p o i n t , b o t h al l en co m p assi n g an d o m n i sci en t , n o l o n ger co r r esp o n d ed t o t h e m o d e o f t h i n k i n g o f t h e 20t h cen t u r y T h e t i m es f o r h i m w er e ch ar act er i sed b y r el at i v i t y , m o b i l i t y, an d t h e p er m an en t q u est i o n i n g o f acq u i r ed cer t ai n t i es t h at ar e co n st an t l y an d d el i b er at el y b ei n g co n f r o n t ed b y n ew ap p r o ach es an d ch an gi n g p er sp ect i v es. B ay er b el i ev ed t h at t h i s p h i l o so p h y al so r eq u i r ed m u l t i p l e v i ew p o i n t s, a d y n am i c an d o p en set o f el em en t s: The consciousn ess of t he r elat i vi t y an d t he d yn am i c i nt er relat i on of phen om en a t eaches u s t hat w e can n ot appr oach t he k n ow n as w el l as t he u n k n ow n fr om a fi xed poi nt of vi ew . It t eaches u s t hat w e m ust look at t h i n gs fr om m an y st an dpoi n t s ... The

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 3 4 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 3 4 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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i d ea of pan or am i c poi n t of vi ew h as di sap pear ed, because w e di ssect an d pu t t o get h er agai n . Th us w e h ave concei ved a n ew vi ew w h i ch i s super -di m en si on al: the m on t age.24

F ig u r e 1 2 . H e r b e r t B ay e r , m o d e l f o r

Road to Victory,

N e w Y o r k,

294 2

T h e w h o l e o f t h e R o ad to V ic t o n / p r o j ect - an d i t s i m p o r t an ce - w o u l d t h u s d e p en d o n t h e m eet i n g o f t w o 20 t h - cen t u r y m y t h s - t h e o b sessi o n w i t h ci r cu l at i o n an d t h e m o n t age m o d el , t w o t h em es t h at B ay er at t em p t ed t o l i n k t oget h er , m ak i n g ev er y ef f o r t t o t u r n t h e d y n am i c p at h i n t o a f o r m o f m o n t age. I n o r d er t o ach i ev e t h i s, h e i m p o sed t h e i d ea o f a sp at i o t em p o r al ex p er i en ce b ased o n t h e p er m an en t d i sp l acem en t o f t h e p o i n t o f v i ew . I n o t h er w o r d s, h e d eco n st r u ct ed t h e p h o t o m o n t age — t h e r i gi d assem b l y o f i m ag es o n t h e w al l - i n o r d er t o u n f u r l i t i n sp ace an d i n v i t e sp ect at o r s t o 'w a l k w it h in t h e co m p o si t i o n ',25 i n acco r d an ce w i t h an i t i n er ar y d ev el o p ed i n ad v an ce, al o n g w h i ch v i si t o r s w er e st r i ct l y g u i d ed b y m ean s o f a w i n d i n g r am p p r o t ect ed b y b ar r i er s ( fi g. 12) . T h e ex h i b i t i on t h u s b ecam e a 'p r o cessi o n o f p h o t o gr ap h s', r ef l ect ed i n t h e su b t i t l e t h at w as u l t i m at el y ch o sen : A P r o c e s s io n o f P h o t o g r ap h s o f t h e N at io n at W ar, w i t h al l t h e r el i gi o u s co n n o t at i o n s o f a cer em o n y o f co l l ect i v e r egen er at i o n . A s t h i s u n f u r l i n g o f i m ages o ccu r r ed b o t h i n t i m e an d d ep t h , B ay er h i m sel f d escr i b ed i t as a so r t o f ex t en si o n o f ci n em a t o t h e su r r o u n d i n g sp ace, o r m o r e p r eci sel y, as a

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 3 5 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 3 5 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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f o r m o f f i l m i n r ev er se: 'T o t ell t h e st o r y d r am at i cal l y , I w an t ed t o r ev er se t h e p r o ced u r e o f l o o k i n g at t h e f i l m w h er e t h e p u b l i c i s st at i c an d t h e f i l m m o v es. T h er ef o r e, i n t h i s case, I h ad t h e p u b l i c m o v e t h r o u gh t h e ex h i b i t i o n .'26 St ei ch en l o st n o t i m e i n ad o p t i n g t h e i d ea an d su m m ar i sed i t ev en b et t er : 'T h e sh o w i s a m o v i n g p i ct u r e . . . w h er e y o u d o t h e m o v i n g an d t h e p i ct u r es st an d st i l l '.27 W i t h t h i s r ev er sal , B ay er g a v e t h e sp ect at o r t h e r ol e o f t h e f i l m st r i p i n ci n em a. T h e w a y h e g r ap h i c al l y r ep r esen t ed t h e r o u t e t h r o u gh h i s ex h i b i t i o n s, w i t h t h e f l u i d an d m ean d er i n g l i n es f l o w i n g u n i n t er r u p t ed w i t h i n t h e co m p l ex an d an g u l ar t w i st s an d t u r n s o f t h e ar ch i t ect u r e, i n a cer t ai n w ay r ecal l s t h e t o r t u o u s j o u r n ey o f t h e ci n em at o gr ap h i c f i l m t h r o u gh t h e p r oj ect or . T h i s r easo n i n g al l o w s t h e sp ect at o r s' b o d y m o v em en t s t o p r o d u ce t h e m o n t age l i v e; w h er eas a f i l m d i r ect o r o r p h o t o m o n t age sp eci al i st co m b i n es t h e i m ages b y m ean s o f p h y si cal l y g l u i n g t h em t oget h er , B ay er co n t r o l l ed t h e sp ect at o r s t h em sel v es i n o r d er t o p r o d u ce t h ese asso ci at i o n s an d l i n k s. T h e sp ect at o r s' m o v em en t s b ecam e t h e v er y r aw m at er i al o f h i s ar t , h i s i n st r u m en t an d w eap o n , o n a p ar w i t h t h e i m ag es t h em sel v es. Road t o Vict or y t h u s ach i ev es a gen u i n e d r am at u r g y o f m o v em en t , w h er e t h e

p h y si o l o gi cal ex p er i en ce o f w al k i n g an d each ch an ge o f l ev el an d d i r ect i o n b e co m e a ser i es o f d r am at i c an d em o t i o n al v ect o r s. T h i s i s b o r n e o u t b y t h e f act t h at t h e p sy ch o l o gi cal h i gh p o i n t o f t h e st o r y an d t u r n i n g- p o i n t i n t h e n ar r at i o n , t h e at t ack o n Pear l H ar b o u r , co r r esp o n d s t o o n e o f t h e m aj o r m o m en t s o f d i s r u p t i o n i n t h e v i si t o r s' sp at i al m o v em en t s. I t w as t h e p r eci se m o m en t w h en t h e r am p t h at t h ey w er e cl i m b i n g 'm o r e an d m o r e st eep l y, t h o ' y o u ar e h ar d l y aw ar e o f i t co n sci o u sl y ' - w h i l e b ei n g i n f o r m ed ab o u t t h e i so l at i o n i st m o v em en t o f t h e p r ev i o u s y ear s - ar r i v ed at t h e su m m i t an d si m u l t an eo u sl y d i d a 18 0 d egr ee t u r n . T h e t w o co r n er - p i ece p an el s i n t h e cen t r e o f t h e m o d el co u l d n ot b e seen i n ad v an ce an d b r o u gh t ab o u t a sh o ck t h at i m i t at ed t h e h i st o r i cal even t . 'A f t er t h at y o u ar e l ed d o w n h i l l i n t h e ev er - i n cr easi n g m o m en t u m o f A m er i ca's w ar ef f o r t ';28 t h e m o r e co n v i n ced on e b eco m es ab o u t t h e i n ev i t ab i l i t y o f vi ct o r y, t h e easi er t h e p ace b eco m es. B y ex p l o i t i n g m o v em en t as a r h et o r i cal an d d r am at u r gi cal t ool , B ay er f o r ged a cl o ser l i n k b et w een t h e co m m u n i cat i o n o f i d eas an d t h e v i si t o r s' p h y si cal ex p er i en ce t h an i n an y o f h i s p r ev i o u s ex h i b i t i o n s. I n so m e w ay s, i t co u l d b e sai d t h at h e t o o k t h e 19 20 s' v i si o n o f co m m u n i cat i o n b ased o n t h e u n i o n o f m i n d an d b o d y t o i t s ap o t h eo si s. H o w ev er , h i s p u r p o se at t h i s t i m e w as a v er y d i f f er en t on e. W h er eas f i f t een y ear s p r ev i o u sl y , t h e ap p eal t o t h e sp ect at o r s' p h y si cal an d d y n am i c ex p er i en ce w as su p p o sed t o f r ee t h em f r o m t h ei r su p p o sed p as si v i t y , t h i s w as n o l o n ger t h e case. H o w ev er v i g o r o u sl y v i si t o r s w er e ab l e t o m o v e ab o u t i n t h e t h r ee d i m en si o n s, cr o ssi n g t h e ex h i b i t i o n sp ace i n al l d i r ec t i on s, t h ei r ey es d ar t i n g l ef t an d r i gh t t h r o u gh t h e p h o t o gr ap h s, t h ey w er e n ei t h er m o r e act i v e n o r m o r e f r ee. Si n ce t h e p h o t o s w er e ex p l i ci t l y h u n g u si n g

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 3 6 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 3 6 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

m

O liv ie r L u g o n

a f l ex i b l e ap p r o ach t h r o u gh o u t t h e ex h i b i t i o n sp ace, i n acco r d an ce w i t h t h e p r e cep t s o f 'ex t en d ed v i si o n ' an d a cer t ai n i m age o f m o d er n fl exi b i l i t y, i t w as p r e ci sel y i n t h e d y n am i c p at h t h at l ed o n e t h r o u gh t h e ex h i b i t i o n sp ace t h at t h e n ecessar y r i gi d i t y o f a p r o p ag an d a d i sco u r se w as p r esen t ed , w i t h t h e co n st r ai n i n g l i n ear i t y o f an ar gu m en t at i v e an d em o t i o n al seq u en ce t h at w as d et er m i n ed i n ad v an ce, g i v i n g v i si t o r s n o r o o m t o m an o eu v r e. Far f r o m b ei n g t h e i n st r u m en t o f t h ei r l i b er at i o n , t h e h o l d o f p r o p ag an d a an d t h e h an d l i n g o f t h e v i si t o r s' p sy c h o l o g y w er e n o w co n cen t r at ed i n t h ei r v er y m ob i l i t y. T h i s p o i n t s t o a seco n d , m o r e gen er al co n t r ad i ct i o n l u r k i n g i n t h e v er y d r eam o f a n ew v i su al l an gu age, w h i c h w o u l d b e b o t h l i b er at i n g an d m o r e ef fi ci en t . Cl ear l y , i f B ay er so u gh t so ar d en t l y t o so l i ci t t h e p h y si cal p ar t i ci p at i o n o f t h e sp ect at o r s, i t w er e t o m ak e co m m u n i cat i o n m o r e ef f i ci en t t o en su r e gr eat er p sy ch o l o gi cal co n t r o l o v er t h em . I n 19 39 , h e p o i n t ed o u t t h at an ex h i b i t i o n sh o u l d 'p en et r at e an d l eav e an i m p r essi o n o n [ t h em ] , sh o u l d ex p l ai n , d em o n st r at e, an d ev en p er su ad e an d l ead [ t h em ] t o a p l an n ed an d d i r ect r eact i o n '29. T en y ear s l at er i n 19 4 7, t h e ar t h i st o r i an A l ex an d er D o r n er w r o t e h i s b o o k o n B ay er en t i t l ed The W fly Beyon d 'A r t ' an d ev en sp o k e o f t h e ex h i b i t i o n as 'an ag g r essi v e en er g y seek i n g t o t r an sf o r m t h e v i si t o r '.30 I n a w o r d : t ak i n g su ch p ai n s t o set sp ect at o r s f r ee m ean s, p ar ad o x i c al l y en o u gh , b ei n g ab l e t o co n t r o l t h em bet t er .

M o v in g w a lk w a y s a n d m o to r w a y s

B ay er 's o b st i n at e d esi r e t o co n t r o l m o v em en t s f o r a t i m e l ed h i m t o en v i sag e p u r el y an d si m p l y au t o m at i n g t h em b y m ech an i cal m ean s. H e t h u s p l an n ed t o u se t h e m o v i n g w al k w ay t h an k s t o w h i ch t h e v i si t o r sh o u l d 'p er f o r ce su b m i t t o d i r ect i o n ', as h e ex p l ai n ed i n 19 39 .31 T h e sy st em w o u l d n o t o n l y h av e t h e ad v an t age o f en su r i n g t h e d i r ect i o n o f t h e v i si t m o r e ef f i ci en t l y t h an b ar r i er s an d r am p s, b u t w o u l d al so d o w h at n o ex h i b i t i o n h ad p r ev i o u sl y d o n e: d i ct at e t h e t em p o an d r h y t h m o f t h e v i si t , si m i l ar t o t h e f i l m s t h at B ay er w as so en v i o u s of. B y t h e en d o f t h e 19 20 s, so m e t h eo r i st s h ad al r ead y d ev el o p ed t h e an al o g y w i t h ci n em a su f f i ci en t l y f ar as t o d r eam o f m ast er i n g t h e t em p o o f t h e vi si t . C o n si d er i n g t h e ex h i b i t i o n as a d y n am i c ex p er i en ce m ean t d ef i n i n g i t as an ar t f o r m t h at w as as t i m e- o r i en t ed as i t w as v i su al l y b ased , l i k e ci n em a - an d al so m u si c o r d an ce — i .e., b ased o n co n t r o l o v er cad en ce an d r h y t h m . T h i s, as w as n o t ed ab o v e, w as Fr i t z C o er p er 's v i ew . H e en v i sag ed t h e 'd y n am i c f o r m o f t h e ex h i b i t i o n ' as a 'f i l m w i t h i t s accel er at ed an d sl o w m o t i o n ', b u t al so as 'r h y t h m i cs'.32 W i l h el m L o t z al so co n cei v ed o f 't h e ex h i b i t i o n as a sp ace- t i m e ex p er i en ce', w h i c h m ean t n o t o n l y st r u ct u r i n g sp ace an d f i x i n g an i t i n er ar y b u t , t h r o u gh t h em , r eg u l at i n g t h e t i m e an d r h y t h m o f t h e exh i b i t i o n , i n o t h er w o r d s,

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 3 7 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 3 7 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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137

'o r g an i si n g i t l i k e t h e p r o gr essi o n o f a f i l m ' an d r each i n g 't h e i n ev i t ab l e ch ar ac t er o f t h e t em p o r al ex p er i en ce o f sp ace'.33 A l t h o u g h B ay er d i d n o t su cceed i n i m p o si n g t em p o o n v i si t o r s b y el ect r o m e ch an i cal m ean s, t h e y ear i n w h i ch h e p u b l i sh ed h i s ar t i cl e saw t h e i d ea t ak e co n cr et e sh ap e i n o n e o f t h e m o st p o p u l ar d i d act i c p r esen t at i o n s o f t h e cen t u r y - N o r m an Bel G ed d es's F u t u r am a ex h i b i t i n t h e Gen er al M o t o r s Pav i l i o n o f t h e N ew Y o r k W o r l d 's Fai r i n 19 39 / 19 4 0 .34 L i k e m an y o t h er p r esen t at i o n s at t h e fai r , t h e t h em e o f t h e F u t u r am a w as t r af f i c co n t r o l , au t o m o b i l e t r af f i c i n t h i s case. It p r esen t ed a v i si o n o f a f u t u r e A m er i c a - t h at o f i 9 6 0 - w h er e t r af f i c co n gest i o n p r o b l em s w o u l d b y so l v ed b y a co m p l et el y n ew sy st em o f r ad i o - co n t r o l l ed m o t o r w ay s, al l o w i n g f o r f l u i d t r af f i c p at t er n s. Fl u i d i t y w as co n si d er ed a k ey co n d i t i o n o f p r o sp er i t y an d , h en ce, as a r em ed y f o r t h e n at i o n 's p r i n ci p al eco n o m i c, u r b an an d so ci al p r o b l em s. I n o r d er t o p r esen t h i s f ai r y t al e- l i k e v i si o n o f ci r cu l at i o n , Bel G ed d es co n cei v ed a ser i es o f gi an t m o d el s ab o v e w h i ch sp ect at o r s ar e co n d u ct ed , si t t i n g i n a k i n d o f en d l ess t r ai n , a p r o cessi o n o f 500 al i gn ed seat s al o n g a l o n g, w i n d i n g t r ack , w h i c h t r an sp o r t ed m o r e t h an 2,0 00 p eo p l e p er h o u r i n t w o - seat er s p r o v i d ed w i t h sep ar at e r eco r d ed co m m en t s ( f i g. 13) . Fo r t h ese sp ect at o r s, t h e r o u t e t h r o u gh t h e ex h i b i t i o n t o o k o n so m et h i n g o f t h e q u al i t y o f t h e t r af f i c p r esen t ed i n t h e m o d el s — p er f ect l y f l u i d t r af f i c i n w h i ch i n d i v i d u al s w er e, so t o sp eak , t ak en al o n g b y an i n v i si b l e cu r r en t d et er m i n i n g t h ei r d i r ect i o n an d sp eed w i t h o u t l eav i n g t h em t h e sl i gh t est r o o m f o r m an o eu v r e n o r t h e sl i gh t est w o r r y ab o u t d eal i n g w i t h t h e i t i n er ar y - L ew i s M u m f o r d m ad e i r o n i cal r em ar k s ab o u t t h e f act t h at G en er al M o t o r s w as ab o v e al l ad v er t i si n g f o r t h e r ai l w ay .35 M e ch an i cal sp ect at o r s co u l d en j o y t h e t r i p as p u r e sp ect acl e, an d f o r t h em , t h e p r o m en ad e t h r o u gh t h e ex h i b i t i o n t ak es o n t h e ch ar act er i st i cs o f an o u t i n g t o t h e ci n em a. C o m f o r t ab l y si t t i n g i n t h ei r seat s i n n ear d ar k n ess, t h ei r ey es f i x ed o n t h e so u r ce o f l i gh t , t h ei r at t en t i on t ak en b y a 'so u n d t r ack ' t h at h as b een sy n ch r o n i sed w i t h t h e i m ages, t h ey al l o w t h em sel v es t o b e t ak en o n a p u r el y f i ct i o n al j o u r n ey , car r i ed al o n g — a p r o p er l y ci n em at o gr ap h i c f acu l t y - t h r o u gh ch an ges o f scal es an d an gl es o f v i si o n t h at h av e n o l i n k w i t h t h ei r act u al si z e o r p o si t i o n . A b o v e al l, t h e i t i n er ar y t h ey w er e i n v i t ed t o f o l l o w w as t i m ed l i k e a f i l m , u n v ei l i n g t h e G en er al M o t o r s m essag e i n a seq u en ce p r o gr am m ed d o w n t o t h e sm al l est d et ai l s. Su ch p r eci si o n w as n at u r al l y n o l o n ger ab l e t o su p p o r t r an d o m st r o l l i n g f r o m t h e m o m en t w h en —l i k e t h e gh o st t r ai n —t h e v i si t o r s' m o v em en t s an d t h e u n f u r l i n g o f t h e sp ect acl e b ecam e l i n k ed t oget h er , t h e f i r st cau si n g t h e seco n d t o m o v e f o r w ar d . T h e su ccess o f t h e F u t u r am a ex h i b i t w as p r ed i cat ed o n t h e p assi v i t y o f t h e v i si t o r — a k i n d o f r ev er sal o f t h e f i r st p r i n ci p l es o f t h e m o d er n ex h i b i t i o n - m o v i n g w i t h o u t p h y si cal ef f o r t , w i t h o u t t h e b o d y p ar t i ci p at i n g, w i t h o u t i n d i v i d u al m ob i l i t y.

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 3 8 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 3 8 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

O liv ie r L u g o n

F ig u r e

13.

N o r m an B e l G e d d e s ,

Futurama,

N e w Y o r k,

1939

P o s te r ity a n d p o s t- w a r d e b a te s

A f t er t h e w ar , t h i s k i n d o f r esear ch o n p er f ect l y co n t r o l l ed sp ect at o r m o v em en t t en d ed t o d ecl i n e i n t h e ar ea o f d i d act i c ex h i b i t i o n d esi gn . Sp eci al i sed p u b l i ca t i o n s o n t h e su b j ect f r o m t h e 19 50 s an d 19 6 0 s n o t ed t h at p eo p l e t en d ed t o b e i n cr easi n gl y su sp i ci o u s o f i m p o sed i t i n er ar i es, t h e 'f o r ced i n t est i n al ci r cu l at i o n ' b ased o n an au t h o r i t ar i an ch an n el l i n g o f sp ect at o r s, i n w h i c h t h e i n d i v i d u al felt 'd i sc i p l i n ed ' an d 'c o m p u l so r i l y i n st r u ct ed '.36 I n st ead o f b asi n g m o d er n co m m u n i cat i o n on t h e co n st r ai n t s o f p ed est r i an f r eed o m , m an y d esi gn er s t r i ed t o f i n d n o n - l i n ear f o r m s o f d i d act i c p r esen t at i o n s t h at w o u l d g i v e v i si t o r s a gr eat er sen se o f li b er t y.

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 3 9 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 3 9 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

D y n a m ic P a th s o f T h o u g h t

F ig u r e

14.

C h a r le s a n d R a y F a m e s , " h i s t o r y w a ll" ,

139

A Computer Perspective,

N e w Y o rk, 1 9 7 1

C h ar l es an d R ay Eam es p r o v i d e ex am p l es o f t h i s ef f o r t . Fr o m t h e 19 50 s t o t h e 19 70 s, t h ey d ev el o p ed a d ef i n i t i o n o f m o n t age i n ex h i b i t i o n sp aces t h at w as v er y d i f f er en t f r o m Bay er 's. W h i l e h e co n si d er ed i t an ar t o f su ccessi o n , t h e r egu l at ed seq u en ci n g o f i m ages an d i d ea, C h ar l es an d R ay Eam es saw i t m o r e as a k al ei d o sco p i c f o r m b ased o n t h e p r i n ci p l e o f 'i n f o r m at i o n o v er l o ad '. I n t h ei r d i d act i c p r esen t at i o n s an d m u l t i - scr een p r o j ect i o n s, t h ey set o u t t o p r o v i d e v i si t o r s w i t h a d el i b er at el y u n co n t r o l l ab l e p r o f u si o n o f el em en t s, i m ag es o r t ext , i n t o w h i ch sp ect at o r s w er e n ecessar i l y l ed t o d i p , as t h e sp i r i t — o r t h e r an d o m r o am i n g o f t h ei r ey es o r f eet — m o v ed t h em ( fi g. 14 ) . Rat h er t h an a l i n ear co n st r u ct i o n t h at h ad b een f i x ed i n ad v an ce b y i t s d esi gn er , m o n t age l ar g el y d e p en d ed o n t h e sp ect at o r s t h em sel v es. T h e co m b i n at i o n o f i n f o r m at i o n w as

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 4 0 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 4 0 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

140

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o p en an d r an d o m , an d p er cep t i o n d el i b er at el y f r agm en t ed an d r o am i n g. T h e ci n em at o gr ap h i c m o d el h ad cl ear l y b een l eft b eh i n d i n p r ef er en ce f o r w h at w o u l d b eco m e t el ev i si o n z ap p i n g or I n t er n et su r f i n g ( C h ar l es an d R ay Eam es w o r k ed r eg u l ar l y f o r I BM ) . Sp ect at o r s' p o w er s o f co n cen t r at i o n w er e t est ed b y t h e m u l t i p l i ci t y o f o p t i o n s, n ew d i st r act i o n s an d v ar i at i o n s, w h i ch at t h e en d p ar t l y u n d er m i n ed t h e r el ev an ce an d m ean i n g o f t h ei r ch o i ces. T h i s o sci l l at i o n b et w een f r eed o m an d co n st r ai n t r em ai n ed t h e su b j ect o f d e b at es b et w een sp eci al i st s o f t h e exh i b i t i o n f o r a l o n g t i m e t o com e. T y p i c al q u es t i o n s w er e: w h at p r o p o r t i o n o f i n d et er m i n at i o n i s co m p at i b l e w i t h t h e i n t el l i g i b i l i t y o f a p r esen t at i o n ? H o w can o n e d ev el o p a co h er en t m essag e w h i l e al l o w i n g v i si t o r s t o cr eat e t h ei r o w n seq u en ces? D o es n o t co n st r u ct i n g a d i s co u r se n ecessar i l y m ean d ef i n i n g a r egu l at ed an d f i x ed o r gan i sat i o n o f el e m en t s, as f o r t h e f i l m o r t h e b o o k ? I n co n t r ast , d o es ab so l u t e f r eed o m o f m o v e m en t an d v i si o n r eal l y gu ar an t ee t h e sp ect at o r s' em an ci p at i o n ? W h at i s t h e p o i n t o f o n e b ei n g ab l e t o m o v e ar o u n d as o n e w i sh es, w i t h i n a sy st em t h at , d esp i t e ev er y t h i n g, r em ai n s co d i f i ed an d ci r cu m scr i b ed b y so m eo n e el se? D o es t h i s n o t l ead t o ev er m o r e v i si t o r p assi v i t y , m o r e i n er t i a w i t h i n t h e p r ed et er m i n ed sy st em ? Pu t an o t h er w ay , i t w o u l d b e w r o n g t o w i sh t o est ab l i sh a m an d at o r y co r r el a t i on b et w een d i sp o si t i v es co n t r o l l i n g m o v em en t , w h i ch b y n at u r e ar e m an i p u l at i v e an d d i ct at o r i al , an d f r ee i t i n er ar i es, w h i ch ar e n ecessar i l y em an ci p at i n g an d d em o cr at i c. I t i s p ar ad o x i cal t h at i t w as t h e d em o cr aci es t h at w er e t o m ak e i m p o sed m o v em en t a p r i v i l eg ed m o d e o f t h ei r r ep r esen t at i o n s, w h er eas f r o m t h e en d o f t h e 19 30 s, t o t al i t ar i an r egi m es w o u l d m o st o f t en co m e b ack t o m u ch m o r e co n v en t i o n al f o r m u l as o f t h e ex p r essi o n o f p o w er - m o n u m en t al m a ch i n es, p o m p o u s, ax i al st agi n gs w h i ch , t h r o u gh t h ei r v er y r i gi d i t y, p r ecl u d e t h e co n t r o l o f co m p l ex m o v em en t s. Su ch w as t h e p ar ad o x i cal r u l e o f m o v em en t w i t h i n t h e ex h i b i t i o n p er cei v ed b y B ay er ( fi g. 15 ) .37 A sy m b o l i cal l y au t h o r i t ar i an , ax i al an d sy m m et r i c o r gan i sat i o n o f sp ace, su ch as w as f av o u r ed b y d i ct a t o r sh i p s, act u al l y l ed t o u n co n t r o l l ed i t i n er ar i es, w i t h v i si t o r s w an d er i n g f r o m d i sp l ay t o d i sp l ay w i t h n ei t h er t h ei r o r d er n o r t h e d i r ect i o n t ak en d eci d ed i n ad v an ce; a m o r e f l exi b l e, m u l t i d i r ect i o n al an d co n t r ast ed d i v i d i n g - u p o f ex h i b i t i on sp ace, su ch as f o u n d f av o u r i n d em o cr aci es, co n st i t u t ed t h e b est m ean s o f co n t r o l l i n g v i si t o r s' p at h s. Fo r ex am p l e, at t h e Par i s U n i v er sal Ex h i b i t i o n o f 19 37, a co n t em p o r ar y co m m en t at o r n o t ed t h at o f al l t h e p av i l i o n s, i t w as f i n al l y t h e i n t i m i d at i n g p av i l i o n o f H i t l er 's G er m an y w h i ch - w i t h t h e So v i et p av i l i o n w as t h e o n e w h er e m o v em en t w as t h e l east co n t r o l l ed . O n ce t h e m o n u m en t al en t r an ce h ad b een p assed t h r o u gh , v i si t o r s w er e l eft t o t h ei r o w n d ev i ces.38 Su ch a d i ct at o r sh i p si m p l y h as n o u se f o r an i t i n er ar y o f p er su asi o n — r at h er t h an co n v i n ce, i t set s o u t t o su b j u gat e, an d t o at t ai n t h i s en d p r ef er s t o sw ap t h e r at i o n al e go v er n i n g t h e ci n em at o gr ap h i c m o n t age f o r t h e set t i n g o f t h e t h eat r e.

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 141 h t t p :/ /s ite . e b ra ry .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 4 1 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

D y n a m ic P a th s o f T h o u g h t

141

Fi g u r e 15 . H er ber t Bayer , [ 19 36 ]

di sor der in floor plan in relat ion to dir ect ion

or ganized direct ion

N o te s

1.

2.

3. 4.

Th i s ar t i cle com bi nes t w o publi sh ed t ext s: 'L a ph ot ogr aph i e m i se en espace. Les exposi t i on s di dact i ques allem an d es (1925-1945) ' (ét udes phot ographiques, no. 5, N o vem ber 1998) an d 'D es chem i nem ent s d e pen sée. La gest i on d e la ci r culat ion dan s les exposi t i on s di dact i qu es' (A r t Press, speci al i ssue 'O u bl i er l'exposi t i on ', O ct ober 2000). El Lissi t zk y, 'A u t ob i ogr ap h y', 19 41, in El Lissit zky 189 0- 19 41: Archit ect , Painter, Photographer, Typographer, cat. expo., Ei n dh oven : M un i ci pal V an A bbem useum , 1990, p. 8; H erber t Bayer , 'A sp ect s of D esi gn o f Exh ibi t i on s an d M useum s', Curat or, vol . 4, no. 3, 19 6 1, pp. 257-258. Joh an n es M olzah n, 'N i ch t m ehr lesen ! Sehen !', Das Kunst blat t , vol . 12, M ar ch 1928, p. 78. Fr an z Roh, 'A u sst el lu n gen von h eut e', Das neue Frankfurt , vol . 4, no. 6, Ju n e 1930,

P*1455.

El Li ssi t zky, 'Exh i bi t i on s r oom s', [ date un k n ow n ] , in El Lissit zky: Life, Let ters, Texts, ed. Soph i e Li ssi t zk y-K i i pper s, Th am es & H udson , 1980 (1968), p. 366.

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 4 2 h tt p ://s it e . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 4 2 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

1142

6.

7.

8. 9.

10.

ix. 12. 13. 14.

15.

16. 17.

18. 19.

O liv ie r L u g o n

'Th r ough ph ot ogr aph y (and even m or e t h r ough film ) w e h ave acqui r ed n ew exper i ences of space, an d w i t h t heir h elp an d t hat of t he n ew schools of ar ch it ect ure w e h ave ach i eved t he w i d en i n g an d subli m at i on of ou r appr eci at i on o f space. Th r ou gh i ts com pr eh ensi on of t he n ew cult ur e of space - t h ank s to ph ot ogr ap h er s - h u m an i t y h as acquir ed t he p ow er to per cei ve it s sur r oun d i n gs an d t r ue exi st en ce w i t h a n ew eye', Telehor, no. 1- 2, 1936, r epri nt ed i n László M oholy-Nagy. Peint ur e Phot ogra phie Film et autres écrit s sur la phot ographie, N îm es: Ed. Jacqu eli n e Ch am bon , 1993, p. 195. O n t he t heor et i cal i m por t an ce of dance for Ger m an m oder n i sm in t he 1920s, one can consi der, for exam ple, t he follow i n g com m ent b y M oh oly-N agy i n Von M at erial :u Archit ekt ur (M uni ch: A l ber t Lan gen V er l ag Bauh ausbüch er no. 14, 1929, p. 195), r e pri nt ed i n The N ew Vision, M i n eola and N ew Yor k : D over Publi cat i on s, 2005 (1938), p. 16 3: 'Fr om t he poi n t of vi ew of the subject , space i s n at ur ally t o be exper i enced m ost di r ect ly b y m ovem en t ; on a h i gh er level, b y t he dance. Th e dan ce i s at the sam e t i m e an elem ent al m ean s for r eali zat i on of space-cr eat i ve i m pul ses. It can ar t iculat e space, or der it.' H erber t Bayer , pr eface t o Erbert o Carboni. Exhibit ions and Displays, M ilan: Si lvan a, 1 9 5 7 , P- 9 H erber t Bayer w as t o r em em ber h i s vi si t as an essen t i al exper i en ce for h is ow n r e search in t he fi eld (i n t er vi ew w i t h A r t h u r A . Cohen, 19 81, quot ed b y Gw en Fi nkel Ch anzit , H erbert Bayer and M odernist D esign in America, A n n A r b or an d Lon don : U M 1 Resear ch Press, St u di es i n t he Fi ne A r t s. The Avant -Gar de no. 58, 1987, p. 118) . Th ese br eak -up effect s her e w er e all t he st r on ger as t he ph ot ogr aph i c fr agm ent s w er e not gl ued u p agai n st t he w al l over a si n gle surface, bu t h u n g in fr on t o f a t r anspar en t clot h w i t h gap s bet w een t he i m ages or w i t h som e i m ages p ar t i ally cov er i n g ot hers. Fr om t hi s poi nt on, Bayer i n si st ed on or der i n g an d syst em at i si n g the t echni ques i n ven t ed here (H erber t Bayer , i n Ch an zi t , op. cit., p. 118) . W ilhelm Lot z, 'Z u r A u sst ellu n g "D i e K am er a'", D ie Form, vol . 8, no. 11, N ovem ber 1933, p. 325. Fr it z Coerper , 'D i e D eut sche Bauausst ell un g Ber li n 19 31 als A u sst el lu n gsr efor m ', Bauwelt , vol. 20, no. 5, 31 Jan u ar y 1929, p. 9 1. See, in par t icular , H er bert St ark e, 'N eu e W ege zum m on um en t alen Phot o', Deut scher Kamera Almanach, vol. 28: 19 38 (1937), Fr ench t r anslat i on i n O li vi er Lu gon (ed.), La Phot ographie en Allemagne. Ant hologie de textes 19 19- 19 39, N îm es: Ed. Jacqu e li ne Ch am bon , 1997, pp. 427-430. Si egfr i ed Kr acauer , 'Ph ot ogr aph i er t es Berlin ', Frankfurt er Zeit ung, 15 D ecem ber 1932, r epri nt ed in Siegfried Kracauer. Schrift en 5.3. Aufsät ze 19 32-19 6 5, ed. I n ka M ülder-Bach, Fr an k fur t am M ai n : Suh r k am p, 1990, pp. 168-169. Fr it z Coer per , op. cit., p. 91. 'Th e fact t hat spect at ors follow t he creati on of t he i m ages gi ves t hem t he psych olo gi cal i m pr essi on of par t ici pat in g, an d t h us br i n gs about i n cr eased i nt erest for the t hem e r epr esen t ed' (Ella Br i ggs, 'A u sst ellu n gs-Gest alt un gen ', Bauwelt , vol . 22, no. 19, 7 M ay 19 31, p. 650). A d o l f Behne, 'A H A G-A u sst el l u n g', i i o , vol . 12, no. 17- 18 ,19 28 , p. 94. H erber t Bayer , 19 6 1, op. cit., p. 260, and 'Pr i n ci ples of Exh ibi t i on D esi gn ', li st of t r an spar en cies pr esen t ed at t he lect ur e h eld at t he A i r For ce M useum , W r ight -Pat-

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 4 3 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 4 3 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

D y n a m ic P a th s o f T h o u g h t

20.

21.

22. 23.

24.

25. 26. 27.

28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34.

35.

36.

143

t erson, D ayt on , Ohi o, 13 O ct ober i 960 (H er ber t Bayer A r ch i ve, D en ver A r t M u seum , D enver ). Jean Gallot t i , 'L ’A r ch i t ect ur e au Sal on ', Travaux publics, 17 Ju l y 1930; B.R., 'D er W er k bun d in Par i s', Frankfurt er Zeit ung, 20 M ay 1930; Pau l W err ie, 'L es A llem an ds à Par i s', Le Vingt ième Siècle, 17 Ju l y 19 30 (Bauh aus Ar chi v, Berli n). Jean Gallot t i , ' A pr op os d u Salon d es D écor at eur s', Revue hebdomadaire, 12 Ju l y 1930, p. 208; Ju li u s Posener, 'D i e D eut sche A b t ei l u n g i n der A u sst ellu n g d er Sociét é des ar t i st es décor at i fs fr an çai s', D ie Baugilde, no. 11, 1930; B.E. W erner, 'D er sum m en de Pfei l. D er deut sch e W er k bun d i n Par i s', Deut sche Allgem eine Zeit ung, 12 Ju n e 1930 (Bauh aus A rch i v, Berlin). H erber t Bayer , 19 6 1, op. cit., p. 260. O n t he Road to Victory, see t he fou n di n g ar t icles b y Ch r i st oph er Ph illi ps, 'St ei ch en ’s Road to Vict ory', Exposure, vol. 18, no. 2, 19 81, an d 'T h e Ju d gem en t Seat of Ph ot ogr a p h y', October, no. 22, aut um n 1982, an d M ar y A n n e St an i szew sk i , The Power of D is play: A H ist or y of Exhibit ion Inst allat ions at the M useum of M odern A r t , Cam br i d ge and Lon don : M IT Pr ess, 1998, pp. 209-224. H erber t Bayer , 'Pr esen t at i on and D i sp lay', lecture gi ven at N ew Yor k U n i ver si t y, 5 D ecem ber 1940, t yped m an uscr ipt , p. 16 (H er ber t Bayer A r ch i ve, D en ver A r t M u seum , D enver ). Bar bar a M or gan , 'Ph ot om on t age', The Complet e Photographer, ed. W i llar d D. M or gan, 1942- 19 43, p. 2863. H erber t Bayer , 'N ot es gi ven t o A lexan d er D or n er for h i s w r i t i n gs about Bayer 's ex hi bi t i on desi gn ', c. 1940, n.p. (H er ber t Bayer A r ch i ve, D en ver A r t M useum , D en ver ). Ed w ar d St eichen, quot ed i n an on ym ou s, 'Ph ot o Exh i bi t Sh ow s D r am a of U S at W ar ', Illinois N ews, 31 M ar ch 1943 (M u seum of M oder n A r t A r ch i ves, M oM A , N ew York). W i lli am H i ckey, 'Self-por t r ai t of A m er i ca', D aily Express, 9 O ct ober 1942 (Public I n form at i on Scrapbook , M oM A , N ew Yor k ). H erber t Bayer , 'Fun d am en t al s of Exh ibi t i on D esi gn ', PM , vol . 6, no. 2, D ecem ber Jan u ar y 1939-1940, p. 17. A lexan d er D or ner , The W ay Beyorid "A r t ” . The W ork of H erbert Bayer, N ew Yor k : W i t t enborn, Schult z, 1947, p. 198. H erber t Bayer , 1939-1940, op. cit., p. 20. Fr i t z Coer per , op. cit., p. 91. [W i lhelm ] Lot z, '19 32', D ie Form, vol . 4, no. 16 ,19 29 , p. 440. O n t he Fut urama, see N or m an Bel Gedd es, M agic M ot orways, N ew Yor k : A m er i can Book-St rat for d Pr ess, 1940; Rolan d M ar ch an d, 'T h e D esi gn er s go t o t he Fai r II: N or m an Bel Ged des, The Gen er al M ot or s "Fu t u r am a", an d t he Vi si t to t he Fact or y Tr an sfor m ed ', D esign Issues, vol. 8, no. 2, spr i n g 1992, p. 23-40; Bar bar a H auss-Fi t ton, 'Fut ur am a, N ew Yor k W or l d's Fai r 1939-40', Rassegna, vol . 16, no. 60, 1994, pp. 55-68, L ew i s M um for d, 'Gen u i n e Boot leg', Nezv Yorker, 29 Ju l y 1939, r epri n t ed in Sidewalk Crit ic: Lewis M um for d's W rit ings On N ew York, ed. Rober t W ojt ow i cz, N ew Yor k : Pr i ncet on A rch i t ect ur al Press, 1998, pp. 245-246. M i sh a Black , Exhibit ion D esign, Lon don : A rch i t ect ur al Pr ess, 1950, p. 31; H or st Döhnert , M esse- und Ausst ellungsbaut en, M un ich: V er l ag Geor g D.W . Callw ey, 19 6 1, p. 9;

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 4 4 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 4 4 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

144

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H an s N eu bu r g, Int ernat ionale Ausst ellungs-Gest alt ung. Concept ion int ernat ionale d'ex posit ions. Concept ions o f Int ernat ional Exhibit ions, Zur i ch : A BC V er lag, 1969, p. 14.

37. 38.

See H er ber t Bayer , 1939-1940, op. cit., p. 18. Ser ge Ch er m ayeff, 'Ci r culat i on : D esi gn : D i splay. Th e A r ch i t ect at t he Exh i bi t i on', The Archit ect ural Review, vol . 82, no. 490, Sept em ber 19 37, p. 93.

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 4 5 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 4 5 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

T h e L e c tu re L e C o r b u s i e r ’s U s e o f t h e W o r d , D r a w i n g a n d P r o j e c t i o n

O l i vi er Lu gon

Fo r t h e l ast f i f t een y ear s o r so, h i st o r i an s h av e b een u n d er l i n i n g h o w m o d er n ar ch i t ect u r e h as t ak en o n a l i f e o f i t s o w n i n t h e m ed i a an d b een g i v en co n si d er ab l e p u b l i ci t y t h r o u gh p h o t o gr ap h s, b o o k s, r ev i ew s, ex h i b i t i o n s an d f i l m s.1 H o w ev er , scan t at t en t i o n h as b een p ai d t o t h e l ect u r e, w h i ch i s o n e o f t h e m aj o r v eh i cl es o f su ch p u b l i ci t y. L eav i n g asi d e h o w h ar d i t i s t o r eco n st i t u t e a l ect u r e, g i v en t h e sm al l q u an t i t y o f i n f o r m at i o n av ai l ab l e an d i t s f r ag m en t ar y n at u r e, t h e m aj o r cau se o f i n d i f f er en ce i s u n d o u b t ed l y t h at , f o r h i st o r i an s o f ar t an d ar ch i t ect u r e, t h e l ect u r e i s si m p l y a h ab i t u al ex er ci se. M o r eo v er , as i t i s b ased o n t h e sp o k en w o r d , i t seem s m o r e ap p r o p r i at e t o st u d y i t as d i sco u r se r at h er t h an as f o r m .2 W h en sch o l ar s h av e l o o k ed at t h e l ect u r e, i t h as b een as a t ext u al so u r ce, an d sel d o m as a d i sp o si t i v e. H o w ev er , h i st o r i an s k n o w v er y w el l —p ar t i cu l ar l y af t er t h e ad v en t o f d i g i t al m ed i a - t o w h at ex t en t a l ect u r e can n o t b e r ed u ced t o w o r d s al o n e, b u t p r esu p p o ses a co n si d er ab l e t ech n i cal , v i su al an d st age d i sp o si t i v e w h i ch , f r o m t h e 19 t h cen t u r y o n w ar d s, l ed cu l t u r al an d sci en t i fi c co m m u n i cat i o n t o cr o ss p at h s w i t h t h e d ev el o p m en t o f t h e o p t i cal sp ect acl e an d t h e p o p u l ar p r oj ect i on . Fo r ar ch i t ect s, i t i s v i t al t o m ast er l ect u r i n g t ech n i q u es. T h ei r w o r k i n v o l v es l ar ge su m s o f m on ey, an d yet , t h ey can n o t u se t r ad i t i o n al ad v er t i si n g m et h o d s an d t h u s t h ey h av e t o r el y m o r e o n acad em i c ch an n el s t o p r o m o t e t h ei r w o r k . W Ti en t h ey l ect u r e, t h ey d o so n o t o n l y t o ed u cat e, ed i f y an d d ef en d i d eas, b u t al so t o w i n o v er an au d i en ce, w i n co n t r act s, w i n o v er i n v est o r s, l o cal au t h o r i t i es o r st at es. M o r eo v er , f o r t h e av an t - gar d e m o v em en t , t h e l ect u r e i s m o r e ef f i ci en t t h an a t ext f o r i m p o si n g t h e f i gu r e o f t h e ar t i st as a gu i d e, a p r ecu r so r w h o h as t o m ak e gr eat ef f o r t s t o w i n o v er h i s co n t em p o r ar i es, w h o ar e al w ay s p r esu m ed t o b e h o st i l e b ecau se t h ey l ag b eh i n d t h e m ast er . T h e m o d er n ar t i st 's p er f o r m an ce i n p ed ag o g i cal t er m s i s p ar t an d p ar cel o f t h e r eco gn i t i o n h e seek s as a p i on eer . T h e m aj o r p l ay er s o f t h e m o d er n m o v em en t o w e m u ch t o su ch act i v i t i es. W al t er G r o p i u s i s an ex am p l e o f so m eo n e w h o , as an ex p er t i n p r o m o t i n g, r e l i ed h eav i l y o n t h e l ect u r e. O n e can ev en say t h at i t i s as a sp eak er an d l an t er n o p er at o r t h at h e est ab l i sh ed h i s au t h o r i t y as an ar ch i t ect . I n 19 11, af t er h e h ad b r o k en o f f h i s st u d i es w i t h o u t r ecei v i n g a d i p l o m a an d h ad b u i l t n o t h i n g o f an y n ot e, h e w as i n v i t ed b y a p at r o n o f t h e ar t s, K ar l Er n st O st h au s, t o g i v e an i l l u -

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 4 6 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 4 6 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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st r at ed l ect u r e at t h e Fo l k w an g M u seu m i n H agen . G r o p i u s p r ep ar ed t h e v i su al p ar t o f h i s t al k w i t h p ar t i cu l ar car e, en g ag i n g i n co r r esp o n d en ce o v er a p er i o d o f m o r e t h an o n e y ear i n o r d er t o get h o l d o f t h e sev en t y o r so sl i d es, am o n g w h i c h w er e t h e f am o u s i m ag es o f A m er i c an si l o s. Seat ed am o n g t h e au d i en ce o f i n d u st r i al i st s w as t h e o w n er o f t h e F ag u s f act o r i es, w h o w as su f f i ci en t l y co n v i n ced t o o r d er t h e b u i l d i n g w h i ch w as t o l au n ch G r o p i u s's car eer .3 Si m i l ar l y , Er i ch M en d el so h n w o n o v er t h e gr eat er m aj o r i t y o f h i s cl i en t s i n t h e 19 20 s d u r i n g a ser i es o f ei gh t l ect u r e- p r o j ect i o n s o r gan i sed i n a sal o n o f Ber l i n 's h i gh so ci et y i n 19 19 .4 T h i s st r at egy t o o k o n a n ew d i m en si o n i n b o t h q u an t i t at i v e an d q u al i t at i v e t er m s w i t h L e C o r b u si er - sev er al L e C o r b u si er sch o l ar s h av e d r aw n at t en t i o n t o t h i s, i n cl u d i n g Jean - L o u i s Co h en , M ar d g es Bacon , Yan n i s T si o m i s, an d m o r e r ecen t l y T i m Ben t o n .3 Fi r st l y, f r o m t h e en d o f t h e 19 20 s, h e g av e a gl o b al d i m en si o n t o t h e p r act i ce o f l ect u r i n g, t h an k s t o l ect u r e t o u r s t h at l ast ed u p t o sev er al w eek s at a t i m e an d b eg an at t r act i n g l ar ger an d l ar ger au d i en ces (i n t h e 19 30 s, h e b o ast ed t h at h e h ad al r ead y w o n o v er so m e h u n d r ed t h o u san d p eo p l e b y w o r d al o n e) .6 Seco n d l y, h e i n v est ed an u n u su al am o u n t o f en er g y an d at t en t i on i n t h e t ask , i n a f l u r r y o f p er su asi o n ak i n t o p r each i n g. H e g av e m ar at h o n t al k s, so m et i m es l ast i n g t h r ee o r f o u r h o u r s. H er e h e d i sp l ay ed — i f o n e i s t o b el i ev e t h e acco u n t s — a gr eat t al en t as a sp eak er ( 'W h at m agi c w o r d s w h en sp o k en b y L e C o r b u si er !') .7 M o r eo v er , w h at ev er h i s r h et o r i cal t al en t s an d w h at ev er p l ea su r e h e t o o k i n p u b l i c sp eak i n g, h e w as n ot con t en t w i t h r el y i n g o n t h e f o r ce o f w o r d s al o n e, as m o st o f h i s co l l eagu es d i d , b y si m p l y p er p et u at i n g t h e co d es o f t h e n i n et een t h - cen t u r y p ed ag o g i c al p r esen t at i o n an d l an t er n p r o j ect i o n . H e t u r n ed h i s t al k s i n t o gen u i n e m u l t i m ed i a sp ect acl es w h o se f o r m an d con t en t h e w o u l d co n st an t l y r ew o r k . I n a p er i o d o f 40 y ear s, f r o m 19 20 t o t h e b egi n n i n g o f t h e 19 6 0 s, h e u n t i r i n gl y p er f ect ed h i s p er su asi o n st r at egi es an d t r i ed o u t n ew asso ci at i o n s b et w een t h e w o r d , d r aw i n g an d p r o j ect i o n . L e C o r b u si er seem s t o h av e acq u i r ed t h i s f ai t h i n t h e i m p o r t an ce o f t h e l ec t u r e v er y ear l y on , w h en i n 19 10 - 19 11, ag ed 23, h e w en t on a st u d y - t r i p t o G er m an y t o r esear ch i n t o t h e v i t al i t y o f G er m an d eco r at i v e ar t s. O n e o f t h e u n d er t ak i n gs t h at m ad e a st r o n g i m p r essi o n o n t h e y o u n g Jean n er et w as K ar l Er n st O st h au s's G er m an M u seu m f o r ar t i n t r ad e an d cr af t s. T h i s m u seu m w i t h o u t a b u i l d i n g ai m ed t o r ef o r m t h e co u n t r y 's ap p l i ed ar t s an d ar ch i t ect u r e: b esi d e r ead y - t o - v i si t exh i b i t i o n s, i t b an k ed on t h e su st ai n ed act i v i t i es o f l ect u r e- p r o j ec t i o n s ( O st h au s h i m sel f g a v e so m e 30 p er y ear ) an d a sy st em o f l o an s o f t r an s p ar en ci es m ad e av ai l ab l e t o sp eak er s t h r o u gh o u t t h e cou n t r y. I n t h e r ep o r t o n h i s j o u r n ey, i n w h i ch h e set o u t t o d ef i n e t h e 'f act o r s g i v i n g G er m an y i t s p o w er ', t h e f u t u r e L e C o r b u si er p o i n t ed t o 'p r o p ag an d a b y m ean s o f l ect u r es' as 'o n e o f t h e ef f i ci en t w eap o n s' o f t h e G er m an m o vem en t .^ H e w as t h en v er y st r u ck b y O st h au s,9 w h o i n v i t ed h i m t o h i s h o u se i n H ag en i n t h e sp r i n g o f 19 11, a f ew

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 4 7 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 4 7 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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w eek s af t er W al t er G r o p i u s's l ect u r e, w h o se su ccess w as cer t ai n l y m en t i o n ed t o Jean n er et . N o t h i n g, h o w ev er , p o i n t s t o Jean n er et h i m sel f l ect u r i n g i n an y f o r m d u r i n g t h o se y ear s, an d t h er e i s u n f o r t u n at el y n o r eco r d o f t h e f i r st k n o w n l ect u r es g i v en at t h e b egi n n i n g o f t h e 19 20 s. T h e f i r st d i sp o si t i v e t h at can b e r eco n st i t u t ed d at es f r o m 19 24 an d w as t r i ed an d t est ed i n L au san n e b ef o r e t h e f i r st p r e sen t at i o n at t h e So r b o n n e i n Par i s, w h i c h w as f o l l o w ed b y a ser i es o f i d en t i cal p r esen t at i o n s d u r i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g m o n t h s. L i k e G r o p i u s, h e g av e p r i m e i m p o r t an ce t o t h e p r o j ect i o n o f p l at es, b u t w i t h r ev i t al i z ed st agi n g.

