Chinese Students and the Experience of International Doctoral Study in STEM: Using a Multi-World Model to Understand Challenges and Success 2022019950, 2022019951, 9781032193670, 9781032193694, 9781003258841

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“Yang and MacCallum comprehensive book offers an important and necessary collection on the retention and completion of Chinese doctoral students overseas. Using a three-dimensional, multi-world framework, this book addresses the cognitive, developmental, and social factors that affect the study abroad experiences of Chinese international doctoral students in STEM. The book is a must-have for both teacher-scholars and advanced practitioners who advise, mentor, or coach Chinese students in graduate education.” Roy Y. Chan, PhD, Assistant Professor of Education & Ed.D. Program Director, Lee University, USA; Chair, CIES Study Abroad and International Students (SAIS) SIG; Co-editor, Impacts of COVID-19 on International Students and the Future of Student Mobility (Routledge, 2022) “I  commend Dr. Yibo Yang and Dr. Judith MacCallum for documenting the experience of doctoral students in STEM, adding to the tapestry of international higher education. As these students intermingle with society and toil in their labs to find solutions to complex problems facing us, their stories will enlighten in our endeavors to grow more ambassadors of world peace.” Uttam Gaulee, PhD, Professor of Higher Education and Administration and Policy, Morgan State University, USA “In this immaculately written book, the authors make a timely contribution to advancing longitudinal research into the academic trajectories and lived experiences of doctoral international students in STEM. The ‘multi-world’ perspective from which the research questions are addressed allows for a much more detailed and comprehensive understanding of students’ experiences. Highly recommended and worth a read!” Leonardo Veliz, Head of School of Education, Excelsia College, Sydney, Australia “This important book addresses a gap in individual narratives in internationalization discourses by highlighting the multidimensional experiences of Chinese international STEM doctoral students within Australia as the study context. Another important contribution lies in its exploration of the multicultural situatedness of doctoral supervision, which is a crucial, albeit less studied aspect of the international doctoral students’ experience.” Omolabake (Labake) Fakunle, PhD, Chancellor’s Fellow, University of Edinburgh, UK “ ‘Chinese Students and the Experience of International Doctoral Study in STEM’ is a highly recommended resource for Chinese post-graduate students who wish to study STEM abroad. This book highlights the challenges that PhD students experience, and the appropriate strategies required for them to cope with their research, as well as their personal and social worlds throughout their PhD journey.” Misty So-Sum Wai-COOK, PhD, Centre for English Language Studies, National University of Singapore, Singapore

“Although focused on Chinese students, this book provides critical insight to educators working with any international doctoral students. Yang and MacCallum skillfully illuminate students’ own voices offering a deep, holistic narrative of their experiences that has real potential to increase inclusion, meaningful support, and degree completion.” Casey Dinger, Executive and Academic Director for Internationalization, University of Denver, USA “Chinese Students and the Experience of International Doctoral Study in STEM provides an impressively comprehensive analysis of the complex experiences of Chinese international doctoral students in the STEM disciplines. It is an essential resource for scholars and students with a research interest in doctoral student experiences while studying abroad.” Michael KUNG, Director, Global Education & Program Director, Sustainable Design Masters Program, University of Florida, USA “Standing apart from other publications in this area, Chinese STEM PhD Students Abroad through its narrative inquiry offers incredibly rich data around student experience in the course of study and in Australia more broadly. This publication reflects how important longitudinal qualitative research is to the field of international higher education.” Lisa Unangst, Visiting Assistant Professor, Miami University, USA “Chinese Students and the Experience of International Doctoral Study in STEM sheds light on a critically important yet often understudied area in the literature. The book provides readers with theoretical and empirical perspectives on STEM international research students’ experiences. It also offers practical suggestions on how to successfully complete a PhD abroad for both students and their supervisors.” Xin Zhao, Lecturer, University of Sheffield, UK

Chinese Students and the Experience of International Doctoral Study in STEM

This volume examines the diversified and challenging experiences of Chinese international STEM doctoral students at Australian institutes of higher education, exploring how intersections between research, personal life, and social experiences can be negotiated to achieve academic success and personal transformation. By drawing on a range of qualitative and longitudinal research methods, the book foregrounds student narratives and utilizes a novel three-dimensional multi-world framework as an effective approach for understanding student experiences in a holistic way. It integrates Chinese philosophical perspectives and theories in the fields of educational psychology, international education, and doctoral education to interpret the nuances, complexity, and particularities of the cross-cultural STEM PhD experience, highlighting the importance of the supervisor–mentee relationship and the role of students’ cultural, social, and philosophical values in supporting their successful completion of the PhD degree. The analysis thus provides new insights into the ways in which these experiences vary across students, and might apply in other national contexts, and to non-STEM student cohorts. This book will be a valuable resource for researchers and academics engaged in cross-cultural education, the sociology of education, and international and comparative education. It will be of particular interest to those with a focus on international doctoral education and cultural Asian studies. Yibo Yang is Associate Professor of International Studies at the Harbin Institute of Technology, China. Judith MacCallum is Professor Emerita of Education at Murdoch University, Australia.

Routledge Studies in Global Student Mobility Series Editors: Krishna Bista and Christopher Glass

Routledge Studies in Global Student Mobility offers a scholarly forum for original and innovative research which explores, explains, and increases understanding of issues and opportunities relating to international student mobility in K-12, higher education, and beyond. Consisting in peer-reviewed authored and edited volumes, the series advances theoretical understanding and identifies best practices for educators and professionals involved in study abroad. As an interdisciplinary scholarly venue, the series showcases new ideas and fresh perspectives relating to international student mobility, study abroad, exchange programs, student affairs from the US and around the world, and from a wide range of academic fields, including student affairs, international education, and cultural studies. This series is produced in collaboration with the CIES SIG Study Abroad  & International Students, STAR Scholars Network, and Open Journals in Education (OJED). Books in this series include: International Student Mobility to and from the Middle East Theorizing Public, Institutional, and Self-Constructions of Cross-Border Students Edited by Aneta Hayes and Sally Findlow Developing Intercultural Competence in Higher Education International Students’ Stories and Self-Reflection Lily A. Arasaratnam-Smith and Darla K. Deardorff Chinese Students and the Experience of International Doctoral Study in STEM Using a Multi-World Model to Understand Challenges and Success Yibo Yang and Judith MacCallum For more information about this series, please visit: www.routledge.com/ go/routledge-studies-in-global-student-mobility

Chinese Students and the Experience of International Doctoral Study in STEM Using a Multi-World Model to Understand Challenges and Success Yibo Yang and Judith MacCallum

First published 2023 by Routledge 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158 and by Routledge 4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2023 Yibo Yang and Judith MacCallum The right of Yibo Yang and Judith MacCallum to be identified as authors of this work has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Yang, Yibo (Professor of international studies), author. | MacCallum, Judith Anne, author. Title: Chinese students and the experience of international doctoral study in STEM : using a multi-world model to understand challenges and success / Yibo Yang and Judith MacCallum. Description: New York, NY : Routledge, 2023. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2022019950 (print) | LCCN 2022019951 (ebook) | ISBN 9781032193670 (hardback) | ISBN 9781032193694 (paperback) | ISBN 9781003258841 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Chinese students—Education (Graduate)— Australia. | Doctoral students—Australia. | Doctoral students—China. | Science—Study and teaching (Graduate) | Technology—Study and teaching (Graduate) | Engineering— Study and teaching (Graduate) | Mathematics—Study and teaching (Graduate) Classification: LCC LB2376.6.C6 Y365 2023 (print) | LCC LB2376.6.C6 (ebook) | DDC 378.1/982951094—dc23/ eng/20220707 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022019950 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022019951 ISBN: 978-1-032-19367-0 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-032-19369-4 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-003-25884-1 (ebk) DOI: 10.4324/9781003258841 Typeset in Sabon by Apex CoVantage, LLC

To Siyang & all Chinese doctoral students overseas

Contents

About the authors xi Forewordxii BERNARD DELL

Introduction1 PART I

The empirical and theoretical landscape7   1 The Chinese students and their philosophical values

9

  2 Doing a STEM PhD abroad

20

  3 The conceptual framework & the project

47

PART II

Congruence/difference and transitions across worlds73   4 Congruence matters: congruent worlds & smooth transitions75   5 Reciprocal respect matters: different worlds & smooth transitions

98

  6 Agency matters: congruent worlds & border crossings managed

117

  7 Putting conflicts under control: different worlds & border crossings managed

141

  8 When it’s really difficult: different worlds & border crossings difficult or resisted

173

x  Contents PART III

Enhancing cross-cultural PhD education: for a shared future199   9 Agentic communication to co-construct success into the future

201

10 From understanding to a shared future

223

Coda238 Index240

About the authors

Yibo Yang, PhD, Associate Professor at the School of International Studies, Harbin Institute of Technology, China, has been teaching STEM students and working with STEM academics at this research-intensive university for over 20 years. She commenced the project on Chinese STEM doctoral students abroad in 2015 and is further developing this work through her interest in internationalization in higher education, doctoral education, motivation, acculturation, academic writing, and intercultural communication. Judith MacCallum, PhD, Professor Emerita in Educational Psychology in the College of Science, Health, Engineering, and Education, Murdoch University, Australia. Her focus is on social and cognitive interaction for learning and development, and ways to create effective learning environments in a range of educational and community contexts, with key areas of interest revolving around cultural-historical theory, motivational change and development, professional learning, intergenerational exchange, and mentoring.

Foreword

The last decade’s great surge in globalization has opened up opportunities for international students leading to ever-increasing numbers of students pursuing an education in unfamiliar and alien environments. Furthermore, the percentage of international students undertaking a higher research degree (PhD) in STEM areas is increasing, so much so that in some western countries more than half of the PhD students are now international. Having spent much of the last three decades supervising PhD students from East and Southeast Asia, I  am well aware that the PhD journey is often difficult and multi-layered, and varies greatly from student to student. Very little formal guidance has been available on the training of international STEM students. So, I had to learn a great deal from my students over the years, such as the indispensable need for cultural understanding; the essentiality of providing a supportive environment; the need to monitor for signs of distress, despondency, and loneliness; and the importance of resolving issues as they emerge. Trust provides much of the foundation to a successful PhD. I wish this book had been available when I was a young teacher as I am sure it would have helped me to recognize potential issues and avoid making mistakes. Focusing on the student experience, this book is the first to critically investigate factors influencing the success of Chinese international doctoral students (CIDS) undertaking their research in Australian universities. Dr Yang has deep experience of Chinese cultures and cross-cultural education, and Emerita Professor Dr MacCallum has had a distinguished career in education and extensive experience supervising doctoral students. The two authors have combined to produce a scholarly account that explores the nature of the CIDS’ experiences and investigates factors influencing the success of undertaking a PhD abroad. The middle section of the book is compelling – from interviews with 38 PhD students, the authors have identified six poignant narratives. I found the work to be very absorbing and I felt empathy, especially toward those students struggling in a foreign land to reach their goals. Many of the narratives will no doubt apply to other cultures as I can see common concerns with some of the international doctoral students I have mentored from other countries in the Asian region.

Foreword xiii This study should be read widely by university administrators and their staff in international education, as well as PhD supervisors and future research students. Many western university administrators have little experience of Chinese culture and education practices. I hope that as the world recovers from the COVID-19 epidemic that their focus can be extended from budget repair to sharing in and actively enhancing the learning experience of international doctoral students. This book can help to facilitate change that many universities are seeking, especially facilitating student welfare while improving PhD completion time and rates. The work has broad application to all PhD fields of endeavor and to international research students across all countries. Dr Bernard Dell Emeritus Professor Murdoch University, Perth, Australia Vietnamese Academy of Forest Sciences, Hanoi, Vietnam

Introduction

The research Each year in the complicated and challenging context of internationalization, a number of Chinese doctoral students in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM CIDS) are making transitions to support themselves in the sociocultural-academic contexts of a host community. As study experience has significant implications for academic success and expectations for the future (Biggs  & Moore, 1993), it is important to understand the particular nature of STEM CIDS’ experiences of study abroad so as to know how to better facilitate their journeys. This narrative inquiry is seeking to gain insight into the nature of the experience of Chinese international STEM doctoral students to reveal factors that facilitate or constrain the completion of the PhD in different situations and over time. It was a four-year longitudinal study conducted in the late 2010s. We established a three-dimensional (continuous, interactive, and situative), multi-world (research, personal, and social worlds) conceptual framework and adopted multiple research methods to collect data. The student experiences were classified into six patterns and both cross-case and within-case analyses were used to capture commonality and heterogeneity. Overall, the endeavor of this book is to contribute to the global academic discussion and practical needs by supporting mutual and reciprocal understanding in the field of international doctoral education.

Research questions This book addresses the following two research questions: 1) What is the nature of the study abroad experience of Chinese international doctoral students in STEM? 2) What, how, and why certain factors facilitate or constrain Chinese international STEM students’ positive and successful completion of their PhD abroad? DOI: 10.4324/9781003258841-1

2  Introduction Achieving a PhD is challenging, and achieving it abroad increases the challenges. The high doctoral attrition rate has been a pressing concern for higher education institutions (Gardner, 2007; Lovitts, 2001; McAlpine & Norton, 2006). Education in transnational, transcultural, trans-linguistic, and trans-educational system environments has also been researchers’ consistent concern about international students (Han et al., 2013; Redfern, 2015; Wei et al., 2012). With an understanding of the heterogenous features of disciplinary milieu, home countries, and host countries, this research focuses on students from hard disciplines (STEM), one-cultural background (Chinese) in one host Anglophone country (Australia). The approaches we used for this project could be transferred for understanding international research students’ experiences in general.

Clarifying concepts STEM In the 1990s, the term STEM was proposed by the National Science Foundation of the United States to identify the significance of science and technology in the sustainable development of an economy (Portz, 2015). Organizations, institutes, and researchers, though, have been struggling with a clear definition of the specific disciplines that comprise STEM fields (Koonce et al., 2011). For the present study, we use the term STEM solely for the four families of Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics. Due to disciplinary features, they are considered “hard applied disciplines” (e.g., engineering, information technology) and “hard pure disciplines” (e.g., chemistry, mathematics) (Becher & Trowler, 2001), but boundaries between these disciplines have been unclear and dynamically changing because knowledge is cross-disciplinary by nature (e.g., chemical engineering, computational mathematics). Further, the field of science in STEM refers to natural sciences, or so-called core sciences (Gonzalez & Kuenzi, 2012) (e.g., physics, chemistry, environmental sciences, agricultural sciences, biomedical sciences, health sciences, earth sciences), excluding “soft sciences” of social sciences, psychology, and other non-STEM fields (e.g., humanities, arts, education, economics, business, political sciences). Within STEM fields, the disciplinary features and cultures are also distinctive, but we intentionally blur our participants’ specific field of study in this book. At the doctoral level, a STEM student’s research topic becomes highly specific, focusing on one small and forefront field of knowledge, for example, a special material with a special component to be used for 3D printing. Ideally, students carry out research, report, establish professional identity, and grow to be a critical part of the global talent infrastructure in that specific field. Within that field, it is a small and interconnected world, where researchers know each other, in person, by profiles, or via networks because of their shared research interest, for which they dedicatedly invest themselves daily and/or over a lifetime.

Introduction 3 With the qualitative nature of this project, we entered deep into our participants’ study abroad experiences. Each of them had a unique story to tell. Given the combination of situated research, personal, and social factors that co-constructed student experiences over time, the revelation in our narrative inquiry makes them vulnerable to be identified. The blurring of STEM disciplines protects the participants by positioning them and their experiences in a broader context. Thus, we generally adopt STEM as a holistic term in this book, partially for cross-disciplinary features in constructing the world of science and technology, and partially for deidentification and protection purposes. In this way, the book could not become a handbook guiding how to achieve a PhD in a specific STEM area. Instead, it helps understand the nature of experiences of Chinese international STEM doctoral students and to understand factors that facilitate or constrain their academic success in general and in specific situations. In this way, this book offers the possibility of transferability and generalization to the understanding of international research students in non-STEM fields, from other home countries, studying in different host contexts, even much so to enhancing international doctoral education in and after the 2020s when the world grapples with life in the post-COVID era. Chinese international STEM doctoral students (STEM CIDS) The concept of international students is defined as “students who have crossed a national or territorial border for the purposes of education” by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (Institute for Statistics, 2006, p. 178). The Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) is generally defined as the highest academic degree that can be awarded for an individual’s original, significant, and independent contribution to scientific research (Mason, 2018). To receive the degree, a doctoral student is expected to be an authority, “in full command of the subject right up to the boundaries of current knowledge, and able to extend them” (Phillips & Pugh, 2010, p. 20). Expanding on these definitions, the term STEM CIDS in this study refers to students who temporarily crossed the national border from the People’s Republic of China to a host country for the academic goal of achieving a PhD degree in STEM. We did not limit this research on STEM CIDS to Australia though Australia was the location where the project was implemented. First, due to Australia’s multicultural and immigration policies in recent decades, doctoral supervisors of our participants had vastly different cultural and ethnic backgrounds (e.g., German, British, Swedish, Irish, Indian, Chinese, Indonesian, Iranian, Egyptian, and Australia). They could be first-, second-, or more-generation immigrants to Australia. They also had vastly different educational and work experiences in one or more countries. These factors combined to influence their highly individualized

4  Introduction supervisory styles and their understanding of the standard of the PhD within institutional frameworks. Second, many participants had a multi-institutional or multi-national supervisory panel. With the flexible institutional arrangement that applies to most doctoral education programs (Rizvi, 2010), it was not uncommon that STEM students had a supervisory panel comprising supervisors from multiple institutions or multiple countries (e.g., Australia and China, Australia and German, Australia and the UK, Australia and France in this study). And third, some participants expanded their doctoral experience from one local laboratory to a wider global context. Though principally situated in an Australian laboratory, some had to travel to the UK, China, Japan, Canada, or Germany to do part, or even a major part, of their doctoral research. Therefore, rather than limiting this project in a particular country, we positioned STEM CIDS in a broad disciplinary context with transnational spaces.

The structure of the book This book has ten chapters in three parts. In Part I, we explicate the empirical and theoretical landscape of the project. Chapter  1 introduces unique features of the generation of STEM CIDS in the 2010s and moves on to elucidate some fundamental Chinese philosophical values and beliefs that have been functioning to shape Chinese people’s being, doing, and becoming. Chapter 2 reviews literature about doing a PhD and doing it abroad, including motivations, supervisor-led small-cultural context, individual factors of achieving a PhD abroad, and socialization and connectedness while doing PhD abroad. Chapter  3 establishes a three-dimensional multi-world framework for understanding international research students’ experiences, followed by an account of the research project with STEM CIDS. In Part II, we present six categories of STEM CIDS’ experiences. The patterns of congruence or difference, and corresponding transitions underpinned by the conceptual framework are used to structure this part from Chapter 4 to Chapter 7. We combined the last two categories in Chapter 8 to illustrate the final complications resulting in a doctoral withdrawal. Within each chapter, we present the cross-case analysis of the pattern and then move on to a narrative to showcase major themes in the pattern. Part III highlights key points in improving cross-cultural doctoral study experiences for a shared future. Chapter  9 presents the importance of agentic communication as a core component in supporting or undermining a successful STEM PhD abroad. Chapter 10 discusses how philosophical values and beliefs sustain Chinese STEM students to persist despite constant challenges and difficulties and to achieve their successful completion of the PhD.

Introduction 5

References Becher, T.,  & Trowler, P. R. (2001). Academic tribes and territories: Intellectual enquiry and the culture of disciplines (2nd ed.). Society for Research into Higher Education & Open University Press. Biggs, J., & Moore, P. J. (1993). The process of learning (3rd ed.). Prentice Hall. Gardner, S. K. (2007). “I  Heard it through the grapevine”: Doctoral student socialization in chemistry and history. Higher Education, 54(5), 723–740. doi:10.1007/s10734-006-9020-x Gonzalez, H. B., & Kuenzi, J. J. (2012). Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education: A primer (R42642). Congressional Research Service. Han, X., Han, X., Luo, Q., Jacobs, S., & Jean-Baptiste, M. (2013). Report of a mental health survey among Chinese international students at Yale University. Journal of American College Health, 61(1), 1–8. doi:10.1080/07448481.201 2.738267 Institute for Statistics. (2006). Global education digest, 2006: Comparing education statistics around the world. http://uis.unesco.org/sites/default/ files/documents/global-education-digest-2006-comparing-education-statistics-across-the-world-en_0.pdf Koonce, D. A., Zhou, J., Anderson, C. D., Hening, D. A., & Conley, V. M. (2011). What is STEM. American Society for Engineering Education. www.asee.org/ file_server/papers/attachment/file/0001/ . . . /What_is_STEM_-_Final.pdf Lovitts, B. E. (2001). Leaving the ivory tower: The causes and consequences of departure from doctoral study. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. Mason, S. (2018). Publications in the doctoral thesis: Challenges for doctoral candidates, supervisors, examiners and administrators. Higher Education Research & Development, 37(6), 1231–1244. doi:10.1080/07294360.2018.1462307 McAlpine, L.,  & Norton, J. (2006). Reframing our approach to doctoral programs: An integrative framework for action and research. Higher Education Research & Development, 25(1), 3–17. doi:10.1080/07294360500453012 Phillips, E., & Pugh, D. (2010). How to get a PhD: A handbook for students and their supervisors (4th ed.). Open University Press. Portz, S. (2015). The challenges of STEM education. Paper presented at the 43rd Space Congress. Redfern, K. (2015). An empirical investigation of the incidence of negative psychological symptoms among Chinese international students at an Australian university. Australian Journal of Psychology, 68(4), 281–289. doi:10.1111/ajpy.12106 Rizvi, F. (2010). International students and doctoral studies in transnational spaces. In M. Walker  & P. Thomson (Eds.), The Routledge doctoral supervisor’s companion: Supporting effective research in education and the social sciences (Vol. 1, pp. 158–170). Routledge. Wei, M. F., Liao, K. Y. H., Heppner, P. P., Chao, R. C. L., & Ku, T. Y. (2012). Forbearance coping, identification with heritage culture, acculturative stress, and psychological distress among Chinese international students. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 59(1), 97–106. doi:10.1037/A0025473

Part I

The empirical and theoretical landscape

1 The Chinese students and their philosophical values

This chapter elucidates the characteristics of Chinese international students and Chinese philosophical values and beliefs. We zoom in to examine Chinese international STEM doctoral students in the 2010s because of their unique and distinctive features shaped by historical, socioeconomic, and educational contexts. Besides, as Chinese philosophy has been functioning significantly in the Chinese culture, this chapter presents some elements and traits in the philosophy that are pertinent to the understanding of the embeddedness of students nurtured in this culture.

Chinese students studying abroad In 1854, a Chinese student, Rong Hong (容闳), achieved his bachelor’s degree from Yale and returned to China. In 1872, with Rong’s influence upon the authorities of the Qing Dynasty to send more students abroad to learn modern technology, the first 30 government-funded students were sent to the USA on a 15-year study program. This started the contemporary history of Chinese students studying abroad (Shu, 1927/2014). There were disruptions when China experienced social turmoil and wars in the following hundred years. That first program was discontinued in 1881 due to policy changes, but since then, Chinese students, through various means of financial support, have been pursuing education abroad in various disciplinary fields. In 1978, Chinese students began to study abroad in huge numbers alongside China’s open-door policies and economic growth. In the following four decades, China experienced two waves of talent migration: studying abroad and “brain boomerang” or “Haigui” (Liu et al., 2015). Student migration, both outbound and return, exhibited a fast-increasing tendency and has gradually become a normalized social phenomenon before 2020. The Chinese Ministry of Education (2017) statistics show that 4.04 million Chinese students studied abroad from 1978 to 2015, with an annual growth rate of 19.06% on average. The Ministry also reports that, being attracted by the country’s economy and the job market, roughly 2.2 million students have returned to China meanwhile. DOI: 10.4324/9781003258841-3

10  The empirical and theoretical landscape Between the two high notes of leaving and returning, something has been missing in documentation: the experiences of studying abroad. In other words, how students experience their study abroad period has remained largely untold or unknown. We may know pieces or fragments, but there has been a lack of holistic understanding to the whole. In 2017, a Chinese songwriter and singer, Pu Shu, described the situation in lyrics, the Innocent Years (清白之年): We go overseas, it has been long; we sing in whispers, but no one tells how (此身越重洋，轻描时光漫长，低唱语 焉不详) (www.youtube.com/watch?v=bf8xXjq7qMQ). Taking the doctorate as an example, Ministry of Education (2017) statistics on Chinese doctoral returnees show that they spend on average 46.3 months (3.8  years) to complete their overseas doctoral degree in major host countries – the USA, the UK, Australia, Japan, France, and Germany. For this lengthy period of staying abroad, the “no-one-tells-how” situation builds up one question, “How have they been doing out there?” From the extant literature, we would know certain specific aspects of their experiences. Research addressed their linguistic issues (Cortazzi  & Jin, 1997; Brown, 2008), identity reformation (Ye, 2018), psychological well-being (Han et al., 2013), personal epistemology (Zhu, 2017), and, in particular, their sociocultural, academic, and emotional adaptation in host communities (Borg et al., 2010; McClure, 2007; Xu et al., 2020). The contrast between the number of Chinese students studying overseas and the lack of holistic understanding of their experiences motivated us to commence this project to investigate the nature of their study abroad. Further, Chinese international students at the doctoral level have been dominantly and increasingly choosing to study in STEM-related disciplines. In Australia, for example, out of 3,374 Chinese doctoral student enrolments, 2,329 (or 69%) were in STEM in 2014 (Department of Education and Training, 2015). The ratio has been following an upward trend in the recent decade, increasing steadily from 58% in 2009 and 64% in 2011 (Table 1.1). Positioned on the top of the educational pyramid, the number of these educational elites is extremely small among Chinese international students in higher education, but these students have significant value to the innovative and scientifically driven economy of the world (Han et al., 2015). Then a cursory review of the literature reveals that research with Chinese international students has been dominantly focusing on undergraduates and postgraduates by coursework in social sciences or mixed disciplines (e.g., Hail, 2015; Redfern, 2015). Prominently, doctoral education features one-to-one supervisory guidance, grant-supported research projects, and scholarship-supported living, which are fundamentally different from coursework-based education at pre-PhD levels. Besides, distinctive disciplinary features in STEM, for example, laboratory-based experimentation, industrial linkage/application, teamwork, and high financial input (Deem  & Brehony, 2000) also differentiate

Chinese students & philosophical values 11 Table 1.1 Annual enrolments of Chinese PhD and doctoral students in STEM courses in the higher education sector in Australia (2015) Year 2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

Broad Field of Education Engineering and Related 471 634 819 1,020 1,180 1,360 Technologies Information Technology 84 98 126 142 162 184 Agriculture, 31 39 52 65 80 84 Environmental, and Related Studies Natural and Physical 244 321 412 512 586 701 Sciences Other Fields 608 727 807 876 973 1,045 PhD & Doctorate 1,438 1,819 2,216 2,615 2,981 3,374 sub-total Total Enrolments in 11,175 13,838 15,146 15,818 16,743 18,365 STEM Courses in Higher Education Other Fields in Higher 65,978 76,898 78,892 73,561 69,315 70,837 Education Total – All Chinese 77,153 90,736 94,308 89,379 86,058 89,202 Students in Higher Education Source: Department of Education and Training International Student Data, Australian government, Department of Education and Training. This data was extracted from the YTD October 2015 student pivot.

STEM students from their counterparts in social sciences or other nonSTEM fields (Becher  & Trowler, 2001). Thus, we narrowed down our research focus to be specifically on Chinese international students and STEM doctoral students. The acronym “STEM CIDS” is metaphorically bestowed as stems and seeds yet to grow into shade trees if with appropriate nurturing. In the evolving global context, the generation of STEM CIDS in the 2010s has distinctive features of being shaped by both Eastern and Western socio-cultures and educational norms (Xu et  al., 2020; Ye, 2018), which distinguish them from previous generations or international students from other cultural backgrounds in three aspects (Yang et al., 2018). First, the majority of these students are the only child of their parents due to China’s one-child policy implemented from the early 1980s until 2015. The “only child” in psychology is defined as children without siblings, raised singly by their parents. While no previous generation in any society was so overwhelmingly formed by the only children in the majority of families, this post-1980s/1990s generation has become a

12  The empirical and theoretical landscape unique phenomenon in China, and its unpredictable impact on China’s future has been under examination by researchers in various fields such as anthropology, sociology, economics, and education (e.g., Deutsch, 2006; Fong, 2004; Hesketh, 2005). Second, their personal growth has taken place alongside the rapid economic restoration of China in their childhood and then amidst the fast transitioning into a technology-based economy in the new millennium. The Chinese government has realized the criticality of nurturing STEM talents that are equipped for the knowledge economy with broad world visions (Liu et  al., 2015), which creates an enormous demand for top-level scientists and researchers with international study experiences. When this generation of STEM CIDS was completing their undergraduate and/or postgraduate education in China, the government had increased the quota of support for studying abroad from 12,000 in 2011 to 29,000 in 2016 (Chinese Scholarship Council, 2016), which increased their opportunities to pursue a PhD abroad. Third, this generation has also experienced significant cultural reformations while growing up. An integration of Chinese and western cultural, ideological, and educational elements has impacted the formation of their characters, life aspirations, values, and expectations. Unlike those younger Chinese international students at high school, undergraduate, or postgraduate levels who were more financially and emotionally dependent on their parents, students pursuing a PhD degree were mostly independent of their parental support, pointing to their independence in decision-making and personal value system development. Consequently, finance, social reforms, and migration have generated constant cultural collisions that worked together or against each other to shape this unique STEM CIDS generation. When Chinese students decide to study abroad, they normally bring with them in their luggage hopes, dreams, ambition, determination, aspiration, curiosity, and their culturally embedded values and beliefs. However, along with the path in pursuit of a research degree and sojourning in a foreign land, there are ideological, cultural, linguistic, and educational differences between China and western countries. Students encounter many and continuous challenges with both tangible and intangible stress (Fang et al., 2016; Singh & Chen, 2012; Wang et al., 2012). Tangible stress may come from the level of language proficiency, norms of learning, and the knowledge gap in the field of study. It may also involve the loss of familiar social networks, being away from the food that satisfies their appetite, dealing with housing agencies, child-care arrangements, illness, and an unfamiliar medical care system. Intangible stress often derives from the confusion in motivation, sense of identity, sense of belonging, self-efficacy, and the communication in the new academic-sociocultural context (Bandura, 2002; Berry et al., 1987; Berry, 1997; Caprara et  al., 2008; Ward  & Kennedy, 1994). With the

Chinese students & philosophical values 13 stereotyping that Chinese students are generally strong in academic study (Ruble  & Zhang, 2013), they could be even under greater pressure to achieve well to match that expectation. The stress accumulated has consistently been found to impede international students’ adjustment, wellbeing, and further on their academic achievement (Ying & Han, 2006). However, we cannot over-problematize the challenges and difficulties; we also need to understand more about how Chinese students achieved their academic success and personal growth when doing their PhD abroad. Challenges always exist, but we need to understand more about the nature of their doctoral experiences, in which the supervisors and anyone else’s professional, dedicated, and committed support cannot be overshadowed or understated. Then we may understand both good and problematic practices in terms of facilitators and constraints to enhance satisfactory and positive educational experience, which is key to international doctoral education (Ammigan & Jones, 2018).

Chinese philosophical values and beliefs Presumably, Chinese students, rooted in the Chinese sociocultural context and philosophical traditions while growing up, would take some of their Chinese values and beliefs when doing the PhD abroad at their mature age. We do not agree with cultural determinism; students’ values and beliefs, rather than remaining static, dynamically change within specific situations and over time. However, some cultural heritage and cultural traits may remain to be with students in the novel educational and sociocultural experiences (Holliday, 1999), consistently influencing their mind and the way of their transitions, interactions, and negotiations in the host community. Research on Chinese cultures consistently finds that it is the philosophy, rather than religion, that dominates Chinese values and beliefs (Fung, 1948/2019; Lau  & Yeung, 1996; Wang et  al., 2021). In Fung’s (1948/2019) book A Short History of Chinese Philosophy, he illuminates that Chinese people “have not had much concern with religion because they have had so much concern with philosophy.” The place philosophy has occupied in Chinese civilization has been comparable to that of religion in other civilizations, close to every Chinese in everyday life (Wu, 1986). In time, the philosophical values and beliefs become part of Chinese students’ being to bring to their PhD abroad experiences, influencing their learning process, interactions with supervisors and others, everyday life, and socialization. This sets the foundation for us to position Chinese philosophy as root values and beliefs for research that endeavors to understand the experiences of Chinese students abroad. This study is by no means to be comprehensive about Chinese philosophy, which in itself is profound and extensive along its historical evolution. Some basic traits of the philosophy, though, are pertinent to the

14  The empirical and theoretical landscape understanding of the embeddedness of Chinese students nurtured in this culture. First, the connection between education and philosophy. “In China, philosophy has been every educated person’s concern” (Fung, 1948/2019, p. 2). The tradition started with Kongzi (Confucius, 551–479 BC), who is regarded as both the first teacher and the first philosopher in China. Ru Jia (儒家), known in western literature as the Confucianist School, literally means the school of literatus or scholars. The term Ru Jia not only denotes “Confucian” or “Confucianist” but has a much wider implication with contributions from numerous scholars and thinkers as followers and innovators, such as neo-Confucianism, throughout 2,500 years of the civilization (Wu, 1986). With this integration of education and philosophy, education has always been imperative for an individual and the family embedded in this culture. Zhou (2014) found in her study that Chinese international doctoral students persisted to achieve their degrees despite perceivable dissatisfaction. The deep-rooted belief in the value of education may partially contribute to this persistence motivation. Second, the inseparability of theory and practice in this philosophy. The Chinese character 哲 (zhe, meaning philosophy, and wisdom) shows the pictographs of mouth and hand, denoting the combination of word and action, or theory and practice. Wang Yangming (1472–1529), one of the greatest Chinese philosophers and the most important NeoConfucian thinker, believed in 知行合一, which could be translated as the harmony of knowledge and action, or unity of knowing and doing. Wang held that knowledge and action are innately integrated, and inseparable from each other. This derives from the traditional view in the Chinese belief that wisdom acquired in daily life needs to be used in practice (Wang et al., 2021). Hence, in his book Fundamentals of Chinese Philosophy, Wu (1986, p. 8) argues that “wisdom” for Chinese means “practical wisdom,” which helps the Chinese to make decisions and take actions in difficult situations. Pertinent to this point, Chinese philosophy is viewed as both extremely idealistic and extremely realistic. Fung (1948/2019) used an expression “world-transcending” to describe this philosophy that synthesizes the antitheses of “this-worldliness” and “other-worldliness.” Here we use a Chinese folktale the Butterfly Lovers, to illustrate. The story tells us about the forbidden love between a lady, Zhu Yingtai, and a man, Liang Shanbo, due to feudal family barriers. When they realized there was no way to be together in life, the man passed away out of a broken heart, and the lady committed suicide on her way to an arranged marriage by jumping into Shanbo’s grave, stricken open by an unexpected lightening. This folktale is often compared with Shakespeare’s tragedy Romeo and Juliet. The lovers chose to die if without love, which was the commonality between the two versions of romance. However, the Chinese version did not end there. The climax came when the thunderstorm vanished and

Chinese students & philosophical values 15 a rainbow appeared in the sky, and from the broken tomb flew out two gorgeous butterflies, cavorting over the flowers, flying away together into the distance. This story combines this-worldly realism and other-worldly idealism, presenting what Chinese philosophy has striven for. An understanding of this complexity is essential when attempting to interpret Chinese students. For example, Ruble and Zhang (2013) depicted a complicated picture of stereotypes by American students, ranging from highly favorable ones (e.g., nice, friendly, smart) to highly unfavorable ones (e.g., mindless, annoying, too smart) for the same cohort of Chinese students in the USA. A  deeper understanding of Chinese philosophical standpoints, or the spiritual world, may reduce the extreme perceptions. Third, the synthesis nature of the philosophy. The mainstream of Chinese philosophy has a trinity pattern shaped by Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism (Wang et  al., 2021). Besides, other schools of thoughts, including Agriculturalism, Mohism, Naturalism, Legalism, and neo-Confucianism, also fused into the present Chinese value system (Fung, 1948/2019). This synthesis and fusing process is a lasting process. When Yu and Moskal (2019) conducted a study on Chinese postgraduate students’ engagement with local churches in the UK, they found that the dominant majority who visited churches were not Christians. Rather, these students took part in the church activities to make friends, practice English, and stay in touch with the culture. As Wu (1986) noted, few Chinese today would claim themselves to be religious. Chinese people embrace different schools of thoughts, Marxism for a typical example from the west, and incorporate these ideas into their way of thinking. For the Chinese, the search for truth is the search for the most comprehensive way of interpreting human experiences (Wu, 1986). This way of thinking is most likely to influence how STEM CIDS think, behave, and learn while doing a PhD abroad. And fourth, self-discipline, social commitment, and social harmony as core values in the philosophy. As abundant the minutiae of the Chinese philosophical perspectives are, there are some essential philosophical perspectives closely relevant to Chinese students. When tracing back to Chinese classics due to their steadfast role in shaping Chinese values and beliefs over the history, among a plethora of elements, a decree from one of the earliest classics, I-Ching, may present a core philosophy: 天行健，君子以自强不息。地势坤，君子以厚德载物。 (A Junzi constantly strengthens himself with self-discipline just like the constant evolution of the universe. A  Junzi devotes himself to social commitment with high moral values just like the generosity of the earth.) – I-ching, or Classic of Changes, late 900 BC, Zhou Dynasty

16  The empirical and theoretical landscape Self-discipline and social commitment are the two moral virtues of selfcultivation embedded in this decree about Junzi (a noble or decent man). In the Great Learning, one of the Four Books in the Confucianism classics, personal growth, or the cultivation of a Junzi is through a linear order from self-discipline to social commitment: 格物，至知，诚意，正心， 修身，齐家，治国，平天下, translated as investigation, knowledge, sincerity, mindset, self-cultivation, clan harmony, governance, and then aspired after the world peace. Of central importance in this line points to self-cultivation, which is further accentuated in the teaching: 自天子 以至於庶人，壹是皆以齐身为本 (From the king down to the common people, all must take self-cultivation as essential and fundamental). In Confucianism, the cultivation of the self is also the cultivation of relationships for social harmony (Lai, 2006). The concept of related-self captures relationality as a basic feature of human life, taking the cultivation of the self in promoting social harmony as an ongoing process. Selfcultivation is the development of the self within the social environment, and responsiveness to others is permanently a key theme in morality and moral development. Within this framework, members of society participate in its moral life through the enrichment of each other. An illustration of this related-self is embedded in 仁 (ren), the core of Confucian philosophy. Etymologically, two people make 仁. Ren emphasizes benevolence based on human relatedness, interdependence, and social connectedness. Lai (2006) argues that ren is realized in different interdependent contexts, for example, deference at home, respect in handling public affairs, and doing one’s utmost in maintaining politeness in interactions with others, which can present one’s devotion to seeking social harmony. This point can be highly relevant when interpreting how STEM CIDS deal with the relationship with their supervisors and socialize in the host and professional contexts.

Chapter summary This chapter first briefly reviewed the history of Chinese students studying abroad and the reasons we located our research focus on Chinese international STEM doctoral students in the 2010s. This section clarified how these students distinguished themselves from previous generations of STEM CIDS due to dramatic sociocultural and economic transformation in China and elsewhere while they grew up; from CIDS in non-STEM fields due to specific disciplinary features of hard and soft sciences; and from other international and local STEM doctoral students in western host communities due to their cultural, ideological, and educational background. The second section of the chapter elucidated some fundamental traits in Chinese philosophical values and beliefs. Philosophy, rather than religion, has been functioning significantly in the Chinese culture. Chinese philosophy highlights the connection between education and philosophy,

Chinese students & philosophical values 17 inseparability of theory and practice, and embodies synthesis nature in the development throughout 2,500 years of civilization. Chinese students are nurtured with a strong sense of enhancing self-discipline, social commitment, and social harmony as the path of personal growth. This philosophy may influence Chinese students’ being, doing, and becoming, further impacting their construction of identity and negotiation of differences in intercultural settings while striving for a PhD abroad.

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2 Doing a STEM PhD abroad

This chapter reviews the extant research on PhD study and study abroad. Four clusters of literature are identified, which inform the structure of this chapter. The first cluster is about motivations and external influences of students doing a PhD and doing it abroad. The other three clusters are about the PhD experience itself, including the supervisor-led laboratory research cultures, personal factors to achieve a PhD abroad, and international doctoral students’ socialization and connectedness in the host community. Unless otherwise stated, the literature reviewed in each section of this chapter generally starts with common elements of doing a PhD and then flows to specific aspects related to doing it abroad and in STEM.

Motivations and influential factors in the decision-making This section reviews the extant empirical research in two broad domains: the motivations for deciding upon doing a PhD in a specific field, and then for doing that abroad. These two domains are inseparable by nature but doing a PhD and where to do it can be a two-stage process for an individual to think of (Stephan et al., 2015). The two domains are inseparable also because of the nature of internationalized PhD education, which could stem back to its very beginning when modern research-based doctoral education was established in Berlin in the early 1800s and later in Yale in 1861 to attract students to undertake scientific research (Noble, 1994). The cross-national flow of PhD candidates for seeking advancement in research became a norm particularly after the 1950s when western countries saw a boom in doctoral education. Over time, the motivations for doing a PhD degree have been changing. The traditional concept of a PhD degree is that a PhD is to qualify a candidate to teach in universities. With the present situation of limited positions at universities, many of those who have achieved their doctorate will not have opportunities to go into academia (Neumann & Tan, 2021), but increasingly many will find careers in industry (GermainAlamartine, 2021). With the changing roles of a PhD, the motivations DOI: 10.4324/9781003258841-4

Doing a STEM PhD abroad 21 and the influences for choosing to undertake such a program need further examination (Guerin et al., 2015). The literature, in general, identifies motivations within two broad categories. One focuses on personal growth as intrinsic motivations, and another on professional development as extrinsic motivations. Intrinsic motivational research captures personal satisfaction, self-accomplishment, intrinsic love to research, the joy of study, cognitive interest, the quest for intellectual knowledge, personal identity, and self-enrichment (Leonard et al., 2005; Stiber, 2000). Extrinsic motivational research identifies factors of gaining qualifications, skills, and expertise, academic pathways, improving career prospects, job security, promotion, credibility, and recognition (Churchill & Sanders, 2007; Jablonski, 2001). Besides, research shows that lecturers’ encouragement, peer/colleague influence, prior research experience, and motivations for meeting the expectations of others function importantly in an individual’s decision-making for a PhD (Brailsford, 2010; Skakni et al., 2019). These studies are mostly situated in social sciences, business fields, or in a cross-disciplinary milieu. For the international flow of students in higher education, researchers identified multi-faceted motivators to structure our understanding. These motivators include quality, variety, and availability of education in the host country (Shanka et al., 2006), sociocultural, linguistic, and academic experience (Bodycott, 2009; Li & Bray, 2007), economic factors (Li  & Lowe, 2016), and employment expectations after study (Binsardi & Ekwulugo, 2003). Students are found to have evaluated recognition of gained qualification or the degree value in the home country (Chen, 2008) so that ranking or the reputation of a university is important (Wilkins et al., 2012). Besides, the geopolitics of knowledge-degree production/consumption at the macro level (Kim et al., 2011) and student characteristics at the micro level (Jiani, 2017) both play a role in the decision-making for studying abroad. Specifically, for Chinese students studying abroad, Yang et al. (2018) examined their motivations and influences of doing a STEM PhD abroad. This was to report initial findings as groundwork for the research to be reported in this book. The study shows that motivations involved enriching life experiences, self-cultivation, broadening perspectives in research, improving career prospects, and contributing to life betterment, which is mostly consistent with findings from other studies (Xu et al., 2020; Ye, 2018; Zhu, 2016) with the recent generation of Chinese international doctoral students in general. Besides, Yang et al.’s (2018) study found that the choice to do a STEM PhD abroad was ultimately a personal decision, but influenced by a range of external factors at both micro and macro levels. The micro level engaged family, lecturers, and peer influences, whereas the macro level involved institutional cooperation, supervisor’s reputation, and financial considerations. Chinese traditional Confucian values in pursuing the best

22  The empirical and theoretical landscape possible education whenever possible functioned as significant drivers to study abroad (Li & Qi, 2019). In the past four decades when China experienced dramatic sociocultural and economic reformation, most Chinese parents still upheld the Confucian ideology that stresses the value of education. These parents were prepared to endure financial, social, and emotional hardship to seek quality education for their children. The parents’ values and beliefs were passed on to their children so that the pursuit of better education became one of the major motivations of Chinese students studying abroad (Bodycott & Lai, 2012). Yang et al.’s (2018) study also shows the importance of research collaboration between STEM CIDS’ home and host institutions. With global academic exchanges, some students’ Chinese postgraduate supervisors, who were well aware of both their students’ research potential and the host supervisors’ field of interest, offered reliable channels for a suitable match between capable students and supervisors. On the other hand, some host supervisors, through their industrious efforts in visiting and giving lectures or workshops at Chinese institutions, were also found to be harvesting some unexpected crops. Underpinned by the expectancy-value theory, this study used one-off interviews with STEM CIDS in Australia. With these initial findings, the current book takes a longitudinal view and delves into nuances and subtleties with respect to interactions, dynamics, and situated diversity in the experience of CIDS’ STEM PhD abroad. Then the following three sections scrutinize three bodies of literature relating to doing PhD, doing it abroad, and in STEM: the supervisor-led laboratory research cultures, personal factors to achieve the goal, and students’ socialization and connectedness in the host community.

The supervisor-led laboratory research cultures The laboratory research cultures A laboratory is a good representation of the academic-social environment for international STEM research students. It offers a research environment for supervisors, students, and other researchers, where they interact on a daily basis. Research laboratories have a unique independent structure within a department, and they are semi-autonomous groups to receive separate funding, recruit doctoral students, and, at times, hire research assistants and technicians (Delamont et al., 1997). Soft sciences may feature individual intellectual interpretation, but in STEM, or hard disciplines, collaboration occurs within and beyond the laboratory when problems can or need to be divided for solution with the power of disciplinary epistemology (Becher & Trowler, 2001). Each STEM laboratory features a small academic-social culture within large cultures of an institution or disciplinary domains of enquiry (Tanyildiz, 2015).

Doing a STEM PhD abroad 23 The concepts of small and large cultures were borrowed from Holliday (1999) in the field of applied linguistics. Originally, the concepts were to distinguish between notions of any cohesive social groupings from those of ethnicity or nation. A small culture does not refer to something smaller in size than a large institutional, ethnic, national, or international culture; rather, it offers a different paradigm through which to look at social groupings. Different from a large culture paradigm which is more about what makes cultures as they are, a small culture paradigm is concerned with how it develops in the process and how it influences individuals within. This approach facilitates our understanding of cohesion, avoiding the tendency of essentializing the interpretation of cultures in a group within a particular context (Tian  & Lowe, 2013). Pertaining to international STEM doctoral students who work intensively in laboratories, offices, or workstations at the host institution, this small culture paradigm provides a unique theoretical perspective to examine their work context and the corresponding influences. A small research cultural context, as academic habitus in specific disciplines (Colvin et al., 2015), is of direct relevance for research students’ learning experiences. In a typical STEM laboratory, the supervisor provides guidance on the framework and direction of research, whereas experienced group members, including academics, postdoctoral researchers, or senior doctoral candidates, provide daily facilitation to novice students (Delamont et al., 1997). In this way, epistemological knowledge of disciplines can be usefully passed down, individually and collectively, by people who inhabit the academic world through their interactions, along with their taken-for-granted knowledge and attitudes and the rules that govern their behavior (Becher & Trowler, 2001). A supportive laboratory culture might rescue a PhD student. Team support may function importantly in the cases that the working relationship with the principal supervisor breaks down (Robertson, 2017). The collective support of the research group could function as a buffer against failure. Delamont and colleagues (1997, p.  535) also highlighted the mediating role of “pedagogic continuity,” where doctoral students had the opportunity to establish a knowledge framework within the more specific context of their own research group besides within the broad context of scientific work. Holliday (1999) conceptualizes that a small culture is “a dynamic, ongoing group process which operates in changing circumstances to enable group members to make sense of and operate meaningfully within those circumstances” (p. 248). A laboratory culture, whether it is encouraging, collaborating, sharing, caring, or otherwise, amidst the whole scientific research ecosystem, may have a fundamental impact on an individual student’s achievement (Levecque et al., 2017). Each member of a group brings a small culture heritage from other educational and cultural experiences (Holliday, 1999). Interestingly, in an American study that compared the ethnic composition of 82 science and

24  The empirical and theoretical landscape engineering laboratories directed by foreign-born faculty with another 82 laboratories in the same department directed by a native faculty member, Tanyildiz (2015) identified strong evidence that labs directed by foreignborn faculty were more likely to be populated by students from the same country of origin. On average, 33% more of the students working in a laboratory were Chinese, Korean, or Indian if the laboratory director shared one of these foreign nationalities than if the director was nativeborn. This study draws attention to the effect of affinity on the ethnic composition of research laboratories at the micro level, an affinity that also translates into the ethnic composition of the scientific community at the macro level. While these studies provide examples of how small cultural contexts affect students, they also demonstrate challenges faced in studying small cultures. For example, data limitations may preclude a study from identifying the heterogeneity of PhD students within a laboratory or a team. Students have their own cultural and educational background so that they bring their unique social and cultural capital that interacts with and influences the small cultures. This suggests that, to fully understand STEM CIDS’ PhD abroad experiences, their differences need to be considered together within their small cultural research contexts. The supervision Consistently, the literature shows that supervision is of central importance to the successful and positive completion of a PhD (e.g., Due et al., 2015; McCulloch et al., 2016). In STEM, besides offering professional knowledge to support a doctoral student, supervisors often need to provide a site, facilities, resources, and funding for students to implement their research designs with experimentation. In most cases, supervisors and students are bound together by projects, grants, and research facilities (Fox, 2003). For a typical STEM project, the supervisor is the principal investigator whereas the student undertakes fundamental research with the financial support from a project grant, which can be part of the supervisor’s research funding. As many STEM students need to learn how to use complex laboratory techniques and equipment and problems continuously arise in experimentation, many of them have frequent informal meetings with supervisors. This differs from the supervisory relationship in social sciences or other soft disciplines where a doctoral candidate often works without much research resources, financial cost, or incidental meetings (Heath, 2002). Embedded in a laboratory cultural context, the intense intellectual connection between a supervisor and a PhD student is an intensely personal match. Though the pressure of a STEM supervisor can be enormous, institutional guidance or support for doctoral supervision has been limited (McAlpine, 2011). How to supervise is mostly related to the supervisor’s

Doing a STEM PhD abroad 25 own doctoral experience and personal perspectives on the practice (Gu et al., 2017; Lee, 2008). As research shows, supervisors could be remarkably consistent with their own conceptions of good research but much less consistent with what qualities are applicable to make a successful student researcher (Kiley & Mullins, 2005). This relates to heterogeneity in supervisory styles due to the supervisor’s own doctoral experiences and perspectives on the doctoral supervision (Halse  & Malfroy, 2010; McCallin & Nayar, 2012). With individualized supervisory practice, Gatfield and Alpert (2002) constructed a model with two dimensions in supervision: structure and support of the research project, to present four paradigms of supervisory styles. These include the “laissez-faire” style, where supervisors play a minimum role in both structure and support; the “pastoral” style, where supervisors provide personal support and resources, but not in the structure; the “directional” style, where supervisors help organize and manage the project, but not much in personal support or resources; and the “contractual” style, where supervisors perceive both structure and support as essential in doctoral supervision. Each of these supervisory styles embodies not just supervisors and their practices, but also the needs of candidates. McClure (2005) points out that different students may benefit from different supervisory styles, ranging from a high level of dependency to a high level of autonomy. This is also related to students’ criticality and autonomy in conducting their doctoral research (Cotterall, 2011; Goode, 2007). Marijanović and colleagues (2021) examined how doctoral candidates were matched with advisors at an American university and found that it was mainly the students doing the work to find a suitable match. They also found more interaction meetings in natural sciences than in social sciences, further highlighting the importance of context and disciplinary-based supervisory relationships. Due to the challenges of doctoral supervision, a number of factors may constrain students’ satisfaction in supervision. These include irregular meetings, insufficient supervisory time, and much delayed or mismatched feedback (Wang & Li, 2011; Can & Walker, 2011). Research reveals that students’ satisfaction levels would increase if formal or incidental meetings with supervisors were frequent and if the content of meetings could present constructive guidance on the research design, data analysis, and scholarly writing (Heath, 2002). Communication between the supervisor and the student is identified as key in constructing successful supervision (Lee, 2008). Research shows that PhD students most often are not prepared “for the rigid hierarchy of academia” (Woolston, 2015, p. 414). They do not always have sufficient interpersonal communication skills in dealing with this sensitive relationship and lack the competency in negotiating differences (Bilecen, 2013). Supervising international PhD candidates could be more complex because students bring with them unique linguistic, social, cultural, and

26  The empirical and theoretical landscape educational capital, which might be distinct from the practices of the host institutions (Hu et al., 2016; Xu, 2017). Gao’s (2021) review of literature found that the two most commonly mentioned challenges of international doctoral students were relationships with supervisors and language barriers, affecting communication with supervisors. Culture-related understanding of power distance was also identified as a constraining factor for intercultural supervision (Winchester-Seeto et al., 2014). In a study of the relationship between international research students and their supervisors, Mitra (2017) found that the success of a supervisory relationship seemed to be dependent upon how much the supervisor and the student exhibited coping behavior. Mitra argues that developing a human connection between a supervisor and a student is vital for a successful and academically productive advising relationship. The study also found that cultural differences outside academia had no impact on the academic progress of international students, but international students would like to have their home country’s culture acknowledged in a multicultural setting. From a constructivist viewpoint, the concept of reciprocal understanding in an intercultural supervision setting is gradually gaining momentum (Zhou  & Todman, 2008). This resonates with the Chinese Confucian philosophy 教学相长, meaning the co-growth of teachers and students through the interactions of teaching and learning (Meng & Gao, 2020). Researchers point out that supervisors are also learners, needing to learn about their students and adjusting their supervision accordingly to facilitate intercultural doctoral study (Harland & Scaife, 2010). To enhance mutual understanding, supervisors also need to develop reciprocal crosscultural communication skills and the capacity to promote greater agency in their international doctoral students (Soong et al., 2015). In the same vein, Wang and Li (2011) suggested supervisors provide more dialogic and culturally sensitive feedback while supervising international students. This echoed Robinson-Pant’s (2010) research that perceived skills for negotiating differences as critical for doctoral achievement. In a study with two Chinese PhD students studying education in New Zealand, Xu et al. (2021) identified that students’ mindful reflections on supervisors’ feedback involve negotiations between their disciplinary norms and inherited Chinese educational cultures, which may be neglected or interpreted as superficial engagement by supervisors with other cultural backgrounds. Nulty et al. (2009) suggest while highly successful supervisors tailor their approaches to guiding individuals, students’ perspectives represent the other equally important contribution necessary in the development of successful supervision. Collectively, these studies outline the critical role of supervisors and laboratory research cultures for international STEM doctoral students. An individual student’s experience is thus expected to be diverse due to different styles of supervision and the situated research context.

