Child Soldiers in Africa 9780812204773

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Child Soldiers in Africa

The Ethnography of Political Violence Cynthia Keppley Mahmood, Series Editor

A complete list of hooks in the series is aailahle fr-om the publisher

Child Soldiers in Africa Alcinda Honwana

PENN

Copyl-ighr 0 2006 L-lliversity of Penns>l\.aniaPress .Ill sigllts reserved Printed in the L-llited States of.lmerica on acid-free papel-

Published b\ Press a t-nl\elsit\ of P e n n u ~ I \ a n ~ Plliladelph~a,Pelllls\l\,rnin 191044112 Librar! of Congress Catalogillgin-Publicatio11Data Honwana, .llci~ldahlanuel. Child soldiers in .frica / lUcirlda Honwana. 13. o n . - (The etllnogl-aph!- of political violence) Inellides biblioglapllical I-eferences arld index. ISBS-13: 978-0-8122-3911-9 ISBS-10: 0-8122-3911-3 (cloth : alk. paper) 1. Child soldiers-Ulica. 2. Childrell and uar-Alf~-ica. 3. Children and violenceI. Title. 11. Series. .frica. 4. Political violence-Africa.

To Nyeleti and Nandhi

Contents

Introduction

1

1. C i ~ iTl'ars l in Sloznrnbiclue and Xrlgoln 2. Historical nrltl Social Contexts 3. Recruitnlent nrltl Irlitiatiorl

4. Young Tl'ornerl

7

26 49

75

3. Healing Clliltl Soltliers nrltl Their Communities 6. Looking to the Future nrltl Learning frorn the Past Notes

165

Irldex

189

Xckrlo~vletlgl~lents 201

104 133

Introduction

Tlle issue o f children's participatiorl i n arrrletl political corlflict has captured t h e attention o f t h e ~vorldtlurirlg t h e past t e n or fifteen years. Irrlages o f boys carrying guns and arnrnunition flash across television screens and appear o n t h e front pages o f nelvspapers. Less o f t e n b u t equally disturbingly stories o f girls pressetl into t h e service o f militias surface i n t h e rnedia. A n unprecetlentetl rlurnber o f clliltlrerl have beer1 drawn into active participation i n warfare. Marly cllildrerl are coerced into fighting; others are pushed into it by poverty and crises i n their cornrnunities; sorrle may be seducetl by pronlises o f glory or exciternent. Clliltlrerl as young as eight or t e n are trarlsforrrled into lnerciless killers, colnrrlittirlg t h e lnost llorrendous atrocities with apparent irltliffererlce or even pride. Children's irn.olrelllent i n arlned conflict is not a recent pllenolnen o n . In the past, young people have bee11 at the forefront o f political corlflict i n many parts o f t h e ~vorltl,ever1 w h e n it has turned violerlt. Tod a y ho~verer,the probleln has grown to such nlagnitude that it has attracted public notice. FVllat is new is not just t h e risibility o f civil wars but also that clliltlrerl are rrlore tleeply irn.olret1; i n sorrle places, they forrrl a substantial proportion o f combatants. Xrlalysts o f war have pointed out that lnost corlternporary civil wars represent a "total societal crisis." Social order is alrrlost entirely disrupted, and deferlseless civilians, especially n-onlen, chiltlren, ant1 t h e elderly are particularly vulrlerable.' Reports o f cllildrerl taking hurnan lives are increasingly infiltrating public awareness, not only frorrl corlflict zones but also frorrl societies i n peacetirne. Almost any nelvspaper or nightly news show i n t h e crlited States includes a litany o f youthful rictinls ant1 perpetrators o f inner-city violence; sorrle cities k e e p a running tally o f t h e death toll. Isolated cases that occur i n white, rnitldle-class settings seerrl n o r e sllockirlg, such as t h e Columbine scllool sllootirlgs or t h e ~ n u r d e ro f a Dartlnouth college