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D u r i n g t h e w h o l e o f t h e p er i o d b et w een t h e w ar s, p r o j ect i o n w as o n e o f t h e m aj o r w a y s i n w h i ch L e C o r b u si er p r esen t ed h i s w o r k , ev en i n p r i v at e sh o w i n gs ( fi g. 1) . H e h ad a p r o f essi o n al q u al i t y p r o j ect o r i n h i s w o r k sh o p ,10 an d a r o o m r eser v ed f o r t h at p u r p o se w h er e h e l i k ed t o b r i n g h i s gu est s, r at h er t h an sh o w t h em h i s b u i l d i n g s o r h i s b o o k s. D u r i n g t h e 19 30 s, w h en h e w as t r y i n g t o set u p co n t act s w i t h M u sso l i n i , h e t r i ed t o m ak e h i s case f o r p r i v at e l an t er n p r o j ect i o n : 'A n ad m i r ab l e w a y o f o r g an i si n g t h e sy m p o si u m w i t h M . w o u l d b e t o b e r ecei v ed so m ew h er e o n e ev en i n g, w i t h a p r o j ect i o n l an t er n , an d t o p r o j ect so m e p h o t o gr ap h s. T h at w o u l d r ep l ace t h e Exh i b i t i o n an d al l o w t h er e t o b e m o r e su b st an t i al an d m o r e o b j ect i v e ex p l an at i o n s.'11 T h er e seem t o b e sev er al f act o r s b eh i n d t h e u n eq u al l ed p o w er o f p r o j ect i o n i n t h e co m m u n i cat i o n o f i d eas an d f o r m s. O n t h e o n e h an d , i t i s p o ssi b l e t o b r i n g t o get h er i n o n e h o m o gen eo u s p r esen t at i o n t h e m o st h et er o gen eo u s ob ject s, w h o se d i f f er en ces ar e h ar m o n i sed b y t h e sam e f o r m at an d t h e sam e i m m at er i al q u al i t y, an d t h u s u n d er l i n e t h e co h er en ce o f t h e ar ch i t ect 's w o r k , w h et h er i t b e f u r n i t u r e o r t o w n p l an n i n g.12 O n t h e o t h er h an d , t h e m o m en t t h e sp eak er h i m sel f h an d l es t h e eq u i p m en t , i t i s b et t er t h an a b o o k , i n t h at h e i s ab l e i n p ar t t o i m p r o v i se an d t o r esp o n d t o t h e ex p ect at i o n s an d m o o d s o f t h e l i st en er , an d t h u s t o b al an ce co n t r o l an d sp o n t an ei t y, w h i ch w as a m aj o r asp ect o f L e C o r b u si er 's p r act i ce. Fi n al ly, i t al l o w s on e t o t ak e ad v an t ag e o f t h e p o t en t i al t o f asci n at e t h at t h e m o n u m en t al ,

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. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 4 8 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 4 8 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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F ig u r e î . K e n j y Im ai, L e C o r b u s ie r , P ar is , 1 9 2 6

T h i s w as t h e case i n 19 24 , w h en h e d ev el o p ed a n o v el v er si o n o f t h e l ect u r ep r o j ect i o n f o r t h e So r b o n n e. L e C o r b u si er w as aw ar e o f t h e i m p act t h at a r ap i d su ccessi o n o f l u m i n o u s i m ag es co u l d p r o d u ce i n a d ar k en ed r o o m , an d t h u s, af t er a sh o r t p r eam b l e, sh o w ed w h at h e cal l ed h i s 'f i l m ' i n a co m p l et el y si l en t h al l , w i t h o u t an y co m m en t ar y w h at so ev er . I t w as a r ap i d ser i es o f ab o u t on e h u n d r ed sl i d es, w i t h a ser i es o f i n t er t i t l es sh o w i n g ar gu m en t s o r sl o g an s l i k e a si l en t f i l m m i gh t h av e ( f i g. 2) . T h er e w as n o d o u b t as t o t h e su r p r i se p r o d u ced : t h e em b ar r assi n g st r an gen ess o f a p r o l o n ged si l en ce w as n ot o n l y u n ex p ect ed at a l ect u r e, b u t al so n o t h ab i t u al i n t h e ci n em a w h er e, ev en d u r i n g t h e si l en t f i l m p er i o d , t h er e w o u l d al w ay s b e so m e f o r m o f acco m p an i m en t , w h et h er i t b e so u n d ef f ect s, co m m en t ar y o r m u si c. L e C o r b u si er 's 'ci n em a' w as al so u n u su al i n t h at h e w as d el i b er at el y t r y i n g t o p r o d u ce cl ash es an d j er k i n ess at a t i m e w h en t h e i d ea o f ed i t i n g h ad n ot y et acq u i r ed t h e au r a t h at i t w as t o h av e b y t h e en d o f t h e d ecad e. I n an y case, h e h i m sel f d i d n o t u se t h e w o r d 'm o n t age'. H e w as cer t ai n l y aw ar e o f cer t ai n ex p er i m en t s car r i ed o u t b y t h e Fr en ch av an t - gar d e m o v em en t , su ch as h i s f r i en d Fer n an d L eg er 's B alle t m e c an iq u e , co m p l et ed t h at sam e y ear . H o w ev er , h e d i d n o t k n o w t h e w o r k an d w r i t i n g s o f Ei sen st ei n , w i t h w h o m h e w as t o sp en d t i m e i n M o sc o w f o u r y ear s l at er . T h ese v er y 'm o d er n ' ef f ect s o f co l l i si o n s an d

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 4 9 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 4 9 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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j er k i n ess w er e p r o d u ced h er e b y u si n g t h e o l d t ech n i q u e o f t h e l an t er n , ex p l o i t i n g t h e co n st r ai n t o f h av i n g t o w o r k w i t h d i sco n n ect ed el em en t s, f r o m w h i ch h e b el i ev ed h e co u l d p r o d u ce a 'sh o ck i n g ' i m p act : For the Sorbonn e I put t oget her a ser i es of pr oject i on s w h ose ai m w as to put t he au d i ence i nt o a shock ed m en t al st at e. Shock ed b y t he r ap i d successi on of h et erogen eous i m ages, even t s from the past and present , i n con t r ast and opposi t i on but also i n h ar m ony. Cr eat i n g un expect ed an d d azzl i n g r elat i on shi ps, w h i ch , i n fact , w er e on ly the pr oject ion of exi st i n g fact s. D i slocat ed r elat i on shi ps because ou r soci et y i s i t self di slo cat ed, at od d s w i t h it s t radi t ion , a per i od t hat cr eat es su ffer i n g an d gr i m aces.13

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. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 8 2 h tt p ://s it e . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 8 2 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

1182

L a u r e n t G u id o

R h y th m s a n d g e o m e t r ic id e a ls : T h e p e r s p e c t iv e o f t h e ‘ p h o to g e n ic * b o d y

T h e m et ap h o r u sed b y K l ei st o n e h u n d r ed y ear s p r ev i o u sl y w as st r o n gl y ech o ed i n t h e f i r st y ear s o f t h e t w en t i et h cen t u r y b y t h o se seek i n g t o r en o v at e st age p r o d u ct i o n . E d w ar d G o r d o n C r ai g 's co n cep t o f t h e U b er - m ar i o n et t e d e si gn at ed t h e i d eal o f an act o r w h o h ad b eco m e st y l i sed m at er i al , si t u at ed b e y o n d t h e v er y l i m i t at i o n s o f l i f e i t sel f .40 V al en t i n e d e Sai n t - Po i n t ch al l en ged n ot o n l y t h e 'co n v en t i o n al m o v em en t s' o f b al l et , b u t al so t h e p r ed i l ect i o n f o r 'd r a w i n g i n sp i r at i o n f r o m t h e G r eek s an d Egy p t i an s, st at u es an d p ai n t i n gs f r o m al l p er i o d s', su ch as w er e f o u n d i n I sad o r a D u n can 's w o r k , i n D al er o z e an d A p p i a's O r p h e u s ( 19 12 ) o r N i j i n sk y 's A p r è s - M id i d' u n F au n e ( 19 12 ) : 'Pu t t i n g b ack i n t o

m o v em en t at t i t u d es t h at ar t i st s h av e i m m o b i l i sed i n t h ei r w o r k s ... m ean s b r eak i n g d o w n an d an al y si n g. I t i s t h e o p p o si t e o f ar t w h i ch i s sy n t h esi s, i n a w a y i t m ean s d est y l i z i n g .'41 Co n seq u en t l y, Sai n t - Po i n t ad o p t ed t h e cen t r al p o s t u l at e o f t h o se w h o f av o u r ed m o d er n d an ce as a q u est f o r ab so l u t e co n t i n u i t y an d p ar ed - d o w n m o v em en t s t h at co u l d b e i n t er p r et ed b y m ean s o f geo m et r i cal v al u es ( fi g. 6). Su ch cr i t i ci sm o f st i f f n ess f r eq u en t l y cam e u p i n t h eo r et i cal w r i t i n gs o n m o d er n d an ce, f r o m L ab an t o Jo h n M ar t i n .4^ I t m ay al so t ak e o n a m o r e p ar o d i cal f or m , t h u s u p d at i n g Ber gso n 's r ef l ect i o n s o n t h e co m i c — t h e m ech an i sat i o n o f t h e l i v i n g i n d eed en gen d er s an 'i n t er f er en ce o f ser i es' t h at i s ex o r ci sed b y a sal u t ar y l au gh . V al en t i n e d e Sai n t - Po i n t su b scr i b ed t o t h i s i d ea i n h er M e t ac h o r ie , w h i c h co n t ai n ed d an ces ev o k i n g t h e f i gu r e o f t h e ar t i f i ci al b ei n g ( T he P u p p e t an d D e at h an d T h e P u p p e t D an c e s ) . Fr o m P e t r o u c h ka ( 19 11) t o P u lc in e lla

( 19 20 ) , sev er al b al l et s set t o m u si c b y St r av i n sk y w er e g r o u n d ed i n a m i x t u r e o f f asci n at i o n f o r an d sar casm ab o u t t h e w o r l d o f p u p p et s an d m ask s. A cco r d i n g t o a p r o m i n en t d an ce cr i t i c f r o m t h e 19 20 s, A n d r é L ev i n so n , P e t r o u c h ka p l ay s o n a t en si o n w h er e t h e h u m an so u l f ai l s t o f r ee i t sel f f r o m i t s m ech an i cal 'f r am e w o r k ' - t h e ch ar act er 'sl i d es i n t o t h e d o l l 's au t o m at i c r ef l exes. A n d t h i s d u al i t y o f t h e m o v em en t , w h i ch i s b o t h h ear t r en d i n g an d fu n n y, k eep s t h e au d i en ce sp el l b o u n d '.43 Fi n al l y, t h er e w as O sk ar Sch l em m er , w h o w as ex p l i ci t l y t o r n b e t w een r ef l ect i o n s o n t h e p u p p et m o d el ( f r o m K l ei st t o C r ai g) an d i r o n i c i n t er p r et at i o n s ( f r o m H o f f m an n t o Ru ssi an Bal l et s) , an d w h o , w i t h h i s co n cep t i o n o f t h e d an cer as a 'f i g u r e o f ar t ' ( M e n s c h u n d K u n s t fig u r , 19 25) , st r essed t h e n eed t o ex p l o r e geo m et r i cal sp ace i n t h e n am e o f t h e q u est f o r n ew p h y si cal h o r i zo n s, si t u at ed b ey o n d t h e co n st r ai n t s o f t h e p h y si cal b o d y. A s I h av e n o t ed el sew h er e,44 i t i s t h e sam e q u est f o r t h e r h y t h m i c p o t en t i al i t i es o f sp ace an d t i m e, en v i sag ed o n t h e b asi s o f m o d el s o f m u si c an d d an ce, t h at ch ar act er i ses t h e ap p r o ach o f t h e av an t - gar d e ci n em a d u r i n g t h e 19 20 s. G i l l es D el eu ze, w h en w r i t i n g o n t h e Fr en ch p h o t o gen i c 'sch o o l ', ast u t el y con -

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 8 3 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 8 3 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

D a n c in g D o lls a n d M e c h a n ic a l E y e s

f er s t h e ep i t h et 'au t o m at i c b al l et ' o n t h e geo m et r i cal d i m en si o n t h at i s ex p r essed i n t h e m o n t age seq u en ces i n t h e B alle t m é c an iq u e , L ’In h u m ain e , C œ u r f i d è l e an d La R o u e , an d w h i ch f o r h i m b r i n g ab o u t a v ast 'm ech an i cal co m p o si t i o n o f i m age-

m o v em en t s': A fi r st t yp e of m ach ine i s t he aut om at on , a si m ple m ach i ne or clock m ech an ism , a geom et r i cal con fi gur at i on of par t s w h i ch com bi ne, super i m pose or t r ansfor m m ove m ent s in h om ogen eous space, accor di n g to the r elat i onshi ps t h rough w h i ch t hey pass. Th e aut om at on ... i llust r at es a clear m echan ical m ovem en t as l aw of the m ax i m um for a set of i m ages w h i ch br i n gs t oget her t h i n gs and l i vi n g bein gs, t he i nani m at e an d t he ani m at e, b y m ak i n g t hem t he sam e.45 T h i s t h er m o d y n am i c an d el ect r i c f u si o n o f t h e l i v i n g b ei n g an d t h e i n an i m at e o b ject t ak es u s b ack t o a b r o ad er f an t asy o f a p as d e d e u x b et w een t r ad i t i o n an d m o d er n i t y o r b et w een t h e r eal m o f t h e aest h et i c an d t h at o f sci en ce, su ch as h ad al r ead y b een em b o d i ed b y L o ïe Fu l l er . F ig u r e 6

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 8 4 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 8 4 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

184

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M e t r o p o l i s a n d th e c h o ru s g ir ls ’ ‘a u to m a tic d a n c e ’

T h i s i d eal f i n d s em b l em at i c ex p r essi o n i n a seq u en ce i n Fr i t z L an g 's lis

M

e tr o p o

( 19 27) , w h er e an ar t i f i ci al w o m an h as b een cr eat ed b y t h e sci en t i st , Rot -

w an g . T h an k s t o el ect r i ci t y sh e ap p ear s t o b e f l esh an d b l o o d , an d d o es an er o t i c d an ce i n f r o n t o f an ex c l u si v el y m al e au d i en ce m ad e u p o f t h e n o t ab l es o f t h e f u t u r i st i c ci t y. T h e sp ect at o r s ar e g r ad u al l y b ew i t ch ed b y t h e i r r esi st i b l e at t r ac t i on o f t h e ch o r eo gr ap h i c i l l u si o n d i r ect ed b y b o t h R o t w an g an d t h e i m p o r t an t cap i t al i st w h o r u n s t h e ci t y ( an o t h er al l i an ce b et w een sci en ce an d co m m er ce, as i n t h e San dm an ). T h e d an ce v i si o n s, ex p r essi n g t h e b ew i t ch i n g p o w er o f m e ch an i sed sex u al en er gy, g r ad u al l y t ak e a h o l d on t h e d el i r i o u s m i n d o f t h e f i l m 's i d eal i st i c h er o , Fr ed er , w h o i s n o t p r esen t si n ce h e i s i l l i n b ed . T h e el ect r i c b o d y i s f i r st sh o w n i n a v ei l r ecal l i n g ci n em a p r o j ect i o n . I t su m m o n s u p n eo - an t i q u e n u d i t y, w h i ch w as p ar t i cu l ar l y ap p r eci at ed i n G er m an i c co u n t r i es, w h er e at t h at t i m e p eo p l e l o o k ed f av o u r ab l y o n t h e p r i m i t i v i st i c v al u es o f t r an ce an d ecst asy p r o m o t ed b y K ör per k u l t u r . M o r eo v er , t h e an d r o i d d an cer 's b o d y r ecal l s t h e p er f o r m an ces o f ch o r u s gi r l s i n r ev u es, m u si c h al l s an d f i l m s - a p h en o m en o n o f t en ad d r essed i n p h i l o so p h i cal o r so ci o l o gi cal t er m s b y a l ar ge n u m b er o f sch o l ar s i n t h e G er m an y o f t h e 19 20 s ( fi g. 7). T h u s, w h en ex am i n i n g a n u m b er o f t h ese ch o r eo gr ap h i es, Si egf r i ed K r acau er an d Fr i t z G i ese cam e t o i d en t i f y a T ay l o r i st i m age o f t h e r at i o n al i sed an d m ech an i z ed b o d y - f et i sh p r o m o t ed b y i n d u st r i al m o d er n i t y an d t h e r h y t h m o f t h e B i g C i t y i n n er v at ed b y el ect r i ci t y. I t w as t h en co m m o n t o co m p ar e — i n t h e w o r d s o f a cr i t i c w r i t i n g i n 19 27 f o r t h e Fr en ch p er i o d i cal L 'A r t cin ém at ogr aphique - t h e n ew b o d i es gen er at ed b y 'b eau t y sal o n s an d p h y si cal ed u cat i o n cl asses' t o 'sh i n y au t o m at a m ad e o f n i ck el o r st eel w h o se t r i gger m ech an i sm s can easi l y b e p r ed i ct ed '.46 A t t h e b egi n n i n g o f t h e t al k i e er a, Em i l e V u i l l er m o z st i l l asso ci at ed t h e d y n am i c r h y t h m s o f sh o w s f ea t u r i n g ch o r u s g i r l s t o t h o se ch ar act er i si n g t h e act u al f i l m , cap ab l e o f 'su b m i t t i n g al l t h e i m ag es t o t h e l aw s o f a su p er i o r c h o r eo g r ap h y '. I n h i s v i ew , b o t h ex p r essed t h e 'h al l u ci n at i v e i n t o xi cat i o n em an at i n g f r o m cer t ai n m ach i n es w o r k i n g f l at ou t , t h at o n e can n o t b u t h el p l o o k i n g at , . . ' 47 I n t er m s r em i n i scen t o f C r ai g 's ar gu m en t s ab o u t t h e h ar m f u l co n seq u en ces o f D al cr o z e's eu r h y t h m i es (i n a w o r d , t h e m o d er n w o m an 's b eco m i n g a m o d el ) ,48 A n d r é L ev i n so n si m i l ar l y sees t h e ch o r u s gi r l i n t h e m u si c- h al l - a 'p r eci si o n au t o m at o n '49 - as t h e p r o t o t y p e o f 'a w h o l e ar m y, d i sci p l i n ed an d r eso l u t e' m o d el l ed o n t h e p r o d u ct i o n l i n e: 'T h e f u t u r e Ev e, t h e an o n y m o u s sp o r t s w o m an , t h e i m p er so n al b eau t y, t h e m ass- b ei n g: t h e ch o r u s g i r l '.50 W i t h t h e i n ev i t ab l e r ef er en ce t o t h e m i l i t ar y m o d el ,51 t h ese t u r n s seem t o h i m ab o v e al l t o d ep l o y a f o r m o f 'co l l ect i v e o r g an i sm ', 't h e ab so l u t e si m u l t an ei t y o f m o v em en t u n d er l i n [ i n g] t h e p h y si cal q u asi - i d en t i t y o f t h ese b ei n gs t u r n ed o u t i n ser i es'.

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 8 5 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 8 5 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

D a n c in g D o lls a n d M e c h a n ic a l E y e s

I& 5

Ph i l i p p e So u p au l t , i n h i s 'L es gi r l s o u l a d an se au t o m at i q u e',52 al so sp eak s o f t h e 'u n d i f f er en t i at ed g i r l s' w h o se r egu l at ed an d u n i f o r m act i v i t i es p r o d u ced a ep h em er al an d sed u ct i v e 'co l d n ess', b ei n g p r o g r essi v el y assi m i l at ed t o 'm o r e or l ess p r et t y m ach i n es', 'y o u n g " g i r l so l d i er s" ', 'w el l - r eg u l at ed m ech an i sm s'.53 F ig u r e

M

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7

seem s t o t ak e t h ese co m m en t s on e st age f u r t h er , b u t b y h i g h l i gh t

i n g t h e m al e sp ect at o r s an d t h e w ay t h ey ar e h y p n o t i sed b y t h e au t o m at o n 's ar t i f i ci al b al l et . T h ey ar e d esi gn at ed as t h e v i ct i m s o f t h e sco p i c d r i v e b r o u gh t ab o u t b y t h e b ew i t ch i n g sp ect acl e o f t ech n o l o gy, ex p r essi n g an u n co n sci o u s fet i sh i sat i o n o f t h e m ach i n e i n t h e d i st u r b i n g sh ap e o f a b o d y an i m at ed b y el ect r i -

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 8 6 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 8 6 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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ci t y.54 T h i s seq u en ce d o es n o t r ef er t o t h e i n t en se co r p o r al f r agm en t at i o n i n t h e i m p o r t an t seq u en ces o f 'p h o t o gen i c' d an ce i n Fr en ch ci n em a i n t h e 19 2 0 s K ean

( A . V o l k o f f , 19 2 5 ) , M a l d o n e ( Jean G r em i l l o n , 19 2 8 ) o r L a F e m m e e t l e

P a n t i n ( Jacq u es d e Bar o n cel l i , 19 2 8 ) . 55 I n M e t r o p o l i s , i t i s t h e f r agm en t at i o n

o f t h e w a y t h at m en l o o k w h i ch cl ai m s o u r at t en t i on . B esi d es a cl o se- u p h i g h l i gh t i n g a f r o n t al gl an ce f r o m M ed u sa, t h e d an cer 's si l h o u et t e i s al w ay s f i l m ed i n m ed i u m sh o t s. H o w ev er , t h e m o n t age o f t h ese b o d y p o st u r es f o l l o w s t w o sep ar at e ap p r o ach es - i n i t i al l y, t h e at t i t u d es ar e j u x t ap o sed , t h e ef f ect o f w h i ch i s t o em p h asi z e t h e d i sco n t i n u i t y i n t h e seq u en ce o f i m ag es ( an d o f t h e gr az e f o cu sed o n t h em ) ; t h en t h ey al t er n at e w i t h sh o t s o f t h e d i eget i c sp ect at o r s. T h e l at t er ar e r ep r esen t ed b y m ean s o f p r o g r essi v e b l en d i n g: r ap i d m o n t age, su p er i m p o si t i o n , t h en a sy n t h et i c i m age seq u en t i al l y p u l l i n g o u t t h ei r ey es an d r ei n ser t i n g t h em i n a si n gl e d i v i d ed scr een ( as i n H an s Ri ch t er 's F l L M ST U D l E , 19 2 7 ) ( f i gs. 8a-8c) . T h e m an i acal r ep et i t i v en ess o f t h ei r l o o k s ar e t h u s ex p o sed l i k e t h e 't h o u san d s o f ey es' r ep r esen t ed b y t h e gl asses i n H o f f m an n 's S a n d m a n r ep r e sen t ed . T h i s seq u en ce f r o m M e t r o p o l i s sh o w s u s h o w t h e ci n em a can g i v e a n ew f o r m o f ex p r essi o n t o t h e co n d em n at i o n o f sci en t i f i c m i r ages an d em p h a si se i t s o w n sp ecu l ar d i m en si o n t o h i g h l i gh t t h e f r agm en t ed , d i sco n t i n u o u s, an d i n a w o r d k al ei d o sco p i c ch ar act er o f h u m an p er cep t i o n i n t h e er a o f m ech an i sa t i on . C o n t r ar y t o w h at Em i l e V u i l l er m o z st at es, i t i s t h u s i n d eed p o ssi b l e t o 'd et ach o n e's ey es' f r o m t h e n ew el ect r i c p h an t asm ago r i a. F ig u r e 8 a

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 8 7 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 8 7 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

D a n c in g D o lls a n d M e c h a n ic a l E y e s

F ig u r e 8 b

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 8 8 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 8 8 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

187

188

L a u r e n t G u id o

N o te s

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6. 7.

8. 9. 10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

H einr i ch von Klei st , 'Ü b er d as M ar i on et t ent h eat er ', Ber liner A ben dbl ät t er 12- 15 D e cem ber 18 10 . En gli sh t ranslat ion: 'O n t he M ari onet t e Th eat r e', t ranslat ed b y I dr i s Par ry, i n H and to M out h and Ot her Essays, ed. I d r i s Par ry, M an chest er : Car can et N ew Press, 19 81, pp. 13- 18 . See also (28.08.08). See, i n par t icular , M ar i n a N or d er a, 'L e cor ps de la fem m e', i n La const ruct ion de la fém init é dans la danse (XVe-XVIIe siècle), Pant i n: Cen t r e N at i on al de la D anse, 2004, p. 13. For exam ple, t he com par i son bet w een t he h u m an b o d y an d t he w at ch 's m echan ism in t he 6th chapt er of Traité des Passions (Treatise o f the Passions). A ccor d i n g to legen d, D escar t es m ad e an aut om at , Fr ancine. See Ph i li p pe Br et on, A l ’image de l ’homme. Du Golem aux créat ures art ificielles, Par i s: Seui l, 1995, p. 35. Juli en -O ffr oy de la M et tri e, L ’homme-machine, pr écédé de Lire La M et t rie p ar Pau l Laur en t A ssou n , Par i s: 1999 (Foli o-Essais); En gli sh t ran slat i on : M achine M an and Ot her W rit ings, t r an slat ed b y A n n Th om son, Cam br i dge: Cam br i d ge U n i ver si t y Pr ess, 1996. See, i n part i cular , A l fr ed Ch ap p u i s an d Ed m on d D r oz, Les Aut omat es, figures art ifi cielles d ’hommes et d’animaux, N euchât el: Gr i ffon , 1949 an d Pi er r e Brun ei (ed.), L ’H omme art ificiel, Par i s: D i d i er Erudi t i on / CN ED , 1999. P. Br et on, op. cit., p. 91. Gér an do, D e l ’Educat ion des sourds-muet s (1827), D en i s D i derot , Let tre sur les sourds et muets ( 1751) , Jean -Jacques Rousseau, Essai sur l ’or igine des Langues ( 1754 - 17 6 1, p u b lish ed in 178 1) ; Joh an n Got t fr i ed H erder , Treatise on the O r igin of Language (1772). H e w as al so i nt erested i n st u d yi n g h ow h or ses w alk . N over r e, Lettres sur la danse, Par i s: Ram say, 1978, p. 131. Ibi d., pp. 107-108, 247. T od ay ch or eogr aph er -puppet eer s can cont rol a vi r t u al dan cer 's b od y from a di s t ance b y usi n g the di gi t al t echni ques of m ot i on capt ur e, al low i n g t hem to pi lot a b o d y t hat becom es a ser ies of geom et r i cal poi n t s m ovi n g i n all t he possi ble di m en si on s of t i m e an d space. Ch r i st oph e D esh ouli èr es, L ’opéra baroque et la scène moderne, Par i s: Fayar d , 2000, p. 397. M or eover , t hi s t rend ext en ded t he p op u lar t r adi t ion of fai r gr oun d spectacles w h er e h u m an per for m er s r ubbed sh ou lder s w i t h si n gi n g an d dan ci n g dolls, t he ai m of w h i ch w as t o pr od u ce a m in iat ur e past i ch e of con t em por ar y st age successes. Lully, for exam ple, w as con st an t ly par od i ed i n Par i si an t heat res - fr om t he Opéra des bamboches i n 1675 Travest y in 1736. I bi d., p. 400, 4 11. H offm an n m en t i oned Kleist 's t ext i n a let t er o f 1 Ju l y 18 12 to h i s fr i end H i t zi g, quot ed i n Li en h ar d W aw r zyn , D er Aut omat en-M ensch, Ber li n : V er l ag K lau s W agen bach, 1985, p. 104. Ott o von Guer i ck e's r esearch on t he elect rostat ic m achine, Benjam in Fr an kli n 's w or k on st or m s, Lu i gi Galvan i 's dem onst rat i on of an i m al elect ri cit y (1786) an d A lexan dr e Vol t a's bat t er y (1799). M ad am e de St aël, Corinne ou l ’It alie, Par i s: Gar ni er, s.d., pp. 108-109; En gli sh ver sion: Pr oject Gut en ber g EBook #16896 (t ranslat or un kn ow n ).

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 8 9 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 8 9 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

D a n c in g D o lls a n d M e c h a n ic a l E y e s

15.

16.

17. 18. 19.

20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31.

32. 33. 34.

35.

36. 37.

It i s i nt erest in g t o r ecall H offm an n 's ob sessi ve int erest in t he n ew t echn ologi es of vi si on , as M ax M i ln er h as poi nt ed out in h i s essay on ph an t asm agor i a i n t he li t er ary i m agi nat ion. See M ax M i lner, La fant asmagorie. Essai sur l'opt ique fant ast ique, Par is: PU F, 1982, p. 40-63. The Sandman, i n Tales of H offmann, selected an d t r an slat ed w i t h an i n t r oduct ion by R.J. H olli n gdale, w i t h t he assist an ce of St ella an d Ver n on H u m ph r i es, and Sal ly H ayw ar d , Lon don: Pen gui n, 2004 [ 1982] , p. n o . Ibid., pp. 109 -110. Ibi d., p. 123. Eli sabet h Roudi n esco, 'L'oi seau sor t i d 'u n r êve obscur ... et don t le sexe est i ncer t ain ', i n L'Avant -Scène. Ballet Danse, [Spéci al Coppélia], no. 4, N ovem ber -Jan u ar y 19 81, p. 15. M ar y Clar k e an d Cl em en t Cr i sp, Ballerina: The A r t of Women in Classical Ballet , L on don: Pr i ncet on Book Com pan y, 1987, p. 29-45. La Presse, 25 Feb r u ar y 1850. Th éoph i le Gaut i er , Ecrit s sur la danse, A r l es: A ct es Sud, 1995, p. 244 [ed. I vor Guest] , La Presse, 1 Feb r u ar y 1853, p. 258-261; 20 Jan u ar y 1845. Ibi d., p. 179. Idem . A u gu st a M ayw ood (La Presse, 25 N ovem ber 1839. Ibi d., p. 104); M m e Guy-St éph an (ch or eogr aph y b y Sai nt -Léon, La Presse, 1 Feb r u ar y 1853. I bi d., p. 259). Ri sl ey et Fi ls au Th éât r e de la Por t e Sai nt -M ar t in , La Presse, 24 Ju n e 1844. Ibi d., p. 159. La Presse, 3 Ju n e 1844. I bi d., p. 154. C. D esh ouli èr es, op. cit., pp. 4 07- 411. In act ual fact , it i s t he st at ue of t he god Er os t hat com es t o li fe i n t hi s ballet ,an d not t he charact er p layed b y E. Fiocre. Le M onit eur universel, 18 Ju l y 1864. T. Gaut i er , op. cit., pp. 318 - 319 . See Le M onit eur universel, 4 Ju n e 1866. Ibi d., p. 331. Le M onit eur Universel, 27 Feb r u ar y 1865. Ibi d., p. 322. Gi l les D eleuze, Cinéma 1. L'image-mouvement , Pari s: Ed. de M in ui t , 1983; Cinema 1, The M ovement -Image (trans. Tom lin son , H . an d H abberjam , B.) Lon don : Cont i n uum , 2005, p. 7. See Tom Gu n n i n g, Ch ar l es M usser or A n d r é Gau d r eau l fs publi cat ion s. O n t h is t opi c, see Gu y D ucrey, Corps et graphies, Par i s: H onor é Ch am pi on ,1996, p. 238-241. In a cri t i cal pi ece w r i t t en in N ovem ber 1858, Th éoph i le Gau t i er ob ser ved a ballet t r oupe com i n g d ow n a st ai r case fr om above, w i t h an 'ar t i ll er y of lor gn et t es ai m i n g' at t he ball er i n as' legs an d feet , lat er descr i bed as a you n g chor eogr aph i c arm y. T. Gaut i er , op. cit., pp. 303 an d 308. O n t hi s poi nt , see m y an alysi s in 'L e r egar d et la dan seuse. Sur quelques ut opi es t élé-vi suelles, de la lor gnet te rom an t i que à l'écr an i n t eract if', in M i r ei lle Bert on and A n n e-Kat r i n W eber , Pour une archéologie de la t élé-vision, Lausan n e: A n t i podes, 2009, PP- 3 4 9 - 3 7 4 M ar y A n n D oane, 'Tech n ology’s Bod y: Cin em at i c Vi si on i n M od er n i t y', Differences, vol . 5, no. 2, Sum m er 1993, pp. 1- 23. Félici en Ch am psau r , V Amant des danseuses, Par i s: Ferenczi et Fi ls, 1926, p. 24.

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 9 0 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 9 0 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

m

38.

39.

40.

4 1.

42.

43. 44.

45. 46. 47. 48.

L a u r e n t G u id o

For m or e det ai led an alysi s of t hi s poi nt , r ead er s m ay consult m y book , L ’Â ge du ryt hme. Cinéma, musicalit é et cult ure du corps dans les théories françaises des années 19 10- 19 30, Lau san n e: Payot , 2007 [ chapt er 7.6] an d m y ar t i cle en t i tled 'Rh yt h m i c Bodi es/ M ovi es: D an ce as A t t ract i on i n Ear ly Fi lm Cu lt u r e', in W an da St r au w en (ed.), The Cinema of At t ract ions Reloaded, A m st er d am : A m st er d am U n i ver si t y Press, 2006, pp. 157- 178. Gi ovan n i List a, Loïe Fuller Danseuse de la Belle Epoque, Par i s: St ock/ Som ogy, 1994, pp. 580, 644. Even i f Fu ller 's ad apt at i on s ar e m ai n ly cent red on t he problem at ic of the eye t hief, h er use of t he aut om at on t hem e r efers to a ’' cr i t i cal r elat i on t o h er ow n body, t hat m ask ed engi ne of all her dances. Si m ult an eously m ast ered an d excluded, it h ad al w ays expr essed i t self i n accordan ce w i t h t he Other. Loïe h ad t h us exper i enced h er dan cer 's b od y solely as a sour ce of en er gy an d r egu lat i n g d r i ve o f m ove ment, exact ly as h app en s i n t he m echan ical hear t of an aut om at on , w h i ch d r i ves its m ovem en t s w i t h ou t sh ar i n g i t s vi t al pr esen ce,' Ibi d., p. 596. 'T h e act or m ust go, and in h i s place com es t he i nani m at e fi gu r e - t he über -m ar i on et te w e m ay call hi m , un t i l he h as w on for h i m self a bet t er n am e.', 'T h e A ct or and the U ber -M ari onet t e', The M ask, vol . I, no. 2, A p r i l 1908, i n Gordon Cr aig on M ove ment and Dance, N ew Yor k : D ance H or i zon s, 1977, p. 50 [ A r nold Rood, ed.] . ' A n d i t i s w i t h i n t he li m i t s of t hi s geom et r i cal fi gur e t hat m y h ear t can t hen obey its i nsti nct of caden ce and m ul t i p ly t he var i at i on of i t s r h yt h m s.' 'L a M ét achor i e', Jan u ar y 19 14. Repr i nt ed i n Valen t i n e de Sai nt -Poi nt , M anifest e de la fem m e fut ur ist e, Par i s: A r t h èm e Fayar d , 2005, pp. 54-56. Joh n M ar t i n also st i gm at i ses t he ar t i fici al, ar bi t r ar y an d abst ract poses of ballet , and the excesses of Rhyt h m i ci an s, w h o t ri ed to go beyon d t hem . Th ei r effor t s, n on et he less, led t o t he cr eati on of a 'h i gh -quali t y m ach in e', i.e., t he dan cer as a 't h r ee-di m en si on al in st r um en t ' w h o should n ow per for m i n a cont ext t hat i s bot h spat ial and ph ysi cal (wi t h t he i m por t ance of dept h an d w ei gh t , as i n Laban 's ki nespheri c m odel) - 'W h er e m ore t han one dan cer i s per for m i n g, t he possi bi lit i es ar e i ncr eased i n geom et ri cal pr opor t i on '. Joh n M ar t in , The M odern Dance, Pri ncet on: D an ce H or i zons, 1965 [ 1933] , p. 54. A n d r é Levi n son , La Danse d'aujour d'hui, Par i s: Edi t i ons D uchart r e et V an Buggen h oudt , 1927, p. 79. See m y 'En t r e cor p s r yt h m é et m odèle ch or égr aph i que: dan se et ci ném a dan s les ann ées 1920', Vertigo Est hét ique et hist oire du cinéma, Par i s: I m ages en M an œuvr e, Special I ssue, O ct ober 2005, p. 20-27, an d L'A ge du rythme, op. cit., Ch ap t er 7. Gi l les D eleuze, Cinema 1: the M ovement -Image, t r an slat ed b y H u gh Tom li n son and Bar bar a H abber jam , Lon don: A t h lon e Press, 1986, pp. 41- 2. A l ber t Valent in , 'I n t r oduct i on à la m agi e blan che et n oir e', L 'A r t Cinémat ographique, t. I V, Par i s: A lcan , 1927, p. 13. Em i le Vui ller m oz, 'L e ci n ém a et la m usi que', Le Temps, 27 M ay 19 33. A ccor d i n g to Cr ai g, t he gi r l s li vi n g in H eller au w ou ld br i n g for t h a 'd i st i n gu ée, nice and pr et t y m oder n V en u s', a 'br ai n less an d soulless god d ess', w h o w ou ld , above all, fol low t he can ons of fashi on. Th is h ar m ful i nfluence w ou ld pr odu ce an op er a t i on of 'st er eot ypi n g of h un dr eds of w om en a d ay', cr eat i ng gen erat i on s of 'm ai ds, pr ogr am m e ven dor s, ser vant s, an d all t hose w h o ar e or w i sh to fol low t he un ifor m pat t er n'. 'Jaq u es D alcr oze an d hi s school', The M ask, vol . V, no. 1, Ju l y 19 12. Repr i n t ed i n Gordon Cr aig on M ovement and Dance, op. cit., pp. 228 an d 233.

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 191 h t t p :/ /s ite . e b ra ry .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 9 1 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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49. 50. 51.

52.

53. 54.

55.

191

A n d r é Levi n son , op. cit., p. 362. Ibi d., p. 354. 'I h ave spok en of t he phalan x, an d it i s n ot on ly a m et aphor . Th e fact i s t hat on e can see i n ch or us gi r l s' exer ci ses t he m ar t i al pr est i ge of t he par ade gr oun d, t hose m i li t ar y ballet s of yest er year , t he p op u l ar jubi lat i on sur r oun di n g t he t or chli ght tatt oo, dr u m s out front , t he r hyt h m i c en t h usi asm of t he w ar li k e ext r avagan za.' Ibi d., p. 358. Terpsichore, Par i s: Em i le H azan & Cie, 1928. I n t h is w or k , Soupault , aspi r ed to an alli ance bet w een dan ce an d cinem a, w h i ch at the t i m e seem ed to h i m on l y d evel oped i n a few fr agm ent s an d docum en t ar ies. I bi d., pp. 107 an d 111. Ibi d., pp. 64-65. Regar d i n g t hi s r elat i on shi p w i t h t he m ale gaze, see Tom Gu n n i n g's an alysi s (The Films O f Frit z Lang: Allegor ies O f Vision A n d M odernit y, Lon don : BFI, 2000, pp. 72 73). For A n d r eas H u yssen , t he w om an -cr eat ur e i n M e t r o p o l i s reflect s t w o con t r a di ct or y yet fasci n at i n g t ren ds of t he r elat i on sh i p to t he m achi ne: on t he one hand, h er subm i ssi on , h er effi ci en cy an d h er passi vi t y, an d, on t he ot her h and, h er p ow er lead i n g to fear an d reject i ons. See 'Th e V am p an d t he M ach i n e', in A . H u yssen , Aft er the Great D ivide, Bloom i n gt on and I n di an apoli s: I n di an a U n i ver si t y Press, 1986, pp. 65-81. O n t hi s poi nt , see m y det ai led an alysi s of t w o sequences i n L a Fem m e et le pant i n, 'L e cor ps et le r egar d: i m ages r yt h m i qu es de l a dan se dan s La Femme et le pant in', in B. Bast i de and F. de la Br ét èque (eds.), Jacques de Baroncelli, Par i s: A FRH C, 2007, pp. 232-241, an d m y ar t icle ent it led 'L e st yle ch or égr aph i que au ci n ém a', i n Film style/ cinema and cont emporary visual arts, U di n e, 2007, pp. 499-522.

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 9 2 h tt p ://s it e . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 9 2 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 9 3 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 9 3 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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Lau r en t Gu i do I n 20 0 1, Jean - L u c G o d ar d w as i n t er v i ew ed b y t h e Fr en ch sp o r t s n ew sp ap er L 'Equ i p e. H e p u t f o r w ar d h i s v i ew s o n t h e m o d es o f au d i o v i su al r ep r esen t at i o n

o f sp o r t , say i n g t h at , f o r h i m , sp o r t i s o n e o f t h e r ar e f i el d s o f ex p r essi o n i n t o d ay 's w o r l d t h at i s ch ar act er i sed b y a f o r m o f 't r u t h ', t h an k s t o t h e m at er i al i n scr i p t i o n o f p h y si cal p er f o r m an ce i n sp ace: 'I st i l l w at ch sp o r t b ecau se so m e t h i n g h as r em ai n ed w h er e t h e b o d y d o es n ot l i e'.1 H o w ev er , h e w as m o r e cr i t i cal o f t h e p er cep t i o n s i n t h e m ed i a o f t h e m o v em en t s o f sp o r t sm en an d w o m en , esp eci al l y w h en sh o w n on t el evi si o n . D esp i t e t h e co n st r ai n t s t h at co m e f r o m t h e p h y si cal d i st an ce b et w een t h e at h l et es an d on e p ar t o f t h e sp ect at o r s, G o d ar d b el i ev es t h at a f r ag m en t ar y ex p er i en ce o f r eal i t y ( w h er e 'o n e can cl ear l y see t h at o n e sees l i t t l e') 2 i s b et t er t h an t h e p r et en ce, m ai n t ai n ed b y t el evi si o n , o f o p t i m al l y r ep r o d u ci n g a sp o r t s p er f o r m an ce, w h i ch h e assi m i l at es t o t h e p r o d u ct i o n o f a d ecei t f u l i l l u si o n . H e b ack s u p t h i s p o si t i o n b y al l u d i n g t o t en n i s, a sp o r t h e p er so n al l y i n d u l ges i n an d t o w h i ch h e r ef er s o n d i f f er en t o ccasi o n s i n h i s w r i t i n gs an d ci n em at o gr ap h i c w o r k .3 H i s f i r st ex am p l es ar e b asi cal l y l aco n i c v al u e j u d g em en t s on t h e p er so n al i t i es an d p h y si cal at t r i b u t es o f t h e p l ay er s - w h en g o i n g t o Ro l an d - G ar r o s, A n n a K o u r n i k o v a seem ed t o h i m t o b e 'r eal l y b eau t i f u l an d r eal l y el egan t ', o r T h o m as M u st er h ad f i n al l y d i v est ed h i m sel f o f t h e l u m b er j ack i m age h e h ad i n t h e m ed i a. H e t h en go es o n t o ex am i n e t h e m o r e ser i o u s q u est i o n o f b al l sp eed s ( w h er eu p o n h e m ak es so m e n ot t er r i b l y o r i gi n al co m m en t s ab o u t t h e b l at an t d i f f er en ce b et w een t h e p o w er o f V en u s W i l l i am s's an d M ar t i n a H i n gi s's st r o k es) an d w h i c h t el evi si o n , i n h i s v i ew , i s q u i t e 'i n cap ab l e o f r en d er i n g'.

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. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 9 4 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 9 4 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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au d i o v i su al cu l t u r e, w h i ch - as a m o r e o r l ess co n sci o u s ex t en si o n o f t h e i d eas f i r st d ev el o p ed b y t h e t h eo r i st s o f t h e Fr an k f u r t Sch o o l , an d t h en b y G u y D eb o r d an d Jean Bau d r i l l ar d - i s seen as i r r em ed i ab l y su b ser v i en t t o t h e g r ad u al ar r i v al o f a sh o w b i z so ci et y cen t r ed o n t h e ex cessi v e co m m er ci al i sat i o n o f sy m b o l i c go o d s. T h e p r o l i f er at i o n o f em p t y an d u sel ess i m ages st i m u l at ed b y t h i s sy st em at i c p r o cess o f m er ch an d i si n g i s t h u s t h o u gh t t o h av e b r o u gh t ab o u t a co r r el at i v e m o d i f i cat i o n i n t h e w ay w e l o o k at t h e w o r l d , an d h en ce t h e w ay p h y si cal p er f o r m an ce i s r ep r esen t ed o n t h e scr een . Fi l m i n g spor t boi ls d ow n to sh ow i n g t he w or k of t he b od y as cont inuit y. The pr oblem i s t hat t hi s pr i or i t y h as di sapp ear ed . The w ay of 'sh ow i n g' h as dr am at i cally det er i o r at ed. ... O n t he T V t her e's n o m or e r espect for w h at i s fi lm ed, it 's just a m at t er of pr ogr am m es an d br oadcast i n g. Th i n gs h ave really ch an ged!4 I n o r d er t o su p p o r t t h i s gen er al v i ew w i t h m o r e co n cr et e ex am p l es, G o d ar d m en t i o n s t h e h ar m f u l m o d i f i cat i o n s w h i ch , i n h i s v i ew , h av e t ak en p l ace i n t h e w a y t el ev i si o n r eco r d s an d ed i t s sp o r t i n g ev en t s. H e ev o k es i n p ar t i cu l ar t h e 'en o r m o u s d i f f er en ces' b et w een t h e w a y cam er am en so m e f i f t een o r t w en t y y ear s ago co u l d d w el l o n cer t ai n gest u r es ( 'a d an g l i n g ar m , a t h o u gh t f u l ex p r es si o n ') an d t h e r u l es n o w p r ev ai l i n g: 'T o d ay i t 's al l o ver . Ev er y t h i n g h as sp eed ed u p , t h er e's t h e j u m p an d n o t h i n g el se. A b o v e al l , t h er e i s n o w ai t i n g, n o p a t i en ce

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p ear an ce o f an eco n o m i c co n cep t i o n o f t i m e w i t h i n t h e au d i o v i su al fi el d , r e m o v i n g an y p o ssi b l e f o r m o f sp o n t an ei t y o r an y t h i n g u n ex p ect ed , d esp i t e t h e f act t h at t h i s i s w h at ch ar act er i ses sp o r t i n g an d r ecr eat i o n al act i v i t i es b ased o n t h e p u r su i t o f ex p l o i t s an d su sp en se. I n o r d er t o st i gm at i se h o w sp o r t i s sh o w n o n t el evi si o n , G o d ar d o n ce ag ai n t u r n s t o t en n i s. H e m ak es n o b o n es ab o u t cal l i n g Fr an ço i se Bo u l i n , w h o i s t h e d i r ect o r o f t h e Ro l an d - G ar r o s b r o ad cast s, h i s 'w o r st en em y ', i n t h at t h e co m p l ex set - u p t h at sh e d i r ect s f r o m t h e co n t r o l r o o m seem s t o h i m t o sy m b o l i se t h e f r agm en t at i o n o f v i ew p o i n t s w h er e m ean i n g b e co m es d i l u t ed : 'H o w can y o u " se e " i n f r o n t o f t w el v e scr een s? Y o u d o n 't see on e i m age, y o u " b l u r " i t .'5 I n h i s p er sp ect i v e, t h e p o ssi b i l i t y o f r eal l y seei n g d o es i n d eed exi st . G o d ar d 's d i si l l u si o n m en t go es h an d i n h an d w i t h t h e p r o f o u n d b el i ef i n cer t ai n v i r t u es o f t h e ci n em at o gr ap h i c i m age, i n essen ce, t h e r el at i o n sh i p o f i m m ed i acy t h at so m e t h eo r i st s, i n p ar t i cu l ar A n d r é Baz i n ,6 h av e b een ab l e t o i d en t i f y b et w een t h e cam er a an d r eal i t y t h an k s t o t h e i n d ex i cal n at u r e o f t h e p h o t o gr ap h i c sh ot . T h i s i d ea r ef er s t o t h e b r o ad er st ak es t h at h av e go v er n ed t h e co n cep t u al i sat i o n o f t h e w a y gest u r e i s r ep r esen t ed i n f i l m si n ce t h e b egi n n i n g o f ci n em a. M o st o f t h e t h eo r et i cal w r i t i n g s o n t h e f i l m i n g o f t h e m o v i n g h u m an b o d y r el at e t o t h e o p p o si t i o n b et w een t w o f u n d am en t al p ar ad i gm s. T h e o p p o si t i o n co n cer n s f i r st an d f o r em o st d an ce,7 b u t can b e ex t en d ed t o i n cl u d e an y t y p e o f p h y si cal p er -

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 9 5 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 9 5 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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f o r m an ce su ch as sp o r t o r t h e m ar t i al ar t s. O n t h e o n e h an d , p r i o r i t y i s g i v en t o t h e t o t al i t y an d co n t i n u i t y t h at ar e p r o p er t o t h e p r o f i l m i c ev en t ( v i a w i d e sh o t s an d l o n g t ak es) - t h i s i d eal m ean s o f cap t u r i n g an d r ep r o d u ci n g gest u r es i s f av o u r ed b y d an cer s ( t y p i f i ed b y Fr ed A st ai r e) ;8 o n t h e o t h er h an d , em p h asi s i s l ai d o n ed i t i n g t h e p er f o r m an ce, as ad v o cat ed b y L ev K u l esh o v or Sl av k o V o r k ap i ch ,9 an d d ev el o p ed al o n g v ar i o u s l i n es, f r o m t h e av an t - gar d e m o v em en t o f t h e 19 20 s t o v i d eo - d an ce, o r f r o m B u sb y Ber k el ey t o m u si c v i d eo s. Resear ch - p ar t i cu l ar l y i n t h e f i el d o f f o o t b al l 10 - h as d em o n st r at ed t h at t o d ay w h en sp o r t s co m p et i t i o n s ar e sh o w n o n t el evi si o n , t h ey, l i k e o t h er l i v e b r o ad cast s ( o f cer em o n i es, con cer t s, et c.) , u se m u l t i p l e cam er as t o sh o w t h e act i o n f r o m v ar i o u s an gl es. T h ey ar e g en er al l y d i v i d ed u p b et w een l o n g- r an ge sh o t s, i f p o ssi b l e h i gh - an gl e sh o t s t h at g i v e an o v er al l , geo m et r i cal v i ew o f t h e scen e, an d v ar i o u s cl o ser v i ew p o i n t s o f t h e v ar i o u s p r o t ago n i st s, i n cl u d i n g t h e sp ect a t or s. Pan o r am i c an d z o o m sh o t s - f o r t h e m o st p ar t ch o sen b y t h e cam er a o p er at o r s t h em sel v es - en r i ch t h e ch an ges o f sh o t d eci d ed u p i n t h e co n t r o l r o o m i n o r d er t o sel ect an d h i g h l i gh t t h e su p p o sed h i gh p o i n t s o f t h e g am e (i .e., a gest u r e o r r em ar k ab l e ex p r essi o n ) . O n t h e d i ach r o n i c l ev el , sev er al f act o r s ar e em p h asi sed h er e: t h e p r o g r essi v e m u l t i p l i cat i o n o f v i ew p o i n t s av ai l ab l e, t h e i n cr eased u se o f sl o w m o t i o n an d co m p u t er an i m at i o n , o r t h e i n t egr at i o n o f p er i p h er al el em en t s ( i n t er v i ew s, st at i st i cs o r v i ew s b eh i n d t h e scen es) . M o st r e sear ch er s co n cu r t h at t h ese v ar i o u s asp ect s f o r m a ser i es o f p ar am et er s t h at i n cr easi n gl y f r agm en t t h e co n t i n u i t y t h at i s ch ar act er i st i c o f t h e f i l m ed ev en t an d t r an sf o r m i t i n t o t el ev i si o n en t er t ai n m en t , w h i ch i s go v er n ed b y cer t ai n r e q u i r em en t s r el at i n g t o d y n am i sm an d ex p l i cat i o n . M an y st u d i es h av e em p h a si sed t h e l i m i t at i o n s o f t h e st r i ct sep ar at i o n b et w een t h e t w o t y p es o f ex p er i en ce o f sp o r t - b ei n g p r esen t at t h e ev en t an d w at ch i n g i t o n T V . T w o r easo n s can b e p u t f o r w ar d : f i r st l y, b o t h h av e w el l d o cu m en t ed ad v an t ag es an d d i sad v an t ag es w h en i t co m es t o g i v i n g t h e b est p o ssi b l e assessm en t o f co m p et i t i o n s, an d sec o n d l y, w i t h i m ag es n o w b ei n g p r o j ect ed i n si d e st ad i u m s, an d m o r e gen er al l y , w i t h t h e st ad i u m n o w i n cr easi n gl y o ccu p i ed b y t h e au d i o v i su al m ed i a i n t h e co v er age o f sp o r t i n g ev en t s, b o t h t y p es o f ex p er i en ce ar e t en d i n g t o m er g e.11 T h i s o b ser v at i o n o f t en go es h an d i n h an d w i t h m o r e p essi m i st i c co m m en t s t h at eq u at e t o d ay 's d ev el o p m en t o f sp o r t i n g cu l t u r e w i t h t h e ex cesses o n b o t h t h e co m m er ci al an d co m p et i t i v e p l an es.12 T h i s i s j u st w h at G o d ar d i s say i n g i n t h e q u o t at i o n ab o v e w h en h e r ef er s t o an i d eal v i su al t r an scr i p t i o n t h at p r o m o t es t h e m o st f ai t h f u l r est i t u t i o n p o ssi b l e o f t h e o r i gi n al w h o l en ess o f p er f o r m an ces sh o w n o n scr een .13

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 9 6 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 9 6 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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I t i s, n o n et h el ess, p o ssi b l e t o go b ey o n d su ch n o st al gi c d em an d s o r p h i l o so p h i cal p r ej u d i ces, an d t o d ev el o p an i d ea o f h o w t el ev i si o n m ed i at es sp o r t s co m p e t i t i o n s b y t r y i n g t o i d en t i f y t h e r at i o n al e b eh i n d t h i s m ed i at i o n , i n p ar t i cu l ar b y ex am i n i n g t h e t r ad i t i o n s i t b el o n gs t o, b ecau se i t i s p r eci sel y t h ese t r ad i t i o n s t h at en ab l e o n e t o d i sco u n t a cer t ai n n u m b er o f p r esu p p o si t i o n s l i n k ed t o t h e au d i o v i su al r eco r d i n g an d r ep r esen t at i o n o f sp o r t i n g ev en t s.14 Ev en i f o n e can n o t d i sp u t e t h e ex i st en ce o f m ech an i sm s o f i n t en si f i cat i o n an d d i v er si f i cat i o n t h at h av e b een p r esen t i n t h e f i el d f o r so m e y ear s, m an y o f t h e t ech n i q u es cu r r en t l y u sed i n t el evi si o n d r aw on p r act i ces t h at h av e l o n g b een t r i ed an d t est ed i n ci n em a. T h ese p r act i ces sh o u l d t h u s n o t o n l y b e si t u at ed i n t h ei r i m m ed i at e con t ext , b u t al so i n scr i b ed i n d eep er aest h et i c an d h i st o r i cal r ef l ect i o n s o n h o w p h y si cal p er f o r m an ce i s r ep r esen t ed v i a t ech n i q u es b ased o n t h e m ech an i cal r eco r d i n g o f m o v em en t . I n 19 38 , L en i Ri ef en st ah l 's f i l m

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p l i sh ed sy n t h esi s o f a t r en d t o w ar d s p l u r i f o cal i t y i n t h e w ay sp o r t s ev en t s w er e d o cu m en t ed . D esp i t e i t s d i f f er en t p u r p o se (a d o cu m en t ar y f i l m m ad e t o b e sh o w n i n t h e ci n em a an d n o t t o b e b r o ad cast l i v e) ,15 t h i s w o r k p r ef i gu r es m an y o f t h e p r o cesses an d m o d es o f cu t t i n g u sed i n sp o r t s co m p et i t i o n s seen o n t el e v i si o n t o d ay. Ri ef en st ah l w as i n sp i r ed b y t h e p r act i ces t h at w er e i n f ash i o n i n t h e av an t - gar d e m o v em en t s i n p h o t o g r ap h y an d ci n em a i n t h e 19 20 s an d 19 30 s - i n cl u d i n g t h e 'n ew v i si o n ' p r o m o t ed at t h e B au h au s b y T . L u x Fei n i ger an d H er b er t B ay er o r t h e m o n t ages o f W al t h er Ru t t m an n an d D z i g a V er t o v. Sh e u sed t h ese f i l m m et h o d s b egi n n i n g w i t h h er p r o p ag an d a f i l m s o f t h e N az i p ar t y r al l i es i n N u r em b er g. Sh e d ev el o p ed n ew t ech n i q u es t h at m ad e t h e cam er a m o b i l e b y u si n g b al l o o n s, b o at s, car s, r ai l s, et c. an d am p l i f i ed t h e v i si o n o f t h e ev en t b y u si n g d i f f er en t t el ep h o t o l en ses, i n cl u d i n g a 600- m m on e, t h e m o st p o w er f u l av ai l ab l e at t h at t i m e. Bu t t h e m o st ch ar act er i st i c t r ai t o f Ri ef en st ah l 's t ech n i cal d i sp o si t i v e w as h er d esi r e t o m u l t i p l y t h e p o i n t s o f v i ew u si n g h er 10 0 - m an t eam .lfl T h e si m u l t an eo u s ef f o r t s o f d o z en s o f cam er am en co v er i n g an ev en t f r o m ev er y an gl e — esp eci al l y f r o m el ev at ed p o si t i o n s,17 u n d er w at er , f r o m sp eci al l y b u i l t t o w er s an d p i t s d u g i n t o t h e v er y st ad i u m i n o r d er t o co m e u p w i t h h i gh an d l o w - an g l e sh o t s - p r o d u ced l ar ge am o u n t s o f f i l m f o o t age t h at r eq u i r ed co n si d er ab l e ed i t i n g. Ri ef en st ah l 's ap p r o ach i s si m i l ar t o t h e p l u r i f o cal i t y o f t el ev i si o n t h at G o d ar d h as cr i t i ci sed . G o d ar d d i d , h o w ev er , g i v e h er cr ed i t f o r t r y i n g t o sh o o t m o r e 'l en g t h w i se' b ecau se o f h er af f i l i at i o n t o cer t ai n aest h et i c p r i n ci p l es: 'Ri ef en st ah l d i d , af t er al l , r esp ect w h at w as b ei n g f i l m ed . Sh e f r am ed h er sh o t s u si n g sci en t i f i c p r i n ci p l es. M ean w h i l e, t o d ay, w e ar e su f -

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 9 7 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 9 7 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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f o cat i n g u n d er an av al an ch e o f f i l m ed i m ages. A n y o n e can p r et en d t o b e a cam er am an an d t h i n k t h ey ar e d o i n g a t ak e.'18 D esp i t e t h e f act t h at l i v e b r o ad cast s h av e sp eci f i c ai m s an d u se p ar t i cu l ar m ean s o f p r o d u ct i o n , f i l m i n g f o r t el ev i si o n r ai ses i ssu es o f v i ew p o i n t , ap p r o ach an d cu t t i n g t h at ar e r em ar k ab l y si m i l ar t o t h o se r ai sed b y ci n em a. A n y ci n em a t o gr ap h i c r ep r esen t at i o n o f a sp ect acl e cen t r ed o n h u m an m o v em en t p r o ceed s v i a a ser i es o f ch o i ces i n r el at i o n t o i t s pr ofi lm i c ex ecu t i o n . A sp o r t s ev en t can n o t - co n t r ar y t o G o d ar d 's p r em i se - b e seen as a si m p l e m an i f est at i o n o f t h e r eal t h at i s sep ar at e f r o m i t s p r o d u ct i o n . I t d ep en d s o n a p r e- ex i st i n g co n f i gu r at i o n (t h e scen e, t h e st ad i u m , t h e st r u ct u r e u sed f o r t h e aw ar d cer em o n y) , w h er e p r e ci se p o si t i o n s ar e assi gn ed t o t h e sp o r t sm en , r ef er ees, j u d g es an d gr o u p s o f sp ect at o r s. T h e en t i r e f i l m i n g p r o cess i s t h u s a secom lan/ act i o n t h at o ccu r s i n ad d i t i o n t o t h i s f u n d am en t al d i sp o si t i v e. Sch o l ar s d o n o t si m p l y co m m en t o n t h e w a y m ed i a r ep r esen t at i o n d i l u t es sp o r t sm an sh i p , b u t al so d r aw at t en t i o n t o t h e w a y t h e f i l m i n g p r o cess co n t am i n at es t h e r i t u al i t sel f b y i n t r o d u ci n g n ew co n d i t i o n s, f r o m t h e st r u ct u r al an d d y n am i c l ev el s t o t h at o f ad v er t i si n g.