Doing a STEM PhD abroad 27

Personal factors in achieving a PhD abroad Perseverance to achieve Traditionally, to achieve a PhD degree is to be awarded for one’s original, significant, and independent work to make a breakthrough in scientific research, even if it is just a small step forward (Phillips & Pugh, 2010). For doctoral students in general, to achieve the degree, they have to meet both exhaustive intellectual, physical, and psychological challenges with three and more years of dedicated commitment (Soong et al., 2015; Stubb et al., 2011). Doctoral students are often addressed as novice researchers, novice scholars, novice scientists, or apprentice scientists (Flowerdew & Li, 2007), pointing out that they are learners in scientific research, yet to grow to be independent researchers through the doctoral study. Unfortunately, it appears that not every doctoral student has the opportunity to sufficiently grow to achieve the goal. The doctoral attrition rate has been reported as “too high” (Bourke et  al., 2004), ranging from 30–50% or 40–70% in two North American studies (Gardner, 2007; Lovitts, 2001), both with variations of disciplines. The reasons for attrition can be complicated, including lack of research facilities and resources, lack of financial stability, time issues, dissatisfaction, psychosocial costs, and disenchantment (Golde, 2005; Rudd, 1985; Sakurai et  al., 2012). Though the reasons can be multi-faceted and multilayered, Lovitts (2001) points out that, in most cases, it can be conveniently attributed to students’ lack of academic ability, but taking this as the sole explanation of attrition would be ignoring real factors that hinder students’ persistence. Whatsoever, when students withdraw, the cost to society, university, and departments is substantial, but it is much worse for the individual students. They suffer most emotionally, professionally, and financially if they have to leave without a degree, feeling their hopes, dreams, and aspirations shattered. Golde (2005) further indicates, “those factors that spur attrition in some students may also inflict damage on those who persist” (p. 670). The toughness of this journey is double layered for international STEM doctoral students when doing the PhD transnationally, transculturally, and trans-linguistically in a different educational system (Bilecen, 2013; Le & Gardner, 2010). It was not surprising that the literature generally points to challenges, difficulties, and problematic aspects of doing a PhD abroad, in particular when STEM students were not sensitive to crossculture issues with their intensive attention to research (Borg et al., 2010; Ye  & Edwards, 2015). Nevertheless, research and statistics indicated high completion rates and low drop-out rates among the international doctoral student population (Council of Graduate Schools, 2008). Several studies have attempted to interpret the perseverance of international doctoral students. Barron et al.’s (2007) study on the initial

28  The empirical and theoretical landscape expectations of international postgraduates revealed that they expected studying abroad could be academically challenging but ultimately rewarding. Le and Gardner’s (2010) study on Asian international STEM doctoral students at an American university found these students were “motivated, research-driven, hard-working, self-efficient, and modest individuals” (p. 260) despite perceived challenges and adversities along the PhD. Similarly, in a study to examine reasons for Chinese doctoral students’ persistence to achieve a PhD abroad, Zhou (2014) identified four major factors affecting their perseverance despite perceived dissatisfaction: intrinsic interest in research, optimism in western doctoral education, the utility value of a PhD for permanent residency, and high social cost of quitting. Zhou’s study also identified Confucian cultural beliefs in malleability, effort, interdependent self, and filial piety shaped these motivations. In addition, female international STEM doctoral students may encounter a third layer of challenges related to gendered barriers in the traditionally masculine science and engineering arena. Recruitment and retention of female doctoral students were identified as key issues in STEM fields, particularly in engineering (Kenway & Bullen, 2003). With perseverance and agency, nevertheless, they were able to reengineer their professional efficacy rather than staying powerless and invisible in the challenging male-dominated context (Dutta, 2015). Challenges that constrain In this part, we examine three challenges – intercultural social selfefficacy, scholarly writing competence, and establishment of a professional identity – that presented in literature as personal factors that may constrain students’ achievement when doing the PhD abroad. Intercultural social self-efficacy: Self-efficacy defines a person’s belief in the capabilities of performing and influencing over events in their lives (Bandura, 1994). Social self-efficacy, as a component of effective social skills, is an individual’s belief in the capabilities of initiating social contact and navigating social interactions in everyday situations (Smith & Betz, 2000). Intercultural social self-efficacy, the belief that one is capable of effective intercultural social interactions, is identified to be important for Asian international students’ life satisfaction and academic achievement (Mak et al., 2015). Intercultural social self-efficacy is positively related to linguistic proficiency among international students (Lin  & Betz, 2009). Non-Englishspeaking international doctoral students have to reach a certain level in tests before enrollment. While abroad, however, the majority are not confident when using English as a medium (Lovitts, 2001) and suffer feelings of “anxiety, shame, and inferiority” (Brown, 2008, p. 75), endangering their self-esteem.

Doing a STEM PhD abroad 29 In the one-to-one doctoral supervisory relationship, social self-efficacy is of particular importance. The interactions between a non-native English-speaking doctoral student and an English-speaking-only supervisor have long been targeted as one of the key issues to constrain academic achievement (Carter, 2012; Cortazzi & Jin, 1997; Xu, 1991). Miscommunication is discouraging for international doctoral students because language insufficiency overshadows their research competence and intellectual talent (Bloom et al., 1998). Those who had difficulty understanding others or being understood by others might worry that their professors viewed them as stupid so that their sense of insecurity increased (Lovitts, 2001). With an effort to break language and sociocultural barriers, however, international students can transform into bilingual and biculturally competent individuals (Berry et al., 2006). Students with enhanced intercultural social self-efficacy through international study experiences can be highly successful in terms of overall development and achievement (Masten, 2014). Scholarly writing competence: To achieve the degree, STEM doctoral students need to learn how to publish in academic journals, write grant proposals, and finalize a doctoral dissertation to be professionally examined (Cheng, 2014; Mason, 2018). In this sense, the challenge of academic writing applies to both domestic and international students (Chang  & Tsai, 2014; Yu & Lee, 2013). As an indicator of knowledge contribution, publications have become the entry to academia, impacting back on doctoral education (Sheldon, 2018). Though the award of a doctoral degree is essentially based on the quality of the final thesis in most institutions (Kiley, 2009), STEM students are expected to publish journal articles to timely communicate research findings and experiment results in their particular field (Li, 2006a, 2006b). How to facilitate novice researchers and scientists in reporting and publishing their projects is considered a substantial challenge for supervisors (Can & Walker, 2011), particularly in cross-cultural settings between Chinese students and western supervisors (Singh & Fu, 2008). Rather than grumbling, researchers suggest direct and explicit instruction on western educational conventions may enhance confidence in writing and make international doctoral students feel their own educational values are not compromised (Egege & Kutieleh, 2004; Magyar & Robinson-Pant, 2011). Establishing professional identity: Professional identity is an individual’s self-concept related to their professional roles and status (Park et  al., 2018). The process of establishing a professional identity for STEM doctoral students can be viewed as the process of shaping the becoming (Barnacle, 2005) with discipline-specific practices, like reading and writing, laboratory experimentation, and interacting with faculty, peers, and else related to their research (Berkenkotter et al., 1988).

30  The empirical and theoretical landscape The process to establish the professional identity, though, could be integrated with confusion from constant loss of life and research directions during the PhD (McAlpine & Amundsen, 2009). Both formal and semi-formal research activities may facilitate (McAlpine et  al., 2009). Formal activities involve writing a dissertation, funding applications, journal articles or conference papers, and teaching or working as a research assistant; semi-formal activities include attending and presenting in workshops, seminars, conferences, and meeting supervisor(s) and other researchers. These activities can become a catalytic agent in the transformation from an apprentice to an independent researcher. International doctoral students upon completion of a PhD would have accumulated a great amount of newly acquired human capital to shape their professional identity (Kim et al., 2011; Zhang, 2016). This capital consists of academic knowledge, professional skills, cultural and social experiences, and new international networks. However, international doctoral students may have specific factors that could either positively facilitate or negatively constrain their identity development. Park et al. (2018) identified four such factors among Asian STEM doctoral students in an American research university: previous education and work experience, STEM disciplinary skills and knowledge acquisition, English language proficiency, and socialization with peers and supervisors. Among these, academic socialization was identified as the most crucial factor for the identity development of Asian STEM students, which will be examined later in the chapter. Maintaining well-being Psychological well-being, though definitions vary largely due to conceptual groundings, generally means the combination of positive feelings and effective functioning (Huppert, 2009). The psychological wellbeing of PhD candidates has been of great concern in research, and the review of relevant literature shows a not-so-optimistic scenario. Levecque and colleagues’ (2017) quantitative study shows PhD students are about 2.5 times more likely than the highly educated general population to be at risk of depression and other common psychiatric disorders. Barry and colleagues’ (2018) mixed-method study similarly reports that doctoral candidates in Australia had higher levels of depression, anxiety, and stress than the general population in the same age group. Woolston’s (2017) survey of 5,700 doctoral students worldwide shows most of them are passionate about their research, but many “suffer for it” (p. 549), as one participant mentioned, “You’re expected to take responsibility, but you aren’t given control over a lot of issues.” This resonates with Ryff and Singer’s (2006) perspective that a lack of environmental mastery and autonomy brings harm to students’ psychological well-being. Then it is not so surprising that the concern has been more serious toward international doctoral students’ well-being, in particular East

Doing a STEM PhD abroad 31 Asian students in western countries (Jiang, 2010; Shim et  al., 2014). This is mainly because both doing a PhD and studying in a crosscultural context involve challenges and stresses in life, such as functioning ineffectively in laboratory experiments and intercultural operations. Doing a PhD abroad is perceived as taking a “rollercoaster of confidence and emotions” (Christie et  al., 2008, p.  225), which means the doctoral journey involves enormous challenges both in the brain and in emotions (Cotterall, 2013). Han and colleagues (2013) conducted a survey on Chinese students’ psychological well-being at Yale University in 2009. The participants (n=130) were dominantly doctoral students (55.8%). This study revealed that 45% reported symptoms of depression, and another 29% reported anxiety. In this study, the stresses were reported to be related to concerns for health, low exercise time, and in particular, a poor relationship with one’s supervisor. The study also echoes Yakunina and Weigold’s (2011) findings showing Asian international students’ low intention to seek counseling services on campus. As Chinese traditional culture places a strong emphasis on academic success and students carry family expectations, research attributes this heritage culture to the psychological complications of Chinese international students (Liao & Wei, 2014; Redfern, 2015; Wei et al., 2012), though less is known about influencers during their PhD abroad.

Socialization and connectedness Acculturation and marginalization Socialization for doctoral students is perceived as to “gain the knowledge, skills, and values necessary for entry into a professional career requiring an advanced level of specialized knowledge and skills” (Weidman et al., 2001, p.  iii). Most empirical research, however, portrayed the social experiences of Chinese STEM doctoral students in Anglophone countries as being marginalized (Borg et al., 2010; McClure, 2007), imperiling their professional identity development in the process (Park et al., 2018). The concept of marginalization is related to Berry’s (1997, 2005) theories about acculturation. Acculturation conceptualizes the social experiences of new arrivals in an unfamiliar sociocultural context (e.g., Berry & Annis, 1974; Graves, 1967). Berry (1997) defines acculturation as a process of cultural and psychological changes that involve various forms of mutual accommodation, leading to some longer-term psychological and sociocultural adaptations between cultural groups and individual members. Whenever two cultural groups come into contact, changes occur in both groups, but usually, the dominant group changes less than the other. Depending on how cultural groups or individuals engage in intercultural contact and how they maintain their cultural heritage and identity, Berry classifies strategies and outcomes as integration, assimilation, separation, and marginalization. His research found those pursuing integration

32  The empirical and theoretical landscape experienced less acculturative stress and achieved better adaptations than those who were marginalized; those who experienced assimilation and separation had intermediate levels of stress and adaptation. This conceptualization of acculturation is widely adopted in research on international students (e.g., Kashima  & Loh, 2006; Zheng et  al., 2004). Though both international students and host communities may change along with the acculturation process, students need more psychological, sociocultural, and linguistic adaptations (Lewthwaite, 1996; Meng & Gao, 2020) for socializing and connecting with new sociocultural contexts (Brown, 2009). For international research students, socialization is double layered in the host community, adding academic or professional socialization to the socialization in the common sense (Akobirova, 2011; Golde, 2005). Sato and Hodge (2009) found that Asian international postgraduates felt marginalized and had difficulties engaging in social activities with their “white” peers in North American universities. Some other studies (Evans & Stevenson, 2011; Sakurai et al., 2012) found East Asian international doctoral students tend to rely more on their supervisors than on other peers. A consequence is that when these students experience difficulties with supervisors, there seems to be not much other close collegial support available, resulting in a sense of being marginalized or isolated. Difficulties in oral communication with others in English or feeling stereotyped (Ruble & Zhang, 2013) deteriorated the situation, resulting in negative emotions such as the sense of outsiderness (Zeivots, 2021), disappointment, fatigue, and demotivation (McAlpine et al., 2009). In Elliot et al.’s (2016) study with international doctoral students in the UK, researchers reported their participants creatively used the “third space” as a coping mechanism for socialization. In their study, the third space refers to “the informal spaces that foster personal learning, enjoyment and development through friendships, social activities and wider support networks” (p. 1189). Their participants referred to diverse activities they pursued outside PhD life, such as volunteering, going to pubs, and playing tennis in a club. These students perceived these activities as intercultural experiences, enjoyable, and socially rewarding. Noteworthily, the study has a mixed ethnicity of participants (n=14) from different parts of Europe, America, Asia, and Africa, whereas prior research (Rosenthal et al., 2006) has shown students from East Asia have a distinctly different pattern of socialization from those from other areas. Nevertheless, the concept of the third space suggests an important area for further research. With respect to Chinese doctoral students in western institutions, researchers (Ye & Edwards, 2017) argue that these students proactively use various coping strategies and agency to meet challenges and adapt to a different academic, social, and cultural environment. Other research findings identify Chinese STEM students’ intensive focus on academic

Doing a STEM PhD abroad 33 research, “almost to the exclusion of everything else” (Borg et al., 2010, p. 191). For these students, socialization with the host society seemed to be secondary. Due and colleagues (2015) explained international doctoral students have diverse expectations for their host country and university, so may have different priorities in their study abroad schedule. With the nature of international doctoral education, researchers argue it is important to consider the socialization experiences specific to individual academic disciplines because the locus of the doctoral student experience is within the discipline, rather than the institution (Golde, 2005; Le  & Gardner, 2010). In connection with the concept of small research cultures in a laboratory, it deserves further research on specific fields of the doctoral study. Loneliness and connectedness The widely researched scenario of Asian international doctoral students’ marginalization leads to another concern in the literature: loneliness. The intrinsic nature of doctoral education to make original contributions to the field predetermines the journey to achieve the PhD degree as a lonely one (Rudd, 1985). Teamwork in a STEM laboratory does not mean being dependent upon others; rather, each doctoral candidate works on an individual research topic within a broader field (Delamont et al., 1997). With the dual identities of an international student and a PhD student, international doctoral students are likely to experience multi-layered loneliness. Sawir and colleagues (2007) found that two-thirds of international students in a major Australian university experienced problems of loneliness and isolation, particularly in the early months of study abroad. The researchers identified three types of loneliness: personal loneliness due to the loss of contact with families, social loneliness due to the loss of networks, and cultural loneliness due to the loss of the preferred cultural environment. The challenges to develop intercultural relationships on university campuses (Kudo et al., 2020) and the missing friendship between local and international students (McKenzie  & Baldassar, 2017) often lead to one consequence: retreating into a comfort zone by connecting with one’s own ethnic community. On one side, research on international studies suggest that participation in conational networks is a comfortable, familiar, and less stressful approach to ease students’ study abroad challenges (Rosenthal et al., 2006). Bochner et al.’s (1977) early study reminds us that the conational bond is of vital importance to international students’ emotional needs. Gu (2009) argues that there is the necessity for international Chinese students to have someone around that shares and understands the same culture. These studies show that the establishment of a conational network provides a sense of security, academic and life support, social connection, and a means of sharing knowledge of the host community.

34  The empirical and theoretical landscape On the other side, Berry (1997) points out that if this connection with conationals or co-culturals becomes the sole form of social engagement or develops into an intolerance toward the host culture, then adaptation to that new culture will be inhibited. In an Australian quantitative study with international undergraduate and postgraduate students, Rosenthal and colleagues (2006) found a positive relationship between Asian students’ sense of connectedness and their social engagement with Australians, while social mixing with co-culturals was unrelated. They interpreted that social connectedness was related to students’ cultural background and communication skills in the new culture and their evaluation of their perceived academic progress. Wang et al.’s (2015) survey of Chinese international students in the USA also identified a social connection with local mainstream society could better predict life satisfaction than that with their local Chinese community. Taken together, these studies indicate that international doctoral students may experience marginalization and isolation when doing PhD abroad. The literature also shows conational networks may alleviate the loneliness and bring other benefits but may also hinder students’ adaptation to the new cultural context.

Conceptualizations and limitations The literature review in previous sections suggests three main lines of investigation on international doctoral students’ experiences. The first focuses on the supervisor-led small cultures in a research context that underlines the importance of both supervisors and small cultures to the academic success of international doctoral students. The concept of reciprocity in cross-cultural supervision has gained its momentum in research. Particularly pertinent to STEM students, research conceptualized their laboratory culture, or habitus, to investigate the work environment, norms in the laboratory, and teamwork. The second line of literature focuses on personal factors to achieve a PhD abroad and underscores challenges and tensions. It involves the perseverance of transnational doctoral students against constraints such as linguistic proficiency, intercultural social self-efficacy, scholarly writing competence, and establishing professional identity in a novel research context. Due to the high demand of STEM study, of great concern in research has been the international doctoral students’ psychological well-being. Then the third line of research conceptualizes the social aspect of international doctoral students in the host community. Marginalization and disconnection of international doctoral students, in particular those STEM students from East Asian countries in an Anglophone host country, have been reported as the major phenomena in prior research. Thus far, most research on international STEM doctoral students focuses on one specific aspect of their experiences (e.g., supervision,

Doing a STEM PhD abroad 35 persistence, and socialization), but doctoral study and study abroad experiences in combination are complex, developmental, and situated (McAlpine et al., 2009), involving multidimensional and interconnected personal and contextual aspects. How these students negotiate differences, and across barriers, with their communities and their changed selves to achieve the success of scientific research and personal growth is yet to be investigated. It calls for a broad perspective that considers both commonality and heterogeneity of the experiences. In brief, we know very little about how Chinese STEM doctoral students achieved their PhD abroad, but what these and other studies highlight is the inherent difficulty of achieving a PhD and achieving a PhD in a cross-cultural context. Key determinants in the successful completion of a PhD involve contextual facilitation and an individual’s perseverance, agency, and skills for acculturation. To further develop research on the experiences of international STEM doctoral students, three key areas that inform further study are identified later and these provide the rationale for the development of the conceptual framework for this current study. First, the literature has yet to conceptualize the dynamic and developmental nature of international doctoral student experiences. Most empirical work has adopted one-off interviews as the main data source, be it with quantitative or qualitative methods (Li et al., 2014). This has limited the understandings of the dynamic nature of student experiences that is characterized by changes and development over time during the doctoral study in the novel sociocultural context (Kiley, 1999). In this sense, we need to conceptualize the evolving nature of the experiences of international doctoral students over time. Second, the literature has yet to expand the scope of conceptualizations in research on the complex phenomenon of international STEM doctoral study. International undergraduate and postgraduate students by coursework have been studied significantly more fully than those doctoral research students; meanwhile, international doctoral students in social sciences or education have been studied more fully than those in STEM fields (e.g., Dai & Hardy, 2020). Some important concepts used in studies on coursework students and social science students, nevertheless, can be adopted to enrich the understandings of international STEM doctoral students. These concepts include but are not limited to agency (Gu et al., 2010), transformation (Brown, 2009), emotion (Gu & Schweisfurth, 2016), meaning-in-life (Pan, 2011), pastoral care (Sawir et al., 2009), and reciprocal communication (Zhou & Todman, 2008). The use of these concepts in research on international STEM doctoral students may capture some important dimensions at the micro individual level, the meso transitioning level (Zhang, 2016), and the macro contextual level that constitute situated individual student experiences.

36  The empirical and theoretical landscape Finally, the conceptualizations of international doctoral student experiences are yet to address the interactive nature of the doctoral study. This involves interactions with supervisors, teams, academic networks, social networks, and others that may have an influence on the doctoral study abroad. Research has thus far been mostly drawn on single concepts to address specific factors or issues (e.g., psychological well-being, motivation, adjustment, identity), and less about dynamic and agentic interactions with the context. Knowledge regarding the nature of international STEM doctoral student experiences can be considered as fragmental rather than as a natural whole system. Therefore, we are to develop a conceptual framework in Chapter 3 to accommodate features of complexity and to allow a holistic understanding of the nature of the international doctoral study (Yang & MacCallum, 2021).

Chapter summary This chapter presented a review of relevant literature on the doctoral study abroad experiences from two stages (before the PhD and during the PhD) and three relevant facades (the supervisor-led small cultures in a research context, personal factors to achieve a PhD abroad, and socialization and connectedness with the local community). These four bodies of literature – motivations, the context, the individual, and socialization – are important to construct the overall background understanding of the complex phenomenon of PhD study abroad experiences. The literature reveals that Chinese students’ PhD study abroad experiences could be complex, multi-faceted, and multi-layered rather than simply put as being marginalized. Different fundamentals collectively establish students’ strength to complete the PhD and to achieve their goals. A conceptual framework from a holistic perspective will help our understanding and interpretation of the STEM PhD abroad experiences.

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Doing a STEM PhD abroad 45 Tian, M.,  & Lowe, J. (2013). The role of feedback in cross-cultural learning: A  case study of Chinese taught postgraduate students in a UK university. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 38(5), 580–598. doi:10.1080/ 02602938.2012.670196 Wang, K. T., Wei, M. F.,  & Chen, H. H. (2015). Social factors in crossnational adjustment: Subjective well-being trajectories among Chinese international students. Counseling Psychologist, 43(2), 272–298. doi:10.1177/ 0011000014566470 Wang, T., & Li, L. Y. (2011). ‘Tell me what to do’ vs. ‘guide me through it’: Feedback experiences of international doctoral students. Active Learning in Higher Education, 12(2), 101–112. doi:10.1177/1469787411402438 Wei, M. F., Liao, K. Y. H., Heppner, P. P., Chao, R. C. L., & Ku, T. Y. (2012). Forbearance coping, identification with heritage culture, acculturative stress, and psychological distress among Chinese international students. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 59(1), 97–106. doi:10.1037/A0025473 Weidman, J. C., Twale, D. J., & Stein, E. L. (2001). Socialization of graduate and professional students in higher education: A perilous passage? ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report, 28(3). Jossey-Bass Higher and Adult Education Series: ERIC. Wilkins, S., Balakrishnan, M. S., & Huisman, J. (2012). Student choice in higher education: Motivations for choosing to study at an international branch campus. Journal of Studies in International Education, 16(5), 413–433. doi:10.1177/1028315311429002 Winchester-Seeto, T., Homewood, J., Thogersen, J., Jacenyik-Trawoger, C., Manathunga, C., Reid, A., & Holbrook, A. (2014). Doctoral supervision in a cross-cultural context: Issues affecting supervisors and candidates. Higher Education Research & Development, 33(3), 610–626. doi:10.1080/0729436 0.2013.841648 Woolston, C. (2015). When labs go bad. Nature, 525, 413–415. doi:10.1038/ nj7569-413a Woolston, C. (2017). A  love-hate relationship. Nature, 550, 549–552. doi:10.1038/nj7677-549a Xu, L. L. (2017). Written feedback in intercultural doctoral supervision: A case study. Teaching in Higher Education, 22(2), 239–255. doi:10.1080/1356251 7.2016.1237483 Xu, L. L., Teng, L. S., & Cai, J. (2021). Feedback engagement of Chinese international doctoral students. Studies in Continuing Education, 43(1), 119–135. doi:10.1080/0158037X.2020.1718634 Xu, M. (1991). The impact of English-language proficiency on international graduate students’ perceived academic difficulty. Research in Higher Education, 32(5), 557–570. Xu, X., Sit, H. H. W., & Chen, S. (2020). The eastern train on the western track: An Australian case of Chinese doctoral students’ adaptation. Springer. Yakunina, E. S., & Weigold, I. K. (2011). Asian international students’ intentions to seek counseling: Integrating cognitive and cultural predictors. Asian American Journal of Psychology, 2(3), 219–224. doi:10.1037/A0024821 Yang, Y., & MacCallum, J. (2021). A three-dimensional multi-world framework for examining cross-cultural experiences of international doctoral students. Studies in Continuing Education, 1–17. doi:10.1080/0158037X.2021.1890569

46  The empirical and theoretical landscape Yang, Y., Volet, S., & Mansfield, C. (2018). Motivations and influences in Chinese international doctoral students’ decision for STEM study abroad. Educational Studies, 44(3), 264–278. doi:10.1080/03055698.2017.1347498 Ye, L., & Edwards, V. (2015). Chinese overseas doctoral student narratives of intercultural adaptation. Journal of Research in International Education, 4(3), 228–241. doi:10.1177/1475240915614934 Ye, L.,  & Edwards, V. (2017). A  narrative inquiry into the identity formation of Chinese doctoral students in relation to study abroad. Race Ethnicity and Education, 20(6), 865–876. doi:10.1080/13613324.2017.1294570 Ye, L. L. (2018). Intercultural experience and identity: Narratives of Chinese doctoral students in the UK. Palgrave Macmillan. Yu, S.,  & Lee, I. (2013). Understanding supervisors’ commentary practices in doctoral research proposal writing: A Hong Kong study. Asia-Pacific Education Researcher, 22(4), 473–483. doi:10.1007/s40299-012-0046-9 Zeivots, S. (2021). Outsiderness and socialisation bump: First year perspectives of international university research students. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 41(2), 385–398. doi:10.1080/02188791.2020.1779028 Zhang, Y. (2016). International students in transition: Voices of Chinese doctoral students in a U.S. research university. Journal of International Students, 6(1), 175–194. Zheng, X., Sang, D., & Wang, L. (2004). Acculturation and subjective well-being of Chinese students in Australia. Journal of Happiness Studies, 5(1), 57–72. doi:10.1023/B:JOHS.0000021836.43694.02 Zhou, J. (2014). Persistence motivations of Chinese doctoral students in science, technology, engineering, and math. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education, 7(3), 177–193. doi:10.1037/a0037196 Zhou, Y., & Todman, J. (2008). Chinese postgraduate students in the UK: A twoway reciprocal adaptation. Journal of International and Intercultural Communication, 1(3), 221–243. doi:10.1080/17513050802101799 Zhu, J. (2016). Chinese overseas students and intercultural learning environments: Academic adjustment, adaptation and experience. Palgrave MacMillan.

3 The conceptual framework & the project

In this chapter, a three-dimensional multi-world conceptual framework is presented to underpin understanding and interpretation of the experiences of international STEM doctoral students. This section is followed by an overview of the research paradigm and the design of the CIDS project that investigated the experiences of Chinese STEM doctoral students in Australia.

The three-dimensional multi-world conceptual framework Acknowledging previous conceptualizations and their limitations as discussed in Chapter 2, we developed a conceptual framework to enable a holistic understanding of the complex, dynamic, and interactive nature of international doctoral student experiences (Yang & MacCallum, 2021). The framework (Figure 3.1) comprises a multi-world model (Research– Personal–Social worlds), a dynamic mechanism that highlights transitions across borders, and a three-dimensional CIS space (Continuity–Interaction–Situation) that contains the multi-worlds and transitions. Component I: The multi-world model The formation of the model This model derives from both the literature and the project itself. The three lines of literature reviewed indicate that research, personal, and social factors are the main aspects in understanding international doctoral experiences. In the ongoing data analysis process in our longitudinal project, codes and themes informed by participants’ experiences gradually led to three root categories: research, personal, and social. In combination, we conceptualized these as indicative of three “worlds” that encompassed doctoral experiences. In this model, the multi-worlds are all interconnected and intertwined, partly contingent upon and partly independent of each other. DOI: 10.4324/9781003258841-5

48  The empirical and theoretical landscape

Tra ns it

Research world

s

tion nsi Tra

ion s

Y = situation

Doctoral experiences

Personal world

Z = interaction

Social world

X = continuity borders

Transitions

Figure 3.1  The three-dimensional multi-world conceptual framework

Pertinent to this conceptualization is Phelan and her colleagues’ Multiple Worlds model for students at school (Phelan et al., 1991). In an effort to examine students’ school, peers, and families in combination to affect their school engagement, the Stanford study developed the model to investigate the interrelationship between students and their school, peer, and family worlds. Students were positioned as individuals in the center to make transitions between different worlds. Each of these worlds has its norms, values, beliefs, expectations, and actions. Their work was based on high school students in the USA, where racial differences and cultural barriers were salient factors for student engagement at school. Hence, how students made transitions or were impeded by barriers between the worlds became a key issue in their study. The current model departs from Phelan et al.’s (1991) study in three ways. First, a “Personal World” is added as an independent world. A doctoral student, at a mature age, would have established an internal world that contains values, beliefs, motivations, and expectations, which allows him/her to take agentic actions to shape rather than simply be shaped by the contexts (Marginson, 2014; McAlpine  & Amundsen, 2009). That is, they are a dynamic part of producers of their experiences by selecting, creating, and transforming their contextual circumstances (Bandura, 1997). With their agentic capability, they influence the course of their PhD and take a hand in shaping their PhD. Second, it combines Phelan et al.’s “family world” and “peer world” into a “Social World” to incorporate doctoral students’ social activities in a broader context. Third, this model replaces Phelan et al.’s “school

The conceptual framework & the project 49 world” with the “Research World” due to the fundamental nature of a PhD in conducting scientific research. Saliently, this model sets doctoral students in an independent place to stress that their agency, competence, and capital are as important as external factors for their successful completion of the PhD (Hopwood, 2010). Definitions of the worlds In this study, the term “world” means cultural spaces that define individual and communal beings and doings (Phelan et al., 1991). A research laboratory has its specific culture, so does a social space and personal space. We presume that each space contains motivations, expectations, values, beliefs, and actions (Biggs  & Moore, 1993) that are distinctive of agents in each world. Though the multi-world model is generic for research on international students in general, the definitions given later are specific to the current study on the experiences of international STEM doctoral students. Specifically, the research world refers to the space for conducting academic activities to achieve a PhD. At a micro level, it involves a small cultural context (Holliday, 1999) with its distinctive research culture, where doctoral students conduct their academic study, experimental research, and write up for reporting. At a macro level, it also carries a broader research context that can be expanded beyond an institutional boundary to the global scientific research network and industry in forms of collaboration and industrial linkage (Malfroy, 2011). The research world involves both perceptible aspects and imperceptible aspects (McAlpine et al., 2009). The perceptible aspects may include the project, supervisor(s), peers, institutional support, funding, research facilities, and external links, whereas the imperceptible aspects may involve cooperation, facilitation, communication, and time (Fox, 2003; Heath, 2002; Wilks, 2006). Hence, a research world, distinctive of individual cultures in a research context, has its norms and expectations for the attainment of a PhD and is underpinned by values and beliefs about the process and the standard in achieving a PhD. The personal world refers to the socioculturally constructed personal space of students, characterizing their inner spiritual world, philosophical perspectives, and their agency. In this space, international doctoral students cultivate their values and beliefs, shape their identity, have their motivations and expectations, and act to achieve their goal of a PhD degree. The personal world involves what students bring from their pre-PhD experiences into their PhD, including values, beliefs, and expectations; it also involves how students develop themselves in the process of doing a PhD, such as growing into independent researchers and mature adults in the process of self-formation (Marginson, 2014). It is in this world that an individual gathers personal and social capital so as to become an

50  The empirical and theoretical landscape active agent traversing from the personal world to other worlds to attain the PhD abroad. Then the social world refers to a collective social space from both research and social networks that co-construct students’ cross-cultural PhD experiences. This world encompasses students’ professional socialization (Austin, 2006; Park et al., 2018) and social integration with the broader context. It requires emotional resonance (Gu et al., 2010) from supervisors, peers, professional staff, families, and social friends involved in the life–work spheres (McAlpine et al., 2020), with or without shared motivations, expectations, cultural values, and beliefs in the social contexts. The social world is not only about music, games, romance, social, research, and future; it is also about, even more importantly, the communication and the accommodation of different cultures, customs, and thoughts in both academic and social settings. Broader academic space outside of pure academic work is an important part of the social world for international doctoral students (Elliot et  al., 2016), thus enriching both research and social worlds with diverse small cultures. For this reason, we often adopt the term academic–social world in this book to highlight STEM PhD students’ social world that can hardly be separated from their academic research. This conceptualized multi-world model highlights a hybrid identity that comprises personal, professional, and sociocultural identities of international doctoral students. Through the experiences of international education, students draw on multiple identities, or new forms of hybrid identity, with active agency (Marginson, 2014). As novice scientists and researchers in a global context, their professional identity is often entangled with their personal and cultural identities (Fotovatian & Miller, 2014), which adds complexity to the process of this intellectual undertaking. Component II: Transitions across and borders in-between In the three-dimensional multi-world framework, there are overlapping areas as experiential interfaces for transitions to occur and lines in-between as borders, or boundaries, to cross. For an individual international student, it is likely that each world contributes differently to achieving a PhD, factors within each world exist and operate differently, and links between each world also function differently. These differences suggest potentially different transitions and borders in an individual’s PhD abroad experience. An examination of how these transitions and borders function and impact on achieving or not achieving the goal – the successful completion of a PhD abroad – provides a means to achieve the purpose of the overall study. Doctoral experiences are located within and beyond the overlapping area of the multi-worlds. As Figure 3.1 shows, there are shared spaces between the worlds and unshared spaces in an individual world that also

The conceptual framework & the project 51 construct student experiences. For example, the development of professional identity associated with dynamic and ongoing professional socialization (Weidman et al., 2001) occurs in the overlapping area, whereas how a student perceives the challenges in the doctoral journey belongs to the personal world. These factors shape unique doctoral abroad experiences in different ways. Building upon the understandings of how students’ encounter differences across their family, peers, and school worlds, Davidson and Phelan (1999) identified patterns of students from different cultural and ethnic backgrounds transitioning across in school settings. Their patterns were about congruence, difference, and corresponding transitions across students’ multi-worlds. Davidson and Phelan’s patterns may or may not apply to international doctoral students in STEM fields in this study, but similar to their focus, the present study is interested in the congruence, differences, negotiations, transitions, and facilitation of the sociocultural components across students’ multi-worlds. Hence their line of thoughts in typology provides a feasible conceptual lens to examine data collected in this study, and to identify unique patterns of STEM-related CIDS’ PhD study abroad experiences. From a cultural compatibility theoretical perspective, Davidson and Phelan conceptualized differences as borders or boundaries that impeded students’ engagement with the school. Their study identified sociocultural, socioeconomic, psychosocial, linguistic, gender, heterosexist, socio-physiological, and school structural borders. Due to the nature of doctoral study in STEM fields and the characteristics of Chinese students, this current study starts with a consideration of sociocultural (Hopwood, 2010), psychosocial (Posselt, 2018), socio-physiological (Winchester-Seeto et  al., 2014), emotional (Gu, 2015), linguistic (Flowerdew & Li, 2007), gender (Dutta, 2015), and institutional borders (McAlpine et  al., 2009), but leaves the avenue open for further identification of differences through data analysis. Component III: The three-dimensional CIS space Finally, the framework sets a three-dimensional Continuity–Interaction– Situation space to contain a student’s multi-worlds and transitions across over time. The framework draws on John Dewey’s (1938) two principles to conceptualize experiences in an educational setting: continuity and interaction. Dewey perceives education as constructed by student experiences. The principle of continuity means that students’ experience “takes up something from those which have gone before and modifies in some way the quality of those which come after” (1938, p. 35). The principle of interaction “assigns equal rights to both factors in experience – objective and internal conditions” (p.  42); or in other words, it underlines the co-existence and the intellectual interplay of the person and contexts (Tinto, 1993).

52  The empirical and theoretical landscape The framework also adopts Clandinin and Connelly’s (2000) conceptualization that experiences occur in specific spaces and sequences of spaces, which attends to “the specific concrete physical and topological boundaries of inquiry landscapes” (p. 51). The notion of space, termed as Situation, is thus pulled out as a third dimension to formulate the threedimensional inquiry space, together with past, present, and future (Continuity) and personal and social (Interaction) as the other two dimensions. The importance of situation is often overlooked, but is fundamental to STEM PhD abroad experience (McAlpine & Amundsen, 2016), as subsequent chapters will show each individual STEM student’s experience is profoundly situated within the context – the supervisory team, department, discipline, and the broader research context. The CIS space provides a foundation for “thinking of experience ‘beyond the black box’ ” (Clandinin  & Connelly, 2000, p.  50), and makes it possible to interpret “why a person does so,” delving deeper than “because this person does so.” Empirical studies have applied this three-dimensional space to explore, for example, the identity formation of Chinese doctoral students in relation to study abroad (Ye & Edwards, 2017). However, in combination with the multi-world model, the CIS space in the current study allows researchers to understand the nature of study abroad experiences from a dynamic and holistic perspective. Specifically, the CIS space enables us to examine students’ experiences with a continuous dimension that originates from the Pre-PhD background, occurs during the PhD, and flows onto the future outcomes. The experiences also have an interactive dimension that reveals the aspects that facilitate or constrain students’ successful completion of a PhD abroad, and a situative dimension that scrutinizes their motivations, expectations, values, beliefs, and actions in specific situations. The strength of this three-dimensional CIS space is that it allows the narrative inquiry to examine the doctoral study abroad experiences inward and outward, backward and forward, situated within social, cultural, and educational contexts. Hypothetically, harmonious/congruent interrelationships, or smooth transitions, between the worlds enable multilateral growth and sustainability over time, whereas incongruent relationships may cause negative impacts on multi-worlds. The best-case scenario with congruence, smooth transitions, and almost invisible borders could lead to persistence, high achievement, and timely completion of PhD, and afterward, long-term cooperation with and contribution to the host institution and the host society. The worst-case scenario from incongruent worlds, difficult transitions, and unsurmountable borders could result in a damaged drop-out PhD student, bringing both perceivable and unperceivable negative effects into the future (Tinto, 1993). However, the spectrum between the two extreme scenarios may involve many variations. Thus, how the differences and transitions within the three-dimensional CIS space and

The conceptual framework & the project 53 between the multi-worlds occur and function to construct the nature of international doctoral students’ experiences becomes a focus in the study. Thus far, this chapter presented a conceptual framework to address the research questions in this study. This framework proposed a combination of a multi-world model (research, personal, and social) and a threedimensional CIS space (continuity, interaction, and situation), together with transitions and borders within the space and across the worlds. In this framework, differences or borders occur because each world has its norms, motivations, expectations, values, beliefs, and actions, which prompts or constrains transitions between the multi-worlds along the continuity, interaction, and situation dimensions. This framework allows this study to adopt a dynamic and developmental perspective to examine the nuances and complexities of the nature of international doctoral students’ unique study experiences in depth and over time.

The research paradigm Given that this research seeks to understand and interpret experiences based on participants’ perception and interpretation, it is situated in a research paradigm with a qualitative approach that foregrounds interpretivism and sociocultural constructionism traditions with a narrative inquiry for the methodological stance. A paradigm shapes how a researcher views and functions in the world. According to Guba and Lincoln (1994), a research paradigm is about “a set of basic beliefs (or metaphysics)” that impacts on “ultimates or first principles” (p.  107). It reveals how a researcher thinks about and makes sense of the nature of the world, and also helps to evaluate the researcher’s position in research. The basic components involve three fundamental and interconnected questions: ontology, epistemology, and methodology. Respectively, the ontology question asks what the form and nature of reality are, and therefore, what there is that can be known about. The epistemology question asks what the nature of the relationship is between the researcher and what can be known. The methodological question asks how the researcher goes about finding out whatever he or she believes can be known. Thus, the methodological question cannot be reduced to a question of methods and methods must be fitted to a predetermined methodology. This section is about the contemplation on these questions. The qualitative research With the nature of the research questions proposed for this study, a qualitative research approach informed and framed the research process. The ontology and epistemology in the science of qualitative research are about the nature of being (Packer, 2011). According to Denzin and Lincoln

54  The empirical and theoretical landscape (2000, p. 3), “qualitative research is a situated activity that locates the observer in the world,” and “qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of or interpret phenomena regarding the meanings people bring to them.” From this perspective, the nature of this study was set to be qualitative because the researchers were situated in the CIDS’ position to interpret the complex doctoral study abroad experiences from their perspectives and to understand their congruence and transitions across research, personal, and social worlds within a continuity-interaction-situation space. Four characteristics of a qualitative study identified by Stake (2010) guided the conduct of this study: Interpretive. A qualitative study acknowledges that findings and reports are interactions between a researcher and the subject being researched. It also draws the meanings from different perspectives. As data in this study came from first-hand interviews with a diverse range of CIDS over time in different disciplines and geographical locations, the researchers were able to capture multiple meanings from diversified individual experiences to derive empowered interpretations. Experiential. A qualitative study views reality as a human construction and strives to be naturalistic. This means such a study does not intervene or arrange to get data. The present study is by nature fieldwork oriented, structured with semi-open interview schedules to understand CIDS’ PhD abroad experiences in its natural setting, with no intervention in design or actual practice. Situational. It highlights the uniqueness and importance of contexts for a qualitative study. As “each place and time has a uniqueness that works against generalization,” a qualitative study is “holistic more than elementalistic” (p. 15), though the overall experiences are constructed with elements. This current study considers contexts have significant influences on personal motivations, expectations, values, beliefs, and actions. Therefore, the conceptual framework of CIDS’ three-dimensional multi-worlds is incorporated within sociocultural and research contexts to enable a holistic understanding. Personalistic. This features a researcher’s empathy to understand individual perception in a qualitative study. “It seeks uniqueness more than commonality; it honors diversity” (p. 15). Yang’s twenty years of teaching STEM students in a research-intensive university in China allowed her the capacity to perceive individual differences among the group. Besides, her experience of studying for a PhD in Australia empowered her an empathy to understand CIDS’ experiences. In the research process, each participant was respected as a unique individual with unique experiences. In return, each of them unfolded a different story, giving the scope, richness, and depth of diversity in this book.

The conceptual framework & the project 55 Among the four characteristics, “interpretive” is the most distinctive feature, which situates this study in interpretivism. The major motive is, as Stake (2010) puts it, that qualitative research is “a struggle with meanings” (p. 38). Stake brings up that all research requires interpretation and interpretive research is an investigation that relies heavily on observers defining and redefining the meanings of what they see and hear. Pertinent to this study, it is the interpretation of the researchers that makes the CIDS’ worlds visible and understood by the world. Sociocultural constructionism Epistemology is about a theory of knowledge construction based on a researcher’s worldviews (Saldaña, 2015). In another word, it is about how we know what we know. Given the researchers’ own multi-worlds embedded in education, work experiences, and life experiences in various educational, sociocultural, and geographical contexts, perspectives drawn from sociocultural constructionism are acknowledged as the most relative to their worldviews and thereby applied to the current research. Sociocultural constructionism is built upon theories in constructionism and sociocultural perspectives. Constructionism is to view that all meaningful reality, or knowledge, is constructed out of interactions between human beings and their world, and developed and transmitted within a sociocultural context (Adams, 2006). With this constructionist view, this study agrees that meaning is not discovered but constructed by human beings as they engage with the world they are interpreting (Crotty, 1998). Further to this and also drawing on Piaget’s socio-cognitive theory and Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory, Palincsar (1998) conceptualizes that sociocultural constructionism is concerned with the contextualized individual. This recognizes the social, historical, and cultural aspects, as well as the individual’s small immediate context. The focus is the interdependence of social and individual processes in the co-construction of knowledge. A clarification of the relationship between this project and Yang, the leading researcher of the project, is therefore considered as essential. As Saldaña (2015) explains, an epistemology reveals a researcher’s lens to look at the world, an angle to position him/herself in the world, and a filter to understand the world. These are all related to a researcher’s biography, experiences, values and beliefs, and individual thinking patterns. These factors in combination contribute to how a researcher constructs the knowledge through complex, multi-faceted, and multidimensional approaches, which consciously or subconsciously frame one’s observations of the world. Below is Yang’s reflection on how she shaped her worldviews alongside the life journey before leading this project. The cameo examines how co-construction of knowledge helped her, as both an outsider and an insider, to interpret how CIDS in this project as distinctive individuals co-constructed their contextualized experiences.

56  The empirical and theoretical landscape Personally, I moved back and forth in the north and south of China in my childhood and youth and then sojourned in the UK and Australia, all with my families. While my outlook developed over time and space, the contact with different people in different social cultures at an early age enabled me to view the world from multiple perspectives, to believe in the interactive influences of individuals and the context, and to respect differences and diversities. My first cultural encounter occurred at the age of 7 when I  moved from a north-eastern city to a small ancient town in south-western China. Recollecting memories back then, everything around was different in my eyes. The local people spoke a different language, alien to the ears. They had a different style of cuisine with an enormous amount of hot chili and spicy pepper as major seasonings, which was sufficient to set the tongue on fire with one bite. The most annoying were the schoolmates who had different norms of behavior in and out of class, so I, as a young girl, had to catch up much more beyond book knowledge in the novel context. Sometimes those mischievous kids around made me feel confused about how to speak and act. Luckily, I  experienced pleasant congruence and smooth transitions after the initial culture shock. Mom often recalled that I had learned to speak the local language and started to enjoy the local food in a couple of months. It wasn’t before long that I  had mixed well with mates at school and in the neighborhood, having great fun and running around in the ancient town. The place was once an important conjuncture along the Silk Road. The town’s over 2,000  years of history was fascinating and left endless myths for us to explore. It seemed that each pebble stone on the street had a timeworn story to tell; each antique tea house hiding behind a bamboo forest had traces of being populated with some ancient poets of fame or generals of a feat. And the tea was one of the best memories of the town. The local people have a long tradition of making tea, as recorded by Lu Yu in the Classic of Tea in about A.D. 780, Dang dynasty. In that classic manuscript for tea, Lu Yu points out that because of the healing nature of tea, it is suitable for 精行俭德之人 (people who are content with a simple life and virtuous in character). The local families and tea houses had green tea with jasmine buds. To the southwest of the town, there were miles and miles of tea trees and jasmine plants grown in the mountains. Each year in April, tea farmers picked newly budded tender leaves from the tip of tea trees, and jasmine farmers picked jasmine buds between 4 and 5 o’clock in the afternoon, both bringing them to town for sale. Then the dusk of the small town was suffused with a warm fragrance of toasting green tea with jasmine, spreading out from delicately carved wooden windows and wide-open wooden doors. The produce of the season would last year long for the local families to consume.

The conceptual framework & the project 57 Back then it would have never been expected that the memory of the jasmine tea would one day relate to my research with cultures and acculturation. In this study that involves cross-cultural issues, I was sensitive to the representativeness of tea and coffee for different cultures. Students in this study frequently described their preference for tea or coffee and used that to refer to their acculturation experiences with the local community. For instance, I  understood immediately when a student who stayed away from the local culture described that he still did not like to drink coffee after a long stay in Australia. The research is empirical and evidence-based, but if without the empathy, I might have adopted another lens, another angle, or another filter in the process of co-constructing the knowledge with my participants. I might have missed those nuances and subtleties in the complexity of the CIDS’ PhD study abroad experiences. My positive acculturation experiences at an early age cultivated my lifelong curiosity and respect for different peoples and cultures in China or elsewhere. It also enabled me to be critical when in contact with cultural studies such as Hofstede’s theories in categorizing cultures. To me, cultures in China are as much diversified as those in the holistically named western world. For the same reason, each student from China is a unique individual, sharing similarities while maintaining differences. Up to this point, the section has briefly discussed the ontological and epistemology of the study. The following section moves on to the methodological stance. Narrative inquiry Given this study aims, first, to reveal the nature of CIDS’ experience in their research, personal, and social worlds, and second, to investigate the facilitating and constraining factors for the success of their PhD abroad, narrative inquiry is considered the most appropriate methodology to fulfill the purposes. It is an expressive embodiment of our experience, a mode of communication, and a form for understanding the world and ultimately ourselves (Brockmeier & Carbaugh, 2001). Attributing to John Dewey (1859–1952), narratives to uncover students’ experience in education were put on the research agenda on philosophical grounds. Hinchman and Hinchman (1997) defines narratives in social sciences as “discourses with a clear sequential order that connect events in a meaningful way for a definite audience and thus offer insights about the world and/or people’s experiences of it” (xvi). Narrative inquiry has been increasingly adopted in research on educational experience in the field of doctoral education (e.g., Hopwood & Paulson, 2012; Soong et al., 2015) and international education (e.g., Ploner, 2015; Ye & Edwards, 2017). Narrative is one of the many qualitative methodologies that can be used in constructing and reporting findings. Given the strength that narratives may reveal experiences and events that are chronological, meaningful,

58  The empirical and theoretical landscape and inherently social (Elliott, 2005), narratives may make connections between events, show the influence of the passage of time and the context, and illustrate how an individual’s motivations and expectations influence their actual experiences (Chen et al., 2015). It has the idiosyncratic features of an individual’s personal account from a naturalist stance, and the shared ones from a sociocultural perspective (McAlpine, 2016). The argument for the use of narrative inquiry in this study is that humans are “storytelling organisms” who “lead storied lives” both individually and socially (Connelly & Clandinin, 1990, p. 2). With this approach, qualitative researchers collect these stories and narrate the stories as an inquiry into human experiences. This can be translated into a research perspective for this present study that life can be understood through “a recounting and reconstruction of the life story or biographical narrative” (Ye & Edwards, 2017). Coherent, consistent, and systematic narratives allow us to understand how an individual may “make sense of events and actions in their lives with themselves as the agents of their lives” (McAlpine, 2016, p.  34), whereas causality is a central element adding to the coherence of a narrative (Elliott, 2005). Noteworthily, narratives are never “context-free and they cannot be constructed (by the teller/narrator), or received (by the listener/reader) as suspended in midair” (Goodson & Gill, 2014, p. 71). Thus, narrated stories may be more or less mediated representations of the participants’ subjective recounts and interpreted as reflecting back on their experiences. In this study, each CIDS’ experience, physically or intellectually, is viewed as relating to his/her family and educational background and sociocultural influences. This perspective echoes the three-dimensional conceptual framework that considers continuity, interaction, and situation as intercepted and united principles. While studying abroad, CIDS’ experience is influenced by newly encountered factors and situations that form their individual experiences over time. The narrative inquiry examines different interactions and situations succeeding one another, and very often some elements are carried from the earlier to the later ones. For instance, what CIDS have acquired as a strategy in one situation may become an instrument that helps to deal effectively with the situations that follow. In addition, this study also adopts Saldaña’s (2015) viewpoint to construct themes of CIDS’ experience that are “statements and theoretical constructs that provide more narrative grounding to the story of lived experience” (p.  74). Thematic analysis enables a researcher to “detect similar experiences across a range of participants . . . and most importantly, the essences and essentials of the phenomenon – the bottom line, bare necessities, or must-haves that define it” (p. 74). Having examined the ontological, epistemological, and methodological stances in this study, the following section moves on to present this project’s research design, including the undertaking and considerations in ensuring the rigor in the research.