A n a ly s in g f ilm ic p r o c e d u r e s - th e e x a m p le o f te n n is

I f on e ex cl u d es t h e ar t i cl es t h at ex am i n e t h e sp o k en co m m en t ar i es ( w h i ch I sh al l n o t ad d r ess h er e) / 9 t h e m ai n st u d i es r eg ar d i n g t el ev i si o n 's sp o r t s d i sp o si t i v e h av e g en er al l y co n f i n ed t h em sel v es t o l o o k i n g at t h e i n cr easi n g n u m b er an d d i v er si t y o f t h e cam er as an d scr een sh o t s u sed .20 C o m p ar ed t o t h ese st at i st i cal st u d i es, t h er e i s c o m p ar at i v el y l i t t l e r esear ch t h at h as p r esen t ed t h e p r i n ci p l es u n d er l y i n g t h i s p r o g r essi v el y m o r e d y n am i c t r eat m en t o f t h e p h y si cal act i on . T h ese p r i n ci p l es u su al l y f o cu s o n t h e t y p es o f r ep r esen t at i o n o f t h e b o d y t h at ar e p r o d u ced b y ev er m o r e d i v er se f i l m i n g t ech n i q u es. Ev en i f t h e t ech n i q u es u sed t en d t o p r o d u ce a f r agm en t ed an d o b j ect i v i sed i m age o f t h e ev en t s, t h ey d o cr eat e co h er en t i d en t i f i cat i o n an d p ar t i ci p at i o n m ech an i sm s t h at m ay v ar y acco r d i n g t o d i sci p l i n e an d sp eci f i c geo gr ap h i cal or cu l t u r al ch ar act er i st i cs. T h i s i s t h e an gl e I h av e ad o p t ed t o st u d y b r o ad cast s o f t en n i s m at ch es. M y r e sear ch at t em p t s t o i d en t i f y so m e o f t h e aest h et i c an d d r am at i c i m p l i cat i o n s o f t h e m o d es o f f i l m i n g an d ed i t i n g i n v o l v ed i n d o cu m en t i n g t h e b o d y m o v e m en t s. T h an k s t o so m e o f t en n i s's sp eci f i c q u al i t i es - t h e l o n g gap s b et w een t h e ac t i o n ,21 i t s t ech n i cal an d geo m et r i cal n at u r e, i t s d u al i sm — i t i s u n d o u b t ed l y on e o f t h e sp o r t s t h at i n t el l ect u al s i n t h e w o r l d o f ci n em a m o st ap p r eci at e an d d i s cu ss (i n Fr an ce, b esi d es Jean - L u c G o d ar d 's r em ar k s, t h er e ar e al so t h e p assi o n at e co m m en t s o f Ser ge D an ey an d M i ch el Ch i o n ) .22 H o w ev er , i f w e i gn o r e a

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 9 8 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 9 8 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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n u m b er o f f ai r l y o b v i o u s f u n d am en t al fact s, t h er e i s as y et n o r el i ab l e d ef i n i t i o n o f t h e 'ci n egen i c' v al u e o f t en n i s, i n p ar t i cu l ar f r o m t h e v i ew p o i n t o f t h e m ed i a d i sp o si t i v e t h at t u r n s i t i n t o a t el ev i si o n sp ect acl e. A s h as al r ead y b een p o i n t ed o u t ab o v e, t h e n u m b er o f cam er as o n t h e t en n i s co u r t s h as i n cr eased co n si d er ab l y, esp eci al l y d u r i n g G r an d Sl am t o u r n am en t s (t h e '4 o r 5' d i f f er en t cam er as at Ro l an d - G ar r o s, i n t h e ear l y 19 8 0 s i n cr eased t o 15 b y 2000) .23 L i k e m o st sp o r t s f i l m ed i n st ad i u m s, t h e m ai n r ecu r r i n g f i gu r es t h at ar e ed i t ed l i v e i n t h e co n t r o l r o o m al t er n at e b et w een (a) t h e al l - en co m p assi n g an d geo m et r i cal v i si o n o f t h e m at ch ( an o v er v i ew f r o m ab o v e o r ev en f r o m t h e ai r ) an d (b) a ser i es o f sh o t s h i gh l i gh t i n g t h e i n d i v i d u al gest u r es an d em o t i o n s, f o r t h e m o st p ar t f i l m ed at co u r t l ev el . T h er e h as b een a m ar k ed i n cr ease i n t h e n u m b er o f sh o t s an d r e v er se sh o t s u sed d u r i n g t h e co u r se o f t h e m at ch , p ar t i cu l ar l y at t h e k ey m o m en t s. T h ey h i gh l i gh t t h e d r am at i c r el at i o n sh i p t h at st ar t s t o d ev el o p b et w een t h e t w o p l ay er s, o r b r i n g o u t t h e l i n k b et w een t h e co u r t an d t h e sp ect at o r s.24 T h i s f u n d am en t al st r u ct u r i n g o f sp ace f o r m s t h e b asi s u p o n w h i ch al l t h e b r o ad cast s i n m y co r p u s d ep en d . I ex am i n e f o u r m en 's m at ch es at W i m b l ed o n o v er t h e p ast t h i r t y y ear s: t h e 19 77 sem i - f i n al b et w een Bj ö r n B o r g an d V i t as G er u l ai t i s, t h e 19 8 0 f i n al b et w een B o r g an d Jo h n M cEn r o e, t h e 19 9 8 sem i - f i n al b et w een G o r an I v an i sev i c an d Ri ch ar d K r aj i cek , an d t h e 20 0 7 f i n al b et w een R o ger Fed er er an d R af ael N ad al .25 F ig u r e 1. T h e b a s i c ax is

P2 P i C i Position

I n t h i r t y y ear s, t h e m ai n cam er a p o si t i o n ( h en cef o r t h C l ) , i .e., t h e o n e t h at co n st an t l y r eco r d s al l t h e ex ch an ges, h as r em ai n ed t h e sam e ( f i g. 1) . I t i s si t u at ed h i gh u p i n t h e n o r t h st an d ( t h u s o p p o si t e t h e R o y al Bo x) an d p r o v i d es a gen er al v i ew o f t h e co u r t f r o m ab o v e, co v er i n g t h e w h o l e b r ead t h o f t h e su r f ace o f t h e co u r t i n a si n gl e, sy n t h et i c v i si o n . O n e p l ay er ( P i ) i s o n t h e si d e o f t h e cam er a C l an d t h u s h as h i s b ack t o t h e cam er a, w h er eas t h e o t h er p l ay er (P2) i s l o cat ed at t h e f ar en d o f t h e p i ct u r e an d f aces t h e cam er a. T h e f i r st p o si t i o n i s i n t h e ax i s o f t h e cam er a, w i t h P i 's w at ch f u l ey es ex t en d i n g, i n a m an n er o f sp eak i n g, t h e t el ev i si o n au d i en ce's v i ew p o i n t , w h i l e t h e seco n d p o si t i o n p l aces P2's b o d y at

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 1 9 9 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 1 9 9 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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t h e cen t r e o f t h e r ep r esen t at i o n . T h i s f u n d am en t al ax i s cr eat es a d esi r e t o co m p r o m i se b et w een , o n t h e o n e h an d , a sh o t f r o m ab o v e t h at p er f ect l y cap t u r es t h e m o v em en t s an d t r aj ect o r i es b u t r ed u ces t h e p l ay er s t o p o i n t s m o v i n g i n si d e a geo m et r i cal sp ace, an d , o n t h e o t h er h an d , an an gl e sh o t t h at al l o w s on e t o ap p r eci at e t h e t ech n i cal gest u r es at b o d y h ei gh t , b u t t h at m ak es i t m o r e d i f f i cu l t t o co m p r eh en d t h e m o v em en t s b ecau se t h e p er sp ect i v e i s f l at t en ed . T h e d esi r e n o t t o f r agm en t t h e act i o n b el o n gs t o t h e f i r st o f t h e t w o p ar ad i g m s m en t i o n ed ab o v e, w h er e an at t em p t i s m ad e t o r esp ect t h e sp at i al w h o l e o f t h e p er f o r m an ce, t o u n d er st an d t h e i n t er d ep en d en ce o f t h e f o r ces p r esen t an d t o en su r e t h at as m u ch v i su al i n f o r m at i o n i s p r o cessed as p o ssi b l e. T h e f act t h at p ar t o f t h e d i sp o si t i v e i s al l o cat ed t o t h e m at ch 's u n p r ed i ct ab l e d ev el o p m en t l ead s t o v er y d i f f er en t r esu l t s, d ep en d i n g o n t h e p l ay er s' st y l es an d t h e p l ay i n g su r f ace. Fo r i n st an ce, t h e ch ar act er i st i c sl o w n ess o f cl ay o b l i ges t h e p l ay er s t o en g ag e i n l o n g ex ch an ges f r o m t h e b asel i n e an d p r o d u ces m u ch l o n ger sh o t s i n C l t h an t h e t w o o r t h r ee ex ch an ges n eed ed t o w i n a p o i n t o n f ast er su r f aces su ch as gr ass. D esp i t e t h e g r ad u al i n t r o d u ct i o n o f o t h er sh o t an gl es, t h er e i s n o d o u b t ab o u t t h e cen t r al i t y o f C l . O ccasi o n al l y, d u r i n g a f ew b r i ef ex ch an ges i n t h e co u r se o f t h e f o u r m at ch es i n 19 9 8 an d 2007, t h e act i o n m ay b e f i l m ed f r o m t h e sam e d i r ect i o n , b u t f r o m a l o w er p o si t i o n t h an C l . T h i s al l o w s on e t o get a f r o n t sh o t o f P2 an d , l at er , t o p r o v i d e a l ar ge n u m b er o f r ep l ay s. I n ad d i t i o n , a l at er al cam er a m ay b r i ef l y t ak e o v er f r o m C l i f C l can n o t ad eq u at el y f o l l o w t h e b al l o u t si d e t h e l o w er l i m i t s o f t h e f r am e. T h er e ar e o n l y t w o ex am p l es o f t h i s i n m y co r p u s ( Bo r g i n 19 77, an d N ad al i n 2007).

L a t e r a l v ie w s , t h e f ir s t s te p t o w a r d s a 3 6 0 - d e g r e e sp a c e ?

T h e cam er as o n t h e co u r t ar e p o si t i o n ed at p l ay er h ei gh t an d f i l m t h e p l ay er s u si n g a v ar i et y o f sh o t s w i t h v ar i ab l e d i st an ces ( m ed i u m t o cl o se- u p ) . I n 19 77, t w o cam er as w er e l o cat ed i n t h e n o r t h st an d an d m ai n l y sh o t P i , w h i l e t w o o t h er cam er as ( o n e f i l m i n g f r o m b el o w ) w er e p r i n c i p al l y d o cu m en t i n g P2 al o n g t h e l en gt h ax i s w h er e t h e u m p i r e's ch ai r i s l o cat ed . Resp ect i n g t h e 18 0 - d egr ee r u l e, t h e cam er as ar e si t u at ed al o n g an ax i s t h at co r r esp o n d s t o h al f o f t h e co u r t ( o n e w i d t h an d o n e l en gt h ) , o u t si d e o f w h i ch n o t h i n g i s f i l m ed . T h i s set - u p at W i m b l ed o n m ay su r p r i se p eo p l e w h o ar e u sed t o seei n g b r o ad cast s o f ot h er Eu r o p ean an d A m er i c an t o u r n am en t s, b ecau se, at f i r st si gh t , t h ei r m i n i m al o r gan i sat i o n w h en i t co m es t o sh o t s f r o m t h e ed g es o f t h e co u r t d ep en d s m u ch m o r e cl ear l y o n cam er as l o cat ed n ear t h e n et (t h e cen t r i f u gal locus o f t h e u m p i r e's ch ai r ) , so t h at each cam er a f o l l o w s o n e p l ay er . T h i s r esu l t s i n a cl ear sh o t

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 0 0 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 0 0 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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an d r ev er se sh o t f r o m t h e l at er al ax i s, al t er n at i n g w i t h sh o t s b y C l an d , o n r ar e o ccasi o n s, t h e l o w er sh ot . T h i s can o n i cal set - u p ap p ear s cl ear l y i n t h e 19 8 0 f i n al , w h er e a l at er al cam er a i s ex p l i ci t l y ai m ed at P i f r o m t h e n et , r ei n f o r ci n g t h e i m p r essi o n o f sh o t an d r ev er se sh o t b et w een B o r g an d M cEn r o e. I n 19 9 8 , t h ese sh o t s w er e st i l l cen t r al t o t h e d i sp o si t i v e, w i t h o n l y r ar e d ep ar t u r es f r o m t h e 18 0 - d egr ee ax i s, m ad e p o ssi b l e b y t h e p r esen ce o f ad d i t i o n al cam er as p o si t i o n ed al o n g t h e l en gt h ax i s o p p o si t e t h e u m p i r e's ch ai r ( sh o o t i n g at a l o w an g l e f r o m t h e cou r t ) . T h ese cam er as ar e m ai n l y t h er e t o f i l m t h e p l ay er s w h en t h ey ar e si t t i n g d o w n d u r i n g p au ses, an d f o r v ar i o u s sl o w - m o t i o n sh ot s. M o r eo v er , t h er e i s al so a p er sp ect i v e sh o t f r o m t h e t o p o f t h e st an d s g i v i n g a seco n d v i ew o f t h e st ad i u m f r o m ab o v e. T h i s t y p e o f sh o t h as si gn f i can t l y g r o w n i n i m p o r t an ce, as can b e cl ear l y seen i n t h e 20 0 7 f i n al . I n t h e m ean t i m e, t h e w i d er 16 / 9 set - u p w as ad o p t ed at W i m b l e d o n , w i t h t h e ed i t i n g st r at egy as d escr i b ed ab o v e, b u t set w i t h i n a m o r e sp a ci o u s an d et h er eal co n t ext - t h e n ew v i ew p o i n t s, an d i n p ar t i cu l ar t h e t w o cam er as si t u at ed l at er al l y ar o u n d P2, si gn i f i can t l y ex t en d t h e sp ace ( w i t h a w i d e st r et ch o f gr ass i n t h e f o r egr o u n d , an d t h e sk y i n t h e b ack gr o u n d ) ( f i g. 2) . T h i s t y p e o f f r am i n g, t o get h er w i t h ex t r a cam er as l o cat ed at t h e t o p o f t h e t er r aces,26 o r ev en o n a cr an e o u t si d e t h e st ad i u m , p r o d u ces a m o r e d i st an t , geo m et r i cal an d o r d er ed v i ew o f t h e st ad i u m , an d o f t h e ev en t i t sel f ( f i gs. 3- 4) . O n e can al so ad d t h e u se o f an o t h er r ecen t i n n o v at i o n - a r em o t el y co n t r o l l ed d o l l y t h at m o v es al o n g t h e b asel i n e ( fi g. 5). T h e r esu l t i n g sh o t s f r o m b el o w an d f r o m t h e si d e al o n g t h e ed g e o f t h e co u r t ar e v er y st r i k i n g l y si m i l ar t o L en i Ri ef en st ah l 's

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 0 1 h t t p :/ /s ite . e b ra ry .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 0 1 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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i m a g e s o f t h e N u r e m b e r g s t a d i u m ( T r i u m p h o f t h e W i l l , 19 35) a n d t h e O l y m p i c p o o l ( O l y m p i a , 19 38 ) .

E d it in g , o r lin k in g t h e d is t a n t a n d t h e c lo s e

A r el at i v el y l ar ge n u m b er o f cam er as i s n o t a si n e qua non co n d i t i o n f o r p r o d u c i n g t h e sen sat i o n o f sp eed an d d y n am i sm , w h i ch m ay p ar t l y d ep en d on t h e r h y t h m o f sh o t ex ch an ges, an d t h e ab i l i t y o f cam er am en t o zo o m , t h u s p r o d u c i n g n o t o n l y v er y q u i ck cam er a m o v em en t s, b u t al so v ar i ed an gl es. T h e f u l l u se o f t h ese p o ssi b i l i t i es ex p l ai n s t h e st r i k i n g co n t r ast t h at w as al r ead y cl ear i n t h e o l d est ex am p l e u sed i n m y r esear ch ( 19 77) b et w een t h e st at i c ch ar act er o f C l , u sed ex c l u si v el y f o r m o v em en t s w i t h i n t h e f r am e, an d t h e co n st an t , n er v o u s m o b i l i t y t h at em an at es f r o m t h e i m ag es b et w een ex ch an ges. I n 19 77, t h e scal e o f sh o t s h ad al r ead y t i gh t en ed as t h e m at ch p r o gr essed i n acco r d an ce w i t h t h e d r am at i c t en si o n . T h e v i ew s b et w een ex ch an ges w er e o f t en co n f i n ed t o b o d y sh ot s, f o cu si n g m o r e cl o sel y o n t h e t w o p l ay er s' f aci al ex p r essi o n s o n l y w h en Bo r g h ad a d eci si v e set p oi n t . Par t i cu l ar at t en t i o n i s p ai d t o t h e w ay a b al an ced r et u r n t o C l i s m an aged af t er n u m er o u s d et ai l ed sh o t s. T h e sw i t ch i s sy st em at i c af t er t h e ser v i n g p l ay er h as t h r o w n u p t h e b al l - t h e m o v em en t u p w ar d s co r r esp o n d s t o t h e d i sp l ace m en t o f t h e d i sp o si t i v e i t self , f r o m t h e gam e o n t h e co u r t u p t o t h e sp ect at o r s i n t h e st an d s. M o st o f t h e t i m e, an i m age o f t h e b egi n n i n g o f t h e ser v i ce i s i n ser t ed j u st b ef o r e i t r et u r n s t o C l , co r r esp o n d i n g t o t h e p r eci se m o m en t w h en t h e b al l i s h i t . U su al l y , t h e ser v i n g p l ay er 's en t i r e b o d y i s seen i n a m ed i u m sh ot , al t h o u gh t h e cam er a m ay f o cu s o n h i s h an d s, o r ev en o n h i s f eet o n t h e b asel i n e. T h i s cr u ci al 'l ast sh o t b ef o r e r et u r n i n g t o C l ' m ay al so sh o w a d et ai l o f t h e o p p o n en t r ecei v i n g ser v e. T h i s st r at egy h ad al r ead y b een u sed i n 19 9 7 an d w as st i l l v er y m u ch p ar t o f t h e b asi c r ep er t o i r e i n 2007. Ev en i f t h e r at i o n al e b eh i n d ed i t i n g i s m o st l y o n t h i s f u n d am en t al al t er n at i o n b et w een t h e t w o p l ay er s, so m e seq u en ces d o seem t o ser v e a p r i m ar i l y aest het ic f u n ct i o n . I n 19 77, f o r ex am p l e, t h er e i s n o h esi t at i o n ab o u t b r eak i n g u p Bo r g's ser v i ce m o v em en t i n t o t h r ee d i st i n ct f r am es - f r o m t h e si d e cl o se- u p ( p r ep ar i n g h i s ar m s) ; f r o m t h e fr on t , m ed i u m d i st an ce ( t h r o w i n g u p t h e b al l ) an d C l ( ser ve an d p l ay ) . T h e i m p r essi o n i s t h at o f t h e cam er a p r o g r essi v el y m o v i n g aw ay f r o m t h e su b ject , f i r st v i a a 9 0 - d egr ee an gl e, f o l l o w ed b y a l i n k sh o t i n t h e r ear ax i s. T h er e m ay i n d eed b e r ed u n d an cy i n t h e t h r ee i m ag es i n t er m s o f i n f o r m a t i on , b u t t h ey p er f ect l y f o st er t h e f l u i d i t y o f t h e m o v em en t b et w een t h e co u r t l ev el an d t h e h i gh sh o t w h i ch i s co n st an t l y u sed f o r t h e v o l l ey s. T h i r t y y ear s l at er , i n 2007, a r et u r n t o C l o ccu r r ed i m m ed i at el y af t er a cl o se- u p o f N ad al 's

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 0 2 h tt p ://s it e . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 0 2 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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ey es as h e t h r ew u p t o b al l t o ser v e. T h i s i s an ex p l o si v e l i n k t h at co r r esp o n d s p er f ect l y t o t h e m ax i m u m i n v est m en t o f en er g y b ei n g ex p en d ed b y t h i s p l ayer . A n o t h er N ad al ser v e l at er i n t h e m at ch w as u sed as a p r et ex t f o r a m o v em en t l i n k i n g t h e ser v er 's sh ad o w t o Fed er er 's r ack et , w i t h t h e sh o t t h en m o v i n g u p t o Fed er er 's f ace b ef o r e g o i n g b ack t o C l . Si m i l ar l y , t h e ed i t i n g can al so b e u sed t o m ag n i f y t h e p sy ch o l o gi cal r eact i o n o f o n e o f t h e p l ay er s, co n st an t l y co m i n g b ack t o i t b y m ean s o f a ser i es o f d i f f er en t sh ot s. W h en M cEn r o e m i ssed a v o l l ey d u r i n g t h e t i e- b r eak i n t h e f o u r t h set o f t h e 19 8 0 f i n al , h i s ex p r essi o n o f v ex at i o n , st ar t i n g w i t h h i s gest u r e t o co v er h i s ey es w i t h b o t h h an d s, w as cu t i n t o sev en co n t i n u o u s sh o t s ( C l , l at er al sh ot , si d e sh ot , d o l l y al o n g t h e n et , C l , cl o se- u p , C l ) . I n 19 9 8 , j u st b ef o r e a v er y t en se m at ch p o i n t ( 14 - 13 i n t h e l ast set !) , t h e ed i t i n g em p h asi sed t h e ex ch an ge o f l o o k s b et w een t h e t w o p l ay er s v i a t w o cl o se- u p s, r ei n f o r ci n g t h e f eel i n g o f an i n t en se p sy ch o l o gi cal d u el ( f i gs. 6-7). F ig u r e 6

F ig u r e

7

B e tw e e n a t t r a c t io n a n d n a r r a t io n - c o n t r a s te d im a g e s o f th e s p e c ta to rs

D u r i n g t h e f i r st b r o ad cast s i n m y st u d y, t h e f o cu s w as m o st l y o n t h e p l ay er s, t h u s r em o v i n g t h e act i o n f r o m t h e act u al co n t ext o f t h e st ad i u m i t sel f t o co n cen t r at e o n t h e p r o t ago n i st s. T h e u m p i r es w er e r ar el y f o cu sed on , w i t h t h e n o t ab l e ex cep t i o n o f 19 77, w h en an o l d er l i n e j u d g e ad o p t ed an u n co m f o r t ab l e, al m o st gr o t esq u e p o si t i o n i n o r d er t o f o l l o w t h e act i o n m o r e cl o sel y (t h e r at i o n al e o f t h e f u n n y i n ser t i o n b ei n g o n e o f at t r ac t io n ) . T h e sam e j u d g e w as sh o w n ag ai n l at er af t er d o u b t s ab o u t t h e v al i d i t y o f a cal l ( t h u s f o l l o w i n g t h i s t i m e t h e r eq u i r e m en t s o f n ar r at io n ) . So m e l o w - an g l e sh o t s t ak en f r o m t h e co u r t sh o w t h e p l ay er agai n st t h e b ack gr o u n d o f t h e sp ect at o r s i n t h e st an d s. T h i s su p er p o si t i o n ef f ect w i t h i n t h e sam e sh o t i s an em b l em at i c r ef er en ce t o t h e d i al ect i c b et w een t h e i n d i v i d u al an d t h e

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 0 3 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 0 3 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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gr o u p , b et w een t h e ch am p i o n an d t h e u n i f o r m cr o w d , t h at i s p l ay ed o u t each t i m e sp o r t i s t u r n ed i n t o sp ect acl e. T h e v i si o n i s b o t h o n e o f cl o se i n t er act i o n (t h e ch am p i o n , w i t h t h e cr o w d co n f er r i n g h er o st at u s o n h i m ) an d o n e t h at i m p o ses a h i er ar ch y (t h e sp o r t i n g b o d y su b su m i n g t h e so ci al b o d y ) . I t can b e o p p o sed t o o t h er p assag es i n w h i ch t h e at h l et es ap p ear t o p l ay i n a cl o sed w o r l d w h er e t h e u m p i r e an d l i n e j u d g es o n l y ap p ear f l eet i n gl y. T h e m aj o r i t y o f sh o t s ar e si t u at ed i n t h e i n t er m ed i ar y zo n e b et w een t h ese t w o ex t r em e si t u at i o n s. T h e r ar e i m ag es o f t h e sp ect at o r s i n 19 77 ( w i d e an d i n d i st i n ct sh o t s o f t h e sam e st an d ) h ad n o p ar t i cu l ar r el at i o n sh i p w i t h t h e gam e o n t h e gr o u n d . Bu t t h e 19 8 0 m at ch (t h e t o p - l ev el g am e b et w een Bj ö r n Bo r g, t h e m o st i m p o r t an t m ed i a st ar o f t en n i s si n ce t h e 19 20 s, an d Jo h n M cEn r o e, w i t h h i s ai r o f a ch ar i s m at i c r eb el an d Bo r g's m ai n r i v al ) co n st an t l y d r ew at t en t i on t o t h e sp ect at o r s' r eact i o n s, w h et h er an o n y m o u s f an s o r t h e p l ay er s' n ear est an d d ear est si t t i n g cl o se t o t h e Royal Box. T h e f an s w er e o n l y f i l m ed b r i ef l y, i n i so l at ed f r am es an d n o t i n cl o se u p . T h ey w er e co n sp i cu o u s t h an k s t o t h ei r n o i sy at t i t u d e an d t h e cl o t h es t h ey w o r e, an d so m e ev en h ad a sp eci al r el at i o n sh i p w i t h t h e m ed i a i t sel f ( w h en t h ey o ccasi o n al l y sp o t t ed t h e cam er a an d st ar ed at it ). So m e w er e f i l m ed sev er al t i m es, b eco m i n g p r o t ago n i st s o f t h e sp ect acl e, l i k e a y o u n g w o m an b r an d i sh i n g a scar f , o r t h r ee M cEn r o e f an s w ear i n g l ace f r i l l s ( fi g. 8). T h ey w er e i n i t i al l y seen d u r i n g t h e f i r st set , an d d u r i n g t h e f o u r t h set t h ey f i r st ex h i b i t ed t h ei r d i sm ay , w h en B o r g t o o k M cEn r o e's ser v e, t h en t h ei r j u b i l at i o n w h en t h ei r ch am p i o n m an ag ed t o eq u al i se af t er a cl assi c t i e b r eak . Fi gu r e 8

T h e b u i l d i n g u p o f su ch a r el at i o n sh i p b et w een t h e sp ect at o r s an d t h e co u r t - a f r eq u en t o ccu r r en ce i n L en i Ri ef en st ah l 's w o r k ( f i gs. 9 - 10 ) 27 - i s ev en gr eat er i f o n e ex am i n es t h e i n t er act i o n b et w een t h e t w o p l ay er s an d t h e st an d w h er e t h ei r t r ai n er s an d f am i l y m em b er s ar e. I n 19 8 0 , at t h e en d o f a set t h at w as easi l y w o n b y M cEn r o e, t w o o v er v i ew s o f t h ei r b o x al t er n at e sy m m et r i cal l y w i t h sh o t s i so l at i n g each p l ay er . Sh o r t l y b ef o r e Bo r g's face ap p ear ed —t er m i n at i n g t h e ser i es — t h e i m ag e f o cu sed o n t h e w o r r i ed ex p r essi o n o f h i s gi r l f r i en d . A p ar t f r o m a f ew b r i ef sh o t s o f h er at k ey m o m en t s o f t h e m at ch , i t w as at t h e en d o f t h e h o t l y co n t est ed f o u r t h set t h at t h e f i l m i n g sy st em at i cal l y ex p l o i t ed t h i s d r am at i c el e-

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 0 4 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 0 4 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

204

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m en t . Po i n t af t er p oi n t , cl o se- u p s p r eced ed o r f o l l o w ed t h e d ev el o p m en t o f t h e gam e, ep i t o m i sed b y t h e an g u i sh ed p o st u r e o f Bo r g's gi r l f r i en d , h er h an d s j o i n ed t o get h er an d ey es sh u t , o r t h e u n i n h i b i t ed cl ap p i n g o f M cEn r o e's fat h er . A t t h e en d o f t h e m at ch , u n l i k e i n 19 77, t h e f i r st i m age af t er t h e m at ch p o i n t w as co n seq u en t l y t h at o f t h e b o x w h er e t h e B o r g cl an w er e r ej o i ci n g. I n 19 9 8 , sh o t s o f t h e sp ect at o r s w er e n ot m o r e sy st em at i c f o r a m at ch o f l ess h i st o r i cal d i m en si o n s, b u t w h er e t h e su sp en se w as j u st as ex t r ao r d i n ar y (t h e l ast set w as ex cep t i o n al l y l o n g) . T h e cl o se- u p i n ser t s o f Ri ch ar d K r aj i cek 's gi r l f r i en d t o o k o n a l ei t m o t i v v al u e, j u st i f i ed n ot o n l y b y h i s d ext er i t y, w h i ch sh e w as ap p l au d i n g ( t h e l ev el o f n ar r at io n ) , b u t al so b y h er st er eo t y p ed b eau t y (t h e l ev el o f at t r ac t io n ) . I t w as n o w m an d at o r y f o r t h e m at ch p o i n t t o b e q u i ck l y f o l l o w ed b y a

p r o l o n ged ex ch an ge o f l o o k s b et w een t h e w i n n er , G o r an I v an i sev i c, an d h i s f at h er , w h o se f i st w as r ai sed . F ig u r e 9

F ig u r e 1 0

T h e f i r st i m age o f t h e sp ect at o r s i n t h e 20 0 7 f i n al r ef l ect ed t h e p ar t i cu l ar l y et h e r eal an d d i st an t n at u r e o f t h e d i sp o si t i v e, w i t h a d egr ee o f m ech an i cal n ess, or ev en d eh u m an i sat i o n . W h en a r em ar k ab l e p o i n t w as i m m ed i at el y f o l l o w ed b y a f r am e sh o w i n g a co m p act cr o w d o f sp ect at o r s cl ap p i n g, t h er e w as t h e f eel i n g t h at a st o ck sh o t h ad b een i n ser t ed t h at h ad n o d i r ect r el at i o n sh i p w i t h t h e ev en t b ei n g r ep r esen t ed . I t cr eat ed a t en si o n b et w een t h i s t y p e o f sh o t an d t h e cl o se- u p s t h at b r o u gh t i n a n u m b er o f an o n y m o u s sp ect at o r s, ei t h er f o r t h ei r eccen t r i c o r t h ei r sed u ct i v e ap p ear an ce. Bu t t h ese ch o sen o n es o n l y ap p ear ed at ex cep t i o n al m o m en t s w h en co m p ar ed w i t h t h e f am o u s p er so n al i t i es p i ck ed o u t w h en t h e cam er a m o v ed t o t h e sp ect at o r s. A p ar t f r o m t h e p r o m i n en t p r esen ce o f p r ev i o u s ch am p i o n s (I sh al l co m e b ack t o t h i s p oi n t ) , t h e k ey r ef er en ce p o i n t s w er e o b v i o u sl y t h e t w o p l ay er s' f am i l i es, w h o w er e w at ch i n g f r o m t h e o f f i ci al st an d . T h ey w er e si n gl ed o u t ear l y o n f o r t h e t el ev i si o n au d i en ce's b en ef i t an d t h ei r r eact i o n s sh o w n at each cr u ci al m o m en t o f t h e m at ch . Em b l em at i c o f t h i s ap p r o ach w as N ad al 's u n cl e- t r ai n er , w h o ch eer ed w h en h i s n ep h ew go t a b r eak p o i n t (f i g. 11) , o r t h e ex cl am at i o n s o f t h e Fed er er cl an w h en t h ei r m an go t b ack

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 0 5 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 0 5 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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F i g u r e 11

o n t o p i n t h e sam e g am e (i n p ar t i cu l ar b y m ean s o f t h e cl assi c i n ser t i o n o f a v er y ex p r essi v e ser i es o f cl o se- u p s o n t h e f ace o f h i s gi r l f r i en d , M i r k a V av r i n ec) . T h ese v ar i o u s p er so n al i t i es i n f act f u n ct i o n as t r an si t i o n al f i gu r es b et w een t h e i n d i st i n ct cr o w d o f sp ect at o r s an d t h e p at en t l y i n d i v i d u al i sed ch am p i o n s - an asp ect t h at i s b r o u gh t o u t b y d i f f er en t v i su al t ech n i q u es. T h u s, a z o o m i n d i st i n gu i sh ed t h e h au g h t y b ear i n g o f an u n k n o w n b eau t y b el o n gi n g t o t h e Fed er er cl an . T h i s cam er a m o v em en t h as t w o co m p l em en t ar y f u n ct i o n s: o n t h e on e h an d , i t s f et i sh i st n at u r e w as i n t en si f i ed b y t h e at t i t u d e o f t h e y o u n g w o m an h er sel f ( h er h an d s w er e n er v o u sl y cl u t ch i n g a b al l ) ( fi g. 12) ; o n t h e o t h er h an d , t h e cam er a m o v em en t d et ach ed t h i s i con i c f r agm en t f r o m t h e cel eb r i t y con t ext o f t h e Ro y al B o x t o i n scr i b e i t as an ar ch et y p e o f sp ect at o r act i v i t y ( h al f t en se, h al f p assi v e) , su p er i m p o sed o n an o v er v i ew o f t h e st ad i u m . M o r eo v er , t h e z o o m o u t w as u sed o n v ar i o u s o ccasi o n s t o u n d er sco r e t h e r el at i o n sh i p s b e t w een cer t ai n p er so n al i t i es si t t i n g am o n g t h e sp ect at o r s an d t h e p l ay er s - f o r ex am p l e, t h e sh o t m o v es b et w een Fed er er 's f at h er an d R af ael N ad al (t o u n d er l i n e t h e an t ago n i sm b et w een t h e t w o cam p s) , o r f r o m Jo h n M cEn r o e i n t h e co m m en t at o r 's b o x t o R o g er Fed er er ( u n d er l i n i n g t h e l i n k s b et w een t w o d i st i n ct gen er at i o n s o f ch am p i o n s) . M o r e p r o sai cal l y , an o t h er cam er a m o v em en t asso ci at ed N ad al 's f ace w i t h t h e o f f i ci al t o u r n am en t l o go , d i sp l ay ed o n a st an d ( fi gs. 13- 14 ) . T h i s z o o m m ay b e i n t er p r et ed i n t w o w ay s. I t m ay b e t ak en t o i n d i cat e t h e o n go i n g i n co r p o r at i o n o f N ad al i n t o t h e h i st o r y o f su ch a p r est i gi o u s ev en t as W i m b l ed o n . O r i t m ay b r i n g o u t h o w t h e f i gu r e o f t h e ch am p i o n i s d i l u t ed i n a p u r e gr ap h i cal effect , t h er eb y st r essi n g t h e ar t ef act n at u r e o f t h e t el ev i si o n sp ect acl e set u p b y t h e d i sp o si t i v e t o w h i ch t h i s sam e cam er a b el o n gs. F ig u r e 1 2

F ig u r e

13

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 0 6 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 0 6 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

F ig u r e

14

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P la y e rs ’ m o v e m e n ts : f r o m

a n a ly s is t o c o m p u t e r a n im a t io n

T h e w a y t h e p l ay er s ar e si m u l t an eo u sl y f i l m ed f r o m al l p o ssi b l e an gl es l ead s t o an ex h au st i v e (i n b o t h sen ses o f t h e t er m ) m ed i at i z i n g o f t h e sp o r t sm en 's b o d i es. D u r i n g a p au se at t h e b egi n n i n g o f t h e f o u r t h set , N ad al w as f i l m ed si t t i n g o n h i s ch ai r an d w as su ccessi v el y i t em i zed b y m ean s o f v ar i o u s l at er al sh ot s, ev en i n cl u d i n g t h e p er so n al i sed m o t i f s d eco r at i n g t h e h eel s o f h i s sh o es (a 'R af a' l o go an d a st y l i sed b u l l ) . T h e n ext sh o t l i n k ed t h ese f i gu r es t o an i n scr i p t i on on Fed er er 's b ag i n h o n o u r o f h i s f o u r p r ev i o u s W i m b l ed o n v i ct o r i es. T h i s i n si st en ce o n t h e r el at i o n b et w een t h e d i f f er en t f acet s o f sp o r t i n g act i v i t y ( fr om t h e per son a t o t h e r eco r d o f ach i ev em en t ) an d t h e p r o d u ct s o f i t s co m m er ci al i sa t i o n can al so b e seen i n an o t h er em b l em at i c i m ag e w h er e a cam er a z o o m ed t o w ar d s t h e sco r eb o ar d an d f o cu sed o n a p ar t i cu l ar n u m b er . T h e n u m b er g r a d u al l y b ecam e d i sco n n ect ed f r o m i t s i n d i cat i v e v al u e as p ar t o f t h e sco r e an d en d ed u p b y ex i st i n g i n i t s o w n r i gh t - an i n cr easi n gl y b l u r r ed i m age o u t o f w h i c h o n e o f t h e t w o f i n al i st s su d d en l y ap p ear ed , t h an k s t o y et an o t h er zo o m o u t ( f i gs. 15- 18 ) . Fi g u r e 15

Fi g u r e 16

Su ch an i m age can b e i n t er p r et ed as t h e sp o n t an eo u s sy m b o l o f t h e o b j ect i vi si n g p r o cess t h at h ad g r ad u al l y b een t ak i n g o v er t h e f i l m ed ev en t s u n d er t h e i n f l u en ce o f t h ei r v i r t u al i z at i o n . W h er eas i n 19 8 0 t h e j u x t ap o si t i o n w i t h i n t h e

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 0 7 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 0 7 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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sam e i m age o f a p l ay er an d t h e sco r eb o ar d co u l d st i l l si g n i f y a r eal in sit u ex p er i en ce, t h e u se o f t h e sam e i m age i n t h e d i gi t al t el ev i si o n er a co m es f ace t o f ace w i t h an o t h er d i m en si o n o f t h e scr een . T h e T V i m age i s n o w sat u r at ed w i t h m u l t i p l e i n cr u st at i o n s t h at co n st an t l y r et u r n t o a t ab u l ar , sy n t h et i c an d al m o st sp at i al i z ed v i si o n o f t h e m at ch i t sel f , b y h i gh l i gh t i n g n o t o n l y t h e ch an ges t o t h e scor e, b u t al so v ar i o u s st at i st i cs - t h e n u m b er o f aces, d o u b l e f au l t s, p o i n t s gai n ed v o l l ey i n g, w i n n i n g r et u r n s, t r an sf o r m ed b r eak s, an d so o n ( f i gs. 19 -20 ) . T h e w ay i n w h i ch t h e f l o w ch ar act er i st i c o f sp o r t o n t el ev i si o n h as p r o g r essi v el y b eco m e r eco n f i gu r ed b y m ean s o f t h e st o ck o f i m ages t h at i t co n t i n u al l y gen er at es can st i l l b e i d en t i f i ed at an o t h er l ev el : t h e f act t h at sl o w - m o t i o n r ep l ay s ar e co n t i n u al l y b ei n g sh o w n f r o m v ar i o u s n o v el an gl es. F ig u r e

19

F ig u r e 2 0

T h e j o u r n al i st s w h o i n t er v i ew ed G o d ar d p u t f o r w ar d sev er al r easo n s ex p l ai n i n g w h y so m e sp ect at o r s p r ef er t h e t el ev i si o n scr een t o t h e st ad i u m . I t m ay b e t h at t h ey l i k e b ei n g ab l e t o see t h e act i o n o v er ag ai n an d t h u s b et t er u n d er st an d t h an k s t o t h e sl o w - m o t i o n r ep l ay s sh o w n d u r i n g t h e b r o ad cast s.28 I t m ay al so b e t h e d esi r e t o see b et t er t h an k s t o cl o se- u p s o r t h e u se o f sl o w m o t i o n .29 I n t h ei r ex am p l es, t h e j o u r n al i st s ar e u n d er l i n i n g o n e o f t h e p r i m e f u n ct i o n s at t r i b u t ed t o i m ages i n t h ei r r el at i o n sh i p t o h u m an m o v em en t . T h e cam er a - a m e ch an i cal m ean s o f r eco r d i n g w i t h i n d ex i cal v al u e - p r o v i d es t h e sp o r t s sp eci al i st s w i t h t h e m ean s t o st u d y o r ch eck cer t ai n gest u r es. Reco r d ed f i l m p r o v i d es an ex t er i o r v i ew t h at d i v i d es u p m o v em en t , t h u s al l o w i n g f o r a m o r e p r eci se v i si o n . I t m ay h el p an al y si s b y m ean s o f r ep et i t i o n , sl o w m o t i o n o r f r eez e f r am es. T h i s f u n ct i o n go es b ack t o t h e v er y o r i gi n s o f ci n em at o gr ap h i c t ech n i q u e, w h i ch w as f i r st p er f ect ed at t h e en d o f t h e 18 70 s t o ser v e as an an al y t i cal i n st r u m en t i n E d w ar d M u y b r i d g e's, Et i en n e- Ju l es M ar ey 's an d G eo r ges D em en y 's p h y si o l o gi cal st u d i es o f an i m al an d h u m an m o v em en t . D em en y w as o n e o f t h e p i o n eer s o f gy m n ast i cs i n Fr an ce an d l at er p l ay ed a f u n d am en t al r ol e i n t h e r at i o n al st u d y o f gest u r e, t o b o t h u t i l i t ar i an an d aest h et i c en d s.30 T h er e i s an an ecd o t al b u t p er h ap s r ev eal i n g f act co n cer n i n g t h e l o cat i o n o f t h e S t at io n P h y s io lo g iq u e w h er e M ar ey an d D em en y st ar t ed w o r k i n g i n 18 8 2: i t

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 0 8 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 0 8 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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co r r esp o n d ed ex act l y t o t h e l o cat i o n w h er e t h e Ro l an d - G ar r o s st ad i u m w as b u i l t ( an d w h en i t w as en l ar ged at t h e en d o f t h e 19 70 s, t h e v est i ges o f t h e M ar ey I n st i t u t e, w h i ch h ad co n t i n u ed w i t h t h e w o r k o f t h e St at ion, w er e d e st r o y ed ) .31 W h en t ech n i cal m o v em en t s ar e st u d i ed o r t au gh t i n sp o r t , ci n em at o gr ap h i c m et h o d s ( ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h i cal an al y si s, u se o f sl o w m ot i on ) ar e oft en u sed , i n sp i r ed i n p ar t i cu l ar b y D em en y 's r esear ch at t h e Ecole m il it air e i n Jo i n v i l l e ( sp eci al i sed i n so l d i er s' p h y si c al ed u cat i o n ) ,32 o r t h e d i sco v er i es M ar ey 's su ccesso r s m ad e ab o u t sl o w m o t i o n . W h en o n e st u d i es Fr en ch sp o r t s m ag a z i n es i n t h e 19 10 s an d 19 20 s, o n e f i n d s t h at ef f o r t s ar e al w ay s t ak en t o p r o v i d e v i su al ex p l i cat i o n s o f m o v em en t b y m ean s o f sp at i al i z at i o n , r esu l t i n g i n ex t r a o r d i n ar y p ag e l ay o u t s t h at h av e b o t h aest h et i c an d d i d act i c v al u e. T en n i s r eg u l ar l y ap p ear s am o n g t h e sp o r t s h i gh l i gh t ed b y su ch 'st y l i st i c' st u d i es ( fi g. 21) . D u r i n g t h e 19 20 s, t h e at t i t u d es an d gest u r es o f t h e gr eat st ar o f w o m en 's t en n i s, Su z an n e L en gl en , w h o w as seen as a v er i t ab l e d an cer ,33 w er e set o u t as a ser i es o f su ccessi v e i m ag es r em i n i scen t o f ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h i c p l at es ( f i g. 22) .34 N o w ad ay s, sci en t i f i c st u d i es o f gest u r e co n st an t l y u se m o d es o f an al y si s t h at h av e b een i n h er i t ed f r o m su ch t ech n i q u es o f b r eak i n g d o w n gest u r e. Fo r ex am p l e, i n t en si v e u se o f m o t i o n cap t u r e al l o w s al l t h e d at a o f a m o v em en t t o b e r eco r d ed , i n o r d er t o i m p r o v e f u t u r e p er f o r m an ce - a d i r ect ex t en si o n o f t h e u t i l i t ar i an ai m s ad v o cat ed m o r e t h an a cen t u r y ago b y G eo r ges D em en y . Fi g u r e z i . L a V i e au G r a n d A i r , 15 n o vem br e 19 13

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 0 9 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 0 9 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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F ig u r e 2 2 .

209

Le M iroir des Sports, 19 o c t o b r e 1926 H MMI»X»nun

L E S D ÉBU T S. S L R

L E S C O U R T S D A M E R I O U E . D E SU Z A N N E L E N G I E N

P R E M IE R E JO U E U S E E T P R E M IE R E D A N SE U SE D E T E N N IS D U M O N D E

A s m y W i m b l ed o n co r p u s sh o w s, t h i s an al y t i cal act i v i t y i s t ak i n g an ev er m o r e i m p o r t an t p l ace i n co n t em p o r ar y b r o ad cast s o f t en n i s. I t f i r st st em m ed ex cl u si v el y f r o m t h e aest h et i c an d t ech n i cal ai m s t h at co n d i t i o n ed i t s u ses. T h e o n l y sl o w - m o t i o n seq u en ce sh o w n i n t h e 19 77 gam e ( a ser i es o f sh o t s b y Bo r g, f i l m ed f r o m t h e f r o n t an d t ak en f r o m a p r ev i o u s p ar t o f t h e gam e) d o es n o t ai m t o p i n p o i n t a cer t ai n p h ase o f t h e gam e, b u t t o b r i n g o u t Bo r g's t ech n i cal t al en t an d gr ace. T h e f act t h at t h e sl o w - m o t i o n seq u en ces sh o w n d u r i n g t h e 19 8 0 f i n al ( f o u r i n al l , ex c l u si v el y f o r an al y t i cal p u r p o ses) ar e v i su al l y i n t egr at ed b y m ean s o f v er y n o t i ceab l e w i p es i l l u st r at es t h e d esi r e t o d et er m i n e t h e l i m i t s o f t h ese i n t er v en t i o n s t h at b r eak w i t h t h e ch r o n o l o gi cal d ev el o p m en t o f t h e m at ch . W h en w e l o o k at t h e 19 9 8 i m ages, w e ar e i m m ed i at el y t r an sp o r t ed i n t o an o t h er u n i v er se, r eg u l ar l y i n t er r u p t ed b y r ep l ay s p r o d u ced b y t h e co m b i n at i o n o f al l p o ssi b l e cam er a an gl es an d L SM m ag n i f y i n g gl asses. T h e 18 0 - d egr ee r u l e i s n o l o n ger r el ev an t . O n e ex am p l e am o n g d o z en s i s a sp ect acu l ar v o l l ey p l ay ed b y I v an i sev i c, sh o w n t h r ee t i m es af t er w ar d s f r o m d i f f er en t an gl es: C l an d t w o o p p o si t e p o si t i o n s. T h i s asso ci at i o n b et w een a b r o k en f l o w o f t i m e t h at co n st an t l y l o o p s b ack o n i t sel f an d a sp at i al p er cep t i o n t h at i s co n t i n u al l y p u t i n q u est i o n d o es i n d eed p r o d u ce t h e i m p r essi o n o f a cer t ai n p er cep t i v e co n f u si o n . Bu t b o t h ech o t h e

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 1 0 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 1 0 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

210

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m o d es o f r h y t h m i cal st r u ct u r i n g t h at h av e al r ead y b een t r i ed o u t i n cer t ai n av an t - gar d e co n cep t i o n s o f ci n em a. T h e f i r st f i l m t h eo r i st s (i n p ar t i cu l ar t h e Fr en ch f i l m m ak er s Jean Ep st ei n an d G er m ai n e D u l ac) , w h o w er e i n f l u en ced b y Ber gso n 's co n cep t i o n s o f i n n er d u r at i o n , em p h asi sed l o n g ag o ci n em a's p r o p er t y o f p u t t i n g f o r w ar d a n ew f o r m o f d i sco n t i n u o u s an d f r agm en t ed t em p o r al i t y b y u si n g i t s sp eci f i c m ean s o f r ep r esen t at i o n . M ak i n g d u e al l o w an ces an d b ear i n g i n m i n d t h e v er y d i f f er en t aest h et i c co n t ext s, t h er e i s i n d eed a l o gi c o f t h i s t y p e i n t h e seq u en ces o f v ar i ed an d m u l t i p l e sl o w - m o t i o n sh o t s w h i ch n o w f o l l o w t h e sm al l est p i ece o f act i o n o n t h e t en n i s cou r t , n o t t o m en t i o n t h e f i l m i n g o f gest u r es w i t h aest h et i c v al u e, t h e p l ay er s' w ar l i k e o r f r u st r at ed at t i t u d es an d t h e ex p l o si v e r eact i o n s o f t h ei r cl an s. A n y gr eat sp o r t i n g ev en t seek s t o g o b ey o n d i t s o w n l i m i t ed t i m e f r am e an d t ak e i t s p l ace i n t h e m y t h o l o gi cal h i st o r y o f t h e gr eat acco m p l i sh m en t s o f t h e p ast . T h e 20 0 7 W i m b l ed o n f i n al p r o v i d es a cl ear ex am p l e i n t h e f i l m i n g o f R o ger Fed er er eq u al l i n g Bj ö r n B o r g's p h en o m en al r eco r d ( f i v e co n secu t i v e v i c t or i es) . W e n o t e t h e p r esen ce - l o n g d w el t o n b y t h e cam er as — o f f o r m er ch am p i o n s: Ji m m y C o n n o r s an d Jo h n M cEn r o e i n t h e co m m en t ar y b o x es, Bo r i s Beck er an d ab o v e al l Bo r g h i m sel f am o n g t h e sp ect at o r s. B o r g i s co n st an t l y as so ci at ed w i t h t h e d ay 's ch am p i o n , n o t o n l y b y m ean s o f l i n k sh o t s b et w een t h ei r r esp ect i v e f aces ( o b v i o u sl y b ef o r e an d af t er t h e ch am p i o n sh i p p o i n t t h at g i v es Fed er er h i s w i n , w h er e h i s t ear s o f j o y st an d i n co n t r ast t o t h e f o r m er st ar 's d i s i l l u si o n ed sm i l e) , b u t al so b y d i f f er en t m o d es o f co m p ar i so n b et w een t h e t w o m en w i t h i n t h e sam e i m age, w h et h er succession b r o u gh t ab o u t b y a z o o m m o v i n g d o w n f r o m t h e st an d t o t h e cou r t , o r sp l i t - scr een ju x t aposi t ion ( co m p ar i n g t h ei r r esp ect i v e f o r eh an d s i n sl o w m ot i on ) . Co - p r esen ce i n t h e f r am e i s al so u sed f o r o t h er sl o w - m o t i o n sh o t s ai m i n g t o co m p ar e Fed er er 's ser v e w i t h t h at o f Pet e Sam p r as, t h e gr eat ch am p i o n o f t h e 19 9 0 s. T h i s i s w h en t h e v i r t u al i m ag e ap p ear s f o r t h e f i r st t i m e i n t h e co r p u s. A n al y ses o f t h e Fed er er ser v e, an d l at er o f t h e N ad al r et u r n , ar e p r esen t ed as co m p u t er an i m at i o n s o f t h e t r aj ect o r i es an d p o i n t s o f i m p act . O n ce t h e 'r eal ' m o v em en t h as b een r ep r o d u ced , t h e b al l s f r eez e i n m o v em en t , an d t h e v i e w p o i n t m o v es t o w ar d s a h i gh - an gl e p o si t i o n , t h u s g i v i n g a geo m et r i cal p er cep t i on . T h ese m et h o d s ar e i n t er est i n g as t h ey g i v e t h e o p p o r t u n i t y o f v i su al i si n g t h e p ar am et er s t h at ar e n o t o n l y i n v i si b l e t o t h e n ak ed ey e, b u t al so t o 't r ad i t i o n al ' cam er as, ev en t h e m o st p r eci se m o d el s. Pr ev i o u sl y , i n 19 9 8 , sl o w - m o t i o n r ep l ay s o f i m ag es r eco r d ed b y t h e cam er a w er e o n l y u sed as f o o t age f o r a d e b at e b et w een co m m en t at o r s an d t el ev i si o n au d i en ces. Bu t i n t h e 20 0 7 f i n al , a n o v el sy st em ch eck i n g b al l i m p act s w as i n t r o d u ced , b ased o n t h e p r i n ci p l es o f d i gi t al r eco n st i t u t i o n o u t l i n ed ab o v e. T h e H aw k Ey e sy st em w as d ev el o p ed b y Pau l H aw k i n s an d u ses 10 au x i l i ar y cam er as. I t h as b een r eco gn i sed b y t h e t en n i s au t h o r i t i es as a t o o l cap ab l e o f o v er co m i n g t h e l i m i t at i o n s o f h u m an p er cep -

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 1 1 h t t p :/ /s ite . e b ra ry .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 1 1 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

F r o m B ro a d c a s t P e rfo rm a n c e t o V ir tu a l S h o w

t i o n w h en t h er e ar e co n t est ed p o i n t s35 an d h as t h u s r ev i v ed t h e sci en t i st i c d i s co u r se o f t h e seco n d h al f o f t h e 19 t h cen t u r y (t h e u r g e t o 'see t h e i n v i si b l e as p ect s' o f li fe) , w h i ch f i n al l y l ed t o t h e em er gen ce o f ci n em a. I t i s k n o w n as t h e 'C h al l en g e P l ay er Sy st em ' an d i s al so av ai l ab l e t o p l ay er s. I t s i n t r u si o n i n t o t h e sp ace o f t h e gam e i n d i cat es an i m p o r t an t m o m en t o f t r an si t i o n w h er e t h e sec on dar y di sposit i ve i t sel f f i n al l y r eco n f i gu r es t h e pr i m ar y sp ace o f t h e st ad i u m .

T h i s d i gi t al m o d el l i n g o f t h e co u r t f u n ct i o n s au t o n o m o u sl y , i n v o l v i n g n ei t h er t h e p l ay er s n o r t h e u m p i r es an d j u d ges, an d d el i v er s a d ef i n i t i v e v er d i ct ( 'I n ' or 'O u t ') t h at ap p ear s b o t h o n t h e co u r t an d t h e t el ev i si o n scr een ( f i gs. 23- 25) . I t i s al so sh o w n o n t h e gi an t scr een p r esen t i n m o st st ad i u m s, t h u s m ak i n g t h e sl o w m o t i o n r ep l ay s accessi b l e t o sp ect at o r s i n t h e st an d s, an d i n so m e cases t o t h e p l ay er s. W h en Ro ger Fed er er ap p eal ed t o t h e u m p i r e f o r a d eci si o n f r om t h i s sy st em d u r i n g t h e f o u r t h set o f t h e 20 0 7 f i n al , h i s d esp er at e p l ea r ev eal ed t h e ab su r d i m age o f an i m p o t en t h u m an p l ay er . A t f i r st si gh t , t h ese r em ar k s seem t o j u st i f y Jean - L u c G o d ar d 's l am en t at i o n s, b u t o n e sh o u l d n o t f o r get t h at t h i s o b j ect i v i si n g o f t h e h u m an b o d y i s n o t so m u ch a r egr essi o n p r o p er t o co n t em p o r ar y cu l t u r e as t h e co m p l et i o n o f a p r o cess b eg u n at t h e en d o f t h e 19 t h cen t u r y, a p r o cess i n w h i c h o n e o f t h e k ey r o l es w as p l ay ed b y f i l m . Fi g u r e 23

Fi g u r e 24

Fi g u r e 25

N o te s

1. 2.

3.

'Jean -Lu c God ar d . L e ci n ém a m ent , p as le spor t ', i n t er vi ew w i t h Jér ôm e Bur eau and Benoît H ei m er m ann , L'Équipe, 9 M ay 2001, p. 9. 'I r ecen t ly w en t to t he Lau san n e m eet i ng because I w an t ed t o see Gab r i el a Szabo ... I h ar d ly saw her, bu t I w as gl ad to obser ve. M y recollect i on, as par t i al as i t is, is st ronger t han all t he t i m es I'd seen her on t he t elevi si on .' Ibid. In h i s fi lm ed self-port r ai t JLG/ JLG (1994), God ar d even p or t r ays h i m sel f as a t enni s pl ayer du r i n g sever al discon t i n uous exchanges. H e p l ays i n par t i cul ar on t he d ou ble m ean i n g o f a quot at i on fr om Faulk n er 's Requi em for a N un : 'Th e past i s n ever

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 1 2 h tt p ://s it e . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 1 2 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

212

4. 5. 6. 7.

8.

9.

10. it.

12.

13.

14.

15.

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dead, i t's n ot even p assed ', h u m or ou sly r elat i ng i t to h i t t i n g - or bei n g on t he r ecei v i n g end of - a p assi n g shot . 'Jean -Lu c God ar d ', op. cit., p. 9. Ibid. See, i n par t icular, 'O n t ologi e de l 'i m age ph ot ogr aph i qu e', r epr i n t ed in Qu'est -ce que le cinéma?, Par i s: Cer f, 1999 [ 1975; r educt ion of t he 1958 edit ion] , pp. 9-17. God ar d h i m sel f m ak es t hi s link . To t he quest i on 'Per h ap s on e can n ot fi lm spor t ?', h e r epli es: 'Th at 's p r obably so ... D an ce i s di ffi cult to fi lm ...' '] ean -Luc God ar d. Le ci nem a m ent , p as le sport ", op. cit., p. 9. See Joh n M ueller, 'T h e Fi lm ed D an ces of Fr ed A st ai r e', Quart erly Review of Film St u dies, sp r i n g 19 81, pp. 135- 154 , an d Ast air e D ancing The M usical Films, N ew Yor k : A l fr ed A . Kn opf, 1985. L ev Koulech ov, 'L a ban n i èr e du ci n ém at ogr aph e' [ 1920], Écrit s ( 19 17-19 34) , L au sanne: L 'A ge d'h om m e, 1994, pp. 38-39 [ Françoi s A l ber a, Ek at er i n a K h ok h lova and Val ér i e Pozner, eds.]; Slavk o Vor k api ch , O pravom fil m u/ O n t rue cinema, Belgr ade: Fak ult et D r am sk i h U m et nost i , 1998, pp. 227-232. Ber n ar d Loi seui l, Football et t élévision, Par i s: Ed. Tekhné, 1992; Jacqu es Bloci szew sk i , Le match defoot ball t élévisé, Ren nes: Edi t i on s A p ogée, 2007. See, i n par t icular, D an i el D ayan an d Eli h u Kat z, M edia Event s: The Live Broadcast ing of H ist ory, Cam br i dge, M A : H ar var d U n i ver si t y Pr ess, 1992, an d Pi er r e Gabast on and Ber n ar d Lecont e (eds.), Sport et t élévision (Regards croisés), Par i s: L'H ar m at t an , 2000. For a h i st ori cal per spect i ve, see Pi er re Si m onet an d Lau r en t V ér ay (eds.), M on trer le sport : phot ographie, cinéma, t élévision, Par i s: I nsti t ut n at i onal du spor t et de l'éducat i on ph ysi qu e, 2001. For an over vi ew of t hi s per spect i ve, see t he ar t icles i n Fr édér i c Bai llet t e an d Jean M ar i e Broh m (eds.), Cr it ique de la modernit é sport ive, Par i s: Les Edi t i ons de la Passion , 1995 'Th ese less i nt ense m om en t s n on et heless ar e an i n t egral par t of t he m at ch such as it is exper i en ced i n t he st adi um . Th ey ar e n ot t h em selves t he w ast age, t he li feless lull t hat t hey h ave becom e for t he au d i ovi su al m edi a. O n t he cont rary, i t i s ali ve, bu t the pr oducer t hi nks t hat h e cann ot u se it, so for hi m it 's w ast ed t i m e ... The m ore slow m ot ion r ep lays i n t r oduced b y t he pr odu cer t here are, t he m or e t he m at ch becom es a creati on an d an au d i ovi su al p r o d u ct ... A n d yet , t here i s anot her, less sophi st i cat ed w ay of fi lm i n g, but w h i ch for u s bet t er r espect s foot ball'. Jacqu es Bloci szew sk i , op. cit., p. 47. Th i s i s t he per spect i ve devel op ed i n par t i cul ar b y Geor ges Vi gar el lo, w h o em ph a si ses t hat t elevi si on di scour se 'd oes n ot enable one t o "see bet t er ", i t cr eat es a n ew w ay of seei n g.' 'L e m ar at h on ent re bi t um e et écr an ', in Communicat ions, 67, Par i s, 1998, p. 215 [Le Spect acle du sport ]. Th e h ypot h esi s h as also oft en been espou sed b y Gu i ll au m e Soulez, 'L 'i m age en expan si on . Plai si r de la r et r an sm i ssi on spor t i ve et en jeux est hét i ques', M édiaM orphoses, no. 11, pp. 41- 46 [Le sport médiatisé, du voir au savoir]. Th e Ber li n O lym pi c Gam es of 19 36 non et heless led t o on e of t he fi rst , em br yon i c exper i m ent s i n br oadcast i n g com pet i t i ons on t elevi sion. M an ol o Rom er a and Ed uar d o Gavi lán , Broadcast ing the Olympics, O lym pi c M useum 's Exhi bi t i on Cat alo gues, 20 O ct ober 1998-18 A p r i l 1999, p. 92.

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 1 3 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 1 3 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

F r o m B ro a d c a s t P e rfo rm a n c e t o V ir tu a l S h o w

16.

17.

18. 19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

213

T ayl or D ow n i n g, Olympia, Lon don : Br it i sh Fi lm Inst it ut e, 1992, pp. 33-48. See also 'H en r y Jaw or sk y, Cam er am an for Len i Ri efenst ah l I n t er vi ew ed b y Gor d on H i t ch ens, K i r k Bond an d Joh n H an h ar d t ', i n Film Cult ure, 56-57, sp r i n g 19 73, pp. 122-128. Th i s r ai sed vi ew p oi n t h as lon g been par t of the i m agi n at i ve w or l d of t he m odern O lym pi cs, w h er e t he st adi u m m ust be per cei ved as a w h ole en t it y b y t he per son w at ch i n g it. A t t he begi n n i n g of t he cent ury, peop le sough t to h ave vi ew s from ab ove and fr om t he t ops of t he st adi um s, b y placi n g cam er as on t ow er s or on fai r gr oun d at tr act ions, such as t he Fli p-Flap of t he Fr an co-Br i t i sh Exh ibi t i on of Lon don i n 1908, n ext t o t he st adi um w h er e t he O lym pi c Gam es t ook place t hat year. O n this i ssue an d t he plu r i focal d i sposi t i ve of Olympia, see t he ri ch i con ogr aph y assem bled i n Lau r en t Gu i d o and H aver Gi an n i , La M ise en scène du corps sport if, de la Belle Epo que à l 'A ge des Ext rêmes / Spot light ing the Sport ing Body, fr om the Belle Epoque to the A ge o f Ext remes, Lau san n e: O lym pi c M useum , 2002, pp. 9 8- 117. 'Jean -Lu c God ar d ', op. cit., p. 9. I h ave ch osen not to l ook i n det ai l at t he quest i on of soun d for w an t of space - and m or e speci fi cal ly jou r n ali st s' an d con sult an t s' l i ve com m en t ar i es du r i n g pr act i cal ly all spor t s br oadcast s. Th i s clear l y t ak es n ot h in g aw ay fr om t he ob vi ous i m por t ance of such ver bal di scour ses, on bot h t he sem an t i c an d expr essi ve si des, or t he r h yt h m i c si de i n t he con st ruct i on of dr am at i c t ensi on an d t he spect acular n at ur e of the event . D avi d Row e gi ves a soun d h i st or i ogr aph i cal over vi ew : 'Scr een i n g t he act ion: The M ovi n g Spor t I m age', i n Sport , Cult ur e and the M edia The U nr uly Trinity, pp. 185-189. H e r efer s i n par t i cular to st u di es b y Gar r y W hannel, Fields in Vision: Television Sport and Cult ural Transformation, Lon don: Rout ledge, 1992 an d Joh n Gold lu st , Playing for Keeps: Sport, the M edia and Society, M elbourn e: Lon gm an Ch eshi r e, 1987. The jou r n ali st O li vi er Joyar d clai m s t hat t he slow n ess i s si m i lar to a 'r esi st i n g form : r esi st i ng t he speed of ot her spor t s, w h i ch - som et i m es to t he poi n t of fun dam en t al ly ch an gi n g t he r ules (basket ball an d A m er i can foot ball) - follow t he gen er al u lt r a qui ck and sp asm od i c flow of ot her pr ogr am m es; r esi st i n g t he aver si on to t he v a cuum t hat gover n s t he con t em por ar y spect acle i n general. For bor edom , dur at i on an d slow suspen se r em ai n t he basi s of t he gam e'. 'D r am at u r gi e d u t ennis', Cahiers du cinéma, no. 548, Ju l y-A u gu st 2000, r epri n t ed i n Th i er r y Jousse (éd.), Le goût de la t élévision, Par i s: Cah i er s d u Ci n ém a, pp. 607-610. Ser ge D aney, L'Am at eur de t ennis. Crit iques 1980-1990, Par i s: P.O .L., 1994. A ccor d i n g t o M i chel Ch i on , t enni s r epr esen t s 'acoust i c spor t p ar excellence' becau se of the space gi ven b y som ew h at laconi c com m ent at or s t o back gr oun d n oi ses: L ’audio-vision Son et image au cinéma, Par i s: N at han, 1990, pp. 134- 136 . A s not ed b y France Télévision pr odu cer Fr an çoi se Boulai n i n Joyar d , i bid., p 608. She t hen [2000] r eck on ed t hat com par ed t o En gli sh or even A m er i can br oadcast s, 't h e r esour ces avai labl e [to her] ar e i m m en se'. The fi gu r e quot ed i n clu des cam er as avai l able for cor r i dor i n t er vi ew s. The fi gu r e i llust r at i n g Joyar d 's ar t icle (Ibi d., p. 609) r eveals t he pr esen ce of a C i cam era t hat en t i r ely cover s t he cour t from t he t op of one of t he st an ds sit uat ed alon g t he w i d t h , at t he p layer s' back s. A l l t he ot her vi ew p oi n t s ar e used once t he ex ch an ges ar e over ; 'Th e m om ent t he ball h as st opped m ovi n g, m ost of t he t i m e the ot her t hirt een cam er as st ar t fi lm i n g'.

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 1 4 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 1 4 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

214

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30. 31. 32.

33.

34. 35.

L a u r e n t G u id o

Th e fi r st t w o m at ches ar e avai labl e on D V D , pr odu ced b y t he Br i t i sh L aw n Tenni s A ssoci at i on, u si n g t he BBC br oadcast s. The 2007 fi nal w as recor ded on BBCi . The 1998 fi nal w as r ecor ded on Eur ospor t Fr ance. Th us, t he begi n n i n g of t he fi lm i n g fr om a ver y h i gh vi ew p oi n t of a spect at or w at ch i n g t he m at ch, as i f alone, or t he w i d e m ovem en t s of t he cam er a goi n g fr om the cloud y sk y to t he court . In O l y m p i a (Ri efenstahl, 1938), a r elat i on shi p of t hi s t yp e i s con st ruct ed bet w een a fem ale spect at or and t he expl oi t s o f Jesse O w en s, or bet w een A d ol f H i t ler an d the pr ow ess of a Ger m an at hlet e. God ar d acqui esces r eluct an t ly: 'i n or der t o st u d y per h aps, bu t t hat sup poses t hat it w as suffi ci en t ly w el l fi lm ed at t he st art . But i f on e i s pr esent , w h y see it agai n ?' 'Jean -Luc God ar d ', op. cit., p. 9. God ar d ret ort s: 'T h ey do n ot t r y to fi n d t he t rut h of t hi ngs, t hey look for t he gl or y of the even t ". M or e generally, he con dem n s i n fai r ly con ven t ional fash ion t he place occupi ed b y st ar dom an d m on ey i n t he spor t i n g m i li eu. Ibid. Lau r en t M an n on i , M ar c de Fer r ière an d Pau l D em en ÿ, Georges Demenÿ, Pionnier du cinéma, D ouai : Ci n ém at h èque fr an çai se an d Pagin e/ U n i ver si t é d e Li l le 3,19 9 7. Lau r en t M an non i, Et ienne-Jides M ar ey: la mémoire de l'œil, M i lan an d Par i s: G. M azzot t a, Ci n ém at hèque fr ançai se and M usée d u ci ném a, 1999, pp. 174-184. A s w as poi nt ed ou t b y an offi cer at t hi s school i n 19 13: 'N ot h i n g can gi ve a bet t er i dea t han t hese docum ent s of t he var i ou s p h ases of m ovem en t , w h i ch escape even the m ost pr act i sed eye. Th ese sci ent i fi c t ecni ques, w h en ad apt ed to sport , ar e cap able of h elp i n g t hose t r ai n i ng to m ak e h u ge pr ogr ess'. Lieut en an t Rocher, 'L e labor at oi re de l’Ecole de Jo i n vi l le', La Vie au Gr and A ir , no. 768, 7 Ju n e 19 13, p. 423. 'Su zan n e Len glen h as m an aged to com bine ch or eogr aph i c art an d t he ar t of t ennis. H er p l ayi n g i s a con t in ual dan ce w i t h count less fi gur es an d ceaseless var i at i on s.' Le M ir oir des sport s, no. 34 0 ,19 O ct ober 1926, p. 296. 'L a ci n ém at ogr aph i e de son jeu ', La Vie au Gr and A ir , no. 852, M ar ch -A pr i l 1920, pp. 6-7. Kat e Bat t ersby, 'H aw k Eye Gi ves W i m bledon a N ew L ook ' [The O ffi ci al W eb Site, W i m bledon 2007, 7 June, 2007, .

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 1 5 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 1 5 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

T h e L e c tu r e r , th e Im a g e , th e M a c h in e a n d th e A u d io -S p e c ta to r T h e V o ic e as a C o m p o n e n t P a r t o f A u d io v is u a l D is p o s itiv e s

A l ai n Boillat

W h en o n e ex am i n es t h e v ar i o u s u ses t h at w er e m ad e o f so u n d b ef o r e t al k i n g f i l m s b ecam e t h e gen er al r u l e an d t h at h av e b een r ecen t l y b r o u gh t t o l i gh t b y r esear ch i n t o t h e ar ch aeo l o gy an d h i st o r y o f t h e ci n em a b y sch o l ar s su ch as Jac q u es Per r i au l t , G i u sy Pi san o o r Ri ck A l t m an , o n e i s st r u ck b y t h e f act t h at t h e co - p r esen ce o f a v o i ce an d a v i su al r ep r esen t at i o n 1 m ak es u p o n e o f t h e m aj o r h al l m ar k s o f 'c i n em a',2 w h et h er o n e ex t en d s o n e's ep i st em o l o gi cal v i ew p o i n t t o co v er ear l i er sp ect acl es, t h e t ech n o l o gi es t h en av ai l ab l e, o r t h e t an gl e o f cu l t u r al seq u en ces t o w h i c h ci n em a - i n i t s v ar i o u s d i sg u i ses - b el o n ged . T h e i n t er est t h at ear l y ci n em a h i st o r i an s su ch as G er m ai n L acasse h av e sh o w n o v er t h e l ast d ecad e f o r t h e f i gu r e o f t h e l ect u r er 3 ( k n o w n i n f r an co p h o n e h i st o r i o g r ap h y as t h e bon im en t eu r - t h e sm o o t h t al k er o r 'b ar k er ') 4 i s t h e si gn o f a n ew w a y o f co n cei v i n g o f t h i s p er i o d an d a d esi r e t o r eh ab i l i t at e n ot j u st t h e v o cal el em en t , b u t al so m o r e g en er al l y t h e o r al d i m en si o n o f w h at w er e essen t i al l y ep h em er al 'ev en t s'5 —ci n em at o gr ap h i c p r o j ect i o n s. I n t h i s ar t i cl e,6 m y ai m i s t o p u t f o r w ar d a co n cep t u al f r am ew o r k t h at can b e u sed w h en st u d y i n g t h e w ay s i n w h i ch t h e v o i ce o f a sp eak er —w h et h er l i v e or r eco r d ed - i s i n t egr at ed i n t o ( p r e- ) ci n em at o gr ap h i c sp ect acl es. T h er e ar e m an y d i f f er en ces b et w een t h e t w o t y p es o f v o i ce p r o d u ct i o n , b u t t h ey b o t h r ai se t h e q u est i o n o f t h e p l ace an d f u n ct i o n g i v en t o a sp eci f i cal l y h u m an ch ar act er i st i c w i t h i n a di sposit i ve t h at f o r t h e gr eat er p ar t i s go v er n ed b y t ech n o l o gi cal p ar a m et er s. T o st u d y t h e d i sc u r si v e n et w o r k s t h at ar e asso ci at ed w i t h h i st o r i cal ob ject s su ch as l ect u r er s, m ach i n es f o r au d i o v i su al r ep r esen t at i o n o r t h e m ean s o f (t el e-) co m m u n i cat i o n — w h et h er r eal o r i m agi n ed b y sci en t i st s o r n o v el i st s o n e m ay u se a t h eo r et i cal f r am ew o r k t h at i s g r ad u al l y ( an d r eci p r o cal l y ) b u i l t u p o n t h e b asi s o f t h e d i sco v er i es o f n ew p r act i ces o r i n v en t i o n s an d t h at i s u sed t o o r gan i se t h e i n f o r m at i o n t h at i s gl ean ed f r o m w o r k o n t h e v ar i o u s so u r ces. I n m y v i ew , t h e n o t i o n o f di sposit i ve i s a p r o d u ct i v e on e, as i t al l o w s o n e t o l i n k t h e st u d y o f v o i ce p r o d u ct i o n w i t h t h at o f o t h er p ar t s o f t h e sp ect acl e, an d t h u s t o r each a b et t er u n d er st an d i n g o f w h at i s sp eci f i c i n t h e r o l e t h at f al l s t o t h e vo i ce. W h i l e i t i s cl ear t h at so m e o f t h e cr i t er i a t h at u n d er p i n t h e t y p o l o g y p u t f o r w ar d

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 1 6 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 1 6 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

216

A la in B o illa c

h er e w o r k f o r al l t h e v ar i o u s m ean s o f t r an sm i t t i n g an au d i o v i su al m essage, t h e ob ject o f f o cu s w i l l b e t h e ear l y ci n em a l ect u r er 7 - t o m y m i n d a h i g h l y su i t ab l e m ean s o f st u d y i n g t h e i n t er act i o n s b et w een w o r d an d i m age, b et w een t h e au d i o - sp ect at o r 8 an d t h e w h o l e o f t h e r ep r esen t at i o n , an d b et w een t h e h u m an el em en t (t h e p er f o r m an ce o f a sp eak er ) an d t h e m ach i n e (t h e m agi c l an t er n or ci n em at o gr ap h ) , an d w h i ch , f r o m a m et h o d o l o gi cal v i ew p o i n t , al l o w s o n e t o w o r k on t h eo r et i cal p r o p o sal s b ased o n t h e ad v an ces o f h i st o r i c an d h i st o r i o gr ap h i c r esear ch .

A th r e e fo ld c o n c e p tio n o f th e d is p o s itiv e

M ar i a T o r t aj ad a's an d Fr an ço i s A l b er a's p r o j ect t o cat ego r i se an d co n cep t u al i se v i su al d i sp o si t i v es (see ab o v e i n t h e p r esen t v o l u m e) p r o v i d es i n m y v i ew a b asi s o n w h i ch o n e can ad d r ess t h e au d i o v i su al f i el d .9 T h ey set ab o u t an al y si n g a d i sp o si t i v e as a d ef i n ed set o f i n t er act i o n s b et w een t h r ee p o l es: t h e s p e c t at o r , t h e m ac h in e r y an d t h e r e p r e s e n t at io n . I t i s cer t ai n l y t r u e t h at so m e u ses o f so u n d m ay i n i t i al l y seem t o b e d ev o i d o f an y t y p e o f m ed i at i o n t h at co u l d b e assi m i l at ed t o 'm ach i n er y ' — su ch as t h e v o i ce o f a p er so n co m m en t i n g o n v i ew s, w h er e t h er e i s n o f u n d am en t al d i f f er en ce f r o m o t h er u ses o f t h e w o r d - af t er al l , t h e m o st w i d esp r ead m ean s o f co m m u n i cat i o n . N o n et h el ess, t h e m o d el d o es en co u r age o n e t o st u d y t h e sp eci f i c f u n ct i o n s o f su ch u ses w h en t h ey ar e p ar t o f t h e d i sp o si t i v e o f t h e sp ect acl e. I n d eed , as so o n as t h er e i s t h e si m u l t a n eo u s p r esen ce o f i m age an d v o i ce p r o d u ct i o n , o n e m ay see h o w t h e v o i ce el e m en t can b e i n t egr at ed w i t h i n t h e p ar t i cu l ar d i sp o si t i v e. W h et h er t h e v o i ce b e r ep r o d u ced an d am p l i f i ed m ech an i cal l y o r el ect r i cal l y, o r p r o d u ced 'n at u r al l y ', i t p l ay s a p ar t i n assi g n i n g a cer t ai n sp ect at o r i al p o si t i o n . T h e n o t i o n o f d i sp o si t i v e can t h u s b e en l ar ged t o i n cl u d e t h e co exi st en ce o f a sp ect at o r an d an ag en cy si t u at ed w h er e t h e p r o d u ct i o n o f a r ep r esen t at i o n o r i gi n at es, t h e w h o l e w i t h i n a co m m o n sp ace p o ssessi n g cer t ai n ch ar act er i st i cs. T h e 'm ac h i n er y ' p o l e d e scr i b ed b y A l b er a an d T o r t aj ad a m ay i n cl u d e d i v er se n o n - m ach i n e el em en t s ( h u m an agen ci es su ch as m u si ci an s, si n ger s, t h e l ect u r er , t h e p er so n r esp o n si b l e f o r so u n d ef f ect s, o r ch est r al co n d u ct o r , p r o j ect i o n i st , et c.) , I sh al l t h u s r ef er t o i t b y u si n g t h e l ess r est r i ct i v e ex p r essi o n o f p r o d u c t io n s p ac e ( o f t h e au d io v is u al r e p r e s e n t at io n ) , w i t h t h e 'm ach i n er y ' ( p r o j ect i o n ap p ar at u s, n o i se m ach i n e, p h o n o

gr ap h , et c.) m ak i n g u p o n l y a su b set o f t h i s p o l e. T h e d i f f er en t d ev i ces o r ag en ci es b el o n g i n g t o t h i s sp ace so m et i m es i n t er v en e t oget h er , i n p ar t i cu l ar i n o r d er t o p r o d u ce a 'sy n c h r o n i sat i o n '10 w h i ch , at d i f f er en t t i m es an d acco r d i n g t o v ar y i n g p r act i ces, h as l ed t o h u m an , m ech an i cal o r sem i - m ech an i cal m ean s b ei n g em p l o y ed . T h e f o l l o w i n g d escr i p t i o n b y Ro d o l p h e- M au r i ce A r l au d , w h o

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 1 7 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 1 7 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

T h e L e c t u r e r , t h e Im a g e , t h e M a c h in e a n d t h e A u d io - S p e c t a t o r

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i s r ecal l i n g m em o r i es o f co m m en t ed p r o j ect i o n s, r ev eal s t h e p o t en t i al t h at m ay r esu l t b y asso ci at i n g t h e d i f f er en t agen ci es w i t h i n t h e p r o d u ct i o n sp ace: In front of the speak er t here w as n ow a r ow of lit t le but t ons, an d bet w een h i m an d the boot h t here w as a m yst er i ou s an d si len t d i alogue pun ct uat ed b y r ed, w hi t e, gr een or blue light s. It m eant : 'Sh ow a fi xed vi ew , sh ow t he fi lm '. O r it w as i nt ended to st op t he or chestr a, or st art i t u p agai n , or ch ange m usi c.11 A c co r d i n g t o t h i s acco u n t , w h i ch d escr i b es a co n f i gu r at i o n an d a sp eci f i c f u n c t i o n o f t h e p r o d u ct i o n sp ace, t h e l ect u r er d eal s w i t h t h e co n t r o l s o f t h e d i f f er en t p ar t s o f t h e m ach i n er y. I t sh o w s t h at t o acco u n t f o r t h e h et er o gen eo u s - an d m o r e o r l ess ar t i san al an d i n n o v at o r y - p r act i ces o f t h e 'so u n d o f t h e si l en t er a', i t i s i m p o r t an t t o b r o ad en t h e m ach i n er y p o l e an d i n cl u d e t h e p r esen ce o f a p er so n o r p er so n s, w h o se m ai n r ep r esen t at i v e i s t h e l ect u r er . A s w e sh al l see, t h e l ect u r er i s an agen cy w h o m ed i at es - b y d ef i n i n g w h at access t h e au d i o sp ect at o r i s g i v en o n t h e on e h an d t o t h e v i su al r ep r esen t at i o n an d o n t h e ot h er h an d t o t h e 'm ach i n er y '. T h i s ag en cy d o es n o t ex act l y co r r esp o n d t o an y o f t h e p o l es w i t h i n t h i s t h r ee- p ar t co n f i gu r at i o n , b u t i n t er ven es b et w een each o n e o f t h em . T h i s p o si t i o n o f i n t er m ed i ar y can b e ex p l ai n ed b y t h e f act t h at t h e p er so n o f t h e l ect u r er i s a so u r ce o f 'p r o d u ct i o n ' co m p ar ab l e t o t h e m ach i n er y ; l ect u r er s can , m o r eo v er , b e r ep l aced b y o r sh ar e t h e st age w i t h a p h o n o g r ap h ( gen er al l y b y al t er n at i n g w i t h i t ).12 M o r eo v er , t h ey h av e a d i r ect r el at i o n w i t h t h o se w h o i n l i k e f ash i o n w at ch t h e i m ages. A s t h ey f o l l o w h o w t h e sp ect acl e u n f o l d s, t h ey can i n t er v en e p h y si c al l y t o g i v e m o r e w ei g h t t o w h at t h ey say, t h u s cr eat i n g a v i su al r ep r esen t at i o n t h at 'co m p et es' w i t h t h e p r o j ect ed i m age. W e can t h u s see t h at t h e m ach i n er y - sp ect at o r - r ep r esen t at i o n m o d el p o st u l at ed b y A l b er a an d T o r t aj ad a f o r i m age p r o d u ct i o n m ay eq u al l y w el l b e ap p l i ed t o so u n d d i sp o si t i v es. Fr o m t h e K i n et o p h o n e ( w h en o n e p er so n p ay s t o l i st en f o r a b r i ef m o m en t ) t o p r e- r eco r d ed r ad i o b r o ad cast s v i a t h e T h eat r o p h o n e, l i m i t ed t o on e i n d i v i d u al at a t i m e,13 t h e v ar i o u s t y p es o f p h o n o gr ap h s f o r u se at h o m e o r b y a p r esen t er , an d ev en al l t h e m ach i n es i n v en t ed b y en g i n eer s o r n o v el s t h at o n l y ex i st ed o n p ap er ,14 each sy st em g i v es r i se t o a sp eci f i c d i sp o si t i v e t h at o n e can en v i sag e w i t h i n t h i s t h eo r et i cal f r am ew o r k . I sh al l r e st r i ct m y sel f h er e t o t h e d i sp o si t i v es t h at u se i m ag e an d v o i ce t o get h er an d t h at h av e a m ech an i cal el em en t i n at l east o n e o f t h e t w o p ar t s o f t h e r ep r esen t at i o n . T h e co r r el at i o n b et w een t h e m ech an i cal ( r e) p r o d u ct i o n o f so u n d s an d t h e sh o w i n g o f i m ages d o es, h o w ev er , r eq u i r e a t w o f o l d co n cep t i o n o f t h e m ach i n er y an d t h e r ep r esen t at i o n ( an d ev en o f t h e r ecei ver , w h o se sen ses ar e d i v i d ed an d w h o t h u s b eco m es an au d i o - sp ect at o r ) . I t can t h u s b e sai d t h at o n t h e on e h an d , a ver t ical r elat ion i s est ab l i sh ed b et w een t h e v i su al an d so u n d co m p o n en t s ( ei t h er i n si d e t h e m ach i n er y o r t h e r ep r esen t at i o n ) , an d o n t h e o t h er h an d a hor izont al r elat ion b et w een w h at b el o n gs t o t h e m ach i n er y an d w h at b el o n gs t o

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 1 8 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 1 8 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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t h e r ep r esen t at i o n . T h e f i r st t y p e o f r el at i o n d eal s w i t h t h e l i n k i n g o f t h e ap p a r at u ses p r o d u ci n g t h e so u n d an d p i ct u r es, an d o n t h e l ev el o f t h e r ep r esen t a t i on , t h e l i n k s t h at ar e est ab l i sh ed de fact o w h en so u n d an d i m ag e o ccu r t o get h er . T h e h o r i z o n t al

r el at i o n

i s g en er al l y

l ess v i si b l e

in

ci n em a as i t

co n st i t u t es an o b st acl e t o t h e r ef er en t i al i l l u si o n , f o r ex am p l e b eco m i n g ap p ar en t w h en t h e so u n d set u p o st en si b l y i n f l u en ces t h e au d i o - sp ect at o r 's p er cep t i o n o f t h e d i eget i c sp ace. O n e m u st al so co n si d er t h e r ep r esen t at i o n al n at u r e o f t h e so u n d s t h em sel v es as, i n t h e w o r d s o f Ri ck A l t m an ( f o l l o w i n g A l an W i l l i am s) / 5 r eco r d ed so u n d 'r ev eal [ s] i t s m an d at e t o r epr esent so u n d ev en t s r at h er t h an t o r epr odu ce t h em '.16 I t i s t h u s n ecessar y t o p o st u l at e t h at t h e o ccu r r en ces o f so u n d

p r o d u ced b y m ech an i cal m ean s t h em sel v es b el o n g t o t h e p o l e o f r ep r esen t at i o n . O n e m u st m o r eo v er st r ess t h at w h at i s p er cei v ed p l ay s a p r i m o r d i al p ar t i n t h e p h en o m en a i n v o l v ed i n r ep r esen t at i o n , si n ce i n o r d er t o i n st i t u t e r ep r esen t at i o n , on e m u st n ecessar i l y i n v o l v e t h e sp ect at o r an d / o r au d i t o r . A s ci n em a b ecam e an i n st i t u t i o n , b o t h n ar r at i o n an d a cl o su r e o f t h e d i eget i c u n i v er se w er e p r i v i l eg ed , t h u s b r i n gi n g ab o u t a 'v er t i cal i z at i o n ' o f h o r i zo n t al r el at i o n s t h e cu r r en t p r act i ce o f sy n ch r o n i sm f o l l o w s t h e sam e t r en d , as i t ai m s t o er ase t h e h o r i z o n t al r el at i o n b y d i sp l aci n g i t b y a sl ei gh t o f h an d ex c l u si v el y t o t h e l ev el o f r ep r esen t at i o n . T o v ar y i n g d egr ees, t h ese t w o t y p es o f r el at i o n can ei t h er b e h i d d en o r ex h i b i t ed b y t h e d i sp o si t i v e. O n e m ay w o n d er w h at h ap p en s t o t h ese r el at i o n s w h en t h er e i s h u m an i n t er v en t i o n . G i v en t h at t h e sp eak er al so i n t r o d u ces a seco n d ar y v i su al el em en t , t h ey ar e n ecessar i l y m ad e m o r e co m p l ex. I n d eed , p r esen t er s can m ak e t h em sel v es v i si b l e, l o o k at t h e sp ect at o r s an d , b y m ean s o f t h ei r act i n g, gest u r es, m i m es o r d r ess, cr eat e a d i st i n ct i v e r ef er en t i al u n i v er se t h at m ay p r o l o n g, co n t r ad i ct , i r o n i ze, an d so o n t h at o f t h e f i l m . I n h i s 19 0 8 t r eat i se o n t h e o r at o r i cal ar t o f t h e m agi c- l an t er n sp eak er , G .M . C o i ssac n o t ed : 'T h e w o r d i s i n d eed n ot ev er y t h i n g - t h e ex p r essi o n o f t h e f ace an d t h e gest u r e acco m p an y i n g i t g i v e i t m o r e en er g y an d m ean i n g '.17

T y p o lo g y o f s o u n d p a r a m e te r s

I n o r d er t o p u t f o r w ar d a syn t h et i c v i si o n o f t h ese v ar i o u s asp ect s, I h av e ch o sen a g r i d b ased o n t h e m o d el p r o p o sed b y Fr an ço i s A l b er a an d M ar i a T o r t aj ad a f o r v i su al d i sp o si t i v es. Ex h au st i v en ess i s n o t t h e ai m h er e, g i v en t h e sp eci f i c case ex am i n ed — an d i t w o u l d b e a t al l o r d er i n d eed i n t h i s h i g h l y h et er o gen eo u s f i el d o f p r act i ces m ad e u p o f ci n em a m an ag er s' o n e- o f f an d ep h em er al i n n o v a t i on s. I am l o o k i n g t o p u t f o r w ar d a w h o l e ser i es o f cr i t er i a t o an al y se sp eci f i c au d i t o r y d i sp o si t i v es. I t go es w i t h o u t say i n g t h at t h e p ar am et er s ch o sen i n t h i s

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 1 9 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 1 9 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

T h e L e c t u r e r , t h e Im a g e , t h e M a c h in e a n d t h e A u d io - S p e c t a t o r

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t y p o l o g y m u st b e co m b i n ed w i t h t h e el em en t s o f t h e m ach i n er y t h at ar e n eces sar y f o r i m age p r o d u ct i o n - su ch as A l b er a an d T o r t aj ad a h av e sh o w n . T h e t y p o l o g y p u t f o r w ar d b el o w f o l l o w s an i n cr easi n g o r d er o f 'd em at er i al i sat i o n ' o f t h e sp eak er , al l o w i n g m e t o h i gh l i gh t o n e o f t h e m ai n d i st i n ct i o n s b et w een t h e ci n em a w i t h l ect u r er an d t h e t al k i e. I f , as A n d r e G au d r eau l t h as n o t ed i n h i s essay o n n ar r at i v e en u n c i at i o n / 8 t h e v o i ce- o v er o f t h e sp eak er co n st i t u t es a r e su r gen ce o f t h e v o i ce o f t h e ear l y ci n em a l ect u r er 's vo i ce, o n e m u st n o t o v er l o o k t h e d i sem b o d i m en t t h at i s ch ar act er i st i c o f al l v o i ce- o v er s. O n e m ay, o f co u r se, say w i t h M ar y A n n D o an e t h at ev en w h en a f i l m i c r ep r esen t at i o n d i v er g es f r o m t h e n o r m o f v o i ce- l i p sy n ch r o n i sm , as i s t h e case w i t h t h e v o i ce- o v er , 't h e p h an t asm at i c b o d y 's at t r i b u t e o f u n i t y i s n o t l o st ' f o r 'i t i s si m p l y d i sp l aced - t h e b o d y in t h e f i l m b eco m es t h e b o d y o f t h e f i l m '.’ 9 H o w ev er , t h at p ar t i cu l ar 'b o d y ' - t h at o f t h e f i l m i c d i sco u r se t h at t h e aest h et i c o f 't r an sp ar en cy ' p r eci sel y ai m s t o r en d er i n v i si b l e i n o r d er t o m ax i m i se t h e sp ect at o r 's i m m er si o n i n t h e w o r l d o f t h e f i l m - i s v er y d i f f er en t f r o m t h at r esu l t i n g f r o m t h e p r esen ce o f t h e l ect u r er , w h o i n t er v en es b et w een t h e au d i o - sp ect at o r an d t h e r ep r esen t at i o n . T h e t y p o l o g y I p r o p o se i s o r gan i sed acco r d i n g t o t h e d i f f er en t r el at i o n s t h at ar e l i k el y t o b e est ab l i sh ed b et w een t h e t h r ee p o l es o f t h e d i sp o si t i v e. W i t h r e g ar d t o t h e ax i s o f h o r i z o n t al r el at i o n s ( sp ect at o r - m ach i n er y ) t h at I w an t t o h i g h l i gh t h er e — as t h e l i n k w i t h t h e r ep r esen t at i o n i s m o r e o f t en ad d r essed , I sh al l n o t en v i sag e i t as su ch - w e m ay d i st i n gu i sh t h e f o l l o w i n g p ar am et er s: T y pe o f s o u rc e

— V o i ce o f a sp eak er v i si b l e i n t h e h al l an d sp eak i n g l i ve. - V o i ce o f a sp eak er v i si b l e i n t h e h al l , t r an sm i t t ed b y t ech n i cal m ean s ( m ega p h o n e, m i cr o p h o n e an d am p l i f i er o r el ect r i c m o d u l at o r , et c.). — V o i ce o f a h i d d en sp eak er . - V o i ce o n p h o n o g r ap h o r m ech an i cal l y p r o d u ced , w i t h t h e d ev i ce v i si b l e. T h e d ev i ce m ay b e act i v at ed b y t h e sp ect at o r ( K i n et o p h o n e, t al k i n g- d o l l p h o n o gr ap h ) , t h e sh o w m an ( p h o n o gr ap h i c sp ect acl es) o r m ech an i cal l y ( sy n ch r o n i sa t i o n syst em s) . — U se b o t h v o i ce o f sp eak er an d v o i ce o n p h o n o gr ap h , ei t h er si m u l t an eo u sl y o r al t er n at i n g. — V o i ce o n p h o n o g r ap h w i t h t h e d ev i ce h i d d en . S p at ial lo c at io n o f t h e v o c al s o u r c e

— Sp ace w h er e i m age o r i gi n at es f r om . — Sp ect at o r s' sp ace. — Scen i c sp ace set o u t i n t h e h al l . — Sp ace b eh i n d t h e scr een .

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 2 0 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 2 0 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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— Sp ace t h at can n o t b e p i n n ed d o w n b ecau se o f t h e aco u sm at i sat i o n (i n t h e sen se t h at M i ch el Ch i o n g i v es t o t h e t er m ) , m u l t i p l e seco n d ar y sp aces (an e n c o m p as s in g d i sp o si t i v e) .

M o d e o f ac c e s s to t h e v is ib ilit y o f t h e s o u r c e

— T h e sp eak er o r eq u i p m en t i s p er m an en t l y v i si b l e. — T h e sp eak er o r eq u i p m en t i s t em p o r ar i l y v i si b l e ( p r o l o gu e, i n t er l u d e) . - T h er e i s p r o g r essi v e ad ap t at i o n t o w h at i s b ei n g ( au d i o v i su al l y ) sh o w n w i t h t h e so u r ce b ei n g ef f aced . -

T h e so u r ce r em ai n s h i d d en .