The conceptual framework & the project 59

The research method This section presents how the CIDS project was designed and implemented. It clarifies participants, data collection, the trustworthiness, and ends with the data analysis process, which leads to the classification of six patterns of STEM CIDS’ experiences to be reported in Part II. Participants Overall, 38 Chinese STEM PhD students from eight Australian universities contributed to the project. The participants were differentiated by the PhD year range, institutional research context, and geographical locations. With the focus of the study, they were all first-generation Chinese students originally from Mainland China. Due to the qualitative nature of the narrative inquiry, the number of students involved was relatively small. This study does not claim representativeness of all STEM CIDS, though it is able to provide an in-depth understanding of some commonalities of the cohort in the 2010s. Recruitment The recruitment process for this project was extremely challenging but also extremely rewarding. Here Yang recounted in first person how she recruited a wide range of participants as a total stranger and a new arrival in a foreign country. Personally, I had few acquaintances and hardly knew anyone in Australia when commencing this project. Besides, the host university was located in Perth, Western Australia, so-called the remotest city in the world because it was several thousand kilometers away from any other major cities. In this situation, methods that involved emails, personal networks, social networks, and snowballing were used to recruit an appropriate number and representation of participants across Australia. Email: I  browsed several university websites, identified schools and research centers in STEM fields, and noted down Chinese PhD students’ names and contacts. After I sent out about two dozen emails, only two students from Melbourne replied. Fortunately, the replies were both positive. Personal networks: An acquaintance professor in Melbourne circulated the interview invitation among his students. One of the students, Lin (pseudonym), responded and invited another three students. Therefore, my first trip to Melbourne started with the expectation of six students to be participants. Social networks: This proved to be an efficient recruitment strategy. I attended events organized by Chinese associations for doctoral students to expand the range of participants in different places. The expansion was important because it allowed this research to examine and also avoid

60  The empirical and theoretical landscape the effect of laboratory cultures or research cultures due to the closeness and inter-influence of peers working in the same laboratory, office, university, or location (Cumming, 2009). Snowballing: As many participants took this study as meaningful and significant, on my request, they invited their conational friends to join the project. This snowballing method proved to be most effective in establishing rapport because of the engagement of a trusted agent before meeting a new participant. In time, the broad range of student experiences offered us the freedom to investigate typical, representative, or exceptional cases to fortify the scope and depth of this study. For this, we deeply appreciate our participants’ supportive attitude and generous offering of their time and insights in this project. Demographical information The demographical information shows the diversity of this cohort’s background. Participants included first-year PhD candidates through to those who had recently completed the PhD in Australia (Table 3.1). Year range of participants: The participants were across various stages of PhD programs when in the first round of interviews (n=34, or 89.5%). Over time in the longitudinal study (Table 3.2), these students differed in their year range, and the majority had completed their PhD study by the end of the project. The other four (10.5%) were graduates Table 3.1  Summary of the demographic information of participants (n=38) Year 1

Year 2

Year 3 & above

Graduate

Total

Gender Male Female

7 5

11 2

7 2

4 0

29 9

Family Background Low SES Mid-High SES

3 8

4 9

2 7

0 4

9 29

Commencement age 21–25 26–30

4 8

9 4

6 3

1 3

20 18

Marital Status Married Single

4 8

3 10

1 8

3 1

11 27

Previous Degree Bachelor Master

3 9

6 7

3 6

1 3

13 25

Work Experiences Yes No

3 9

2 11

2 7

0 4

7 31

The conceptual framework & the project 61 Table 3.2  Summary of the stage of PhD of participants in the longitudinal study Stage of PhD

Interview II

Year 1/2 Year 2/3 Year 3 & above Graduate Total

Interview III

6 7 4

2 6 8

17

Table 3.3 The commencement and completion of doctorate by research (2016 full year) at the universities included in the study Completion Commencement International Ratio of commencement International commencement Monash University The University of Melbourne The University of Queensland The University of Western Australia Curtin University of Technology The University of Adelaide La Trobe University Murdoch University

716

893

429

48.0%

755

832

364

43.7%

731

830

381

45.9%

349

393

142

36.1%

261

366

138

37.7%

333

364

125

34.3%

181

240

73

30.4%

110

122

44

36.1%

Source of data: Australian Government, Department of Education and Training. (https:// docs.education.gov.au)

who had recently completed their PhD (within three years) by the time of the interview. Location of participants: As shown in Table 3.3, the participants studied at eight Australian universities. These universities represent a diversity concerning levels of research intensity and internationalization shown in the numbers of doctoral completion, commencement, and international commencement in 2016. They are located in four Australian states from the east to the west coast, namely, Queensland, Victoria, South Australia, and Western Australia, representing a diversity defined by location.

62  The empirical and theoretical landscape Data collection In light of the paucity of research on STEM CIDS to date, in-depth conversational-style interviews were perceived as the most suitable method of data collection. This is because interviews allow a researcher to “enter into the other person’s perspective” and to find out things “we cannot directly observe and to understand what we’ve observed” (Patton, 2015, p. 426), which fits the interpretive investigation and the research questions of this study. The method We adopted a combination of interview methods with students at different stages of their study (cross-sectional and focus groups) and some individuals as they progressed through their doctoral journey (longitudinal). The cross-sectional design extended the spectrum of student experiences; the focus group interviews maximized the depth of data through participants’ active interactions and collective engagement; the longitudinal approach scrutinized the change and evolution of elements over time. The cross-sectional approach: The cross-sectional study involved two phases with 28 individual interviews. Phase I  was a preliminary study with 11 interviews to capture major themes across the population for further research. In Phase II, another 17 individuals were interviewed with a more focused interview schedule, using key items and statements generated from Phase I as an operational instrument and prompts. The focus groups: This project had three focus group interviews at three universities. Focus Group 1 (FG1) in Phase I involved four participants from two schools of a university. They were conational friends and were brought in by one of them. In Phase II, Focus Group 2 (FG2) comprised three participants under one supervisor in a research center located in a geographically remote town. Focus Group 3 (FG3) had three students who shared a rental house and two were under the same supervisor. The longitudinal approach: Following the first round of interviews in Phase I & II, 17 participants from both phases were followed up with their consent. The follow-up interviews were conducted at an interval of approximately nine months. Eight of them were followed up for a third interview. Most interviews were conducted person-to-person, but some follow-ups were conducted online when traveling long distances was not possible due to research budget and time issues. Over time, students differed in the year stage of their study and gradually completed their PhD. The process The consent: Each participant was provided with an information letter and signed a consent form before the first interview. A guiding principle throughout the interviews was to maintain respect for their experiences and perspectives.

The conceptual framework & the project 63 Interview questions: The main method of data collection was semistructured interviews to gain a holistic understanding. Questions were predesigned with a list of major questions and several prompts embedded, but leaving sufficient flexibility to allow participants to shape the flow of reflection on their experiences and the interviewer to explore themes spontaneously raised by participants. The interviews usually started with self-introductions and an ice-breaking question. An example was “how long have you been here?” This would be followed by questions related to the research questions of this study. For example, “What motivated you to undertake a PhD abroad?” “How have you been experiencing your academic study so far?” and “How have you been experiencing your life in Australia?” In follow-up interviews, major topics and issues mentioned in the previous conversation were used as stimulus materials to examine the development over time. For example, “Last time you mentioned about . . . How is that now?” Variation in the process: Originally, the length of interviews was designed as 60 minutes each. In practice, the actual time varied dramatically from 39 to 210 minutes (72 minutes on average). The difference could have been explained with the interviewees’ availability, which was not difficult to justify because of their busy and intensive schedule as STEM researchers. However, upon reflection, the difference was also related to factors including the way the interviewer approached them, their disposition, the mood, and the rapport and trust. Additional data: Not to limit the scope of data, this study also used observation and documents as supplementary methods. With time passing by, contacts with STEM CIDS occurred almost on a daily basis and expanded to a great number. These contacts allowed the researcher to understand their experiences in a natural setting. Documents collected included participants’ academic profile, publications, official videos, email exchanges, and interview field notes. Trustworthiness The trustworthiness of this qualitative research was assessed with considerations to the relationship with participants, avoiding data bias, member checking, and cultural issues in translation. Trust and respect: Ethics in research is intrinsic to constructionism because it takes full account of the values and positions of researchers and those of participants in the research process (Guba & Lincoln, 1994). For this study, building trust and rapport with participants was considered significant and culturally appropriate throughout the research. No culturally, academically, or politically sensitive data were sought in the inquiry. It was pre-planned that should any participant experience any unintended distress they would be encouraged to seek support from appropriate personal or professional consultants or services, but the need for this did not eventuate.

64  The empirical and theoretical landscape Avoiding data bias: In this study, the accessibility or availability of participants was found to be influenced by CIDS’ geographic distance, isolation in the laboratory, lack of social connection, the intensity of research workload, and an everyday busy schedule with their PhD projects in STEM fields. The “elite bias” was also a potential pitfall because some participants were more articulate and responsive informants (Mile & Huberman, 1994). These factors have been carefully put into consideration. Besides the expansion of locations and multiple approaches to participant recruitment, another approach was to adopt rigorous both cross-case and within-case analyses to avoid generalizing from specific cases or sampling non-representative cases by overreliance on accessible and elite ones. Member checking: Member checking, or respondent validation, is considered an appropriate method to add to both the internal (authenticity check) and external validity (transferability of findings) in narrative inquiry (Hignett, 2005; Polkinghorne, 2007). For this purpose, all transcripts and translations were sent back to participants as a process of verification. At different stages, part of thematic interpretations and narratives were sent to interested participants to seek their feedback. In providing feedback, participants did not raise questions about the content of transcripts, translations, and interpretations. Instead, several participants sent back revised transcripts or translations with clarifications on some key points they considered as unclearly said and wished to supplement. One participant mentioned his concerns about privacy and confidentiality when reading the transcript, and his concerns were relieved after reading how the data were interpreted and presented in our journal publications. Cultural issues in translation: Translation is a complex task for a researcher because a language foregrounds the complex system of a culture. A  translator is a “producer of research data who shapes the analysis through their identity and experiences” (Squires, 2009, p. 279). The process was far beyond ensuring the correctness in the meanings of translation. Since all Chinese interviewees spoke fluent and appropriate Chinese in interviews, it was perceived as an obligation for the researcher to translate with fluent and culturally appropriate English. For these purposes, the data were transcribed in Chinese and were translated into English wherever considered necessary. Then a proficient bilingual colleague was invited to check the validity of samples of translations and to avoid the “lost-in-translation” effect (Hoffman, 1990). At the final stage, some native English-speaking colleagues were invited to check the fluency of samples of translated quotes. Data analysis As involving a longitudinal method, data analysis has been an ongoing and continuously evolving process across the project. Essentially, it involved four phases.

The conceptual framework & the project 65 Phase 1: Transcripts, translations, and confidentiality. The accumulation of verbatim transcriptions and translations yielded over 360 pages as a dataset to be imported into software NVivo11 for systematic management and analysis. Every effort was made to protect privacy and confidentiality so that the chance of participants being identifiable was minimized to the greatest extent. Besides the method of using pseudonyms for both students and their supervisors, we also blurred their field of research because it was indeed a very small world within each specific STEM research field and its connected professional networks. Phase 2: Data coding for the nature of experiences. A combined deductive and inductive coding method with NVivo was adopted to address the first research question – the nature of STEM CIDS’ experiences. The analysis of focus groups was dealt with slightly differently from those individual interviews in that chunks of students’ interactions were coded accordingly (Krueger & Casey, 2000) Along the Continuity dimension, three stages were set as root categories: Pre-PhD, Within PhD, and Outcomes. In Pre-PhD, branch categories included motivations to do PhD abroad, influences in the decision-making, family background, pre-PhD educational experiences, and other experiences. In Within PhD, branch categories gradually settled with research world, personal world, and social world. The motivations, expectations, values, beliefs, and actions were coded and categorized. This set of analyses formed the main body of data for coding to identify themes that revealed the nature of CIDS’ PhD abroad experiences. Then in Outcomes, branch categories included personal transformation, academic achievement, and future decisions. The data coding for Outcomes was based on participants’ achievements and perceptions of themselves. Within this hierarchical setting, codes were assigned to data chunks that varied from one sentence to a few paragraphs. The line-by-line coding organized thick data into meaningful groups. After several rounds of review, comparison, deduction, and grouping of the codes, themes about the nature of CIDS’ experiences gradually emerged, named, and defined. Phase 3: Data coding to examine transitions cross the multi-worlds. The method of drawing matrixes for each participant (Miles & Huberman, 1994) was adopted to address the second question – factors facilitating or constraining a PhD abroad. Portfolios of each participant were created for drawing matrixes, materials involving demographic information, interview transcripts, additional materials (emails, website profiles, publications, media reports, and research notes), braced with themes and quotes exported from Phase 2. In a matrix, along the row were research, personal, and social worlds to examine the Interaction dimension; along the column were factors along the Situation dimension attuned with sociocultural and research contexts. Each student was examined as an individual case for analyzing within the matrix. When comparison across the worlds was completed,

66  The empirical and theoretical landscape two more rows were added at the bottom – key differences and key facilitators – to summarize each case. Then the matrixes were mapped together for cross-case analysis to identify similarities, differences, and uniqueness that impacted CIDS’ transitions and congruence across the worlds (as shown in Figure 3.2). Six patterns of transitions and congruent/different worlds were identified. These patterns were reviewed to reduce ambiguity and then defined (Table 3.4). Commonalities across cases in each combination were condensed into themes and concepts for reporting. Respectively, the patterns were: • • • • • •

Congruent worlds/Smooth transitions Different worlds/Smooth transitions Congruent worlds/Border crossings managed Different worlds/Border crossings managed Different worlds/Border crossings difficult Different worlds/Border crossings resisted

Phase 4: Selecting narratives. In the final stage, six narratives were selected to illustrate six patterns of transitions and congruence identified in Phase 3. For representativeness of the patterns, their data were scrutinized to ensure the cases displayed fundamental features of the definition for each pattern. Each journey in completing a PhD abroad was relatively unique, so it was challenging to select one sample case to demonstrate each pattern. The underlying premise is that by scrutinizing layer by layer and from stability to changes (McAlpine & McKinnon, 2013), an organic whole may emerge to reveal the nature of individual students’ PhD abroad experiences.

Research world • • • •

Motivations Expectations Values & beliefs Actions

Personal world

differences

• • • •

Motivations Expectations Values & beliefs Actions

Social world

differences

• • • •

Motivations Expectations Values & beliefs Actions

Identification of differences and borders (e.g. sociocultural, psychosocial, gender)

Transitions – How the defferences were dealt with between the worlds

Classification of transitions and congruent/different worlds

Figure 3.2  The flowchart of data analysis.

The motivations, expectations, values, beliefs, and actions are mostly congruent in the three worlds, which enables comparatively smooth transitions.

The motivations, expectations, values, beliefs, and actions are mostly congruent in the three worlds, but the congruence is created with the performance of the personal agency, self-efficacy, and actual skills in navigating transitions.

Smooth transitions

Border crossings managed

“The professors in the school . . . do match our expectations to master scholars . . . I bear the Chinese tradition of diligence, working in a small context with other Chinese . . . Lack of either aspect would not generate such a good outcome.” (Shao) “My supervisor is extremely busy, so I learned to be proactive to communicate with him. I would not keep problems to myself or wait for the supervisor to come, as I did before. If I leave the problem there, after one week, it’s still there, so I just go and look for him.” (Anqi) The motivations, expectations, values, beliefs, or actions are different in some respects. Differences lead to conflicting ideas and behavior. However, in general, the conflicts are put under control, and the transitions are managed to achieve success.

The motivations, expectations, values, beliefs, and actions of the three worlds are different in some respects. However, the differences are understood, tolerated, recognized, valued, or respected, leading to comparatively smooth transitions.

Definition

Definition

Example

Different worlds

Congruent worlds

Table 3.4  Definitions and examples of the six patterns

(Continued)

“The biggest problem is the slowness . . . But the consistence and the thinking are also important. It might be another form of waste of time if we just keep doing without deep thinking. Instead, if we think, plan and implement, it might generate a better result. Maybe that is another kind of high-efficiency.” (Lei) “My ex-supervisor did not understand my research and did not facilitate me much. Later she requested me to join a project with industry by saying if I rejected, she was not sure whether I could get my PhD. I went to talk with the chair, who thought it was unbelievable. Soon, I changed a supervisor, and the new supervisor was so supportive that I could go on with the research very well.” (Meng)

Example

The conceptual framework & the project 67

__

Border crossings resisted

“My scholarship was ending in half a year. I had to write my thesis, but he still pressed me to do some extremely difficult experiments and was persuading me to do a postdoc. I was desperate. I wanted to commit suicide. I really don’t want to do research anymore. I asked him to let me graduate.” (Kaifeng) “Asian students tend to be obedient to teachers, so when he asked me to change the research topic twice, I followed his suggestion. Then after the first year, he refused to sign on my annual report, asking me to change the topic again . . . that triggered my decision to downgrade to a Master’s degree. I just wanna finish this as soon as possible.” (Lina)

__

__

The motivations, expectations, values, beliefs, or actions are different in some respects. Differences lead to conflicting ideas and behavior. Conflicts remain unsolved, leading to escalated complications. Students adapt to the differences and complete the PhD, but with negative emotions. The motivations, expectations, values, beliefs, or actions are different in some respects. Differences lead to conflicting ideas and actions. Conflicts remain unsolved, leading to escalated complications. Students resist to adapt and leave without completion.

__

Border crossings difficult

Example

Definition

Definition

Example

Different worlds

Congruent worlds

Table 3.4 (Continued)

68  The empirical and theoretical landscape

The conceptual framework & the project 69 The six narratives in this book are introduced in the form of individual trajectories of development from past to future (Ye & Edwards, 2017). The focus is on examining the congruence and transitioning across research, personal, and social worlds within a small research context and a larger social context. The stories are narrated using participants’ original expressions in translation and interpreted through the conceptual framework underpinning this study.

Chapter summary This chapter first established a conceptual framework for research on the experiences of international doctoral students. The three-dimensional (continuity, interaction, and situation) multi-world (research, personal, and social worlds) framework is structured to capture the complexity of doing a STEM PhD abroad. Between the worlds, there are overlapping areas as experiential interfaces for transitions across each world to occur and lines in-between as borders that may constrain students’ transitions to achieve. The conceptualization provides a holistic and dynamic framework to understand doctoral study abroad experiences, stressing both individual and collective agency that are important in doctoral and international education. This chapter also presents the philosophy underpinning the study. To find answers for the research questions, this study was situated as narrative qualitative research underpinned by interpretivism and sociocultural constructionism. This chapter then dealt with the fundamentals of the research design, with participants, data, trustworthiness, and data analysis described. The six categories of STEM CIDS’ experiences in terms of congruence or difference, and corresponding transitions identified through data analysis is used to structure the finding chapters in Part II, with an exception that the last two categories are combined in the reporting.

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Part II

Congruence/difference and transitions across worlds

4 Congruence matters Congruent worlds & smooth transitions

In Part II, we will unfold six patterns of Chinese students’ experiences of pursuing a STEM PhD abroad, as classified in Chapter 3. In each chapter, we first present a cross-case analysis of the pattern and then move to a narrative for exemplification. The patterns are used to structure the chapters, though we combine the last two to highlight the final complications resulting in a doctoral withdrawal. Quotations are drawn from individual interviews unless otherwise stated. Drawing upon the three-dimensional multi-world framework to understand the experiences, we focus on examining students’ situated congruence, difference, and corresponding transitions across their interrelated research, personal, and social worlds over time. Students’ motivations and external influences for their decision to do a STEM PhD abroad were also included so that we could examine connections with the experiences and differences between the patterns. For the nine students in the first category, congruent worlds and smooth transitions, their experience may present the best scenario in a STEM PhD abroad journey. All of them were full scholarship recipients for their international PhD study. By the time data collection concluded for the study, six had completed their PhD in between three and four years, and they all had their first career in academia as postdocs or research fellows in Australia.

Motivations and influences These students’ motives for pursuing a STEM PhD abroad were comprehensive. They commonly mentioned enriching life experiences, self-cultivation, enhancing competence in research, broadening vision in life, and seeking better opportunities by doing a PhD abroad (Yang et al., 2018; Zhou, 2015). The majority recounted their interest in research derived from previous education or work. Songyi and Tan had prior study experiences in Australian universities, so they decided upon doing a PhD when they were qualified for application. In addition, Linlin was so motivated as to join her doctoral boyfriend in the host university. DOI: 10.4324/9781003258841-7

76  Congruence/difference and transitions The external influences for their decision-making were also comprehensive. At the micro level, these students were academically outstanding students at undergraduate or postgraduate studies, so they were recommended or advised to pursue a doctoral degree. At the macro level, the social trend of studying abroad played a role as they had seen peers of their generation studying abroad to enhance their academic and personal experiences. As Chuhui and Tan recounted, As everyone says, the world is big and I want to have a look. My home university provided information for overseas PhD programs. Nearly half of my postgraduate mates chose to do a PhD abroad. A senior mate recommended this supervisor . . . I already had several publications, which helped my application. (Chuhui, Year 1) When completing my undergraduate study, I  was not in a rush of finding a job. I stayed at home for a while, thinking about what to do next. People around have been going abroad, so I thought I might try that as well. (Tan, Postdoc) In general, these students were efficacious to pursue a doctoral degree abroad. More or less, they had prior experiences in research and academic writing, be it at undergraduate/postgraduate levels or at work. Ray, for example, had a publication in Science (impact-factor 37.205 when published in 2016) out of his research at a Chinese company. When he decided for a change of environment for better opportunities, the publication helped him with the doctoral application and an institutional scholarship abroad.

The valued congruence and smooth transitions To achieve a STEM PhD abroad, each and every student has numerous and constant challenges in the pursuit of making a breakthrough on a specific research topic at the leading edge of human knowledge (Elliot et  al., 2016). Experiencing congruence and smoothness did not mean these students had not experienced difficulties, stress, highs and lows in the process; rather, it was the harmonious relationships that coconstructed their smooth transitions so that they could persevere. We examine their experiences from three aspects: • • •

supervisory relationship research community social relationship

Congruence matters 77 Congruent supervisory relationship Supervision was of central importance to students’ satisfaction and success (Due et  al., 2015). The best scenario of supervisory relationship in the CIDS project appeared when the pair worked collectively with one party’s self-disciplinary dedication and another party’s commitment and recognition. Alongside the hard work, empathetic understanding to students’ practical needs and the patience to negotiate for accordance were critically important in enabling students’ smooth transitions across challenges. From the agentic perspective of social cognitive theory, people are contributors rather than products to their life circumstances (Bandura, 1986). Among the mechanisms of agency, self-efficacy, believing one has the power to effect changes by one’s actions, acts as the foundation of motivation, satisfaction, and accomplishments. Bandura (2011, p.  8) points out, “Unless people believe they can produce desired effects by their actions, they have little incentive to act or to persevere in the face of difficulties.” With this in mind, to enhance doctoral students’ selfefficacy, students’ dedication and supervisor’s recognition are equally important. Dedication and self-discipline This study found that Chinese STEM students in this group were most satisfied when they could intensively focus on the doctoral research. These students similarly believed in diligence, persistence, and self-discipline. They were self-motivated and expected to demonstrate high achievement with research output. Tan used a Chinese saying to express this point, “老师领进门, 修行在个人,” meaning the master teaches the trade, but the cultivation lies with an individual. In action, these students commonly immersed themselves in research by intensively working about 10–12 hours a day and at least six days a week during their PhD. Several students attributed their long working hours without holidays or weekends to a habit formed from their previous studies in China. It seemed that this habit, once formed, lasted well into their PhD while abroad. Impressively, these students hardly ever complained about the heavy workload throughout our interviews. This is sharply different from other research that shows experienced workload was negatively related to doctoral students’ satisfaction and progress, leading to an intention of quitting (van Rooij et  al., 2019). In our study, these students expected the doctoral journey to be academically challenging but ultimately rewarding (Barron et al., 2007). With such an expectation, Heyuan revealed that his usual workload in undertaking experimentation

78  Congruence/difference and transitions was more than double in comparison with other fellow doctoral students in the center: Other students normally did one experiment a day, but I managed to do two or three, working on two or three reactors in the meanwhile, controlling them by turns . . . I was always over 100% workload. It’s highly intensive work. I  worked from Mondays to Sundays to ensure the quantity and quality of experiments, and finally got that breakthrough point towards the end of the first year. (Heyuan, Postdoc) Committed supervisory support From students’ recounts, their supervisor(s) presented similar dedication in facilitating their PhD research and academic writing. These students generally maintained weekly person-to-person meetings with supervisors unless one party was away. They also had opportunities to approach supervisors “whenever there is a problem” (Chuhui), be it in person or via email. In the trans-language and transcultural supervisory relationship, the availability and commitment were particularly crucial to timely communication (Gao, 2019) so that students’ transitions across their multiworlds were smooth. This basic and important element in supervisor relationships was crucial in that minor issues would not accrue to become unsolvable borders between the worlds. Besides, students in this group commonly appreciated their supervisors’ dedication in facilitating their publications and academic writing. In the Australian system, STEM doctoral students could achieve their degree either by thesis with publications or by a traditional monograph (Merga et al., 2019). However, for novice STEM researchers, unless for industrial intellectual property reasons, publishing is one of the most important and essential ways to communicate research and to develop a professional identity. The often-prolonged process, from conceiving the structure, managing results, drafting up to dealing with reviewers’ feedback, brings pressure and time issues to both supervisors and students (Mason, 2018). Even so, researchers pointed out the importance of doctoral students being trained in the publishing process (Kwan, 2013; Fergie et al., 2011). This was particularly important for Chinese students when English was a foreign language and they were educated with Chinese inductive rhetoric writing norms, which has fundamental differences from western deductive argumentation conventions (Singh & Fu, 2008). As with Ray in our study, the challenging experience of publishing in Science was actually one of the motivations for him to pursue a PhD abroad. For that project, his publication came two years after he had the research finding because of the difficulty in drafting the manuscript. He hoped to learn “how to tell the story” in an internationally recognized academic

Congruence matters 79 approach. In Heyuan’s case, when his supervisor started to facilitate writing up his research output, he perceived the process as “another bottleneck,” which was time costly but rewarding: The several months of reading . . . seemed like a waste of time, but it helped me to go more steadily because 磨刀不费砍柴功 (sharpening a sickle does not waste the time of chopping) . . . After numerous meetings with the professor, I finally distilled a new theory from this phenomenon and published my first paper in the second year. (Heyuan, postdoc) Heyuan witnessed his growth in reporting his research in English. He jokingly compared writing such a paper to giving birth to a baby as both were painful in the process. Afterward, he enjoyed more of the pleasure when the second and third papers soon followed with his enhanced competence in academic writing. Recognition and the trusted rapport Students in this group recounted how they valued the trust-based harmonious relationship with their supervisors. Supervisors’ recognition, together with their availability and commitment, were crucial in establishing the trusted rapport. Dissimilar to non-STEM disciplines where supervisors may know little about students and their intended project before the PhD (Robertson, 2017), in most STEM fields, when students are about to explore the unknown world of knowledge, they are supposed to work on a project within the supervisor’s expertise and research interest. This does not necessarily mean having hands-on supervision on the project; rather, as Heyuan indicated, the trust by leaving sufficient space for the student to grow is key in the nurturing process: The professor guided me to establish a solid foundation for doing experiments, and then gradually he let me to conduct research projects. He did not show me where to break through. It’s just a general direction. (Heyuan, Postdoc) Heyuan compared the path of exploring the unknown field to trekking in a tunnel, and the light ahead was unpromisingly dim. Along the way, what he valued most was the supervisor allowed him to try out different possibilities with consistent support: Gradually, with accumulated experiences in doing experiments, I  was able to identify if there was any difference occurring in the experiments, which could have or have not been discovered before

80  Congruence/difference and transitions . . . I had intensive discussions with the professor over the experiments. He questioned me about the differences, and I  tested with different methods. (Heyuan, Postdoc) In retrospection, Heyuan admitted that when he was doing the PhD, he understood very little of research. It was the trusted rapport that assured him he was on the right direction, working slowly but steadily toward the achievement: With the first breakthrough, I  was highly motivated and worked more than full time in the lab. My publications started from there, though it took another year for the first. (Heyuan, Postdoc) The patience to negotiate Another factor that facilitated the success of students in this group was the supervisors’ patience to negotiate, or to convince, when students had difficulties in understanding a critical situation. When Heyuan commenced his PhD, he was eager to generate a number of publications out of this PhD. It was an essential requirement to complete a PhD in China and Heyuan thought he should do the same. When he communicated this with his supervisor in their first meetings, though, the professor talked of making scientific contributions, “even just a small step forward,” perceiving it was far more important than the number of publications. Impressed by his supervisor’s sense of social commitment, Heyuan was able to immerse himself calmly in the fundamentals of research at the initial stage of his PhD. In another case, Linlin, whose initial motive for a PhD was to stay with her boyfriend, changed her motivation six months later. The supervisor patiently communicated with her not to set the purpose of research at publications; rather, as majoring in the field of polymer materials and engineering, she was advised to aim for both practical industrial application and theoretical scientific contribution. Linlin realized the social value of her research, “His viewpoints have significantly influenced me and changed my beliefs in contributing my research to the industry.” With the transformed motivations and expectations, Linlin was delighted with her growing independence. Toward the end of the firstyear candidature, she was passionate about the project and confident about the future, cherishing her independence both in life and in research: Now I have changed from being passive to be proactive in research. I was persuaded by my boyfriend to do a PhD abroad, but now I am thinking about what I can achieve out of this PhD. (Linlin, Year 1)

Congruence matters 81 Similarly, for other students in this group, the rapport and trust with their supervisors enabled their professional and personal growth with confidence and passion that was evident during interviews. The positive supervisory relationship reduced potential constraining borders to an extent almost invisible to allow these students’ smooth transitions between their personal and research worlds. Congruent research community At a micro level, the research community refers to a small context where a doctoral student is embedded for learning and research on a daily basis (Xu et al., 2020). For STEM students, it involves dealing with researchers, technicians, and others in a research laboratory, workstation, or an office. These people could have different educational backgrounds, ethnicities, cultures, and ages. Shared experiences, values, and knowledge with other researchers in the affiliated research community was another key to enabling Chinese students in this pattern to experience smooth transitions between their multi-worlds. Most students in this group indicated that their everyday support, emotionally, physically, or technically, came mostly from other doctoral students, postdocs, and researchers in a research center other than their formal supervisors. A  lab culture that was positive, collaborative, and caring, created a sense of belonging for the sojourning students who spent most of their every day in the laboratory. The dynamic and ongoing academic socialization shaped their professional identity in time (Weidman et al., 2001). Shukun recounted his positive experiences with a congruent research community in his PhD allowed his sense of belonging. Shukun received friendly and strong support from his doctoral fellows and academics with varied cultural backgrounds in the research center, which enabled his academic and sociocultural integration in what he perceived as a congenial research context. To note, Shukun exhibited agency and skills in searching professional profiles so that he would know who to approach when encountering problems: When I have problems, I will go for those academics or peers who have similar research experiences. When I just came, I had a search of what the academics and students have been doing, and what they are interested in. Therefore, when I  encounter a problem, I  would know who to approach, and at least this person would recommend someone else who may know something about it. Everyone has unique expertise and is friendly in offering that expertise. (Shukun, Year 2) In another case, Shao also enjoyed working together with a team around him even though each team member had a different research focus. Shao

82  Congruence/difference and transitions indicated that they were always willing to help each other in research because “hardly anyone could achieve the best alone.” Similar to Shukun and Shao, for students in this group, working with a team of researchers meant knowledge sharing and knowledge continuity. Drawing on the experiences of both supervisors and other researchers in their own research group, or their specific research world, these students gathered important background theories, ideas, tools, and skills to build on their own innovative ideas and push research forward. Congruent social relationships The students in this group were commonly well-supported by families and social networks, both emotionally and physically. Their connection with local communities appeared to be loose, but that with conational networks filled the void. We have a special part to examine marital influences because remarkably, eight out of nine students in this group (and overall, 8 out of 11 married students in the CIDS project) were married before or during their PhD. Loose connections with local communities Research in STEM education pointed out that new scientists and engineers need to develop “softer” social skills, in particular, cross-cultural communication skills in addition to their hard skills in terms of their specific disciplinary knowledge (Gonsalves et  al., 2019). The students in this group were generally accepting of local cultures and perceived local people – those outside of their academic networks – as friendly and accommodating. In practice, they revealed few close connections with local communities. Reasonably, they attributed this to the busy research schedule. With exposure to diversity on and off the multicultural campus, however, they perceived themselves as making the transition from “a mono-cultural worldview” to “a global worldview” (GregersenHermans, 2015), feeling more at ease in interacting with people from different cultural background. To note, sports were important ways for socializing with others: And as I played basketball, I had mates with various backgrounds. They were not necessarily researchers, but they were nice people. (Tan, Postdoc) Conational academic social networks filling the niche While connections with local communities were loose, conational networks, in both formal and informal ways, functioned importantly in their socialization. Relationship with conationals and “embeddedness in this network of support” (Gu & Schweisfurth, 2015) provided not only

Congruence matters 83 sources of comfort, but functioned safely as sites of creative potential with new experiences in familiar norms (Bittencourt et al., 2021). Formal conational networks: Established conational associations provided an expanded professional network, through which personal transformation ensued. In Tan’s second year of PhD, he was elected as the vice-president of a local association for Chinese doctoral students. He was motivated to get involved in those academic and social activities specifically because of the opportunities to expand academic networks. My life has been more colorful than others because I  was the vice president of this association. My major social network was from the association, which gathered some elite scholars in the city. Each president and vice president has been doing outstandingly well. . . . We run seminars regularly and invite some well-established scholars, like a pro-vice-chancellor last time, to communicate with us about research and life. We meet people through this platform. (Tan, Postdoc) These events enabled Tan to become acquainted with senior or established researchers in both STEM and non-STEM fields, who became his important academic and personal mentors. This mentorship, as a byproduct of conational networks, enhanced feelings of inclusion, providing support and recognition in his PhD (Moreira et  al., 2019) and relationships beyond and enduring. Informal conational socio-academic networks: As it was unlikely every student had an established academic-social network, some students in this group had their own small social networks. Most of them had conational PhD peers who worked and lived together. These peers were across both research and social worlds, so they were empathetic and supportive due to shared experiences and expertise. In one scenario, Heyuan and his wife lived in a shared rental house with several other PhD students in the same research center. In another, Songyi started her study abroad experience in the last two years of undergraduate study in the same Australian university, so she had several PhD fellow friends dating back from those undergraduate years. Consequently, as indicated by Heyuan, their leisure activity, such as a barbeque on the beach, had always been filled with endless hot discussions on their research or research-related topics. The philosophy passing on from conationals: As these students were eager to learn and grow, it was evident that they were receptive to philosophical perspectives passed on from their senior peers. For example, when Tan just commenced his PhD, a senior conational peer told him to “低头走路，抬头看路” (looking down while you walk, and putting the head up when looking for the path). Since then, this philosophy had been

84  Congruence/difference and transitions guiding him on how to make decisions and work steadily to achieve the goal once the decision had been made. With his own perceivable growth, Tan dedicatedly passed on this philosophy to his junior conationals on various associations and social occasions. The married doctoral candidates These Chinese STEM students generally reported positive aspects of being married. They recounted the company and the support from the beloved one eased the difficulties alongside the sojourn, soothed the intensive brainwork, and most importantly, relieved the sense of loneliness. These positive sides obviously compensated challenges identified in previous research about balancing academic responsibilities with household duties, pressure to provide for the families, or time issues (Lott et al., 2009; Poyrazli & Kavanaugh, 2006). Easing difficulties in the sojourn: With shared experiences, it was common for married doctoral couples to support each other’s research with reciprocal care and concern. In Linlin’s case, she was married soon after following her boyfriend to Australia. Life was challenging for the “two PhDs in a couple,” though. Taking cooking as an example, with “a strong attachment to their home country dishes” which “offered emotional and physical sustenance” (Brown et al., 2010, p. 202), cooking was a big issue in their daily routine. Time was the main problem for the busy researchers. Returning home to cook interrupted their work schedule, particularly during an extensive experimental process. As a solution, they took turns to cook and took lunch boxes to the office so that the other one could stay focused. Working in two interrelated fields of sciences, they took eating-together as “heart-warm moments” for discussing their research and other little things in life. Linlin kept smiling while recounting such moments. Soothing the intensive brainwork: For Heyuan, his wife joined him in Australia after the first year. As both of them loved the beauty of nature, they spent weekends and some holidays on tours around the state. “Those were soothing moments, which made a big difference to my life,” said Heyuan. Similarly, Yingchun, Shukun, and Ray shared relaxing experiences of having the company of their loved ones to ease the pressure of the highly demanding brainwork. Yingchun had a newborn daughter in his second year of PhD. His wife had to stay at home for the daughter. In our interviews, Yingchun recounted very lightly about the financial pressure with his scholarship to provide for a family, or the extremely heavy workload when he tightened the schedule in the doctoral research in hope of early graduation. Most of the time, he could not help smiling with the thought of his daughter in mind, “When I see her smiling at me, all the stresses have gone.”

Congruence matters 85 Having someo3ne that appreciates your soul: Songyi met her partner at the host institute and established a family during the PhD abroad. Because of this very special and extremely challenging experience of studying and living abroad, she described their relationship as a “very deep love” to the souls. She felt “no longer alone”: Our relationship started here, and it was a very deep love. We rely upon each other. We do the shopping and the cooking together. When one’s sick, there’s someone taking care of you. We help and support each other. This person has entered every piece of your life, with appreciation and understanding of the soul. I am no longer alone in this journey. (Songyi, Year 1) In general, this group of students appeared to be confident, competent, and passionate with their identity as academic researchers during and after their PhD. The most salient feature across this group was their positive perspectives on the experiences of their PhD study, which enhanced their self-efficacy in pursuing research careers. They commonly maintained their aspirations and ambitions to contribute to scientific and technological innovation. It was also evident that the PhD candidates in this group had been transforming into independent and high-achieving researchers with the smooth transitions and the congruence of their multi-worlds. Tan and Shao had nine quality publications, and Heyuan and Yingchun had four to conclude their PhD work, though there was a consensus that the number of output publications was influenced by the field of research directions and disciplines. Both Tan and Shao also revealed modestly that some of their findings attracted interest from the industry and the media, which opened broader publicity as a recognition of their research outcomes. In the final interview with Tan, he was about to complete his first-term postdoc contract. Tan visualized his future with confidence, passion, and plans: I have full plans for my future research. With a couple of hardworking students, we will have our original products with significant social values. I have a notebook in which I jotted down ideas that occurred to my mind. I am starting to invest in realizing those ideas. (Tan, Postdoc)

Shao’s story1 Shao’s story exemplifies the pattern of students that experienced Congruent worlds and Smooth transitions across the multi-worlds. Due to factors that were congruent across his research, personal, and social worlds, Shao achieved extraordinary success in his field of engineering. However, by the mid-third year, in a loss with the meaningfulness in his research,

86  Congruence/difference and transitions he was about to quit and change to another trajectory of life. It was the trusted relationships across his multi-worlds that supported his return to the PhD with rekindled passion. Pre-PhD: An anticipated smooth transition Shao had realized his interest in research since undergraduate study. Studying in an Honor’s college of a Chinese research-intensive university, he had opportunities to be systematically trained in doing research. Shao was recognized by three high-profile supervisors for his excellence in academic performance and potentiality as a researcher. The enhanced selfefficacy was critical for the STEM undergraduate deciding upon pursuing a PhD (Guerin & Ranasinghe, 2010). With rich institutional information, Shao’s selection of PhD supervisors and the host university were logically systematic and resourceful. Shao had received multiple offers from universities abroad before his undergraduate supervisors recommended a Chinese-Australian academic. With communication, the Australian supervisory panel suggested to Shao comprised of three highly established researchers, with the main supervisor a pioneer in the field, the second the dedicated Chinese-Australian, and the third a Chinese professor working in a complementary field. Shao was excited with high expectations, “The decision was made when I realized how strong the panel was.” Besides the supervisory panel, Shao particularly mentioned he was attracted by images of the Australian campus, “blooming with Jacaranda, which looks so tranquil.” Influenced by traditional Taoism, the Chinese tend to relate their admiration of the free movement of the spirit with their idealization of nature. The tranquility provides the space for philosophical contemplation (Fung, 1948/2019) and serenity in doing research, which was what Shao had expected. Shao had been away from home in pursuit of higher education. The affective connections were intense, nevertheless. Initially, Shao’s mother was quite hesitant when she learned about his decision to pursue a PhD overseas. Being aware of the demand, she would rather Shao settle down in a metropolitan area with a decent job, house, and family. Shao understood this concern. “My parents would not expect me to provide for them.” Finance or life-betterment was apparently not a factor in consideration for this well-off family. Differently, Shao’s father, together with the grandfather, both of whom were influential research engineers, supported Shao’s decision: My father was quite open-minded. He said it would not work to settle down with a settled lifestyle while young. He suggested me to 出去闯闯 (step out and experience). Now I have been 越闯越远 (going farther and farther away).

Congruence matters 87 Shao breathed a sigh when describing how he had been “going farther and farther away” with over 8,000 kilometers between home and his host institution. Shao grew up in the northwest and did his undergraduate study in the northeast of China, 2,300 kilometers in distance. Back then, he could join his families ten weeks each year in vacations; by doing a PhD abroad, the time for this only child of the family to re-join his parents was much less. In China, to “step out and experience” has long been perceived as a desire, a craving, with the alternation of generations. Fung (1948/2019) points out that China, as a continental country, is agrarian by nature. When the immovable land is the primary basis of wealth, families are confined by the land for economic reasons. “Unless one has special talent, or is especially lucky, one has to live where one’s father or grandfather lived, and where one’s children will continue to live” (p. 38). With China’s economic growth and urbanization since the 1980s, like many in his generation of the post-1980s/90s, Shao has been lucky to have essential resources to pursue education in desired destinations, even beyond national borders. What has been sacrificed, though, is the tangible connections of families. While sojourning, Shao’s connections with home became intangible and conceptual in terms of affective attachment, concern, and care. The PhD: congruence, disruption, and return While doing the STEM PhD abroad, what constructs a successful doctoral journey involves both the student’s persistent solid work and congruent relationships with supervisors and others in the academic-social spheres (Elliot et al., 2016). As shown in Table 4.1, despite a critical disruption halfway, Shao’s success was supported by congruence in motivations, expectations, values, beliefs, and actions across research, personal, and social worlds. The congruence Shao was the only student in the CIDS project who could have nine research papers published when completing the PhD in three years and two months. As further evidence of the achievement, Shao’s final thesis was awarded an Australian national award. In retrospect, Shao perceived research as “indeed very very difficult,” whereas the achievement derived from interactions between the context, both big and small, with the devoted individual: There’s the big context interacting with the small context. The big context is that Australia is a nice and advanced country, hosting highlevel scholars. Our school has a very small number of professors,

88  Congruence/difference and transitions Table 4.1  Shao’s multi-worlds Research world

Personal world

Social world

Motivations

– choosing talented candidates – cutting-edge research & innovation

– high respect for PhD at home context

Expectations

– completion of the PhD – collaboration – cutting-edge research – independence

Values/beliefs

– diligence – innovation – rigorous research – balance in life – collaboration – care & respect – support & recognition

Actions

– independence facilitation – strong supervisory support – team work – international collaboration – offering opportunities

– the selected one to do PhD – enriching life experiences – self-cultivation – broadening knowledge & competence – completion of the PhD – cutting-edge research – high achievement – being recognized – academic networks – social contribution – diligence, focus & persistence – positivity – innovation & collaboration – proactivity & initiative – socialcommitment – harmonious relationship – integration – dedicated research – high output – integration – research in other fields as a hobby – absorbing philosophical perspectives – looking for the meaning of life – an abrupt disruption of incongruence – returning to research after the disruption

– families supportive of personal choice – science & technological innovation

– families positive and supportive – peers valuing hardworking and high achievement – a multiculturalism host culture

– families supportive – supervisors being friendly and philosophically inspiring – host community sociocultural inclusive – strong conational network

Congruence matters 89 each with a strong international reputation. They offer students a different vision and platform, facilitating students at both macro-level academic research and micro-level experiments. They do match our expectations to master scholars. And I bear Chinese traditional character of diligence, working in a small context with other Chinese. Both aspects were crucial for my study. Lack of either one would not generate such a good outcome. WHEN CULTURES MEET

Interestingly, Shao explicitly expressed that he did not feel any cultural differences upon landing in Australia in the early 2010s. The chance was he had experienced cultural differences when moving across China for undergraduate study, but as an explanation for his ease in encountering a new culture, he stressed his value in respecting other cultures, which matched Australian policy in multiculturalism: Cultural differences exist everywhere, even between families and cities in China. How do we put it? Respect, respect, and respect. If we show due respect to other cultures, nothing really matters. This respect is mutual, creating a buffer zone in between. WHEN DEDICATED RESEARCHERS MEET

Dedication: Shao recounted his dedication as “I enjoyed doing these meaningful things.” With the sense of meaningfulness, this novice researcher never took annual leave during his PhD. He followed a schedule by getting up at six to start a day’s work, and non-stop on weekends. For several trips to Paris, he spent all the time in conferences and laboratories rather than sightseeing. Recognition: For Shao’s dedication and achievement, his supervisors expressed unambiguous recognition. For example, after Shao’s presentation for the confirmation of candidature, the Australian supervisor described him as “THE” one: After my presentation, in front of all the attendees, my supervisor commented that I  was THE most outstanding doctoral student he ever had, not one of them . . . The message was positive and meanwhile, propelling me to go forward. Articulation: Shao valued the opportunities to articulate his thoughts. Recounting moments when he discussed research disagreements with supervisors on an equal basis and how he negotiated his arguments with tons of literature and research results, Shao viewed these as significant in

90  Congruence/difference and transitions establishing his attitude toward research and self-efficacy as a researcher. For example, in the meetings with the main supervisor, We were like friends chatting about our own perspectives to see which one was more feasible. It was not that because he was a professor, I had to listen to him. Therefore, for our meetings, I would bring a huge amount of literature to back up my ideas. He would listen carefully. Then he would reckon I have done a systematic review by saying, “so we will follow your idea.” This practice helped me to establish a good habit in research. It’s not just following a senior person without asking why. Role modeling: In research, the supervisors nicely role-modeled the qualities of a rigorous researcher. Taking the Chinese-Australian co-supervisor, Lee, as an example, Shao perceived the influence was fundamental “in research, attitude, and thoughts.” Examples could be collected throughout the interview. One was efficiency. Shao recalled that many times Lee completed the revision of his paper together with the reading of a pile of literature while traveling in the air, and sent back to him upon arrival. Another could be diligence, promptness, and the style. Shao was impressed when sending Lee an email at midnight, the response came back in an hour. Even so, Shao could meet Lee in the office early next morning since Lee had been maintaining a lifestyle of getting up early and taking the half-hour walk to the office as a fresh-up. In chatting with supervisors about questions such as what research is and what research is all about, Shao valued this “soft information” they passed on. The talks were not only to generate research outcomes but to nurture positive outlooks and worldviews, which carried many potential benefits for his growth (Dickens et al., 2016). Extended connections and vision: Shao’s third supervisor offered him opportunities to stay connected with the research context beyond national borders. As this supervisor was based in a Chinese institute, Shao worked there for about one month each year for bridging research, which also facilitated his critical insight on research contexts: Initially, I  was not used to the work schedule and the laboratory safety requirements here (in Australia). It’s quite different if working after hours. I had to apply for the access, and someone must be in company for experiments . . . I thought it was too slow, but gradually I understood this actually was the humane aspects in protecting the safety of researchers. There’s space for them to improve, though. For example, once a pump in the lab broke down. We had to go through a long process to apply for fixing it, which cost us several months. While in

Congruence matters 91 China, we might have immediately purchased a new one in replacement. The management was good, but there’s space to improve in efficiency. The small research cultural context: In the research center, where Lee was the director, Shao was surrounded by dedicated conational mates. This could be typical of a STEM laboratory with a foreign-born director (Tanyildiz, 2015). Shao valued working together with empathetic researchers who shared cultural values and beliefs: We felt close to each other because we shared the same language, the background, and we travelled across oceans to meet here. We helped each other out in life and at work. . . . Australians like to maintain a good balance between work and life, so they hardly work in offhours. But we Chinese brought with us our tradition. We focused on research and worked hard seven days a week, which explained how we could have high output upon the completion of PhD. INTEGRATION MEANS TO BE NATURALLY TOGETHER

Though Shao did not spend time sightseeing or partying during his PhD, he was quite at ease with his state of socialization within his professional networks, perceiving researchers as “a unique cohort”: For us, the integration is to collaborate and to maintain the longterm collaboration. We have shared goals and are willing to work together. We need not to integrate for the sake of integration, or overstate cultural gaps. With this value in respect, Shao naturally adopted the concept of “integration” when looking at cultural differences. This could be reflected in his frequent use of the English term in the interview. Shao believed integration was bilateral and was to be together in a natural way rather than one copying another. He used vivid examples to illustrate his points that professional socialization was meant to be “naturally being together” rather than “copying”: I don’t feel any cultural gap with my Australian supervisor. He does not work on weekends, so I  would not bother him on weekends. That’s his habit, and I understand that’s his culture. If we understand that culture, we are in there. It’s not that he does not work on weekends, we don’t as well. That is not integration. That is copying. For example, they like to walk bare-footed, but we don’t need to do that, do we? Genuine integration is mutual understanding. Integration is naturally being together.