I t i s o b v i o u s t h at p r i v i l eg ed l i n k s ar e cr eat ed b et w een so m e o f t h ese asp ect s. Fo r ex am p l e, t h e d i ssi m u l at i o n o f t h e sp eak er , ai m i n g t o co n j u r e u p i l l u si o n , t en d s t o f av o u r t h e sp ace b eh i n d t h e scr een , as t h e su p p o r t o f t h e i m ag es 'm ak es a scr een ' an d cap t u r es al l t h e sp ect at o r 's at t en t i on . R eg ar d i n g t h e an ch o r i n g o f t h e v o i ce i n t h e r ep r esen t at i o n , t h e d egr ee t h at t h e l i v e v o cal so u r ce i s ex h i b i t ed i s t h er ef o r e i n v er sel y p r o p o r t i o n al t o t h e su b o r d i n at i o n o f t h e so u n d t o t h e i m ag e o n t h e scr een .20 T h e m o d e o f p r e s e n c e o f t h e sp eak er s i s a d eci si v e f act or : w h en t h ey act u al l y ap p ear , t h e w a y i n w h i ch t h ey p r esen t t h em sel v es i n f r on t o f t h e au d i en ce's ey es - an d l o o k at t h e au d i en ce — i s v i t al . M o r eo v er , t h e l ec t u r er 's p r esen ce co u l d b e h i gh l i gh t ed b y v i su al el em en t s. G .M . C o i ssac, f o r ex am p l e, r eco m m en d ed t h at t h e p eo p l e g i v i n g t h e ex p l an at i o n s sh o u l d st an d i n a co m m an d i n g, r ai sed p o si t i o n , su ch t h at t h ey m i gh t b e seen b y al l t h e sp ect a t o r s.21 I n ad d i t i o n , t h e o p p o si t i o n b et w een t h e h u m an an d t h e m ach i n e (at v er y l east t h e p r oj ect or ) t h at i s i n h er en t t o t h e d i sp o si t i v e m ay b e em b o d i ed i n t h e w a y t h e sp eak er 's act u al p er f o r m an ce u n f o l d s — v ar i ed t ech n o l o gi cal m ean s m i gh t b e u sed , su ch as t h e 'n o i se m ach i n es' t h at so m e l ect u r er s h ab i t u al l y u sed , acco r d i n g t o Jean A . K ei m 22. T h e m o st b asi c o f t h ese i n st r u m en t s w as p r o b ab l y t h e m egap h o n e, u sed i n w i d e- o p en sp aces. I t w as m ai n l y u sed i n t h e ci r cu s b u t al so i n sp ect acl es t h at ar o se w i t h t h e em er gen ce o f m ass cu l t u r e ( su ch as Bi l l C o d i 's W ild W e s t S h o w b egu n i n 18 8 3) , t o w h i c h ci n em a al so b el o n gs. T h e cr i t er i o n o f 'al t er n at i n g' b et w een l i v e sp eech an d t h e r eco r d ed v o i ce al so i m p l i es co n si d er i n g t h e o p p o si t e si t u at i o n , t h at o f 'si m u l t an ei t y '. T h e p o ssi b i l i t y o f co v er i n g t h e l i v e v o i ce b y a r eco r d ed v o i ce ( or v i ce- v er sa) w as ab o v e al l a t h eo r et i cal o n e - i t i s h ar d t o i m agi n e w h at ad v an t ag es t h i s si t u at i o n co u l d p r o v i d e i n t h e f r am ew o r k o f t h e t r ad i t i o n al co n cep t i o n o f a r ep r esen t at i o n u si n g so u n d , as i t l ead s t o a l o ss o f i n t el l i gi b i l i t y, esp eci al l y w h en t h e t ext p r o d u ced b y b o t h v o i ces i s n o t t h e sam e. H o w ev er , o n e can n o t t h eo r et i cal l y ex cl u d e l i k e p h en o m en a o f o v er l ap p i n g su ch as ar e f o u n d i n w o r k s b el o n g i n g t o ci n em at o gr ap h i c 'm o d er n i t y ' (i n p ar t i cu l ar w i t h Jean - L u c G o d ar d ) . O u t si d e t h e ci n em a-

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 2 1 h t t p :/ /s ite . e b ra ry .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 2 1 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

T h e L e c t u r e r , t h e Im a g e , t h e M a c h in e a n d t h e A u d io - S p e c t a t o r

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t o gr ap h i c i n st i t u t i o n , o n e f i n d s t h i s t y p e o f su p er p o si t i o n u sed b y ch ar l at an m ed i u m s as a m ean s o f au t h en t i cat i n g. W h en C o n an D o y l e d escr i b ed a sp i r i t i sm séan ce, o n e o f t h e i n i t i at ed st at ed t h at i t i s p r ef er ab l e t h at t h e m ed i u m sp eak s at t h e sam e t i m e as t h e v o i ce o f t h e sp i r i t s so t h at t h e p ar t i ci p an t s ar e co n v i n ced t h at t h er e i s n o v en t r i l o q u i st .23 T h i s cer t i f y i n g f u n ct i o n i s r ep r esen t ed i n E.T .A . H o f f m an n 's f i ct i o n al st or y, A ut om at a, w h o se t w o p r o t ago n i st s r em o v e al l su sp i ci o n s o f v en t r i l o q u i sm w h en t h e ar t i st , w h o i s t o p r esen t a 'sp eak i n g T u r k ', sp eak s t o t h e p eo p l e p r esen t at t h e sam e t i m e as t h e m ach i n e.24 O n e m ay i m agi n e t h at a si m i l ar r o l e o f t est i f y i n g al so f el l t o t h e sh o w m an 's v o i ce i n t h e f i r st p r esen t at i o n s o f t h e p h o n o gr ap h , t h e so u n d s o f w h i ch co u l d b e p er cei v ed as b ei n g su p er n at u r al m an i f est at i o n s b ecau se o f t h ei r aco u sm at i c n at u r e. I n d eed , t h e p r esen ce o f an i n d i v i d u al w h o d o es n ot sp eak n ext t o t h e d ev i ce cau sed ev en w el l - i n f o r m ed o b ser v er s t o h av e d o u b t s.25 W i t h t h e ex cep t i o n o f t h ese m ar gi n al cases, o t h er l i v e sp ect acl es can b e caco p h o n o u s b ecau se o f t h e su p er p o si t i o n o f d i f f er en t vo i ces. I n co n t em p o r ar y ar t , caco p h o n y i s ex p l o i t ed f o r an aest h et i c en d i n p er f o r m an ces o n st age o r i n i n st al l at i o n s. W h en t h e sam e v o i ce an d t ext ar e sp o k en b y t w o d i f f er en t ch an n el s, t h e r esu l t i s an ef f ect o f del i n k i n g t h at d est ab i l i ses sp ect at o r s. Ex h i b i t i n g t h e m ech an i cal n at u r e o f t h e p h o n o g r ap h i m p l i es en v i sag i n g t h e p o ssi b i l i t y o f a p h y si cal l i n k b et w een t h e sp ect at o r an d t h e so u n d d i sp o si t i v e. A d i st i n ct i o n can b e m ad e b et w een a sy st em su ch as Ber t h o n , D u ssau d & Jau b er t 's Ph o n o r am a ( 189 8) , w h er e each sp ect at o r h ad t o p l ace an ear agai n st a t el ep h o n e t o h ear t h e so u n d s acco m p an y i n g t h e p r o j ect ed i m age, an d Cl ém en t - M au r i ce's Ph o n o - Ci n em a- T h eat r e ( 1900) , w h o se so u n d cam e f r o m a cy l i n d er p h o n o g r ap h i n t h e o r ch est r al p i t , w i t h i t s r ecei v er o n l y w o r k i n g i n si d e t h e 'p r o d u ct i o n sp ace' t o l i n k t h e p h o n o g r ap h t o t h e p r o j ect i o n b o o t h ( w h er e t h e o p er at o r sy n ch r o n i sed l i ve) . T h e Ph o n o r am a t h u s co m b i n ed an en co m p assi n g v i su al d i sp o si t i v e (t h e au d i en ce i n f r o n t o f a scr een ) w i t h an i n d i v i d u al so u n d d i sp o si t i v e, w h er eas an o t h er d ev i ce, Ed i so n 's K i n et o p h o n e (t h e 18 9 5 m o d el ) , g av e t h e sp ec t at o r i n d i v i d u al access t o t h e t w o co m p o n en t s. I n d i v i d u al co n t r o l o f t h e d ev i ce i s a p ar t i cu l ar l y i m p o r t an t f act or , as i t en t ai l s n o t j u st t u r n i n g o n t h e m ach i n e, b u t al l o w s t h e so u n d t o b e t u r n ed d o w n o r o f f at an y t i m e w h i l e t h e i m ag e i s b ei n g sh o w n . I n a t r ad i t i o n al ci n em a h al l , t h e so u n d v o l u m e i s v i r t u al l y i d en t i cal f o r al l sp ect at o r s, an d t h e so u n d can n o t n o t b e h ear d as o n e can n o t sh u t o n e's ear s, w h er eas i t i s si m p l e t o sh u t o n e's ey es. I t i s d i f f i cu l t t o co n cei v e o f t h e p o si t i o n i n g o f t h e so u r ce o f so u n d i n d ep en d en t l y f r o m i t s ef f ect s on t h e au d i o v i su al r ep r esen t at i o n . Ri gh t f r o m t h e f i r st at t em p t s t o l i n k a p h o n o g r ap h an d a ci n em at o gr ap h i c p r o j ect o r , t h e ch o i ce o f l o cat i n g t h e p h o n o gr ap h ( s) b eh i n d ( or al o n g) t h e scr een b ecam e t h e r u l e - d e sp i t e t h e n u m er o u s p r act i cal ad v an t ages t h at co u l d h av e b een d er i v ed f r o m h av i n g t h e t w o d ev i c es n ear t o each o t h er - si n ce, i n t h e w o r d s o f H ar r y Ge-

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 2 2 h tt p ://s it e . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 2 2 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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d u l d , 't h i s ar r an gem en t w as co n si d er ed n ecessar y b ecau se i t seem ed u n n at u r al f o r t h e au d i en ce t o l i st en t o t h e so u n d co m i n g f r o m b eh i n d t h ei r seat s w h i l e t h ey w er e f aci n g t h e p i ct u r e'.26 T h e u n i r i t y o f t h e au d i o v i su al r ep r esen t at i o n gu ar an t eei n g d i eget i c co m p l et en ess - t h u s t o o k p r eced en ce o v er t h e m an ag e ab i l i t y o f t h e m ach i n er y. T o a si m i l ar en d , L éo n G au m o n t ex p er i m en t ed w i t h a t ech n i q u e co n si st i n g o f m an u al l y m o v i n g t h e p h o n o g r ap h s b eh i n d t h e scr een t o co r r esp o n d t o t h e v i si b l e m o v em en t s o n t h e scr een .27 T h i s ad ap t at i o n o f t h e so u n d m ach i n er y t o t h e scr een sp ace an d co n seq u en t l y ( an d p r o b l em at i cal l y ) t h e d i eget i c sp ace m ak es u p a 'm at er i al ' eq u i v al en t t o l at er st er eo p h o n i c t ech n o l o gi es. M o r eo v er , t h e p l aci n g o f t h e so u n d so u r ce b eh i n d t h e scr een w as p er p et u at ed w i t h t h e gen er al i sat i o n o f t h e t al k i e. A s Ri ck A l t m an h as n o t ed , as so o n as t h e v o i ce b ecam e t h e 'r a w m at er i al ' o f so u n d i n t h e ci n em a ar o u n d 19 30 , t ech n i ci an s ad d ed a seco n d f r o n t al l o u d sp eak er ab o v e t h e scr een , w i t h t h e o r ch est r al - p i t sp eak er b ei n g r eser v ed f o r t h e m u si c.28 I

sh al l f i n i sh m y t y p o l o g y o u t l i n e b y ex am i n i n g i n p ar t i cu l ar t h e v o i ce an d

l o o k i n g at t h e f o l l o w i n g 'v er t i c al ' p ar am et er s: V e rt ical r e lat io n s o n t h e m ac h in e r y le v e l

T y p es o f p r o je c t io n an d s o u n d s o u r c e

— Fi x ed i m ages / an i m at ed i m ages / co m b i n at i o n o f f i x ed

an d an i m at ed

i m ages. — So u n d - p r o d u ci n g d ev i ce / t ech n i q u e o f so u n d p r o d u ct i o n / h u m an v o i ce agen cy. L o c at io n o f t h e s o u n d s o u r c e in r e lat io n t o t he p r o je c t o r

— U n i q u e so u n d - i m age sy st em . - I n t er d ep en d en t so u n d - i m age sy st em s ( p h y si cal l y ap ar t b u t l i n k ed m ech an i cal l y o r el ect r i cal l y) . - I n d ep en d en t so u n d - i m age sy st em : h u m an o p er at o r t o r u n t h e ( p r o d u ct i o n or r ep r o d u ct i o n ) d ev i ce / h u m an v o i ce agen cy. T y p e o f s y n c h r o n is at io n 29

— T em p o r ar y ab sen ce o f i m age o r so u n d . - H u m an syn ch r o n i sat i o n : l ect u r er sp eak i n g o f so m et h i n g d i f f er en t f r o m t h e f i l m / sp eak i n g o f t h e f i l m as f i l m ( p r esen t at i o n ) / sp eak i n g o f t h e co n t ext o f t h e w o r l d o f t h e f i l m ( h i st o r i cal , sci en t i f i c, eco n o m i c, et c.) / d escr i b i n g t h e w o r l d o f t h e f i l m / r el ay i n g w h at t h e ch ar act er s say i n d i r ect d i sco u r se / d u b b i n g t h e ch ar act er s ( syn ch r o n i sm ) . - H u m an sy n ch r o n i sat i o n assi st ed m ech an i cal l y, r eal i sed t h an k s t o 'ch r o n o m et r i c p r o st h eses' su ch as w er e p r o p o sed b y so m e i n v en t o r s an d p i o n eer s o f

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 2 3 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 2 3 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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T h e L e c t u r e r , t h e Im a g e , t h e M a c h in e a n d t h e A u d io - S p e c t a t o r

t h e 'si l en t ' p er i o d t o o r ch est r al co n d u ct o r s p er f o r m i n g i n ci n em a h al l s, f o r ex am p l e w i t h t h e V i si o p h o n e, C in é - p u p it r e o r C i n eo r am a sy st em s.30 Ph o n o gr ap h i c sy n ch r o n i sat i o n : m o v em en t o f a c y l i n d er o r d i sc ( al so f o r so m e d i gi t al t ech n i q u es) m at ch i n g t h e m o v em en t s o f t h e i m age ( or v i ce- v er sa) . - C i n em at o gr ap h i c sy n ch r o n i sat i o n : si m u l t an eo u s r ead i n g o f o p t i cal so u n d an d i m age t r ack s o n t h e f i l m . V e rt ic al r e lat io n s o n t h e r e p r e s e n t at io n le v e l

- V o i ce p r o d u ced b y t h e v i su al r ep r esen t at i o n i t sel f ( au t o m at a, v i su al d i m en

si o n o f t h e l ect u r er 's p er f o r m an ce) . — 'Sy n ch r o n o u s' v o i ce ( r esu l t i n g f r o m h u m an , p ar t m ech an i cal o r m ech an i cal sy n ch r o n i sat i o n ) . — V o i ce del i n k i n g ( b r eak d o w n o r t em p o r ar y p er t u r b at i o n o f sy n ch r o n i sm ) — V o i ce off. - V o i ce- o v er : t h e d egr ee o f d i sso ci at i o n b et w een t h e i m age an d v o i ce d ep en d s o n t h e w ay t h at t h e p r esu m ed sp eak er i s v i su al i sed d u r i n g o t h er p ar t s o f t h e fi l m . T h e i n t er n al r el at i o n s o f t h e au d i o v i su al r ep r esen t at i o n ar e t r ad i t i o n al l y ex am i n ed i n an al y ses t h at st ay cen t r ed o n t h e f i l m i t sel f . H o w ev er , i t i s f r u i t f u l t o i n cl u d e t h em i n an an al y si s o f al l o f t h e p ar am et er s co n si d er ed i n t h e t y p o l o g y o f t h e p r o p er t i es o f d i sp o si t i v es. I t i s t h u s p o ssi b l e t o i n t egr at e t h e q u est i o n o f t h e f i l m sessi o n b ey o n d t h e u n i t o f t h e f i l m i t sel f ( as i s r eq u i r ed i n su ch p r act i ces as l et t r i st ci n em a) , an d t o p ay at t en t i o n t o t h e r eap p ear an ce o f o r al i t y i n cer t ai n f i l m s t h at p o r t r ay an i n t er m ed i ar y f i gu r e w h o , i n so m e r esp ect s, m ay h av e a co n n ect i o n w i t h t h e l ect u r er o f ear l y ci n em a.31

T h e le c tu r e r , a n a g e n c y o f m e d ia tio n

in te g ra te d

in t h e

d is p o s itiv e o f s p o k e n ‘c in e m a ’

Th is ci n em a you kn ow , i t's i n a n ei gh bour h ood w h er e on l y w or k er s li ve. A n d m ost of t hem don 't k n ow h ow to r ead t he t itles. D u r i n g t he pr oject i on s you m ust st and be h i n d t he scr een an d expl ai n t o t he audience w h at 's h app en i n g i n each scene. D o you un der st an d? Yo u m ust speak lou d l y an d di st i nct ly an d t hen i n such a w ay as to i nt er est t he audi en ce ,..32

T h e Po l i sh Jew i sh w r i t er I sr o el Rab o n h as t h e j o i n t o w n er o f a ci n em a p r o v i d e t h i s ex p l an at i o n . T h i s ch ar act er h as ab r u p t l y t ak en o n t h e n o v el 's r ecen t l y d e m o b i l i z ed n ar r at o r - w h o i s w an d er i n g, p en n i l ess an d l o n el y i n t h e t o w n o f

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 2 4 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 2 4 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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L o d z . L i k e al l d i sco u r ses d eal i n g w i t h p r o j ect i o n s co m m en t ed o n b y a l ect u r er , t h i s co m m en t ar y p r esu p p o ses cer t ai n ch ar act er i st i cs t h at est ab l i sh a sp eci f i c d i s p o si t i v e. Ev en i f t h e ev en t s h er e ar e p r o b ab l y f i ct i o n al , t h e au t h o r ( b or n i n 19 0 0 ) w as ab l e t o d r aw o n h i s m em o r i es t o co m p o se t h i s p l o t set at t h e en d o f t h e 19 10 s. T h e w o r k i n g- cl ass au d i en ce's i l l i t er acy i s w h at st i m u l at es t h e p r esen ce o f t h e l i v e h u m an v o i ce t ak i n g t h e p l ace o f t h e t i t l es, w i t h t h e l ect u r er i n t er v en i n g l i k e a k i n d o f 't r an sl at o r '33 —w i t h al l t h e l at i t u d e b el o n gi n g t o sp o k en d i sco u r se, as t h e r ead er d i sco v er s l at er w h en a f i l m ab o u t t h e Fr en ch Rev o l u t i o n i s sh o w n , an ad ap t at i o n o f O r p h an s o f t h e S t o r m 34 - i .e. ex p l i ci t l y as a m ed i at o r b et w een scr een an d au d i en ce w h o se at t en t i o n h e m u st cap t u r e. T h e i n st r u ct i o n s gi v en b y t h e ci n em a o w n er si g n i f y t h at t h e scr een i n g w i l l h ap p en i n a p ar t i cu l ar w ay - t h e l ect u r i n g w i l l b e d o n e f r o m t h e w i n g s at t h e sam e t i m e t h at t h e f i l m i s sh o w n , w i t h t h e l ect u r er h i d d en f r o m t h e au d i en ce's si gh t ( f o r w h i c h t h e y o u n g, i n exp er i en ced m an i s v er y t h an k f u l : 'T h an k h eav en s, I sai d t o m y sel f , w h i l e I sp eak t h e au d i en ce w o n 't see m y f ace') .35 T h e ch o i ce o f n o t seei n g t h e so u r ce o f t h e v o i ce co r r esp o n d s t o o n e m o d al i t y am o n g o t h er s, as t h e d i sp o si t i v e o f t h e ci n em a w i t h l ect u r er can o n l y b e co n cei v ed as a p l u r al i t y . W h en co m m en t i n g o n t w o d i f f er en t so u r ces, A l b er a an d G au d r eau l t r em ar k as f o l l o w s: O ne can not e [ ...] con t r adi ct or y asser t i on s r egar d i n g t he di sp osi t i ve t hat he [the lec t urer] belon gs to - her e he i s vi si bl e an d even 'bu r d en som e', a k i n d of or ch est r al con duct or (he or gan i ses t he pr oject i on and dom i n at es t he m usi c), w h i l e t here h e i s h i d den fr om t he au di en ce an d u ses a t able an d a dar k lant er n.36 B y ex am i n i n g t h e w ay s i n w h i ch d i f f er en t ci n em a o p er at o r s d is p o s e d t h e ag en ci es t h at m ak e u p t h e p r o d u ct i o n sp ace ( w e h av e h er e a l i t er al m ean i n g o f t h e t er m d is p o s it iv e ) d u r i n g p r o j ect i o n s w i t h l ect u r er s m en t i o n ed i n so m e t est i m o n i es, o n e can ex am i n e t h e co n seq u en ces a p ar t i cu l ar ch ar act er i st i c h as o n t h e co m m u n i cat i o n p r o cess set u p b y t h e sp ect acl e. T h i s t y p e o f o b ser v at i o n ech o es t h e co n cer n s o f o p er at o r s an d sp eak er s f r o m ear l y t i m es, w h o w er e co n f r o n t ed w i t h t h e co n cr et e p r o b l em o f h o w t o ar r an ge t h e sp ace o f t h e h al l . H en ce, cer t ai n u n u su al sy st em s w er e f av o u r ed as t h ey al l o w ed t h e p r o j ect i o n d ev i ce t o b e p l aced b eh i n d t h e scr een - su ch as t h e D ac t y lo g r ap h e (a p r o cess t h at w o r k ed i n a l i t h al l w i t h a t r an sl u cen t scr een sh o w i n g an i m ag e t h at w as r ef l ect ed sev er al t i m es) , w h o se ad v an t ages w er e su m m ed u p as f o l l o w s i n 19 0 9 b y a ch r o n i cl er : Th e speak er an d lan t ern -operat or cam e closer, m ak i n g it easi er for t hem to com m u n icat e w h i le w or k i n g, w h i ch i s ou t of t he quest i on w h en t he audi en ce separ at es t he t wo. A l l t he w or k i s don e out si de t he audi en ce an d not in fr ont or beh in d it.37 T h e r esp ect i v e p o si t i o n i n g o f t h e d i f f er en t p o l es an d agen ci es o f t h e d i sp o si t i v e ar e co n seq u en t l y t h o u gh t o u t i n r el at i o n t o t h e ef f ect p r o d u ced o n t h e au d i en ce

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 2 5 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 2 5 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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— h er e t h e p r o d u ct i o n sp ace i s t o t al l y n egl ect ed . Su ch co n si d er at i o n s o f t en l ed co m m en t at o r s at t h e t i m e t o m en t i o n t h e l i n k b et w een t h e so u r ce o f t h e i m ages an d t h e sp eak er . Fo r ex am p l e, on e f i n d s i n t h e m an u al d i scu ssi n g t h e m agi c l an t er n l ect u r e, p u b l i sh ed b y t h e N ew Y o r k co m p an y p r o d u c i n g an d d i st r i b u t i n g Y o r k & So n p l at es, t h e r eco m m en d at i o n 'n o t t o ad o p t t h e t oo co m m o n m o d e o f si gn al l i n g t o t h e o p er at o r b y at o n e t i m e r ap p i n g w i t h t h e p o i n t er , at an o t h er g i v i n g d i r ect i o n s w i t h t h e v o i c e'.38 I t w as t h u s a m at t er o f r em o v i n g t h e 'r ed u n d an c y ' o f t h e si gn al s an d al l r ef er en ces t o t h e v er t i cal r el at i o n b et w een t h e sp eak er an d p r o j ect i o n i st as, acco r d i n g t o t h e au t h o r s, su ch a r ef er en ce w o u l d i n f l u en ce t h e h o r i z o n t al r el at i o n w i t h t h e sp ect at o r . I n a t ext w h er e C o i ssac ad v o cat ed ad o p t i n g a p r o j ect i o n sy st em b y l i gh t sh i n i n g t h r o u gh t h e scr een (see f i g. l ) ,39 h e u n d er l i n ed t h e d i sad v an t ag e o f t r ad i t i o n al p r o j ect i o n w i t h t h e p r o j ect o r si t u at ed b eh i n d ( or am o n g) t h e sp ect at o r s, w h i ch r esi d es i n t h e f act t h at 't h e o p er at o r i s g en er al l y su r r o u n d ed b y a l ar ge n u m b er o f sp ect at o r s w h o se cu r i o si t y i s aw o k en b y t h e l east Little d et ai l s o f t h e m an i p u l at i o n s; t h ey t h u s t ak e aw ay t h e at t en t i o n d em an d ed b y t h e p r o f esso r o r sp eak er .40 T h e sh o w i n g o f t h e p r o j ect i o n i s co n si d er ed b y C o i ssac - i n t h e p ed ag o g i c al co n t ext t h at co n cer n ed h i m - as an el em en t cu r b i n g p r o p er t r an sm i ssi o n o f t h e sp o k en i n f o r m a t i o n ( b u t n o t as a b r ak e o n t h e sp ect at o r 's i m m er si o n i n t h e w o r l d r ep r esen t ed v i su al l y — w h i ch w as seco n d ar y f o r h i m ) . H i s r em ar k i n d i cat es t h at t h e v er y f u n ct i o n i n g o f t h e p r o j ect o r co u l d co n st i t u t e an 'at t r act i o n ' v y i n g w i t h t h at o f t h e sp eak er - m o r eo v er l i k e o t h er el em en t s i n t h e p r o d u ct i o n sp ace ( i n cl u d i n g so u n d so u r ces) .41 F ig u r e 1

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 2 6 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 2 6 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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T h e 'p r o d u ct i o n sp ace' al so ex h i b i t s i t sel f w h en t h e sp eak er u ses a b at o n — a p h y si cal ex t en si o n o f h i m sel f ( an d t h u s 't ech n i cal ', at a m i n i m u m l ev el ) — i n t h e p h y si cal sp ace o f t h e scr een . Su ch a 'p r o st h esi s'- l i k e o b ject i s gen er al l y asso ci at ed w i t h t h e p ed ag o g i cal p r o j ect i o n b ecau se i t i m p l i es t h at t h e i m ag e i s su b o r d i n at ed t o t h e v o i ce - C o i ssac ad v i ses t h e sp eak er t o u se o n e42 — o n e can n o t h o w ev er r u l e o u t t h at t h e ci n em a l ect u r er al so u sed i t, i f o n l y t o g i v e h i m sel f t h e ap p ear an ce o f a sp eak er g i v i n g a 'r eal ' l ect u r e. Fo l l o w i n g t h e ex am p l e o f Jean K ei m , w h o m en t i o n s t h e l ect u r er 's T o n g b at o n ',43 R.M . A r l au d r ecal l s a l ect u r er w h o w as em p l o y ed b y t h e d i r ect o r o f a f ai r gr o u n d , w h o se act i v i t i es h e d e scr i b es i n t h e f o l l o w i n g w ay : H e w as d i r ect ly descen ded fr om t he old i m age sh ow m an . H e even h ad h i s baton. H e com m en t ed w h at ever yon e cou ld see, st r i k i n g t he screen, get t i n g m or e w or k ed up t han t he act ors. [ ...] Th e bat on poi nt ed at Paul. 'Sh e spot s h i m !'. The bat on st r essed h ow fr i ght ened Juliet t e w as. 'Sh e t urn s r ou n d!'44 T h i s accesso r y al l o w s t h e l ect u r er t o ex p l i cat e an d v i su al i se t h e co - r ef er en ce o f w o r d an d i m age, w h i l e u n d er l i n i n g t h e p r esen ce o f a h u m an agen cy. I t s ex p l i ca t i v e f u n ct i o n i s n o t o n l y co n cer n ed w i t h t h e v i su al r ef er en ce b u t w i t h t h e r ead i n g t h at sh o u l d b e m ad e o f it , t h u s o r i en t i n g w h er e sp ect at o r s l o o k . M o r eo v er , A n d r e G au d r eau l t h as l i n k ed t h e l ect u r er w i t h t h e 'ad m o n i sh er ' o f cer t ai n p i c t o r i al w o r k s w h i ch g en er al l y i n d i cat e t h e cen t r al el em en t o f t h e co m p o si t i o n b y m ean s o f a p o i n t i n g f i n ger .45 I n o r d er t o d ef i n e a g i v en p r o j ect i o n d i sp o si t i v e co m p l et e w i t h l ect u r er , i t i s v i t al t o ex am i n e w h at t h e sp ect at o r i s au t h o r i sed t o see o f t h e eq u i p m en t an d t h e o r i gi n o f p r o d u ct i o n o f t h e d i sco u r se. H i d i n g o r ex h i b i t i n g t h e so u r ce i s a k ey f act o r f o r d ef i n i n g t h e h o r i z o n t al r el at i o n , i n t h at i t i n v o l v es t h e i l l u si o n i st n at u r e o f t h e r ep r esen t at i o n . H o w ev er , o v er an d ab o v e t h e p h y si cal l o cat i o n o f t h e el em en t s b el o n gi n g t o t h e t h r ee p o l es o f t h e d i sp o si t i v e, o n e m u st ad d t h e q u est i o n o f h o w t i m e i s m an ag ed - act i v at i n g si m u l t an eo u sl y or i n t u r n t h ese d i f f er en t agen ci es. I n a r ep o r t en t i t l ed 'O r g an i si n g a l ect u r e' an d p u b l i sh ed i n 19 0 5 i n L e F as c in at e u r , t h e A b b o t o f Fo u ch eco u r co m m en t ed o n t h r ee m et h o d s o f f i x ed - i m age p r o j ect i o n . T h e f i r st i n v o l v ed l ect u r i n g w i t h o u t i m ag es an d w i t h t h e l i gh t s o n - t h e l i gh t s w er e t h en p u t o u t an d al l t h e p l at es sh o w n . I n t h e seco n d , t h e sp eak er sp o k e i n t h e d ar k at t h e sam e t i m e as t h e i m ag es w er e sh o w n . T h e f i n al on e i s a co m b i n at i o n o f t h e f i r st t w o , w h en t h e sp eak er i n t er r u p t s h i s t al k w i t h v i su al i l l u st r at i o n s each t i m e h e h as f i n i sh ed p ar t o f h i s l ec t u r e.46 C o m m en t s su ch as t h o se o f Fo u ch eco u r al w ay s i n cl u d e r em ar k s ab o u t t h e au d i en ce w h i ch m u st b e d is p o s e d t o l i st en t o t h e l ect u r e. D ar k o r l i t h al l , p l at f o r m o r h i d i n g- p l ace b eh i n d t h e scr een , b at o n o r r em o v al o f t h e l ect u r er 's b o d y - al l t h ese el em en t s, set o u t i n a l ar ge n u m b er o f co m b i n at i o n s, al l o w u s t o ad -

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 2 7 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 2 7 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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d r ess t h e f i gu r e o f t h e l ect u r er v i a t h e d i f f er en t d i sp o si t i v es t h at h e h el p s u s t o d ef i n e. T h e u se o f t h e d i sp o si t i v e n o t i o n d o es h av e an i m p act o n t h e w a y o n e co n cei v es o f t h e p l ace o f t h e v o i ce i n ear l y ci n em a - i n st ead o f st at i n g, w i t h T o m G u n n i n g, t h at 't h e l ect u r er [ ...] r ev eal s a f i ssu r e w i t h i n t h e ci n em a as an ap p a r at u s',47 w e h av e h er e en v i sag ed t h i s p r act i ce as an el em en t t h at f u l l y b el o n gs t o t h e p r o j ect i o n o f i m ages. A n d al t h o u gh t h i s h u m an ag en cy o ccu p i es a v ar i ab l e p o si t i o n i n t h e t h r ee- p o l e sy st em t h at w e h av e ad o p t ed , t h e v o i ce i s m o r e o r l ess st r o n g l y cap t u r ed i n t h e o r b i t o f o n e o f t h e t h r ee p o l es ( sp ace o f t h e p r o d u ct i o n / r ep r esen t at i o n / au d i o - sp ect at o r ) an d co n t r i b u t es t o co n f i gu r i n g t h e r el at i o n s b e t w een t h e t h r ee o f t h em . D esp i t e t h e p l u r al i t y o f d i sp o si t i v es w h o se t r aces can b e d i sco v er ed i n d o cu m en t s o f d i f f er en t t y p es, i t can b e sai d t h at t h eo r et i cal l y sp eak i n g — an d b ey o n d t h e d i v er si t y o f p r act i ces - t h e p r esen ce o f a l ect u r er l ead s t o a sp eci f i c d i sp o si t i v e t h at I p r o p o se t o cal l " spoken 'c i n em a'" . W h i l e t h e t al ki ng ci n em a r ef er s t o an i n st i t u t i o n al i sed p r act i ce o f su b j u gat i n g t h e sp o k en el em en t t o t h e w o r l d o f t h e f i l m - p eo p l e sp eak in t h e f i l m - t h e cat ego r y o f spoken 'ci n em a' co v er s a ser i es o f h et er o gen eo u s p r act i ces t h at co n cer n l i v e sp ect acl es w h er e t h e f i l m — sp o k en — i s co n si d er ed as an object w i t h i n a d i sp o si t i v e w h i ch , t ak en as a w h o l e, i s a sp eak i n g on e. I n t h e spoken f i l m s o n e sp eak s o f t h e f i l m . A s t h e w o r d s o f t h e spoken 'ci n em a' ar e m at er i al l y o u t si d e t h e f i l m i c d i egesi s, t h ey can o n l y b e p r o

d u ct i v el y en v i sag ed as an el em en t o f t h i s 'ci n em a' d i sp o si t i v e w h o se o u t l i n es I h av e i n p ar t at t em p t ed t o sk et ch h er e t o get h er w i t h i l l u st r at i o n s o f so m e o f t h e f o r m s i n w h i ch i t h as b een r eal i sed .

N o te s

1.

2.

M an y people com m ent i ng on t he fi r st fi lm s lam en t ed t he absen ce of soun d and called for t he add i t i on of a soun d di m ensi on . In t hi s cont ext , D an i el Ban d a an d José M ou r e poi n t ou t i n t he ear ly ci n em a sect ion of t heir an t h ology t hat 't he ci nem at o gr aph i c i dea i s i den t ified w i t h t otal r epresent at i on of r eali t y', t he ci nem a bei n g 'con cei ved w i t h soun d - li k e an ext en si on of t he ph on ogr ap h ' (Le Cinéma : naissance d'un art, 2895-1920, Par i s: Flam m ar i on , 2008, p. 35). O n t hi s subject see Tom Gun n i n g, 'D oi n g for t he Eye W h at t he Ph on ogr ap h D oes for t he Ear ', in R. A b el & R. A lt m an (eds.), The Sounds o f Early Cinema, Bloom in gt on/ I ndi an apoli s: I n di an a U n i ver si t y Press, 2001. The i n ver t ed com m as her e i n di cat e an en t it y con si der ed at t he ver y begi n n i n g of it s possi ble devel opm en t s an d t hat h ad n ot yet been defi n ed b y fi xed m edi a pr oper t i es. In m y vi ew , t he pr ot ean n at ur e of t he t echn iques an d pr act ices of t he t i m e forbi ds one fr om con cei vi n g o f t hem w i t h i n a m on oli t h ic an d u n i fyi n g fr am ew or k .

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 2 8 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 2 8 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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3.

4.

5.

6. 7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

A la in B o illa c

Th e fi rst r esult s of r esear ch i nt o t hi s quest i on w er e publi sh ed i n n um ber 22 o f the r evi ew Iris (aut um n 1996) edi t ed b y A n d r é Gau d r eau lt and Ger m ai n Laçasse. See also Ger m ai n Laçasse, Le Boniment eur de vues animées. Le cinéma « muet » ent re tradi tion et modernit é, Q uebec/ Pari s: N ot a Bene/ M éri dien s Kli n ck si eck , 2000. Th e t er m i n ology h as been exam i n ed an d t he object of st u d y legi t i m at ed in t he ar t i cle b y Fr an çoi s A l b er a an d A n d r é Gaud r eaul t en t i t led 'A p p ar i t i on , di spar i t i on et escam ot age du bon i m ent eur dan s l'h i st or i ogr ap h i e fr an çai se d u ci n ém a', i n Gi u sy Pi san o & Val ér i e Pozn er (eds.), Le M uet a la parole. Cinéma et performance à l'aube du X X e siècle, Par i s: A FRH C, 2005. H er e I use t he expr essi on suggest ed b y Ri ck A lt m an i n a t ext w h er e he ar gued in favou r of t ak i n g int o account t he h et erogen eit y of soun d ph en om en a d u r i n g t he 'si len t ' er a ('Gen er al I nt r oduct i on: Ci n em a as Event ", i n R. A lt m an (ed.), Sound Theo ry, Sound Pract ice, N ew Yor k/ Lon don : Rout ledge, 1992). Th e ar t icle i s a r ew or k ed ver si on of part of a chapt er of Du boniment eur à la voix-over. Voix-attraction et voix-narrat ion au cinéma, Lau san n e: A n t i pod es, 2007, pp. 39-61. Th e pract i ce w as act ually con t i nued w el l aft er t hi s per i od - in Fr ance, for exam ple, at least u p to t he begi n n i n g of t he Gr eat W ar, w h i l e i n Japan , t he benshi con t i nued un t i l t he secon d h al f of t he 1930s. By u si n g t hi s n eologi sm , I w ou ld li k e to un der li n e m y int ent ion of cont esti ng the pr e-em i nence t r ad i t i on ally gi ven t o t he vi sual di m en si on i n ci n em a theory. I n 1903, G.-M . Coi ssac, w h o w r ot e a l ar ge n um ber of t ext s look i n g at t he pract i ce of lect ur i ng, r eferr ed t o t he r ecei ver of t he au d i ovi su al m essage i n t he fol low i n g w ay: 'T o k eep t he audi en ce - 1 m ean t he audi t or-spect at ors - on t ent erhooks, it i s n ot en ough to pr oject excellent i m ages on t he scr een [ ...] ' ('M ét h ode à su i vr e dan s les séances de project i on ', Le Fascinat eur, N 0. 12, 1 D ecem ber 1903; all t he r efer en ces t o t he t w o per i odi cals, Le Fascinat eur an d Ciné-journal, i n t he pr esen t ar t i cle ar e t aken fr om the 'Fon d s de recher che de M on si eur Pi er r e V er on n eau ', Cin ém at h èque québécoi se, w i n t er 2004, docum en t pu t t oget her b y M ar lèn e Lan dr y). O ne can cl ear l y see just h ow h i s r em ar k s fol low t he p ar ad i gm o f w h at A l ber a & Gaud r eaul t ('A p par i t i on , di spar i t i on et escam ot age du bon i m ent eur op. cit., pp. 171- 172) pr opose to nam e t he 'lect ur e-wi t h -project i on' (as opposed to t he 'project i on-wi t h -lect ur e'), w h er e t he i m age i s so st r on gl y sub or di n at ed t o t he w or d t hat, i n t he p assage quot ed, Coi ssac w as d u t y boun d to r efer to t he fact t hat t he audi en ce i s also com posed o f spect at or s. Today, w h i le ci n em a h as been legi t i m i zed as an 'ar t of t he i m age', i t i s t he vocal di m en si on t hat n eeds to be br ough t back into t he lim eli ght , fol low i n g an ap pr oach begu n i n par t i cul ar b y M i chel Ch ion . Fr ançoi s A l ber a & M ar i a Tor t ajada, ‘L'Epist ém è "19 0 0 "', in A n d r é Gaud r eaul t , Ca t heri ne Ru ssel l & Pi err e Vér on n eau (éd.), Le Cinématographe, nouvelle technologie du X X e siècle, Lau san n e: Payot , 2004. To avoi d an y am bi guit y, a di st in ct i on i s m ade bet w een synchronisat ion, an oper at i on w h er eby vi su al an d au d i o co-occurr en ces ar e adju st ed b y associ at i n g elem en t s i n cluded i n t he pr oduct i on space, an d synchronism, w h i ch r efer s to the level o f r epr e sent at i on, an d m or e par t i cul ar l y a cer t ai n stat e of t he fi lm such as est abli sh ed b y the audi o-spect at or - n ot accor di n g to t he t echn ique used but b y t he effect pr oduced. R.-M . A r l au d , Cinéma-Bouffe. Le Cinéma et ses Cens, Par i s: Edi t i on s Jacqu es M elot ,

1945- P- 69-

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 2 9 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 2 9 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

T h e L e c t u r e r , t h e Im a g e , t h e M a c h in e a n d t h e A u d io - S p e c t a t o r

12.

13. 14.

15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

21. 22. 23. 24. 25.

26. 27. 28.

229

L eavi n g asi de sun g in t erludes, lect ur er s seem not to h ave used t he ph on ogr ap h ver y fr equen t ly to r epr oduce a voi ce, as t he r ecor di n g dou bt less com pet ed t oo st r on gl y w i t h t heir ow n per for m an ce. H ow ever , t he Ed i son ph on ogr ap h i s som e t i m es m en t i oned i n p assi n g (see not e 26 of 'O n t he si n gu lar st at us of t he h um an voi ce. Eve of the Fut ur e Eden and t he cult ur al ser i es of t alk i n g m ach i n es' i n t he pr e sent volum e). I n t he Ph on ogr ap h an d Ci n em at ogr aph sect i on of h i s m an ual, G.-M i chel Coi ssac n on et heless ad vi ses t hose r espon si ble for expl ai n i n g fi xed vi ew s t o use such r ecor di ngs: '[ ...] m an y lect ur er s w i ll double t he i nt erest t h ey ar ouse i f an i m at ed vi ew s fr om t he ci n em at ogr aph ar e ad ded to or d i n ar y pr oject i on s or i f t here i s a di scer n i n g choi ce of a n um ber of ph on ogr ap h cyli n der s or di scs'. (M anuel pr a t ique du conférencier-project ionnist e, Par i s: L a Bon ne Pr esse, 1908, p. 202). Th e m ove m ent o f t he i m age an d t he pr oduct i on of r ecor ded soun d s ar e si m i lar l y con sider ed as spor ad i c add i t i on s ai m i n g to rei nfor ce t he at t r act i ve n at ur e of t he spect acle. See Gi u sy Pi sano, Une archéologie du cinéma sonore, Par i s: CN RS, 2004, pp. 139-163. See Fr ançoi s A l ber a, 'L e ci ném a "p r ojet é" et les pér i odi sat i on s de l'h i st oi r e t echni que du ci ném a', i n En ri co Bi asi n (éd.), Le età del cinema / The Ages of Cinema, U di ne: For um , 2008, pp. 393-400. A l an W i lli am s, 'I s Soun d Recor d i n g Li k e a Lan gu age?', Yale French St udies, No. 60, 1980, Ri ck A lt m an , 'T h e M at er i al H et er ogen ei t y of Recor ded Sou n d ', i n R. A l t m an (ed.), Sound Theory, Sound Pract ice, op. cit., p. 29. G.-M . Coi ssac, M an u el . . ., op. cit., p. 179. A n d r é Gaudr eaul t , D u lit t éraire au filmique, Q uebec/ Par is: N ot a Ben e / A r m an d Co li n, 1999 (1988), p. 153. M .A . D oane, 'T h e Voi ce in t he Ci n em a: Th e A r t i cul at i on of Bod y an d Space', in R. A lt m an (ed.), Yale French St udies, N o. 60,1980, p. 35. In ad di t i on t o exam i n i n g the charact er i st ics of t he act ual spat i al or gan i sat i on of the hall, on e m ust an alyse li n gui st i cal ly t he ut t er an ces pr odu ced, since t he speak er m ay refer i n var i ou s w ays to t he hic et nunc of t he spect acle. G.-M . Coi ssac, M an u el ..., op. cit., p. 175. Jean A . Kei m , Un nouvel art. Le Cinéma sonore, Par i s: Edi t i on s A l bi n M i chel, 1947, P- 4 1A r t h u r Con an D oyl e, H ist oire du spirit isme, Par i s: Edi t i on s d u Rocher, 19 8 1 [ or iginal En gli sh edi t i on: The H ist or y o f Spirit ualism, Lon don : Cassell, 1926] , p. 310. E.T.A . H offm an n , 'D i e A u t om at e', i n D ie Serapions-Briider, t om e 1, D ar m st adt : W i s sen schaft li ch e Buchgesellschaft , 1968 [ 1st edi t ion 18 13] , pp. 329-330. Th us, t he chr oni cler of L ’Illust rat ion o f 23 M ar ch 1878 pr op osed t he fol low i n g de scri pt i on: 'M or eover , t he oper at or i s al w ays t here w i t h h i s i nstr um ent . H e n ever open s h i s m out h w h i le t he voi ce of t he echo i s bei n g pr oduced. Th ese cir cum st an ces gi ve r ise to dou bt s i n t he m i n ds of sever al ph ysi ci an s. D u r i n g t he fi r st m om ent s, the oper at or w as accused of bei n g a sk i lled ven t r i loqui st .' (quot ed b y G. Pi sano, Une archéologie ..., op. cit., p. 151) . H ar r y M . Ged u ld , The Birt h of the Talkies. From Edison to Jolson, Bloom i ngt on , L on don, I n di an a U n i ver si t y Pr ess, 1975, p. 44. Ibi d., p. 57. Ri ck A lt m an , Silent Film Sound, N ew Yor k : Col um bi a U n i ver si t y Press, 2004, p. 47.

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 3 0 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 3 0 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

230

29.

30.

31.

32. 33. 34.

35. 36. 37. 38.

39. 40. 4 1.

A la in B o illa c

It should be n ot ed t hat t he set t i n g u p of synch r oni sat i on poin t s i s n ot on ly val i d for the dom i n an t m odel of voi ce-li p synch r on i sm , bu t t hat t her e ar e ot her m od es of synch r oni sat i on r elat i ng to t he elem ent chosen i n t he i m age (gestur es, m ovem en t s of an d i n t he i m age, joi n s i n t he m on t age, etc.). See Em m an uelle Toulet & Ch r i st i an Belaygue, M usique d'écran. L'accompagnement musical du cinéma muet en France 19 18-19 9 5, Par i s: Réun i on des M usées N at i on aux, 1 9 9 4 / PP- 7 6 - 7 7 ' O ne m ay obser ve a speci fi c au d i ovi su al di sp osi t i ve pr esen t in t he fi lm i c d i egesi s (or, m or e precisely, at i t s m ar gi n s) i n such differ en t fi lm s as L o l a M o n t é s (M ax O ph i i ls, 1955), T h e E y e o f t h e D e v i l (I ngm ar Ber gm an , i 960), T h e T r i a l (O r son W elles, 1962) or D o l l s (Takeshi Ki t ano, 2002), or in t he pr ol ogu es of O u r T o w n (Sam W ood, 1940) an d M a n a b o u t T o w n (René Clai r , 1947, t he A m er i can ver si on of Si lence est d'or, m or eover on e of t he r are fi lm s to presen t an ear ly ci nem a lect urer). W it h r egar d to h ow or ali t y i s sh ow n in t alk i n g fi lm s, see m y ar t icles ent it led 'L a per pét uat i on de l'oralit é d u "m u et " dan s quelques i ncipi t fi lm i ques des pr em ières années d u p ar l an t (fort hcom in g in t he r evi ew Cinémas) and 'D 'u n e r ésur gen ce sous for m e fi xée d e la pr at i que boni m en t or i elle. L a voi x-over d u Roman d'u n t richeur et sa post éri t é chez Resn ai s ( Providence)' (fort hcom ing). Isroel Rabon, La Rue, Par i s: Ju i ll ar d, 1992 (1928), p. 126. See t he li n k s t hat I su ggest at di fferen t levels bet w een t r anslat i on and lect ur i ng in D u Boniment eur à la voix-over, op. cit., pp. 124-129 . Rab on at t r i but es t his film to a cer t ai n M oret t i (p. 150), bu t it i s p r obably t he 19 10 ver si on di rect ed b y A lb er t Capellan i . The p assage of t he book descr i bi n g t he projec t i on of t hi s fi lm w h en t he audi en ce o f w or k er s t ak es cont rol o f t he scr een i n g i s bet t er k n ow n i n Fr en ch -speak i n g coun t r i es as i t i s quot ed b y Jér ôm e Pr i eu r (Le Spect at eur noct urne. Les écrivains au cinéma, Par i s: Edi t i ons de l 'Et oile/ Cah i er s d u ci ném a, 1993, pp. 88-92). Rabon 's n ovel depict s an ur ban m i li eu w h er e t he ci rcus an d t he cr ow d p lay an i m por t an t r ole, w i t h a lar ge n um ber of si t uat i ons of or al i t y t hat ar e si m i lar to t he ci nem a of at t ract i ons. I sroel Rabon, op. cit., p. 151. Lat er in t he n ovel, w e lear n t hat w h en t he lect ur er is n ot t here, an or chest ra p l ays al on g w i t h t he fi lm s (ibid., p. 190). F. A l b er a & A . Gaud r eaul t , 'A p p ar i t i on , di spar i t i on et escam ot age d u boni m en t eur ...', op. cit., p. 182. H y Vi el, 'Pr oject i on s D act ylogr ap h i qu es (pr océdés de F. M ar e)', Ciné-Journal, N 0. 37, 29 A p r i l -M ay 1909. 'Pr eli m i n ar y H i n t s to A m at eu r Lect ur er s' (ci rca 1880), quot ed b y Ri ch ar d Cr angle, 'N ext Sli de Please : The Lan t er n Lect ur e i n Br i t ai n, 18 9 0- 19 10', i n R. A b el & R. A l t m an (eds.), The Sounds of Ear ly Cinema, Bloom i n gt on/ I n di anapoli s: I n di an a U n i ver si t y Pr ess, 2001, p. 45. I llust rat ion used in G.-M . Coi ssac's ar t i cle en t it led 'Pr oject i on s p ar r éflexion et pr o ject i on s p ar t r an spar en ce', Le Fascinat eur, 1 A p r i l 1903, p. 111. G.-M . Coi ssac, M an u el ..., op. cit., pp. 198-199. ... as i s i llust r at ed b y t he follow i n g ad vi ce gi ven b y t he lect urer Geor ges D albe in 19 11 t o h i s fellow -lect ur er s: '[ ...] h e [the lect urer ] m ust ab ove all be good-t em per ed and m ai n t ain excellent r elat i on s w i t h t he m usi ci ans, w h o can cause con si derable pr oblem s - t h ey on l y h ave t o p lay l ou d l y and t he lect urer i s m assacr ed ' (Le Cour r ier

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 3 1 h t t p :/ /s ite . e b ra ry .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 3 1 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

T h e L e c t u r e r , t h e Im a g e , t h e M a c h in e a n d t h e A u d io - S p e c t a t o r

231

cinémat ographique, 14 O ct ober 19 11, quot ed in t he secon d ann ex of A n d r é Gau-

42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47.

dr eault 's ar t icle en t i tled 'L e r et our d u [boni m ent eur ] r efoulé . Iris, N o. 22, p. 32). G.-M . Coi ssac, M an u el ..., op. cit., pp. 18 2-183. Jean A . Kei m , op. cit., p. 41. R.-M . A r l au d , op. cit., p. 10 1. A n d r é Gau d r eau l t (in collaborat ion w i t h Ger m ai n Laçasse), 'Fon ct i on s et or i gi nes du boni m en t eur du ci ném a des pr em i er s t em ps', Cinémas, Vol. 4, N 0 .1, 1993, p. 139. 'O r gan i sat i on d 'u n e con férence', Le Fascinat eur, N 0. 27, 1 M ar ch 1905, pp. 107-108. Tom Gu n n i n g 'T h e Scene of Speak i n g: T w o D ecad es o f D i scover i n g t he Fi lm Lec t u r er ', ¡r i s 27, 1999, p. 78.