92  Congruence/difference and transitions In contrast to his at-ease attitude toward integration, Shao put great emphasis on the mastery of English. Speaking in one’s home language may satisfy the needs for “mental repose” in a foreign context (Bittencourt et  al., 2021), but Shao believed that to think with the language could better help one integrate in a natural way, for example, to share jokes and to laugh together. Shao agreed upon a sentence in an Australian booklet for new immigrants, “the most important uniting element is the common language – English.” Shao achieved nearly full marks in his English test (IELTS), which he attributed to everyday use, particularly in scholarly writing. The self-efficacy in English appeared to have further enabled his academic success and ease in academic-social networking. By far, Shao’s maturity and openness enabled the congruence of his personal world with both research and social worlds, which seemed to have guaranteed a successful completion of PhD and a promising future as a high-achieving researcher in the field. The disruption However, by the mid-third year, Shao found his motivations astray and he was determined for a change of his life trajectory. His action nearly derailed him from the PhD and potential research career. With the achievement, Shao thought he had done enough and lost motivation in doing things “extremely demanding” but “not challenging”: That was a period I lost interest in the research project . . . I have done so much, then what else? Doing research was extremely demanding, but for me, as everything had been going smoothly well, it was not challenging. He planned to conclude his PhD, but his supervisors had different voices, which could be confusing to the student (Guerin & Green, 2015). My principal supervisor said I’d had sufficient output to graduate. He spent 2.5 years on his PhD. I might do the same. However, my co-supervisor suggested I should explore further along the line. Shao also lost the meaningfulness in his research. He could not satisfy his sense of self-fulfillment and social commitment by doing experiments in the lab and the writing for publications in the office: I felt it was stupid just staying in the lab. I questioned myself why I had been doing this. For publications? Who would use my stuff? I couldn’t find the meaning of existence. It’s a waste of my time if my research had no value to the society.

Congruence matters 93 Coincidentally, this talented young man had been well-prepared for a change because of his interest and knowledge in economics and finance. He had a minor in economics in his undergraduate degree. His final-year research in efficiency assessment on commercial banks was evaluated as top grade. While pursuing the PhD in engineering, he had been a research assistant for a professor in finance and mathematics. With this professor’s suggestion, he turned to an investment bank. With his background, he was offered an extremely attractive salary package with a heavily loaded position. Shao was proud of that because only three applicants were interviewed by the president in the headquarter, and he “was the chosen one.” Back to the PhD At that turning point, two critical factors from his social and research worlds pulled him back to the PhD. The first was his parents’ attitude. When Shao told his parents upon deciding to accept the position, he was shocked by their emotional objection. This pushed him to reevaluate the situation: Normally, they would agree upon my decisions, but not this time. They were concerned for me dying of the work demand. They cared about me, not how much I could earn. And I have no wish for them to worry. The second was his co-supervisor’s advice. Back to the university, Shao had another conversation with Lee, who suggested to him to continue with his promising doctoral research. They had had a similar conversation before he traveled for interviews, but that was when Shao was determined to look for other opportunities. “He is someone I trust, but once I made a decision, I had to try.” On recalling those moments of dilemma, he appreciated Lee’s understanding, tolerance, and wisdom. In time, upon completing the PhD with high recognition in the field, Shao received several offers from renowned research centers worldwide, which again demonstrated the significance of his work: What I did was a new field. We were the first team in the world for the initiative. I should have gone further to solidify the foundation, but I did not realize that and there’s no way to return. Two years after graduation, Shao used an expression 年少轻狂 (young, courageous, and dazed) to describe himself back then. Now as a senior research fellow, Shao had witnessed the value of his pioneering research, which, together with other researchers’ contribution, had been applied broadly to advance technology.

94  Congruence/difference and transitions Further notes: philosophy matters Remarkably, in the interview, Shao stressed the significance of the philosophical perspectives that passed down from his supervisors and guided his growth through his PhD. On reflection, Shao perceived the cultivation of a PhD student was not only about generating research outcomes but also about nurturing positive outlooks on life and research. He viewed these thoughts and perspectives as invaluable “soft information” an experienced supervisor could pass on to their students. Shao believed supervisors’ experiences were important assets that could only be accumulated through the life journey as an academic. What is research? What is research all about? Shao took these questions as philosophical and fundamental in leading a novice researcher to innovation and breakthroughs, and to become a pioneer in a field: That’s the innovation in the real sense. That’s the pushing science forward in the real sense. That’s the kind of researcher we need to cultivate, not just followers to solidify the existing knowledge. Shao revealed that these thoughts were gradually developed through his PhD education. Besides family influence and extensive readings in various fields, his supervisors apparently had a major impact on his philosophical transformation. Shao particularly mentioned that “Lee has travelled so much around the world” to reveal the importance of perspectives accumulated through life experiences. Shao expressed his respect explicitly to Lee in the mentoring aside from research. Besides personal growth, Shao also stressed the meaningfulness of research and social contribution. The connection of his sense of responsibility with a sense of social commitment appeared to have become part of his value system. This is more philosophical. I think the breakthrough in my research is meaningful to society. I just want to make it good. It’s a sense of responsibility, linked with the history and the future. Time issues were a cliché for most researchers, and Shao was not an exception. However, he revealed that he had two standards to assess if his life was not spent in vain. One was to do ONE thing which he would cherish when getting old. Another was whether his work contributed to the society and the community. As if to endorse this perspective, when he was thanked for spending a whole afternoon in a working day for the interview, he grinned, “but this is meaningful.”

Chapter summary Where evidence showed congruence and smooth transitions across Chinese STEM students’ research, personal, and social worlds over time,

Congruence matters 95 students positively perceived study abroad experiences, achieved their best, and maintained the passion and confidence in pursuing research careers post-PhD. However, experiencing congruence and smoothness did not mean these students had not experienced difficulties, stress, highs and lows in the process; rather, it meant the immense multilateral investment of time and effort in persistently co-constructing the meaningfulness of scientific research and the belief to achieve that enabled these Chinese students’ successful completion of the STEM PhD abroad. When these students experienced critical challenges in their doctoral journey, it was the established congruent relationship with their supervisors, academic-social communities, and families that supported them to get through. The establishment of the congruence was based on the match, or the patient negotiation for the match, of key expectations, values, and beliefs between students and supervisors. The match led to students’ general satisfaction and positivity with their study abroad experiences, which, in time, enhanced their confidence, competence, and passion in scientific research. Shao’s case was indicative of the importance of the multilateral congruence. After completing undergraduate study in a research-intensive university in China with rich academic and research experience, Shao was recommended to do a PhD in Australia with a high-profile professor who had a long-term partnership with his home university. While doing the PhD abroad, Shao was strongly supported and recognized by his multi-national supervisory panel. Shao also enjoyed the company of a team of conational fellow PhDs and postdocs who shared the values in diligence and innovation. Shao’s understanding of cultural integration was to maintain and respect each other’s cultural values and beliefs, which allowed him to stay calm and relaxed when living abroad. However, as Shao was so involved in research that he was unable to step back from it and see what possibilities it had for society, he lost the meaningfulness of his project as his output by publications was not tangible to satisfy his sense of social commitment. As he felt the field of finance, his hobby, was more tangible at the time, he decided to change his life trajectory before completing the PhD. At this point, it was the influence from both his research and social worlds that pulled him back to his research world, with reasons Shao speculated as matching his own values and beliefs.

Note 1 Data sources: One 3.5-hour interview two years after Shao’s graduation; Shao’s academic website profiles and publications. Quotes in the text were drawn from the interview transcripts.

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Congruence matters 97 Kwan, B. S. C. (2013). Facilitating novice researchers in project publishing during the doctoral years and beyond: A Hong Kong-based study. Studies in Higher Education, 38(2), 207–225. doi:10.1080/03075079.2011.576755 Lott, J., Gardner, S. K., & Powers, D. A. (2009). Doctoral student attrition in the STEM fields: An exploration of event history analysis. The Journal of College Student Retention, 11, 247–266. Mason, S. (2018). Publications in the doctoral thesis: Challenges for doctoral candidates, supervisors, examiners and administrators. Higher Education Research & Development, 37(6), 1231–1244. doi:10.1080/07294360.2018.1462307 Merga, M. K., Mason, S.,  & Morris, J. E. (2019). ‘What do I  even call this?’ Challenges and possibilities of undertaking a thesis by publication. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 1–17. doi:10.1080/0309877X.2019.1671964 Moreira, R. G., KButler-Purry, K., Carter-Sowell, A., Walton, S., Juranek, I. V., Challoo, L., .  .  . Spaulding, A. (2019). Innovative professional development and community building activity program improves STEM URM graduate student experiences. International Journal of STEM Education, 6(34), 1–16. Poyrazli, S.,  & Kavanaugh, P. R. (2006). Marital status, ethnicity, academic achievement, and adjustment strains: The case of graduate international students. College Student Journal, 40(4), 767. Robertson, M. (2017). Aspects of mentorship in team supervision of doctoral students in Australia. The Australian Educational Researcher, 44(4–5), 409– 424. doi:10.1007/s13384-017-0241-z Singh, M., & Fu, D. (2008). Flowery inductive rhetoric meets creative deductive arguments: Becoming transnational researcher-writers. International Journal of Asia Pacific Studies, 4(1), 121–137. Tanyildiz, Z. E. (2015). The ethnic composition of science and engineering research laboratories in the United States. International Migration, 53(1), 50–65. doi:10.1111/imig.12035 van Rooij, E., Fokkens-Bruinsma, M., & Jansen, E. (2019). Factors that influence PhD candidates’ success: The importance of PhD project characteristics. Studies in Continuing Education, 1–20. doi:10.1080/0158037X.2019.1652158 Weidman, J. C., Twale, D. J., & Stein, E. L. (2001). Socialization of graduate and professional students in higher education: A perilous passage? ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report, 28(3). Jossey-Bass Higher and Adult Education Series: ERIC. Xu, X., Sit, H. H. W., & Chen, S. (2020). The eastern train on the western track: An Australian case of Chinese doctoral students’ adaptation. Springer. Yang, Y., Volet, S., & Mansfield, C. (2018). Motivations and influences in Chinese international doctoral students’ decision for STEM study abroad. Educational Studies, 44(3), 264–278. doi:10.1080/03055698.2017.1347498 Zhou, J. (2015). International students’ motivation to pursue and complete a Ph.D. in the U.S. Higher Education, 69(5), 719–733. doi:10.1007/ s10734-014-9802-5

5 Reciprocal respect matters Different worlds & smooth transitions

This chapter describes the second pattern of STEM CIDS’ experiences, different worlds and smooth transitions, with a more detailed narrative in the last section. In this category, students also had smooth transitions across their multi-worlds while doing PhD abroad. However, some critical aspects in motivations, expectations, values, and beliefs were found to be different across these students’ multi-worlds. The differences were generally understood, recognized, and respected by the agents involved, hence leading to smooth transitions that facilitated CIDS’ steady and solid growth to achieve. Eight out of 38 participants were classified into this category. Three students were self-funded as international students. By the time data collection concluded, all had successfully completed the PhD, with six working in academia and the other two in industry in China or Australia.

Motivations and influences The motivations and influences of this group were substantially similar to those in the first pattern. International collaboration played an important role in leading some of them onto studying abroad. Lei was initially attracted by his doctoral supervisor when this professor visited his postgraduate research center in China. Fangyao was introduced to the doctoral supervisor by his undergraduate supervisor in the final year project when studying in the UK. In another case, Xiaoyu met his doctoral supervisor while he was in an Australian inter-collegiate summer program for international undergraduate students. Many earlier returnee academics in Chinese universities played an important role in inspiring students to do a PhD abroad. Their insights of genuine experiences seemed to have a great impact on triggering both intrinsic and extrinsic motivations, as for Huhao: When I was doing undergraduate, I was thinking of going abroad just for different cultural experiences. The reason I decided to do a PhD instead was that I  met a haigui (returnee from overseas) professor DOI: 10.4324/9781003258841-8

Reciprocal respect matters 99 who introduced me to the possibilities of doing a PhD abroad. He talked about the joy of doing research and the help for career development, so I thought it might be interesting. Then a paper we coauthored got published, so this supervisor here was interested in taking me. I ended up being here due to those coincidences. (Huhao, Year 4) The scholarship to support the study was a critical factor for some students. Dulin started his study abroad journey in New Zealand in the last year of high school. He recounted that intensive competition for the top-tier universities in China was the major motive for his decision to go abroad, which was consistent with other research evidence (Jing et al., 2021). There he completed his undergraduate study and became a research fellow. When the contract was coming to an end, he decided to pursue a PhD degree somewhere else “for a change of the environment.” He searched online, applied to some supervisors, and received a couple of offers. The final factor for his decision-making was a grant of scholarship from an Australian university. His expectation of the PhD was to generate a maximum number of publications to open up a broader avenue for future choices in academia. In short, as academically outstanding students, these students were prepared for their PhD study abroad with certain research experiences. Their decision-making processes were influenced differently by international collaborations, returnees’ influences, their interest in research, and future career prospects.

Differences across the worlds The students in this group experienced diverse differences across their multi-worlds. These were related with their prior experiences and the STEM PhD encountering over time. The differences that created borders between the worlds were based on specific situations, and not everyone experienced the same or the same number of differences. This section narrates how the differences occurred and moves to examine how the circumstances allowed these students’ smooth transitions across the differences. The supervision: The first key difference occurred with expectations of the supervisory styles. Though Chinese students would mostly expect intensive supervision and a close relationship with supervisors, most students in this group had a novel experience of maintaining a pure academic relationship with their supervisors. As this is the core of CIDS’ experience, it will be analyzed in detail in the next section. The research cultures: The second was in the unmatched expectation of the research culture that would expect students’ heterogeneous roles in the novel context. The rigorous and specific requirements for a STEM

100  Congruence/difference and transitions PhD presented cultural differences when students moved from one educational context to another (Moreira et al., 2019). In this group, most students did not expect that they needed to be multi-functional to progress their research. With experiences in schools and universities before the PhD abroad, these students generally imagined a PhD in a rarefied and sacred atmosphere of academic life. They expected to solidify knowledge, experiment, collect data, and write up for publications in a well-planned schedule. In practice, however, they found themselves most often working as a laborer, a technician, a project manager, or a lab manager, and in some other roles. For example, they often needed to carry heavy metals, bang nails, weld tubes, purchase materials, or bargain for the budget, all of which t was novel to these Chinese students. Research resources: The third was the unmatched expectation of research resources. For some, limited research resources limited their research output. In Dulin’s case, due to his prior research experience, he considered himself as having had “a thorough understanding of what it’s like to do a PhD.” Unexpectedly, the research center he landed in was newly established, and he was the first and the only doctoral student during his PhD with his supervisor, an established researcher but a new arrival to Australia. The limited research equipment and funding seriously constrained his progress. In his first year of PhD, the laboratory was still under construction. In the second year, he dreamed of having a large high-speed centrifuge for his experiments but ended up working with a much smaller version, only about 1/10 of the ideal size. Consequently, Dulin had to give up many of his research designs and ideas, which were impossible to realize without appropriate equipment. The loneliness: The fourth key difference between students’ multi-worlds was the unexpected loneliness, or isolation in some cases, alongside the STEM PhD abroad journey. These Chinese STEM students had to experience combined types of loneliness to achieve their PhD abroad (Le & Gardner, 2010). Most of them experienced personal, social, and cultural loneliness (Sawir et al., 2007) due to the intensive focus on the PhD work. Many had few social networks or the personal support which students in the first pattern had described. Besides, Dulin, Lei, Xiaoyu, and Huhao experienced academic loneliness due to a lack of postdocs and fellow PhD students around for teamwork and team support. STEM research often calls for collective brainpower, but with limited research-teaching positions, post-PhDs often have to leave academia or experience institutional and geographical relocations, taking away with them the accumulated knowledge and skills in the specific research topic (Skakni et al., 2021). The academic loneliness for the students constrained the mediating role of “pedagogic continuity” (Delamont et al., 1997, p. 535), leaving them alone without

Reciprocal respect matters 101 pre-established knowledge within their specific context and almost helpless when conducting laboratory experimentation. In addition, Wenbo and Liuhao unexpectedly experienced geographical isolation. While applying for a PhD abroad, they were unaware that their research center, a branch of a metropolitan university, was located in a remote and lightly populated inland region. While there, social events were basically out of the question. Except for occasional travel to town, they connected with the world mostly through the internet. Liuhao recounted, I did not realize it’s so isolated until I googled the map. I felt difficult before I  came, but more difficult after the arrival. It was not like what I’ve imagined about a western country. (FG2) The personal: Unlike those married students in the first pattern, all eight students in this pattern remained single until we completed the data collection for the CIDS project. For them living alone in a foreign country and remaining single accentuated their sense of loneliness to an extent far too acute to be within their expectation. To use Wenbo’s words, he had to learn how to have “a conversation with myself” in a situation with combined personal, social, cultural, and geographical loneliness. Familial and peer pressure added to their emotional struggle. As they had reached a mature age for marriage, remaining to be a single in most cases was not only about themselves. They were shouldering their parents’ expectations to get married and extend the family line, which has always been an important concept in traditional Chinese families, particularly when they were the only child of the family. Further, there were peer pressure when their former schoolmates or undergraduate mates settled down with an appropriate job and a family back in China, whereas they were living on a scholarship, or part-time wages, that could barely make ends meet. When Lei recounted these thoughts in mind, he gave a sigh with his usual smile. The longing for belonging: Unexpectedly, Dulin and Fangyao experienced challenge in socializing with both their conational and host communities at host institutions. They both had studied overseas since Year 11 in high school, only to find their “third culture” identity (Fail et al., 2004) created borders with both communities (Yeh et al., 2008; Rowan et al., 2021), which also constrained their professional socialization (Campbell, 2004). The sense of belonging was critical in sustaining STEM doctoral students’ persistence through everyday hard work (Gardner, 2010). It was evident that Dulin longed for where he belonged, as his nostalgia was expressed by his emotional attachment to the food at home: It does not make sense to believe the concept that the earlier going overseas, the better one may get used to the life there. This time when

102  Congruence/difference and transitions I was home, having local food at the street stand, it’s like I had never left, not even for one day . . . After years of living overseas, I still prefer to drink tea, not coffee. (Dulin, Year 2) The sociocultural norms: The seventh difference was related to students’ understandings of the sociocultural norms in the social world. When Yanglin was asked if there was anything special to recall in his first two years of PhD, what occurred to him was the first experience of going to a hospital with a major injury on the forehead when playing basketball. Different from what he expected in a Chinese hospital for an emergency, he had to wait about 40 minutes in the corridor before the bleeding forehead was treated. Worst still, he did not realize that his overseas student health insurance did not cover the cost so that he had to pay out of his stipend: That initial stage here was really difficult . . . I paid over $600 for the treatment. Well, the stipend was barely enough to cover my living expenses. The rent is costly. And now I’m doing the PhD, I could not ask my parents for extra support. (Yanglin, Year 2) The finance: Then the eighth difference, financial issues, was identified directly as a distinctive challenge across those self-funded students’ multi-worlds. For Yanglin, the extra medical cost was temporary, but for Wenbo, Liuhao, and Huhao, as self-funded international doctoral students, their pressure was ongoing. They took part-time jobs to make ends meet in daily living but had to rely heavily on parents’ support for the high tuition fees as international students. Different from those scholarship supported students, their economic dependence on parents pressed them to put more family factors into consideration when contemplating the situations and the future: and my family, they have spent so much. It’s impossible to drop halfway. I’ll finish the PhD no matter how difficult it is. (Liuhao, Year 1) I have lots of dreams . . . but first I need to have financial independence. My parents have given me their selfless support; I have to pay that back. I will realize their dreams first, and then . . . (Huhao, Year 4.5) The eight points hitherto in this section have illustrated how expectations, realities, and norms created differences, or borders, between students’ research, personal, and social worlds. These borders did not apply to each individual in this group because differences were most often specific and case by case. Nevertheless, the understanding of the differences

Reciprocal respect matters 103 may become critical when similar situations emerge in the CIDS population, for example, in examining the impact of CIDS’ personal, social, cultural, academic, and geographic loneliness.

Transitions across the differences Despite encountering diversified differences across the research, personal, and social worlds, this group of students did not panic about the differences; instead, they appeared to be positive and confident, steadily achieving their best. Factors to enable transitions could be multi-faceted (Tran & Pham, 2015). For these students, two aspects emerged out of the data and helped explain how they navigated these differences to enable smooth transitions: • •

the reciprocal respect that accommodated differences the reciprocal agency that bridged differences

The reciprocal respect to differences The study found the reciprocal respect, or the empathy, to accommodate differences was always crucial and multi-dimensional in enabling transitions. Students’ recounts revealed their supervisors had a different ethnic and cultural background. Ethnically, the supervisors for this group of students were originally British, German, Chinese, African, and Southeast Asian, and they were mostly the first generation of immigrants to Australia. Many of them had rich study and work experiences overseas. Students did not hide their admiration for their supervisors’ cross-cultural experiences. Wenbo said, “My supervisor did his PhD and postdoc in a top American university before coming here. He’s really a fantastic supervisor.” Presumably, the supervisors’ international background, experiences, and perspectives enabled them to develop empathy to understand their international students’ challenges in the academic-social acculturation (Elliot et al., 2016), which helped with the establishment of rapport in the cross-cultural supervisory relationship. This rapport further enabled students’ positive recognition of their supervisors’ different values, beliefs, and behavior, which developed as a facilitating factor for smooth transitions. Xiaoyu’s supervisor was a female professor from Southeast Asia, and Xiaoyu indicated his communication with this supervisor mostly focused on academic aspects. Xiaoyu was the only Chinese student in this supervisor’s group, but he had several conational PhD fellows around and had seen them maintaining a much closer relationship with their supervisors. However, he enjoyed this academic-only relationship and respected his supervisor’s lifestyles with extensive hobbies rather than intensive research only. She has the passion for her research, but besides research, she has another kind of life. She would stop for a while each year to enjoy

104  Congruence/difference and transitions life, to see the world. She is even a Yoga teacher. Rather than devoting her whole self to research, she has many other hobbies. And she does not push us too hard. We could communicate well, and she offers her suggestions. I think she is a good supervisor. (Xiaoyu, Year 2) Although this group of students spoke of multiple types of unexpectedness and loneliness that might have constrained their transitions, these students presented strong empathy to the differences and touched lightly upon their challenges in life. Having lived abroad for ten years, Dulin still had difficulty in enculturating himself to the western lifestyle and his nostalgia was strongly evident, but he expressed his capability to live with the differences nevertheless. I am still doing the three things each day: literature, experiment, and eat and sleep. I kept encouraging myself to work more dedicatedly. A person with self-discipline can work well wherever he is, whereas the context becomes secondary. (Dulin, Year 2) Fangyao also left home early in his late years of high school, but he exhibited a different perspective on differences due to his different overseas experiences. Fangyao started his study abroad journey at 16 as a high-schooler in Wales, then an undergraduate in England, and then a PhD in Australia. During this 7-year study abroad period, he spent all his holidays at home. It seemed that this rich multi-national experience nurtured his ease to accommodate the differences in his academic and social worlds. I have a moderate social circle. I live in the uni-village, which is quite international. There are some Chinese PhD fellows around, and other international students as well. I can talk to both. . . . It’s all about your choices. The most comfortable way is to stay with other Chinese, of course. It’s a bit more difficult to be with PhDs from other countries, but it’s not that difficult. (Fangyao, Year 1) For the three self-funded students, their supervisors also presented empathy and support to relieve their financial pressure. Wenbo and Liuhao had part-time jobs some evenings and on weekends to make a living, and they revealed their supervisors were quite understanding in this aspect. Huhao had been working as a coordinator and tutor in summer schools since his second year of PhD. “Thanks to my supervisor’s trust in giving me this precious opportunity. It was intense, but I gained much confidence as students were positive on my teaching.” The work opportunities

Reciprocal respect matters 105 to increase financial independence appeared to have enhanced these students’ self-esteem as well as self-confidence. The reciprocal agency to bridge differences Besides empathy, agency was another important factor for this group’s smooth transitions across the worlds. This agency was never unilateral as students recounted much of their supervisors’ persistent support in their PhD. The bilateral agency: The supervisory styles this group of students experienced were diverse but being supportive was the commonality. Besides all maintaining regular meetings with supervisors, some of them had opportunities for brief discussions on the progress on a daily basis, critical to advancing their STEM research. Hence, these students appeared to have established rapport and trust with their supervisors. With consistent and positive supervisory feedback, the students maintained their motivation, aspiration, and hope to achieve. For example, though some external factors placed severe constraints on the scope of the work that could be undertaken, Dulin never lost hope with his PhD because of the trust he had in his supervisor: My supervisor is much busier than me, lecturing, tutoring, administration, but we meet every day. The experiments have been failing all the time till now, but he said just keep going. It’s all about failures and attempts. Some of the ideas might work, so I just kept going. We communicate a lot, and he is a reliable man. (Dulin, Year 2) Xiaoyu and his supervisor also exemplified the importance of the bilateral agency in facilitating transitions. When Xiaoyu proposed a change of research direction with his newly discovered research interest after the commencement of PhD, he received very positive feedback and support from his supervisor. As both of them lacked the foundation in this new direction, the supervisor invited an external academic to join the supervisory panel for extra support on Xiaoyu’s research. In time, Xiaoyu exhibited his confidence in self-regulating his research: At the beginning, I wanted to do a project in environmental microbiology, but I was not particularly strong in doing experiments. In the six months between my undergraduate and the doctoral study, I found my interest in data mining, so I proposed a change in topic upon arrival – to use data mining in environmental research. My supervisor was pleased and agreed immediately. She asked another supervisor with expertise in data mining to join the supervisory

106  Congruence/difference and transitions panel. She also supported me to join workshops and seminars in the School of Computer Sciences. We meet every Tuesday, and the project has been progressing well. (Xiaoyu, Year 2) The active selectivity in adaptation: Students’ self-adjustment to the values, beliefs, and norms in the novel context was also evident. Interestingly, though these students used the expression “朝九晚五” (from nine to five) in describing their work environment and the schedule, our data showed, these students practically maintained long working hours in research. For example, Wenbo and Liuhao often worked till midnight in their office to make up the time spent on casual jobs and to meet the demand for research. This difference between the value and the action was interesting to reveal their selectivity in adapting to new concepts in the new context. The “colleague-like” supervisory relationship: Other evidence of students’ agentic self-adjustment was their acceptance of the concept of “colleague-like” relationship with their supervisors. This was a learned concept through their PhD study experiences and daily interactions with their supervisors, probably also with other colleagues around. The relationship between teachers and students in China has traditionally been hierarchical. Hence, it was particularly interesting to see that these students were so much at ease and comfortable when practicing the newly picked-up way of dealing with this relation. This point was important because it allowed students to articulate. They were encouraged to present their ideas to supervisors on an equal status instead of just following, obeying, and listening. These students were aware that their ideas were respected and valued, and they were allowed and they could make mistakes. With the supervisor’s constructive feedback, these students were evidently self-motivated in taking on the challenges of advancing their research. Transformation out of the differences The evidence suggests that this group of students experienced a transformation that grew out of the differences. In reality, challenges and difficulties, or borders, existed all the time, such as the serious shortage of funding or the lasting sense of being an alien in a foreign sociocultural context. However, with persistent effort, and with understanding, recognition, and respect between the students and their supervisors, this group of students could attain academic success over time. With the belief to achieve, challenges turned into the sustaining power for their persistence. As Liuhao indicated, a PhD was a goal that “was impossible to give up halfway, however challenging it might be.” For Dulin, a positive attitude on loneliness enhanced his transformed

Reciprocal respect matters 107 understanding of loneliness itself to the state of maintaining serenity, which enabled his focus on research: I benefit a lot from my daily routine. If there’s any problem, I’ll come back to do more reading. I don’t ask people around because I am working alone on the project, and I am the only PhD with this supervisor. (Dulin, Year 1) On looking back, working alone also had its advantages. I have the chance to use all kinds of facilities, doing all kinds of things in the lab, as I am the only one working there. I think this might be a blessing in disguise. (Dulin, Year 2) The calmness, or serenity, rather than anxiety, depression, or other negative emotions, functioned significantly in sustaining these students’ inner peace so that they could concentrate on important things in research and improve the ability to “meaningfully allocate resources” (Wolfradt et al., 2014, p. 131) to achieve their doctorate.

Lei’s story1 Lei’s story represents the pattern of Different worlds & Smooth transitions. Some factors in motivations, expectations, values, and beliefs were different across Lei’s multi-worlds (Table 5.1). In this narrative, we will examine how positive interpretations of the differences enabled Lei’s successful PhD abroad experiences. Pre-PhD: expecting differences Lei grew up in a poor rural family, and his parents were almost illiterate. Lei started to work in farmlands early in his childhood, but his academic talent distinguished him from others. Lei’s parents were apparently pleased with his academic achievement and hoped he could leave the farmland to pursue a better life, so they supported his high school studies even if they had to borrow to pay for tuitions and expenses. Without disappointing his parents, Lei was enrolled in the best university of the state. Four years later, he was accepted by one of the best research institutes in China to do a 3-year postgraduate study. The study mobility brought on the change of geographical environment from a rural area to a state capital and then to the national capital. Accompanying these changes, Lei had learned early the concept of socio-economic-cultural and academic-cultural adjustment. As Lei reflected, “Living away from home for so long . . . nothing looks really dramatic here (in Australia).”

108  Congruence/difference and transitions In those years, Lei gradually learned to make his own decisions in life. One was that he transferred from a field of natural science to engineering for the postgraduate study, and another major decision was coming to Australia for a PhD. Lei used an expression “out of coincidence” to describe how he landed in Australia for his PhD. When he was about to complete the postgraduate study, a presentation given by an Australian guest professor attracted his attention. As their research fields were closely related, Lei approached the professor for a couple of questions. From this contact, Lei thought the professor had a nice personality. He understood that this impression could only be initial, but it did help his decision in the application: Combining factors in personality and academic achievement, I  thought of doing a PhD with him. I  sent him an email with my research proposal, a following-up of my postgraduate research. After four months, I received a scholarship from the university. Then here I came. It’s quite simple (smile). (IV1) Hitherto, Lei had had experiences of crossing social, economic, and cultural differences in different areas of China. He also had the opportunity of a person-to-person interaction with his potential supervisor before his application for the PhD. In research, Lei’s proposal was in an area he had interest and experiences in. Financially, Lei was supported with a fully funded scholarship. Even though Lei had never been outside of China, those factors appeared to have prepared him for the transitions across differences in the unknown territory of his PhD abroad. The PhD: the positively attended differences After the commencement of PhD, Lei identified many similarities in the basic norms of conducting research between China and Australia, regardless of the fact that all the academics in his faculty were non-Chinese. Lei had been used to working with foreign-trained researchers in his postgraduate research center, so he did not find it too difficult to fit in the “foreign” research culture in his transitioning into a PhD in Australia. Lei recounted, however, two critical differences in the core of his PhD study, one being the supervision style, and another being the small research context. Thriving with a “free-range style” of supervision ENCOUNTERING A NEW STYLE OF SUPERVISION

“Free-range style” was how Lei metaphorically described Professor Hudson’s supervision. From the first day, Lei was explicitly instructed

Reciprocal respect matters 109 Table 5.1  Lei’s multi-worlds Research world

Personal world

Social world

Motivations

– choosing talented candidates – cutting-edge research

– high respect for PhD at home context

Expectations

– completion of the PhD – collaboration – quality research – independence

Values/beliefs

– innovation – rigorous research – balance in life – care & respect – support & recognition

Actions

– “freerange” style supervision – supervisory support – expanding international networks – international collaboration – offering opportunities – recognizing achievement

– the selected one to do PhD – enriching life experiences – self-cultivation – broadening perspectives in research – completion of the PhD – high-quality research – quality output – academic networks – personal growth – diligence, focus & persistence – positivity – innovation & collaboration – proactivity & initiative – socialcommitment – harmonious relationship – independent work – expanding international networks – engagement in academic activities in the research field – expanding conational academic social networks – engagement in academic social events

– families supportive of personal choice – science & technological innovation – families supportive – peers valuing hardworking and high achievement – communication and collaboration

– supportive – friendly – inclusive – offering suggestions – a dynamic conational academic network

to work independently, which became a consistent practice throughout his PhD: My supervisor told me it’s my own project, so I should be responsible for the project. It’s a free-range style (散养的). Of course, he

110  Congruence/difference and transitions discusses with me if there’s any problem, but after discussion, it’s still me to make the decision. (IV1) This autonomous work style slowed down Lei’s progress in research, which evoked nostalgia for his previous experience in his postgraduate study, where his supervisor worked with him closely and put the brainpower in sync, While in China, we (my supervisor and me) worked with high efficiency. We plan for the next few weeks, implement the plan, do experiments, test results, and then plan for the next stage. (IV1) DEVELOPING AN INDEPENDENT MIND

Lei was not emotionally attached to the mood of nostalgia. Rather, he positively interpreted the “free-range style” doctoral supervision as an appropriate approach, though it took him a while to fit with the culture. In both interviews, Lei indicated the benefit of working as an independent researcher. Lei perceived that his PhD would be a training process on an overall project where he could initiate and experiment with his own ideas and report his findings in academic journals, so it was rational that the supervisor stood aside but would provide timely and essential support: We have regular weekly meetings so that supervisors understand my progress and help solve problems if necessary. However, to a great extent, I am on my own because what I have been doing is something no one else has done before. The main role of the supervisor is to revise papers and to help with problems, which is very good. (IV2) DEVELOPING AN EXPANDED GLOBAL NETWORK

Vitally, this free-range style exposed Lei to the broadest possibilities outside of his laboratory and office. In their meetings, Lei had observed how his supervisor solved problems by extending the inquiry to his academic networks in Australia, or elsewhere globally. Nurtured with such an understanding of the importance of networks and collaboration without geographical borders, Lei traveled to attend conferences in Europe, Asia, Oceania, and America during his PhD candidature to expand his own perspectives and the link with the world. He expressed that he took the chances to see the world, to communicate with people, and most importantly, to extend his vision by gaining first-hand contact with the cuttingedge knowledge crucial to his research.

Reciprocal respect matters 111 THE RELATIONSHIP & THE CARE

Upon reflecting on his experiences, Lei indicated that even though the traditional concept of “father–son” relationship between a supervisor and a student was no longer prominent in contemporary China, supervisors still customarily cared about students’ overall wellness. In contrast, Lei described his relationship in Australia as “pure colleagues-at-work,” and “hardly ever relate to personal lives” (IV2). Lei expressed he had no personal preference to which one was superior. Without much difficulty and without taking long, Lei adjusted himself to the free-range style concept because he viewed his study abroad experience as an opportunity for self-cultivation, so “the taste could be different” if he could not have the independence. Despite that, it seemed that Lei still longed for the care from the supervisor. He revealed that initially upon landing in Australia, it was a real challenge not having one single acquaintance around. Lei thought Professor Hudson “was nice” because the professor asked about things in his life, such as the housing. “With one ask, you will feel he is amiable. For me, that will do. How well I live here is not that important anyway” (IV2). Seemingly, what was important for Lei was the progress of his research, but the care from the supervisor, be it more or less, enhanced the harmony in their relationship, which in turn, better facilitated Lei’s transitions with his research world and generated productive outcomes over time. Growing out of a different research context Besides the supervision style, another crucial difference occurred in the small research context, the laboratory. Again, Lei’s positive interpretation of the differences availed himself of the smooth transitions across the differences. A DIFFERENT LAB SCHEDULE

After working with a busy schedule and efficient technical support in his postgraduate study in China, Lei was surprised to find that “everything suddenly slowed down” in his PhD abroad. For one example, he could not work in the laboratory off working hours and on weekends due to safety management requirements. Accordingly, Lei adjusted his work schedule and contemplated the benefit of this slowing-down as having time for “deep thinking”: It might be another form of waste of time if we just keep doing without deep thinking. Instead, if we think, plan and implement, it might generate better outcomes. Maybe that is another kind of high efficiency. (IV1)

112  Congruence/difference and transitions WORKING ALONE IN THE LAB

Lei had not expected that there were no other academics or research fellows to work with him as a team. From Lei’s experience, he could see the research funding in his field was shrinking in Australia. As his research was not costly, there was not much influence on his PhD, but a consequence of this reduction in research funding was the reduced number of contractual researchers. When Lei first arrived, he had several postdocs around to facilitate his progress. Gradually, with no budget for hiring, all of them left. The enculturation of doctoral students was fundamental to the intergenerational transmission of disciplinary cultures within a specific research context (Delamont et al., 1997). Knowledge continuity in STEM disciplines was sustained through socialization processes of doctoral research. However, Lei found himself left all alone to explore everything from scratch, with no one around to discuss problems that emerged. He expressed that it was a “事倍功半” (double effort with half outcomes) situation with the knowledge discontinuity: There was this void in the knowledge. I could not build my research upon senior researchers’ groundwork in the lab. The hardware is still there, but I have to explore all the knowledge from scratch. (IV2) Attuned to the challenging situation, Lei understood the importance of taking the initiative and making independent decisions. He sought suggestions from his supervisors, postdocs in other teams, and fellow doctoral students, but would make his own final decisions in his project. Lei perceived his supervisor’s directional and strategic suggestions as sufficient, considering that “if he tells you everything, it will be his research, not yours.” MULTI-FUNCTIONAL IN EXPERIMENTATION

When commencing the PhD, Lei did not expect that he needed to be multi-functioning in progressing his research. Working alone in a laboratory and without technician support, his roles involved a laboratory manager, technician, designer, and worker in addition to researcher. Except for some parts that could be processed at workshops, he was basically on himself to set up his experimental facilities. In the third year, Lei revealed that they had moved into a new laboratory, equipped with new facilities and instruments, which alleviated many of his issues with experimentation. For the difficult first two years, though, he interpreted the benefit of being versatile with positivity: In this process, I’ve learned lots of side-knowledge in technical design and mechanics. It’s time consuming, testing patience. But if we do

Reciprocal respect matters 113 not have hands-on experiences now, we might not know how to do it after graduation, which might be embarrassing when we supervise our own students. Experiences in practical engineering are important for STEM PhD students. (IV1) INDEPENDENCE, POSITIVITY, AND OPTIMISM

On reflection, Lei attributed his independence to his accrued life experiences before and during the PhD: I have been getting used to being independent since my undergraduate years, then postgraduate years, and then here in Australia. The capacity to adjust to a new environment is something you will have only through your life experiences, instead of something you are born with. (IV2) The following quote may further represent how Lei maintained his positive and optimistic values and beliefs toward hardships in life and academic research. These values and beliefs appeared to have helped him with the transitions across the differences of the worlds and enabled him to grow with intelligence, wisdom, and peace of mind in the face of challenges. I don’t have any setbacks in my life. I am so young (laughing). Just stay positive and don’t complain. Complaining is meaningless, and it is contagious, evoking your listener’s negative emotions. We’ve all learned to think with a dialectic way. Just identify the problem and then look for solutions. Surely there are low moments, say, when a paper is rejected. Just revise with reviewers’ comments and submit to another journal. That’s it. There will always be a way out when you could identify where the challenge is. (IV2) With this attitude to “identify the problem, look for solutions, and there will always be a way out,” Lei was able to complete his PhD in 3.5 years. Besides a postdoc offer from his doctoral research center, he received a prestigious Australian award for young scientists in recognition of his outstanding academic achievement. A congruent social world With a positive understanding to differences and consistent effort, Lei achieved a reasonable smooth transition between his personal and

114  Congruence/difference and transitions research world. Likewise, with his sense of social and familial commitment, which seemed to be rooted in his value systems, Lei also achieved congruence with his social world while doing PhD abroad. SOCIAL COMMITMENT AND REWARDING FRIENDSHIP

Lei was open to the concept of integration with local communities, but in practice, his engagement mostly focused on conational academic-social networks in town. As an active board member of an association for Chinese doctoral fellows and academics, Lei was socially committed to organizing and reporting Chinese doctoral symposiums in Australia to enhance communications between top scholars and students from Australia, China, and elsewhere. In return, Lei perceived that the position enhanced his sense of commitment and inclusion. When meeting and learning from important others, he could receive information that he did not get from his “free-range style” supervision, for example, philosophical perspectives about what the nature of research was about. To some extent, the conational doctoral network events supplemented as community-building activities (Moreira et  al., 2019), instrumental in improving STEM research experiences, solving practical and emotional problems, and establishing a friendshipbased professional network that Lei perceived as lasting lifelong. FAMILIAL COMMITMENT

Repeatedly, we identified it was the sense of familial commitment that sustained Chinese students to persevere and to achieve. Attitudes and support of family were crucial factors in sustaining STEM doctoral students’ persistence (Gardner, 2008). Care is always reciprocal in the family-oriented Chinese society (Fung, 1948/2019). For Lei, this commitment seemed to be naturally deep-rooted. He viewed that a Chinese student’s success in studying abroad was connected with parents’ honor, face, and well-being: News will spread if someone’s child is studying abroad. If dropping out without completion, from Chinese perspective, it doesn’t make any sense, and the person might be considered flaky. It’s not only about the student’s face. It’s more about the parents’ face. A  child cannot stay detached from his parents. If the child does not do well, the parents could not possibly live well. (IV2) To note, with the poor rural background, Lei had been away from home, studying and living with financial independence after high school. This

Reciprocal respect matters 115 seemed to explain why he associated the commitment to the parents mostly at the emotional level. Though he did not mention his obligation in financial terms, he took it as a natural commitment that a child should take care of the parents by doing well during study abroad.

Chapter summary For students in this pattern, some remarkably situative and individualbased differences were found across their multi-worlds. Despite the differences, these students thrived with the existence of differences due to reciprocal respect to differences and bilateral agency to achieve, which facilitated their comparatively smooth transition during the PhD, though it was accompanied with pressure at the initial stage and over time. With positive facilitation for the transition across the differences, students persisted, achieved, and transformed with calmness and dedication. In Lei’s case, with a positive and empathetic understanding of challenges in research, he was able to make transitions across the differences between his research and personal world, which led to a highly successful completion of his PhD. Lei’s previous life and research experiences enabled him to work and make decisions independently, which helped his adjustment with the “free-range style” supervision with respectful understanding. Socially, multiple opportunities to attend conferences and travel around the world expanded Lei’s academic networks and international perspectives. Besides, Lei’s sense of social commitment benefited him with his congruence with his social-academic world, which in turn enhanced his professional socialization.

Note 1 Data sources: Two interviews in Lei’s second and third years of PhD (IV1, IV2); informal social contacts and chats; media reports during his PhD (media); information updated after his graduation. Quotes in the text were drawn from the interview transcripts.

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116  Congruence/difference and transitions Fail, H., Thompson, J., & Walker, G. (2004). Belonging, identity and third culture kids: Life histories of former international school students. Journal of Research in International Education, 3(3), 319–338. doi:10.1177/1475240904047358 Fung, Y.-L. (1948/2019). A short history of Chinese philosophy. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. Gardner, S. K. (2008). What’s too much and what’s too little? The process of becoming an independent researcher in doctoral education. Journal of Higher Education, 79, 326–350. Gardner, S. K. (2010). Contrasting the socialization experiences of doctoral students in high- and low-completing departments: A qualitative analysis of disciplinary contexts at one institution. The Journal of Higher Education, 81(1), 61–81. doi:10.1080/00221546.2010.11778970 Jing, X., Peng, L.,  & Dai, K. (2021). Why Chinese students choose to pursue secondary education in Canada: An empirical investigation based on push – pull model. Asia Pacific Education Review. doi:10.1007/s12564-021-09693-x Le, T., & Gardner, S. K. (2010). Understanding the doctoral experience of Asian international students in the science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields: An exploration of one institutional context. Journal of College Student Development, 51(3), 252–264. Moreira, R. G., KButler-Purry, K., Carter-Sowell, A., Walton, S., Juranek, I. V., Challoo, L., .  .  . Spaulding, A. (2019). Innovative professional development and community building activity program improves STEM URM graduate student experiences. International Journal of STEM Education, 6(34), 1–16. Rowan, L., Beavis, C., Tran, L., Blackmore, J., McCandless, T., Hoang, T., . . . Halse, C. (2021). International students in the first years of senior secondary schooling in Australia: Longing for belonging. International Journal of Educational Development, 81, 1–10. doi:10.1016/j.ijedudev.2020.102347 Sawir, E., Marginson, S., Deumert, A., Nyland, C., & Ramia, G. (2007). Loneliness and international students: An Australian study. Journal of Studies in International Education, 12(2), 148–180. doi:10.1177/1028315307299699 Skakni, I., Inouye, K.,  & McAlpine, L. (2021). PhD holders entering non-academic workplaces: Organisational culture shock. Studies in Higher Education. doi:10.1080/03075079.2021.1876650 Tran, L. T., & Pham, L. (2015). International students in transnational mobility: Intercultural connectedness with domestic and international peers, institutions and the wider community. Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education, 1–22. doi:10.1080/03057925.2015.1057479 Wolfradt, U., Oemler, M., Braun, K., & Klement, A. (2014). Health anxiety and habitual rumination: The mediating effect of serenity. Personality and Individual Differences, 71, 130–134. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2014.07.030 Yeh, C. J., Okubo, Y., Ma, P.-W. W., Shea, M., Ou, D., & Pituc, S. T. (2008). Chinese immigrant high school students’ cultural interactions, acculturation, family obligations, language use, and social support. Adolescence, 43(172).

6 Agency matters Congruent worlds & border crossings managed

This chapter presents the third pattern of Chinese students’ experience of doing the STEM PhD abroad, Congruent worlds & Border crossings managed, followed with a corresponding narrative. The pattern demonstrates how the congruence was created with strong evidence of the performance of agency and skillful strategies in navigating through critical challenges, which enabled students’ growth and achievement. Nine out of 38 participants were classified into this category. Five out of nine female participants in this study were classified into this group and so we put a specific focus on female STEM CIDS’ experiences in this chapter. By the time data collection concluded, six participants in this group had completed their PhD. All of them had their first research career in academia in China or Australia.

Motivations and influences Similar to students in the first two categories, the motivations and external influences of this group to do a PhD abroad also commonly involved enriching life experiences, self-improvement, and career development. As marriage and partnership could be major ones among social relations that influence students’ decision-making for a PhD (Brooks, 2015; Kim, 2015), Minghui’s main motive was to join her husband in the same Australian university. Besides, two more motives and influences emerged in this pattern. Not ready for work: Tracing back, Linyun was not a particularly outstanding student in her undergraduate and postgraduate studies. She indicated that she had failed several courses, which was rare compared with other participants in the CIDS project. The major motive for Linyun’s PhD abroad was that she did not feel ready for stepping into a working career when completing her master’s study, and she “just wanted to have some more fun” by going overseas. Attraction of a “cool” culture: While Xuzhen attended an exchange program to Australia in the final year of the undergraduate, she was attracted DOI: 10.4324/9781003258841-9

118  Congruence/difference and transitions by the very different, but “cool” cultures, which brought her back to the country for a PhD: When I  attended their (Australian) Honor’s program, I  met many researchers that appeared to be different from what I had expected. They had a distinct personality, enjoyed the freedom, and didn’t care about what others would think about them. They were very independent in the choice of careers or partners. I  was fascinated to see some researchers had tattoos on the face, full of holes on the ears, which was absolutely out of my imagination to the image of researchers . . . Afterward, I told my parents that Australia was cool, and they agreed me to apply for a PhD here. (Xuzhen, Year 1) Significantly different from those in the first two categories, some students in this group had no strong academic background, not much prior research experience. For some, there was a gap of foundational knowledge for their doctoral project. These might be predicted to critically hinder the progress of their research. How they managed their border crossing to achieve their successful and positive STEM PhD abroad was to be examined.

Collective agency to co-construct the congruence In social cognitive theory, the conception of human agency is extended to collective agency (Bandura, 1997, 2000). The key in the collective agency is to produce desired attainments not only with shared knowledge and skills but with interactive, coordinative, and synergistic dynamics of the members in the group. In our study with Chinese doctoral students doing STEM research under supervision, the agency to achieve could not be unilateral; rather, it always needed to be collective, mutual, and reciprocal so as to achieve. Students recounted much of their supervisors’ agentic and persistent support throughout the PhD. Basically, the main factor that distinguished this group was the collective agency in dealing with critical challenges and co-constructing the congruence to achieve. Circumstances shape these students’ PhD journey in complex ways, similarly or differently. Factors that frustrated their mind ranged from lack of research experience, repeated experimental failures, sense of hopelessness, lack of access to research resources, getting off the track, to a major change in the supervisory panel. Remarkably, with positive facilitation and interactions, these students commonly exhibited strong agency to create congruence despite varied difficulties in each of their specific situations. We identified three key points underpinning their positive experiences, respectively, • • •

students’ agency to take initiative explicit and timely supervisory facilitation strong supervisory support in navigating a crisis

Agency matters 119 Agency to take the initiative These Chinese students’ agency to take initiative stood as the most salient factor in co-constructing congruence despite critical challenges that hindered their doctoral research and laboratory experiments. These STEM doctoral student, as active agents, acted to shape and not just be shaped by their experiences and challenges. We use Anqi’s narrative in the following paragraphs to illustrate this point. Anqi revealed his research topic was highly challenging, and three aspects further constrained his progress. First, his supervisor, a busy dean of the school, could not spare much time in supervision. Next, again his supervisor, a new arrival at the school, could not provide many resources in the laboratory and had not established a team to support. And third, Anqi had a gap in the foundational knowledge with his research project, which was an “upstream” inquiry (basic science), whereas Anqi had mostly been researching at the “downstream” sectors (technological application) before PhD. For these challenges, Anqi exhibited a sense of transcendence, or “it’s normal” attitude to maintain the calmness: Life is like an electrocardiogram, full of ups and downs. Sometimes I feel frustrated, but . . . we need to adjust ourselves. Like last night, the result was not good, though I have experimented twice. It’s stressful. But I will consult with my supervisors or look for more ways by myself. I think it’s normal to experience happiness, peacefulness, and frustration in the PhD. (Anqi, Year 1) Nevertheless, soon after the commencement of PhD, Anqi realized the necessity to be active in seeking advice and resources, and the situation persisted into his later years. He pushed himself to be sharp in observation and active in taking actions: What impressed me here is the emphasis on independence, initiative, and cooperation. My supervisor has been busy, so I have to be proactive in communicating with him for his advice. And as I am working in a cross-disciplinary field, I always communicate with academics in other schools. (Anqi, Year 1, IVI) In coping with the constraints, Anqi took a critical initiative to expand his supervisory panel. He proposed a co-supervisor from another school and his principal supervisor immediately agreed to his proposal. With this co-supervisor and his established laboratory and team, Anqi had key support in bridging the gap in his knowledge foundation and sourcing research facilities to progress his research. Later, introduced by his

120  Congruence/difference and transitions supervisors, Anqi started interstate cooperation with another research team. They maintained fortnightly Skype meetings to negotiate different results and offer bilateral feedback. Besides, Anqi learned to take initiative to explore international resources to progress his research. He mentioned a successful experience in looking for a specific type of bacterium from around the world: Once I  needed a special type of bacterium for research, so I  contacted many institutes around the world. Many of them were quite nice and willing to provide me with the bacteria. Finally, I  got a sample from Sweden. These scientists are quite enthusiastic to help each other out. (Anqi, Year 2, IVII) This is consistent with other research which shows collaboration brings “secure mutual positive-sum benefits and in a common manner” (Marginson, 2018, p.  8). With positive experiences, Anqi understood external resources and cooperation meant limitless possibilities. In the third year, he had started to look for potential collaborators worldwide and to establish a network to advance his future research. By then, believing the world of science “is not a lonely island,” Anqi had grown to think like a chief investigator in leading his project: These days I have been thinking if I could give a branch of this project to someone else. I have no expertise in that area, so that will be good. It’s also an opportunity to practice my managing skills and cooperation competence. I am going to talk to a researcher who have been very nice in helping us out. Many external resources are available out there if you go and explore. (Anqi, Year 3, IVIII) Anqi’s “it’s normal”-but-“taking actions” attitude gradually became an enduring habit. In the second year, for example, when one of his articles was again rejected, he just gave it a smile and started the resubmission process. I am experiencing another kind of life here. . . . Studying in Australia with a scholarship, these outstanding supervisors, and the beautiful environment, I think it is really a privilege. (Anqi, Year 2, IVII) Similar to Anqi, students in this group generally valued doing a PhD abroad as a valued opportunity in life. With this positive attitude, they actively took initiatives to solve problems and make a change.