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 3 2 h tt p ://s it e . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 3 2 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

eb r ar y

eb r ar y

eb r ar y

eb rary

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 3 3 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 3 3 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

O n th e S in g u la r S ta tu s o f th e H u m a n V o ic e Tom or r ow’s Eve

a n d t h e C u lt u r a l S e rie s o f T a lk in g

M a c h in e s '

A l ai n Boillat T h e ci n em a w as f ar f r o m b ei n g t h e f i r st 't al k i n g m ach i n e' u sed f o r p u t t i n g o n sh o w s. T h e t al k i n g co m p o n en t i s p ar t an d p ar cel o f a l o n g l i n e o f t ech n i cal i n v en t i o n s an d d i sco u r ses ab o u t t h e au d i o v i su al r ep r esen t at i o n o f m an . T h e t er m i t sel f u n d er l i n es t h e p r ep o n d er an t r o l e g i v en t o t h e w o r d — t h e t r u e 'su b j ect ' o f t al k i es b ei n g l o cat ed i n t h e t alkin g S u b je c t 2 h er / h i m sel f , as Jean - L o u i s C o m o l l i h as n o t ed . T h e t al k i n g el em en t h as f o st er ed an an t h r o p o m o r p h i c m i m et i sm , w h i c h i s co m p ar ab l e i n i t s p r i n ci p l es t o t h e m i m et i sm u n d er l y i n g b o t h t h e m an u f act u r i n g o f au t o m at a w i t h h u m an f aces an d so m e o f t h e w a y s p h o n o gr ap h i c t ech n i q u es ar e u sed . Ri ck A l t m an h as w r i t t en ab o u t t h e p h ase i n w h i c h t al k i n g w as gen er al i sed : 'n ear l y ev er y i m p o r t an t t ech n o l o gi cal i n n o v at i o n can b e t r aced t o t h e d esi r e t o p r o d u ce p er su asi v e i l l u si o n o f r eal p eo p l e sp eak i n g r eal w o r d s'.3 Jam es L ast r a h as n o t ed t h at w h en an al y si n g t h e w r i t i n g s o f H o l l y w o o d t ech n i ci an s at t h at t i m e, 'al l so u n d s w er e u l t i m at el y r eco gn i z ed t o b e f u n ct i o n al l y su b o r d i n at e t o t h e v o ic e ' .4 Ev en i f i n sci en ce, as Jo n at h an St er n e u n d er l i n es, a m o v e m en t o f su b o r d i n at i o n o f t h e v o i ce t o t h e m o r e gen er al cat ego r y o f 'so u n d s' can b e o b ser v ed f r o m t h e 19 t h cen t u r y o n w ar d s,5 t h e p r i m acy o f t h e t al k i n g el em en t h as b een p er p et u at ed i n au d i o v i su al r ep r esen t at i o n s, i m p l y i n g al l t h e p h ases o f so u n d m an u f act u r i n g i n t h e ci n em a, f r o m t h ei r r eco r d i n g t o t h ei r p r o j ect i o n i n h al l s. I t i s ag ai n st t h i s b ack gr o u n d t h at I sh al l ad d r ess t h e co n d i t i o n s t h at h av e co n t r i b u t ed t o t h e em er gen ce o f a co n cep t i o n o f t h e r el at i o n s b et w een so u n d an d v i su al r ep r esen t at i o n s, w h er e t h e d o m i n an t p ar am et er i s v o i ce- l i p sy n ch r o n i sm . W h en o n e ex am i n es t h e p o ssi b l e co m b i n at i o n s ( ex em p l i f i ed i n t h e 'i n st al l at i o n s' o f co n t em p o r ar y ar t i st s) , i t b eco m es cl ear t h at i n st i t u t i o n al i sed t al k i n g ci n em a can p r o f i t f r o m b ei n g set w i t h i n a w i d er t ech n o l o gi cal sp ect r u m b el o n g i n g t o t h e c u lt u r al s e r ie s o f t alkin g m ac h in e s

.6

Fr o m a m et h o d o l o gi cal p o i n t

o f v i ew , t h i s co n cep t i o n al l o w s u s t o f r ee h i st o r i cal st u d y f r o m t h e r eq u i r em en t s o f p er i o d i sat i o n , f o r i f on e ser i es m ay b e d er i v ed f r o m an o t h er ser i es, i t m ay al so ech o i t at a d i st an ce o r d ev el o p i n p ar al l el t o n ei gh b o u r i n g ser i es. Reci p r o cal i n f l u en ce m ay o ccu r as a r esu l t o f a sp at i al co n t i gu i t y ( w h en , f o r ex am p l e, t w o t ech n i q u es ar e p r esen t ed at t h e sam e exh i b i t i o n ) 7 t h at i s i t sel f su b j ect t o co n si d er ab l e d i ach r o n i c v ar i at i o n s an d v ar i o u s co n t i n gen ci es, as i t r esu l t s f r o m p r ac t i ces t h at h av e n o t b een l ai d d o w n an d f i x ed . T o t ak e an ex am p l e t h at i s sp eci f i -

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 3 4 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 3 4 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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cal l y l i n k ed t o t h e h u m an v o i ce, o n e m ay su p p o se t h at t h e en t h u si asm t h at t h e p ai n t er L eo p o l d Ro b er t ev i n ced o n d i sco v er i n g t h e i n t er act i v i t y i n st i gat ed b y t h e aco u sm at i c v o i c es o f t h e 'I n v i si b l e G i r l '9 - a sh o w st aged i n 18 15 b y t h e f am o u s p h an t asm ago r i st Ro b er t so n - can b e ex p l ai n ed b y t h e f act t h at t h i s cu r i o si t y w as p r esen t ed i n t h e v i ci n i t y o f an ex h i b i t i o n o f t al k i n g au t o m at a.10 I t i s t h i s k i n d o f co n v er gen ce b et w een ser i es t h at al l o w s o n e b et t er t o co m p r eh en d t h e sp eci f i c n at u r e o f each d i sp o si t i v e u sed . W h en t h e p h o n o gr ap h , p at en t ed b y Ed i so n i n 18 77, w as f i r st u sed i n p u b l i c, i t w as u su al l y cal l ed t h e 't al k i n g m ac h i n e'/ 1 a n am e w h i c h h i gh l i gh t s t h e sp o k en co m p o n en t o f i t s 'p er f o r m an ce' (t h e p er f o r m an ce b ei n g n o t j u st a t ech n o l o gi cal on e, b u t al so a sp ect acu l ar on e w h en ex h i b i t ed i n p u b l i c) , b u t n o t i t s cap aci t y as a r eco r d i n g ap p ar at u s. T h i s d esi gn at i o n t h u s p l ay ed t h e r o l e o f su p er o r d i n at e, i n scr i b i n g v er y d i f f er en t d i sp o si t i v es w i t h i n t h e sam e cu l t u r al ser i es. T h e u se o f a t er m t h at al r ead y ex i st ed cl ear l y sh o w s t h e f i l i at i o n t h at p eo p l e at t h at t i m e est ab l i sh ed b et w een t h e p h o n o g r ap h an d cer t ai n o l d er m ach i n es. W h en d ev el o p i n g an ep i st em o l o gi cal ap p r o ach t o t h e m ai n r ecep t i o n p ar ad i g m s o f t h e 't al k i n g ci n em a' t h at w er e p r ev al en t t h r ee or f o u r d ecad es b ef o r e t h e l at t er b e cam e st an d ar d i sed , i t i s h el p f u l t o co m p ar e cer t ai n f i el d s o f act i v i t y t h at w er e p ar t i cu l ar l y p er m eab l e at t h e en d o f t h e 19 t h cen t u r y. T h e b o r d er b et w een a sh o w i n t en d ed t o am u se an d sci en t i f i c d em o n st r at i o n ( p ar t i cu l ar l y i n t h e f i el d o f p h y si o l o gy ) , o r ex act sci en ces an d sp i r i t i sm , w as a t en u o u s on e. I sh al l l i m i t m y st u d y t o o n e p ar t i cu l ar l y d i scu r si v e cat ego r y : l i t er ar y f i ct i o n b ased o n t ech n o l o gi cal sp ecu l at i o n . A s C h ar l es G r i v el h as sh o w n ,12 t h e i m ag i n ar y w o r l d o f m ech an i cal v o i ce r ep r o d u ct i o n - w h i ch h ad al r ead y b een ev o k ed i n 174 8 i n t h e w o r k s o f t h e p h i l o so p h er Ju l i en O f f r o y d e L a M et t r i e13 — w as r ev i v ed i n l i t er a t u r e w i t h t h e sp r ead i n g o f Ed i so n 's an d B er l i n er 's i n v en t i o n s d u r i n g t h e l ast q u ar t er o f t h e 19 t h cen t u r y. O n e o f t h e f i ct i o n al w o r k s d i scu ssed b y G r i v el t h at b est i l l u st r at es t h e t r an s f o r m at i o n s t h at t o o k p l ace i n t h e 18 8 0 s i s T o m o r ro w ' s E v e , a n o v el p u b l i sh ed i n 18 8 6 b y V i l l i er s d e l 'l sl e- A d am .14 H e w as a cl o se f r i en d o f C h ar l es Cr o s, an i n v en t o r an d Fr en ch p o et w h o , ei gh t m o n t h s b ef o r e Ed i so n r ecei v ed h i s p at en t , h ad sen t a seal ed l et t er t o t h e Fr en ch A c ad em y o f Sci en ces i n w h i ch h e set o u t t h e p h o n o gr ap h i c p r o cess i n p l au si b l e d et ai l . A l t h o u g h o f t en r ef er r ed t o i n r el a t i on t o t h e ci n em a, T o m o rr o w ' s E v e i s a v er y r i ch w o r k w h o se h er m en eu t i c p o t en t i al i s f ar f r o m ex h au st ed . I t i s t h e st o r y i n w h i ch a f i ct i v e Ed i so n , g i v en m y t h i cal st at u s as t h e 'f at h er o f t h e p h o n o g r ap h ', ex p l o i t s h i s i n v en t i o n t o r e p r o d u ce a t al k i n g b ei n g m ech an i cal l y — a p r o j ect si m i l ar t o t h e t al k i n g d o l l t h at t h e r eal Ed i so n co m p l et ed i n 18 8 9 .15 T h e b o o k f o st er s a d i scu ssi o n o f t h e st at u s o f t h e v o i ce w i t h i n t h e au d i o v i su al d i sp o si t i v e, an d i n p ar t i cu l ar t h e r eco r d ed v o i ce, as t h e au t h o r em p h asi ses t h e i n d ex i cal n at u r e o f t h e p h o n o gr ap h i c r e co r d i n g. T h i s q u est i o n h as o f t en b een r ai sed , b u t g en er al l y n o t ex p l o r ed i n

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 3 5 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 3 5 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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d ep t h b y t h o se w h o h av e st u d i ed V i l l i er s's w o r k . Resear ch h as co n cen t r at ed o n t h e t ech n o l o gi cal d i m en si o n o f t h e w o r l d t h at i s r ep r esen t ed , ei t h er b ecau se i t i s t h e i m age t h at i s f o r egr o u n d ed , o r b ecau se t h e v ar i o u s sp o k en m an i f est at i o n s i n t h e b o o k ar e n o t co n si d er ed w i t h r eg ar d t o t h ei r p ar t i cu l ar ch ar act er i st i cs. A sy m p t o m at i c i l l u st r at i o n i s w h en A n d r é Bazi n , w h o su cci n ct l y r ef er s t o V i l l i er s's n o v el t o i l l u st r at e t h e 'm y t h o f t ot al ci n em a', d o es n o t r ef er t o t h e an d r o i d i t sel f, b u t si m p l y m en t i o n s t h e f i ct i t i o u s Ed i so n 's p r o j ect i o n o f an i m at ed scen es u si n g a l am p asco p e.16 Ev en t h o u gh t h e p assag e h e q u o t es en d s w i t h t h e d an cer si n g i n g, B az i n d o es n o t ad d r ess t h e q u est i o n o f t h e co u p l i n g o f t h e i m age an d t h e v o i ce. I n an ar t i cl e o n an t h r o p o m o r p h o u s si m u l acr a cr eat ed v i a au d i o v i su al t ech n o l o gy, T o m G u n n i n g d i scu sses B az i n ( al b ei t w i t h l i t t l e cr i t i cal d i st an ce) an d ci t es t h e w o r k o f V i l l i er s, b u t w i t h o u t go i n g i n t o d et ai l , cl ai m i n g t h at n u m er o u s an al y ses h av e al r ead y b een p u b l i sh ed .1” D esp i t e r ecu r r i n g r ef er en ces t o Tom or r ow’s Eve i n st u d i es i n v est i gat i n g t h e r ep r esen t at i o n o f sci en ce i n f u t u r i st i c

n o v el s an d st o r i es, I b el i ev e t h at t h i s p ar t i cu l ar n o v el m er i t s gr eat er at t en t i on f r o m t h e p o i n t o f v i ew o f t h e v o i ce an d t h e i m p l i cat i o n s o f p h o n o gr ap h i c t ech n o l o gy , f o r - as m an y sch o l ar s h av e u n d er l i n ed - i t i s a w o r k w h er e t h e r ep r e sen t at i o n o f t h e v o i ce i s a f u n d am en t al con cer n .

T h e v o ic e s in t h e n o v e l

O n e can see h o w i m p o r t an t v o i ces ar e i n T o m o rr o iv ' s E v e f r o m t h e v er y b egi n n i n g, w h en Ed i so n , i n h i s i n au gu r al m o n o l o gu e, l am en t s t h at h e h as n o t b een ab l e t o r eco r d al l t h e v o i ces f r o m t h e p ast , p ar t i cu l ar l y G o d 's v o i ce - w h i ch , on e m i gh t say, w o u l d h av e en ab l ed h i m t o p r o v i d e p h o n o g r ap h ic p r o o f f o r o n t o lo g ic al p r o o f . H er e V i l l i er s i s ex p r essi n g t h e d r eam o f acced i n g t o t h e d i v i n e b y m ean s o f t el eco m m u n i cat i o n s - a d r eam sh ar ed l at er b y G u g l i el m o M ar co n i , w h o h o p ed t o d ev el o p r ad i o p h o n y t o t h e p o i n t o f b ei n g ab l e t o cap t u r e Jesu s's l ast w o r d s o n t h e cr o ss.18 T h e d esi r e t o co n j u r e u p a p ast sh r o u d ed i n m y st er y sh o w s t o w h at ex t en t t h e r ecr eat ed v o i ce i s m ar k ed b y t h e ab sen ce o r d i sap p ear an ce o f b ei n g s - a si t u at i o n t h at al so co n cer n s G o d h i m sel f , w h o i n t h i s n o v el h as, as i t w er e, b een su p p l an t ed b y t h e m an o f sci en ce an d h i s sacr i l egi o u s ch al l en ge. T h e f u n ct i o n o f co m p en sat i n g f o r an 'ab sen ce' i s n o t co n f i n ed t o u ses o f t h e v o i ce, si n ce t h e p h o t o gr ap h i c i m age w as al so d est i n ed t o r ep l ace t h e p ai n t ed p o r t r ai t i n i t s cap aci t y t o co n ser v e a t r ace o f t h o se w h o h av e d i ed .19 H o w ev er , t h e ex am p l e o f t h e d i v i n e v o i ce i n V i l l i er s's w o r k r ev eal s an al m o st m y st i cal co n cep t i o n o f v o i ce p h en o m en a t h at ar e d ep r i v ed o f p h y si cal i n car n at i o n , asso ci at ed b o t h w i t h t h e o r i gi n s o f t h e w o r l d ( 'I n t h e b egi n n i n g w as t h e W o r d ') an d w i t h m an i f est at i o n s o f a so u r ce t h at el u d es r ep r esen t at i o n .

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 3 6 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 3 6 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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I n T o m o rr o w ' s E v e , Ed i so n 's so l i l o q u y p r ef i gu r es t h e w a y t h e v o i ce i s t r eat ed t h r o u gh o u t t h e n o v el . Fi r st l y, t h e m o n o l o gu e - an i n st an ce o f d ie g e t iz e d en u n ci a t i on - i s d i r ect d i sco u r se r el y i n g o n i n d i cat i o n s o f l i n gu i st i c r egi st er an d or al i t y. Seco n d l y, t h e v o i ce i s ex p l o i t ed as a n ar r at i v e m o t i f. O n e can j o i n G w en h ael Po n n au i n af f i r m i n g t h at 'n o t j u st t h em at i cal l y, b u t al so p o et i cal l y an d st r u ct u r al l y, T o m o rr o w ' s E v e m ay ap p ear as t h e n o v el o f t h e v o i ce, o r r at h er , o f v o i c es'.20 H o w ev er , Po n n au ex am i n es t h e p o l y p h o n i c st r u ct u r e an d v ar i o u s 'st ag e d i r ec t i o n s' w i t h o u t l i n k i n g su ch st y l i st i c ch ar act er i st i cs w i t h t h e t ech n o l o gi cal el e m en t b u i l t i n t o t h e h ear t o f t h e st or y. I t i s, h o w ev er , en l i gh t en i n g t o d r aw a co r r el at i o n b et w een t h e r ep r esen t at i o n o f t h e v o i ce an d t h e p r o b l em at i c o f t al k i n g m ach i n es i m ag i n ed b y V i l l i er s. N o t o n l y d o es h i s n o v el o f t en d escr i b e i n d et ai l t h e v o i ces o f f em i n i n e ch ar act er s ( r ef er r i n g t o t i m b r e, i n t en si t y, i n t o n a t i on , et c.), b u t h e al so b r i n gs i n v ar i o u s v o i ces h ear d i n aco u sm at i c si t u at i o n s, i .e., w h en t h e so u r ce o f t h e v o i ce can n o t b e seen . I n t h e d i eget i c u n i v er se o f t h e n o v el , su ch m an i f est at i o n s ar e m o t i v at ed ei t h er b y m ean s o f l o n g- d i st an ce co m m u n i cat i o n ( t el ep at h y o r t el ep h o n y) o r b y p l ay i n g a so u n d t h at h as al r ead y b een p r o d u ced ( p h o n o gr ap h y ) . So u n d s o f t h e f i r st t y p e o ccu r r i gh t f r o m t h e v er y b egi n n i n g o f E v e - t h e em p l o y ee an d Ed i so n 's so n ar e p r esen t ed o n l y as v o i ces. I n t h e t an gl ed w eb o f d i r ect d i sco u r se, t h e ex p r essi o n 'a v o i c e' o f t en d es i gn at es b y sy n ecd o ch e t h e v ar i o u s ch ar act er s.21 T h e v o i ce i s t h u s asso ci at ed w i t h an ab sen ce t h at t h e p h o n o gr ap h i s p ar t i al l y u sed t o co v er — j u st as t h e an d r o i d i s t h e i d eal i sed su b st i t u t e f o r t h e r eal w o m an . Ed i so n , w h o i s i so l at ed i n h i s l ab o r at o r y, i s l o at h t o sp eak d i r ect l y t o h i s i n t er l o cu t o r s, b u t r ep l i es si m p l y b y set t i n g o f f a p h o n o g r ap h l i n k ed t o a t el ep h o n e (p. 16 ) . T h u s, h i s r el at i o n sh i p w i t h o t h er s i s st r o n gl y m ed i at i sed b y t h e t ech n i q u es o f v o i ce r ep r o d u ct i o n an d t r an sm i ssi o n . T h i s so m ew h at aso ci al b eh av i o u r m ay w el l h ar k b ack t o V i l l i er s's i n i t i al i n t en t i on , w h i ch w as t o p o r t r ay Ed i so n i n a sar cast i c m an n er . H o w ev er , t h e n o v el o f t en u ses v o i ce- o f f , t h e so u r ce o f w h i ch i s si t u at ed el sew h er e (i .e., t h e sl eep er A n y A n d er so n ) , o r ev en i n a t i m e an d p l ace d i f f er en t f r o m t h at o f t h e l i st en er ( w h en H ad al y r ep eat s A l i ci a's w o r d s) , t h u s st r essi n g t h e d i sso ci at i o n an d d i sem b o d i m en t b r o u gh t ab o u t b y act i v at i n g Ed i so n 's d i sp o si t i v es. Fu r t h er m o r e, t h e sep ar at i o n b et w een t h e p h y si c al p er so n an d sp eech i s ex p l i ci t l y t h em at i z ed b y Ed i so n , w h o cl ai m s t o b e ab l e t o p r eser v e A l i ci a's b o d y w h i l e m o d i f y i n g h er s o u l, an d t h u s f u l f i l h i s f r i en d 's w i sh . A s Fr an c Sch u er ew egen h as w r i t t en , V i l l i er s's Ed i so n m an ag es t o 'ab d u ct t h e p r esen t o f a b ei n g b y cap t u r i n g h er v o i ce, w h i ch i s cl o sest t o t h e so u l , an d t h u s t o t h e essen ce'.22 T h i s f u n d am en t al d i ch o t o m y b et w een (t he) b ei n g an d ap p ear i n g al l o w s a d i st i n ct i o n t o b e m ad e b et w een t h e d i m en si o n s o f t h e w o r d an d t h e v o i ce w h en L o r d E w al d say s o f h i s l o v er t h a t ' . .. h er w o r d s seem ed co n st r ai n ed an d o u t o f p l ace i n h er m o u t h .' (p. 31) . M o r eo v er , t h e sam e o p p o si t i o n al r at i o n al e ( b o d y - so u l , b o d y - v o i ce) g o v er n s t h e v al u e j u d gem en t s m ad e r eg ar d i n g t h e at t r i b u t es o f t h e

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 3 7 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 3 7 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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v o i ce. W i t h t h e p o r t r ai t t h at V i l l i er s d r aw s o f A l i ci a, t h er e i s a co n t r ast b et w een t h e p er f ect i o n o f t h e i n n at e an d t h e m ed i o cr i t y o f w h at i s acq u i r ed - ev er y t h i n g n o t b el o n gi n g t o h er 'essen ce' i s t ai n t ed b y t h e b ase asp i r at i o n s o f t h e p h i l i st i n e. Fo r ex am p l e, h e n o t es t h at sh e sp eak s 'af t er t h e f ash i o n o f a sal esw o m en i n a d ep ar t m en t st o r e, b u t i n a v o i ce o f p er f ect cl ar i t y ' (p. 16 9 , m y i t al i cs) . T h e cap t u r i n g o f t h e v o i ce i s t h u s p r esen t ed as an u n d er t ak i n g t o ex t r act on e p ar t o f t h e r eal w h i ch , w h en assem b l ed w i t h a n ew el em en t , co n t r i b u t es t o cr eat i n g t h e f em i n i n e i d eal . I t i s n o co i n ci d en ce t h at A l i ci a i s a si n ger , l i k e t h e p r i m a d o n n a L a St i l l a i n V er n e's C ar p at h ian C as t le 23 - i t i s a p r o f essi o n t h at i s asso ci at ed w i t h a v o cal p er f o r m an ce t h at i s g r o u n d ed i n h u m an ex p r essi v i t y .

P h o n o g ra p h y a n d illu s io n

B y m ak i n g t h e p h o n o g r ap h t h e k ey i n v en t i o n f r o m w h i ch o n e m ay d er i v e v ar i o u s ap p l i cat i o n s, V i l l i er s i n scr i b es h i s i m ag i n ar y i n v en t i o n i n w h at Ri ck A l t m an d ef i n es as a co n t ext o f 'i n t er m ed i al i t y '.24 T h e m ak i n g o f t h e an d r o i d - d e scr i b ed w i t h f et i sh i st - l i k e p r eci si o n - r eq u i r es sev er al u ses o f t h e p r o j ect ed i m age. I t i s t h u s p r esen t ed as t h e p r o d u ct o f a v i su al r ep r esen t at i o n t h at ex ceed s t h e au t o m at o n 's m er e p h y si cal p r esen ce. W h en V i l l i er s w r o t e t h at h i s Ed i so n i n t en d ed t o su r p ass su ch m ak er s o f au t o m at a as V au can so n o r M ael z el (p. 6 1) , h e w as u n d er l i n i n g t h e f i l i at i o n b et w een h i s ch ar act er an d t h ese au t o m at am ak er s w i t h w h o m h i s Ed i so n - as o p p o sed t o t h e r eal Ed i so n , w h o w as al w ay s i n t er est ed i n t h e i n d u st r i al p r o sp ect s o f h i s i n v en t i o n s - sh ar ed an ar t i san al co n cep t i o n o f au t o m at a m an u f act u r i n g, w h i l e su r p assi n g t h em t h an k s t o h i s m as t er y o f p h o n o gr ap h i c t ech n i q u es. Ev en i f v i su al m ach i n er y d o es n ot i n t er ven e p er se i n t h e f u n ct i o n i n g o f t h e m ech an i cal b ei n g, i t i s n ecessar y f o r t h e co n cep t i on o f i t s b o d y an d esp eci al l y t o set u p sy n ch r o n i sm b et w een w o r d an d m o v e m en t . Ed i so n f i r st u ses a p r o j ect i o n d i sp o si t i v e, w h o se 'su c c essi v e p h o t o gr ap h s' al l o w h i m t o sh o w L o r d E w al d t h e an i m at ed i m age o f a d an cer . I t i s n o t a si l en t p r o j ect i o n , f o r t h e si n ger si n gs, an d V i l l i er s co m m en t s t h at t h e T i p m o v em en t ' i s al so r ep r o d u ced , i n d i cat i n g sy n ch r o n i sm . I t i s i n t er est i n g t o n o t e t h at t h e i l l u so r y st at u s o f t h e au d i o v i su al r ep r esen t at i o n i s n ev er cal l ed i n t o q u est i o n b y t h e ch ar act er s p r esen t at t h e sp ect acl e, ev en t h o u gh t h e d em o n st r at i o n ai m s p r e ci sel y t o sh o w t h e d ecep t i v e ap p ear an ce (cf. t h e m i sl ead i n g ou t f i t ) o f t h e f i l m ed su b ject . T h e i l l u si o n o f t h e r ep r esen t at i o n p r o d u ced b y t h e d i sp o si t i v e i s, as it w er e, t r an sf er r ed on t o t h e n at u r e o f t h e r ep r esen t ed o b ject i n acco r d an ce w i t h a p r o cess t h at r esem b l es t h e f i l m sp ect at o r 's i m m er si o n i n t h e f i l m i c d i egesi s. G i v en V i l l i er s's sci en t i f i c sp ecu l at i o n s, w e n ot e t h at h e p o st u l at es t ot al f i d el i t y o f t h e au d i o v i su al r ep r o d u ct i o n t o i t s so u r ce (i n fact , i t s r efer en t ) . I n t h e d escr i p -

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 3 8 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 3 8 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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t i v e sect i o n s, V i l l i er s d o es i n d eed d escr i b e t h e f u n ct i o n i n g o f Ed i so n 's ap p ar a t u ses, b u t h e t en d s t o co n ceal t h e r ep r esen t at i o n al d i m en si o n o f t h e p h o n o gr ap h ed v o i ces b y r ep eat ed l y st r essi n g t h ei r p er f ect i o n . T h u s, t h e sp eak er p ay s ab so l u t el y n o at t en t i o n t o t h e r eco r d i n g si t u at i o n w h en sh e sp eak s - A l i ci a's v o i ce i s f i x ed u n b ek n o w n st t o A l i ci a, as i f t h e o p t i m i sat i o n o f t h e r ep r o d u ct i o n q u al i t i es w as i n d ep en d en t o f t h e 'p r o p h o n o g r ap h i c ' co n d i t i o n s.25 M o r eo v er , t h e f u n ct i o n i n g o f t h e ap p ar at u s seem s t o h av e n o i n f l u en ce w h at so ev er o n t h e r es t i t u t i o n o f t h e v o i ce, w h er eas r i gh t u p t o at l east t h e f i r st y ear s o f t h e t w en t i et h cen t u r y, p eo p l e co n st an t l y co m m en t ed o n t h e i m p er f ect i o n o f t h e p h o n o gr ap h i c r ep r o d u ct i o n o f t h e v o i ce's ch ar act er i st i cs.26 T h i s co n cep t i o n - w h i ch co u l d al so b e d et ect ed i n Ju l es V er n e's w r i t i n g s27 - w h er eb y o n e d o es n o t p er cei v e so u n d t ech n o l o gy as su ch i n f l u en ced t h e d o m i n an t t h i n k i n g o n m at t er s au d i o v i su al d u r i n g t h e t w en t i et h cen t u r y ( al o n gsi d e t h e r ar e co m m en t at o r s w h o r eco m m en d ed ex h i b i t i n g t h e m ech an i cal si d e o f t h e p h o n o gr ap h ) .28 G i v en t h at t h e t ech n o l o gy i s i n au d i b l e, t h e r ep r esen t at i o n p asses f o r p er f ect r est i t u t i o n , as i f t h e t r an sm i ssi o n d i d n ot r eq u i r e a t r an sd u cer . T h i s i d eo l o g y r each ed i t s ap o gee w i t h t h e ap p ear an ce o f t h e so - cal l ed h i gh f i d el i t y sy st em s.29

M a c h in e r e p r e s e n t a t io n as a n a u d io v is u a l d is p o s itiv e : th e a n d r o id a n d its s p e c t a t o r

T h e i d ea p u t f o r w ar d b y V i l l i er s o f l i n k i n g t h e l am p asco p e w i t h t h e p h o n o g r ap h h ad p r o b ab l y b een ci r cu l at i n g si n ce t h e t i m e o f t h e v er y f i r st p r esen t a t i o n s o f t h e p h o n o gr ap h , as can b e seen i n a r ev i ew p u b l i sh ed i n 18 78 : It i s al r ead y possi ble b y i n gen i ous opt i cal con t r i vances t o t h r ow st er eoscopi c phot o gr aph s of people on scr een s in full vi ew of an audi en ce. A d d t he t alk i n g ph on ogr aph t o count er fei t t hei r voi ces, an d it w ou ld be di ffi cul t to car r y t he i llusi on of r eal p r e sence m uch fur t her .30 I n V i l l i er s's n o v el , Ed i so n 's ex p er i m en t p u t s L o r d E w al d i n t h e p o si t i o n o f au d i o - sp ect at o r , t h u s cr eat i n g a d i sp o si t i v e. T h e an d r o i d 's i n t er act i o n s w i t h L o r d E w al d t h at f o l l o w ar e, si gn i f i can t l y , cal l ed 'scen es' o n sev er al o ccasi o n s. Bu t b ef o r e h e f al l s f o r t h e i l l u si o n , h e i s f i l l ed w i t h i n d i gn at i o n ab o u t Ed i so n 's v ast am b i t i o n an d ex cl ai m s: 'B u t I w as f o r get t i n g; t h i s i s a t h eat er , I 'm w at ch i n g a st age sh o w ! I 'm b o u n d t o ap p l au d . T h e l ast scen e w as r eal l y go o d - st r an ge, i n d eed , b u t st r o n g!' (p. 20 1) . T h e r el at i o n sh i p t h at d ev el o p s b et w een Ed i so n an d h i s g u est i s t h u s gr o u n d ed i n t h e co n t ext o f t h e sp ect acl e (a k i n d o f scen i c p er f o r m an ce) , w h i ch i n cl u d es t h e ob ject o f t h e ex h i b i t i o n (t h e au t o m at o n ) an d t h e t w o p o l es o f co m m u n i cat i o n (t h e i n st i gat o r an d t h e sp ect at o r ) . I t i s si gn i f i can t

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 3 9 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 3 9 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

O n t h e S in g u la r S ta tu s o f t h e H u m a n V o ic e

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t h at L o r d E w al d q u al i f i es t h e co n t en t s o f t h e p h o n o gr ap h i c i n scr i p t i o n s as 'p ar ad o x es' (p. 20 1) : h e j u d g es t h at w h en a m ach i n e i s cap ab l e o f co n d u ct i n g a co n v er sat i o n , t h er e i s a l ack o f v er i si m i l i t u d e, ev en w i t h i n t h e fi ct i o n . T h i s i s a n o d al p o i n t o n t h e n ar r at i v e l ev el , g i v en t h at Ed i so n k eep s p u t t i n g o f f h i s ex p l a n at i o n , an d w as a d eci si v e st age i n t h e g en esi s o f t h e n o v el , as V i l l i er s o n l y h i t u p o n t h e f i n al o u t co m e af t er sev er al y ear s. T h e an d r o i d 's f u n ct i o n i n g w as o n l y f i n al l y cl ar i f i ed w h en t h e w o r k , w h i ch i s p r esen t ed as a r ew r i t i n g o f t h e Bo o k o f Gen esi s, w as co m p l et ed : p h o n o g r ap h y i s t h e i n st r u m en t r ep eat i n g t h e f o u n d i n g act , w i t h t h e gi f t o f sp eech gu ar an t eei n g t h at t h e ar t ef act i s en d o w ed w i t h h u m an q u al i t i es. T h i s i s w h y Ed i so n , l i k e t h e n o v el i t sel f, m ak es t h i s gi f t h i s u l t i m at e p u r p o se. I f si l en ce h as t h e l ast w o r d — i t i s l i t er al l y t h e l ast w o r d o f t h e b o o k - t h i s i s b ecau se t h e d i v i n e o r i gi n p r o v es i n t h e en d t o b e u n su r p assab l e. I f w e t u r n o u r at t en t i o n t o t h e i m age, w e see t h at i t i n t er v en es v i a t h e cr af t i n g o f H ad al y , t h an k s t o a ser i es o f m ar k s m ad e on t h e b asi s o f 'p h o t o gr ap h i c en l ar gem en t s'31 (p. 15 1) . 32 T h e p h y si cal ap p ear an ce o f t h i s ar t i f i ci al b ei n g i s i n d eed t h e r esu l t o f a ser i es o f i m ages si m i l ar t o t h o se o b t ai n ed b y Et i en n e- Ju l es M ar ey b y m ean s o f h i s ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h i c t ech n i q u e.33 T h i s p ar t o f t h e n o v el su g gest s a p o ssi b l e l i n k b et w een au t o m at a an d d ev i ces p r o j ect i n g an i m at ed f i l m s, d esp i t e t h e f act t h e r o l e o f t h e p r o j ect ed an i m at ed i m ag e i s co n f i n ed t o cr eat i n g t h e m ach i n e — t h er e i s n o t r ace o f t h e p r o j ect i o n sy st em u sed t o co n cei v e i t on ce i t i s f i n i sh ed . V i l l i er s's Ed i so n j u st i f i es su ch u p - f r o n t ex p er i m en t s b y u n d er l i n i n g t h e n eed f o r a co r r el at i o n b et w een t h e l i n e r ep r esen t i n g t h e b o d y m o v em en t s i n scr i b ed o n t h e cy l i n d er - i t sel f a t ool r el at ed t o t h e p h o n o gr ap h i c p r o cess an d t h e g r o o v e r esu l t i n g f r o m t h e r eco r d i n g o f t h e v o i ce. H e cal l s t h i s p r o cess 'ex p r essi v e co r r esp o n d en ces' an d m ak es t h e f o l l o w i n g co m m en t o n it : 'I t f o l l o w s acc o r d i n gl y ( d o es i t n ot ?) t h at t h e act i o n o f t w o p h o n o gr ap h s, co m b i n ed w i t h t h at o f t h e cy l i n d er , m u st p r o d u ce a p er f ect sy n ch r o n i z i n g o f w o r d s an d gest u r es as w el l as o f t h e m o v em en t o f t h e l i p s' (p. 132) . T h i s ex p l an at i o n sh o w s t h e i m p o r t an ce g i v en t o v o i ce- l i p sy n ch r o n i sm - a p r i n ci p l e w h i ch w o u l d l at er co m e t o d o m i n at e t al k i n g ci n em a. D esp i t e t h e p er f ect i o n o f t h e f i ct i t i o u s Ed i so n 's cr eat i o n , V i l l i er s p o i n t s t o t h e f act t h at t h e w o r d can n o t b e r ed u ced t o t h e l ev el o f t h e m ach i n e, w h i ch , f u n d a m en t al l y, h as n o so u l . T h e m o v em en t t h at ch ar act er i ses ch r o n o p h o t o gr ap h i c p r o j ect i o n d o es i n d eed an i m at e t h ings, b u t o n l y t h e v o i ce t r u l y 'an i m at es' t h e bei n gs r ep r esen t ed . Fo r V i l l i er s, t h e l aw s o f m ech an i cs an d aco u st i cs ar e n ot su f

f i ci en t t o at t ai n t h i s o r i gi n o f t h e vo i ce.

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 4 0 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 4 0 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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W h en i n Eve, Ed i so n co m m u n i cat es w i t h M en l o Par k , a d i sem b o d i m en t r esu l t s b o t h f r o m t h e u se o f t h e p h o n o g r ap h (t h e m an i f est at i o n o f so u n d d ef er r ed i n t i m e) an d t h at o f t h e t el ep h o n e (t h e sp at i al sep ar at i o n b et w een t h e p l aces o f sen d i n g an d r ecei v i n g) . T h i s d o u b l e d em at er al i z at i o n o f t h e sp eak er i s al so p l ay ed o u t o n an o t h er l ev el w i t h t h e i n t er v en t i o n o f A n y So w an a, as t h e i n v en t or co n t act s t h i s sp i r i t b o t h b y m ean s o f h i s gi f t f o r t el ep at h y b u t al so , m o r e con cr et el y, u si n g a t el ep h o n e h an d set . T h u s, as Ed i so n ex p l ai n s t o L o r d Ew al d , his t r an sm i ssi o n r eal l y i s 'o ccu l t ', w h i l e h er r ep l y co m es 'b y w ay o f el ect r i ci t y '.34

T h i s p r i n ci p l e i s i l l u st r at ed ear l i er i n t h e b o o k i n a d i al o g u e i n w h i ch w e d i s co v er A n y So w an a's h ear i n g p er cep t i o n , d ep i ct i n g t h e st r an gen ess i n h er en t i n t h e su d d en b o o m i n g f o r t h o f a v o i ce w i t h o u t a b o d y. I n t h i s p assag e, w e n ot e t h at t h e t el ep h o n e an d p h o n o g r ap h i n t er ven e t o get h er t o act i v at e t h e t al k i n g au t o m at o n - an al l i an ce t h at i s sy m p t o m at i c o f t h e l ack o f a cl ear b o u n d ar y b et w een t h e p ar ad i g m s o f t h e i n scr i p t i o n an d t r an sm i ssi o n o f so u n d s at t h e en d o f t h e 19 t h cen t u r y. Pat r i ce C ar r é, f o r ex am p l e, h as u n d er l i n ed t h at t h e ap p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e t el ep h o n e w er e at f i r st b o t h u n cer t ai n an d v ar i ed , w i t h Bel l 's i n v en t i on so m et i m es b ei n g en v i sag ed as 'co m p l em en t ar y t o t h e p h o n o g r ap h '.35 V i l l i er s l et s t h e i n v i si b l e So w an a ex p l ai n p r eci sel y h o w t h i s d i sp o si t i v e f u n ct i o n s: - It's a m ar vel of t hough t an d i ngenui t y, bu t per fect ly n at ur al n ow t hat it 's been br ough t to realit y. Look : for m e t o h ear you , i n t he m i xed an d m ar vel ou s stat e w h er e I n ow am ... t here's n o n eed of a t elephone. But for you to h ear m e, you or an y on e of you r vi si t or s, i sn 't it t rue t hat t he t eleph on e w h ose m out h pi ece I'm n ow h oldi n g m ust be li nk ed t o a sou n d i n g box, h ow ever concealed? (p. 12) So w an a h as t o u se p r o st h et i c t ech n o l o gy i n o r d er t o m at er i al i se t h e so u n d o f h er v o i ce i n sp ace an d sp eak . V i l l i er s u n d er l i n es j u st h o w p er f ect t h e t r an sm i ssi o n ap p ar at u s i s,36 an d t h an k s t o t h e t el ep h o n e, t h e sp eak er est ab l i sh es p r o x i m i t y an d i n t i m acy w i t h t h e l i st en er , m ak i n g t h e t ech n i cal i n st r u m en t si m i l ar t o t h e t el ep at h y t h at i s u sed t o en su r e t h e r eci p r o cal n at u r e o f t h e co m m u n i cat i o n . V i l l i er s's Ed i so n p r o v i d es h i s g u est w i t h a v er i t ab l e séance w h er e t h e b ey o n d i s r each ed t h an k s t o t h e co m b i n ed p o w er o f t h e sp i r i t an d el ect r i ci t y. T h e w a y i n w h i c h V i l l i er s t h o u gh t o u t t h e st o r y i s i n d i cat i v e o f t h e si m i l ar i t i es - i n t h e co l l ect i v e i m agi n at i o n at t h at t i m e, an d st i l l t o d ay f o r t h o se w h o b el i ev e i n t h e p h en o m en o n o f 'ch an n el l i n g' — b et w een t ech n o l o gy an d t h e 'p ar a- sci en t i f i c' f i el d . T h i s m eet i n g b et w een t h e o ccu l t d i m en si o n an d a t ech n o l o gy t h at al l o w s i n st an t an eo u s co m m u n i cat i o n at a d i st an ce - a m i x t u r e o f i n gen i o u sn ess an d

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 4 1 h t t p :/ /s ite . e b ra ry .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 4 1 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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t h e i d eal , as A n y So w an a p u t s i t — r ev eal s t h e r ap p r o ch em en t b et w een t el egr a p h y an d m o d er n sp i r i t u al i sm t h at Jef f r ey Sco n ce h as ex am i n ed i n t h e d i sco u r ses o f t h e seco n d h al f o f t h e 19 t h cen t u r y,37 a p ar ad i g m t h at co n t i n u ed o n i n t o t h e 20 t h cen t u r y v i a v ar i o u s m y st i cal o r r el i gi o u s u ses o f t el ep h o n y.38 T h e p r esen ce o f t h e o ccu l t an d t h e su p er n at u r al i n E v e r em i n d s u s t h at t h e st r i ct l y t ech n o l o gi cal co n t ext m u st n ot o v er sh ad o w t h e sy m b o l i st si d e o f V i l l i er s's w o r k . T h e u se o f sp i r i t i st m ean s t o al l o w t h e m ach i n e t o sp eak sh o w s h o w f ar h e b el i ev ed t h at sp eak i n g i s t o t al l y i n co m p at i b l e w i t h t h e m ech an i cal asp ect . T h e s in g u lar it y o f t h e v o i ce co m es f r o m t h e i n d est r u ct i b l e l i n k i t h as w i t h an i n d i v i d u al - f o r V i l l i er s, t h e d i st i n ct i o n b et w een t h e h u m an an d t h e i n h u m an p ar t l y r est ed o n t h e o p p o si t i o n b et w een p r o d u ct i o n an d r ep r o d u ct i o n at t h e l ev el o f t h e v o i ce. T h e si m u l t an eo u sl y o ccu l t an d t ech n o l o gi cal o r i gi n o f t h e r e p r o d u ced v o i ce r ev eal s — l i k e t h e o x y m o r o n 'T o m o r r o w 's E v e' o f t h e t i t l e - t h e p ar ad o x o f t h e sy m b o l i sm t h at r esi d es i n t h e co l l u si o n o f t h e m y t h o lo g ic al (t h e m y t h o f A d am an d t h e o r i g i n o f h u m an k i n d ) an d s c ie n t is m . A l t h o u gh V i l l i er s i n i t i al l y i n t en d ed t o co m b at p o si t i v i sm j u st as h e h ad d o n e i n so m e o f h i s t ales, t h e f i n al v er si o n o f h i s n o v el b ear s w i t n ess t o a cl ear at t r act i o n t o sci en t i sm , d esp i t e t h e en d i n g, w h er e h e u n d er l i n es t h e v an i t y o f m an 's at t em p t s - l i k e Pr o m et h eu s —t o b eco m e m ast er o f h i s o w n d est i n y. T h e t ech n o l o gi cal d i m en si o n t h at V i l l i er s p r esen t ed m ay b e en v i sag ed b y co m p ar i n g i t w i t h t h e t al k i e. D e lin kin g b et w een t h e sp o k en v o i ce an d t h e v i su a l i sed b o d y o ccu r s w h en t h e v o i ce seem s m o m en t ar i l y t o d et ach i t sel f f r o m i t s h u m an o r i gi n , an d w h i l e i t d o es n o t ex act l y r ev eal i t s n at u r e as a r eco r d i n g, i t d o es u n v ei l t h e t r i ck o f v o i ce- l i p sy n ch r o n i sm .39 I n t h e n o v el , t h e ch ar act er o f M i ss A l i c i a i s asso ci at ed w i t h t h e i d ea o f d i sp ar i t y b et w een b ei n g an d ap p ear i n g. H er 'au d i o v i su al ' r ep r o d u ct i o n - t h e r esu l t o f co m p l ex o p er at i o n s t h at en su r e t h e sy n ch r o n i sat i o n o f t h e v ar i o u s m ech an i sm s — p r o d u ces a m er gi n g o f A l i c i a's p h y si cal b eau t y an d t h e i n t er i o r p er f ect i o n t h at h er m o d el d o es n ot h av e. T h e r esu l t i s t o r ep ai r an y d el i n k i n g effect . T h e w o r k 's t ech n o l o gi cal U t o p i an i sm t h u s r esi d es m o r e d eep l y i n a u n i t ar y co n cep t i o n o f t h e an d r o i d - t h e co m p l et e i l l u si o n o f l i fe. I n ci r ca 18 8 0 , an ad v er t i sem en t f o r a sp ect acl e i n v o l v i n g au t o m at a em p h a si z ed h o w t h e i n v en t i o n b ei n g ex h i b i t ed w as b o t h su p er i o r t o an d d i f f er en t f r o m r ep r o d u ct i o n d ev i ces: 'D o n o t co n f u se t h i s m ar v el l o u s m ach i n e, u n i q u e i n t h e w o r l d , w i t h t h e p h o n o gr ap h , w h i ch i s si m p l y an EC H O ef f ect '.40 T h u s, t h e f act t h at sp eech w as p r o d u ced w i t h o u t p r ev i o u s r eco r d i n g w as u sed as a p u b l i ci t y ar gu m en t , ev en t h o u gh t h i s p r o cess w as b y n o m ean s a n ew on e, b u t b e l o n ged t o t h e t r ad i t i o n o f f ace- t o - f ace co m m u n i cat i o n . Si m i l ar l y , V i l l i er s h i g h l i gh t ed t h e l i m i t s o f p h o n o gr ap h i c r ep r o d u ct i o n , su g gest i n g t h at t h ey w er e o u t m at ch ed b y t h e 't ech n i q u es' o f o ccu l t i sm : So w an a's sp i r i t ex p r esses i t sel f t h r o u gh t h e an d r o i d 's m o u t h w i t h t h e u n cer t ai n t i es t h at ar e ch ar act er i st i c o f

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 4 2 h tt p ://s it e . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 4 2 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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ev er y d ay co n v er sat i o n , an d i n t er act s w i t h t h e au d i o - sp ect at o r . Sp i r i t i sm an d p h o n o g r ap h y d o , h o w ev er , h av e o n e t h i n g i n co m m o n . Ed i so n cal l s u p A n y So w an a's sp i r i t t h an k s t o h i s m agn et i si n g p o w er s t h at h e u ses o n M i st r ess A n d er so n , w h o l i es i n an o t h er r o o m i n a q u asi - cat al ep t i c st at e. I n o t h er w o r d s, So w an a's sp i r i t can b e f r eed t h an k s t o t h e d i sso ci at i o n f r o m t h e b o d y o f a t h i r d p er so n w h o p l ay s t h e p ar t o f i n t er m ed i ar y, i .e., 'm ed i u m '. I f o n e l i n k s t h i s i n t er v en t i o n o f t h e su p er n at u r al w i t h Ed i so n 's v ar i o u s i n v en t i o n s w h er e v o i ce an d b o d y ar e sep ar at ed , o n e u n d er st an d s w h at i t i s ab o u t t h e p h o n o g r ap h t h at co u l d b e co n cei v ed o f as an at t r act i ve, y et r ep u l si v e, d em i u r gi c i n ven t i o n . I n E v e , t h e m eet i n g b et w een a f o r sak en v o i ce w i t h an ar t i f i ci al b o d y t h at i s d ed i

cat ed t o t h e m ech an i cal n ess o f t h e p h o n o g r ap h i s p r esen t ed as t h e gu ar an t ee o f au d i o v i su al co m p l et en ess. It i s i n st r u ct i v e t h at t h e co r n er st o n e o f V i l l i er s's sci en t i f i c U t o p i a b el o n g s t o 'p sy c h i c m agn et i sm '. H e n eed s t h e h el p o f t h e su p er n at u r al t o cast o u t t h e an g u i sh o f ab sen ce p r o v o k ed b y t h e p h o n o gr ap h , t o av o i d t h e m o n st r o si t y t h at t h e p h o n o gr ap h i c v o ic e r ep r esen t s w h en d et ach ed f r o m an y s o u l - a t o t al l y d eh u m an i z ed v o i ce, l i k e t h at o f M ar cel Sch w o b 's L a M a c h in e a p ar le r ( 18 9 2) .41 T h i s m o t i f i s p ar t o f t h e b r o ad er asp i r at i o n s o f t h e

sy m b o l i st i n f l u en ce, w h i ch d en o u n ced t h e m at er i al f o u n d at i o n s o f f i n d e s ie c le so ci et y w h i l e i t so u gh t t o f i n d t h e l ost so u l , ev en i f i t m ean t av ai l i n g o n esel f o f t h e p r o d u ct s ( m at er i al ) o f i n d u st r y, as i s t h e case i n t h e n o v el E v e , w h i ch i s p ar t i cu l ar l y am b i v al en t i n t h i s r esp ect . T ech n o l o gy n o t o n l y af f ect s t h e sp ect at o r s i n w ay s t h at ar e cl o se t o t h o se o f 'm ag i c ' p h en o m en a, b u t can al so b e u sed f o r sp i r i t i st p r act i ces. Jam es L ast r a n o t es t h at t h e t r an sf o r m at i o n s b r o u gh t ab o u t b y t h e t ech n o l o gi es o f p h o t o g r a p h y, p h o n o g r ap h y an d t el egr ap h y al so af f ect ed t h e d i sco u r ses an d m et h o d s o f sp i r i t i sm .42 A s ear l y as 16 73, A t h an ase K i r ch er r ecal l ed t h at m an y o f t h o se w h o m en t i o n ed 't al k i n g h ead s' h ad i n t er p r et ed t h e v o i ces p r o d u ced b y t h ese 'm a ch i n es' as d i ab o l i cal , b ecau se t h e d ev i l w as su p p o sed t o m an i f est i t sel f i n t h e sh ap e o f a v o i c e sp o k en b y st at u es.43 V i l l i er s's t al k i n g m ach i n es go h an d i n h an d w i t h a b el i ef i n t h e su p er n at u r al , an d t h an k s t o Ed i so n , t h e 'm o d em ' f u n c t i o n i n g o f t h e an d r o i d i n h er i t s a m ed i u m 's an cest r al p o w er s. T h i s co n t am i n at i o n o f t h e t ech n o l o gi cal b y t h e m ar v el l o u s seem s t o b e co n n ect ed t o t h e p o l y sem y o f t h e t er m 'm ed i u m ': f r o m m e d ial t o m e d iu m t h er e i s b u t o n e st ep , f r o m t h e m at er i al p r esen ce o f t h e m ech an i sm t o ... t h e b ey o n d . I t i s i n t er est i n g t o r ecal l t h at i n t h e 19 20 s, t h e ( r eal ) Ed i so n set o u t t o i m p r o v e t h e O u i j a b o ar d t h at w as u sed m an u al l y b y m ed i u m s, al t h o u gh h i m sel f n o ad ep t o f t h e C au se. T o t h i s en d , h e d ev el o p ed an el ect r i c r eco r d i n g ap p ar at u s, w h o se am p l i f i cat i o n sy st em w as p ar t i cu l ar l y sen si t i v e.44 T h e f o cu s o f i n t er est o n b o t h t ech n o l o gi cal an d p ar asci en t i f i c su b j ect s d eal i n g w i t h v o i ce p h en o m en a m ad e u p o n e o f t h e m ai n cu l t u r al co n t ext s u n d er l y i n g t h e r ep r esen t at i o n o f t h e t al k i n g au t o m at o n i n V i l l i er s's w o r k .