Agency matters 121 Explicit instructions and critical advice The second aspect we identified in co-constructing congruent relationship was supervisors’ explicit instructions, rather than implicit ones, in providing critical support that “affirmed student agency” (McAlpine & Amundsen, 2009). Here we use Linyun’s experience to illustrate this point. Previously we mentioned that Linyun started her PhD to have more fun overseas. It seemed that she was not much into research back then. However, at the end of the fourth year, Linyun decided to postpone her PhD so that she could continue her research on an unexplained phenomenon identified in her experiments. Though the scholarship had stopped and the deadline was overdue, she still appeared to be confident, composed, and strongly believed she made the right decision. Evidence shows her self-assurance at this stage, which could have been stressful and anxious in many other cases, was related to her positive experiences throughout her PhD, particularly with the clear instructions she received from the beginning. At the beginning stage, in one meeting, my supervisor told me that doing a PhD is to prepare yourself to be an independent researcher, so I have been thinking how I could be “an independent researcher.” (Linyun, Year 5) She recounted another interesting anecdote, I once told my supervisors here that in China we called our supervisor “boss”, and they were amused. My co-supervisor said, “You are the boss of your doctoral project”. That’s interesting. (Linyun, Year 5) The contemplation out of the conversations with supervisors set the tone for Linyun’s PhD. She started to depend on herself for finding solutions to problems in research and would consult her supervisors only if problems become unsolvable. The “you are the boss of your project” notion further strengthened Linyun’s transformation in making major decisions as an independent researcher. Linyun’s transformation did not mean she had turned out to be an independent researcher overnight; rather, her supervisors’ critical support had been multi-dimensional and persistent over time. One key support was the initial training in academic writing. As McAlpine and Amundsen (2009) identified, insufficient progress in scholarly writing was a norm and a constant in the life of a doctoral student. Explicit structure and support in the writing could facilitate students to understand that it was a common academic experience. For Linyun’s first paper at a conference, her supervisors revised it 12 times before submission. A  pleasant outcome of this rigorous training was when Linyun drafted her thesis, her supervisors replied, “Congratulations on

122  Congruence/difference and transitions the distinct improvement in your scholarly writing.” “Receiving such feedback was super fantastic,” Linyun appeared to be ecstatic with her enhanced ability in academic writing. Another key support was the philosophical inspiration to embrace scientific challenges at particular critical points. Linyun recounted that for quite a while she felt desperate because of an unidentified bug in a computation model. She was impressed when her main supervisor said, “You are so close to the truth. No one else in this world is closer than you.” Linyun expressed that with those stimulating words she applied herself to work again with zeal and perseverance. She finally solved the problem, which generated her first publication. With accrued confidence, when Linyun encountered the strange phenomenon while writing up her thesis in the fourth year, she decided to work on it. Her co-supervisor advised to give it up for now, “Never mind. It will take another PhD.” Linyun thought of giving it up because the phenomenon was truly complicated, but when again and again her results were diverted by the phenomenon, she decided to take it up. She told herself, “For this phenomenon, no one else in this world is closer than me to the truth.” With this self-determination, she rejected her cosupervisor’s kind advice, “though that was rather comforting.” However, in making the decision, it was quite a struggle emotionally, and I needed support from others. (Linyun, Year 5) Luckily, when Linyun needed this psychological support, she received that not only from her supervisors but also from her conational fellow PhDs around. These Chinese students studied in the same faculty and lived together in a rental house. They shared similar topics in life and shared each other’s concerns and joys along the PhD. Living within this small academic-social world, Linyun was not alone when she had the struggle of making the decision. With a few more months, Linyun solved the problem, and before long, this significant breakthrough generated her second publication. With the success, she received an offer from a Chinese research institute. Upon completion, she reflected with satisfaction because she did enjoy the fun overseas, as what she expected for the PhD abroad, “It’s definitely an experience worthwhile to have.” Supervisory support in navigating a crisis Students in the situation of dramatically changing the supervisory panel midway through their PhD may experience a difficult time before and after. However, Renfei was an exceptional case with his successful navigation through the change. Evidence shows this could be attributed to his

Agency matters 123 persistence together with his incoming supervisor’s extension of intensive support. Tracing back, Renfei had experienced a successful transition from his postgraduate study to his PhD. Different from other students in this group, Renfei did his postgraduate study in a research-intensive university in China, where his intensive research generated outstanding output, resulting in a successful application to a PhD program in a top research center in Australia. Originally, he applied to Professor Smith, but due to coming retirement, the professor only took a minor role in Renfei’s supervisory panel. The other two were both high-achieving researchers in their early and middle career. As recognition of Renfei’s previous academic achievement, Professor Smith gave him two scholarships, an institutional one and an industrial top-up from his own company. Hence, with sufficient financial support, and working with top researchers close by, Renfei was highly positive with his first-year PhD experiences: All of my supervisors are super good. I am very happy studying with them. Professor Smith is very busy, so I  just met him a couple of times, but he showed me the right directions with his insight and visions. The other two supervisors maintain regular meetings with me and are always available if I need extra support. (Renfei, Year 1, IVI) However, all of a sudden, when it turned to the second year, Renfei was informed that his two supervisors would soon leave the university. Our second interview occurred when Renfei was unsure what would happen to him with this situation, but he showed his understanding of these supervisors’ leaving due to a lack of tenure contracts. This situation should be normal, and I  am not the only one to be influenced. This change for sure will have a huge impact, as this is my second year, a year that should be expecting both output and advance. But I could do nothing with this situation. (Renfei, Year 2, IVII) With this forthcoming change, Renfei had hoped he could complete the construction of the framework by investing more time before the supervisors’ departure. With the situation, though, he later realized that these supervisors had become too busy to supervise him in their last few months in the center. The chaotic situation had a sharp turn when Professor Smith took the role as his principal supervisor. Renfei had indicated in the first two interviews that the professor, as the founder of the world-class research center and president of an international company to commercialize the research output, had an extremely busy schedule.

124  Congruence/difference and transitions However, the professor started intensive supervision in the first few months of taking over. Working closely together, they reviewed the overall project and improved defective points in the previous research design. Finally, they worked out a feasible plan which put time cost into consideration so that Renfei could reach the goal of the project and complete his PhD on time. Upon reflection, Renfei took a deep breath, “It turned out to be the best out of all the misfortunes.” In the first few months, Smith and I had extremely frequent meetings. Basically, whenever I  had an idea, even just a tiny little one, I  could go and meet him. .  .  . During that critical period, I  knew many staff members had no chance to meet him, but he made himself available to me all the time. Now we meet much less frequently, but everything is well on track. (Renfei, Year 3, IVIII) As Renfei perceived, though he “wasted” several months due to the chaos, Professor Smith’s intensive support at the critical stage facilitated him to pass through the challenging situation. With the new congruence, Renfei appeared in his third year as dedicated, motivated, and confident as ever before.

Creating a shared time and space in the social world Socialization in another language in another sociocultural context was a challenge that international students have to deal with over time. Students in this group were proactive in integrating with host academic and social communities. On one side, they availed themselves of the opportunities to join social occasions; on the other, they took the initiative to create a shared time and space with their colleagues and local communities, be it within or outside their comfort zones. This way, they created a “third space” for relaxation, recreation, and acculturation (Elliot et al., 2016). Integrating within the institutional events Most students in this group took the opportunity of socializing with academics, researchers, and doctoral fellows at institutional events. Running the regular Friday morning/afternoon tea was a tradition of most Australian universities for faculty members and research students. “It offers us a chance to get acquainted with everyone around,” Kexuan expressed when she mentioned such events. Increased academic integration resulted in increased acquisition of research knowledge and cross-cultural academic-social skills (Tinto, 1998), though in general it was something expected but less accomplished for international doctoral students to integrate into a wider research community (Evans & Stevenson, 2011).

Agency matters 125 Anqi brought up a point that some Chinese students tended to stick together, or even invisible, on such occasions so that they were inevitably marginalized from the mainstream institutional culture. In some research centers, Chinese conational groups could be so large that students can always engage socially with each other. With the perceivable cultural distance (Tan  & Liu, 2014), the practice may efficiently buffer inadequacy from interactions outside of the cultural group (Al-Sharideh  & Goe, 1998). For Chinese STEM students with a Chinese supervisor in a research laboratory, the effect of “ethnic affinity” (Tanyildiz, 2015) was evident. For this phenomenon, Anqi’s interpretation was, “Chinese are normally shy and not good at communicating with others.” Being aware of this issue, Anqi revealed he always reminded himself of going the extra mile to communicate with different people around, and he did do so. For example, after several talks with a professor from another school in the faculty, Anqi was pleased to see his network expanded into another but related field. As he was the HDR representative of this school, Anqi invited the professor to give a seminar to his PhD fellows to generate cross-disciplinary inspirations and broaden their scope of knowledge. Anqi took these opportunities as transformative, as “something invaluable” academically and personally out of his PhD abroad journey. Besides, though with a highly intensive focus on research, a couple of students engaged themselves in campus events and associations. Shuyu purposefully pushed himself out of his comfort zone to “improve the linguistic proficiency, mingle with other researchers, and improve leadership capabilities.” His effort to be engaged was consistent and persistent throughout the PhD: There are many Chinese around, so the comfort zone is just there. I don’t want to stay within this zone. I wish to step out, though it’s really difficult. (Shuyu, Year 1, IVI) I joined a research facilitation group on campus, where I was mentored, and now, as a research assistant, I am mentoring others. (Shuyu, Year 2, IVII) Another culture in the pub The pub culture in Australia is different from that in China, which might be a reason few participants in this study mentioned their experiences in pubs, but Yuyan and Renfei were exceptions. Yuyan often joined her colleagues in pubs and also invited them to join her on special occasions. As she indicated, she was the only Asian student in the center who would do so with local colleagues. Through relaxed conversation, Yuyan realized that was an ideal opportunity to mingle and to understand another

126  Congruence/difference and transitions culture from a different lens. For example, she was amused to find that “academics here like gossiping as well.” Renfei also frequently visited pubs, which was what his football teammates would do after Friday or weekend games. He admitted he did not truly enjoy the local way of drinking but was willing to do as Romans do. Rather than just taking it as leisure, Renfei found it opened a window to a world outside of his research center. For example, he could get practical information from his engineer mates, such as the genuine situation in the Australian job market. Meeting locals in coffee shops A few female students enjoyed the experiences in coffee shops. Kexuan often traveled on weekends and met different people at local coffee shops. For a sojourner living alone overseas, sitting in a coffee shop also brought on the nostalgia for the time spent in the teahouse in her countryside hometown in China. Sometimes I take a bus to some small towns around, and stop somewhere I  like, sit in a coffee shop, and chat with some locals. They are very nice people. It’s good for my English as well (laugh). . . . It’s similar to the life in my home village. (Kexuan, Year 3) Vigorous life in the metropolis Students in this group found the life in the host city was not boring. With the multicultural lifestyle in Australia, they found it was easy to satisfy their taste buds with home-style food close to campus. With the novel environment, they enjoyed sightseeing, fishing, crabbing, or a BBQ on the beach. Xuzhen did not feel she was an alien in the host city upon immediate arrival. I think this city is very much like China, life, food. . . . It’s the mixture of the eastern culture and the western culture. It’s so interesting. (Xuzhen, Year 1) In other cases, Shuyu attended multiple social associations which kept him busy on weekends. Anqi regularly visited a church to interact with people from all walks of life. Yuyan and Linyun were volunteers for an aged-care center. Personal effort and agency to integrate with the local environment were evident across this group, and the enjoyment they gained from their effort was also evident. Hence, this became the fourth point underpinning their congruence across the multi-worlds.

Agency matters 127

Chinese female STEM doctoral students abroad Research identifies two contradictory discourses that women in STEM research fields must navigate: difference to men, and difference to other women (Brooks, 2015; Silfver et al., 2021). Women in a male-dominated research environment tend to have a civilizing effect; they also counteridentify with traditional forms of femininity which were interpreted as inferior (Henwood, 1998). Prior research was also concerned about the identity formation of international female STEM doctoral students, where they needed to construct inclusion, challenge invisibility, re-engineer professional efficacy (Dutta, 2015) and other stressors as international students (Carr et al., 2003). As five out of nine female participants in the CIDS project were in this group, and coincidentally, five out of nine students in this group were female, we focus on examining how these female students managed transitions to achieve congruence between their multi-worlds and achieved their successful PhD abroad. The pleasure and the inner strength Evidence in our study shows these Chinese female students were generally positive about their transformational experiences. In essence, they did not differentiate themselves from the majority of their male counterparts, and gender boundaries were not identified to be obvious in constraining them crossing the multi-worlds to achieve. In our study, rather than feeling the tension, these students appeared to have enjoyed the pleasure of doing the STEM PhD abroad and presented strong inner strength, self-determination, and confidence in managing the difficulties that emerged over time. In a research context that facilitated intellectual independence, and the social context that facilitated physical independence, these female students enjoyed the freedom of being independent and perceived the difficulties of being independent as the path to growth. In most cases, their life was not much different in the male-dominated science and engineering world. They touched lightly upon the challenges they encountered; rather than complaining, they used a positive way to describe how they were growing to be independent researchers. Minghui decided to do a PhD abroad so that she could join her husband, who started the PhD a year earlier. “I wanted to be with him but did not want to stay at home as a housewife. That would be irresponsible to myself. Then I applied for my own PhD.” After commencement, she realized the PhD was much more difficult than what she had expected. A  focus group conversation revealed how Minghui encountered novel challenges in her research world and how she transformed with both

128  Congruence/difference and transitions inner and physical strength, as she “felt nothing really special as a woman in engineering”: Yang:

Have you ever perceived any difference for women in the engineering fields? Wenbo (male), Minghui (female), Liuhao (male): (Simultaneously) No. Liuhao: Not much difference if there’s no labor work involved. If in China, you may feel the difference because we would not let girls do those labor-involved or risky jobs, but here we are all the same. Minghui: When we do experiments, we have to prepare all the facilities by ourselves. We set up frames, do the painting, etc. Once I yelled at my supervisor, “Oh my goodness, I am drilling a drill.” Liuhao: Sometimes she works as a man. Minghui: Yes. I  remember one evening I  burst out crying after work. I did not expect a PhD student had to do all this tough technical work. Then my supervisor talked to me and asked what’s special about being a female. He suggested that as a PhD, I had to manage this. Since then, I felt nothing really special as a woman in engineering. Now we use coal powder in experiments, which is quite dirty, but I feel it’s okay. . . . Here (in Australia) I don’t feel women are anywhere more fragile than men. . . . Now it’s like I can manage everything at work. To note, throughout the aforementioned focus group interview, Minghui just touched lightly upon her challenges in doing a PhD abroad; instead, her male conationals kept mentioning that the girl should not have been exposed to the heavy labor work in the harsh environment for research. Their protective attitude toward the female conational colleague was evident, which might turn into essential emotional or technical support when necessary. Establishing rapport with respect Besides Minghui’s agency in self-improvement and acculturation, she recognized her supervisor’s patience in leading her on her journey as important in establishing the rapport and trust. Other female students in this group shared Minghui’s experiences to achieve growth and independence by taking up suggestions from the supervisors. It seemed this rapport was critical in establishing the professional identity, transformation, and the sense of inclusion in the research world. I was not close to the supervisor at the beginning, there was no trust, but now I do trust him, believing I can complete with his supervision. . . . At the beginning when we had different opinions, we would

Agency matters 129 argue, and very often I  became grumpy and unhappy. He would come to me again the following day and discuss about the problem. He cared about how we felt; it’s us sometimes being quite childish. Now things are getting much better. He is a respectful supervisor. (Minghui, Year 2) More importantly, they were able to articulate their problems to the supervisors who appeared to be understanding and cared about their problems. For example, when Xuzhen realized her research interest was closer to another scientist in the laboratory after about one month of commencing her PhD, her first supervisor supported her decision to change the main supervisor. In the previously mentioned Linyun’s case, when she struggled with the notion of power relations in the research world, her supervisors explicitly suggested “you are the boss of your doctoral project,” which cleared her path in understanding she was the one in control to advance her research rather than rely on someone else. Independence and responsibility A scholarship in support of the PhD study was critical in these students’ perceived sense of independence. Linyun, Minghui, and Xuzhen came from urban middle-class families, but they valued the possibilities to achieve financial independence with their doctoral scholarships. Xuzhen had the extra pleasure because, with the scholarship, she could also support her boyfriend to achieve his master’s degree. Linyun had some savings out of her scholarship so that she could manage to survive the extra half-year when the financial support ceased. Amusedly, Minghui was happy to live far away from home with financial independence “so my parents now cannot push me to have a baby.” For international female students, family members could be a source of sustenance and support, inspiration and motivation, and sometimes, obligation (Anderson et  al., 2021). As daughters, most often the only child of the family, these Chinese female students exhibited a strong sense of obligation toward parents at home. Kexuan’s mother was diagnosed with cancer not long after Kexuan arrived in Australia. With the busy research schedule, Kexuan could not return home, but she checked information online and arranged all the details for the treatment in hospital. She chatted with her parents and her sister (Kexuan has a sister as she was from a rural family) each day online until after her mother’s successful operation. Her mother’s recovery was quite a relief for her and allowed her to invest herself back into the PhD. In general, on doing a STEM PhD in a foreign country, these female CIDS had to learn how to navigate through the hardship with strong inner strength. They had to learn how to shoulder challenges on their own, be protective of themselves, and balance their life amidst everyday

130  Congruence/difference and transitions challenges and pressure in doing research (Martinez et al., 2013). They also had to learn how to manage continuous setbacks, adjust emotions, fit into the novel context, and establish relationships within and beyond that context. Over time, the effort accrued to escort them reaching their academic destination with personal transformation. With the enhanced competence and capability, many of these female students were engaged with social work. Linyun was an online translator for an international non-profit organization, where she committed herself with about one hour each day to translate files between Chinese and English. Yuyan was a volunteer for a local aged care center, where she had regular visits to accompany an old lady from East Europe. When talking about these, they were proud and pleased that they had the capability to contribute in their own way. Upon completing the PhD, Linyun was not alone among these female students who believed this PhD abroad experience would bring a better life: The experience of doing the PhD abroad itself is just so good. I think it is invaluable for my life. I can feel that I’m becoming more intelligent not only in research, but in knowing how to live a better life. (Linyun, Year 5)

Yuyan’ story1 Yuyan’s experience represents the pattern of Congruent worlds & Transitions managed. Yuyan experienced a positive congruence across her multi-worlds, but this congruence was achieved through both her personal agency and the contextual facilitation in transitioning cross the worlds to achieve high academic success (Yang & MacCallum, 2021). The key points of congruence or difference are shown in italics in Table 6.1. Pre-PhD: the dedicated transitions in an exchange program Growing up in a remote low socio-economic rural family, Yuyan was the first child in her village to have the opportunity to study at a university and then to study abroad. In the third year of her undergraduate study, she was awarded a one-year exchange program at an Australian university. It was not surprising that this was an eye-opening experience for this country girl. Toward the end of the year, she was selected to be a guest to in two TV programs on the experiences of international students in Australia (media). In these programs, she presented an image of a young, energetic, bright-eyed Chinese girl, curious about different cultures and lifestyles, open to various cultural experiences. Viewing the program, her use of English in the TV programs appeared smooth and natural when she communicated with local Australians, tour guides and fishermen. However, in the focus group, she revealed that when she first arrived in Australia, she had “enormous difficulty” with the

Agency matters 131 Table 6.1  Yuyan’s multi-worlds Research world

Personal world

Social world

Motivations

– choosing talented candidates – cutting-edge research

– high respect for PhD at home context

Expectations

– completion of the PhD – collaboration – quality research – independence

Values/beliefs

– diligence – innovation – rigorous research – balance in life – collaboration – care & respect – support & recognition

Actions

– independence facilitation – positive and constructive feedbacks – timely feedbacks – funding support – expanding international networks – from tolerance to trust

– the selected one to do PhD – enrich life experiences – self-cultivation – improving career prospects – contributing to life betterment – completion of the PhD – cutting-edge research – quality output – academic networks – being recognized – diligence, focus & persistence – positivity – innovation & collaboration – proactivity & initiative – social commitment – harmonious relationship – integration – strategic selfimprovement – taking each learning opportunities – proactive, independent and communicative in research – sociable and friendly – engaging and leading social activities

– families supportive of personal choice – science & technological innovation – families positive and encouraging – supervisors, peers, collaborators supportive, friendly, recognizing her effort and achievement

– supporting – accepting – respectful

language (FG). For example, in one course, for the whole semester, the only words she could understand in the class were “See you next week”! This is understandable because the English education in the Chinese countryside usually lagged far behind, with a general focus on reading and writing.

132  Congruence/difference and transitions To bridge the gap, Yuyan grasped every opportunity to improve her English. On realizing that the host nationals had little motivation to approach international students, Yuyan pushed herself to approach them instead. She even forced herself to chat with other passengers on the bus she took to and from the university. Much to her ease, she found that when she made a step forward, most Australians were friendly and accepting. Besides crossing linguistic boundaries, her experience in language learning appeared to have enabled her an awareness of sociocultural differences in different living and studying contexts. Meanwhile, her effort in her academic study was just as high. Even with that “see-you-next-week” course, her final score was over 60. In the end, her outstanding academic achievement qualified her for a PhD in the same Australian university upon completing undergraduate study at 21 in China. Yuyan’s family could not afford her studies, but she received a 4-year full PhD scholarship from the Chinese Scholarship Council (CSC). Hence, Yuyan was relieved from financial concerns for the duration of her PhD. The PhD: crossing boundaries to achieve The motivations, the pressure, and the philosophy Yuyan expressed the PhD abroad had been extremely challenging for her, but she was motivated and persistent to achieve her degree successfully on time. She expressed, I consider doing a PhD as 人生修炼 (self-cultivation), so I  am ­willing to take the challenges along the way. (FG) Culturally embedded with Chinese values and beliefs in self-cultivation (Fung, 1948/2019), Yuyan naturally connected Chinese students’ persistence in the PhD abroad to sociocultural factors. The first was the high respect for a PhD degree in the Chinese society, and the second was the issue of losing face or dishonoring the individuals and their families. Yuyan considered the latter as more serious. “They simply could not face their families at home if giving up. This is an enormous pressure” (FG). However, Yuyan revealed she did the PhD abroad purely out of her personal choice, nothing related to her parents, so she did not have much of this familial pressure. Yuyan’s pressure to complete her PhD mainly came from the CSC scholarship. This was related to a term in the contract that would require her to refund the scholarship if she dropped out or downgraded from a PhD program. CSC also required recipients to return to China after graduation unless they received an overseas postdoc contract. Based on these two items, Yuyan expressed her determination to achieve the

Agency matters 133 doctoral degree on time (FG), and also wished to do a postdoc to enrich her research experiences “while young” (FG & IV). On chatting about the experiences of growing up as a country girl and now doing a PhD in one of the most prestigious universities in Australia with the support of a full scholarship, Yuyan expressed, Since I commenced this PhD, I have always been telling myself that from now on, every day is a win. (FG) This “every day is a win” philosophy proved to have helped her create congruence between her multi-worlds and successfully manage the transitions across and over time during her PhD. All these were achieved in the face of continuous challenges and stresses as an international female doctoral student in STEM fields, which will be elaborated later. Crossing boundaries in research From an undergraduate to a PhD student, Yuyan experienced a sharp transition from coursework study to independent research. Unlike most of her peers in the laboratory, Yuyan did not have any research experience before the PhD. “I was under great pressure when I looked at you,” she admitted to a colleague in her second year (FG). Her two supervisors, both white male Australians, played critical roles in her successful transitions. They consistently inspired her to be independent and offered positive feedback and constructive suggestions. Yuyan described them as quite tolerant with her. “Sometimes they would say I am too proactive . . . I might have asked for their opinions before I tried,” she could not help giggling (FG). But by the third year, “now they trust me to be in charge of my own research” (IV) by only holding monthly meetings for most important issues, such as a final design or funding input. Yuyan thought it was fine to have the reduced frequency of meetings for two reasons: one the supervisors were always approachable via emails, and another her growing confidence in leading the research. Yuyan’s main supervisor was an authoritative figure, guiding the general research directions in her PhD. Critically, he took Yuyan to a top research center in Germany to expand her vision and networks in her first year of PhD. This experience laid the foundation for the later in-depth collaboration on highly challenging experimentation, which advanced her original doctoral project design to a more cutting-edge frontier. Yuyan acknowledged that [t]he resources gained through the multi-national cooperation are invaluable. These opportunities allowed me to expand my academic network, familiarize myself with different techniques, and

134  Congruence/difference and transitions more importantly, different ways of being and doing as a rigorous researcher. These are extremely important for my growth. (IV) Yuyan’s second supervisor helped with technical details. He facilitated Yuyan with her first experimentation and added another student in Germany into the team for the second. The work generated two high-impact publications, a third one in draft, and a fourth one in plan in her third year (IV). By the beginning of the third year, Yuyan’s output, both in quantity and in quality, was sufficient to complete the degree. But on thinking it over, she initiated the challenging experimentation mentioned earlier, “which has been hypothesized for more than a decade, but still left undone because it’s difficult” (IV). Her interest was due to the closeness of this hypothesis to what she has been researching. The project involved three-party collaborators from another Australian laboratory and the German laboratory she visited, comprised of several renowned professors and their students. As the initiator, Yuyan became the leading investigator in the project. She described her supervisors and other collaborators as reliable and trusting. However, as a PhD student, she felt there were many things beyond her control, such as funding and the need of a postdoc to be in the team. She also felt stressed when the progress did not meet the milestones, and in particular, when she had to work alone in her laboratory most of the time. I am mostly working on my own. I wish I could have more experiences. I know I’ve improved a lot, but I could have been better. (IV) Yuyan was used to working ten hours a day, five days a week, but with the newly initiated project, she invested the ten hours without a break, at least six days a week. “I used to invest 80% of my energy, but now it’s 120%, and I will invest more when the experiments start” (IV). The mutually valued passion, dedication, motivations, and expectations underpinned Yuyan’s congruence and managed transitions to cross boundaries in research. Crossing boundaries in academic writing As a novice researcher who had never published before, scholarly writing was another boundary Yuyan had to manage. She exhibited strategic skills in autonomous learning and getting the most out of the supervisory feedback. Yuyan started with analyzing the structures and the syntax of high-quality publications in the field. Upon realizing while Chinese preferred to write in a modest way, westerners would go directly for the logic, she modified her own writing following the structures identified

Agency matters 135 through analysis. Then with supervisory comments, she noted down frequently made errors to be avoided next time. “The errors have patterns. Keeping away from those patterns helped me improve my writing” (FG). Though Yuyan identified differences in writing between Chinese and western norms, she attributed her quickly improved academic writing proficiency to her strong foundation in Chinese writing. When she applied her Chinese writing skills to English, she found it was successful in many aspects, such as how to present and describe. Furthermore, her supervisors’ positive feedback enhanced her confidence. Yuyan revealed that when she submitted her first draft of proposal in the sixth month of PhD, the supervisors told her she was better than most of the international students; then when she sent them the first paper draft in the 12th month, their comment was the writing was already “very good” (FG). These positive experiences, in aggregate, helped her cross the boundaries of academic writing for publication, which is a crucial component in the growth and the establishment of a competent researcher. Crossing sociocultural boundaries As an east-Asian student in Australia, Yuyan was also successful in managing her transitions across sociocultural boundaries to create congruence between her multi-worlds. Yuyan considered communication with different people(s) was important for the success of her PhD. She used a Chinese philosophy 求同存异 (seeking similarities while maintaining individual differences) to express how she dealt with cultures and human relationships. As an international doctoral student in STEM fields, the cultures and human relationships were multi-dimensional, not necessarily limited to the host cultures. Yuyan had to communicate with various others in her research. She well recognized that supervisors’ guidance could speed up the research, but similarly important were her fellow doctoral students and postdocs in the team. In Yuyan’s school, there were about 80 PhD students, roughly about ¼ Chinese, ¼ Iranian, ¼ Australian, and ¼ from other countries and states. She was aware that some Chinese students only hang about with Chinese fellows only. “That’s okay.” In practice, she approached those that could best facilitate her to progress the research regardless of ethnic background. Yuyan stressed the importance of communicating and negotiating with other students and postdocs to work with her on her experimentation, which normally requested several persons in close collaboration for operation. They all have their own expertise. Even though I could rely on myself for solving problems, if there is someone to help, the research might progress much faster. (FG)

136  Congruence/difference and transitions Besides, the others included peripheral but critical personnel in supporting Yuyan’s experimental needs, such as technicians, accountants, and external suppliers. Yuyan realized the importance of maintaining a sound relationship with these people. For example, technicians in workshops were supposed to be supporting researchers by processing materials for experiments, but Yuyan found that “if you communicate with them well, they will process your design super-fast; otherwise it is common to delay a couple of months” (IV). To create a harmonious relationship with people around, Yuyan had been active in organizing activities, such as sports or fun games. For example, she organized a game at the “Escaper’s Room” between technicians and PhD students. Technicians often say PhDs are dumb, which was why I organized this game. They lost the game, but everyone enjoyed it. After the game, we went to a pub to have a drink. (IV) Yuyan revealed that she was the only Asian student in her school who would go to pubs with Australian and European peers after sports or games. When she attended conferences, she also went to pubs with her supervisors and peers in the evenings. Yuyan sensed the Australian’s easygoing characteristics through this special form of socialization. For Australians, when I drink with them, they were very surprised because there have been few other Asian students who would join them for a drink. In fact, even if we do a little bit in their culture, they would say “Wow, you are so Australian!” (IV) When Yuyan mixed well with others in the school, she found herself being amused. For example, she realized that the staff members and students all enjoyed gossiping. “That’s human nature. It’s the same everywhere in the world,” she smiled. She was amused to find that these technicians had endless interest in cars and she enjoyed chatting and laughing with them. She considered this as a relaxation to her intensive research work. Yuyan agreed with her supervisors’ philosophy, “work hard and play hard” (IV). In addition, Yuyan had been consistently involved with volunteer work and community services. Besides helping with tutoring Chinese-Australian students in the Chinese community, Yuyan also visited local aged care villages every two weeks, where she enjoyed communicating with old people with different cultural backgrounds. She was surprised to find “that lady from east Europe still struggles with her English after living in Australia for over 60 years” (FG). Yuyan took it as a beneficial experience for herself where she could “learn about different life stories” (FG).

Agency matters 137 These experiences to be in contact with the multicultural society and life experiences seemed to have better facilitated Yuyan to develop interculturality (Holliday, 2016) and necessitate identity change (Gu, 2015) through everyday engagement within the PhD and social communities. Crossing gender boundaries Yuyan was the only female among ten doctoral students in her office. As this was a typical situation with engineering disciplines, Yuyan expressed that she had been used to it since high school in a science class and the undergraduate years in the engineering, Nothing’s really special. Probably because I am a girl, they are nicer to me. . . . We all like playing games. (IV) Yuyan considered male students were like never-grow-up kids, excited with games, airplanes, sciences, and metals. She enjoyed the time with them. Crossing socio-emotional/psychosocial boundaries So far, it appeared that Yuyan was at ease in managing transitions across her research and social worlds, but her reflection on her PhD process revealed it had not been easy, A PhD candidate always swings between feeling confident and feeling not confident; likewise is your self-evaluation. The emotions change from day to day, from hour to hour, just like taking a rollercoaster, with its ups and downs. (IV) Yuyan’s congruence with her PhD peers as well as her supervisors appeared to have facilitated her transitions across socio-emotional and psychosocial boundaries. She was sure that “the motivation had always been there in existence” (IV), but in the duration of the PhD, very often she had moments of feeling stressed and frustrated. Different from those international students that had limited collegial support available (Evans & Stevenson, 2011), Yuyan would turn to other peers in those moments. By doing so, she realized everyone in reality experienced similar emotions and similar situations. Such moments kept repeating, but each time after talking with her peers, she felt relieved and comforted. This point was important because if she had not have done this, she might have felt more stressed, and the stress might have continued to accumulate. Occasionally, Yuyan talked with her supervisors about her slow progress and frustrations. She described that her supervisors dealt with such

138  Congruence/difference and transitions situations by reminding her of her performance and achievement. “They gave me positive and specific examples such as ‘your writing is of high quality’, ‘you just had another publication’, or ‘your research competence has improved’ (IV).” The supervisors’ positive comments appeared to have effectively facilitated Yuyan to renew her confidence when encountering setbacks or low periods (field notes). Over the years of PhD, Yuyan had gradually become independent in solving problems in her research. With accumulated confidence and trust with her supervisory support, she had learned to face the setbacks and challenges with calmness, investing her time and energy on solving problems instead of staying low or being grumpy. The purposes of doing a PhD are seen as enabling a student to become self-sufficient and innovative as a researcher and to develop as an individual by ensuring the enjoyment of and commitment to the doctoral experiences (Åkerlind & McAlpine, 2017). In this sense, Yuyan achieved the purposes of doing the PhD, which led to her pursuit in a research career post-PhD. A congruent family that crossed socio-financial boundaries Familywise, Yuyan’s parents seemed to have a reciprocal sense of happiness and pride from her achievement, since they were the only family in the village that had a child who had gone so far to a PhD abroad, the highest possible degree in all study levels, and the best opportunity their fellow villagers could imagine. Yuyan’s scholarship and promising future also relieved her family from financial concerns. In the interview, Yuyan happily and proudly talked about her parents contributing financially to upgrading their home village. Her parents voluntarily led fellow villagers to pave roads, laid water pipes, and upgraded the village’s image to attract tourists. Their positive social engagement passed back a positive message to Yuyan, making her feel reassured while studying abroad, Parents have a great impact on children. If they are happy, at least I do not need to worry. (IV) Not surprisingly, when completing her PhD with the success of the final experiment, which advanced her research to a cutting-edge frontier, Yuyan received a prestigious postdoctoral grant that allowed her an opportunity to continue her enhanced passion in research.

Chapter summary With dedicated effort to facilitate transitions to achieve congruence across the multi-worlds, this group of students presented some of the most interesting experiences with their exercise of agency. Importantly,

Agency matters 139 most of them received strong supervisory support that facilitated them to go through diverse transitions and challenges to achieve timely completion of the PhD. These students were also the most active group in this study that endeavored to integrate with local communities, on and off campus, so that most of them enjoyed the benefit of academic-social integration. Both female and male students in this pattern, in particular, exhibited their dedication, confidence, and competence through their positive PhD abroad experiences. In Yuyan’s case, although she experienced various borders across her research, personal, and social worlds, she managed to create congruence with her small cultural research and social contexts over time. With supervisory support and an expanded research network, she dedicatedly invested herself in the doctoral project, challenged a long-hypothesized forefront project, and also took the initiative to integrate with different people in the novel sociocultural and research contexts. Yuyan’s parents at home seemed to have a sense of happiness and pride from her achievement, passing back a positive message that reassured her while doing the PhD abroad. Together, these factors allowed her to enjoy the STEM doctoral journey abroad to the utmost while maintaining the passion of academic research.

Note 1 Data sources: A focus group interview (FG) and an individual interview (IV), respectively, in Yuyan’s second and third years of PhD; email exchanges for supplementary information (email); two TV programs (media); information updated after her graduation.

References Åkerlind, G., & McAlpine, L. (2017). Supervising doctoral students: Variation in purpose and pedagogy. Studies in Higher Education, 42(9), 1686–1698. doi:1 0.1080/03075079.2015.1118031 Al-Sharideh, K. A., & Goe, W. R. (1998). Ethnic communities within the university: An examination of factors influencing the personal adjustment of international students. Research in Higher Education, 39(6). Anderson, V., Cone, T., Rafferty, R.,  & Inoue, N. (2021). Mobile agency and relational webs in women’s narratives of international study. Higher Education. doi:10.1007/s10734-021-00714-7 Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy. W.H. Freeman and Company. Bandura, A. (2000). Exercise of human agency through collective efficacy. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 9(3), 75–78. doi:10.1111/1467-8721.00064 Brooks, R. (2015). International students with dependent children: The reproduction of gender norms. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 36(2), 195–214. doi:10.1080/01425692.2013.820128 Carr, J. L., Koyama, M. M.,  & Thiagarajan, M. (2003). A  women’s support group for Asian international students. Journal of American College Health, 52(3), 131–134.

140  Congruence/difference and transitions Dutta, D. (2015). Sustaining the pipeline: Experiences of international female engineers in U.S. graduate programs. Journal of Engineering Education, 104(3), 326–344. doi:10.1002/jee.20077 Elliot, D. L., Baumfield, V.,  & Reid, K. (2016). Searching for ‘a third space’: A creative pathway towards international PhD students’ academic acculturation. Higher Education Research & Development, 35(6), 1180–1195. doi:10. 1080/07294360.2016.1144575 Evans, C.,  & Stevenson, K. (2011). The experience of international nursing students studying for a PhD in the U.K: A  qualitative study. BMC Nursing, 10(11), 1–13. doi:10.1186/1472-6955-10-11 Fung, Y.-L. (1948/2019). A short history of Chinese philosophy. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. Gu, Q. (2015). An emotional journey of identity change and transformation. Learning and Teaching, 8(3), 60–81. doi:10.3167/latiss.2015.080304 Henwood, F. (1998). Engineering difference: Discourses on gender, sexuality and work in a college of technology. Gender and Education, 10(1), 35–49. doi:10.1080/09540259821087 Holliday, A. (2016). PhD students, interculturality, reflexivity, community and internationalisation. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 38(3), 206–218. Kim, S. K. (2015). Redefining internationalization: Reverse student mobility in South Korea. In C. Collins & D. Neubauer (Eds.), Redefining Asia pacific higher education in contexts of globalization (pp. 41–56). Palgrave Macmillan. Marginson, S. (2018). The new geo-politics of higher education: Global cooperation, national competition and social inequality in the World-Class University (WCU) sector. Centre for Global Higher Education working paper series (working paper). www.researchcghe.org/perch/resources/publications/wp34final.pdf Martinez, E., Ordu, C., Sala, M. R. D.,  & McFarlane, A. (2013). Striving to obtain a school-work-life balance: The full-time doctoral student. International Journal of Doctoral Studies, 8, 39–59. McAlpine, L., & Amundsen, C. (2009). Identity and agency: Pleasures and collegiality among the challenges of the doctoral journey. Studies in Continuing Education, 31(2), 109–125. doi:10.1080/01580370902927378 Silfver, E., Gonsalves, A. J., Danielsson, A. T., & Berge, M. (2021). Gender equality as a resource and a dilemma: Interpretative repertoires in engineering education in Sweden. Gender and Education. doi:10.1080/09540253.2021.1963419 Tan, S. A., & Liu, S. (2014). Ethnic visibility and preferred acculturation orientations of international students. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 39, 183–187. doi:10.1016/j.ijintrel.2013.08.011 Tanyildiz, Z. E. (2015). The ethnic composition of science and engineering research laboratories in the United States. International Migration, 53(1), 50–65. doi:10.1111/imig.12035 Tinto, V. (1998). Colleges as communities: Taking research on student persistence seriously. The Review of Higher Education, 21(2), 167–177. Yang, Y., & MacCallum, J. (2021). A three-dimensional multi-world framework for examining cross-cultural experiences of international doctoral students. Studies in Continuing Education, 1–17. doi:10.1080/0158037X.2021.1890569

7 Putting conflicts under control Different worlds & border crossings managed

In the previous three chapters, we have narrated cases in which students, in various ways, crossed the differences and challenges to achieve their best. For some other students, however, striving for a STEM PhD abroad meant much bumpier transitions across their research, personal, and social worlds. Over time, some persisted and stayed positive; some completed but were left demotivated; and some sadly dropped out. We will narrate the first group here and the other two in the next chapter. For the nine students in this group, classified as Different worlds/Border crossings managed, some critical differences existed in motivations, expectations, values and beliefs, and actions across their multi-worlds. These differences led to conflicting ideas, attitudes, and behavior, to the extent that the progress of the PhD was seriously endangered at a certain stage. In general, these students were able to put conflicts under control and achieve their PhD with a positive mind by understanding the differences and taking actions in their own ways. By the time data collection concluded, seven had completed their PhD and remained in academia or worked in research sectors in industry, two in Australia, three in China, and the other two in other countries. This is a complicated group to narrate, mainly due to the diversity of differences and the process of transitions and negotiations that highlight specified situations, individual approaches, and factors changing over time. Therefore, slightly different from other chapters, we integrate motivations and influences before the PhD with the PhD abroad experiences to pinpoint motivations and their effect over time. The chapter first presents some crucial differences across students’ worlds. Then it unfolds how students could overcome the differences with agency, persistence, resilience, and expansion, followed by a specific case to elaborate in detail. This chapter also points to a “keeping things to themselves” phenomenon that may hinder efficient cross-cultural communication, but not necessarily discourage the motivation in advancing research.

DOI: 10.4324/9781003258841-10

142  Congruence/difference and transitions

Differences across the worlds This group of students reported some significant differences across their research, personal, and social worlds. We have examined some major differences in the second pattern in Chapter  5. In comparison with those students who experienced smooth transitions because of reciprocal respect and reciprocal effort to bridge across, the differences in this fourth pattern were more likely to turn into critical borders to hinder students’ achievement if not dealt with appropriately. As summarized in Table 7.1, the differences that caused situation-based and individualbased challenges in this group included: • • •

Expectations and realities Motivations and the demand of a PhD Values and beliefs related communication barriers

Differences between expectations and realities Unmatched expectations between students and their supervisors were clearly evident. Supervisory support, research resources, and a research team are usually essential factors for STEM doctoral research. Unlike typical research students in social sciences who, as lone researchers, usually choose their own topic and are rarely attached to a research team, STEM students are often bound with their supervisors and other researchers by research grants, facilities, and resources so that they work as a team to co-construct a project. For the same reason, the knowledge continuum embedded within a research culture of a research center is usually within Chinese students’ expectations when they select a supervisor for a doctoral program overseas. For the nine students, however, their expectations to a great extent did not meet the reality. Soon after their commencement, two-thirds of students realized their PhD projects were out of supervisors’ professional expertise, and over one-third of students found their research interest was, as a matter of fact, different from that of their supervisors. These directly resulted in a lack of supervisory support in some cases. As research shows, working on a project out of the supervisor’s research interest increases the possibilities of dissatisfactions and quit intentions (van Rooij et al., 2019). Moreover, some students in this group did not expect there would be a lack of senior peer support or team support. Working alone increased the difficulty to research and limited their access to a research culture, hindering the progress of their research (Bair & Haworth, 2004). Besides, some students had to struggle with a serious shortage of research funding and facilities to enable the essential needs to conduct experiments. These situations, as Tian expressed, were something they would not have expected while in China for a STEM PhD abroad.

Beyond supervisor’s expertise Different research interest Lack of team support Lack of research resources Lack of supervisory support

Lack of intrinsic motivation

Under-communication Miscommunication

Expectations

Motivations

Values and beliefs

√

√ √ √

√

Chenyi

√

√ √ √

Daiyun

√ √

√ √ √ √ √

Ruihan

√

√ √ √

√

Tian

Table 7.1  Differences across the worlds in different worlds/border crossings managed

√

√

Wanxiao

√

√ √ √

Meng

√

Qian

√

√

√

√

Haidong

√

√ √ √ √ √

Shu

Putting conflicts under control 143

144  Congruence/difference and transitions Disrupted research knowledge When about to complete a three-year postgraduate study at a top-level research institute in Beijing, Tian thought of doing a PhD abroad. He studied in a traditional field of energy, but with a PhD, he hoped to “do some research few people have touched upon.” He was attracted by this particular supervisor in Australia because the latter had two national grants in a cutting-edge area in which Tian had been interested. Unexpectedly, soon after commencement, he realized this supervisor did not have the theoretical foundation, methodological knowledge, or handson experience that would support supervision on the research. Those PhD students and postdocs who had been practically undertaking the projects had all left the research center before Tian commenced his PhD. Tian indicated that he was the only researcher to undertake both projects during his PhD, without a supervisor or senior peer who could pass on accumulated knowledge to him: My supervisor’s job is mainly to get funding, but he does not have much groundwork in this area. Basically, I have been on my own. (Tian, Year 2, IV2) In a similar situation, Haidong’s supervisor used to have a grant which enabled the recruitment of one postdoc, one PhD, and one Master’s student. With the output of these three researchers, the supervisor received a second grant which was used to recruit Haidong. However, when Haidong started his PhD, he became the only researcher for the project because the other three had left, which left him in a situation where he had to work alone: My supervisor, in fact, did not have much experience with the project. She applied for the grant but was not the person who did it. Those three researchers used to form a team, but now I am the only one working in the lab. (Haidong, Year 2, IV2) A new field and an empty lab In another case, Ruihan unexpectedly ended up with a topic totally out of his supervisor’s research expertise and interest. Upon commencing his PhD after undergraduate, he was not so interested in a topic his supervisor suggested, so they attempted a second topic. In the Australian system, the due date of the confirmation of candidature varies from six months to one year. In Ruihan’s school, it was six months. The board failed his proposal with the second topic, though, and gave him three more months to resubmit for assessment; otherwise, he had to quit the PhD.

Putting conflicts under control 145 When Ruihan was in the darkness looking for a research direction, he overheard from a faculty member about a promising field typically applicable in Australia. Then he drafted another proposal in this field, which did get him through the confirmation of candidature, but then his PhD became overly difficult because Ruihan and his supervisor found themselves “in a situation that neither of us understood anything about it.” After I changed the project topic, it was really a low period. Nothing was there in the lab and there was no funding at all. My supervisor knew nothing more than me. (Ruihan, Year 2, FG) With this situation, his supervisor, an early career researcher who had Ruihan as his first doctoral student to supervise, provided gloomy feedback: He kept telling me things like this was risky and the situation might get worse. I totally got lost. (Ruihan, Year 2, FG) Ruihan indicated that for about a year after the confirmation of candidature, he had to struggle all by himself and from scratch. For essential research, he needed to set up an experiment equipment and have some instruments for testing, but basically, there was no funding to support it. What he had was an empty laboratory. This was a situation he never expected, but it lasted and made him feel confused and baffled for a long period. Differences between motivations and the demand of a PhD A successful STEM PhD requires motivation, passion, and dedication, but not every student started with motivation or passion in a specific research field. This created problems in their dedication to the PhD, at least at the initial stage. Doing a PhD for financial independence Wanxiao expressed that he perceived PhD study as a job because his motivation was mostly out of financial considerations. Initially, Wanxiao came to Australia in the third year of undergraduate study on a joint international program. For his two years as an international undergraduate in Australia, his parents had to pay a substantial amount of money. They had decent salaries as Chinese university employees, but international tuition fees were still way beyond their affordability. Caring about his parents, Wanxiao did casual and part jobs in Australia, taking several shifts day and night. Then it was a difficult struggle for him to maintain high academic performance. Very often he was full

146  Congruence/difference and transitions time on campus during the day and then worked overnight in a fast-food restaurant. He recounted how he felt back then, “It was not like living a life. I just committed myself to something I had to do. I did not want to fail my parents’ investment” (Year 1, IV1). When Wanxiao was qualified for a PhD and a scholarship for tuition to do a PhD in the same Australian university, he applied without hesitation. “Now I need not to rely on my parents’ financial support. I could be financially independent. That’s awesome.” He also recounted that after gaining a bachelor’s degree he had failed to find an appropriate position. Therefore, Wanxiao took doing a PhD as the best option for him in achieving both financial independence and career development. However, Wanxiao did not prepare himself well for the high demand of a PhD. After commencement, he took doing a PhD as a job during the day. He maintained his casual jobs outside the campus to make a living because his scholarship only covered the tuition fees. Very soon, Wanxiao found it was difficult to satisfy the supervisor with his research progress. He had chosen his doctoral supervisor out of the lecturers in his undergraduate study because he perceived this teacher’s personality as “nice.” Now as a PhD student, he felt this supervisor was too strict, “like a different person.” Early in his second year, he realized it was highly challenging to meet the demands of research to achieve his PhD degree. Mismatched career value and a PhD Though a doctoral degree may contribute positively toward gaining employment, for some students, the doctoral study is perceived as a period of professional experience (Bryan & Guccione, 2018). This may bring mismatched expectations between the career value and a PhD, as in Daiyun’s situation. Daiyun decided to do a PhD after two years of study in mechanical engineering at an Australian postgraduate school. Interestingly, before the PhD, Daiyun had an impression that a PhD certificate could help him realize the dream of a teaching career. It was in the second year that he discovered that his dream was to teach in a high school rather than in a university. With the doctorate, he could be overqualified. Back in China, where he planned to return after graduation, someone who had achieved a doctoral degree usually worked at university or a research institute, rather than a high school. Since then, he was less motivated about his PhD, considering it as a professional experience and a challenge in life “to achieve, not to give up,” but “if I had known this before, I might have taken another choice.” “Pursuing a PhD abroad to be with my love, but she left me” In a third case, Qian decided upon pursuing a PhD in Australia just to follow his girlfriend’s path. That was in his second year of a three-year

Putting conflicts under control 147 postgraduate study in China. Qian was outstanding in his research in natural sciences, which allowed him to receive an offer from a top research institute in Australia, together with a full scholarship. However, he was heartbroken because the girl left him right before his departure. As Qian was not particularly keen to pursue a PhD abroad, he found himself emotionally lost for quite a long period after the commencement of the PhD in Australia. Soon the winter came. The days were short in Melbourne. The sense of loneliness was painful, as he recounted, That was really a low period in my life. Sometimes I would not speak for days. I came to the office in the morning, sitting in front of the screen for the day, and went back home when it’s dark. In winter, the days were short, and the mood was very low when it’s dark. A day just finished like that. (Qian, Year 2, IV1) Values and beliefs related communication barriers For this particular group of students, differences in values and beliefs led to different behaviors and understandings in the process of communication. In time, the barriers resulted in under-communication and/or miscommunication, though students had their own perspectives about the situations. “Keeping things to themselves” In Ruihan’s situation, it was miscommunication that caused serious trouble when deciding upon the research topics. When the second topic failed the confirmation of candidature, his supervisor’s intention was to pick up the first topic, but somehow Ruihan mistakenly thought his supervisor’s intention was to rely on himself to find a new topic that could pass the committee’s assessment. Ruihan indicated that he was never aware of the supervisor’s real intention until a casual conversation in his fourth year of the PhD. He attributed this miscommunication to his supervisor’s belief that providing negative feedback was the appropriate way of supervision, but with the constant unfavorable input, he did not catch what the supervisor had intended. On the other hand, as Ruihan reflected, his supervisor attributed miscommunication to Chinese students’ cultural trait of “keeping things to themselves”: Sometimes my supervisor complains that he could not understand Chinese students’ way of thinking, saying they tend to keep things to themselves rather than directly express themselves. (Ruihan, Year 2, FG)

148  Congruence/difference and transitions Similar to Ruihan’s supervisor, we identified that the “keeping-things-tothemselves” phenomenon constrained some Chinese students effectively communicating with their supervisors. If not encouraged, students sometimes constrained themselves from articulating their opinions. Reasons for this were complex and varied. Below we exemplify how students thought about this issue. How students perceived “I don’t feel good to bother him”

A shared explanation for keeping things to themselves was students’ unwillingness to bother others. In their perspective, it would be like shifting responsibility to others; instead, they would rather rely on themselves in solving problems. For example, Haidong had a co-supervisor in China, who was the postdoc for the project and then left when the contract terminated. However, except for traveling to China to the co-supervisor’s laboratory, Haidong did not maintain regular contact with him while in Australia. Though Haidong understood the co-supervisor was enthusiastic to help, he had his own consideration, “As a young academic in China, he is already under much pressure, like working six and half days a week . . . I don’t feel good to bother him” (Year 4, IV2). Similarly, Qian expressed he would rather endure the loneliness as a single sojourner rather than bothering others, understanding that everyone was “busy”: I travelled a lot in the first year, and so not much places left in the second year. I just spent all my time alone in the office, doing experiments . . . I would feel better if I chat with a friend, but we are all busy. It’s not good to take too much of their time for my problems. (Qian, Year 2, IV1) “That’s the difference between us” In Wanxiao’s case, he gradually stopped trying out his own ideas but passively followed his supervisor’s instructions when doing experimentation. He attributed that to “the difference between us.” The difference seemed to be that Wanxiao did not sufficiently express his own ideas, so the supervisor had to tightly follow up to push the experiment forward. In turn, this brought on Wanxiao’s frustration and dissatisfaction, but it appeared he did not communicate how he felt with the supervisor. Our communication is not too bad, but not too good as well. Sometimes I wanted to do something else, but he asked me to try out his

Putting conflicts under control 149 ideas. I  know it won’t work, but he won’t stop pushing me until I show him the failed result. That’s the difference between us. Now I understand that’s something I have to do anyway even though I am quite sure it won’t work, and even though it’s just a waste of time. (Wanxiao, Year 2, IV2) “Let-it-be” A “let-it-be” phenomenon, or becoming silent after a few trials of failed argument, was salient in several cases. Taking Chenyi as an example, he expressed that he could not argue with his supervisor when differences emerged. Chenyi started his PhD with a topic in the field of energy saving that the supervisor had approved. However, the supervisor asked him to change the topic to a different branch after several months without giving him an explicit reason. “Probably it’s funding or some other reasons, or probably he just wanted to explore a direction” (Year 2, IV1). Even in his third year of PhD, Chenyi seemed still not sure about the reason of change but remained unhappy with the new project. “I tried to argue, but it’s useless, so just let it be” (Year 3, IV2). Chenyi reflected that after several failed attempts to argue, gradually he was unwilling to express his opinions. Extending to the social world: “We would not tell . . .” Noteworthily, in an interview, Qian talked about a phenomenon of “we would not tell” about challenges and difficulties in the experiences of doing a PhD abroad. With active involvement with conational events, Qian became the president of a local Chinese doctoral students’ association. He perceived that many Chinese students tended to keep the difficulties to themselves while doing a PhD overseas. Besides their interactions between the personal and research worlds, it has extended to their social world. In particular, they were unwilling to tell their parents back at home. (A Chinese student) once had a leg injury which confined him to sit on a wheelchair for a few months. She did not tell this to the families back in China. It’s common here. We have another girl in the office, whose boyfriend had promised to come out with her, but then changed his mind. She was very sad and cried a lot, but she would not tell. She just posted in her WeChat Moment that everything would be fine after wiping the tears away, and we even teased that a girl could use tears to de-stress. We were just silly as we did not know what had occurred to her. Yesterday, I just visited a Chinese student in the hospital. He was hurt while playing basketball and was heavily bleeding. We felt terrible, but you know, that’s something he would not tell his families at home. These are the things we would not tell. (Qian, Year 3, IV2)

150  Congruence/difference and transitions Qian also referred to some other situations that his Chinese colleagues experienced, such as burnout or breaking down at work, or feeling scared when being punched for no reason by a stranger on the bus, or when the house was broken into. However, he repeated, “it’s something we would not tell, particularly not to our parents at home.” Pertaining to the relationship between parents and a child traveling afar, in the Analects, Confucius expressed,

子曰:“父母在，不远游。游必有方。”(论语，里仁) While the parents are alive, the child does not travel afar. If the child has to travel, there should be a direction (to tell parents and let them feel reassured). What Confucius emphasizes here is the responsibility, care, and concern of children to parents. When the children need to travel abroad for education, what is important in their mind is the reassurance of their parents at home, which constrained them from telling their difficulties to parents. As Ruihan reflected, The experiences of doing the PhD are strange to my parents. If I tell them about these difficulties, it’s difficult for them to understand. They may worry about me. I gradually learnt to keep the difficulties to myself and just share good news with them. (Year 4, IV3) To note, the majority of this generation of Chinese doctoral students has no siblings at home (Chapter 1). When doing the PhD abroad, they were away from any familiar social and academic networks from their previous educational contexts. Before establishing new networks, they often found themselves in a situation that there was no one to tell about their challenges, emotions, and encounters. This chapter, thus far, illustrated critical difficulties in unmatched expectations, motivations, and communication problems that may constrain students’ transitioning between their research, personal, and social worlds. In time, these difficulties prompted different reactions, emotions, interactions, and even conflicts. How the differences were managed in their individual situations so as not to constrain is the focus next.

Growing out of the differences Despite various challenges, this group of Chinese students achieved their STEM PhD in Australia with positive perspectives on their experiences, along with enhanced confidence and interest in pursuing future careers in research. When examining how they made transitions to align critical differences across their multi-worlds in constructing a successful

Putting conflicts under control 151 PhD, certain factors stood out as specifically important in their specific situations: • • • • •

Enhancing self-efficacy in articulation Exercising agency to make a change Persistence: Slowly, but keep going Resilience: The belief to believe Expanding to international academic networks

Enhancing self-efficacy in articulation Bandura (2011) points out that positive mood enhances a sense of self-efficacy. When people believe they can produce desired effects by their actions, they have the incentive to act or to persevere in the face of difficulties. For these Chinese students, supervisors’ encouragement in articulation was critical in nurturing their confidence as a rigorous researcher. Qian’s experience typically demonstrated this point. While he commenced his PhD in Australia like a stranded sojourner, his supervisor patiently nurtured him with the trust to communicate and to go on, facilitating his progress in a way that put his interest “at the center”: My supervisor first asked me what I wanted to do. He always put me at the center. He said I could communicate with him about anything. He was quite open-minded and was always available. . . . He encouraged me to think independently and to explore the unknown. If I needed his guidance, he would give me that accordingly. If it’s out of his expertise, he will expand his knowledge, or recommend me to some other researchers. (Qian, Year 3, IV2) When studying as a postgraduate in a field of engineering in China, Qian identified his interest in a certain area of advanced technologies. Upon application, the supervisor seriously examined his research proposal on the topic. Once commenced, the supervisor encouraged him to follow the proposal and to follow his personal research interest. The supervisor then guided Qian to proceed step by step so that the student could gradually build up his research in establishing efficient and dynamic systems. In our first interview, Qian (Year 2) indicated sometimes he would not speak for days. “I come to the office, sit in front of the computer, and a day just passes like that.” However, with the encouragement of his supervisor, Qian seemed to have enhanced self-efficacy in communicating with others. His confidence in articulating his ideas was evident in our later interviews when he talked eloquently for hours. His confidence was also evident when he mentioned how he reviewed journal articles in a robust way to communicate with authors. By Year

152  Congruence/difference and transitions 4, Qian had become a reviewer for several high-standard journals in his field. His confidence in academic communication seemed to have helped him develop his professional identity and to talk as a researcher. Not surprisingly, when he completed his PhD in 3.5 years, he stayed in academia to continue exploring the unknown. Exercising agency to make a change For many Chinese international doctoral students, who have pushed themselves to engage with the world, making a change with a bolder attitude enabled their success and growth (Thorburn, 2020). Here we zoom in on two different changes initiated by students in relation with the supervision arrangement: one was to ask for a change of principal supervisor; another was to bring in more co-supervisors – with a global scope – to enrich the expertise. Asking for a change of supervisor Repeatedly in this project, we found it was an extremely difficult decision, both emotionally and physically, for Chinese students to make if they had to ask for a change of supervisor, no matter how problematic their situation had become. Meng had an exceptional experience in that he changed his principal supervisor twice in the PhD. While the first one was arranged to better facilitate his research, he proposed the second to defend his own research. His overall experience unfolded how congruence and difference occurred with three supervisors in consequence. Meng started his PhD in Australia with a specific project with smartphones, which extended his postgraduate research in China. His initial doctoral supervisor, a high-profile professor, perceived this topic as highly interesting but did not have specific expertise in this cutting-edge research project. Soon this professor recommended Meng to be under another supervisor so as to get better supervision and changed himself to be the chair of the supervisory committee. Meng expressed he highly valued the professor’s action and respected “the altruism.” Somewhat to Meng’s surprise, the second supervisor did not give him the expected support in research. Till the third year, Meng had been working on his own: This supervisor’s research is a bit related to mine, but she is irresponsible to students, all of her students, not just me. She does not provide much feedback in research and hardly ever edits students’ writings. (Meng, Year 3, IV2)

Putting conflicts under control 153 Despite the unfavorable situation, Meng strongly believed in the value of his research. Through his dedication, he successfully convinced his supervisory panel to allow him to proceed independently, particularly when his publications came out one after another in high-quality journals. In the interviews, Meng repeatedly indicated his lack of English proficiency due to his rural background, but he had been persistently learning the language so that it would not become a border to hinder communication with others. In comparison, he was more confident with his academic writing than his oral skills. In the publishing process, he could have opportunities to communicate scientific advances and receive expert feedback in terms of peer review, which had a high positive influence on his doctoral achievement (Corcelles et al., 2019). Overall, when the communication had been smooth, Meng appeared to be positive with the supervisor and his experiences as an independent researcher. As the nature of his research was related with information technology, a computer and a smartphone could meet his essential needs for research: She did not supervise me in the actual research, but she bought a smartphone for my research, which is enough. Now I  have all the freedom, and I do enjoy this freedom. (Meng, Year 2, IV1) However, this freedom did not last to the end of the PhD. In a meeting in the third year, the supervisor asked Meng to work for a joint research program with industry. Meng responded that was not possible because he had already been fully occupied with his PhD project. Afterward, Meng recounted this supervisor saying to him that if he rejected, “She was not sure whether I could get my PhD.” Meng understood this situation was out of his control. He went to meet the chair of his supervisory committee, who thought this was “unbelievable.” Due to the “unprofessional practices behind closed doors” (Robertson, 2017, p. 411), before long, with Meng’s consent, the chair arranged a change of supervisor. Although it was already the third year, Meng was pleased to have made the change. Seriously, he recounted that the new supervisor “keeps updating his knowledge,” which earned him the respect of the student, My current supervisor is really nice. He supports what I have been doing and gives me suggestions. This is a new field for him as well, but he keeps learning. I  really respect him for this. It’s respectful when a supervisor keeps updating his knowledge. (Meng, Year 3, IV2)

154  Congruence/difference and transitions To note, when asked in the interview about how he appeared so confident with the change of supervisor, Meng replied that his confidence was out of his independent work, his belief in the value of the research, and the rich outcomes from his work. Importantly, he had a doctoral peer, an Iranian, who encouraged him to do so. Besides, later that year, Meng got himself an opportunity to work in a laboratory in Canada for eight months, where he was supported by a team highly experienced in his research project. With recognition, knowledge, competence, and values and beliefs aligned with the new supervisor, Meng successfully achieved his PhD in time and accepted a postdoc offer to work in a laboratory of a third country. Inviting co-supervisors from the world When values and beliefs were not in serious conflict, some Chinese students invited co-supervisors from both internal and external networks globally. It was a learned strategy for most of them in the process of doing the PhD in Australia, but they certainly benefited from the practice. Supervisor’s involvement in international research was highly relevant in meeting students’ needs (Seeber & Horta, 2021). To STEM students and their supervisors, this involvement can be crucial and lasting engagement in facilitating success. In previously mentioned Ruihan’s situation, when he and his supervisor realized the gap in their knowledge, the supervisor encouraged him to search for more supervision possibilities. This was a critical suggestion for Ruihan. He actually invited four researchers from Australia, China, and France to join his supervisory panel. Their support, in human knowledge or research resources, to a different extent and at different stages, improved the possibility of Ruihan’s successful completion of his PhD. In another situation of struggling alone, Tian sought agreement from his supervisor to bring in a co-supervisor from a British university. This cosupervisor was a leading figure in the field and had a well-established team and laboratory to support Tian’s work. When Tian got the opportunity to work in the UK in the second year of his PhD, the first thing this professor suggested to him was a drastic amendment to the research design by adding 3D printing simulation technique into his traditional research line: It was a dramatic change from experimentation to simulation. Apparently, it’s getting much more difficult, but when I  thought it over, I realized it’s critical to make the change. That’s a new field, but if I could make it, there’s a promising future. (Tian, Year 2, IV2) With the improved research design and adequate support, Tian returned to Australia six months later, feeling inspired, motivated, and confident to complete the rest of the research. Upon completion, he chose to work in a research center to continue his research.

Putting conflicts under control 155 Persistence: slowly, but keep going For these students, the determination to be persistent, some even in a passive approach in interactions, sustained them to get through adversities for success. “I’ll just keep doing” In the previously mentioned Wanxiao’s case, initially, he was not fully dedicated to his doctoral project because of part-time work for financial reasons. However, with a “pushy” supervisor who was not satisfied with his progress, Wanxiao was determined to persist, “Sometimes I  don’t think his ideas work, but he keeps asking about the results, I’ll just keep doing to prove it does or does not work” (Year 1, IV1). The approach he adopted may have appeared somewhat passive, but with small achievements over time, Wanxiao gradually accumulated confidence and interest. He was sharp in capturing opportunities in the forefront field so that his research gradually demonstrated its potential contribution to industry. With his achievement, he even received some grants for his living stipend. Wanxiao felt quite proud of himself, and said with a bright smile, “Now that things have been getting better, I’m investing more of myself into research” (Year 2, IV2). When Wanxiao completed his PhD in 3.5 years, different from his initial motivation to do a PhD for financial independence, he realized he was willing to continue the path in research. He accepted a postdoc contract in another laboratory so that he could go further in exploring the science. Slowly, but growing Haidong was a student that described himself as not willing to seek help from others. As the only child in a middle-class urban family in China, he had been following his parents’ advice in choosing the field of study, though he longed for exploring his personal interest in research. Haidong was in a field of chemistry and then psychology before doing the PhD in engineering. He enjoyed his social life in Australia, but in the laboratory, he just kept testing, analyzing, and repeating the cycle, all alone. Haidong’s supervisors were not familiar with his topic but would provide suggestions for him to test. Haidong was not articulate when he was in disagreement. What he would do was to provide experimental evidence to convince the supervisors. Slowly, though with some negative emotions, he realized he had experienced growth out of this persistence: I have fortnightly meetings with my two supervisors here. As they did not have much experience, so we would normally have a brainstorm, they threw me lots of ideas and asked me to try them out. I will try those that make sense to me . . . but this principal supervisor

156  Congruence/difference and transitions asked me to prove it could not work with research results. This is interesting but it causes much trouble, and it’s time costly. Anyway, he was not wrong in saying that . . . I grew up along with proving ideas that do not work. (Year 3, IV1) It was toward the end of his PhD that Haidong realized the importance of supervisory support when in emotionally challenging situations, Now I have to redo the experiment in the first chapter. My goodness! But my supervisor kept encouraging me. He might have worried that I might have broken down before completion. (Year 4, IV2) Haidong completed his PhD in four years, and stepped into industry in China afterward, seeking opportunities in where his curiosity led him to. He appeared to have become more resilient from this journey than what his supervisors would have expected. The next part will be about this important factor, resilience, that sustained Chinese students to achieve high and remain positive despite challenges and adversities. Resilience: the belief to believe Chinese Confucianism and Daoism settle down with one dialectic philosophical perspective – reverse is the movement of Dao, or the Way (Fung, 1948/2019). The belief is when an extreme is reached, the trajectory is returning toward another end. It is inspired by the natural myths that the sun rises and sets each day, the winter goes, the summer comes, and the winter comes again. This deep-rooted philosophy teaches the Chinese to be “cautious in time of prosperity, and hopeful in time of extreme danger” (Fung, 1948/2019, p. 352), so that they could transcend odds of the life and remain resilient (Kong, 2009). For these Chinese students, despite critical differences between personal and research worlds, they commonly exhibited strong resilience characteristics in seeking positive relationships with their supervisors. Most importantly, they believed they could reach the goal with effort. This resilience and the belief to believe allowed their “bounce-back capacity” (Bandura, 2011) to achieve academic success. This capacity in turn became the “personal value” (Bryan & Guccione, 2018) of the STEM PhD abroad experience. In Ruihan’s situation, he had to cope with a range of challenges from the very beginning of his PhD. These involved a failed confirmation of candidature, miscommunication with his supervisor, no prior research experience, an almost blindly selected research topic, an empty laboratory, and barely no funding to support his experimentation. Bandura

Putting conflicts under control 157 (2011, p. 9) points out that mastery experiences is the most effective way of building a strong sense of efficacy, where “successes build a robust efficacy; failures undermine it, especially in early phases of efficacy development when people feel insecure about their capabilities.” Despite failures and a sense of insecurity, Ruihan never thought of giving up. Rather, he encouraged himself to believe that all the adversities were opportunities to build himself up: The relationship with my supervisor has not been good, so I  may have experienced more difficulties than others. Nevertheless, I might have gained more as well. The inner strength built up through this process will just benefit me in the future. As long as he has not beat me down, as long as I am still standing up, for me, it’s just building me up. Of course, if he beat me down, it would be another thing, but, pity, he hasn’t. What does not kill me just makes me stronger. (Ruihan, Year 3, IV2) My supervisor never encourages me. He thinks encouragement is too polite, so he prefers to stimulate with negative approaches, what he calls negative stimulation. It took me a long time to get used to his style of supervision .  .  . more than a year, I’d say. When I  had a setback, instead of encouraging me, he would list even more negative possibilities to let me know the situation could get worse. At the beginning my research did not go well, so. . . . Now I am much stronger than before. (Ruihan, Year 3, IV2) To note, Ruihan never thought of a change of supervisor even though maintaining the supervisory relationship has been extremely challenging. There might be peer influence as in the early stage of the PhD, he had seen how a conational friend struggled after a change of supervisor. Influences from this and other conational peers around set him with the belief that he had to keep going alongside. Therefore, in a situation with a problematic supervisory relationship and difficult PhD research, instead of complaining or giving it up, Ruihan consciously chose to keep the challenges to himself, maintain positive relationship with his supervisor, and look for solutions and possibilities, including inviting more co-supervisors, as mentioned previously, to extend his small research context to a broader international academic space to achieve his success. Expansion: establishing international academic networks For research students, external resources mean human and physical resources besides their supervisory support. For international STEM

158  Congruence/difference and transitions research students, the expansion could extend to the faculty, the university, the city, the host and home nations, and then the global professional network, featuring cross-border research exchange and talent mobility. Earlier in Chapter 6, we have identified personal, social, cultural, academic, and geographical loneliness that Chinese students might encounter when pursuing a PhD abroad. When applying to this group of students, the expansion of research and professional social networks was one of the practical strategies they would use to deal with academic loneliness, or the sense of helplessness. Creating an expanded space for research Besides the previously mentioned kinds of academic expansion, such as establishing an international supervisory panel and students moving between different laboratories, this group also dedicatedly exhausted internet resources and conferences, creating an expanded space to construct meaningful activities in support of their research. Meng indicated that he used an academic website, researchgate.net, to connect himself with over one hundred researchers in his field across the world. “If I cannot find a solution in literature, I will post the question on the website, where I  seek possibilities to cooperate with other researchers” (IV2). From being repeatedly questioned by the supervisory panel about the value of his research, to establishing an international research network for collaboration, Meng used the four years not only to complete a PhD but explored opportunities, in its broadest sense, for his future career across national boundaries. Ruihan frequently used conferences as a strategy to expand his academic networks. This indeed provided him invaluable borderless support in the world of science. This also enhanced his confidence in research. Similar to Meng, when Ruihan completed his PhD in the fourth year, he had already established an extended academic network where he could seek technical support, as he mentioned, Once I met a student at a conference and he introduced me to his supervisor. This professor was very interested in my research. On hearing about my challenges, he offered that I could do experiments in his lab in China without any charge. (Ruihan, Year 4, IV3) Approaching the “unapproachable” high-profile researchers Research identifies Chinese students’ positionality in the research community can be independent and equal (Xu et  al., 2020), but it is not always the case in our study with STEM students due to their identity as novice or apprentice scientists and researchers. Some students appeared

Putting conflicts under control 159 to believe high figures in their research fields were unapproachable because of the hierarchical relationship, as Tian expressed, My supervisor encourages me to go for conferences, build up networks, and collect good ideas. There are two types of networks, though. One is those among big figures, which could not help much because of their distance away from us. Another is peers of the same generation and at the same level, doing similar research worldwide, which is very good for us. (Tian, Year 3, IV3) Here conational networks and cross-disciplinary networks efficiently filled the void between these students and high-profile researchers. Qian’s role as the president of a conational academic network endowed him with a position to be in contact with high-profile researchers when organizing events, such as seminars and workshops. Similarly, Chenyi was another active committee member of such an association, which brought him close to highly established scholars of diversified backgrounds. Though these scholars might not be in his field, the opportunities to work with them relieved Chenyi’s concern of the hierarchical ladder and allowed him ease when approaching high-profile researchers of other cultural backgrounds in his specific field. With broadened global visions and links to the inter-connected science world, “a small world” as students described of their specific research field, these students’ aspirations for cutting-edge innovation and research became realizable. The expansion to external resources satisfied these students’ demand for facilitation and research infrastructure, and it also reduced institutional pressure on supervisors when students could successfully complete their PhD.

Shu’s story1 Shu’s experience represented typical features in the pattern Different worlds & Border crossings managed. His experience involved from a selected candidate to an unexpected incongruence with his supervisor’s research interest, from depreciated confidence to the determination to hold his ground, and from a suspension of the PhD candidature to hold a postdoc position in a cross-field discipline, and then return to successfully complete his PhD. Pre-PhD: A selected candidate It seemed to be a promising journey before Shu commenced his PhD. In the last year of his undergraduate study, Shu met his supervisor, Professor Ben, when he was on a summer research training program, organized by an Australian university for selected Chinese undergraduates. Besides,

160  Congruence/difference and transitions as an elite student in one of the top universities in China, he already had a couple of publications and presented in several international conferences out of his involvement in research projects jointly supported by the Department of Education and the university. Research shows both summer research programs and project-based study experiences motivate engineering undergraduates to pursue a research degree (Guerin & Ranasinghe, 2010). As Shu put it, besides the social trend to go abroad, he felt like “standing at the forefront” because of these prior experiences. After four months of working in an enterprise, he contacted Professor Ben and was soon accepted for a PhD in Australia. Noteworthily in this process, Shu modified his field from natural sciences to a field combining science and engineering for his PhD. He admitted that he lacked an understanding of the disciplines upon high school completion. He chose natural science because he had won several competitions in the field at the high school. Later he was gradually aware of his personal interest in practical application rather than researching abstract concepts. This conscious realization was one of the drives for his decision to change PhD field to one matching Professor Ben’s expertise and interest. Familywise, Shu lived in a typical Chinese harmonious urban middleclass context. Although being the only child of the family, his parents lived close to other relatives and maintained a close and pleasurable relationship. After retirement, his parents enjoyed life by traveling and were also vigorous leaders in community services. “My dad derived great satisfaction in helping others out, so he kept on doing that” (IV2), and “they never felt lonely. I don’t need to worry about them” (IV3). Influenced by his parents, Shu accumulated his philosophical values and beliefs in optimism, positivity, persistence, and benevolence. On reflection, The most important lesson my dad taught me was that everything, bad or good, is an experience. What’s important is to learn from the experience. Nothing is really bad. It’s just an opportunity to make you strong. (IV2) Besides, when Shu applied for his PhD with Professor Ben, he accidentally heard from his lecturers about their long-established collaboration. Hence, from every aspect before Shu’s PhD, there seemed to be a promising congruence across his three worlds for the PhD. The PhD: from incongruence to congruence Phase I: from mismatched expectations to a resolute change THE INITIAL MISMATCHES

It was after he commenced his PhD that incongruence in Shu’s personal world and research world became unexpectedly salient (Table 7.2). The key

Putting conflicts under control 161 Table 7.2  Shu’s multi-worlds (Phase I) Research world I

Personal world

Social world

Motivations

– choosing talented candidates – cutting-edge research

– high respect for PhD at home context

Expectations

– completion of the PhD – quality research – independence

Values/beliefs

– innovation – independence

Actions

– supervisor being in control with ideas and directions, but mostly absent in position, not responsive via emails – a fellow PhD candidate under the same supervisor showcased the necessity to act differently – another fellow PhD housemate introduced the possibility of research with big data

– enriching life experiences – self-cultivation – improving career prospects – completion of the PhD – sufficient supervision – quality research – being recognized as a competent researcher – diligence, focus & persistence – positivity – innovation & collaboration – proactivity & initiative – harmonious relationship – optimism – no time to waste – taking the initiative to seek supervision – independent learning – discovering personal interest – taking lessons from peer experience – strategic in communication – holding ground in negotiations – expanding research possibilities

– families supportive of personal choice – science & technological innovation – families optimistic, positive, and engaging – rewarding for achievement

– fellow PhD students’ network – family being supportive – administrative staff being supportive

162  Congruence/difference and transitions points of congruence or difference are shown in italics in the table. Though the value of high achievement in research was the same across the worlds, the situation of incongruence derived from several mismatches between expectations and realities, with the absence of the supervisor as the key reason. Mismatched expectations for supervisory support: As an undergraduate transitioning to a PhD student, Shu expected to work closely with his supervisor. Research has been consistent in showing the importance of meeting supervisors at least once a week to facilitating novice researchers’ capacity, building sound supervisory relationships, and promoting research progress (Seeber & Horta, 2021). However, in Shu’s situation, he was given a research direction but left alone to work by himself. In a focus group, Feng, another PhD student under Professor Ben, depicted themselves as “academic orphans” due to the lack of supervision. Shu perceived his supervisor as expecting him to turn into an independent researcher by leaving him alone: My supervisor’s expectation was that you should discipline yourself as a PhD candidate, which means you need to design the project, manage to solve the problems and do the experimentation all by yourself. He thinks that since we are going to become professors in the future, it is our responsibility to develop independently. (FG) This “all-by-yourself” attitude was linked to the reality that Professor Ben had to be frequently away from the campus. The focus group discussion revealed that not long before Shu commenced his PhD, Professor Ben became an honorary professor in another university overseas where he established a new laboratory and a research team with generous funding. This contrasted with the situation in Australia, where his funding shrank dramatically, limiting the research facilities and student facilitation. Consequently, the professor invested himself mostly in the overseas laboratory. For the same project, in the overseas laboratory, there was a strong team, structured with postgraduates, doctoral students, and postdocs, but in the Australian laboratory, Shu was the only researcher. He had little opportunity to work with his supervisor and rarely received email responses while the supervisor was away. Shu talked about how he approached this situation: Everyone works at that side, and I am the only one here. Gradually I am used to this situation. No one could help. It is like this, what you can do is to adjust yourself. (IV2) This adjustment, difficult and involuntary, did not help much with his disorientation, though. Seeking supervision, he flew to his supervisor’s

Putting conflicts under control 163 overseas laboratory to work for a short period, only to find it was a temporary solution. Most of the time he had to rely on himself. Shu shared his feelings with Feng that they were doing “a fake PhD” (IV2), as most of the time they were at a loss, not knowing exactly what they had been doing. This is typical of PhD students’ imposter phenomenon, a feeling that one does not really belong with the doctoral community (Woolston, 2017) and is academically unprepared for the PhD (Cisco, 2020). Research shows those who suffer from the imposter phenomenon, despite being high achievers, may struggle with self-doubt, anxiety, and depression (Elliot et al., 2016). Mismatched expectations of the feedback from the supervisor: As a novice researcher, Shu expected to receive positive feedback on his work, which could be a recognition of his effort, or a push to advance his achievement in research. Disappointingly, his supervisor did not offer him much feedback. Shu attributed this phenomenon to the supervisor’s lack of time and the lack of interest in Shu’s research. Shu was initially passionate about his research project, but without constructive feedback and recognition of his effort, his confidence and passion gradually declined: Whenever I had an idea or achieved something if it’s not fit in what the team needs, the boss would just ignore. Each time this happens, it’s like a tremendous setback. (IV2) Hence, Shu was in a situation without the supervisor working beside him, facilitating his progress, or acknowledging his effort. Toward the end of his second year, he had witnessed his closest peer, Feng, complete his PhD, and leave academia and the field on the same day. Influenced by Feng’s experience, Shu shared similar disillusion at an early stage of the PhD, I will not be a professor in the future. My brain is not that good. Something in the industry might be good to me. (FG) It has to be noted that in sharp contrast to the self-blame that his “brain is not that good,” strong evidence from his undergraduate research performance had shown that he was a gifted student. Nevertheless, the lack of support and his friend’s actions triggered his reduced self-efficacy and his interest in a career as an academic researcher. TAKING OPPORTUNITIES TO MAKE A CHANGE

While encountering incongruences with the research world, Shu maintained congruence with his social world, which in turn provided opportunities for his growth in the research world.

164  Congruence/difference and transitions Technical support from conational doctoral fellows: Shu had two conational PhD friends that provided instrumental and emotional support in his doctoral trajectory. One was Feng, working with him in the same laboratory on a daily basis. They were under the same supervisor but focused on different projects. Feng was 1.5 years further advanced in the PhD, and although feeling disappointed, had followed the direction Professor Ben insisted on. Feng’s situation worsened with major conflicts occurring before his graduation. Therefore, Shu witnessed events that presented the need for him to act differently early in his PhD. Another fellow PhD friend and housemate, Xiaoyu, exposed him to possibilities for acting differently. Xiaoyu’s supervisor, having no expertise in big data but seeing the value of the forefront technology, invited another academic from the faculty of computer science to co-supervise him: This year, besides the research, most importantly I found my direction. Xiaoyu led me into the world of big data. I learned some skills through online courses. This is related to my project, and also will be useful for my future career in the industry. Plenty of resources and platforms I can use via the internet, so that I gained guidance more than that from my supervisor. . . . I can feel the happiness of immersing myself into doing this. (FG) Shu’s interest in applying big data to his research was also influenced by another fellow student, who applied big data to his pilot research and drafted a paper in the first three months of his PhD. His supervisor, also new to the field, showed great interest in the draft by offering to revise it for publication and encouraged him to pursue the innovative methodology. Nevertheless, Shu’s experience with his own supervisor in applying big data to his research was quite different: When I submitted a similar manuscript to the supervisor, the reply was like, “nothing is really novel” or “What’s your point in writing this?” And then . . . (silence) There are huge differences between teams. (IV2) Applying the transferrable skills in research: Despite the discouragement, Shu believed in this direction and stuck to the application of this transferrable skill into his research. Shu’s belief stemmed from his involvement with several side projects. He tried his hands in big data in several projects at international events, from which he developed his critical perspectives to the field. Then he joined an international project in machine learning, as the only student in a team full of established academic researchers. “I was a bit embarrassed when others all talking about having this and that done by funding their students (jokingly)” (IV2). In addition, he accepted

Putting conflicts under control 165 an invitation from a visiting scholar in his research center to collaborate on a project using his skills in data mining for analysis. “It’s a lot of fun. It’s not a big project, but we can co-author” (IV2). With the revived confidence in research, Shu was again passionate about his work. “Basically, I have no social activities. Just the lab and the office.” Shu also had a clear understanding of what to achieve in his PhD and the future, Data mining should be my direction in the future. My PhD project and all other projects are all working towards this direction. I am not going to follow my PhD field in future. All that I have been doing is to get my PhD and develop my skills. (IV2) It was noticeable that although the PhD field was his personal choice before the commencement, he had adjusted his research direction along the journey due to a couple of reasons. One was the lack of supervisory support which did not allow him to enjoy enlightened moments in this PhD project; another was his personal assessment and interest in a new scientific technology; and a third was the positive feedback he received from his achievement in the technology, which invigorated his confidence. HOLDING MY GROUND

Impressively, Shu believed that he should stand his ground (坚持立场) when confronted by different ideas from his supervisor. On the one hand, as revealed in interviews, Professor Ben was a passionate and well-established researcher, distracted by multiple positions and heavy workload, but had a strong personal preference in how to develop research. On the other hand, the absence of Professor Ben, in reality, provided Shu with space and time to develop his research methodology combining engineering, natural sciences, and computer sciences. Yang: Do you believe the method is feasible? Shu: I think so. No one has done that before, but my results have been good the past few days. I am feeling like seeing the daybreak. It’s not the method the boss liked, but I have been going too far, no way to return. Yang: Is it difficult to insist on your own way? Shu: It’s not that difficult, as the boss is not involved much. But at some critical points, I  have to communicate with him for his approval. That’s the difficult part, to hold my ground, to hold my ideas, instead of being led by him back to the starting point. The boss would look at me with his passionate eyes, asking me, “Isn’t this method good?” That’s his original idea. It’s easy to be

166  Congruence/difference and transitions led away by his passionate eyes. The difficult point is how to use my passionate eyes to counter his passionate eyes, to convince him with my ideas . . . And he approved, without directly telling me though. (IV2) Holodynski (2013) points out that human emotions are mediated by culturally co-constructed expression signs such as a pout or a smile. As a young PhD candidate, Shu was courageous in his effort not to follow Professor Ben’s suggestions and insisted on his own methods derived from his personal interest. Shu’s success was that he not only maintained his standpoint in negotiating with his supervisor but also maintained a sound relationship by professionally debating with evidence, regulating his emotions by challenging his professor’s “passionate eyes” with his own “passionate eyes.” Shu was unyieldingly persistent in and defended his personal interest, which in turn sustained his inspiration, contentment, and passion for research even in challenging circumstances. This effort enabled his survival and revival even with the unexpected incongruence which challenged his transitions in the research world. Phase II: A PhD candidate in a postdoc position A critical episode in the duration of Shu’s third year PhD was the opportunity to work in a postdoc position in a top-class laboratory. With this position, he applied his cross-disciplinary knowledge into technological innovation in the medical field. He had to suspend six months from his PhD, but the successful experience enabled him to thrive and enhanced his confidence and passion in research (Table 7.3). On checking the job requirement list on an advertisement, Shu realized the transferrable skills he had been self-learning bestowed on him a cutting edge. He highly valued the opportunity to work with the principal investigator (PI) at the research center: It’s a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity. Even if I leave academia in the future, I  would be proud to have had the experience of working with him. (IV2) However, Professor Ben was strongly against him applying for the position. Once more Shu was determined to hold his ground. Shu explained to his professor that he would be forever remorseful if he did not try, which allowed the professor to think twice. Shu strategically prepared his application materials. Besides standard files in the request, he submitted a proposal on how to conduct the project. “I need to show them what I can do; otherwise, I am just a small

Putting conflicts under control 167 Table 7.3  Shu’s multi-worlds (Phase II) Research world II

Personal world

Social world

Motivations

– In need of a competent researcher for a functional appliance

–

Expectations

– success in the innovation – a patent appliance

Values/beliefs

– enjoy researching – collaborative – harmonious relationship – facilitating – encouraging– – recognizing individual input in the patent – flexibility in work schedule – value individual contribution

– intrinsic motivation: to work at TCRC – extrinsic motivation: a chance to develop research skills & CV – self-improvement – being supported – being recognized as a competent researcher – optimistic – positive – proactive – diligent – engaging

Actions

– enhanced confidence – enhanced interest in research – enhanced research competence – accumulating transferrable knowledge and skills for the future

– high interest in the innovation

– families optimistic, positive, and engaging – rewarding for the achievement – multi-collegiate collaboration – recognition of the media – industrial investment

potato (jokingly)” (IV2). He was ecstatic when he was notified of his acceptance. The six months at the research center further enhanced Shu’s selfefficacy in his research. The environment was friendly and supportive. The PI had a great sense of humor and curiosity, which suited Shu’s characteristics. Other colleagues were friendly and provided much positive feedback on his progress. They offered him flexibility in his schedule. Hence Shu expressed “I liked the atmosphere in the team” (IV3). Consequently, toward the end of his postdoc term, the team had a patent on the innovation, which was widely reported by the media and attracted industries for commercialization. Due to his contribution, Shu was fully recognized by allocating the highest personal share in the

168  Congruence/difference and transitions patent. As a further gesture of recognition, he was offered a part-time contract when he transferred back to his PhD candidature. It’s great fun, and there’s that sense of fulfilment. My colleagues recognize my achievement. I always work out something new to satisfy their needs, which in turn brings back more positive feedback. I really enjoy working there, though that makes my schedule extremely tight. (IV3) Shu put great emphasis on the role of feedback and recognition that he received in his postdoc position. An enhanced belief upon the completion of the postdoc was that it was essential to improve his transferrable skills for future development, whereas the knowledge he was gaining through his PhD project was not very applicable in the real world. It is evident that this belief is being enhanced by the two very different small research cultural contexts. Phase III: Resuming the PhD When Shu resumed his PhD, he experienced a period of anxiety on how to complete his degree on time. The scholarship would sustain him for another 1.5 years, and he had no wish to extend it. Unexpectedly, when it came to the fourth year, Professor Ben shifted his focus onto Shu’s project, leading to congruence between their minds. This was the first time Shu felt “my PhD is like a PhD” (IV3). Shu explained the shift was due to some practical reasons, roughly because the professor needed solid outcomes in Shu’s research for industrial application. The supervisor started to meet Shu more frequently and offered him constructive feedback. Shu acknowledged Professor Ben’s research competence and knowledge, so it was a relief for him when the professor began to invest time in his research. All of a sudden (about two months ago), the boss started to push me in this direction. At least now I could have some feedback because he is investing his time. . . . Before it was my own thinking, now it’s two persons’ thinking. It was strenuous, but I feel good. As long as the research could go on well, everything is fine. (IV3) At this stage, Shu perceived that the knowledge he gained through the PhD was unlikely to be used in his future, but he was aware that “the future is yet to come.” Shu had prepared himself for a change in his research field with his transferrable skills, which could bring him broader opportunities. Importantly, the previous opportunity helped him to maintain his confidence, passion, and aspiration in technological innovation.

Putting conflicts under control 169 Yang: So you’ve experienced the most challenging situations. Shu: The most challenging situation is the next one (smilingly). Forever the next one. I  was anxious a while ago, as the deadline for graduation was approaching, but the outcomes were not sufficient yet. When I  talked with my parents, they reminded me that 欲速则不达 (haste does not bring success). Now I believe if I make each step solid, when I can graduate, I will. (IV3) The transitions from unmatched expectations to the matched one took a long time, far beyond his locus of control, but enabled his transformation, or personal growth in the journey. As revealed in the last interview, he was still a promising candidate to complete his PhD in 3.5 years (excluding the six months suspension for the postdoc position). What distinguished him was his consistency in proactively being engaged in research opportunities, holding his ground, and strategically preparing for the future. The emotional support and psychological guidance from his parents were also important in underpinning congruent social and personal worlds. Further notes: maintaining positivity and empathy On scrutinizing our conversations across three interviews, Shu consistently presented strong values and beliefs in positivity and empathy, 将心比心 (I can feel how he feels). It was impressive that he disclosed the realities and interpreted the adversities with a great sense of humor and a big smile rather than bitter complaint. Typically, he valued his experiences, setbacks, ups and downs, for his personal growth. For example, “the two years being left alone was the time of freedom to develop my personal interest” (IV3). Different from many other PhD candidates who would not have given a second thought if there were opportunities to choose supervisors again (Woolston, 2017), Shu had been empathetic and sympathetic with his supervisor: It’s the economy here impacted his funding. . . . He’s really passionate about scientific research, more than his love for his wife. . . . He always tells me that one has to focus on one thing. . . . Now that I am exploring data processing, I can feel that contentment he feels with his research. (FG) The professor has full-time doctoral students in both sides, which is a huge workload on him. And he has to apply for grants from both governments, teaching at both universities, which are really exhaustive. . . . I can see he is really busy. Though we cannot have much of his support, he is indeed under so much pressure. (IV2)

170  Congruence/difference and transitions His understanding for his supervisor developed over time by applying his positive evaluation to the reality, and applying his agency and proactivity in solving problems along the journey: Maybe it’s just me having a good pair of problem-picking eyes, identifying that the boss is not the one expected, the team is not the one expected, the project is not the one expected. But everyone has problems. It’s not good if wasting time on frustrations and worries. We need to stay active and keep learning, no time to be idle. (IV2) PhDs have this or that adversities and setbacks. Few could go along just smoothly. People imagine PhDs are living in the ivory tower, but the reality is not like that. The best thing with this professor is that he makes sure his students can graduate, which is not the case with some other supervisors. (IV3) By being empathetic with others’ stresses and challenges, Shu did not become disillusioned with his own challenges; rather, he built up a cheerful resilience and confident inner strength. For example, he used his “passionate eyes” to counter his professor’s “passionate eyes” when defending his research perspectives. He remained optimistic and hopeful, looking for solutions and breakthroughs in adversities, which echoed the Chinese philosophy, “Reverse is the Way” (when reaching one end, things return to the other end).

Chapter summary Students in this pattern encountered diverse difficulties to achieve their PhD abroad. Some found their research topics were out of their supervisors’ expertise or interest, and some experienced the lack of supervisory support, team support, and research resources. A few found it was difficult to meet the intensive demand of PhD research because they did not have intrinsic motivation for research. In addition, under-communication or miscommunication between supervisor(s) and students deteriorated the situation. Nevertheless, rather than compromise or give up, these students’ culturally embedded beliefs in persistence and resilience, together with their efficacious confidence in articulation sustained them to take strategic actions to push their research forward. One way was to find support from expanded international research networks. These students successfully achieved their PhD in Australia and continued to pursue their passion in STEM research, in academia or industry. In Shu’s case, though with an expected smooth transition due to prior contact before PhD, Shu experienced an unexpected incongruence with

Putting conflicts under control 171 his research world due to the absence of supervision and confrontational supervisory relationship. Notwithstanding the challenges, Shu achieved his exceptional growth with positive resilience. Taking opportunities of working with other conational PhD students and visiting research fellows in the laboratory, Shu followed his passion for exploring his research interest and other transferrable skills. Further, he received an opportunity to work at a top research center, where his competence was fully recognized and acknowledged. Six months later, Shu returned to the PhD with renewed confidence and composure. Shu found his supervisor started to invest time in his research, so Shu was confident in the successful completion of his PhD. Overall, with critical differences in motivations, expectations, values, and beliefs across the multi-worlds, Shu managed to put conflicting ideas and behaviors under control so as to achieve his academic success and personal growth through three phases by experiencing two small cultures of research.

Note 1 Data sources: One focus group interview (FG) in Shu’s early second year; two individual interviews in his early third* and fourth years (IV2, IV3). * Amidst his PhD journey, Shu suspended for six months in Year 3 for a “postdoc” position in a prestigious research center. The individual interviews occurred a few days before he was accepted for the position and after returned to the PhD.

References Bair, C. R., & Haworth, J. G. (2004). Doctoral student attrition and persistence: A  meta-synthesis of research. In J. C. Smart (Ed.), Higher education: Handbook of theory and research (Vol. XIX, pp. 481–534). Kluwer Academic. Bandura, A. (2011). A social cognitive perspective on positive psychology. International Journal of Social Psychology, 26(1), 7–20. doi:10.1174/021347411 794078444 Bryan, B., & Guccione, K. (2018). Was it worth it? A qualitative exploration into graduate perceptions of doctoral value. Higher Education Research & Development, 37(6), 1124–1140. doi:10.1080/07294360.2018.1479378 Cisco, J. (2020). Exploring the connection between impostor phenomenon and postgraduate students feeling academically-unprepared. Higher Education Research & Development, 39(2), 200–214. doi:10.1080/07294360.2019.1676198 Corcelles, M., Cano, M., Liesa, E., González-Ocampo, G.,  & Castelló, M. (2019). Positive and negative experiences related to doctoral study conditions. Higher Education Research & Development, 38(5), 922–939. doi:10.1080/07 294360.2019.1602596 Elliot, D. L., Baumfield, V., Reid, K., & Makara, K. A. (2016). Hidden treasure: Successful international doctoral students who found and harnessed the hidden curriculum. Oxford Review of Education, 42(6), 733–748. doi:10.1080/0305 4985.2016.1229664

172  Congruence/difference and transitions Fung, Y.-L. (1948/2019). A short history of Chinese philosophy. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. Guerin, C., & Ranasinghe, D. (2010). Why I wanted more: Inspirational experiences of the teaching – research nexus for engineering undergraduates. Journal of University Teaching & Learning Practice, 7(2), 8. Holodynski, M. (2013). The internalization theory of emotions: A cultural historical approach to the development of emotions. Mind, Culture, and Activity, 20(1), 4–38. Kong, S. L. (2009). Confucian wisdom for the 21st century: A selected rendition. Chinese University Press. Robertson, M. (2017). Aspects of mentorship in team supervision of doctoral students in Australia. The Australian Educational Researcher, 44(4–5), 409– 424. doi:10.1007/s13384-017-0241-z Seeber, M., & Horta, H. (2021). No road is long with good company. What factors affect Ph.D. student’s satisfaction with their supervisor? Higher Education Evaluation and Development. doi:10.1108/HEED-10-2020-0044 Thorburn, M. (2020). Embodied experiences: Critical insights from Dewey for contemporary education. Educational Research, 62(1), 35–45. doi:10.1080/0 0131881.2019.1711437 van Rooij, E., Fokkens-Bruinsma, M., & Jansen, E. (2019). Factors that influence PhD candidates’ success: The importance of PhD project characteristics. Studies in Continuing Education, 1–20. doi:10.1080/0158037X.2019.1652158 Woolston, C. (2017). A  love-hate relationship. Nature, 550, 549–552. doi:10.1038/nj7677-549a Xu, X., Sit, H. H. W., & Chen, S. (2020). The eastern train on the western track: An Australian case of Chinese doctoral students’ adaptation. Springer.

8 When it’s really difficult Different worlds & border crossings difficult or resisted

This chapter presents the fifth and sixth patterns and two corresponding narratives. In both categories, motivations, expectations, values, beliefs, and actions were different in some respects across students’ multi-worlds. Differences led to conflicting ideas, attitudes, and behaviors. Conflicts remained unsolved, leading to escalated complications. Two participants, Feng and Ming, out of 38 were classified into the category of Different worlds/Border crossings difficult. Only one student, Lina, was in Different worlds/Border crossings resisted. These three participants encountered some major challenges that constrained their PhD, but with situated factors interacting between their research, personal, and social worlds, their doctoral experiences ended up differently. This study does not claim representativeness of the attrition rate due to the small number of participants as of the qualitative research, though it does find that quitting the PhD is usually out of the question for many CIDS.

Motivations and influences For motivations and influences before the PhD, the students in the fifth pattern shared many commonalities with other participants in previous patterns, but Lina, the one in the sixth pattern, presented some unique features. Feng commenced the PhD after his undergraduate study and Ming after postgraduate. Both of them studied in top research-intensive universities in China. With outstanding academic achievement, they successfully applied for a PhD in Australia, supported with full scholarships, Feng by the Chinese Scholarship Council and Ming by the host institution. Lina’s motivation to do a PhD abroad was mostly out of family influence. She had cousins studying abroad, one of whom did a PhD in a US university. She also had high school and undergraduate mates who studied abroad after graduation. Being the only child in an elite middle-class family, Lina explained that study abroad was definitely about to happen. With her mother’s concern, though, she did not start the application process until she completed postgraduate study. DOI: 10.4324/9781003258841-11

174  Congruence/difference and transitions Between Lina’s PhD and postgraduate study, she worked in a company for a year and got married. Then she used a study abroad agency to help her with the application. However, it seemed the agency provided incorrect information, so she ended up with a package of a language course and a postgraduate study program when she landed in Australia. Though the three students had different motivations and influences before their PhD, they were all high achieving in their previous academic studies and started the journey with hope, aspiration, and determination to achieve the PhD.

Difficult transitions across differences The three participants in these two categories have three commonalities that constrained their transitions across the personal and research worlds: • • •

diminished motivations endangered rapport major confrontations that ensued

These three aspects were interwoven, situative, and developmental over time. The focus was on the supervisor–supervisee relationship, which could be a core factor in doctoral persistence and attrition (Gao, 2019; Golde, 2005; Lovitts, 2001). The diminished motivations The study found these students’ diminished motivations were related to disregarded research interest, insufficient support, ineffective communication, and lack of positive feedback in response to their investment of dedication and effort. Feng experienced all these difficulties. At the commencement of the PhD, Feng’s supervisor persuaded him into a project and supposed the student should find it interesting, “but he never asked whether I thought it was interesting or not.” Very soon the supervisor left for an overseas position. Without much prior research experience and without the essential supervisory facilitation to put him on the track, Feng described himself as “an academic orphan.” He gave me a very broad project and left me alone. I got totally lost in the direction. . . . Based on his decades of experiences and knowledge in the field, the boss felt there should be a breakthrough point, so he asked me to follow this direction. But he did not show me how to reach that top research level from my undergraduate level. It was just too high for me to reach. (Feng, Year 3, FG)

When it’s really difficult 175 Throughout our interviews, Feng addressed his supervisor as “boss,” which revealed their persistent hierarchical relationship. It also revealed Feng’s lack of freedom in his doctoral research, whereas for STEM doctoral students, previous research identified that the amount of freedom was positively related to satisfaction and negatively to quit intentions (van Rooij et al., 2019). The long-term suffocating struggle with the research project seriously demotivated and disillusioned Feng. Academic integration with a research community was highly dependent on the supervisor–supervisee relationship (Earl-Novell, 2006; Moreira et al., 2019), but without the supervisor’s initial facilitation and encouragement, Feng was left in a situation all alone, unaware of where, who, and how to seek help. Even more frustrating for him was that his ideas were not recognized, and his research interest was not considered by the supervisor: He would say you can do whatever you like to, but .  .  . he is not happy if you do things not within his interest, as he just pushes you to follow his interest. (Feng, Year 3, FG) Ming also had these demotivating difficulties but in a different way. At the initial stage, Ming had already felt his supervisor was not clear about how to implement the research design of his doctoral project and conduct the experiments. Supervisory relationships require power, but also authority (Harding-DeKam et al., 2012), but it seemed Ming’s supervisor did not establish the authority when some of their ideas were conflicting or contradictory. When it turned into the second year, Ming indicated he was entirely demotivated when his supervisor suddenly changed the plan and requested that he write a traditional thesis to complete his PhD instead of by publications. It was a shock for Ming because the original plan had always been to complete by publications, and Ming had been eager to have publications to build up his academic background for the future career. Similarly, Lina was demotivated by the actions of her supervisor who repeatedly asked Lina to change her research topic without any input of positive feedback. Lina started her PhD with a project she was interested in. The application proposal had been approved by her supervisor. However, after a couple of months, this supervisor asked her to change the research topic because the first one was “meaningless.” After the confirmation of candidature, Lina had to change to another research topic because her supervisor repeatedly indicated that the second one was “highly risky.” With the third topic, Lina worked dedicatedly till the end of her first year. Then her motivations collapsed when her supervisor refused to sign her annual report and requested her to change to another topic because the third topic was “hopeless” and “meaningless.”