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 4 3 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 4 3 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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Fo l l o w i n g t h e ex am p l e o f Fr an c Sch u er ew egen ,45 o n e m ay d r aw a p ar al l el b e t w een V i l l i er s's p r eci se an d p o w er f u l r ep r esen t at i o n o f t ech n o l o gy an d t h e p h i l o so p h er Jean - Fr an ço i s L y o t ar d 's co m m en t s ab o u t n ew

t ech n o l o gi es. W h en

co m p ar i n g aest h et i cs an d t h e n ew m ean s o f co m m u n i cat i o n , L y o t ar d n o t es an i m p o r t an t u p h eav al , w h i ch st em s f r o m t h e sp at i o - t em p o r al 'l i b er at i o n ' o f d at a r ecep t i o n . T h e m u t at i o n d i scu ssed b y L y o t ar d can t h u s b e as m u ch ap p l i ed t o t h e su b j ect h e ad d r esses - t h e d i gi t al i sat i o n o f d at a46 - as t o t h e o l d er t ech n o l o g y o f p h o n o gr ap h y . L y o t ar d 's q u est i o n s ( d o es n o t t h e 't el e' el em en t n ecessar i l y b l u r t h e p r esen ce, t h e hi c et n u n c o f 'car n al ' f o r m s an d t h ei r r ecep t i o n ?') 47 r eflect a d i al ect i c o f p r esen ce an d ab sen ce t h at i s si m i l ar t o t h at w h i ch i s r ai sed b y V i l l i er s's n o v el , w i t h t h e A n d r o i d i n t r o d u ci n g t h e t h em e — al b ei t i n an i d eal i sed m o d e - o f t h e p er si st en ce o f t h e car n al co n st i t u en t . T h e au t o m at o n H ad al y sp eak s f r o m an o t h er sp ace, u si n g w o r d s car r i ed b y a v o i ce r eco r d ed befor e an d elsewh er e. H o w ev er , w h en co m p ar ed t o t h e r em o v al o f t h e o r i gi n o f t h e v o i ce

al o n e, t o d ay 's co n t ext t o w h i ch L y o t ar d r ef er s i n t r o d u ces a su p p l em en t ar y d e gr ee o f n o n - r eal i sat i o n — t h at o f t h e m at h em at i cal t r an sl at i o n o f so u n d s i n t o i n f o r m at i o n . D i gi t al i z at i o n d o es, o f co u r se, p l ace al l au d i o v i su al d at a o n an eq u al f o o t i n g, b u t V i l l i er s g i v es a sp eci al st at u s t o v o i ce an d sp eech . I t i s st r i k i n g t o n o t e i n a t ext d escr i b i n g t h e p o ssi b i l i t i es o f h i s i n v en t i o n j u st h o w st r o n g l y t h e r eal Ed i so n st r esses t h e i ssu e o f t h e ab sen ce o f t h e so u r ce. H e n o t es t h at r ep r o d u ct i o n i s r eal i sed 'w i t h o u t t h e p r esen ce o r co n sen t o f t h e o r i g i n al so u r ce', an d t h at t h e m u l t i p l i cat i o n o f so u n d s can b e car r i ed o u t 'w i t h o u t r eg ar d f o r t h e ex i st en ce o r n o n - exi st en ce o f t h e o r i gi n al so u r ce'.48 H e i s, o f co u r se, r ef er r i n g t o t h e l egal an d co m m er ci al ad v an t ag es o f t h e i n ven t i o n , b u t h i s t ext co n t ai n s n o t i o n s o f p r esen ce an d ex i st en ce t h at r ev eal t h e n ew r el at i o n t o t h e w o r l d i n st i gat ed b y t h e p h o n o gr ap h , w h i ch al l o w s o n e t o d i sp en se w i t h su ch n o t i o n s. T h e m o v e f r o m 'ab sen ce' t o 'i n ex i st en ce' seem s t o m e t o ech o t h e r eal i sat i o n t h at t h e 'i n h u m an ' h ad i n d eed ap p ear ed , si n ce t h e 'so u r ce' i s asso ci at ed w i t h a p er so n w h o se v o i ce on e r eco r d s an d r ep r o d u ces (t h e ex p r essi o n 'w i t h o r w i t h o u t t h e k n o w l ed g e o r co n sen t o f t h e so u r ce' o n l y m ak es sen se w h en r ef er r i n g t o a h u m an so u r ce) ; i n exi st en ce i s u n d er st o o d as a n egat i o n o f t h e h u m an , su p p l an t ed b y a m ach i n e t h at gu ar an t ees m ass d i ssem i n at i o n . T o g o on e st ep f u r t h er : t h e v o i ce's o r i gi n i s n o l o n ger a h u m an b ei n g an d h as b een r ep r o d u ced b y t h e ap p ar at u s i t sel f. T h i s m at er i al d i m en si o n o f so u n d p r o d u c t i o n —d escr i b ed as 'w r i t i n g w i t h o u t a su b j ect ' b y Fr i ed r i ch K i t t l er 49 i n h i s ex am i n at i o n o f Ri l k e's t ext U r -Ger ai i sch (i n w h i ch t h e p h y si c al i n scr i p t i o n o f a so u n d i n t h e sh ap e o f g r o o v es i s co m p ar ed t o t h e f i ssu r es o f t h e cr an i u m ) 50 —r ef er s t o a

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 4 4 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 4 4 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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si t u at i o n o f ex t r em e au t o n o m i sat i o n , w h er e p r o d u ct i o n

an d

r ep r o d u ct i o n

m er ge t oget h er . D esp i t e t h e h y p o t h et i cal n at u r e o f h i s st o r y, V i l l i er s em p h asi ses act u al p h y si cal ab sen ce o v er t h e n o t i o n o f i n exi st en ce. T h e sci en t i st i n t h e n o v el t ak es t h e t r o u b l e t o ex p l ai n h o w t h e sen t en ces p r o d u ced b y t h e ar t i f i ci al b ei n g h av e b een u t t er ed . I b el i ev e i t i s si gn i f i can t t h at t h e n o v el 's i n v en t i o n s n ev er ai m t o p r o d u c e a v o i ce — h e co u l d h av e i n v en t ed a m o r e f an t ast i c d ev i ce t o d o j u st t h at — b u t al w ay s t o r e p r o d u c e a p r ev i o u s u t t er an ce w h o se au t h o r i s ab s e n t . T h i s o b ser v a t i on i s v al i d f i r st l y f o r t h e ar t i f i ci al b i r d s t h at k eep t h e an d r o i d co m p an y i n i t s sh el t er - w h er eas o n e w o u l d h av e t en d ed t o asso ci at e t h ese p r et en d an i m al s w i t h au t o m at a cap ab l e o f m ech an i cal l y p r o d u c i n g n o i ses o r sp eech , i n E v e t h ey r ep r o d u ce t h e co m m en t s o f v i si t o r s t o M en l o Par k t h at h av e b een r eco r d ed b y i t s o w n er (p. 93) . T h e sam e i s t r u e o f t h e r ep r o d u ct i o n o f M i ss A l i ci a C l ar y 's v o i ce, si n ce Ed i so n , w h o p l an n ed t o cu t cy l i n d er s d u r i n g o n e o f t h e co m ed i an 's sh o w s, i n v i t es h er t o h i s h o u se o n t h e p r et ext o f a r eh ear sal t o get h er t o say w h at t h e an d r o i d w i l l u t t er . T h e i m p o r t an ce o f t h e so u n d ' t h at - h as - b e e n ' ( Q a- a- e t e ) 5' ar i ses w h en o n e ex am i n es t h e r el at i o n s cr eat ed b et w een t h e r ep r esen t at i o n , t h e m ach i n er y an d t h e au d i o - sp ect at o r . O n e can p o st u l at e t h at t h e au t o m at o n H ad al y cr eat es an i m p r essi o n o f r eal i t y f o r L o r d E w al d t h at , i n so m e r esp ect s, i s co m p ar ab l e t o t h e o n e t h at t h e ci n em a d i sp o si t i v e cr eat es f o r i t s sp ect at o r . T h e Fau st i an p act j o i n i n g L o r d E w al d an d Ed i so n can t h en b e u n d er st o o d as a r ead i n g co n t r act t h at r ecal l s t h e n ecessar y co n d i t i o n s f o r t h e 'i m p r essi o n o f r eal i t y ' t h at h av e b een st u d i ed b y C h r i st i an M et z .52 I n d eed , Ed i so n 's d escr i p t i o n o f t h e A n d r o i d as a 'm i x ed p r esen ce'53 seem s t o ech o M et z's co n cep t i o n o f t h e ci n em at o gr ap h i c si g n i f i er t h at 'm ak es i t sel f p r esen t o n t h e m o d el o f ab sen ce'.54 O n e can ar g u e t h at l i k e t h e ex am p l e o f t h e 'i m ag i n ar y si g n i f i er ' i n t h e ci n em a, t h e A n d r o i d co n si st s o f a 'p r o j ect i o n ' i n t h e p sy ch o l o gi cal sen se o f t h e t er m , si n ce i t o w es i t s exi st en ce p u r el y t o t h e cr ed u l o u s accep t an ce o f t h e i l l u si o n o n t h e p ar t o f t h e sp ect at o r an d t h e co n t r act agr eed u p o n b y Ed i so n an d Ew al d ( w h o i s i n l o v e w i t h t h e si n ger an d r ead y t o p u t an en d t o h i s d ay s) ex p l i ci t l y st i p u l at es t h i s. I f on e t em p o r al l y d i sr eg ar d s t h e t ech n o l o gi cal co n t ext ( w h i ch d o m i n at es i n C ar p at h ian C as t le , w h er e an i n i t i al ar t i f i ce r ei n f o r ces Fr an z d e T el ek 's b el i ef ) ,55 on e can see

t h at t h e an i m at i o n o f t h e ar t i f i ci al b ei n g m et ap h o r i cal l y ex p r esses t h e p o w er o f t h e i m agi n at i o n u n f u r l ed b y t h e sen si t i v e m an i n h i s q u est f o r t h e i d eal . M o r e o v er , a si m i l ar t h em e i s f o u n d i n V i l l i er s's f an t ast i c t al e en t i t l ed V er a ( 18 8 3) , w h i c h m ak es n o r ef er en ce t o t h e p o si t i v e sci en ces o f t h e t i m e, h o w ev er . I n V era, a 'd i st an t v o i c e' cal l s t h e m an w h o h as l o st h i s w i f e, b u t l i k e O r p h eu s, ev er y t h i n g d i sap p ear s t h e m o m en t t h e h u sb an d co m m i t s t h e d am n ab l e d eed o f r e m em b er i n g h i s l o v ed o n e's d eat h . W h en V i l l i er s af f i r m s h er e t h at 'i d eas ar e l i k e l i v i n g b ei n g s', h e u ses t h e su p er n at u r al t o ev o k e a 'm i x ed - p r esen ce' si m i l ar t o

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 4 5 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 4 5 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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t h at o f t h e A n d r o i d . M o r eo v er , l i k e i n t h e ci n em a o f fi ct i o n , w h i ch f o st er s t h e sp ect at o r s' i d en t i f i cat i o n w i t h t h e ch ar act er o n t h e scr een , t h e i d eal b ei n g i s f u l f i l l ed i n t h e Sam e: 'A n d t h ey the n r eal i sed t h at t h ey w er e r eal l y o n ly o n e b e in g ' .56 I n E v e , Ed i so n st at es t h at t h e O t h er i s cr eat ed i n t h e i m age o f t h e I , t h at t h e w o r d s w i l l ap p ear i n w h at ev er f o r m L o r d E w al d w i sh es: 'H er w o r d s w i l l n ev er d ecei v e y o u r d el i cat el y n u r t u r ed h o p e! T h ey w i l l al w ay s b e j u st as su b l i m e ... as y o u r o w n i n sp i r at i o n k n o w s h o w t o m ak e t h em .' (p. 133) . H ad al y t h u s r eso l v es t h e p ar ad o x o f t h e p h o n o gr ap h , w h i ch , acco r d i n g t o C h ar l es G r i v el , r esi d es i n t h e asso ci at i o n o f t h e r eco gn i t i o n o f a p ar t i cu l ar i d en t i t y (t h e o b j ect i f i ed v o i ce) w i t h t h e ex p r essi o n o f Ri m b au d 's 'I i s an o t h er '.57 B y su b j u gat i n g t h e v o i ce o f t h e m ach i n e t o t h e v o i ce o f a sp i r i t , V i l l i er s m ai n t ai n s t h e f an t ast i c p o w er o f 't o t al ' m i m esi s w h i l e r em o v i n g t h e an x i et y p r o d u ced b y m ech an i zat i o n . I n E v e , t h e v o i ce d ef i n i t el y al l o w s on e t o cr eat e t h e illu s io n o f a p r e s e n c e : b e n eat h t h e p er f ect i o n o f h er v o cal ab i l i t i es, t h e si n ger co n ceal s al l t h at sh e l ack s i n h er 'so u l '; Ed i so n u ses h y p n o t i sm w h en h e t al k s t o A l i c i a (p. 172) ; d u r i n g t h e co n v er sat i o n i n t h e p ar k , L o r d E w al d co n f u ses h i s l o v er f o r an au t o m at o n b e cau se h e i s d ecei v ed b y H ad al y 's w o r d s. T h i s p o w er o f i l l u si o n d o es n ot n eces sar i l y b r i n g i n t h e t ech n o l o gi cal el em en t , b u t r at h er — as a t y p e o f r egr essi o n i n t r o d u ces a p sy ch i c act i v i t y t h at i s ch ar act er i st i c o f t h e b ab y 's ear l i est d ay s, d u r i n g w h i ch p er cep t i o n i s f o cu sed o n t h e v o i ce o f t h e m o t h er an d i s b asi cal l y aco u st i c i n n at u r e.5® T h e p h o n o gr ap h t h u s ap p ear s as an i n st r u m en t t h at o b j ec t i f i es a d r i v e t h at D en i s V asse h as o b ser v ed i n t h e y o u n g i n fan t , co n si st i n g o f ex p l o i t i n g 'm n esi c t r aces' ( r en d er ed , as i t w er e, i n E v e b y t h e g r o o v es o f t h e cy l i n d er ) t o u se i t s o w n v o i c e t o r ep r o d u ce t h e ab sen t m o t h er i n i t s i m ag i n a t i o n .59 W i t h t h e p h o n o gr ap h , su b j ect s n o l o n ger n eed t o b eco m e al i en at ed t o sat i sf y t h ei r f an t asi es, si n ce at al l t i m es, t h e v o i ce o f t h e O t h er - cap t u r ed o n t h e p h o n o gr ap h 's c y l i n d er - can b e h ear d . V asse q u al i f i es t h i s act i vi t y, w h i ch b e l o n gs t o r e p r e s e n t at io n , b y u si n g Fr eu d 's ex p r essi o n : 't h e p l easu r e p r i n ci p l e p r e v ai l s o v er t h e r eal i t y p r i n c i p l e'.6" E v e b el o n g s t o t h e d i sco u r ses f r o m w h i ch a w a y o f en v i sag i n g p h o t o gr ap h i c

t ech n i q u e ar o se t h at w as t o i n f l u en ce cer t ai n i n t er p r et at i v e f r am ew o r k s, w h i ch w en t o n t o st r u ct u r e t h e r ecep t i o n o f t h e v ar i o u s w a y s so u n d w as ad d ed t o t h e 'ci n em a'. T h e v o i ce's r ep r esen t at i o n o f au d i o v i su al sy n ch r o n i sat i o n an d 'an i m a t i o n ' i n V i l l i er s's n o v el ad v an ces a r ef l ect i o n o n t h e g ap p r o d u ced b y t h e co u p l i n g o f a r eco r d ed v o i ce t o t h e d ep i ct i o n o f a sp eak er , i n p ar t i cu l ar f r o m t h e v i ew p o i n t o f t h e ef f ect p r o d u ced o n t h e au d i o - sp ect at o r . T h i s d e lin kin g , w h i ch so m et i m es t h r eat en s t o m an i f est i t sel f t o t h e d et r i m en t o f t h e d o m i n an t r eal i st i d eo l o g y i n t h e ci n em a, b r i n gs t h e sp ect at o r f ace t o f ace w i t h t h e m ach i n er y, t h e p o l e o f t h e d i sp o si t i v e t h at i s gen er al l y h el d i n ch eck b y a r ep r esen t at i o n t h at ai m s t o b e an t h r o p o i d . I n V i l l i er s's n o v el , t h e d et o u r v i a sp i r i t i sm al l o w s t h e an g u i sh p r o v o k ed b y t h e p er cep t i v e ex p er i en ce, w h i ch w as gen er al i sed b y t h e

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 4 6 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 4 6 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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p h o n o gr ap h i c t ech n i q u e o f an o st en si b l y aco u sm at i c v o i ce, t o b e f o r est al l ed . W h en al l i s sai d an d d o n e, Ev e r easser t s t h at i n al i en ab l e ch ar act er i st i c o f t h e v o i ce - i t i s n ecessar i l y asso ci at ed w i t h a h u m an b ei n g, ev en w h en i t o ccu r s w i t h i n a d eh u m an i z i n g m ach i n e- b ased d i sp o si t i v e.

N o te s

1.

Th i s chapt er i s an augm en t ed an d r ew r i t t en ver si on of t he ar t i cle ent it led 'L 'Eve fut ur e et la sér ie cult ur elle des 'm ach i n es par l an t es' Le st atut si n gul i er de la voi x h um ai n e au sei n d 'u n di sp osi t i f au d i ovi su el' publ i sh ed i n Cinémas, v o l .17, n o. x, 'Ci n élek t a 6', 2006, pp. 12-34. 2. Jean -Loui s Com olli , 'Tech n i que et i d éologi e 6 (II). Cam ér a, per spect i ve, pr ofon deur de ch am p', Cahiers du Cinéma, no. 24 1,19 72. 3. Ri ck A lt m an , 'I n t r od uct i on ', Yale French St udies, N o. 60, 1980, p. 7. 4. Jam es Last r a, Sound Technology and the American Cinema. Percept ion, Represent at ion, M odernit y, N ew Yor k , Ch ichest er : Colum bi a U n i ver si t y Press, 2000, p. 138. 5. T r i o r t o the ni net eent h cen t ur y ... w or k s of gr am m ar and logi c di st i n gui sh ed be t ween si gni fi can t an d i n si gn i fi can t sou n d s b y cal li n g all si gn i fi can t sou n d s vox voi ce ... A s t he not i on o f fr equen cy t ook h old in nin et eent h-cen t ur y ph ysi cs, acous tics, ot ology, an d physi ology, t hese fi eld s br ok e w i t h t he ol der ph i losop h y of sound. W h er e speech or m usi c h ad been t he gen er al cat egori es t h r ough w h i ch soun d w as under st ood, t h ey w er e n ow speci al cases of t he gen er al ph en om en on of sou n d' (Jo nat han St erne, The Audible Past . Cult ural Origins of Sound Reproduct ion, D urh am : D u k e U n i ver si t y Press, 2003, p. 23). 6. W e h ave b or r ow ed t he concept of t he 'cul t u r al ser i es' fr om A n d r é Gaud r eaul t (1.997), w ho desi gn at es t he pract i ces used i n sh ow s an d spectacles, w h i ch for m the basi s for the em er gen ce of ci nem a ('Les vues cinémat ographiques selon Georges M éliès, ou: comment M it r y et Sadoul aim ent peut -êt re raison d'avoir tort (même si c'est surt out Deslandes qu ’il faut lire et relire) ...', i n J. M alt h êt e an d M . M ar i e (eds.), Georges M éliès, l'illusionnist e fi n de siècle?, Par i s: Sor bon n e N ou vel le, 1997. 7. A s i n t he exam ple gi ven b y Ri ck A lt m an of places w h er e t he ph on ogr aph , ki net oscope an d k in et oph on e w er e u sed ei t her si m ul t an eously or in successi on (Silent Film Sound, N ew Yor k : Col um bi a U n i ver si t y Press, 2004, p. 80). 8. Th i s i s Pi er r e Schaeffer 's expr essi on t hat w as popul ar i sed i n ci nem a st udi es b y M i chel Ch i on to q u al i fy a soun d w h ose (di eget ic) sour ce r em ai n s i n vi sible. 9. 'Yo u put an y quest i on ver y gent ly, t hen you place you r ear on t he t ube an d you h ear a voi ce w h i ch com es out of t he globe an d w h i ch al w ays r epli es i n t he m ost preci se m an n er an d (w h at i s m ost ext r aor di n ar y), d r aw s u p a por t rai t of you r person , t ells you w h at sui t you ar e w ear i n g an d h ow old you ar e’ (quot ed i n Jean Clair , L'A m e au corps. Ar t s et sciences 179 3- 19 9 3, Par i s an d M ilan: Réun i on des M usées n at i onaux, Galli m ar d, Elect a, 19 94, p. 441)10. 'A m on g ot her st r an ge t hi ngs w e saw t he w ax m odel of a chi ld w h i ch en un ci at ed ver y clear ly all t he let t er s of t he alphabet . Th e w ay in w h i ch it spok e sever al w or d s i n a r ow w as ver y i nt elli gi ble. It w as m ost su r p r i si n g' (let ter fr om Léopold Rober t to

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 4 7 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 4 7 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

O n t h e S in g u la r S ta tu s o f t h e H u m a n V o ic e

11. 12.

13.

14.

15.

16. 17.

18. 19.

20. 21.

22.

23.

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h i s br ot her , quot ed in Ch ap u i s an d D r oz, Les Aut omat es, N euchât el: Edi t i on s du Gr i ffon , 1949, p. 331) . A ccor d i n g to Jam es Last r a, op. cit., p. 24. Ch ar les Gr i vel , 'T h e Ph on ogr aph 's H or ned M ou t h ' (1988), i n D. K ah n an d G. W hi t e h ead (eds.), W ireless Imaginat ion. Sound, Radio and the Avant -garde, Cam br i d ge and Lon don : M IT Pr ess, 1992. L a M et tri e, w h o adm i r ed t he aut om at a bu i lt b y Vau can son , spok e of a m echan ical 't alk er ' as fol low s: i t w as a 'm ach i n e t han can n o lon ger be r egar ded as an i m possi bilit y, especi al ly bet w een t he h an d s of a n ew Pr om et heus' (Juli en O ffr oy de L a M et t rie, L'H omme machine, Par i s: Edi t i ons Fr édér i c H enry, 1865 (1748), p. 140). The fir st sket ches of t he n ovel dat e back t o 18 77 (w i t h L'A ndr éide paradoxale as its w or k i n g title), t hen ap pear ed in ser i al form i n an i n com plet e ver si on called L'Eve nouvelle, and w as fi n ally publ i sh ed i n its fi nal ver si on bet w een 18 Ju l y 1885 ar>d 27 M ar ch 1886 i n t he w eek l y La Vie moderne. The En gli sh t r an slat i on used i s t he one publi sh ed b y Rober t M ar t i n A d am s (Tomorrow's Eve, U rban a, Ch i cago an d Lon don : U n i ver si t y of Illi noi s Pr ess, [ 1982] 2001). Regar d i n g t he li n k s bet w een t he cont ent s of Vi lli er s's n ovel and Ed i son 's m ar k et i n g of t he t alk i n g doll, see Gab y W ood, Edison's Eve, N ew Yor k : A l fr ed A . Kn opf, 2002, ch apt er 3. A n d r é Bazi n, 'L e m yt h e d u ci ném a t ot al' (1946), in Qu'est -ce que le cinéma?, Par is: Edi t i on s d u Cer f, 1985, p. 23. Tom Gu n n i n g, 'D oi n g for t he Eye W h at t he Ph on ogr ap h D oes for t he Ear ', in R. A b el an d R. A l t m an (eds.), The Sounds of Ear ly Cinema, Bloom i n gt on and I n di an a poli s: I n di an a U n i ver si t y Pr ess, 2001, p. 22. See Roy St em m an, Spirit s and Spirit W orld, Lon don : A l d u s Book s, 1975, p. 97. M en t i on sh oul d also be m ad e of the 't alk i n g por t r ai t s' o f such people as H ect or Vi ct or M ar i ch elle, Geor ges D em en ÿ, O t t om ar A n sch i i t z or W illi am Fri ese-Gr eene, w h o lin k ed t he close-up ani m at ed i m age of t he speak er w i t h speech - w h et h er vi r t ual or real w h en cou pled w i t h a ph on ogr aph . Gw en h aël Pon n au, L 'Evefut u r e ou l ’œuvre en quest ion, Par i s: PU F, 2000, p. 127. Exam pl es i n clude: 'T h e voi ce of t he bei n g called Sow an a - laugh i n g over its last w or d - seem ed to com e, al w ays qu i et ly an d di screet ly, fr om a pi ll ar supp or t i n g the vi olet cur t ain s' (Vi lli er s 2001, p. 11) ; 'A vi gor ou s voi ce r eplied, as from t he cent er of t he r oom , t h ou gh n ot a sou l w as to be seen ' (p. 16); 'W h at i s it, fat her ? sai d t he voi ce' (p. 17) ; 'H u h ? W hat ? W h er e's t he fi r e?' cr ied t he voi ce, i n fr igh t en ed t on es' (p. 55); 'I 'm st an di n g b y for it, M r. Edi son , sai d t he voi ce, m or e calm ly n ow ' (p. 55). But som et i m es, references t o t he voi ce d i sap p ear in t ranslat ion: 'A si n gle sp ar k an d H ad al y w i ll appear ! ...' [ 'dit la w i x'] ( p . 12); 'Ri gh t ! I 'l l car r y it m yself, cam e t he r ep l y (p. 55) [ 'répondit la voix'] . Fr anc Schuer ew egen , 'Télét echn è fin de siècle: V i lli er s de l 'I sle-A d am et Ju les V er n e', Romant isme, Revue du dix-neuvième siècle, no. 69, Par i s: Edit i on s CD U and SED ES, 1990, p. 80. Ver n e's n ovel focuses even m ore clear l y on t he i nt erest o f t he si n gu lar voi ce of the per son w h o i s adm i r ed an d r ecreat ed b y m ean s of an au d i ovi su al di sposi t i ve. In t hi s case, on e of t he n ovel's charact er s, Bar on Gor t z, i s passi on at ely at tached to La St i lla's art as a singer , but as she i s dead, she i s reduced to a voi ce. W hi le t he voi ce in Eve i s cat egor i sed am on g t he ph ysi cal at tr ibut es, i n Ver n e's w or k it i s fun dam en t ally

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 4 8 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 4 8 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

248

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

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associ at ed w i t h t he sou l - the art ist's deat h cor r espon ds exact ly t o t he en d of the ari a, an d w h en L a St illa di es for t he secon d t i me, t he Bar on cri es ou t as h er ph on o gr aph i c si m ul acr u m i s dest r oyed: '" H er voi ce - h er voi ce!" he r epeat s. "H er soul L a St i lla's sou l - it i s gon e - gon e - gon e!"' (Jules Ver ne, Le Château des Carpathes, Pari s: H achet te, 1978 (1892); Ju les Ver ne, Carpathian Castle, edi t ed b y I.O. Evan s, London: Gr an ad a, 1979 (or i gi n ally publi sh ed: Lon don : A r co, 1963)); t he quot at i on is on p age 182. Ri ck A lt m an , T ech n ol ogi e et r epr ésent at i on: l'espace son or e', i n J. A um ont , A . Gaudr eault an d M . M ar i e (eds.), L'H ist oir e du cinéma. Nouvelles approches, Par i s: Publi ca t i ons d e l a Sor bonne, 1989. A ccor d i n g to A lt m an 's defi ni t i on, t he li n k i n g of di ffer en t m edi a i s n ecessar i ly t em porar y, as i n t er m edi ali t y i s gr asped as a ‘ cr i si s of m edi ali t y', w h i ch i s t hen r esor bed i n m ed i a aut onom i zat ion . H er e I u se t he equi valen t of fi lm speci ali st s' 'pr ofi l m i c', as pr op osed b y Jam es Last r a for t he dom ai n of soun d - op. cit., p. 88. I n t he pr esen t cont ext , t hi s t erm h as the ad van t age of st r essi n g t he quest i on of t he i n scri pt i on (t he 'gr ap h y') an d to r efer expli ci t ly t o Ed i son 's i n vent ion . A 'h i st or y of li st en i n g' r em ai n s to be w r i t t en fr om t hi s poi nt o f vi ew . It i s i nt eresti ng to not e t he lett er s to t he edi t or publi sh ed in t he Fascinat eur, w h er e t he user of the Ideal Phonograph t hat w as sold to 'lect ur er -pr oject i on i st s' b y t he Bonne Presse u n der lined ju st h ow far t hi s devi ce w as an except ion com par ed to w h at w as on offer at the t ime. Thus, a pr i est n am ed M ar t y clai m ed t hat 'si n ce 1900 [he] h ad h ad t he p os si bi li t y of h ear i n g m an y ph on ogr aph s, bu t ... all h ad ... t he sam e defect ... t hat brassy, t i nn y sou n d '; a cer t ai n Ri cher , opt i n g for a ver i t able t erm i nologi cal t opos w h en w el com i n g t he i m pr ovem en t s in soun d t echnology, sai d of t he Ideal phono graph t hat i t 'w as n o lon ger t oned d ow n an d defor m ed r epr oduct i on of t he h um an's voi ce', bu t t hat i t w as 't h e voi ce i t self', w h er eas anot her r eader w r ot e: 'A con si der able n um ber of people, w h o w er e pr ejudi ced agai n st ph on ogr ap h s in gener al be cause t hey h ad on ly h ear d t hose seen ever yw h er e t od ay w i t h t hei r t i n ny soun d and fau lt y cyli n der s, h ad r ecogni sed t hat t hi s m odel w as i n a differ en t l eague' (Le Fasci nat eur, no. i , 'Ext r ai t s de quel qu es let t res du cou r r i er ', 1 N ovem ber 1903, p. 18, t a ken fr om 'Fon d s de recher che de M on si eur Pi er r e V er on n eau ', Cin ém at h èque qué bécoi se, w i n t er 2004, docum en t com pi led b y M ar lèn e Lan dr y) . O ver and above the pr ai se for t he Ideal, one can see in t hese r em ar k s h o w t he ph on ogr ap h w as per cei ved 25 year s aft er Edi son perfect ed it. In Carpat hian Castle, an appar at u s br ou gh t to 'su ch a pit ch of per fect i on t hat it r epr o duced t he h um an voi ce w i t h out t he sli ght est loss of it s p u r i t y an d ch ar m ' i s m en t ioned (Jules Ver ne, op. cit., p. 182). Th e exam ple of Coeur oy an d Clar en ce i s a n ot able one: far r em oved from 'avan t gar d e' pr act i ces an d u si n g t er m s t hat w er e close to t hose of Ru dolph A r n h ei m for the ci n em a (Film as Ar t , Lon don : Faber an d Faber , 1933) , t h ey called for t he speci fi cit y of t he ph on ogr ap h t o be exploi t ed (i.e., 'p h ot ogen y') based on t he app ar at us's 'fl aw s', an d on t hei r r efusal of a r elat i on o f an alogy bet w een ph on i c 'r eal i t y and its r eproduct ion: 'By al w ays t r yi n g to get closer an d closer t o t he r eal, to get close to the model of which it should be the t ransposit ion and not the copy, t he ph on ogr ap h loses its st yl e' (A n dr é Coeur oy and G. Clar en ce, Le Phonographe, Par i s: Edi t i on s Kr a, 1929, p. 54; m y it alics).

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 4 9 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 4 9 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

O n t h e S in g u la r S ta tu s o f t h e H u m a n V o ic e

29.

30. 31. 32.

33.

34.

35.

36.

37. 38. 39.

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For a cr i t i ci sm o f t he pr esupp osi t i on r egar di n g t he i n au di bi l i t y of soun d t echnology, see A l an W i lli am s, 'I s Soun d Recor d i n g Li k e a Lan gu age?', Yale French St udies 60, 1980, pp. 51-66, an d m y ow n cont ri but ion, Du boniment eur à la voix-over, Lausan n e: A n t i podes, pp. 391-448. 'Th e Talk i n g Ph on ogr ap h ', Engineering, 18 Jan u ar y 1878. Tr an slat or 's not e: t he or i gi n al t ext speak s of 'ph ot ogr aph i c pr oofs' ('épreuves'). Jacqu es N oi r ay h as put for w ar d t he h yp ot h esi s t hat V i ll i er s used an accoun t t hat appear ed i n t he opuscule b y Pi er r e Gi ffar d - t he fr ien d of A lber t Rob i d a - ent it led Le Phonographe expliqué à Tout le M onde (1878), w h er e he m en t i ons a devi ce com bi n i n g a ph on ogr ap h an d a k i n et oscope (Jacques N oi r ay, Le Romancier et la machine: l'image de la machine dans le roman français (1850-1900), vol . 2, Par i s: J. Cor ti , 1982, p. 287, not e 55). M ar ey - aut h or of La machine animale - di d n ot h old t he 'au t om at on ' m odel in con t em pt . I f one i s to beli eve Lau r en t M an non i, t he you n g M ar ey h ad al r ead y set ou t to m ak e a 'm agn i fi cen t m ech ani cal Pun ch w h ose ar m s an d legs m ove b y t h em selves'; later, w h en at t he I nt ernat i onal Exh ibi t i on of Ph ot ogr ap h y i n Par i s (20 A p r i l 1892) he pr esen t ed t he r esult s of h i s r esearch on fi xi n g the p h ases of a m ovem en t , h i s celluloid fi lm s w er e n ext t o 'st at u es i llust r at i n g h u m an m ovem ent , st r an ge an d ab st ract w or k i n g d r aw i n gs i n bi om ech an i cs' (Laur en t M an n on i , M ar c de Fer r i èr e and Pau l D em en ÿ George Demenÿ: Pionnier du cinéma, D ouai : Edi t i on s Pagi n e 1997, p. 5 an d pp. 15- 16) . The 'w or k i n g d r aw i n g', h ow ever , w as poles ap ar t fr om t he per fec t i on of pret ence t hat w as t he andr oi d, w h i ch sh ow s h ow far t he an alyt i cal appr oach of t he sci ent i st i s di ffer en t from t he i nt ent ions o f the sh ow m an - w h i ch i s h ow w e m ay char act er i se V i ll i er s's Edi son . Tr an slat or 's not e: t he publ i sh ed t r anslat ion i s n ot clear on t hi s poi nt . It r eads: 'Sh e could be h old i n g t he speak er of a r em ot e t elephone, an d w ou ld an sw er i n st ant ly quest i on s w h i ch I sent her b y m ean s of t h ough t t r an sm i ssi on ' (p. 210) , w h er e the aut h or sp eak s of 'par voie d ’élect ricit é’. Pat r ice Car r é, Le Téléphone. Le M onde à port ée de voix, Par i s: Galli m ar d, 1993, p. 33. For m or e on t he li n k s bet w een ph on ogr ap h y an d t eleph on e d u r i n g t he t w o fi nal decad es of t he 19t h cent ury, an d i n par t icular, w i t h r egar d t o h ow t hey appear in t he fict ion of A lb er t Robi da, see m y paper en t it led 'L es t echn ologi es d e la t élécom m uni cat ion en t ant que di sposi t i fs. Cr oi sem en t s ent re la t éléphoni e et la séri e des m ach i nes à r eprésent at i on au d i ovi su el le', at t he i nt er nat i on al Disposit ifs de vision et d ’audit ion sym posi u m (Lausann e, 29-31 M ay 2008, pr oceed i n gs edi t ed b y F. A lb er a & M . Tort ajada, for t hcom in g, r ecor di n g of t he pap er s avai labl e on ). Tr an slat or 's not e: t he or i gi n al t ext speak s of 'per fect i on n em en t ' ('je t iendrai secret, ju squ ’à nouvel ordre, le surprenant , l ’absolu perfect ionnemeit t que j ’ai découver t ’, p. 46), but t hi s d oes n ot com e acr oss clear ly i n t he t ranslat ion, w h i ch r eads: ' ... I 'l l ju st h ave to keep secret t he am azi n g t he ult i m at e devel opm en t of m y r esear ch p. 11) . Jeffr ey Sconce, H aunt ed M edia. Elect ronic Presence fr om Telegraphy to Television, D u r h am an d Lon don: D u k e U n i ver si t y Pr ess, 2000, pp. 21-28. See Jam es E. Kat z, M agic in the Air. M obile Communicat ion and the Transformation of Social Life, N ew Br u n sw i ck an d Lon don : Tran sact i on F’ublisher s, 2006. A di st i nct ion can be m ade bet w een fundam ent al delinking, w h i ch i s con st i t ut i ve of t he m edi u m (as, from t he poi nt of vi ew of t he r ecept i on o f t he fi lm i n t he hall, ever y

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 5 0 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 5 0 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

250

40. 4 1.

42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50.

A la in B o illa c

occurr en ce of soun d i s n ecessar i ly 'o ver ', since t he m ovem en t s t hat ar e vi si ble on the scr een d o n ot act ually pr oduce t he vi br at i on s in t he ai r t hat ar e t he sour ce o f the sounds) an d a on e-off an d exhi bi t ed u se of delin ki n g. I n t he secon d case, it can oft en be ob ser ved t hat t he an t i -i llusi on i st con sequen ces of t he delinked voi ce ar e r ever sed for t he benefi t of t he di eget i c un i ver se t hanks to var i ous t ypes of m ot ivat i on s, t hus st r engt h en ing t he i m m er si on of t he spect at or (for exam p le, in W illi am Fr i edk in 's Exorcist , w h er e t he effect of st r an gen ess br ough t about b y del i n k i n g h as t he funct ion of boost i n g the hor r i fi c effect ). See A l ai n Boi llat , D u boniment eur a la voix-over, op. cit., pp. 23-30 an d pp. 414-420. Post er b y C. D eaves, r ep r od uced i n Jean Clai r , op. cit., pp. 430-431. U n li k e L or d Ew ald , w h o per cei ves n ot hi n g o f t he m ach i n er y w h en he con ver ses w i t h t he A n dr oi d , t he n arr at or-spect at or of Sch w ob's t ext on ly h as access to the 'w i n gs' w h er e t he soun d s ar e pr odu ced m ech an i cally (here t here i s n o i m i t at i on of the h u m an face, t he 'gi an t t hr oat ' bei n g t he exagger at ed expr essi on of a ph obi a of the fem in i ne sex). Th e appear an ce of t he voi ce is, si gn ifi can t ly, pr eceded b y 'w h eel s squ eak i n g' and 'm et al w i r es gr at i n g' - par asi t i c n oises t hat exh i bi t t he m echani cal or i gi n of t he voi ce. Sch w ob's creat or ('L a M ach i n e à par ler ', i n Le Roi au masque d'or, Par i s: Edi t i on s G. Cr ès et Ci e, 1920 [ 1892], p. 151) m or eover affi r m s t hat h e becam e deh um an i zed t h r ough cont act w i t h h i s i n ven t i on : 'I h ave li ved so m uch w i t h m y m achi ne t hat, li ke it, I speak wit hout nuances; for n uan ce belon gs to t he soul an d I h ave r em oved i t'. It sh ou ld also be n ot ed t hat t he lit t le w om an pr esen t ed b y the dem i u r ge as bei n g 't h e soul w h o m oves t he k eyb oar d ' (p. 149) d i sap p ear s w h en the m achi ne expl od es, i.e., w h en t he m an loses h i s voi ce. Th i s fi nale bear s w i t n esses to the sam e associ at i on bet w een sou l an d voi ce as t hat su ggest ed b y Vi lli er s, bu t in Schw ob's w or k it operat es on t he m ode of dysph or i a/ d ysph on i a. Jam es Last r a, op. cit., p. 224, n ot e 3. A t h an asi sus Ki rcher , Phonur gia Nova, N ew Yor k : Br oude Br ot her s, 1966 (1673), p. 16 1. See t he ann ouncem ent m ad e b y Ed i son i n Scient ific American, 30 O ctober 1920, quot ed b y Ren é Lad ou x, Le Spirit isme, Par i s: Cer f, 1989, p. 64. Fr anc Sch uer ew egen , op. cit ., an d A dist ance de voix, Li lle: Pr esses un i ver si t ai r es de Li lle, 1994, pp. 33-34. Jean -Fr an çoi s Lyot ar d , 'L ogo s et t ekhnè, ou la t élégr aph i e', in L'Inhumain, causeries sur le temps, Par i s: Gali lée, 1988, p. 60. J.-F. Lyot ar d , 'Q u el qu e chose com m e: com m un icat i on ... san s com m un i cat i on' in L'Inhum ain, op. cit., p. 129. 'Th e Ph on ogr ap h an d h i s Fu t ur e', Nort h American Review, N 0. 126, M ay-Jun e 1878, quot ed i n Jam es Last r a, op. cit., p. 19. Fr i edri ch Ki tt ler, Grammophon, Film, Typewrit er, Ber li n: Bri n k m an n and Böse, 1986, pp. 63-69. It should be n ot ed t hat , in t hi s exam ple, t he h u m an subject cer t ai n ly exists, bu t is n ot an act i ve i nstance - it i s t he ver y subject of t he w r i t i n g. A si m i lar concept is found i n a recent st or y b y Jean -Claud e Bologn e, Le Chant eur d'âme (M onaco: Ed i t i ons d u Rocher, 1997, p. 10), w h er e t he h er o i m agi n es t hat t he fi nger pr i n t s o f a cr i m i nal can be r ead li ke a ph on ogr ap h 's cut cyli nder . In t hese t ypes of cases, the subject i s absent , since the n at ur e of t he soun d s of w h i ch s/ he is t he sour ce ar e in no

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 5 1 h t t p :/ /s ite . e b ra ry .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 5 1 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

O n t h e S in g u la r S ta tu s o f t h e H u m a n V o ic e

51.

52. 53.

54. 55.

56. 57. 58.

59. 60.

251

w ay dep en den t on her/ his w i ll p ow er (con si der ed b y Ed i son to be a defi ni t e eco n om i c advan t age). I h ave bor r ow ed her e t he n ot i on u sed b y Rolan d Bar t h es (in chapt er 32 of h i s Cam era Lucida, t ranslat ed b y Ri ch ar d H ow ar d, N ew Yor k : H i l l & W an g, 19 81) w h en he sp eak s of p h ot ogr aph y as bei n g t he r esult of a co-pr esen ce bet w een t he r eal phot o gr aph ed t hi ng an d t he len s of t he cam er a - w h i ch i s n o lon ger val i d in t he di gi t al age. The i m age (or, i n t hi s inst ance, the sound) i s t he t r ace (t he i n dex in Pei rce's t er m i n ology) of t he act ual exi st en ce of w h at h as been r ecor ded. The concept ion n eeds to be r elat i vi zed i n t hat i t con ceals t he r epr esen t at i onal n at ur e of t he r epr o duced i m ages (and sounds). Ch r i st i an M et z, Le Signifiant imaginaire, Par i s: Ch r i st i an Bour goi s, 1977, chapt er 3. The t erm can be foun d on p. 6 1 and p. 68. A s Jacqu es N oi r ay (op. cit., pp. 341-342) h as not ed, t hi s desi gn at i on r efers to t he 'm i xed -flu i d ' n ot i on p r evi ou sl y used by Vi lli er s, an d defi n ed as the m i xt ur e of an elect ric flui d (the t echnical aspect ) an d a n er vou s flu i d (an i m agi n ar y addi t i on ). N oi r ay also allu d es t o t he possi bi l i t y of an occult i nt er pr et at ion. Ch r i st i an M et z, op. cit., p. 64. Fr an z de Telek 's adher en ce t o t he au d i ovi su al r epr esen t at ion i s so st r ong because i t i s accom pan i ed b y a voi ce t hat he h as r ecogn i sed an d h ear d p r evi ou sl y in t he cast le w i t h ou t bei n g able to i den t i fy its source. Ju les Ver n e p r evi ou sl y descr i bed h ow Fr an z, w h en i m pr i son ed in t he cr yp t o f t he burg, k ept h ear i n g L a St i lla's i n vi t at i on s t o fol low h i m com in g fr om out si de, w i t h ou t t he door openi ng. Th i s k ey passage st ages a son g t hat i s con dem ned to be r epeat ed for ever an d i s det ach ed fr om an y spat i al set ti ng. The sent ence h as been for ci bl y r em oved fr om i t s pr i m e deixis an d i s n ot hi n g m or e t han a vai n injunct ion. W h at i s t r agi c about t he door r efusi n g t o open i s t he loss of a l oved on e w h o i s si m ply r ecreat ed i n t he sh ape of a dr eam b y ph on o gr ap h i c r epr oduct ion. V i lli er s de l'l sle-A d am , 'V er a' (1883), i n Contes cruels, Par i s: Galli m ar d , 1983, pp. 66 67. Ch ar l es Gr i vel , op. cit. A ccor d i n g t o D i di er A n zi eu , w h o clai m s: 'A t fi ve w eek s, t he b ab y m ak es out its m ot h er 's voi ce fr om ot her voi ces, w h er eas i t does not yet m ake a differ en ce bet w een i ts m ot h er 's face an d ot her faces' ('L'en veloppe son or e du m oi ', N ouvelle Revue de psychannlyse, no. 13,19 76 , p. 168). D en i s Vasse, L'O m bilic et la voix, Par i s: Seui l, 1974, p. 77. Ibi d., p. 78.

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 5 2 h tt p ://s it e . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 5 2 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

eb r ar y

eb r ar y

eb r ar y

eb rary

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 5 3 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 5 3 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

A b o u t th e A u th o rs

Fr an ço i s A l b er a, f u l l p r o f esso r at t h e U n i v er si t y o f L au san n e ( U N I L ) , D i r ect o r o f Resear ch at t h e FN S, R é s e au C in é m a C H p r o j ect ch i ef (2006-2007), m em b er o f A F R H C ( Fr en ch A sso ci at i o n o f Resear ch i n Fi l m H i st o r y ) , Ed i t o r o f 1#95, m em b er o f t h e Ed i t o r i al B o ar d o f C in é m as . Jo u r n al o f F ilm S t u d ie s , m em b er o f t h e A d v i so r y B o ar d o f S o c ié t é s e t r e p r é s e n t at io n s , C in é m a & C ie, S t u d ie s in R u s s ian an d S o v ie t C in e m a, Ed i t o r o f t h e 'C i n em a' ser i es at Pay o t ( L au san n e) , t h e 'C i n ém a/

T r av au x ' ser i es at L 'A g e d 'H o m m e ( L au san n e) . Recen t p u b l i cat i o n s as au t h o r : E is e n s t e in e t le c o n s t r u c t iv is m e r u s s e ; A lb at r o s , d e s R u s s e s à P ar is 19 19 - 19 29 ; L ' A v an t - G ar d e au c in é m a; as ed i t o r : S .M . E is e n s t e in . C in é m at is m e ; L e M o u v e m e n t d e l ’ar t ; G las s H o u s e ; L. K o u lé c h o v , L ' A r t d u c in é m a e t au t r e s é c r it s ; L e s F o r m alis t e s r u s s e s e t le c in é m a; B o r is B ar n e t . E c r it s , film s , d o c u m e n t s ; K o u lé c h o v e t le s s ie n s ; A r r ê t s u r im ag e /fr ag m e n t at io n du t e m p s ; C in é m a s u is s e ; n o u v e lle s ap p r o c h e s ; D ic t io n n air e d u c in é m a fr a n ç a is d e s an n é e s 2 0 ; M u s iq u e ! ; E is e n s t e in d an s le t e x t e; F ilm o lo g ie , le reto u r?

Alain Boillat, sen i o r l ect u r er at t h e U n i v er si t y o f L au san n e ( U N I L ) , gen er al se cr et ar y o f R é s e au C in é m a C H , m em b er o f A F R H C ( Fr en ch A sso ci at i o n o f Re sear ch i n Fi l m H i st o r y ) , m em b er o f t h e Ed i t o r i al B o ar d o f D é c ad r ag e s . C in é m a à t r av e r s c h am p s . Pu b l i cat i o n s as au t h o r : L a f ic t io n au c in é m a; D u b o n im e n t e u r a la v o ix - o v e r , V o ix - at t rac t io n e t v o ix - n ar r at io n au c in é m a; as ed i t o r : P o in t s d e v u e s u r Jé s u s au X X è m e s iè c le ; K in o C H

/

C in é m a C H . R é c e p t io n , e s t h é t iq u e , h is t o ir e .

Laurent Guido, asso ci at e p r o f esso r at t h e U n i v er si t y o f L au san n e ( U N I L ) , m em b er o f A F R H C ( Fr en ch A sso ci at i o n o f Resear ch i n Fi l m H i st o r y ) , m em b er o f t h e Ed i t o r i al Bo ar d o f 18 9 5. Pu b l i cat i o n s as au t h o r : L a M is e e n s c è n e d u c o r p s s p o r t i f D e la B e lle E p o q u e à l ’A g e d e s E x t r ê m e s ; L ' A g e du R y t h m e . C in é m a, m u s ic alit é e t c u lt u r e du c o r p s d an s les t h é o r ie s fr a n ç a is e s d e s an n é e s 19 10 - 19 30 ; as ed i t o r : Im ag e s d e la f e m m e s p o r t iv e au X IX e e t X X e s iè c le s ; L e s p e u r s d e H o lly w o o d ; H o r r e u r e t at t r ac t io n ; F ix e /an im é C r o is e m e n t s d e la p h o t o g r ap h ie e t d u c in é m a au X X e s iè c le .

O l i v i er Lugon, f u l l p r o f esso r at t h e U n i v er si t y o f L au san n e ( U N I L ) an d EPFL L au san n e, m em b er o f A F R H C ( Fr en ch A sso ci at i o n o f Resear ch i n Fi l m H i st o r y ) , m em b er o f t h e Ed i t o r i al B o ar d o f E t u d e s p h o t o g r ap h iq u e s . Pu b l i cat i o n s as au t h o r : L e s t y le d o c u m e n t air e d ' A u g u s t S an d e r s à W alke r E v an s , 1 9 2 0 - 1 9 4 5 ; A u g u s t S an der.

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 5 4 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 5 4 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

254

A b o u t th e a u th o rs

L an d s c h aft e n ; as ed i t o r L a p h o t o g r ap h ie e n A lle m ag n e , an t h o lo g ie d e t e x t e s ( 1 9 1 9 19 39 ).

M aria Tortajada, f u l l p r o f esso r at t h e U n i v er si t y o f L au san n e ( U N I L ) , p r esi d en t o f R é s e au C in é m a C H an d R é s e au C in é m a C H p r o j ect ch i ef ( 20 0 8 - 20 12) , D i r ect o r o f Resear ch at t h e FN S, m em b er o f A F R H C ( Fr en ch A sso ci at i o n o f Resear ch i n Fi l m H i st o r y ) , m em b er o f t h e F o n d at io n d e la C in é m at h è q u e s u is s e , m em b er o f t h e M EM O R I A V I n d ep en d en t Co m m i ssi o n , co - d i r ect o r o f t h e 'Réseau C i n ém a C H ' ser i es f o r Ed i t i o n s Sh ü r en ( M ar b u r g) . Pu b l i cat i o n s as au t h o r : L e s p e c t at e u r s é du it . L e lib e r t in ag e d an s le c in é m a d ' E r ic R o h m e r ; as ed i t o r : C in é m a s u is s e , n o u v e lle s a p p r o c h e s ; H is t o ir e d u c in é m a s u is s e 1 9 6 5 - 2 0 0 0 , T o m es I & I I .

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 5 5 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 5 5 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

B ib lio g ra p h y

François Albera 'M od al i t és de la vi si on m oder n e dan s les ar t s et au ci n ém a avan t 19 14 : des "pap i er s col lés" à Rober t D el au n ay', in Leon ar d o Q uar esi m a, L au r a Vi chi (eds), La décima musa. I l cinéma e le alt ri art il The Tenth muse. Cinema and ot her art s, U din e: For um , 2001, PP- 3 3 5 -3 4 7 'M on t age et m ém oi r e' in M ar i on Fr oger, Th i er r y Bar di n i (eds). L'usage des N TI C dans les discours et les prat iques int ermédiat iques, 70. Con gr ès de l 'A CFA S, U n i ver si t é Laval, Q ué bec, 21- 22 M ay 2002 (on line). 'Pou r un e ép i st ém ogr aph i e du m on t age : pr éalab les', Cinémas Journal of Film St udies, Vol. 13, N 0. 1-2, A u t u m n 2002, pp. 11- 32. 'Pou r un e épi st ém ogr aph i e du m ont age : le "m om en t - M ar ey"', i n Fr ançoi s A l ber a, M art a Br aun , A n d r é Gau d r eau l t (eds), A r r êt sur i m age, fr agm en t at i on du t em ps. A u x or i gi n es de la cult ur e vi suell e m oder ne/ St op M ot i on , Fr agm en t at i on of Ti m e. Exp lor i n g the Root s of t he M od em V i su al Cult ur e, Lau san n e: Payot , 2002. (W i th M . Tort ajada), 'L'Ep i st ém è di x-n eu f cent ', in A n d r é Gaudr eault , Cat h er i n e Russel, Pi er r e V er on n eau (eds), Le cinématographe, nouvelle technologie du X X e siècle, Lausan n e: Payot , 2004, pp. 45-62. 'L e "ci n ém a pr ojet é" et les pér i odi sat i on s de l'h i st oi r e t echni que du ci n ém a', i n Enr ico Bi asi n, Roy M en ar i ni , Feder ico Zecca (eds), Le età del cinema. Cr it er i e modelli di period izzazione/ The A ges of the Cinema. Crit eria and M odels for the Const ruct ion of H ist orical Per iods, U din e: For um , 2008, pp.393-399. (W i th A . Gaudr eault ), 'A p p ar i t i on , di spar i t i on et escam ot age du bon i m ent eur dan s l 'h i s t or i ogr aph i e du ci ném a fr an çai s' i n Gi u sy Pisan o, V al ér i e Pozn er (eds), le M uet a la parole, Par i s: CN RS/ A FRH C, 2006. (W i th M . Tort ajada), 'Cr i t i qu e d es t élé-di sposi t i fs', in M i r ei lle Bert on & A n n e-Kat r i n W e ber (eds), La t élévision, du Téléplwnoscope à Youtube. Pour une archéologie de Vaudiovision, Lausan n e: A n t i podes, 2009. 'D i sposi t i f(s) ' in Fr an çoi s A l ber a, M ar i a Tor t ajada (eds), D isposit ifs de vision et d'audit ion: Epist émologie et Bilan, for t hcom i ng. 'D u li vr e ci ném at i que au li vr e-ci n ém a', i n Laur en t Gu i d o, O li vi er Lu gon (eds), Fixelanimé, Lau san n e: L 'A ge d'H om m e, for t hcom in g.

Alain Boillat 'L es r epr i ses du d i sposi t i f n ar r at i f de Rear W indow chez Br i an D e Pal m a', Décadrages N 0. 3, Ju l y 2004. ‘L 'Eve fu t u r e et la sér i e cult urelle des "m ach i n es par l an t es"'. Le st at ut si n gu li er de la voi x h um ai n e au sei n d 'u n di sposi t i f au d i ovi su el ', Cinémas, Vol. 17, N 0. 1, A u t u m n 2006.

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 5 6 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 5 6 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

256

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'St yle et i n t erm édialit é dan s H ulk : le split screen, la planch e des com i cs et l'écr an d'or di n at eur ', in En ri co Bi asi n, Gi u li o Bur si & Leon ar do Q uar esi m a. (eds), Fi lm st yle/ Cinema and Cont emporary Visual Art s, U din e: For um , 2007. D u boniment eur à la voix-over. Voix-attraction et voix-narrat ion au cinéma, Lau san n e: A n t i podes, 2007. 'Fai r e pou r la vu e ce que le t éléph on e fait pou r l'ouïe. Ren cont res ent re l 'i m age et la voi x dan s quelques ant i ci pat ions de la t élévi si on ', i n M i r ei lle Ber ton, A n n -Kat r i n W eber (eds), La t élévision, du Téléplionoscope à Youtube, Pour une archéologie de l ’audiovision, L au sanne: A n t i pod es, 2009. 'L es t echn ologi es d e la t élécom m un icat i on en t ant que disposi t i fs. Cr oi sem en t s ent re la t éléphoni e et la sér i e des m achi nes à repr ésen t at i on au di ovi su el le', i n Fr an çoi s A l ber a, M ar i a Tor t ajada (eds), Disposit ifs de vision et d'audit ion: Epist émologie et Bilan, for t hcom ing.