176  Congruence/difference and transitions Endangered rapport A lack of effective communication and a lack of support, in particular, endangered the rapport of the supervisor–student relationship. Students in these two categories all reported their supervisors did not listen to their voices. For Feng, initially, he was proactive in seeking supervisory support. Several months into his PhD, when Feng realized he had been left alone in the laboratory, he followed the supervisor to the overseas university and worked there for four months. However, although Feng took the initiative to improve the supervisory relationship, it seemed his effort was unilateral: I wished to have regular meetings with him. I tried to make appointments with him to discuss my research. . . . I went to him to ask for appointments, but he seemed annoyed. He immersed himself into his own research and other business, so not much time could be spared in supervising students. (Feng, Year 3, FG) In the third year of PhD, he still described himself as “an academic orphan” due to a lack of supervisory facilitation. His disillusionment stopped him from making more effort to initiate communication. With the limited opportunities to meet the supervisor, Feng found that he had gradually lost his passion and courage to communicate. Initially, I  talked a lot with him about my ideas, but gradually I  would stumble when thinking of doing that. I  found he used all kinds of attitudes to show he did not like the way I chose. Sometimes he was just emotional and would say he was not interested. (Feng, Year 3, FG) In Ming’s situation, it seemed that neither the supervisor nor the student had trust in each other. From initial differences in how to design and conduct research to the sudden change of how to complete the PhD, Ming had not much say in the decision-making, but it seemed he had not been convinced by his supervisor’s reasoning either. He was still emotional when reflecting on those situations in our interviews three months after his PhD. He appeared to be desperate in attributing these difficulties to one reason, “She has no confidence in me at all.” It appeared Ming gradually lost confidence in his supervisor in return. In comparison to Feng’s initiative to communicate and Ming’s unwillingness to compromise, Lina appeared to be “obedient” and was willing to listen to her supervisor’s suggestions at the initial stage of her PhD, as she reflected that “arguing makes me feel frustrated.” With repeatedly

When it’s really difficult 177 failed negotiations and negative feedback on her achievement, Lina gradually tended to avoid and resist communicating with her supervisor, feeling “I am all fine as long as he does not bother me.” Silence or outbreak: major confrontations that ensued When differences with supervisors emerged in research, these participants tended to compromise, comply, or remain silent to maintain the relationship, even if an unsatisfactory one. However, when transitions across the differences became unachievable, and when problems accumulated to reach a critical level, major confrontations occurred that basically broke the relationship. This brought devastating consequences on the students, including disillusion with the research world (Feng, Ming) and dropping out of the PhD program (Lina). Below is Feng’s narration about why he had major friction with his supervisor at the beginning of his fourth year of PhD: I had lots of conflicts with my supervisor, but there was the most violent one last year. At that time, my pressure was massive. My scholarship was ending in half a year. I had to write my thesis, but he still pressed me to do some extremely difficult experiments and was persuading me to do a postdoc. I was desperate. I wanted to commit suicide. I really don’t want to do research anymore. I asked him to let me graduate. I had to complete my PhD. By then I did not want to do research anymore, but he kept persuading me I should. . . . That really drove me crazy, to the extent I wanted to commit suicide. CSC gives me four years of living stipend, but my tuition support only lasts 3.5 years. At this final stage, instead of allowing me to work on my thesis to complete the PhD, he asked me to keep doing experiments. I really felt miserable. And he did not care how I felt. In our weekly meetings, he was happy if I  had tangible progress in that project, and was disappointed when I had not. How could I have outcomes on a weekly basis! He was not pleased if I talked about difficulties, but I was not pleased as well. With the pressure from these aspects, I nearly broke down. (In that meeting) I told him I really did not want to do research anymore. Let me graduate quietly . . . when I told him I wanted to commit suicide, he started to compromise. (Feng, Year 4, IV) Feng had been one of the selected few from his top-ranking home university for a PhD program in the top-ranking host university, but upon graduation, he was shattered. Feng left Australia in the evening of the day he submitted the thesis and landed in a third country. There he dropped

178  Congruence/difference and transitions his field in engineering and started working in computer science. Feng was the third generation of researchers in his family. His grandfather and his parents were all highly reputable researchers in China. Presumably, it was difficult for him to return home until he could recollect his hope, aspiration, and confidence. Whereas in Lina’s case, the outbreak of a confrontation worsened the relationship to the extent of the loss of respect. Though having experienced twice a change of research topics, consistent negative feedback, and lack of actual support in research from her principal supervisor, Lina remained positive in her PhD research and her supervisors. However, a crucial occurrence changed what she had valued toward the end of the first year. With the third request to change her research topic again, Lina attempted to use literature to convince the supervisor the current project was possible to achieve her PhD. To her bewilderment, the response was “Those papers are rubbish.” Lina was shocked and asked her supervisor to show decent respect to fellow researchers’ work. It seemed since then Lina had changed her opinion of the supervisor. Consequently, when the active interaction turned into passive resistance in responding to the supervisory feedback (Xu, 2017), Lina downgraded her PhD to a master’s degree. Key extra support to facilitate transitions Though these three students all had major issues with their principal supervisors that constrained transitions across research and personal worlds, they all experienced some extra key support that enabled their academic achievement and personal growth despite adversity. Co-supervisors’ support: As repeatedly shown in the previous four chapters, co-supervisors may provide critical support in various situations, for example, discontinuation of supervision, technical needs, and friendlike mentorship. In Ming and Lina’s extremely difficult situations with their principal supervisors, their co-supervisors provided genuine support for ameliorating the risks of failure. They indicated that without co-supervisors’ dedicated facilitation in research and the writing up of the thesis, they would not have completed their PhD. In particular, when Lina was in a serious dilemma toward the end of the first year, her two co-supervisors supported her, believing her current project was highly promising. This belief sustained Lina to complete her project and the master’s degree on time. When . . . (the principal supervisor) kept questioning the possibility of my research project, .  .  . (the other two supervisors) believed it could work, which really helped. (Lina, Year 2)

When it’s really difficult 179 Team supervision has been understood as best practice throughout doctoral candidature in the UK, the USA, Canada, and Australia (Robertson, 2017). The supervisors could have different opinions in the desirability of the supervision, leading to the issue of harmony (Olmos-López & Sunderland, 2017), but with one or more co-supervisors in existence, a small research community could be formed to influence in a positive way. Doctoral fellows’ support: Differently, Feng did not have co-supervisors, but coincidentally, he met a visiting PhD fellow in his laboratory who helped him with narrowing down of the scope of his doctoral research. It was until early this year, with the help of a visiting student, I could finally narrow down my focus and did the core research sufficient enough to complete my PhD. If I have not met that student, I might not have known it till now. (Feng, Year 3) Social and familial support: There was not much evidence to show their integration with the local communities except for Lina’s regular attendance in church services as a Christian. Noteworthily, Lina and Ming lived with their partners during their PhD, which was recognized as a source of emotional support and company in life. As to the broader social world, it seemed because these students had been focusing on how they dealt with the problems in their research world, their social activities were almost invisible in their talks about their PhD journey. As a self-funded student for her PhD abroad, Lina was grateful for the family support from her husband and her parents. They provided both financial support for her study and emotional support for her to go through the challenges. Throughout her PhD, Lina strongly wished she could pay back her families’ investment, both financially and emotionally.

Ming’s story1 Ming’s experience represents the pattern of Different worlds & Border crossings difficult. When he encountered differences across his multiworlds, there was a lack of mutual understanding, communication, or negotiation to facilitate the transitions across the differences, which gradually developed to become almost unsurmountable (Table 8.1). The key points of congruence or difference are shown in italics in the table. Pre-PhD: A promising transition Upon completing the postgraduate study in a research-intensive university in China, Ming had three motives to do a PhD abroad. With the first two, self-cultivation and to experience a different linguistic, educational, and sociocultural environment, he did not differentiate himself from other

180  Congruence/difference and transitions Table 8.1  Ming’s multi-worlds Research world

Personal world

Social world

Motivations

– choosing talented candidates – quality research – international cooperation

– high respect for PhD at home context

Expectations

– completion of the PhD – quality research – no publications

– the selected one to do PhD – enriching life experiences – self-cultivation – broadening perspectives in research – improving career prospects – contributing to life betterment – completion of the PhD – sufficient supervision – quality research – personal development – publications

– diligence, focus, & persistence – positivity – proactivity & initiative – harmonious relationship – main – initial dedication supervisor – demotivated after detached conflicts from the – complying with main supervision supervisor’s requests – co-supervisors – seeking co-supervisors’ provided support strong support – completing the PhD and in supervision left academia

– science & technological innovation

Values/beliefs – rigorous research – support

–

Actions

– lack of familial support – supporting and facilitating his girlfriend’s life and study – co-supervisors’ support

CIDS project participants. In his words, he was willing to “闯一闯” (trying out different opportunities in life) because he was “年轻气盛” (youthfully courageous). The third motive was related to financial issues. Ming was brought up by his grandparents because his father passed away before his birth and his mother remarried. When the grandparents passed away, Ming recounted that he was “left all alone.” His hometown was in a mountainous village, but with outstanding academic performance, Ming had opportunities to study in top schools and universities in different cities across China. Ming had scholarships, loans, and part-time jobs to support his studies, but upon successfully completing his master’s degree, there were accumulated loans to pay back. Therefore, though he had PhD offers from several countries, he decided upon the Australian one

When it’s really difficult 181 because of the prestigious scholarship offered by an international collegiate program. When I have decided upon where to go, the choice of a supervisor was comparatively easy. I  applied to a professor who was in my research field. As the professor was about to retire soon, he recommended me to another supervisor. So here I came. With the scholarship and previous academic success, Ming accepted the arrangement of changing supervision without a second thought. Hence, Ming had experienced challenges of life at an early stage of life and experienced transitions across diverse Chinese socio-cultures before going abroad. The factors in combination seemed to predict a promising PhD abroad. The PhD: emotionally challenging transitions While doing the PhD in Australia, Ming experienced unexpected incongruence with his main supervisor, but the congruence with his co-supervisors sustained his completion of the PhD. Ming’s supervisory panel was structured with Dr. Kate as the main supervisor and Professor Ken as his co-supervisor. Based on Ming’s account, Dr. Kate was an early career researcher in the field, “with limited experience of supervising students.” Professor Ken, the co-supervisor, was the one Ming originally applied for but changed to a minor role due to coming retirement. Besides, Dr. Sarah, a research scientist, worked with Ming on the project, but was not officially recorded as a supervisor. Initial disappointment Ming experienced initial disappointment soon after his commencement. With perceivable benefit for doctoral candidates tutoring undergraduates (Alhija & Fresko, 2020), Ming was excited when Dr. Kate invited him to take positions for two courses and a demonstrator for a third at the initial stage of the PhD. However, after dedicated preparation, Ming felt confused and offended when another doctoral student took the positions and he was not informed. After six months, Ming received an industrial top-up scholarship, which ignited another clash out of a confusing allocation of funding. The guideline for the scholarship showed it was for conferences, travel, living stipend, and tuition fees. However, Dr. Kate insisted on him spending a major portion of the scholarship on purchasing a costly research instrument. Ming understood that as an early career researcher, Dr. Kate needed research funding and facilities, but still, he was left baffled, perceiving it was unreasonable to use his scholarship for an instrument, particularly when it was not essential for his research.

182  Congruence/difference and transitions Clashes in the research Overtly, Ming had major differences with Dr. Kate all the way from the research design to the implementation, and there was a serious lack of negotiation when differences occurred. With the research design, Dr. Kate played a major role, but when Ming raised questions and proposed his ideas, Dr. Kate “did not compromise, so I had to listen to her.” Then when conducting the experimentation, Ming realized it was impossible to follow Dr. Kate’s design. In the meeting, Ming considered her explanations were not convincing, so “this time, I did not listen to her.” That caused a major confrontation. Finally, Ming proved himself with his experiments. However, the process had been extremely difficult without the main supervisor’s support. Understandings about the duplication of research was another major difference between them. Dr. Kate asked Ming to replicate other researchers’ published experiments, but again she could not convince him why the practice was necessary. Ming could not find justifications when “she just kept telling me that although you could not publish, you could put them into your thesis.” Ming could not understand “why I have to copy others’ experiments and put into my thesis?” Ming was resistant to the suggestion as he perceived it as copying, and “not helpful in answering my research questions.” Without successful communication and negotiation, Ming reflected that this episode negatively impacted his confidence and motivation in the first year of the PhD. The escalated demotivation reached its peak when the second year started with a major change in how to report findings to achieve the degree. The original plan was by publications, so Ming had dedicatedly drafted the first paper with the research output. By then, Dr. Kate informed Ming to write a traditional thesis rather than papers. In a following meeting, Professor Ken supported Ming to write for publications and offered to revise manuscripts. Dr. Sarah was also supportive of publishing. However, Dr. Kate insisted. Due to power dynamics in the relations between supervisory members (Guerin & Green, 2015), Ming was in great pain when the main supervisor had the final say, even though the co-supervisors had different feedback in support of him. Composing a thesis with publications (TWP) and writing a traditional thesis (monograph) to achieve a doctoral degree are two widelyaccepted options at universities in Australia. The TWP has been gaining its momentum in response to the demands alongside the “publish or perish” phenomenon in academia (Mason, 2018). It brings both challenges, such as thesis cohesion and time pressure, and benefits and opportunities, such as experience in engaging in the publication process and professional timely feedback (Mason et  al., 2020; Merga et  al., 2019). It is of importance for Chinese doctoral candidates if they could publish in high-impact factor journals, giving their career a competitive advantage

When it’s really difficult 183 in the highly competitive academia (Li, 2016). In this situation, Ming was concerned and questioned: That was just the second year. She said it needed time to publish, so we cannot guarantee my graduation. Isn’t that just the second year? . . . And if none of the papers could pass the peer-review process, how can the thesis pass? Besides, STEM researchers need to report research output in time for appraisals and knowledge sharing via recognized outlets in this fastdeveloping knowledge economy (Kwan, 2013). The exception is when involved with confidentiality issues, but Ming revealed their project was not. As the main supervisor had the final say, Ming had to change, but he was concerned that if he did not publish, someone else would. He felt more frustrated that this concern turned out to be true one year later. These accrued negative experiences and emotions immensely demotivated Ming in his PhD: I was extremely unmotivated in the second and third year. Rather than from 8 to 9 as before, I worked from 10 to 5, and did very little even if I was there. On reflection, he felt frustrated that he had wasted his precious time because about half of the data in his final thesis were collected in the second six months of his first year. Negative feedback: “She had no confidence in me” Ming described his PhD abroad experience as bitter because the main supervisor provided “too much negative feedback.” As “she had no confidence in me at all” no matter how Ming had proved himself, Ming emotionally concluded, “she did not care about my PhD from tip to toe.” Ming recalled that Dr. Kate seemed to have withdrawn from his supervision and hardly ever provided constructive feedback in their weekly supervisory meeting. While Professor Ken and Dr. Sarah intensively engaged in the discussion, “it makes not much difference whether Dr. Kate was there or not.” Besides, Ming was upset that “she had no confidence in my English at all.” Ming gave several examples for illustration. Once as requested by the faculty, Dr. Kate asked Ming to attend a 3-minute oral presentation competition. Meanwhile, she told him not to spend too much time as he had no chance to win because of his accent. She remained silent when Ming was awarded the third prize in the faculty and then another third prize in the university among other native candidates.

184  Congruence/difference and transitions Then Ming had a poster presentation at an international conference in Singapore. He described how his supervisors reacted differently in a preparation meeting: Professor Ken trusted me and offered to revise the content. Dr. Sarah did not sense much hope but smiled to encourage me. When I looked at Dr. Kate, she returned with total contempt. Ming was the winner of the Best Poster of the conference, followed by candidates from MIT, Oxford, etc. Ming used a Chinese expression 不负众望 (up to the expectations) to show his gratefulness to Professor Ken and Dr. Sarah for their help and inspiration, but he was upset when recalling Dr. Kate’s facial expression. In the thesis writing, Ming revealed that the three supervisors acted differently. Dr. Kate did not read his thesis until he completed the full version because “she said she was used to reading a completed version”; whereas Professor Ken and Dr. Sarah helped him to structure the chapters and revised all the manuscript “line by line.” Later, in a panel meeting, Dr. Kate suddenly proposed proofreading of the thesis. Ming felt embarrassed because his two co-supervisors had already done that: She did not read the thesis, but she just said that after all the work Professor Ken and Dr. Sarah had done. Professor Ken has supervised over 40 PhD students and never had anyone fail; Sarah is not only a native speaker, but is the person who knows the most about my research. Her words hurt all three of us. Ming’s disappointment lasted into the final stage of his PhD. With thesis examiners’ comments, Ming quickly completed the revision with two co-supervisors and submitted to the main supervisor. Then it was a long and anxious wait. When Professor Ken suggested Ming remind Dr. Kate, Ming felt awkward to do so, “Last time I asked her, she said I was pushing her. Then she said she was sick. I felt guilty to push her again.” With one more revision, Ming’s thesis was not submitted to the postgraduate office until the due day. Co-supervisory support Ming perceived it as fortunate to have Professor Ken supporting him all through to completion. “Without him, I  might still be in the darkness.” Ming mentioned two points he appreciated in Professor Ken. One was the professor’s broad perspectives and in-depth knowledge in the research field; the other was his tolerance, patience, positivity, and care about students. Particularly, Ming illustrated the second point.

When it’s really difficult 185 Allowing students to try out their ideas and make mistakes: Ming recalled several times his doctoral fellows finally adopted Professor Ken’s ideas after several trials on their own, saying, “If I had listened to him, I could have saved time.” Ming attributed this to Professor Ken’s personality, outlook, and experience, for which he gained respect from students. Patience in nurturing students: The professor revised students’ manuscripts in full detail to provide in-depth comments for improvement. Ming was particularly grateful that each time after explaining in person with pencil marks on the manuscript, Professor Ken would also send feedback in a Microsoft Word file in case of misunderstanding. Ming recounted that Professor Ken “was someone who was willing to spend time on students” as he nurtured his students with time and patience. Open and receptive to novel ideas and skills: Ming learned about how to expand academic networks from Professor Ken, who had been dedicatedly expanding international networks for better opportunities and collaboration, and encouraging students to attend conferences: He always asks us to share at least three things we learned from the conference. And he is always willing to share with us new things he learned from outside for the purpose of cross-field inspiration. The care: Besides research, Ming also enjoyed chatting with Professor Ken on a range of topics, including cuisines and plantations. Ming mentioned with pleasure the time spent in the professor’s backyard. For the student sojourner, such experiences apparently became warm moments to encourage him to persist. Dr. Sarah, the research scientist, also provided critical support. As she worked side by side with Ming on the project, Ming treated her “with the respect to a supervisor.” Ming valued three points in Sarah. First, the calmness and peace in mind. She never pushed Ming for results or outputs in progressing the research; therefore, Ming worked with perceived progress but under not much pressure. Second, the willingness to invest in research. Sarah considered human labor as the most expensive factor, which relieved Ming of financial pressure in the project. Third, Sarah invested herself in facilitating Ming’s research and his thesis. In conclusion, Ming appreciated that Sarah in reality had taken more than half of the supervisory responsibility, though not officially recorded, for which Ming questioned as “an unreasonable allocation of time and responsibility.” In a collaborative supervisory team of a main supervisor, cosupervisor(s), and student, the relationship could be either hierarchical or horizontal in operation (Guerin & Green, 2015). However, when the main supervisor is less experienced, it creates additional complexities to

186  Congruence/difference and transitions the supervisory process (Robertson, 2017). Luckily, the personal and intellectual interactions within and between the student and the small intellectual community sustained the doctoral persistence (Tinto, 1993). Further notes: quality supervision, negotiation, and academic writing Upon reflection after the PhD degree, Ming pointed out three aspects that importantly impacted his PhD. The first was about the quality of supervision. Ming could see the difference in Professor Ken and Dr. Kate, the former being patient, guiding, and facilitating, whereas the latter did not exhibit these qualities. Ming felt it was particularly important to have a good supervisor for a doctoral candidate. For a novice researcher, “the importance of a good supervisor goes beyond a good university.” The second was about negotiation. Ming admitted he had problems in communicating with Dr. Kate from the very beginning, but still he “followed blindly” rather than articulate his thoughts till the end. Ming felt frustrated when Dr. Kate requested him to do things without providing convincing reasons or explanations. As a Chinese student, “My biggest problem was I  listened to her too well, considering she was my main supervisor.” With repeated frustrating experiences, Ming felt growing barriers that hindered them from establishing a congruent relationship. The third was about the training in academic writing. With ongoing negative emotions, Ming basically stopped writing till the last stage of his PhD. He spent eight months on writing up the thesis and attributed the prolonged length of time to his unsolidified skills of writing in a scholarly manner. He wished he could have spent two hours a day to summarize the literature, or to report his daily research outcomes in a scientific format, “but I never did that.” To note, a consequence of no publications upon graduation was that Ming found it almost impossible to find a postdoctoral or academic position in China, Australia, or elsewhere. Two years after, with a deepened understanding that “publications are the threshold in applications” and without a publication in hand, Ming changed his life trajectory from research to business.

Lina’s story2 Lina’s story represents Different worlds & Border crossings resisted, the last pattern in our categories of Chinese students’ experiences and the only student in this pattern. In resisting to cross the borders between her personal and research world, Lina dropped out of two doctoral programs, both in the first year of study, which echoed research evidence that shows the odds of attrition are the greatest at this early stage for STEM doctoral students (Lott et al., 2009).

When it’s really difficult 187 The first PhD abroad: unexpected complications Family and peer influences Lina grew up in a competitive environment with her cousins. She spent her childhood with her extended families living close in a small-sized city. Most of the elders in the family were well-educated and held decent jobs. Her cousins had outstanding academic performance in schools and while studying abroad. Lina studied in the best schools in town, but her cousins’ outstanding performance put pressure on her all the way from primary school to university. For the childhood memory, Lina recalled, [s]ince young, I  was surrounded by them. Each time at the end of a school semester when we presented our school transcripts to Grandpa, I felt it was stressful. (IV1) Probably because of this stress, she put immigration as her major motivation in doing a PhD aboard. She realized Australia was a country with comparatively friendly immigration policies, and that life in Australia was “less competitive than that in China.” Another motivation was the “face” issue. As several of her cousins had had their doctoral degree, she thought she should also have one to bring honor to her parents and the extended family. Besides, after senior high school, she witnessed about half of her peers going overseas for higher education. All factors combined to shape her motivations to study abroad. Then the matter was when. Her father thought of sending her out early, but her mother preferred to wait till she grew up with more independence and life skills. Therefore, she completed her postgraduate study in chemical engineering and worked in a research institute for a year before applying for a PhD abroad. Back then, she was in love with her postgraduate peer, Sun, so they planned to study abroad together. Both families were supportive of their decisions. A misled application Lina consulted a local private international education agency for a PhD abroad. Presumably because of goal conflicts and information asymmetries (Beech, 2018; Collins, 2012; Nikula & Kivisto, 2018, 2020), the agent provided incorrect or insufficient information on study programs. Lina paid a huge sum for the consultation but ended up with a package of a language course and a postgraduate program in Australia, a dual admission practice often offered by such agents to ensure business interests (Feng & Horta, 2021). When Lina’s IELTS score did not meet the requirement, the agent asked her not to tell the supervisors in case of rejection.

188  Congruence/difference and transitions Then she left alone without Sun, her newly wedded husband, because the agent advised her not to apply for his visa together with hers in case the visa officer considered their marriage as a false one. On reflection, Lina felt deeply regretful and upset to have used the agent for her application. The agent provided wrong information. They trapped students into their plan and waved goodbye once students stepped aboard. They did not care what occurred afterwards. (IV1) Lina did not realize the information from the agent had complicated her situation until she talked with a student advisor in the language course in Australia. With the help of this advisor, she renewed her contact with a professor and transferred to a PhD program. She also arranged the visa for her husband so that he could join her. However, besides financial cost, the process also involved time cost. It took more than half a year for things to be sorted out, and she had missed the opportunity to apply for a scholarship that year. With the professor’s advice, she paid the tuition fees to commence the PhD, hoping to receive a scholarship in the next application round. A sad drop-out and reapplication Lina did not expect that this PhD enrolment would last only a year. When she started, she was hardworking, motivated, and committed to the research. Besides her own work, she was also involved with tutoring undergraduate students for her supervisor, who was pleased with her research experience gained from previous study and work. However, half a year later, Lina was shocked by a supervisor’s request, which she considered as “absolutely unethical.” She attempted to ignore the request until a major clash occurred, which forced her to realize it was a situation she could not yield to because it involved sacrificing someone else’s interest, which was the least thing Lina wished to do. That evening, heartbroken and desperate, Lina explained the situation to Sun. She did not tell him before that day because she did not want her husband to worry. Luckily, Sun understood and supported her decision to quit. Their families also supported and welcomed them back home. Three months after, Lina was able to regain her strength and was determined to start again. She reapplied to another university in Australia. This time she contacted a distinguished researcher in the field, Professor Mitchell, and very soon received an offer letter. Though still without a scholarship, she was financially supported by her parents and parents-in-law: My parents actually do not mind if I could achieve my PhD. My parents-in-law provided financial support so that we wouldn’t struggle too

When it’s really difficult 189 hard in Australia. They did not expect too high of me. They supported our decisions with great love and hoped we could have a good life. (IV1) Though Lina experienced much pain from the first PhD abroad, she also sensed love and care from families, which helped Lina to courageously start her second PhD abroad. The second PhD abroad: A distressful incongruence Unexpectedly, Lina experienced another incongruence with her research world, though in another way. Again, it was the congruence with her social world that sustained her to go through the challenges and difficulties in the research world (Table 8.2). Though she downgraded to a master’s degree to complete this journey, she appeared to be maintaining her self-confidence instead of feeling disillusioned and disheartened upon completion. Lina’s journey of this PhD started with a change of supervisor. Upon arrival, Lina was informed that Professor Mitchell could only be her co-supervisor due to his impending retirement; thus, she was put under Dr. Dowson’s name as her main supervisor. The supervisory panel also involved a research fellow as co-supervisor. This was similar to Ming’s experience in our previous narrative. The difference was that Dr. Dowson, rather than an early career academic, was in his 50s and had been holding a lecturer’s position throughout his career. “HE KEPT CHANGING RESEARCH DIRECTIONS”

Once commenced, Lina encountered two major challenges with Dr. Dowson: no research funding and the constant change of research directions. Lina was shocked to understand that her supervisor meant her to be self-funded on the experimentation because he had no funding to support her. As a self-funded international student for tuition fees and living costs, that was extremely stressful for Lina because “the experimentation is indeed costly” with essential chemicals, testing instruments, and other resources. However, with the “selfless” financial support from her families, Lina managed to cope with this challenge so that she could push the research forward. By then, her husband had given up his own research career and worked as a barista to increase the family’s financial income. However, the challenge Lina found overwhelmingly difficult to cope with was the constant change of research directions. Lina started her PhD with the first research direction out of her interest and experience. After one month, though, Dr. Dowson assessed Lina’s results were not significant, so he kept giving her negative feedback by “saying it was

190  Congruence/difference and transitions Table 8.2  Lina’s multi-worlds Research world

Personal world

Social world

Motivations

– cutting-edge research

– high respect for PhD at home context

Expectations

– low-risk project – up-to-date research

– overseas study experience – a PhD degree – self-cultivation – peer pressure – immigration – completion of the PhD – sufficient supervision – academic achievement – family’s wellness

Values/beliefs

– innovation – cutting-edge research

Actions

– main supervisor being negative – requesting the change of topics three times – rejecting to sign on the annual report – co-supervisors being supportive

– diligence, focus & persistence – positivity – harmonious relationship – self-realization – social commitment – dutifulness to the family – self-funded for PhD – diligence & focus – feeling confused with a frequent change of research topic – feeling frustrated with negative feedback – resisting main supervisor’s suggestion; working with co-supervisors instead – downgrading to a master’s degree

– families supportive of personal choice – families expecting a settled life – science & technological innovation – families valuing knowledge – home culture valuing harmony

– familial financial support – familial emotional support – co-supervisors’ emotional support

highly risky” and asked her to change direction. Trusting the supervisor’s advice, Lina made the change. Then, before the confirmation of candidature (COC) in the sixth month of PhD, the supervisor pushed her to change the second by “again saying it was highly risky.” This time Lina felt it was difficult to manage because of the short notice. She struggled till after COC and then had to change to a third direction, even though the second had been approved in COC.

When it’s really difficult 191 In this process, Lina found it extremely difficult to negotiate because of the power dynamics. Her voice was not heard. The emotional explanations revealed her anxiety, confusion, and frustration: I tried to listen to him, but it’s so confusing. He kept changing his ideas. He changed the whole direction of research, not just one specific question in one project. It’s extremely difficult to negotiate with him because he does not listen at all. (IV1) With the new research topic, Lina’s two co-supervisors started to get more involved. They provided strong support in guiding Lina’s experiments and to solidify her knowledge in the field. They also facilitated her to write up the research. By then Lina had realized the different level of support and different approaches of supervision from different supervisors. It was a new research area for Lina, but with co-supervisors’ support and positive feedback, Lina had remained hopeful for the future. However, after the first year, when Lina sent her annual progress report for her supervisors’ approval, Dr. Dowson again asked her to change topic. This time Dr. Dowson expressed that he thought the project “was hopeless and meaningless,” so he refused to sign the annual report. In doctoral programs, supervisors hold signatory authority to advance or delay students’ progress. “Whereas authority can be conferred, power must be negotiated” (Harding-DeKam et al., 2012, p. 10). In Lina’s case, the negotiation failed again when the supervisor asked her to change to a fourth research direction. As Dr. Dowson was strong in his stand to make a change, Lina started to be anxious about her timeline to achieve the PhD. Anxiety is defined as an emotional feeling of tension, apprehension, nervousness, and worry (Spielberger, 1983). For STEM students, research identifies a significant correlation between high-level anxiety and low academic performance (Vitasari et al., 2010); for international students, research-identified anxiety has both facilitating and debilitating effects on their achievement (Brown, 2008; Fritz et al., 2008). Lina’s level of anxiety was extremely high by then, but with co-supervisory support, she still endeavored to negotiate and hold her ground. Lost respect In an attempt to convince Dr. Dowson that this research was indeed promising so that she could go on with the same project in the second year, Lina presented some influential papers from high-impact journals in the field as evidence, but Dr. Dowson’s reference to those publications as “rubbish” absolutely shocked her to the extent of losing the final respect: He said those papers were rubbish. I was unpleased to hear him saying that because it was rude and untrue. I said to him, “You cannot

192  Congruence/difference and transitions say other researchers’ papers are rubbish. You need to respect other’s work. You cannot judge like that with your personal preference.” (IV2) Unlike other participants in the CIDS project who approached their committee chair in a critical situation (e.g., Meng in Chapter 7), the chair’s role was absent in Lina’s case. Instead, Lina approached Professor Mitchell, the co-supervisor, when she perceived no hope in her doctoral research and asked for a change of the main supervisor. Between students and faculty members, power dynamics innately favor the latter (Burbules, 1986; Meloy, 2002). The professor returned to inform her that Dr. Dowson was reluctant to withdraw and would remain. On learning about this, Lina felt desperate and made a decision to downgrade her PhD to a master’s degree because she “just want to finish this as soon as possible.” Dr. Dowson was also reluctant to approve the downgrade, but Lina had been determined to do so. This time Lina was strong in their negotiation: I had to tell him that even if he thought this project was meaningless, there’s no time for me to change to another topic. (IV2) To downgrade to a master’s degree by research was apparently an extremely difficult decision for Lina to make. One reason was she already had completed a master’s degree in China; another was her high expectation of completing a PhD abroad, not only for her benefit but for the honor of her families. On recalling those moments when she was making decisions to drop out from her PhD, Lina expressed that she was desperate because she believed she could never complete her PhD without “cohesion, consistency, and integrity” in the PhD project: He always changes his mind, kept talking with me about new ideas, and asking me to put up new ideas. He just focused on the up-todate innovation but did not think about the cohesion, consistency, and integrity of my PhD project. How could I possibly complete my PhD thesis like that within the timeframe? It just made me confused and upset. (IV2) Feeling anxious and frustrated, but staying with the same supervisory panel, Lina resisted making further negotiations with Dr. Dowson in her second year. This emotional struggle transformed Lina from an accepting doctoral student to someone resistant to any of her main supervisor’s

When it’s really difficult 193 suggestions. In the second year, she had been resisting Dr. Dowson approaching her: I told him if he didn’t like it, I didn’t mind him not getting involved. . . . When he does not come to bother me, I progress smoothly. When he does do so, I would decide by myself whether to take his words or not . . . his appearance disturbs my thinking, and feelings. (IV2) To note, with the Chinese value that a teacher is respectful, Lina was not used to arguing with her Australian supervisor even in her second year, as she recounted, “Arguing with him makes me feel frustrated, hopeless, making me feeling negative.” Sources of support In contrast to the crucial incongruence with her main supervisor, Lina luckily received strong support from other sources in her research and social worlds. The support sustained her in achieving the postgraduate degree. The first source was from her two co-supervisors who supervised her final research project and revised her thesis. Their support not only enhanced Lina’s self-efficacy to some extent but also functioned to sustain her at critical moments, such as when it was due for submission: My two co-supervisors had carefully revised the thesis chapter by chapter and recognized it was good in quality, whereas Dr. Dowson did not do anything in that regard. When it was due to submit my thesis, Dr. Dowson still refused to sign on the forms. I was nearly broken down at that stage. Professor Mitchel had to push him for that. (IV3) The second source of support was from her empathetic doctoral fellows working in the same group. When Lina shared her feelings with others, she realized she was not the only student to be left in the difficult situation with Dr. Dowson. However, there were no other conational Chinese students in the research group, so Lina did not feel she had close friends in the small research context. The third source was emotional and financial support from her families. Her husband provided the never-fail emotional support. He had been beside her as she experienced this journey, working full-time as a barista to supplement their income. Her parents and parents-in-law never pressed her for the success of PhD abroad; instead, “they just want us to have a good life.”

194  Congruence/difference and transitions In addition, Lina was a Christian, so she attended the local church regularly. There she communicated well with friends from different cultural and educational backgrounds. This offered Lina an important social network for intercultural engagement and emotional support in the host community. A key factor in Lina’s decision to downgrade was dutifulness to her family. In return for her husband’s enormous sacrifice in supporting her study, Lina had always hoped that with a degree, she could be qualified for permanent residency in Australia. Once granted, her husband may pursue his PhD without the need to pay for the costly tuition as an international student. This may allow him to return to the track of doing research in bioscience, which was what “he loves and is good at” (IV2). His character suits for research and he loves it. He has sacrificed so much for me. It is not good to have a void in his research resume. Hopefully, he can return to research soon. (IV3) Life remains purposeful After two failed PhDs, Lina felt awkward to complain anymore. As this CIDS project identified, the completion rate has been high among Chinese international STEM doctoral students. Perceiving conationals’ successful completion, Lina was sad that “Everyone else around could complete anyway. It seems it’s always me having these problems” (IV3). However, with the hope to pay back the love and the sacrifice from her husband and other families who had strongly supported her when she needed that, Lina appeared to have transformed not to be emotionally affected. “It’s all gone now. At least I will know how to deal with such situations in the future” (IV3). She was expecting the birth of her first baby by then. Though still upset when occasionally recalling episodes of her frustrating doctoral journey, with new purposes in life, she seemed to be hopeful and optimistic for the future.

Chapter summary This chapter has reported two categories where major differences existed between students’ multi-worlds and border crossings became difficult or resistant. When students perceived the difficulties as almost unsurmountable, they experienced diminished motivations, endangered rapport, and major confrontations with their supervisors. The students in the two categories experienced some extra support that facilitated them to complete the study, though the one in the last pattern downgraded to a master’s degree. In Ming’s case, he encountered difficult transitions across his research and personal worlds. Some major differences existed between his personal and research worlds with a lack of effective mutual understanding, communication,

When it’s really difficult 195 and negotiation to facilitate transitions. With the support of co-supervisors, Ming completed his PhD but then stepped away from the research world, not feeling confident or competent to pursue a career in academia. In Lina’s case, encountering serious incongruence with critical factors in the research world, Lina experienced two failed PhDs in Australia. The first was due to her uncompromised values; the other was due to unmatched expectations and beliefs. In the second PhD, Lina had support from her co-supervisors, but with major confrontations with her principal supervisor, the co-supervisory support did not effectively function to allow her to persist with her PhD. To note, Lina was supported by her families both financially and emotionally, which turned into the final reason she decided to withdraw from the second PhD so as to compensate for what they had given her. For this reason, she appeared to be able to maintain her self-confidence instead of feeling disillusioned and disheartened upon completion.

Notes 1 Data sources: One three-hour interview (in two sessions) three months after Ming’s completion of PhD; several social contacts afterwards with more talks about his PhD journey. Quotes in the text were drawn from the interview transcripts. 2 Data sources: Three interviews, respectively in Lina’s late-Year 1, mid-Year 2, and after leaving the university (IV1, IV2, IV3).

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When it’s really difficult 197 Nikula, P.-T.,  & Kivisto, J. (2020). Monitoring of education agents engaged in international student recruitment: Perspectives from agency theory. Journal of Studies in International Education, 24(2), 212–231. doi:10.1177/1028315318825338 Olmos-López, P., & Sunderland, J. (2017). Doctoral supervisors’ and supervisees’ responses to co-supervision. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 41(6), 727–740. doi:10.1080/0309877x.2016.1177166 Robertson, M. (2017). Aspects of mentorship in team supervision of doctoral students in Australia. The Australian Educational Researcher, 44(4–5), 409– 424. doi:10.1007/s13384-017-0241-z Spielberger, C. D. (1983). State trait anxiety. Mind Garden Inc. Tinto, V. (1993). Leaving college: Rethinking the causes and cures of student attrition (2nd ed.). University of Chicago Press. van Rooij, E., Fokkens-Bruinsma, M., & Jansen, E. (2019). Factors that influence PhD candidates’ success: The importance of PhD project characteristics. Studies in Continuing Education, 1–20. doi:10.1080/0158037X.2019.1652158 Vitasari, P., Wahab, M. N. A., Othman, A., Herawan, T., & Sinnadurai, S. K. (2010). The relationship between study anxiety and academic performance among engineering students. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 8, 490– 497. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.12.067 Xu, L. L. (2017). Written feedback in intercultural doctoral supervision: A case study. Teaching in Higher Education, 22(2), 239–255. doi:10.1080/1356251 7.2016.1237483

Part III

Enhancing cross-cultural PhD education For a shared future

9 Agentic communication to co-construct success into the future

The last part of this book reiterates and discusses major findings from this study. In this chapter, we return to our research questions and examine a range of facilitating and constraining factors for students’ achievement. The six patterns of student experiences in terms of congruence, differences, and transitions, show core components in supervision that support or undermine a successful STEM PhD abroad. For a brief review, to enhance the understandings of Chinese international STEM doctoral students, this narrative inquiry set out to investigate the nature of their PhD abroad experiences and major influences that facilitate or constrain their positive and successful completion of a PhD degree. A three-dimensional (continuous, interactive, and situative) multi-world (research, personal, and social) framework was conceptualized to support the inquiry.

Transformation and heterogeneity For the first research question, the nature of CIDS’ experiences, we identified transformation and heterogeneity as two key concepts when putting together the six patterns and themes identified in the patterns. Transformation is the commonality across these Chinese STEM students, irrespective of their constant and varied challenges alongside the educational sojourning expedition. Whatever they experienced in a transnational, transcultural, and trans-linguistic context (Choy et al., 2017), they were able to “move forward with a mostly positive outlook for the future” (McAlpine & Amundsen, 2016, p. 92). The doctoral journey was a source of growth for these STEM CIDS. When they had to negotiate a novel context with personal independence, they did not linger over the challenges and complaining. Many participants cherished to be in a quiet context that allowed them to focus on research. Linlin, who reported following her partner as the major motivation to do a PhD abroad, transformed to be more independent, confident, and competent than ever before with her tangible success in the research field. When these students were exposed to the opportunity of self-discovery DOI: 10.4324/9781003258841-13

202  Enhancing cross-cultural PhD education in a new context, searching for who they were and whom they wanted to be, they experienced perceivable growth (Brown, 2009; Gu, 2015). These students grew and transformed when they had to exhaust research, personal, and social resources to advance their doctoral project. In the process, they exercised agency, skills, and strategies to make transitions with their research world. This research world, in many situations, extended from a small research laboratory context to a global disciplinary and/or cross-disciplinary context. Alongside striving for becoming independent scientists and researchers, successful or not, the students grew to be more mature, responsible, and resilient, with enhanced research capacity, social competence, and broadened international visions. Remarkably, the study shows the heterogeneity among students’ experiences and the consequent transformation. The heterogeneity was mainly related to what formed students’ multi-worlds, and how these worlds interacted. In particular, it was related to how well their principal supervisor facilitated their PhD study. To note, throughout the patterns, we could not identify a definite relationship between motivations pre-PhD and the PhD abroad experiences; instead, we identified that the outcomes were related to how differently their small cultural research context facilitated their PhD study and how the transitions across the worlds occurred during the PhD. Congruent interrelationships between students’ multi-worlds enabled growth and sustainability, whereas incongruent relationships impacted negatively. The best-case scenario with congruence, smooth transitions, and almost invisible borders led to high-achieving completion of PhD. The worst-case scenario from incongruent worlds, difficult transitions, and unsurmountable borders resulted in dropping out. The spectrum between the two extreme scenarios involved many variations, calling for our attention to the heterogeneous nature of international doctoral students’ situated experiences. This understanding of heterogeneity is in line with extant literature (e.g., Beaven  & Spencer-Oatey, 2016) that argues against the holistic labeling of “international students” versus local students. There was also vast diversity within Confucian-heritage cultures that differentiate Chinese students by nature (Ryan & Viete, 2009). In this sense, these students should be treated as individuals rather than only being labeled with certain categories such as gender, ethnicity, or nationality (Jones, 2017). Throughout this study, it is clear that the Chinese culture does not refer to a holistic traditional Chinese culture or the associated Confucianism, but a dynamic, developmental, and individualized integration of the Chinese culture with other cultures that have influenced China over the course of history. Further, an individual Chinese international student develops his or her “third culture” (Fail et al., 2004) while situated in a foreign cultural context. While doing a STEM PhD abroad, the nuance and subtlety in the motivations, expectations, values, beliefs, and actions

Agentic communication 203 across an individual’s multi-worlds develop into complex and diversified experiences in their specific disciplinary field. A core Confucian philosophy in education is 有教无类, which means in teaching there should be no distinction of students’ social classes. In the pre-COVID era when the world has been inter-connected and interdependent more than ever before, we might reinterpret that in doctoral supervision there should be no distinction of sociocultural classes. Another core Confucian philosophy in education is 因材施教 (the teaching should be based on an individual’s aptitude), featuring the recognition of the diversity in students. In the cross-cultural supervisory context, it involves a “meta-cultural awareness” (Ryan & Louie, 2007) by understanding, recognizing, and respecting, rather than stereotyping, individual needs in the supervision process to establish rapport, which was repeatedly found to be so critical for the positive and successful completion of a STEM PhD.

Borders With respect to the second research question, major influences that facilitate or constrain CIDS’ timely and positive completion of a STEM PhD abroad, the study identified a number of borders to conceptualize the factors. Drawing on students’ recounted experiences, there are sociocultural, psychosocial/socio-emotional, socio-relational, linguistic, socioeconomic, institutional, and gender borders. The process of emergence, elevation, or decline of these borders is connected with individual situations over time, inevitably generating diverse outcomes. The borders do not apply to each student; rather, they are in tune with individual cases and specific situations, which are particularly related to their small cultural research contexts. While the scope of borders is frequently interrelated or overlapped (Davidson & Phelan, 1999), each border has distinctive features that distinguish constraints to students’ positive and successful completion of a PhD abroad. An understanding of what, how, and why some factors constrain students’ development may, in turn, help us to understand what, how, and why some factors can better facilitate and support students. We also need to note that borders do not necessarily mean constraints; rather, borders could turn into driving forces that motivate students to achieve. The sociocultural border: This is because of some fundamental differences in STEM CIDS’ personal motivations, expectations, values, beliefs, and actions with those of the broader western sociocultural or smaller cultural research contexts. For example, when Maoming expected to invest all the time in the laboratory to do experiments, he found it was frustrating that the laboratory was not accessible on official holidays due to safety management in the Australian institution. This was a different norm from what Lei had been used to while studying in China, and holidays in

204  Enhancing cross-cultural PhD education Australia were indeed more frequent. Besides, what Maoming had also missed out was the communication on social occasions, for instance, the morning tea organized by the faculty, where he might have easily learned about the closure of the laboratory on holidays. The hierarchical relationship with supervisors and other staff members, as well as the distance with students from other sociocultural backgrounds constrained the student from effectively accessing information at the host institution. The psychosocial/socio-emotional border: This is connected with how successfully STEM CIDS deal with these sociocultural borders. The study found psychosocial or socio-emotional borders were crucial because they were associated with their psychological distress, motivations, and expectations in their multi-worlds on a daily basis. Both sociocultural and psychosocial borders are in accord with a large body of literature that focuses on the difficulties of Chinese international students’ acculturation and adaptation in a cross-cultural context (e.g., Meng et al., 2018; Wang & Mallinckrodt, 2006; Winchester-Seeto et al., 2014; Zhang & Goodson, 2011). Though supervisors may have different perspectives on how to make successful student researchers (Gu et al., 2017; Kiley & Mullins, 2005), the current study found smooth communication, in terms of recognition and timely feedback on students’ achievement along the doctoral process, was especially important for students maintaining psychological balance (Christie et al., 2008), persistence, and confidence (Cotterall, 2013) to achieve their PhD degree abroad. McAlpine and colleagues’ (2009) study concludes that “affect is an important aspect of doctoral experience” (p. 108). Our study supports their conclusion. More importantly, we identified students may experience multiple modes of loneliness in the duration of doing the STEM PhD abroad, which will be discussed in Chapter 10. The socio-relational border: This put the supervisor–student relationship into the foreground. This was mainly because, first, the nature of one-to-one (including one supervisory panel) doctoral supervision system highlighted the central importance of supervision in the completion and satisfaction of a PhD. This supports previous findings in literature about doctoral students and international doctoral students (Due et al., 2015; Lee, 2008; McClure, 2005). The second reason was related to the high value attached to the harmonious supervisory relationship by Chinese students. In particular, this study found psychosocial borders could become minor when students were situated in harmonious socio-relationships in a small cultural context that well-facilitated their PhD progress, whereas the psychosocial borders could become gravely detrimental when the relationships had deteriorated. This finding reflects the influences of core Chinese philosophy, 仁 (Ren), which stresses human relatedness, interdependence, and social connectedness so that an individual is devoted to seeking social harmony as a form of self-cultivation (Lai, 2006).

Agentic communication 205 The linguistic border: This includes Chinese students’ difficulties with both oral communication and academic writing in English, both of which have been broadly addressed in literature (e.g., Brown, 2008; Brown & Holloway, 2008; Cortazzi & Jin, 2013; Lowinger et al., 2014). To complement this body of literature, the current study found there were vast differences in Chinese students’ English proficiency when they commenced their PhD abroad. Again, this was connected with each individual’s sociocultural background within Chinese society. For example, those growing up in cosmopolitan areas had much better English proficiency than those who had lived in remote rural areas. These differences in oral and written English related to access to resources. However, the study also found linguistic borders may become invisible even for students with the rural background if their small cultures put more importance on students’ intellectual capability rather than their English language proficiency. This was also associated with students’ agency, motivation, and determination to master the language. In other cases, linguistic borders may remain till the completion of their PhD abroad. This was mainly because some students chose to stay within their comfort zone and limited their use of oral English to meetings with supervisors. Even so, linguistic borders appeared not to have constrained their academic writing and publications. Several such students had a high number of publications despite the difficulty in oral communication in English. The socio-economic border: Adding to the pressure of completing the PhD within three to four years, the self-funded students in this study struggled extremely hard to balance high-demanding research work and earn a basic income for living. The burnout situation due to overwork and the frustration due to unsatisfactory research performance was more salient among these self-funded students than the scholarship-supported ones. Besides, this study did not find any individual who was able to work to pay for the high tuition fees set for international PhD students in the current social context. In that sense, the self in the term self-funded did not mean students themselves; rather, they had to seek support from their parents or partners, who had to sacrifice enormously to pay for the studies. We found it was a huge pressure on their self-esteem for these adult PhD students to have to seek this support. Therefore, these students were more likely to suffer emotionally and physically than those who were financially independent and self-sufficient with a scholarship. The financial issue is also likely to influence these self-funded CIDS’ after-PhD decision-making. Rather than pursuing further research development, it is common to find “I’ll work to pay back my parents” as the priority in their choice of careers and destinations. Effectively, they may prioritize the income of a job, for which they may have to compromise personal interest and the enormous effort having invested in the training of the PhD.

206  Enhancing cross-cultural PhD education Institutional borders: This study highlights the importance of the designation of the principal and co-supervisors in a supervisory panel amongst a range of possible institutional borders (Dericks et  al., 2019). In several cases, students reported difficulties when the principal supervisors they applied for became co-supervisors. The reasons could be different research directions, retirement, or supervisor(s) leaving the university. And some had to apply for a change of supervisor because of clashes of different reasons. For example, a student changed supervisor after refusing his supervisor’s suggestion to join an industrial project in the latter half of his second year of PhD, as the supervisor had indicated the student might not graduate if he did not join. Research laboratories have a closed environment among supervisors, students, and other researchers, and once the balance is disturbed or changed, students need time to reposition themselves in a new relationship. Though an institutional border is mostly out of students’ control, the current study found how students experienced support and facilitation after a critical change could take them on absolutely different trajectories. For example, Renfei excelled after the change, Meng completed along his timeline in plan, whereas Ming had mere survival. Oddly, in Lina’s case, the committee chair in her supervisory panel didn’t function effectively so that her principal supervisor maintained control in the power dynamics and hence all decisions, which resulted in Lina’s decision to drop out. This could be a phenomenon worthy of further investigation. The gender border: Surprisingly, most female students in this study hardly considered gender difference as a constraining factor that hindered their timely completion of PhD abroad and their personal growth. Rather, they were highly positive about the experiences and valued opportunities of doing the PhD abroad. They mostly talked about their transformation and enhanced confidence through the PhD process. The one student who downgraded was a female but there was insufficient evidence to suggest her constraints were related to gender. These findings are complementary to the literature that focuses on the unique challenges international female PhD students may encounter, such as invisibility and exclusion in the male-dominated STEM fields (Dutta, 2015). Despite all those perceivable challenges, most female students exhibited their inner strength, strategies, and skills to achieve academic success and professional socialization. Thus far, in this section, we have discussed a range of borders as potential constraining factors to influence CIDS’ successful PhD abroad. The three-dimensional multi-world framework allowed us to examine borders from a holistic perspective, complementing those of earlier studies that investigated particular constraints in international doctoral education (as presented in Chapter 2). Future studies are highly encouraged to examine, critique, and enrich these concepts so that we may understand

Agentic communication 207 better how to facilitate international doctoral students for the sustainability of international doctoral education.