Laurent Guido (W i th Gi an n i H aver), La M ise en scène du corps sport if, de la Belle Epoque à l 'A ge des Ex trêmes / Spot light ing the Sport ing Body, fr om the Belle Epoque to the A ge o f Ext remes, L au sanne: O lym pi c M useum , 2002. 'En t r e cor ps r yt h m é et m odèle ch or égr aph i que : dan se et ci ném a dan s les an n ées 1920', Vertigo Est hét ique et hist oire du cinéma, Speci al i ssue, O ctober 2005, pp. 20-27. 'Rh yt h m i c Bodi es/ M ovi es. D ance as A t t ract i on i n Ear ly Fi lm Cu lt u r e', in W an d a St r auw en (ed.), The Cinema of At t ract ions Reloaded, A m st er dam : A m st er d am U n i ver si t y Press, 2006, pp. 157-178. L 'A ge du Ryt hme. Cinéma, musicalit é et cult ure du corps dans les théories françaises des années 1900-1930, Lau san n e: Payot , 2007. 'L e st yle chor égr aph i que au ci n ém a', i n Enr i co Biasin , Gi u li o Bursi , Leon ar do Q uar esi m a. (eds), Film st yle/ cinema and cont emporary visual arts, U din e: For um , 2007, pp. 499-522. 'M od èl es et i m ages de la danse(use) m écani que, d es aut om at es à l'êt re "élect r o-h u m ai n '", i n Laur en ce Schi fan o (ed), La viefilm ique des marionnettes, Par i s: Pr esses U n i ver si t air es de Par i s X, 2008, pp. 107- 125. 'V on der gefi lm t en D ar bi et un g zum vi r t uellen Spek t ak el. Tenn is un d TV -D i sposi t i v', M ont age A / V (M ar gbur g), vol. 17, n ° 1, 2008, p. 61-88. ' "Q u el t héât re gr oup er a jam ai s t ant d'ét oi les?" M usi que, dan se et i n t égr at i on n ar r at i ve dan s les at t r act i on s gest uelles d u Fi lm d 'A r f , 1895, n ° 56, 2009, p. 149-172. 'A u f die Biihne gezaubert , dass man erst aunt : ciném a, dan se et m usi c-hall au t our n an t du 20e si ècle' in M i ch ael Cow an and Bar bar a H ales, M oving Pict ures, M oving Bodies: Dance in German and Aust rian Film 1895-1933. Speci al i ssue of Seminar Journal of Germanic St u dies (Toront o), for t hcom i n g i n Spr i n g 2010.

Olivier Lugon 'L a ph ot ogr aph i e m i se en espace. L es exposi t i on s di dact i ques al lem an d es (1925-1945) ' Et udes phot ographiques, N 0. 5, 1998. 'L e m ar cheur . Pi ét ons et ph ot ogr aph es au sei n des avan t -gar d es', Et udes phot ographiques, N 0. 8, 2000. 'D es chem i nem ent s de pen sée. L a gest i on de la cir culat i on dan s les exposi t i on s d i d ac t i ques'. A r t Press Special i ssue 'O ubli er l'exp osi t i on ', 2000.

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 5 7 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 5 7 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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'"K od ak or at i o n ". Ph ot ogr aph i e et scén ogr aph i e d'exposi t i on au t our de 1900', Et udes phot ographiques, N 0 .16 , 2005, pp. 182-197. 'Edwar d St eichen as Exhi bi t i on D esi gn er ' i n T od d Br andow , W illi am Ew i n g (eds) Edwar d St eichen. Lives in Photography. M i n n eapoli s: FEP Edi t i on s/ Lon don : Th am es & H udson , 2007, pp. 267-273. 'L a ph ot ogr aph i e des t yp ogr ap h es', Et udes phot ographiques, N o. 20, Ju n e 2007. 'L a confér ence. Par ole, dessi n et pr oject ion chez Le Cor b u si er ', Les Cahiers du M usée na tional d'ar t moderne, N 0 .10 3, 2008, pp. 47-65. 'D i e globalisi er t e A u sst el lu n g: The Fam ily of M an ', Fot ogeschicht e, for t hcom i ng, 2009. "'Sch u l u n g der n euen O pt i k " : Laszlo M oh oly-N agy, Si gfr i ed Gi edi on u n d die Film und Foto A u sst ellu n g', i n Sigfr ied Giedion und die Fot ografie, Zur i ch , gt a-ver lag, 2009.

M aria Tortajada 'L ’om br e projet ée d e la vi t esse. Le ci n ém at ogr aph e et la course des d i x m i lle m i lles d an s Le Surmâle d ’A l fr ed Jar r y', Et udes de Let tres, 'O n a t ouché à l’espace! 19 00-1930', N os. 1-2, 2000, pp. 109 -133. 'A l fr ed Jar r y: Le ci ném at ogr aph e cont re la ph ot ogr ap h i e', in Leon ar do Q uar esi m a, Lau r a Vi chi (eds), La décima musa. Il cinema e le alt ri art ilThe Tenth muse. Cinema and ot her arts, U di ne: For um , 2001, pp. 10 1- 113. 'M on st r e ci ném at ogr aph i que et "m u t at i on " élect rom agnét ique', i n Beat e O chsner (éd.), Jar r y: Le monst re 1900/ Das M onst er 1900, Aach en : Sh ak er V g, 2002, pp. 211- 227. 'M od al i t és du r êve au cin ém a. D i sposi t i f ci n ém at ogr aph i que et i m age m en t ale : r appor t s et m ut at i on s', i n Vi n cen t Bar r as, Jacqu es Gasser , Ph i li pp e Jun od, Ph i li ppe Kaen el, O li vi er M ot t az (eds), Visions du rêve, Gen eva: Geor g, 2002, p p .123- 14 1. 'M ach i n es ci ném at iques et di sposi t i fs vi suel s. Ci n ém a et "pr é-ci n ém a" à l'œu vr e chez A l fr ed Jar r y", 1895, N 0.40, Ju l y 2003, pp. 5-23. (W i th F. A lber a) ‘ L'Epist émè " 19 0 0 " ', i n A n d r é Gaudr eault , Cat h er i n e Russel, Pi err e Ver on n eau (eds), Le cinématographe, nouvelle t echnologie du X X e siècle/ The Cinetna, A N ew Technology for the 20t h Cent ury, Lau san n e: Payot , 2004, pp. 45-62. 'A r ch éologi e d u ci ném a : de l'h i st oi r e à l'épi st ém ologi e', Cinémas 'H i st oi r es croi sées des i m ages : O bjet s et m ét h odes', Vol. 14, N 0. 2-3, Spr i n g 2004, pp. 19-52. 'D i sposi t i fs de vi si on et m odèles de p ou voi r : "D evan t la loi " de F. K afk a', Revue europé enne des sciences sociales, Tom e XLI V, N 0 .133, 2006, pp. 37-52. 'Evalu at i on , m esure, m ou vem en t : la phi losoph i e cont re la sci ence et les con cept s du cin ém a (Ber gson, M ar ey) ', Revue européenne des sciences sociales, Tom e XLV 1, N 0 .14 1, 2008, p p .9 5- 111.

(W i th F. A lbera), 'Pou r un e cr it ique des "T él é- d i sposi t i fs"' i n M i r ei lle Bert on, A n n -Kat r i n W eber (eds), La t élévision, du Téléphonoscope à Youtube. Pour une archéologie de iau di ovi sion, Lausan n e: A n t i podes, 2009. 'Ph ot ogr aph i e/ Ci n ém a: par adi gm es com plém en t ai r es du début d u XXe si ècle'/ 'Ph ot ogr aph y/ Ci n em a. Com plem en t ar y Par ad i gm s i n t he Ear ly XXt h Cen t ur y', in Lau r en t Gu i do, O li vi er Lu gon (eds), Fixe/ Animé, for t hcom i ng. 'L e di sp osi t i f n 'exi st e p as ! Pou r un e reconst i t ut i on h ist or i que des concept s: la syn t h èse d u m ou vem en t chez E.-J. M ar ey', i n Fr an çoi s A lber a, M ar i a Tor t ajada (eds), Disposit ifs de vision et d'audit ion: épist émologie et bilan, (w or k i n g title), for t hcom i ng.

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 5 8 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 5 8 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

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. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 5 9 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 5 9 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

In d e x o f N a m e s

A d er (Clém en t ) 47

Beau n e ( Jean -Clau d e) 4 2,6 4 , 74

A gam b en (Gi or gi o) 42 A l b er a (Fr an çoi s) 12- 14 , ^

Beh n e ( A d ol f) 132 Bel Ged d es ( N or m an ) 137

71- 72,9 4 ,

Béli ar d (O ct ave) 48

212,216 - 2 19 , 228-230, 249 A l l ai s ( A lp h on se) 73

Bell (A l exan d r e) 240

A l t m an (Ri ck ) 16 4 ,2 15 ,2 18 ,2 2 2 , 224,

Ben d a (Jul i en ) 92

227- 229 ,233, 246-248 A m st r o n g (L ou i s) 15 1

Ben t on (Ti m ) 14 6 ,16 4

A n d r i o p o u l o s (St efan ) 10

Ber gson (H en r i ) 13 ,15 - 16 , 30, 33,4 4 , 57,

A n sch ü t z (O t t om ar ) 177, 247

63, 76, 79-83, 92-93, 9 7- 9 8 ,10 6 ,10 9 110 , 113 - 114 ,17 6 ,18 2 , 210 Ber k el ey (Bu sby) 19 5

Ben jam i n (W alt er ) 2 6 ,2 9 ,4 0 ,7 4 ,112 ,114

A n zi eu (D i d i er ) 251 A p o l l i n ai r e (W i lh el m K o st r o w i t zk y al i as Gu i l l au m e) 14 , 31, 34 - 35,4 8 ,52,55- 56 A p p i a ( A d ol p h e) 18 2

Ber n ar d ( Clau d e) 74-75

A r ago (Fr an çoi s) 50

Beu y s (Josep h ) 155

A r i st ot l e 25

Bi o y Casar es ( A d ol fo) 13, 45

Ber t h on ( A l fr ed ) 221

A r l au d (Rod olp h e-M au r i ce) 216 , 226,

Bl u m ( Ed u ar d ) 123

228, 2 31 A r n h ei m (Ru d olp h ) 248

Boi ll at (A lai n ) 17- 18 ,16 3- 16 4 Bo n d (K i r k ) 2 13

A r v at o v (Bor i s) 21 A u b en as ( Syl vi e) 4 2 ,114

Bo r g (Björn ) 198-209 Bo u d i n (Eu gèn e-L ou i s) 29

A u d i gi er ( H en r y d ') 42

Bo u l ai n (Fr an çoi se) 2 13

Bach el ar d (Gast on ) 12, 70, 76 ,9 3

Bou q u et (Jean -L ou i s) 46

Bacon ( M ar d ges) 14 6 ,16 4 - 16 7 Bad i o u (A lai n ) 44

Br ad b u r y ( Ray) 48

Bai ll et t e (Fr édér i c) 212

Br et on (Ph i l i p pe) 188

Bou l l e (Pi er r e) 48

Br au n (M ar t a) 92

Bar ad u c ( H i p p ol yt e) 112

Br oh m ( Jean -M ar i e) 212

Bar d i (Pi et r o M ar i a) 16 4 Bar j avel (Ren é) 13,4 8

Bü ch n er (Geor g) 76-77 Bu r ch (N oël) 114

Bar on cel li (Jacq u es de) 18 6 ,19 1 Bar t h es (Rol an d ) 22, 79, 92, 2 51

Bu r ch at z (M ax) 118 Bu r eau (Jér ôm e) 2 11

Bat t er sb y (K at e) 214 Bau d el ai r e ( Ch ar les) 29 ,57,176

Ch ap p u i s ( A lfr ed ) 188

Bau d i n (A n t oi n e) 16 3

Co l om i n a (Beat r i z) 16 3

Bau d r i l l ar d (Jean ) 19 4

Cam i (Pi er r e- H en r y) 13 ,5 2

Bau d r y (Jean -L ou i s) 27

Cam p an el l a (T om m aso) 13

Bayer (H er ber t ) 16 - 17 ,118 - 14 4 ,19 6

Can alet t o (Gi ovan n i A n t on i o Can al

Bazi n (A n d r é) 26 ,4 2,79 - 8 0 ,19 4 ,235,24 7

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 6 0 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 6 0 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

al i as) 26 ,4 2

260

In d e x o f N a m e s

D am i sch (H ub er t ) 159 ,16 6

Can gu i l h em (Geor ges) 54,6 0 - 6 1, 74-75 Cap el l an i (A lb er t ) 230

D an ey (Ser ge) 19 7, 2 13

Car an d 'A ch e (Em m an u el Poi r i é al i as) 27

D au d et (Léon ) 13,5 1- 5 2

Car r é (Pat r i ce) 240,249

D au m i er (H on or é) 179

Cézan n e (Pau l) 42

D avan n e ( A lp h on se) 75

Ch am p sau r (Féli ci en ) 179 ,18 9

D ayan ( D an i el ) 2 12

Ch an zi t ( Gw en ) 14 3

D eb or d ( Gu y) 19 4

Ch ap er on (D an i el le) 57

D el eu ze (Gi lber t ) 4 4 ,57, 79-80, 9 2,177,

Ch ap u i s ( A l fr ed ) 247

18 2,18 9 - 19 0 D el sar t e (Fr an çoi s-A l exan d r e-N i col as-

Ch en al (Pi er r e) 154 ,16 0 - 16 1,16 5- 16 6 Ch er m ayef f (Ser ge) 14 3 Ch i on (M i ch el) 19 7, 213, 220, 228, 246 C h o u sy ( D i d i er de) 13, 47

Ch ér i ) 177 D em en ÿ (Geor ges) 2 1, 7 1, 73- 75,177,

Cl ai r ( Gér ar d Régn i er al i as Jean ) 246, 250

207-208, 247, 249 D éot t e ( Jean -L ou i s) 42

Cl ai r (Ren é Ch om et t e al i as Ren é) 230

D escar t es (Ren é) 25, 64, 66, 74 - 75,171,

Cl ar en ce (G.) 248

188 D esh ou l i èr es (Ch r i st oph e) 17 3 , 18 8

Cl ar k e ( M ar y) 189 Cl av i en ( A lai n ) 16 3 Cl ém en t -M au r i ce ( Clém en t -M au r i ce Gr at i ou l et al i as) 221 Cœu r o y ( A n d r é) 248 Co er p er (Fr i t z) 12 7 ,12 9 ,136 ,14 2 - 14 3

189 D i ck (Ph i l i p K.) 48 D i d er o t (D en i s) 29, 4 3,18 8 D oan e ( M ar y A n n ) 17 9 ,18 9 ,2 19 ,2 2 9

Co d i (Bill) 220

D or n er ( A l exan d er ) 136 ,14 3 D o w n i n g (T aylor ) 2 13

Co h en ( Jean -L ou i s) 14 6 ,16 4 - 16 5 Coh en -Séat (I saac Coh en al i as Gi l ber t ) 22

D r o z (Ed m on d ) 18 8 , 247 D r o z (Jaquet ) 172

Co i ssac (G.-M i ch el ) 76 ,218 , 220 ,225- 226 , 228 - 231

D u cr ey ( Gu y) 18 9

Co l om i n a (Beat r i z) 16 3

D u jar d i n (Ph i li ppe) 71

Co m o l l i ( Jean -L ou i s) 2 33,246

D u l ac (Ger m ai n e) 210

Co n an D o yl e (A r t h ur ) 2 2 1, 229

D u m as (A l exan d r e) 179

Co n d i l l ac (Et i en n e Bon n ot de) 176

D u m on t (L ou i s) 16 7

Co r b oz (A n d r é) 42

D u n can (I sad or a) 18 2

Co u r b et ( Gu st ave) 29

D ü r er (A lb r ech t ) 26

Cr ai g ( Ed w ar d Gor d on ) 18 2 ,18 4 ,19 0

D u ssau d (Fr an çoi s) 221

D u ch en n e d e Bo u l ogn e ( Gu i ll au m e) 67

Cr an gl e (Ri ch ar d ) 230 Cr ar y (Jon at h an ) 10 ,2 7,29 , 39 - 4 0 ,4 2,44

Ed i so n (T h om as) 19 ,4 6 - 50 ,52 ,55,59

Cr i sp (Clem en t ) 189 Cr o s (Ch ar l es) 57,234 Cy r an o de Ber ger ac (H er cu l e Savi n i en d e) 13,4 9 ,56 D ago gn et (Fr an çoi s) 4 2,72, 75,6 0 ,6 6 , 71, 74

6 0 ,62, 7 3,9 5 ,17 7 ,17 9 , 229 ,234 - 251 Eam es ( Ch ar l es an d Ray) 139 - 14 0 ,16 3 Ei er m an n (Egon ) 124 Ei sen st ei n (Ser gei M i k h ai l ovi t ch ) 42, 60, 64, 70 - 72,74, 76 ,14 8 Ek m ar ( Pau l ) 76 El Gr eco (D om i n i cos T h eot ok op u lo s

D al b e ( Geor ges) 230 D al cr oze see Jaq u es-D al cr oze

al i as) 26 ,4 2 El saesser (T h om as) 10

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 6 1 h t t p :/ /s ite . e b ra ry .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 6 1 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

In d e x o f N a m e s

Em m an u el (M au r i ce) 177

Go l d l u st (Joh n ) 213

Ep st ei n (Jean ) 74, 76 ,8 0 ,16 2, 210

Go r k i (M axi m ) 10 1

261

G r äf f (W er n er ) 127 Fan t i n -L at ou r (H en r i ) 28

Gr ém i l l o n (Jean ) 186

Far i go u l e (L ou i s) 52

Gr i v el ( Ch ar les) 234, 245, 247, 251

Fed er er (Roger ) 19 8

Gr o p i u s (W alt er ) 118 ,12 6 ,132 ,14 5 - 14 7 ,

Fei n i ger (L u x) 19 6

16 1- 16 6 Gu er i ck e (O t t o von ) 18 8

Fén éon (Féli x) 27- 28 ,42 Fescou r t (H en r i ) 46 Fi ch an t (M i ch el) 72

G u i d o (Laur en t ) 17,19 - 20 ,19 0 , 2 13 Gu i l l et ( Gu i ll au m e) 166

Fi ocr e ( Eugén i e) 176

G u i t r y (Sach a) 230

Fl am m ar i on (Cam i ll e) 13, 4 2,4 9 - 50 ,55

Gu n n i n g (Tom ) 10 ,18 9 ,19 1,2 2 7 , 231,

57, 74 ,16 3,2 2 7 Fon d an e (Ben jam i n ) 34

_ 235,24 7 Gu n t h er t (A n d r é) 57, 7 5 , 9 3 , 111, 113

Fou cau lt (M i ch el) 10 - 12, 25, 27,4 0 , 44, 60,

H am o n (Ph i l i p pe) 10 ,2 7 ,4 2

7 2 - 7 3,111

Fou ch écou r t (A b b ot of) 226

H an h ar d t (Joh n ) 212

Fr an cast el (Pi er r e) 42

H au gh t on (Sam u el ) 67

Fr an k l i n (Ben jam i n ) 188

H av er (Gi an n i ) 213

Fr eu d (Si gm u n d ) 173,24 5 Fr eu n d (Gi sel e) 112 , 114

H aw k i n s (Pau l) 210 H ei m er m an n (Ben oît ) 2 11

Fr i ed (M i ch ael ) 29

H en r i ( Ch ar les) 64

Fr i esen (W allace) 76

H er d er (Joh an n ) 188

Fr i zot (M i ch el) 71, 9 3- 9 4 ,113

H er v i l l y (M ar i e-Er n est d ') 48, 56 H i ck ey (W i ll i am ) 14 3

Fu l l er (Loïe) 18 1,18 3 ,19 0

H i n gi (M ar t i n a) 19 3 Gab ast on (Pi er r e) 2 12

H i t ler ( A d ol f) 124 ,14 0 , 214

Gal l ot t i (Jean ) 14 3

H o ff m an n (Er n st T h eod o r A m ad eu s) 19 ,

G al v an i ( L u i gi ) 18 8

17 3- 17 5 ,17 9 ,18 1- 18 2 ,18 6 ,18 8 - 18 9 H u y sm an s ( Jor i s-K ar l ) 18 1

G an (A lek sei ) 21 Gasq u et (Joach i m ) 42

I n st i t ut d e fi l m ol ogi e 10 ,2 2,4 4

Gau d r eau l t (A n d r é) 10 ,59 - 6 0 , 71- 72,

I saacs ( Regi n ald ) 164

189, 219 , 224, 226 ,228 - 231,24 6 Gau t i er (T h éoph i le) 17 5 - 17 6 ,17 9 ,18 9 Gav i l án ( Ed u ar d o) 2 12

I van i sevi c (Gor an ) 19 8 ,20 4 ,20 9

Ged u l d (H ar r y) 221- 222,229

Jacob (Fr an çoi s) 74

Ger an d o ( José-M ar i e de) 18 8

Jan ser ( A n d r es) 16 3

Ger sh w i n (Geor ge) 16 2

Jan ssen (Pi er r e Ju les) 62, 6 7,72,9 0

Ger u l ai t i s (Vi t as) 19 8

Jaq u es-D al cr oze (Em i le) 17 7 ,18 2 ,18 4 ,

Gi ed eon (Si egfr i ed ) 73

19 0 Jar r y ( A l fr ed ) 15 - 16 ,31,33- 34 ,6 3, 70 ,73,

Gi ese( Fr ed ) 184 Gi r au d - T o u l o n ( L o u i s- Fél i x) 67 Go d ar d (Jean -Lu c) 19 3- 19 6 ,20 7,2 11 212, 214

7 6 ,9 7 - 9 9 ,10 1,10 3- 114 Jau b er t (Geor ges) 22 1 Jean n er et (Ch ar l es- Ed ou ar d ) 14 6 - 14 7,

Go f f m an (Er w i n ) 16 3

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 6 2 h tt p ://s it e . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 6 2 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

164

262

In d e x o f N a m e s

Jean Pau l (Joh an n Pau l Fr i ed r i ch Ri ch t er al i as) 173

L u go n (O li vi er ) 17 L u m i èr e ( A u gu st e an d L ou i s) 28, 32,

Jen n (Pi er r e) 59 Jo yar d (O li vi er ) 213

43, 59 - 6 0 ,6 2,71- 73,8 4 ,8 8 ,9 0 , 99, 111, 113 , 17 7 L yo t ar d (Jean -Fr an çoi s) 243, 250

K at z (Eli h u) 2 12 K at z (Jam es) 249

M ael zel (Joh an n N ep om u k ) 237

K ei m (Jean A .) 220, 226 ,229 ,231

M al l ar m é (St éph an e) 18 1

K i r ch er (A t h an ase) 242, 250

M al r au x ( A n d r é) 4 2,16 6

K i t t l er (Fr i ed r i ch ) 10 , 27, 42,44, 24 3,250

M an et ( Ed ou ar d ) 29

K l ei st (H ei n r i ch von ) 19 , 17 1, 17 3 , 17 5 ,

M an n on i (Laur en t ) 10 ,6 7, 71, 74-76,

18 2 ,18 8 K l u t si s ( Gu st av) 2 1

9 3,16 3, 214 , 249 M ar con i ( Gu gl i el m o) 235

K o u r n i k o va (A n n a) 19 3 K r acau er ( Si egfr i ed ) 12 8 ,14 2 ,18 4

M ar ey (Ju les-Et i en n e) 12 ,14 - 15 , 28 ,30 , 32-33/ 47/ 59- 61-76 , 79 ,8 1- 9 7,114 , 16 3,17 7 , 20 7- 20 8 ,214 ,239 , 249

K r aj i cek (Ri ch ar d ) 19 8, 204 K u h n (T h om as) 25,4 2

M ar i n et t i ( Fi l i p p o T om m aso) 48

K u l esh o v ( L ev) 57, 64, 2 12 ,19 5

M ar t i n (Joh n ) 18 2,19 0 M au p assan t ( Gu y de) 43

L ab an (Ru d olp h ) 17 7 ,18 2 ,19 0

M ay w o o d ( A u gu st a) 18 9

L açasse ( Ger m ai n ) 16 3, 2 15 ,2 2 8 ,2 31 L ad o u x (Ren é) 230

M cEn r oe (Joh n ) 19 8 ,20 0 ,20 2- 20 5, 210 M él i ès ( Geor ges) 25, 31,4 3, 59, 6 1, 71,

L agr an ge (D r F.) 67 L a M et t r i e ( Ju l i en O ff r oy de) 2 5 ,17 1,18 8 ,

16 3, 246 M en d el soh n (Er i c) 14 6

234 - 247 L an d o w sk y (Pau l) 16 4

M er l eau -Pon t y (M au r i ce) 69, 76

L an g (Fr i t z) 18 4 ,19 1

M i ck ey M ou se 16 2

L ast r a ( Jam es) 233,24 2,24 7- 24 8 ,250 L e Co r b u si er ( Ch ar l es- Ed o u ar d Jean n er et -

M i es van d er Roh e ( L u d w i g) 118 , 12 3

Gr i s al i as) 16 - 17 ,14 5- 16 7 L eb l an c (M au r i ce) 13,5 1- 5 2 ,5 7

M i t r y ( Jean ) 75

L econ t e (Ber n ar d ) 2 12 L éger (Fer n an d ) 148

12 8 ,13 0 ,13 2 ,14 2 M ol zah n (Joh an n es) 14 1

L e G r ay ( Gu st ave) 26 ,28 - 29 ,42, 94

M on et ( Clau d e) 28

L ei st i k o w (H an s) 118

M u el l er (Joh n ) 212

L en gl en (Su zan n e) 20 8 ,214

M u m f o r d ( L ew i s) 13 7 ,14 3

L essi n g (Got t h ol d Ep h r ai m ) 6 8 ,176

M u ssol i n i (Ben i t o) 14 7

L evi n so n ( A n d r é) 18 2 ,18 4 ,19 0 - 19 1 L 'H er b i er (M ar cel ) 8 0 ,9 2

M u st er (T h om as) 19 3

L i p p ar i n i ( Gu i sep p e) 13 , 5 1, 5 7

M et z (Ch r i st i an ) 19 , 244, 251

M i l n er (M ax) 189 M o h o l y - N agy ( Lazi o) 118 - 12 0 ,12 6 ,

M u y b r i d ge ( Ed w ar d ) 6 7- 6 9 ,76 ,8 1, 90, 92, 9 5,177,2 0 7

L i ssi t z k y ( L azar al i as El) 2 1, 118 - 12 4 , 13 1 13 2 , 14 1 L o n d e (A lber t ) 67-68, 75- 76 ,9 3- 9 4 ,111, 177

L ot z (W i lh elm ) 14 3

N ad al ( Rafael ) 19 8 - 19 9 ,20 1- 20 2,205 206, 210 N ek es (W er n er ) 6 0 ,71- 72 N eu b u r g (H an s) 14 4

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 6 3 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 6 3 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

In d e x o f N a m e s

N i ep ce (N i cep h or e) 2 6 ,51

26 3

Ru t t m an n (W alt er) 19 6

N ij i n sk i (V asl av) 18 2 N o i r ay (Jacqu es) 251

Sach sse (Rol f) 16 3

N o r d er a (M ar i n a) 18 8

Sai n t -L éon (A r t h u r ) 17 5 ,18 9 Sai n t - Poi n t (V alen t i n e de) 18 2

N o ver r e (Jean -Geor ges) 17 2 ,18 8

Sai n t -Pol Ro u x (Pau l Pi er r e Ro u x O st h au s ( K ar l Er n st ) 14 5- 14 6 ,16 4 O u d ar t (Jean -Pi er r e) 27

al i as) 13- 14 , 53 Sch aeffer (Pi er r e) 246

O w en s (Jesse) 214

Sch aw i n sk y (Xan t i ) 118 ,12 9 - 130 Sch l em m er (O sk ar ) 18 2

Pêch eu x (M i ch el) 72

Sch m i d t (Joost ) 118

Per r i au l t (Jacqu es) 16 3,2 15

Sch u er ew egen (Fr an c) 243, 247, 250

Pi san o ( Gi u sep p i n a) 215, 228-229

Sch w ob (M ar cel ) 242

Pl at eau (Josep h ) 40, 62

Scon ce ( Jeffr ey) 24 1,24 9

Pon n au ( Gw en h aël ) 236 ,24 7

Scot t o d i Car l o (N i col e) 76

Posen er (Ju l i u s) 14 3

Ser r es (M i ch el) 64

Pr i eu r (Jér ôm e) 230

Sh el l ey ( M ar y) 17 3

Pr ou st (M ar cel ) 71

Si m on d on (Gi l ber t ) 13, 53- 54 ,58 Si m on et (Pi er r e) 2 12

Rab el ai s (Fr an çoi s) 13, 56-57

Sm et (Cat h er i n e de) 16 3,16 6

Rab i n b ach (A n son ) 64, 73-74/ 8 1 Rab o n (I sr oel) 223,230

Sor el (Ch ar les) 13, 56-57 So u d ay ( Pau l ) 80

Ram eau ( Jean -Ph i li p p e) 18 8

Sou l ez ( Gu i l l au m e) 212

Ren ar d (M aur i ce) 13, 51,54 ,57- 58

So u p au l t (Ph i l i p pe) 18 5

Resn ai s (A lai n ) 230

St aël (Ger m ai n e - M ad am e de) 17 3,18 8

Ri ch t er (H an s) 16 3,18 6

St ei ch en ( Ed w ar d ) 13 3 , 13 5 , 14 3

Ri efen st ah l (Len i ) 2 1,19 6 , 200,203, 2 13 214

St ep h an (Regi n a) 164

Ri l k e (Rai n er M ar i a) 243

Szab o (Gabr i ela) 2 11

St er n e ( Jon at h an ) 233,24 6

Ri vi èr e ( H en r y) 27 Rob er t ( L éop old ) 234 ,24 6

T om k i n s ( Si l van S.) 76

Rob er t son ( Et i en n e-Gasp ar d Rob er t or

T or t ajad a (M ar i a) 12 ,15 ,18 ,9 3- 9 4 ,16 3,

Et i en n e) 234 Ro b i d a (A lber t ) 13,4 7 ,17 9 , 249

216 - 219 ,228 , 249 T ou l et (Em m an u ell e) 230

Roch er (li eut en an t ) 214

T si o m i s (Yan n i s) 14 6 ,156 ,16 4 - 16 6

Ro h (Fr an z) 118 , 14 1 Ro m ai n s ( L ou i s Far i go u l e al i as Ju l es) 52

T sy v i an (You r i ) 43

Ro m er a (M an olo) 2 12

U exk ü l l ( Jak ob von ) 70

Ro sn y (aîn é-Josep h H en r i H on or é Boex al i as) 55 Rou d i n esco (Eli sabet h ) 17 5 ,18 9

V ar ese (Ed gar ) 157 V asse (D en i s) 251

Ro u sseau (Jean -Jacqu es) 56 ,17 6 ,18 8 Ro u ssel ( Raym on d ) 13 , 3 1

V au can so n ( Jacq u es de) 17 2 ,2 37

Ro w e ( D avi d ) 213

V er h aer en (Em i le) 28 ,4 2

V ér ay (Laur en t ) 2 12

Rü egg (A r t h u r ) 16 3

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 6 4 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 6 4 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

264

In d e x o f N a m e s

V er n e (Jul es) 13, 45-46, 55, 238, 246-248, 251

V u i l l er m o z (Em i le) 8 0 ,9 2,18 4 ,18 6 ,19 0

V er si n s (Pi er r e) 55

W aq u et (Fr an çoi se) 16 3

V er t o v (D zi ga) 2 1,19 6

W aw r zy n ( L i en h ar d ) 188

V er y (Fr an çoi se) 164

W ell s (H er ber t Geor ge) 55, 97

V i el (H y) 230

W er n er (B.) 14 3

V i gar el l o ( Geor ges) 212

W er r i e (Pau l) 14 3

V i l l i er s d e L 'l sl e A d am ( Jean -M ar i e-

W h an n el (Gar r y) 2 13

M at h i as- Ph i l i p p e- A u gu st e) 13 ,19 , 31, 45/ 48-49/ 55/ J6 6 ,179 , 234 - 235,237- 251 V i n cen t (A lb er t L evi n so n al i as

W h i st l er (Jam es A b b ot t M cN ei l l ) 28-29 W i l l i am s ( A lan ) 218 ,229 , 249 W i l l i am s (V en u s) 19 3

Léan d r e) 14 9 ,16 5 V o l k o f f ( V l ad i m i r ) 186 V ol t a ( A lexan d r e) 188

Z éd é ( Gu st ave) 46, 56 Zen o (Zen o o f Elea) 16 , 80

V o r k ap i sh (Sl avk o) 19 5 ,2 12

Z o l a (Em i le) 26

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 6 5 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 6 5 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

In d e x o f T itle s In d e x o f t it le s ( film s , p ic t u r e s , t h e at e r an d b allet , n o v e ls , b o o ks - s o u r c e - e x c e p t c o n t e m p o r ar y lit t é r at u r e )

A l m an ach d 'ar ch i t ect u r e m od er n e (Le Cor b u si er ) 149 A m an t d es d an seu ses (L') ( Ch am p sau r ) 179 A p r ès- M i d i d 'u n Fau n e (L') (N i ji n sk i ) 18 2

D ével o p p em en t d e la M ét h od e gr ap h i qu e p ar l 'em p l oi d e l a p h ot ogr ap h i e ( M ar ey) 83 D i e Sch u le (Sch aw i n sk y) 129 D o l l s (T i k an o) 230

A r ch i t ect u r e d 'au j o u r d 'h u i 15 4 ,16 1- 16 2 A r r i v al o f a T r ai n at L a Ci o t at ( L u m i ère) 43

En d o f t h e W or ld (The) (Fl am m ar i on ) 56 Eq u i p e (L') 19 3

A sh es, A sh es ( Bar javel) 48

Es k o m m t d er n eu e Fot ogr af! 12 7

A u t o m at a (H offm an n ) 17 3,2 2 1

Esp r i t n o u veau (L') 14 9 - 150 ,16 5 Evo l u t i o n cr éat r i ce (L') see Cr eat i ve Ev o

Bacch an t es (Les) (D au d et ) 5 1

lut i on

Ball et m écan i q u e (L éger ) 14 8 ,18 3

Eye o f t he D evi l (The) ( Ber gm an ) 230

Bât i sseu r s (Les) ( Ch en al ) 16 2

Exor ci st (Fr i ed k i n ) 250

Bau en u n d W oh n en 132

Exp l o i t s an d O p i n i on s o f D r Fau st r oll

Bau h au s 19 19 - 19 28 133 Begu m M i l l i on s (The) (Ver n e) 56 Br éat i n e (La) ( A p oll i n ai r e) 34 ,52

( Jar r y) 7 0 ,7 6 ,9 8 ,114 Fasci n at eu r (Le) 226 Fem m e et le p an t i n (La) (Bar on celli ) 186

Caesar A n t i ch r i st ( Jar r y) 98

Fi l le d e m ar b r e (La) (Sai n t -L éon ) 176

Car p at h i an Cast l e (Ver n e) 45, 237, 244,

Fi l m st u d i e (Ri ch t er ) 186

248 Ci n ém at i sm e (Ei sen st ei n ) 4 2,76

Fi l m u n d Fot o 12 0 - 12 1, 13 1

Cœu r fi d èl e (Epst ei n ) 18 3

Fr an k en st ei n (Sh elley) 173

Com m u n i cat i on s 22

Fu t u r am a (Bel Ged d es) 137- 138

Fot ogr afi e d er Gegen w ar t 12 1

Co p p él i a (Sai n t -L éon ) 17 5 ,17 7 Co r i n n e (de St aël) 17 3 Cr eat i ve Evo l u t i o n (Ber gson ) 8 0 ,10 6 , 113 - 114 , 17 6

Geb t m i r vi er Jah r e Zei t (Ei er m an ) 124, 13 1 Gest es et op i n i on s d u d oct eu r Fau st r oll , p at ap h ysi ci en see Exp l o i t s an d O p i

D e l'ét at act u el d e l a D an se (Gau t i er ) 175

n i on s o f D r Fau st r o l l

D er W eg zu m n eu en L eb en 132

Gi sel l e ( A d am ) 175

D eser t ed H ou se (T h e) (H offm an n ) 174

Gr eat W ave (The) (Le Gr ay) 28 ,4 2

D eu t sch e Bau au sst el l u n g 130 D eu t sch es V o l k - D eu t sch e A r b ei t 124

H ér ési aq u e (L') ( A p oll i n ai r e) 52

D eu t sch l an d 124

H i st o r y w al l (Eam es) 139 H om m e-m ach i n e (L') ( L a M et t r i e) 17 1

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 6 6 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 6 6 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

266

I n d e x o f T it le s

I d ée et l 'Ecr an (L') ( Fescou r t an d Bo u

M ovem en t (The) ( M ar ey) 82-83, 89

quet ) 46 I gn i s (V i l li er s) 56

N ém éa (Sai n t -L éon ) 176

I le à h éli ce (L') see Pr op el l er I sl an d I n cer t i t u d es d e Co p p él i u s (Les) ( Fu ll

O l ym p i a (Ri efen st ah l ) 19 6, 2 13- 2 14

er ) 18 1 I n h u m ai n e (L') (L 'H er bi er ) 18 3

O n Pu p p et Sh o w s (Klei st ) 17 1

I n t elli gen ce d 'u n e m ach i n e (L') ( Ep

O r p h eu s ( D al cr oze-A p p i a) 18 2

O r p h an s o f t he St or m (Gr i ffi t h ) 224 O u r T o w n (W ood ) 230

st ei n ) 80 I n ven t i on o f M or el (Th e) ( Casar es) 45

Pan o r am a o f D efen ce (St ei ch en ) 133 Jo su ah Elect r i cm an n ( d 'H er vi l l y) 48, 56

Par i s au 20. si ècle see Par i s i n t he 20t h

K ean (V ol k off) 18 6

Par i s i n t h e 20t h Cen t u r y (Ver n e) 46

Cen t u r y Par i s- Jo u m al 149 L ao coon (L essi n g) 176

Par i s- So i r 54

L ad y w i t h t he V el vet Co l l ar (The) ( D u

Pei n t r e d e l a v i e m od er n e (Le) ( Bau d e

m as) 179 L ect u r es p o u r T o u s 48, 56 L i gh t M ast er (Th e) ( Ren ar d ) 5 1 L ol a M on t es (O ph u ls) 230

lai r e) 176 Pér i (La) (D u k as) 175 Pet r ou ch k a ( St r avi n sk y) 18 2 Ph ot o-Fr i es ( L i ssi t zk y-Sen k i n ) 122 Pr éci si on s (L e Cor b u si er ) 15 1- 15 2 ,15 4 ,

M ai so n - u n Pal ai s (U n e) (Le Co r b u si er ) 15 6 ,15 8 ,16 5 - 16 7 M aît r e d e l a l u m i èr e (Le) see T h e L i gh t

16 5 Pr i n ci p es d e l a m écan i q u e an i m al e ou Et u d es su r l a locom ot i on ch ez

M ast er

l 'h o m m e et l es an i m au x ver t éb r és

M al d on e ( Gr ém i ll on ) 18 6 M al er ei Fot ogr afi e Fi l m

120

M an A b o u t T o w n (Clai r ) 230 M an w i t h a Ru b b er H ead (M éli ès) 43

( M ar ey) 67 Pr i n ci p l es o f A n i m al M ech an i cs ( M a r ey) 67 Pr ocessi on o f Ph ot ogr ap h s of t h e N a

M ast er o f T i m e (The) ( L i p p ar i n i ) 5 1 M at i èr e et m ém oi r e see M at t er an d M em or y M at t er an d M em o r y (Ber gson ) 4 4 ,10 6 , 113 M écan i sm e d e l a p h ysi on om i e h u m ai n e

t i on at W ar (A) (Bayer ) 134 Pr op el l er I sl an d (Ver n e) 46 Pr ou n Sp ace ( L i ssi t zk y) 119 Pr ovi d en ce ( Resn ai s) 230 Pu l ci n ell a ( St r avi n sk y) 18 2 Pu p p et an d D eat h (The) (Sain t -

(Bou logn e) 67 M en sch u n d K u n st f i gu r (Sch lem m er ) 18 2

Poi n t ) 18 2 Pu p p et D an ces (The) (Sai n t -Poi n t ) 18 2

M er cu r e d e Fr an ce 34 ,4 2,4 4 , 56 ,73,9 2 M et ach or i e (Sai n t -Poi n t ) 18 2

Rav age see A sh es, A sh es

M et r op ol i s ( L an g) 18 4 - 18 7 ,19 1 M i r oi r d es sp or t s (Le) 208

Revu e i n t er n at i on ale de Fi l m ol ogi e 22

M oo n K i n g (The) ( A p ol l i n ai r e) 34 ,4 4 ,4 8 ,

Roi -l u n e (Le) see T h e M oo n K i n g

52- 5 3 - 5 6 M o u vem en t (Le) see Th e M ovem en t

Rom an d 'u n t r i ch eu r (Le) (Gu i t r y) 230

Ro ad t o V i ct o r y (Bayer ) 132- 135

Ro u e (La) (Gan ce) 18 3

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 6 7 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 6 7 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

I n d e x o f T it le s

Sal on s o f 18 46 ( Bau d el ai r e) 29

267

Tr ai t é p r at i q u e d e p h ot ogr ap h i e su r p a

San d m an (The) (H offm an n ) 173- 174 ,

p i er et su r ver r e (Le Gr ay) 42

17 9 ,18 1,18 4 ,18 6 ,18 9 SI C 34

T r eat i se on A u t o m at a (V au can son ) 172

Soi r ees d e Par i s (Les) 34

T r o i s Y eu x (Les) see T h e T h r ee Eyes

T r i al (The) (W elles) 230

St én och or égr ap h i e (La) (Sain t Léon ) 175

U b u t h e K i n g ( Jar r y) 98

Su p er m al e (The) ( Jar r y) 15, 34 ,9 8 - 10 1,

U n e V i e see A W om an 's L i f e

10 3 , 10 9 , 111- 112 Su r m âl e (Le) see T h e Su p er m al e

U r - Ger ai i sch (Ri l k e) 243

Syl p h i d e (La) (T agli on i ) 175

V ér a (V i l li er s) 251 V i e au gr an d ai r (La) 208

Th r ee Eyes (The) (Leblan c) 51- 52

V i n gt i èm e Si ècl e (Le) (Rob i d a) 4 7 ,179

T i m e an d Fr ee W i ll : A n Essay on t h e I m m ed i at e D at a o f Co n sci ou sn ess (Ber g

180 V o l d es o i seau x (Le) ( M ar ey) 8 3,8 9

son ) 80

V o y age d an s la l u n e ( Cyr an o de Ber ger ac) 57

T i t an (Jean -Pau l ) 17 3 T o m or r ow 's Ev e (Vi lli er s) 19 ,4 5- 4 6 , 55,

W i l d W est Sh o w (Cod i ) 220

179 , 234, 235-236, 24 1, 247

W om an 's L i f e (A ) ( M au p assan t ) 43

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 6 8 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 6 8 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

eb r ar y

eb r ar y

eb r ar y

eb rary

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 6 9 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 6 9 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

In d e x o f S u b je c ts

ab sor b m en t 29 an d r o i d 4 6 ,18 4 ,235- 239 ,24 1- 24 5,249 250 an y- i n st an t s- w h at ever 69

118 , 13 6 , 14 5 , 17 1, 17 3 , 17 6 , 2 12 , 2 19 , 222, 224, 226, 233, 236 ,24 5 d i sp o si t i ve 10 , 4 2 , 111, 246, 249 d i sp o si t i ve 10 - 13 , 17 ,19 , 26 ,31- 32

ap p ar at u s 13, 26 - 27,30 ,32, 35, 37- 38 ,40 4 1, 6 3,6 5,6 7, 73,75- 76 ,8 1, 8 4,8 6 ,9 5, 9 9 ,113- 114 ,234 ,238 ,24 0 ,24 2- 24 3,24 8 ar ch eo l o gy 12 ,19 ,4 2 ar ch i ve 9 ,5 5 ,7 3,14 3 ast r o n o m y 4 6 ,49 - 50 ,6 2, 72 au t om at e, au t om at on 18 ,4 2, 65, 7 4 ,174 17 5 , 17 9 ,18 3- 18 5,18 8 ,19 0 , 229, 237 238, 240, 242-245, 249, 347 au t o m at i sm 25-26

effect 16 ,2 5 ,2 8 - 2 9 ,3 7 ,4 3 ,114 ,117 ,15 0 elect r i c, el ect r i ci t y 34, 4 7 - 4 8 ,56 ,12 3,17 1, 17 3- 17 4 ,17 9 ,18 3- 18 4 ,18 6 ,18 8 , 216 , 219 , 222, 240, 242, 251 ep i st em e 10 - 13, 25, 26-29, 37, 3 9 ,4 1,4 3 44- 49 ep i st em i c sch em a 12 - 13, 28 ,30 ,33- 34 , 4 1 ep i st em o gr ap h y 14 , 60

ep i st em o l o gy 10 , 12 , 17 , 26, 72 exh i b i t i on 16 - 17, 21, 27, 38-39, 8 4 ,117

b o d y 18 - 21,25, 35- 4 0 ,53,6 4 - 6 7, 70, 73

119 , 12 1- 14 6 ,15 7 ,16 3

74, 8 1,12 1,17 1- 17 2 ,17 7 ,17 9 ,18 4 - 18 5 , 18 8 - 19 0 ,19 3- 19 4 ,19 7- 19 9 , 20 1, 203, 219 , 229, 236-237, 24 1- 242

f i l m o l o gy 10 ,2 2, 44 gr am op h on e 14 , 27, 42

cl on i n g 9 ,14 ,4 9 ,5 3 com m u n i cat i on 9 - 10 ,16 - 17,34 ,4 6 - 4 7,

h yp er aest h esi a 52

49/ 5 1"52, 56/ 6 9 - 7 0 ,118 - 119 ,12 7 ,135 13 6 , 14 5 ,17 2 ,17 5 ,18 2 ,18 6 , 2 11, 2 15 216 , 224, 238-243, 249 Ch r on op h ot ogr ap h i e 15, 28, 68-69, 83, 86, 88,9 0-9 1, 94, 9 7 ,114 ,17 6 ,17 9 ,2 0 8 , 239 ch r o n o p h ot ogr ap h y 15,28 , 32- 33,6 2,6 7, 7 2 - 7 3 / 7 9 - 8 1- 9 7 - 1 7 7

i l l u si o n 10 1,17 4 ,17 9 ,18 4 , 233, 237-238, 24 1, 244-245 i l l u si o n o f m ovem en t 15, 79, 8 1, 92 i l l u si o n o f r eali t y 19 , 34 ,24 5 i l l u si o n o f t r an spar en cy, 38 i m agi n ar y ( w or l d ) 12 - 13 , 19*20, 33- 35, 47-5

1- 5 2- 5 4 - 69-

97/

* 0 1 / 10 5 ,10 8 ,17 3,

234 - 237- 251 d an ce, dan cer , d an ci n g 20, 70, 7 6 ,12 1, 13 6 ,14 2 ,17 1- 17 3 ,17 5 ,17 7 ,18 1- 18 2 , 18 4 ,18 6 ,18 8 ,19 0 - 19 1,19 5 , 208, 212, 214 , 235, 237 d i or am a 4 0 ,4 4 ,157 d i sco u r s 10 - 12 ,14 ,2 1,2 7 ,30 - 31,33,39 , 4 0 - 4 1,50 ,54 ,6 0 ,6 3,8 3,9 1, 9 8 ,117 -

. C in e m a B e y o n d F ilm : M e d ia E p is te m o lo g y in t h e M o d e r n E ra . : A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s , . p 2 7 0 h tt p :/ /s ite . e b r a r y .c o m /id /1 0 4 5 9 5 0 5 ? p p g = 2 7 0 C o p y r ig h t © A m s t e r d a m U n iv e r s it y P re s s . . A ll r ig h t s re s e rv e d . M a y n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in a n y f o r m w it h o u t p e r m is s io n f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r , e x c e p t f a ir u s e s p e rm itt e d u n d e r U .S . o r a p p lic a b le c o p y r ig h t la w .

i n st all at i on 11, 3 9 , 119 , 12 3 , 13 3 , 14 3 , 164, 233 i n st an t 15,32,6 2,6 8 - 6 9 ,77- 8 0 -9 4,10 2/ 10 5 - 10 6 ,113,17 6 i n st an t an ei t y 84, 91-9 2 i n st an t an eou s i m age 27, 2 9 ,51,57 , 68 6 9 ,82,84-85, 9 2- 9 6 ,10 4 - 10 6 ,10 9 - 110 , 112 - 113,2 4 0

270

I n d e x o f S u b je c t s

I n t er n et 9 ,4 9 ,114 ,14 0

p an op t i con 11,4 0 ,

i n t er val 32, 6 0 ,6 3,6 7, 69, 8 1, 83, 86-91, 94

p an o r am a 29, 37, 7 4 ,130 ,13 3

97

i n ven t i on 13- 14 ,19 ,4 6 , 50 ,53- 55,58 , 6 1 62, 75,179 , 215,234 ,237,24 0 , 242- 243, 248, 250

p ar ad i gm

17,20 , 25, 9 1,114 ,19 4 ,19 9 ,

234, 240 p h ot ogen y, p h ot ogen i c 76 ,18 2 ,18 6 , 248 p h on ogr ap h , p h on ogr ap h y, p h on o

k al ei d oscop e 37,4 0

gr ap h i c 11,18 - 19 , 26, 34-35, 47-49,

k i n em at i cs 34, 63, 73 k i n et ogr ap h 47

52-53, 5 6 , 111, 17 9 , 2 17 , 2 19 , 221- 223,

k i n et op h on e 217, 2 19 ,2 2 1,2 4 6

227, 229, 233- 24 3,24 5- 250 p h ot ogr am 15,32- 33, 52, 69, 72, 79-82,

k i n et oscop e 28, 6 1,9 5,24 9 k i n est h esi c p at t er n s 70

9 2 ,10 6 ,110 p h ot ogr ap h i c gu n 28

k i n et i cs 70

p h o t o gr ap h y 10 ,12 , 15 - 17 , 27-34, 39' 42, 46, 4 9 ,51, 62, 67, 70, 72-73, 77, 79, 81- 9 3, 9 5 - 9 9 ,10 1- 10 9 ,111- 113 ,118 , 12 0 - 12 1,12 6 - 12 7 ,12 9 ,14 2 ,16 3,17 7 ,

lect u r e 17 ,14 5 - 14 9 ,15 1- 15 2 ,15 4 - 15 7 ,15 9 , 16 0 - 16 3,16 5 l ect u r er 17- 18 , 2 1,16 3 , 2 15 , 2 16 - 2 17 ,219 220, 222-230 l ogi st i cs o f p er cep t i o n 11

19 6, 249, 251 p h ot om on t age 12 3,130 ,134 - 13 5 ,14 3, 157

p h ot oscu l p t u r e 14 m ach i n e 12, 26, 30, 35-36

p l u r i fo cal i t y 20

m ach i n er y 11, 18 , 3 0 , 3 3 , 35- 38 ,4 0 ,9 2, 98, 216 - 217, 219 , 222, 237, 244-245, 250

p o se 68, 7 6 ,17 7 ,19 0 p r oject ed Ci n em a 13 ,19 , 2 1,4 8

m ach i n i c 14 ,18 - 19 , 27- 28 ,6 1, 64, 70 m agi c-l an t er n 27, 37,4 7, 7 1,14 5 - 14 7 ,14 9

pr oject ed i m age, p r oject ed m ovem en t ,

15 0 , 16 4, 216 , 218 , 224-225, 230 m ass m ed i a 9 ,2 2 , 117 , 16 3

p r oject i on 4 8 ,52, 79 ,9 9 ,10 0 - 10 1, 13 1,15 6 ,16 2 ,19 5 , 217, 221, 237, 239 p u p p et , p u p p et eer 17 1- 17 5 ,18 2 ,18 8

m ech an i cal 15 ,17 ,2 5 - 2 6 ,33,39 ,6 3,6 9 ,99 10 0 ,10 6 ,118 ,13 6 ,17 1- 17 2 ,17 4 ,17 7 ,

r em ed i at i on 49

18 2- 18 3,19 0 ,19 6 , 2 16 - 218 ,221,223, 234, 237- 238 ,24 1, 247,249 - 250

r ep r esen t at i on 11- 12 ,16 - 18 , 26 ,28 ,30 , 3 3 ' 3 5 -3 9 ' 4

1' 9 2