Congruence/difference and transitions In Part II, this book reported six classified patterns to represent students’ congruence or difference and corresponding transitions across CIDS’ multi-worlds over time. Although each pattern encompasses diversity with respect to an individual student’s perceptions of experiences, there are, nevertheless, some common themes. In the first pattern, congruent worlds and smooth transitions, students reported the motivations, expectations, values, beliefs, and actions were generally congruent across their multi-worlds so that they experienced comparatively smooth transitions across and over time. These students described academic success based on common motivations, expectations, and persistence. They also described harmonious relationships based on shared values and beliefs. All these factors assisted them through the challenges of doing a PhD abroad. Most importantly, their supervisors, team, and families offered strong support and guidance to facilitate their congruent world and smooth transitions so that they could concentrate on their doctoral research, which in turn enhanced their confidence, competence, and calmness. Remarkably in this pattern, communication barriers are not readily perceivable between the students, their supervisors, and others involved. For example, when Shao was on the verge of withdrawing from his PhD when he was in a loss with the meaningfulness of his research, the conversations with his supervisors and families played a crucial role in him returning to the research world. The preconditions that these conversations could function effectively at critical moments may include, firstly, the relationship with supervisors and, secondly, the mutual familial care and concern. Chinese students rarely make decisions without considering their families (Bodycott, 2009; Bodycott & Lai, 2012). They also care about their supervisors and are willing to listen to their advice if there is established rapport, trust, and respect. Students in this pattern were intensively engaged in negotiating with their supervisors in the whole process of their doctoral research. They articulated their ideas with confidence and the supervisors’ positive recognition further enhanced their independence and self-efficacy in traversing boundaries to achieve a successful PhD abroad. Students in the second pattern, different worlds and smooth transitions, reported diverse cross multi-world differences that persisted along their PhD journey. Significantly, these differences were understood, recognized, and respected by the agents in their multi-worlds. It was the valued differences that enabled their smooth transitions across and over time. The differences between students’ multi-worlds were related to the boundaries and borders that emerged in their PhD abroad. These borders brought on pressure and stress during their PhD abroad, but with the

208  Enhancing cross-cultural PhD education mutual empathy and agency to recognize and value the differences, these students persisted and transformed with confidence. This group of students is similar to those in the first pattern in that not many communication issues are evident between them and their supervisors or others in their multi-worlds. In Lei’s case, the supported “freerange style” supervision facilitated his self-navigation and transitions across the multi-worlds with ease. These factors enabled him to establish his research, expand international academic networks, and complete with high output and recognition in the field. In general, when the differences are valued, these students do not feel panic or anxiety about boundary issues; rather, they calmly focus on the pursuit of scientific research and experience success and growth. In the third pattern, congruent worlds and border crossings managed, students exhibited strong agency and took initiatives in managing transitions to create congruence for their PhD abroad. This group is different from those in the first pattern because the congruence is created with agency and a clear locus of control. The example of Yuyan showed she was a novice at research at the beginning of her PhD, but she aligned the motivations, expectations, values, beliefs, and actions across her multiworlds to facilitate her highly successful academic achievement. This group also distinguishes themselves from the second pattern in their dedicated negotiation, communication, and adaptation to create congruence rather than let the differences remain. For example, Yuyan recounted herself as a unique Asian student in the research center as she would join Australian and European fellows at pubs and games after work. Yuyan was fully aware from her initial contacts that local people lacked the motivation to establish relationships with international students. Rather than enduring the distance as an outsider, she actively made herself be one of them. In return, her effort in integration generated support and recognition from her peers and others in the research and social contexts. This group reports their supervisors, team, and families being supportive and positive in facilitating their transitions and academic studies. Their communication with supervisors was smooth because of supervisors’ explicit instructions, timely facilitation, and dedicated support at critical moments, sometimes in a crisis. This smooth communication in many cases rescued students from feeling distracted, confused, or lost. It is the consistent mutual or multilateral effort that enabled these students to find congruence between their worlds and to enhance their self-efficacy in managing transitions across potential or existing boundaries. Students in the fourth pattern, different worlds and border crossings managed, presented strongest agency in navigating their PhD abroad. They experienced ideological or behavioral conflicts due to diversified differences in motivations, expectations, values, beliefs, or actions across the multi-worlds. These conflicts negatively impacted their PhD abroad experiences at certain stages, but these students exercised agency,

Agentic communication 209 resilience, and persistence to achieve their goals regardless of perceivable dissatisfaction or frustration. This pattern shares some similarities with the second pattern in that differences exist from the very beginning of students’ PhD. Differently, in this pattern, most students experienced a more severe impact of differences, such as the lack of essential supervisory support, team support, and research resources (e.g., funds, experimental facilities, experimental materials) to advance their project. A couple of them lacked the initial intrinsic motivation in the scientific research itself. Besides, the majority in this group were impacted by under-communication or miscommunication with their supervisors, which are not so obviously perceivable in the previous three patterns. The issues with communication are closely related to difficulties in border crossings that undermined the transitions between their multi-worlds. Two different types of students with respect to the agency of communication are representative in this pattern: one “holding my ground” and another “keeping things within.” The former is evident in Shu’s case, where he defended his ideas in a hard way. Shu’s experience was extremely difficult because the effort to communicate seemed to be unilateral. In the latter type, the outcomes are diverse due to differences in whether or not they were facilitated or encouraged to communicate. With supervisory facilitation, students grew to be confident in articulation and communication; without, students appeared to be resilient, agentic, but less communicative and more stressed. In general, the locus of control is evident in their transitions across the borders so that this group of students achieved their PhD with both positive and negative experiences and the corresponding emotions. In the fifth pattern, different worlds and border crossings difficult, students experienced almost insurmountable borders, and they struggled for sheer survival of the PhD abroad. Similar to the fourth pattern, these students experienced conflicts that impacted their PhD experiences, but differently, for this group, the conflicts remained largely unsolved without effective communication, thus leading to escalated complications, such as major confrontations with supervisors. Consequently, these students completed their PhD with negative emotions and turned away from the research world after graduation. More severely, they were confused with their personal, professional, and cultural identities upon graduation, which influenced their career decisions and the destination after the PhD. In pre-PhD experiences, these students are not readily distinguishable in motivations, educational background, and external influences from the students in the first four patterns. However, during the PhD, perceivable and unrelieved conflicts in motivations, expectations, values, beliefs, and actions between students and their multi-worlds (mainly their principal supervisor) lead to students’ negative psycho-emotions toward their PhD and a future career in research. In Ming’s case, without being convinced

210  Enhancing cross-cultural PhD education why he had to follow particular instructions, Ming experienced confusion, disappointment, clashes, and demotivation throughout his PhD. Insufficient communication and never-established rapport and trust became key borders that seriously undermined Ming and another student in this group’s PhD abroad experiences. Importantly, key factors that helped students to survive were co-supervisors and other external support that compensated for what was missing in the principal supervisor’s support. Then in the last pattern, different worlds and border crossings resisted, the student dropped out of the PhD as the borders between her multiworlds escalated and were perceived as unsurmountable. This student decided to leave with a master’s degree after repeated setbacks in attempts to communicate and negotiate with her principal supervisor. When traversing psychosocial boundaries was perceived as impossible, the student experienced anxiety, disillusionment, anger, and depression. A key factor in Lina’s surviving her downgrade to a master’s degree was her co-supervisors positioning themselves as her allies when she had major confrontations with her main supervisor. With co-supervisory support, Lina could compose herself and maintain the essential self-efficacy to complete her master’s degree. This essentiality to have extra support, be it major or minor, shares some similarities with the previous five patterns even though the outcomes are different. The practice of co-supervising doctoral students has attracted the attention of recent research, perceiving both benefit and risks, such as power dynamics, work distribution, and different voices in supervision (e.g., Grossman & Crowther, 2015; Olmos-Lopez & Sunderland, 2017; Robertson, 2017). This study extends some understandings to the co-supervisory support with Chinese students in cross-cultural settings. The six patterns demonstrate a range of experiences, from the congruent worlds and smooth transitions that led to students’ confidence, competence, and high achievement, to the less-congruent worlds and border crossings resisted that resulted in dropping out. The patterns show that achieving a STEM PhD abroad was an extremely challenging task for each and every student; it was the way they experienced the process that made a difference. With fine and distinct differences between each of the six patterns, students and their supervisors’ agency in communication and the effectiveness of this communication are evident as core components in facilitating or undermining transitions across the multi-worlds over time. Drawing on previous research that identifies the importance of communication for international students (e.g., Holmes, 2005; Williams, 2005), this study finds communication can make or break the rapport, trust, and respect between a supervisor and an international doctoral student, the key relationship to facilitate or to constrain a successful doctorate in STEM. Pertaining to this crucial point, below we focus on the importance of exercising agency to initiate and enhance communication.

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Agentic communication Besides personal factors and contextual resources, the bilateral and reciprocal agency to communicate, termed agentic communication, is evident as a major component in supporting or undermining successful transitions to achieve the PhD abroad. The findings have explicitly shown how congruence facilitates academic and personal growth, but the difference does not necessarily mean constraint. Rather, it is how the transitions occur that is important in whether students could achieve their transnational PhD on time, positively, and successfully. Although with six patterns, there were four different kinds of transitions and outcomes reported in the study: smooth, managed, difficult, and resisted. This section first examines why agentic communication functions in differentiating the patterns and outcomes of transitions, then moves on to why establishing rapport, trust, and respect through communication is important for CIDS’ STEM PhD abroad, and discusses the complexity of the communication due to their hybrid identities that goes beyond cultures. The section ends with some practical suggestions on facilitating agentic communication in transnational education settings. Communication for transitions Communication issues persistently exist among Chinese students in a western context. In classroom settings, research finds that Chinese international students tend to avoid potential communication with their lecturers or non-Chinese peers (Ai, 2017). Reasons involve modesty, linguistic competence, or a strategy to avoid losing face with potential language mistakes (Fang et  al., 2016). As a mistake-avoiding strategy, it corresponds to a Chinese perspective, 言多必失 (one is prone to make mistakes with over-talking), but lack of communication often ends with “silent voices” (Ryan & Viete, 2009), resulting in problematic relationships when misinterpreted. Extending to a research context, this study has reported a phenomenon that whereas some Chinese students defended themselves well in negotiations across differences, some students tend to “keep-things-to-themselves” when problems occurred (as revealed in Chapter 7). The reasons involve both personal factors (e.g., cultural values and beliefs, personal disposition, linguistic barriers) and contextual factors (e.g., there is no one around to turn to). In many cases, CIDS attempted to communicate with supervisor(s), particularly at the initial stages, but without perceivable or tangible success in achieving the purposes of communication, their primary instinct was to retreat for the sake of self-protection. Their unspoken thoughts or silent voices often lead to the notion of “problematic Chinese learners” (Ye & Edwards, 2015), or “surface learners” (Sakurai et al., 2014) for which the same researchers identified as untrue. In such

212  Enhancing cross-cultural PhD education a transnational and transcultural research context, though, students were often misunderstood, misinterpreted, and marginalized (McClure, 2007), impacting their emotions, well-being, and academic achievement (Han et al., 2013; Wang et al., 2015). The challenges in enhancing smooth communications, which seemed to be mysterious to some supervisors, might be traced back to some of the Chinese cultural traits. Fung (1948/2019) described that, in the spirit of Ch’an, Chinese scholars in the old time would communicate conflicting issues by “silently understanding each other with a smile.” In Chinese philosophy, the Way, or the Dao is perceived as “unnamable,” and the ultimate reality of the Buddhists is also described as something that cannot be spoken of. Rooted in this traditional philosophy, Chinese people usually perceive notsaying, about challenges, difficulties, or adversities, as showing respect to the other’s knowledge; that is, an educated person would expect the other to understand the part he/she refrains from telling (Wang et al., 2021). However, this might bring enormous difficulty for Chinese students in the western educational context. The situation could be particularly difficult if the supervisor is unaware of Chinese philosophy, which is often the case. While students perceived they were showing their respect to supervisors’ knowledge, status, and suggestions by following and listening, supervisors considered the students were putting themselves in a disadvantaged position when not articulating their own ideas. Drawing on these reasons, agentic communication, exercising agency to initiate and foster communication, is proposed as a strategy to facilitate transitions across the multi-worlds. The nature of a STEM PhD program requires cutting-edge innovation and advancing science and technology forward, suggesting a co-learning experience (Robson & Turner, 2007) through students’ doctoral research, which also calls for mutual effort in initiating and smoothening communication that is based on respect and trust, and beyond cultural factors. Rapport, trust, and respect This study demonstrates that this generation of STEM CIDS takes on the Chinese tradition of high respect for teachers. As doctoral candidates, they perceive their supervisor as a senior figure in the hierarchical relationship, so that they are willing to communicate and listen to their advice if rapport, trust, and respect are established. Oppositely, when there is a lack of agentic communication from core agents in a student’s multi-worlds, differences endanger their transitions and demotivate their pursuit of research. Miscommunication or under-communication is discouraging for students because their research skills and talents could be overshadowed not only by language insufficiency (Xu, 2017) but also by the lack of opportunity to articulate and negotiate as novice, but passionate, scientists and researchers.

Agentic communication 213 Though heterogeneity, or diversity, exists among Chinese students, some of the shared values and beliefs were evident across the participants. As mentioned in Chapter 1, a key aspect in Chinese philosophy is the concept that everyone is related. With the traditional philosophy that stresses “仁” (Ren) – human relatedness, interdependence, and social connectedness – the cultivation of the self is the cultivation of relationships (Lai, 2006; Wu, 1986). This concept applies to the educational setting. In this setting, students take their peers as brothers and sisters (师兄弟, 师姐妹) and their collective friendship could last life-long. The most important figure in this educational setting is Laoshi (老师， the teacher). In Chinese, Laoshi is a term holistically referring to someone who can teach at any level and at any field of trades, including doctoral supervisors. A Chinese maxim expresses students’ high respect for teachers, “一日为师，终身为父” (He who teaches me for one day is like my father for life). With this ideology, Chinese students commonly place trust and respect on their supervisors and apply an introspective way of thinking to look for problems within themselves when conflicts or problems occur. While doing a PhD abroad, these students readily bring with them these family-like educational values and beliefs. As novice researchers and scientists, students consider themselves as juniors in the social status so that they essentially expect themselves to show due respect to supervisors. One common action of this belief is the willingness to comply with supervisors rather than confronting and articulating their doubts, problems, and challenges. They may consider talking to their supervisors about minor problems in their PhD as bothering them too much. However, it was far too often these minor issues accrued into major ones or even became unsolvable, which caused complicated situations, disillusionment, and even the loss of respect. Hence encouraging Chinese students to articulate can be helpful to establish rapport, trust, and respect. As mentioned earlier, this is important for students’ transitions so that they would not keep problems within themselves and so that minor issues would not accrue. Also as this study demonstrated, a harmonious relationship in many cases compensated for the limitation of research resources and students completed their PhD with success, positivity, and sustained passion in research. However, this study found culture was not the only important factor involved, and this will be discussed next. Cultures and beyond Importantly, this study reveals that culture might too easily become the scapegoat when we interpret miscommunication or under-communication situations. As evidence of this point, while CIDS in this study had a Chinese cultural background, their supervisors had a wide range of ethnic-cultural origins in the Australian multicultural context. Remarkably,

214  Enhancing cross-cultural PhD education among the six patterns, there were students with supervisors of the same ethnic-cultural background1 but were positioned at two opposite ends of the spectrum due to their extremely diversified experiences and outcomes. On one end, students were well facilitated and appeared to be confident, competent, and calm; on the other, students were left disappointed and seemed to be confused, anxious, and frustrated. With scrutinization that goes beyond cultural factors, the factors that constrain or facilitate smooth communications can be complex and multifaceted. As comprehensively unfolded in the finding chapters, it involves multifarious differences in motivations, expectations, values, beliefs, and the corresponding actions across students’ multi-worlds, making communications “a very complicated interaction” (Liang, 2004, p. iv). For example, when a student was eager to publish his research findings after the first year, and his supervisor changed his mind and did not support him for publications, the student found the barriers that hindered their communications became unsurmountable. For another example, when a self-funded Chinese student was under tremendous financial pressure and the supervisor provided him with an opportunity to lecture in a summer school, the student felt encouraged to communicate more with his supervisor. This complexity may be interpreted as when doing a STEM PhD abroad, the focus of these students is on achieving the degree and establishing their professional identity for a future career in academia (McAlpine et al., 2009; Park et al., 2018). The conflicts or factors that constrain their transitions across multi-worlds are very often related with students’ doctoral research rather than culture-related issues per se (WinchesterSeeto et  al., 2014). When the communication about scientific research goes smoothly, positive transitions ensue, or the reverse. In this sense, the success of CIDS’ acculturation in the host community is closely related to their success in the PhD study. Their social activities are most often interweaved with their academic activities and their social integration is more likely to occur in their small or broad research context. CIDS’ confidence in communication and integration increases with the strengthening of his/her professional identity (McAlpine et al., 2009). Their self-efficacy also increases with their academic opportunities and activities such as lecturing, reviewing papers, attending conferences, or being part of national or international research networks (McClure, 2007). Besides, these STEM students were open to new cultural values and beliefs. With an average age of 25.26 (ranging from 21 to 30) when commencing their PhD, the participants in this study revealed the formative and developmental nature of their values and beliefs. For example, this study reported in Different worlds/smooth transitions pattern, some students perceived a PhD as a job rather than education, so they tended to work with a 朝九晚五 (nine to five) schedule, though in reality, they

Agentic communication 215 worked much longer to fulfil their commitment. Importantly, it was evident that these students were more likely to have a transformed notion of considering their supervisor as a colleague figure because of their transformed concepts of the nature of the PhD. These influences are interactive and develop over time, but the quality of the supervisor–student relationship may often “spell the difference between completion and non-completion” (Lovitts, 2001, p. 131). This was the drive for the focus of this section on the communication between supervisors and international doctoral students in relation with and beyond culture, but all based on “respectful interactions” (Ryan & Viete, 2009, p. 308). Listening and hearing Taken together, our study suggests the importance of listening and hearing in light of the complexity of achieving and facilitating a STEM PhD in a transcultural, transnational, and trans-linguistic context. Reciprocal effort The contribution to facilitating communication is bilateral, reciprocal, and lasting. The role of both the supervisor and the supervisee is of particular importance. As they are naturally unequal in position, some researchers suggested that supervisors take the “burden” of initiating conversations, or listening by hearing, to establish a trustful relationship (Harding-DeKam et al., 2012, p. 9). We suggest students, as apprentice scientists and researchers, also take the responsibility in mediating the transnational and transcultural spaces while doing the PhD abroad (Tran  & Vu, 2017). Evidence in the first three patterns shows smooth transitions facilitates positive experiences, enhances motivation to achieve, and generates outstanding outcomes. The patience to negotiate is challenging but rewarding for supervisors; meanwhile, the courage to articulate is the same for students. Explicit conversations Effective, constructive, informative, and explicit conversations in weekly or fortnightly supervisory meetings, be it in person or via lines, are important. This facilitates transitions to be smooth or manageable rather than difficult or resisted. Supervisory style is highly individualized and may be based on supervisors’ personal experiences of being supervised when doing the doctorate, but supervision is a career-long learning process for supervisors to develop their capacity and skills in diversified specific situations (Akerlind & McAlpine, 2017; McCulloch et al., 2016). In a cross-cultural supervisory context, providing explicit instructions, and

216  Enhancing cross-cultural PhD education meanwhile, promoting greater agency in their international doctoral students to articulate may help construct a positive supervisory relationship and a harmonious small cultural research context (Magyar & RobinsonPant, 2011; Soong et al., 2015). In this study, for example, unlike some other participants who referred to their supervisors as boss throughout their PhD, Linyun benefited enormously in her first meetings when the supervisors expressed explicitly that she was the boss of her own doctoral project. This cleared her understanding in the control over her PhD, the decision-making in the process, and the transformation into an independent researcher. Positive feedback Supervisors’ positive feedback in enhancing students’ confidence in articulation is an important facilitating factor in smoothing communication. Simple as it may be, our data demonstrate several students’ confidence was shattered or almost shattered with supervisors’ constant and consistent negative feedback. Wang and Li’s (2011, p. 101) research argues for the importance of “dialogic and culturally sensitive feedback” in supervising international doctoral students. The current study supports this dialogic approach, but finds that with the multiculturalization of higher education, it might be difficult for supervisors to be culturally sensitive to the diversity and nuances of individual cultures; instead, positive feedback always applies for enhancing students’ academic confidence, in particular when students are yet to establish their self-efficacy in research at the initial stages. It needs caution, though, to find the balance between “pushing too little” and “praising too much” (Hu et al., 2016). In general, this current study finds when feeling confident, students navigate their PhD abroad journey with enhanced motivation, determination, and self-regulation. Strengthening intrinsic motivation Many students in this study reported their agency and confidence in articulation through their positive interaction experiences with their supervisors. When these students could articulate and were recognized for doing so, they were trusting and respectful to their supervisors in return. These positive experiences have been identified as highly related to their enhanced intrinsic motivation. This motivation is further linked with their perceived and facilitated academic competence and self-esteem as mature adult students (Bandura, 2002; Deci et al., 2001). At the positive end of the spectrum of agentic communication, students presented characteristics that fit Ryan and Deci’s (2000) research on psychological needs that facilitate intrinsic motivation – competence, autonomy, and relatedness. Ryan and Deci view these three needs as

Agentic communication 217 essential for understanding “the what (i.e., content) and why (i.e., process) of goal pursuits” (p. 228). Research on Chinese doctoral students in China suggests that self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation could mediate the influences of different supervisory styles on doctoral students’ power of innovation (Gu et  al., 2017). The current study found for students working on the goal-directed activity of completing a PhD program on time, be it intrinsic or extrinsic, “the motivation has been always there” (Yuyan). For international doctoral students, the communication process influences their self-efficacy in articulation and how they perceived the possibility of their successful completion of the PhD. In contrast and toward the other end of the spectrum, some other students suffered from diminished intrinsic motivation. They experienced failed agentic attempts to articulate and did not see their ideas being valued. These students became increasingly dubious about their supervisors’ suggestions. As a consequence, they maintained a distance from their supervisors, both physically and spiritually. They would stay in their own niche rather than initiating further communications with supervisors. They may also become increasingly passive in taking initiatives in research, and this lack of autonomy could seriously undermine their motivation and self-efficacy (Bandura, 2002; Ryan & Deci, 2000). Evidence in our longitudinal study consistently supports the notion that agentic communication, whoever initiates the communication, could be the icebreaker to address the keeping-within issue and other boundaries in the PhD abroad. Although students may have different trajectories and differ in transitions across their personal, research, and social domains, when communication is smooth, and efforts are together, academic achievement follows. Multilateral engagement Further, the interlocked and interacted multi-worlds conceptual framework shows the importance of multilateral contribution to communication when taking initiatives to traverse sociocultural, psychosocial, linguistic, and other borders. It involves all the agents from the research and social worlds who are engaged with international doctoral education. In the research world, the agents involve academics and professionals in both small and broad research contexts. A  gesture to get connected or to provide opportunities with the context always helps. For example, when Anqi stepped forward to talk with a professor in a faculty morning tea, the professor expressed interest in his research and offered to attend a cross-disciplinary seminar. This incidence was critical in that Anqi could gather confidence to expand his professional networks to a global scope. In a broader sense, Meng connected himself with researchers around the world through research websites, where he received positive feedback and constructive suggestions on his work, contributing to his success despite

218  Enhancing cross-cultural PhD education a zigzag doctoral supervisory process. In a more difficult situation, Ruihan was able to defend against his sense of hopelessness and helplessness with academic assistance from researchers connected through international disciplinary conferences. On reflection, several participants realized that the world of research was not a one-person island, but it was a learning process for them to understand how to get connected. Similarly important is the agentic communication with critical ones in students’ social world. As Daiyun recounted, doing a STEM PhD abroad was not a laureate halo; rather, it meant endless hard work, countless setbacks, high stress, and low possibilities of success. Students sacrificed comforts in life to strive for the goal. In the process, the understanding of the challenges from their parents, partners, peers, and other important ones influences their confidence, calmness, and persistence. The understanding from the broad social communities at home and host countries may also influence their emotions and decisions. These aspects cannot be overlooked when we attempt to understand international doctoral students’ experiences and outcomes of international doctoral education.

Chapter summary This chapter returned to the research questions of the project. With the first question, the study uses heterogeneity and transformation to unfold the nature of the experience of Chinese international STEM doctoral students. With the second question, the study identifies that throughout students’ PhD, challenges and difficulties exist in terms of sociocultural, psychosocial, socio-relational, linguistic, socio-economic, institutional, and gender borders. The emergence, elevation, or decline of these borders relates to individual situations over time, generating diverse outcomes. The cases in this study highlight the importance of mutual respect and listening in the cross-cultural supervisory relationship, which is often neglected by students’ supervisors in practice. With respect-based congruence and encouraged opportunity of articulation, students appeared to be confident and competent, not panic about differences, positively managing challenges, and maintaining their aspiration in research, whereas without, students were demotivated to manage their own project, resulting in negative emotions, confrontations, and limited output. Therefore, this study appeals for agentic communication with multilateral engagement, from supervisors initially, but from both students and supervisors over the course of the PhD, to establish a positive context for negotiation across differences.

Note 1 For privacy and confidentiality considerations, ethnic backgrounds of supervisors are generally not disclosed in this book.

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10 From understanding to a shared future

In the previous chapter, we examined the interaction between an individual’s research and personal worlds. In this chapter, we focus on students’ personal world and examine how their personal world interacts with their research and social worlds so as to enhance agentic communication. Academic integration is important for doctoral students for their academic success and research sustainability (Tinto, 1993; McAlpine, 2011). This study, however, identified five modes of loneliness – personal, social, cultural, academic, and geographical – as emotional and physical challenges Chinese students may encounter in specific contexts and situations when doing a PhD abroad. This chapter discusses how philosophical values and beliefs, social networks, and the sense of social commitment supported Chinese STEM students to deal with challenges and to transform from being marginalized to academic integration. To conclude the book, this chapter also discusses how this book contributes to understanding Chinese students and how the framework is generic and transferrable in supporting our understanding of international research students from different cultures and in different contexts for a shared future. The chapter ends with limitations on reflection and some thoughts for future research.

Five modes of loneliness 独在异乡为异客，每逢佳节倍思亲。 遥知兄弟登高处，遍插茱萸少一人。 (All alone in a foreign land, I am twice as homesick on this day. When brothers carry dogwood up the mountain, each of them a branch – and my branch missing.) – Wang Wei (699–761 A.D., Tang Dynasty. Translated by Witter Bynner)

This poem, from about 1,300 years ago, passed on the nostalgia that a Chinese sojourner had on the day of a traditional festival that was meant to be a family reunion. It entangles the sense of personal loneliness (living DOI: 10.4324/9781003258841-14

224  Enhancing cross-cultural PhD education alone in a foreign land), social loneliness (no brothers nearby), and cultural loneliness (missing the tradition that brothers climb mountains on the day and wear dogwood to ward off evils). While China has several such traditional festivals around the year for family get-togethers, such as the Chinese New Year and the mid-Autumn Festival, this study identified these occasions might become “emotionally fragile moments” (Chengyi) to intensify the sense of loneliness for STEM CIDS living far from home and working alone in a foreign laboratory. Chinese international students generally experience these personal, social, and cultural loneliness while studying abroad. For many, loneliness occurs on a daily basis, as illustrated specifically in Chapter  5. Reasons for the loneliness may include geographical distance away from families, disrupted social connectedness or friendship (McKenzie & Baldassar, 2017; Meng et al., 2018), and lack of social self-efficacy in the new sociocultural context (Tsai et al., 2017). The convenience of online social media, for example, WeChat, can create both bridges and boundaries in communication (Sleeman et al., 2016), as it soothes the sense of loneliness only to a limited extent. To complement the literature about international students’ loneliness, the study identifies that a fourth type, academic loneliness, may apply to STEM CIDS in different scenarios. First, some students were left working alone when the supervisor was engaged with other positions. The term, an “academic orphan” (Feng), vividly described their difficulty in progressing the doctoral project. For the second scenario, many students reported there was no team or senior peer support, which was perceived as critical for facilitation, collaboration, and the continuity of knowledge in advancing STEM research. These two scenarios may apply to doctoral students in a general sense when they encounter such a dilemma. Third, some Chinese students found their concept of the father figure of the supervisor and the brotherhood and sisterhood among fellow doctoral students in a research center (师兄弟，师姐妹) did not apply to the new research context; rather, the colleague relationship applied, to which they needed to adjust themselves. This adjustment, if successful, could become an advantage for students’ academic achievement; whereas if the transitions throughout this adjustment process were confusing, discouraged, or disoriented, students may fall into a strange situation, without knowing how to deal with this relationship or worse, how to articulate their perspectives in research. Further, for some students who lived in a rental house alone off campus, which was quite often the case, they may encounter the fourth scenario that there was no one around to discuss their research in and out of their laboratories, in addition to the limitation of their chances to integrate with the host culture. The latter two scenarios especially apply to Chinese students in that the situations are dramatically different from the crowded, sometimes over-crowded, research laboratories and on-campus accommodation in

From understanding to a shared future 225 China, where a student is naturally put in a shared me-and-others space. As Bitong revealed, in China, she hardly had any “me-time,” whereas in Australia she had “too much” of it in her research and everyday life. This may result in a lack of communication in various aspects, including essential information exchanges. An instance is that several students were surprised to “吃了闭门羹” (encounter a closed door) on Christmas when they were about to work in the laboratory as usual. Being used to shared inside/outside space, connectedness, and interdependence in China, when Chinese students commence their PhD abroad, they need to learn how to deal with the loneliness. They need to learn how to be independent in research, and even more importantly, they need to learn how to break the sociocultural and other emotional borders to reach for outside connections and resources to progress their research. For this, researchers point out that academic socialization is one of the most crucial factors that may constrain the development of professional identity for Asian STEM doctoral students abroad (Park et al., 2018). In addition, some STEM CIDS might experience geographical loneliness. This is mainly due to the regional remoteness where their research centers are located for disciplinary needs. This issue may not just apply to CIDS, as it may apply to other researchers in those centers. For those CIDS experiencing geographical isolation, though, it aggravated the overall feeling of loneliness. Distinctively, the sense of loneliness is often related to a sense of helplessness. With diversified situations, an individual may experience one or a combined form of loneliness, linked with their situated psychosocial, sociocultural, socio-economic, linguistic, and institutional borders alongside the PhD abroad experiences. Whichever they experience, as grownups, these students cannot resort to parents for help when problems emerge. Some may share with their partners, but the majority are still single. As international students, they are yet to establish new social networks in the host community. As novice scientists and researchers, they are yet to know how to establish their professional identity through academic networks. Further on and as discussed earlier in Chapter  7, with the disposition of “keeping things to themselves,” many of them would rather shoulder responsibilities on their own than bothering others, be it supervisors, peers, or families. Taking these factors together, these students are likely to experience moments of feeling extremely lonely and helpless, causing anxiety and depression that imperil their general well-being, particularly when in seriously difficult situations during their STEM PhD abroad (Han et  al., 2013; Levecque et  al., 2017; Woolston, 2017). As this study found the dominant majority of STEM CIDS persisted to achieve their academic goals, how they used their personal and contextual resources to transform through the loneliness for spiritual serenity will be the focus later. This point is critical because research in the

226  Enhancing cross-cultural PhD education fields of psychology, anthropology, sociology, and education consistently identifies loneliness as a painful, threatening, debilitating, and exceedingly unpleasant experience (Baldassar, 2008; Brown & Holloway, 2008; Sawir et al., 2007; Weiss, 1973). In contrast, maintaining serenity, or “a sustained state of inner peace” (Wolfradt et al., 2014, p. 131), is essential by nature for doctoral students to concentrate on important things in life, that is, their doctoral research for the time being, despite varied and constant challenges (Barry et al., 2018; Stubb et al., 2011).

Philosophy leads the way The conceptualization of research students’ three-dimensional multiworld allowed this study to reveal CIDS’ spiritual aspect in their personal world. That is how students think, believe, and perceive defined by their philosophical values and beliefs. Building on previous research that attributes Chinese doctoral students’ persistence to Confucian cultural beliefs in resilience, effort, interdependence, and filial piety (Zhou, 2014), this study identified their philosophical values and beliefs were individualized, complex, and evolving, centering on the core values in self-discipline and self-cultivation. Most often, culturally embedded within both Chinese and western contexts, students integrate Chinese and western, old and new, formal and informal philosophical values and beliefs. That is, in the process of doctoral study, students may hold fast to a certain motto, but they also keep absorbing and internalizing new thoughts to lead their way. To mention a few, “Every day is a win” in self-inspiration (Yuyan); “Becoming a respectable person before doing” (要做事，先做人) in self-cultivation (Anqi); “It’s a conversation with myself” in dealing with loneliness (Qian); “The harder I work, the more luck I will have” in strengthening the belief in the dedication (Meng); “Looking down while you walk, but putting the head up when looking for the path” (低头走路，抬头看路) in dealing with the relationship between focus and planning (Tan); and “Integration is to be naturally together” in dealing with cross-cultural academic-social relationships (Shao). In the Australian context, attuned with the local concept of “working hard and playing hard,” students learned to balance and relax, enjoying more of their life amidst extremely intensive STEM research. As mentioned in Chapter  1, Chinese people are philosophical rather than religious due to the importance of philosophy throughout 2,500 years of almost undisrupted Chinese civilization (Fung, 1948/2019). This study found CIDS’ philosophical values, which are integrated and developmental by nature, played a crucial role in sustaining them to persist and to become “a better me” (Bitong). The philosophical values and beliefs (not cultural values and beliefs) constructed, influenced, and dynamically shaped STEM CIDS’ being, doing, and becoming while they studied abroad.

From understanding to a shared future 227 For many, the philosophical influence on their affective dimension (Gu, 2015) was strong when staying alone in the novel educational, social, and environmental setting for the highly demanding goal of achieving the PhD. For instance, believing in “the reverse is the Dao,” Anqi always believed in the hope even in a seemingly hopeless situation, dedicatedly looking for solutions with a positive mind. In another instance, Chenyi stressed both Isaac Newton’s “standing on the shoulders of giants” and the traditional Chinese virtue of 中庸之道 (the Doctrine of the Mean, maintaining the state of equilibrium and harmony). While Newton’s words guided him to achieve higher with the accumulated asset of human knowledge, it was the Doctrine of the Mean that reminded the student of self-watchfulness, leniency, and sincerity for the sake of peaceful state of mind and harmonious social relationships. In addition, this study found the tranquil campuses of most Australian universities resonated with Chinese students’ philosophical being and becoming. This further facilitated their transformed understandings from loneliness to serenity while doing the PhD abroad. Daoism, one of the main schools that contributes to Chinese philosophy, promotes its “admiration of the free movement of the spirit” and its “idealization of nature” (Fung, 1948/2019, p.  355), which provided profound inspiration to traditional Chinese ways of thinking. A typical Chinese landscape painting always illustrates at the foot of a mountain, a man or two sitting or walking in tranquility, “appreciating the beauty of nature and contemplating the Tao (Dao) or Way that transcends both nature and man” (Fung, 1948/2019, p. 355). In the current study, this deep level of contemplation in the tranquil campus environment often allowed students’ concentration on their cutting-edge research. The development of philosophical perspectives is a gradual becoming process, situated differently in individual cases. In general, this study found those who had the serenity in the lonely journey of doing the STEM PhD and doing it abroad were likely to have smooth or managed transitions cross borders and achieve their best out of the process. Philosophical values and beliefs, though invisible and intangible, shape a student’s personal world and influence how this personal world interacts with research and social worlds over time. With the Confucian philosophy in teaching 教学相长 (teaching and learning facilitate co-growth) to close this section, in the context of cross-cultural doctoral education, the effort of supervisors in understanding students’ values and beliefs will, in time, generate positive outcomes for a shared future.

Social networks and institutional support The three-dimensional multi-world framework also allowed this study to identify important constructs in CIDS’ social world and the interactions between their personal and social worlds. Evidence shows both

228  Enhancing cross-cultural PhD education conational and non-conational academic-social networks functioned importantly in the doctoral experience. It also shows that Chinese students’ strong sense of social commitment in making scientific, technological, and social contributions positively facilitated their transitions between personal and academic-social worlds. Peer influence from an individual’s social world is most evident in this study. Though research points out that critical mass, or the ratio of conational peers in the context, was reported to have positive relationship with international students’ engaged networks (Korobova & Starobin, 2015), we could not connect peer influence with peers’ national background in this study. With a shared identity as STEM researchers, the shared research interest, the willingness to support, and the sense of contribution with research outputs could be more important than ethnic factors in pushing and pulling students close to a particular academic-social network. Even so, the unique characteristics of “Chineseness” positioned Chinese students as distinctive Chinese in their “intercultural personhood” (Kim, 2008). This uniqueness existed from their outlooks to the ways of thinking and behaving. Across our six patterns, with only a couple of exceptions, most students had narrow success in searching for integration with local communities. For many, conational networks filled the void in the social world to shape their study abroad experiences. Institutions generally expect and support international students to integrate or assimilate into the mainstream campus culture, which is monolingual and homogeneous (Bittencourt et al., 2021; Chen & Ross, 2015). We might have considered it as deficiency when international students of the same cultural background were close to each other in laboratories, offices, and other academic-social spaces. However, when we examine from a different façade, conational support is multi-dimensional, ranging from research to social events, and multi-functional, ranging from sustaining emotional balance to sharing insights for the PhD study and the future. Students learn from each other’s knowledge, experiences, and perspectives either through informal social gatherings or through formal association events. Evidently, those who had stable and established conational networks were more at ease when traversing across borders between their multi-worlds. Their minds were more settled as conational networks carried a sense of security (Gu, 2009) and support when necessary. Chinese students’ commitment to academic-social networks was also connected to their sense of social commitment. In the CIDS project, several participants had positions in associations or societies on campus or in town. Though time-consuming, they dedicatedly coordinated cross-disciplinary academic symposiums with academics, researchers, and professionals of different cultural backgrounds. In those symposiums, students learn from seniors, communicate with peers, and pass on their knowledge to juniors. With shared values and shared experience of contributing their time and knowledge to the community, these students

From understanding to a shared future 229 found themselves established “friendship that would last lifelong” (Tan). For the Chinese, the friendship or the trusted relationship, rooted in the Confucian ideology of Ren (仁), is the essential foundation for collaboration, support, care, and much more. Students’ values in social networks and social commitment can also be perceived as an exercise of collective agency. In Bandura’s (2000) work on human agency, he stresses the importance of exercising collective agency due to the interdependence of human functioning. Bandura points out that human beings do not live their lives in their personal world, but many of the outcomes they are after are the results of interdependent effort. This perspective may apply to the supervisor–student relationship that co-constructs students’ academic success, and it may also apply to an individual student’s social networks with fellow researchers, be it conational or non-conational, to contribute their shared beliefs and effort to produce desired results. In the current study, with shared experiences of doing a STEM PhD and doing it abroad, students reengineered their collective power with committed effort to generate reciprocal understanding, achieve their doctoral success, and expand academic-social networks. Again we use the Confucian philosophy to close this section, 有朋自 远方来, 不亦乐乎 (Isn’t it delightful to have friends coming from afar?) As Shao in this study perceived, integration is to be naturally together rather than one copying or modeling another. With a positive mind and institutional support, students from afar could find their way to deal with the loneliness and to achieve the goal of successfully completing the doctoral program. As institutional culture and policies are important contributing factors to affect students’ studying abroad experience, from what we discussed earlier, positive recognition of both conational and non-conational academic-social support may provide a more congenial, safe, and secure environment for international students to concentrate on their study and then to work for a shared future.

Understanding international research students Research students crossing national and cultural boundaries in pursuit of doctoral education contribute enormously to human knowledge, science and technology, and global economy. An understanding of their experience from a holistic and dynamic perspective allows us to know how to better facilitate. This book offers empirical evidence, but more importantly, a conceptual lens that is generic and transferrable by nature for the understanding. The three-dimensional multi-world framework is expected to provide a conceptual foundation for future research and practical work engaged with international research students. The framework allows an integrated consideration of student experience so as not to miss  nuances in the facilitating or constraining factors across and over time. It also provides the possibility to capture

230  Enhancing cross-cultural PhD education the uniqueness of each individual’s study abroad experience. As in our narratives, students dealt with everyday challenges of conducting cutting-edge scientific research, alongside English, academic writing, sociocultural, socioeconomic, socio-emotional, psychosocial, socio-economic, and institutional borders in their PhD abroad journey. This framework allows researchers to scrutinize factors in an individual’s multi-worlds in combination rather than fragmental or in pieces. The framework embraces cross-disciplinary theoretical knowledge, for example, acculturation from cultural studies (Berry, 2005), persistence and motivation from education (Tinto, 1998; Zhou, 2014), agency (Bandura, 2000), and well-being (Han et al., 2013) from psychology, small cultures from applied linguistics (Holliday, 1999), and philosophical values and beliefs (Fung, 1948/2019) to interpret complicated, complex, and challenging cross-cultural PhD abroad experiences. This study highlights the role of international research students’ agency in pursuing their PhD abroad. For research students, McAlpine and Amundsen (2016, p.  20) defined agency as motivations, expectations, and efforts to “plan and to construct a way forward in light of constraints over time, whether expected or unexpected.” By exercising personal and collective agency for transitions between their multi-worlds, international research students navigate and construct PhD abroad experiences with contextual resources. The evidence across the six patterns in this book shows how agency plays a critical role in students’ doctoral experiences, though students have individual ways of exercising agency, which may or may not lead to successful outcomes in different situations. The conceptualization of the transitions across an individual’s multiworlds allows us to examine multi-facets and multi-layers of international doctoral students’ life. These students were self-driven to devote themselves to doctoral research, but the external facade may hide their inner world. Their activities have been portrayed as exclusively focusing on research (Borg et al., 2010). McAlpine and Amundsen’s (2016) vivid sketch of PhD students who “worked 60+ hours a week for multiple years, living in a small apartment or residence with little income, and not having much life” (p. 20), also appears to represent STEM CIDS in the current study. On the other side, however, these young adults have other sides of life, which are dynamic, colorful, and human. Taking STEM CIDS for example, we found they were a group of bright and pleasant young people, full of energy, aspirations, and dreams. They were quiet when doing research, but they expressed eloquently in our interviews. Love, care, and support from their social world provided the source of emotional comfort and relief, and also were the psychological driving force that encouraged these students to persist in the pursuit. Many cases in this study revealed reciprocal affections – students loved and were beloved by partners, cared about and were cared for by parents, enjoyed hanging out with friends for a social gathering or a sightseeing far and nearby.

From understanding to a shared future 231 Impressively, these students’ social world is typically interweaved with their research world. This allows them to make the most of their social time for professional growth. For example, if opportunity allows, they enjoyed traveling around the world to experience different cultures by taking the privilege of moving between research laboratories and reporting at conferences. Very often their fellow travelers were also fellow researchers in the field. This way, they extended their doctoral experiences beyond their small research context to a wider space. Hence, this conceptual viewpoint extends an international research student’s research/social context from a specific research lab to a global science world, and from a local host society to a global community. This study supports McAlpine and Amundsen’s (2016, p.  8) “nested contexts perspective” that an individual researcher is situated within institutional, national, and global contexts. We also extend their perspective to cross-border research collaboration and researcher mobility (Marginson, 2018) which may well supplement or compensate for local research limitations in understanding international research students’ experiences. This framework provides supervisors with a way of thinking of international doctoral students from a more comprehensive perspective and in a continuous, interactive, and situative approach. The shared space in the conceptualized multi-worlds presents international research students with a hybrid identity that comprises personal, professional, and sociocultural identities. With this hybrid identity, communication for and with international research students may involve three layers: personal, professional, and cross-cultural. The understanding of students’ multilayered identities could be a good starting point for a supervisor to initiate agentic communication for establishing rapport. It is not an easy task to accomplish because it involves skills and competence in cross-cultural communication besides knowledge in supervising cutting-edge scientific research, but the effort is certainly worthy. In this way, the framework can be applied to examine the experiences of international students in different fields and at different levels. By making comparisons of differences and congruence between the multi-worlds, we could identify commonalities and classify patterns out of the uniqueness of each individual case, just as shown in this book. The different categories of student experiences can be used by governments, universities, and supervisors to develop their illustrative cases for student induction and professional development. The study offers practical recommendations for universities and supervisors to think about their international doctoral students in a more comprehensive way and, most importantly, to be aware of individual nuances to support international doctoral students. Attention needs to be paid, though, when undertaking research on those international doctoral students in social sciences or other soft sciences, who generally work alone and may have more difficulties in

232  Enhancing cross-cultural PhD education accessing peer cultures and academic cultures because of that loneliness (Corcelles et al., 2019; Deem & Brehony, 2000). In particular, the framework helps to reflect on the interactions between key agents in each world, identify key problems in a situated context, and make changes over time. When differences between each world are “valued rather than feared” (Phelan et al., 1991, p. 246), the co-effort in constructing a successful doctoral experience generates positive outcomes. The essence of education will remain whatsoever, but the research points out the importance of the dynamic interaction of person and context – revealing a unique and situated experience for each student that needs to be acknowledged and supported for quality education. 海纳百川，有容乃大 (One should be as encompassing as the vast ocean which contains the flow of hundreds of rivers.) To conclude, this study extends the understanding of cross-cultural experiences of international doctoral students from a practical and holistic perspective. The way of perusing international research students’ experiences from a comprehensive perspective could have a wide application for future research and educational practice. By facilitating positive and successful study abroad experiences this way, we may foster a shared future with the sustainable international research education in light of future social and educational challenges, be they expected or unexpected.

Limitations and thoughts for future research This last section addresses the limitations in this study and lays the groundwork for future research on international research students’ experiences. For limitations, first, the findings in this study cannot be extrapolated to all Chinese international doctoral students studying abroad. Caution needs to be paid due to the heterogeneity of individual experiences and the contextualized situations. Second, it is most important to address the possible bias in the data collected in this study. Though the data in this study have been rich, students’ recount must be approached with some caution because their reflection and interpretation were from their own perspectives. This study interviewed some supervisors to facilitate our understanding, but for privacy considerations, supervisors and students were intentionally not recruited in pairs. A consequence of this is the lack of triangulated understanding of a specific event or situation. Reasonable future research to tackle this issue could be to follow paired supervisors and students during a PhD, but privacy and confidentiality need to be thoughtfully considered. Third, the nature of qualitative research allowed this study to go deep, but also limited the scope of the sample size and the availability of diverse experiences. In this study, the numbers of participants classified in the last two patterns were extremely small, but it could not be claimed the

From understanding to a shared future 233 small probability would apply to the overall CIDS population. Upon reflection, the reason for this limitation was not only in the small number of participants in the qualitative study but in the limitation of approachability of those students who had real problems. Throughout the investigation, it was repeatedly found that Chinese students did not articulate their problems to outsiders unless there were established rapport and trust. The use of multiple approaches to recruiting participants in this study helped to bring in students with different experiences. However, when the study went deep at the later stage and with more opportunities to approach CIDS in large numbers, for example through statewide or nationwide doctoral forums, a deeply felt need was patience, care, and time to approach those who had problematic experiences in the transitions across their multi-worlds but did not have effective networks that could identify and help with their problems. For future research, besides what has been mentioned alongside the chapters, three more points are in contemplation. First, this study proposes a mixed-method design, drawing on the findings from this study, but starting with a quantitative investigation to test general issues with a broader population and then identify specific cases to follow up with qualitative methods over time. Second, Chinese students’ study abroad experiences and influences from high schools to after PhD career trajectories could be an important area for future longitudinal research. This study spotted, but did not expand on, a phenomenon that those who started their study abroad journey from high school years may experience more of isolation than other CIDS who left China after undergraduate or postgraduate studies. They had difficulty in establishing a social network in the host community, and could not establish a functional alumni network with 师兄弟 or 师姐妹 (brotherhood or sisterhood with study mates) as other Chinese students may have. As they left home at teenage, their understandings of China mostly came from their fragmental memories, imaginations, or second-hand information from the media or others around. They were curious about what China was like, but they found themselves being left out of the fast-changing Chinese society, which may lead to their sense of being rootless. These students were stuck in between the home and host cultures. They struggled with their value systems and identities because they were not guided or facilitated to form those of their own when they were in their late teenage years. There would, therefore, be a definite need for future longitudinal research on the experiences of these “men in the middle of the third culture” (Useem et al., 1964) or “adult third culture kids” (Fail et  al., 2004) who stem from both a western and an eastern society by international study mobility. Possible areas of research could be to investigate their emotional and relational aspects, such as the sense of belonging, the nature of relationships formed in the host community, and how they enculturate and back-enculturate in the host and home contexts.

234  Enhancing cross-cultural PhD education Third, another interesting area for further research is international PhD students’ sense of belongingness. Sojourners’ belongingness has been a fascinating topic in research (e.g., Glass  & Westmont, 2014). Researchers found when Chinese international doctoral students make career decisions, they tend to maintain harmony by balancing personal aspirations with family expectations and social factors (Lee et al., 2018). In this current study, some students have moved several places in their life inside and outside of China in pursuit of better education. Along with their growth, these post-80 and post-90 generations experienced enormous socio-economic changes along with China and the world. Chinese sojourners have the tradition of or the longing for returning home when aging, believing in 叶落归根 (a falling leaf returns to the root). After all the moves and changes, however, some of these students, future scientists and technological researchers, extended a question in contemplation, “Where do I  belong?” These students’ belongingness and factors that influence the decisions on settle-down destinations would be lasting questions that deserve social science researchers to explore in depth.

Chapter summary This chapter returns to Chinese students’ personal world to examine how that world interacts with their research and social worlds to sustain their STEM PhD abroad. With the mediating role of the philosophical beliefs that integrated Chinese and western, old and new, the STEM CIDS constructed their personal world in a way that compensated for the loneliness and facilitated their spiritual serenity, or calmness, which in time supported their academic-social networking, academic achievement, and personal growth. For many, the philosophical influence on their affective dimension was extremely strong when they stayed in the novel educational, social, and cultural environment. Without an understanding, or an awareness, of this dynamic, it would be difficult for non-Chinese background supervisors and others engaged in the international doctoral education to interpret Chinese students’ actions and behavior, leading to confusion or conflicts in everyday communication and interactions. This final chapter also discusses how this research can be generic and transferrable in supporting the understanding of international research students from different cultures, in different disciplines and different contexts for the sake of a shared future. The chapter ends with research limitations upon reflection and some thoughts for future research.

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Coda

Evidence reveals that Chinese international doctoral students in STEM live in the best of worlds in research, personal and social life. It is not about comfort, fame, or wealth; instead, it is about innumerable challenges in testing themselves. It tests their passion, aspiration, dedication, persistence, and intelligence. It also tests their resilience, independence, negotiation, social skills, international perspectives, visions, and global competitivity. And most importantly, it tests their competency to push forward the most advanced science and technology. They live a simple student’s life without much convenience to reward their hard work in the duration; however, they are rich in the spiritual world because they have the opportunity to be embedded within the best elements of the research context, as many of them doing research in top-level laboratories under top-level researchers’ supervision. With stems and seeds (STEM CIDS), when they have acquired sufficient sunshine, water, and soil, they are ready to grow into towering trees to make their contribution to the world. The transformation from seeds into giant trees is never, never a tranquil course, though. This book presented the depth, nuances, and complexities of the nature of STEM CIDS’ study abroad experiences. The six patterns of cases in our study highlight the importance of mutual respect and listening in the cross-cultural supervisory relationship. Evidence shows that with respect-based congruence and opportunity for articulation, students appeared to be confident and competent, not panic about differences, positively navigating through challenges and maintaining their aspiration; whereas without, students were demotivated to manage their own project, resulting in negative emotions, frustrations, confrontations, and limited research output. Therefore, this study appeals for agentic communication from both students and supervisors, but particularly from supervisors, to establish a positive context for bridging across differences, which always helps to avoid minor issues accruing to become unsolvable. Philosophical values and beliefs shape a student’s personal world and influence how this personal world interacts with research and social worlds over time. The study found that Chinese students had to endure DOI: 10.4324/9781003258841-15

Coda 239 social, cultural, personal, academic, and for some, geographic loneliness while doing a STEM PhD abroad. To sustain their persistence, however, these students developed their individual philosophical values and beliefs, which encompassed unique sociocultural fundamentals, embedded in Chinese but incorporated western, rooted in the old but attuned to the new. Prominently, these students became more conscious of their Chinese cultural heritage while abroad, but the global study experiences empowered their global vision and in time, the global competitiveness in their specific field of STEM. Years ago, we embarked on this journey of inquiry with a question in mind, “How have these students been doing out there?” Now we wind up this scrutiny with relief. Joy and tears, ups and downs, everything out there for Chinese international STEM doctoral students to experience contributes to their academic achievement or personal growth, or both in most cases. 故天将降大任于斯人也，必先苦其心志，劳其筋骨，饿其体肤, 空乏其身，行拂乱其所为，所以动心忍性，曾益其所不能。 (When Heaven is about to confer a great responsibility on a man, it will first fill his heart with suffering, toil his sinews and bones, expose his body to hunger, subject him to poverty, confound his journey with setbacks and troubles, so as to stimulate his alertness, toughen his nature, eventually bridge his incompetence gap and prepare him for his mission.) – Mencius (372–289 B.C., Zou Dynasty) Thanks to Mencius, now we may conclude this book.

Index

academic writing 29, 78–79, 121–122, 134–135, 186, 205 acculturation 31–33, 57, 124–126, 229; integration 91–92; marginalization 31–33; selective adaptation 106 agency 119, 152–154, 230; collective 118–124, 229–230; reciprocal 105–106 articulation 89–90, 151–152, 209, 216–217 belonging 81, 101–102, 233–234 borders and boundaries 50–51, 132–138, 203–207; gender 137, 206–207; institutional 206; linguistic 205; psychosocial/ socio-emotional 137–138, 204; research 133; sociocultural 135, 203–204; socio-economic 138, 205; socio-relational 204; writing 134–135 communication: agentic 211–215; barriers 147–150; reciprocal effort 215 conational networks 33–34, 82–84, 159, 228–229 co-supervisory support 154, 178–179, 184–186, 193 dedication 77–78, 89 ethnic affinity effect 24, 125 expectations: unmatched 99–103, 142–147, 160–163 female STEM students 127–130

heterogeneity 201–203 imposter phenomenon 163 international academic networks 154, 157–159 laboratory research cultures 22–24, 91–92, 111–113 loneliness 33–34, 100–101, 223–226 marital influences 84–85 motivations 20–22, 75–76, 98–99, 173; diminished 174–175; intrinsic 215–216 multi-world model 47–50; research, personal, social world 49–50 narrative inquiry 57–58 persistence 155–156; perseverance 27–28 philosophical values and beliefs 226–227; Chinese 13–16, 203, 213; inspiration 94, 122 positivity 108, 113, 169 professional identity 29–30, 50–51, 78, 81, 128, 152, 214, 225 publications or monograph 80–81, 182–183 qualitative research 53–55 research community 81–82, 164, 179 resilience 156–157 respect 128, 191, 212; endangered 176–177; lost 191–193; rapport 128–129, 212–213; reciprocal 103–105

Index  241 self-cultivation 16, 21, 75, 111, 132, 179, 204, 226 self-efficacy 77, 151; intercultural social 28–29 social commitment 15–16, 114, 228–229 sociocultural constructionism 55–57 STEM CIDS 2–4 supervision 24–26; commitment 78–79; explicit conversation 121, 215–216; negative feedback

156–157, 183–184, 189–191; patience 80–81; positive feedback 79, 163, 216; role modeling 90; styles 108–111 third space 32, 124 three-dimensional CIS space 51–53 transformation 106–107, 201–203 transitions 50–51, 76, 207–210, 211–212