2

Introduction

couple by two \%rlnollt teenagers. Even younger clliltlrell car1 conllnit rnurtler: for example, three-year-old James Bulges was killed by two tenyear-oltls ill the crlitetl Kingdoln. Irlciderlts of cllildren killing clliltlrerl are troubling. Tlle systematic, organizetl use of cllildren to wage war is even rrlore appalling. Cllildrerl get caught up ill arrrletl conflict in a whole host of ways. Often, those who nlallage to avoid becorrling soldiers are nlairrletl or killed in attacks on civilian areas. Cllildrerl are separated fronl their parents, orphaned, and uprooted fronl their collllllullities. Tlle tlisplacetl rnay have to seek refuge in otller territories. Those cllildren who relnairl in war zones are subjected to various forlns of violence and exploitatioll. Sorrle are irjuretl by lalltlrrlilles while playing or ~vorliillg.Clliltlrell are turned into spies or gullrullllers, or they work as guards, cooks, cleaners, and servants in rnilitary camps. Particularly tlanlagirlg for future generations is the irrlpact of war on girls. Disadvantagetl even ill peacetime, girls experience sexual abuse, rape, enslavement, ant1 other tribulatiorls during war. Cllildrerl ~vitllessterrible atrocities and suffer fronl traurna. Clliltlrell are tleprivetl of education and basic healthcare. T'i7ars and otller forlns of arrrletl corlflict have profound and lasting effects on yo1~1gpeople. These de\-elopnlellts have not gone ulllloticetl. In recent years, the irnpact of arlnetl corlflict on cllildrell has nlo\-etl to the forefront of political, humanitarian, ant1 acadelnic agentlas. Tlle irlternatiorlal coinrrlullity has taken several significant steps to atldress the problern. 111 1990, the cllited Nations establislled the Conr-ention on the Rights of the Child, which contains irrlportarlt pro\-isions for cllildren affectetl by arlned conflict. In 1994, the UN General Xsselnbly corrlnlissiorled the blachel study on the irrlpact of arlnetl corlflict on cllildrell. 111 1996, Graqa hlachel preserltetl a ground-brealiillg report ~vhichlnade specific recorrllllelltlatior~sfor action. Based on hlachel's recorrllllelltlatior~s,the General Xssernbly created the Office of the Special Representative of the Secretary General for Cllildrerl arltl Xrrrled Conflict ill 1997. This office was colllrrlissiolletl to raise awareness ant1 prorrlote the collectiorl of inforrrlatiorl about the plight of cllildren affectetl by arlned corlflict as well as to foster irlternatiorlal cooperation to promote respect for chiltlren's rights arrlitl such conflicts. Many humanitarian orgallizatiolls ha\-e launched specific progralns to atltlress the issue of clliltlrell affected by arlnetl corlflict and to prolnote protection and support. The issue became a topic of interest in acaderrlic circles as well, producing significant research ant1 publications.' The participation of clliltlrell in war has even beconle a tllenle for ~lovels:~ Tlle drarrlatic shift of social roles and resporlsibilities of clliltlrerl brought about by war is intrinsically lirllietl to the breakdon-11of societal

Introduction

3

structures arltl lorlgstaildirlg inoral inatrices ill contexts of extreme social crisis.l Chiltlren's inr-olverneilt ill war defies establislletl a i d generally accepted ilorins a i d values with regard to the funtlamental categories of clliltlllood and adultllood, as well as the irlterrlatiorlal corn-elltioils of rrloderil warfare. In inoderil societies, clliltlllootl is usually associated with innocence, weakness, and deperlderlce upoil adult guidance and nurturance. Soldiers, in contrast, are associatetl with strength, aggression, a i d the responsible rnaturity of atlulthootl. Clliltlreil should be protectetl and tlefended; a soldier's duty is to protect and tlefeiltl. Tlle paratloxical corrlbiilatiorl of child a i d soldie). is uilsettling. Cllildrerl at war fiiltl thernseh-es in an unsanctioned position bet~veeilcllildllood and adulthootl. They are still chiltlren, but they are no longer innoceilt; they perforin adult tasks, but they are not yet atlults. The possessioil of g~nlsailtla license to kill remove tllein frorrl cllildhootl. But clliltl soldiers are still physically a i d psycllologically irnrnature; they are not full adults wllo are respoilsible for themselves. They live in a twilight zone where the two ~vorltlsof clliltlllootl and adulthood "rub against each other in . . . uneasy iiltiilla~y."~ Child soldiers live between a ~vorltlof make-believe-a child's ~vorld of gaines a i d fantasy, of playing with guns-aid reality-where the playful becoines shockingly lethal and the garrle turns tleatlly Here the ludic is trarlsforrrled into the grotesque and the macabre." Efforts to theorize the place occupied by clliltl soltliers are not entirely satisfactorf; however, for this position is inherently unstable, witllout sarlctioiletl cultural definition, ernbotlying a societal contradictioil, a i d entirely ernbedded in conflict. Bllablla suggests that such interstices provitle the terrain for the einergeilce of new strategies of selfllootl a i d identityi The role-related a i d ritually defined boundaries bet~veencllildllood and atlulthootl that existed in Angola a i d blozaillbiclue before the onset of civil war were broker1 don-11 by extreme social crisis. As the social order was disrupted, roles bet~veenatlults and cllildrerl were tlisplaced. Clliltlrerl actively create and recreate their roles accortlirlg to the situations preserltetl to tllern, and ~vlleiltheir cornrnunities becoine engulfed in civil war, they assume roles that under ilorinal circuillstailces would be fillet1 by atlults. In Angola a i d blozaillbiclue, rnaily cllildreil became active soltliers, coillillittirlg the inost horrific atrocities. This drarrlatic shift is intrillsically linked to the breaktlo~vi1of society's structures and rnorality ill a crisis such as war.

Outline of Argument This book focuses oil the inrohement of cllildreil ill ci\il nnrs in Sloznrnbiclue nild Xilgoln, corn e\irlg the experiences of clliltlreil directh

4

Introduction

inrohetl in tllese arrrletl corlflicts It ceilteis piiinniil~011 cllildreil in rnilitar~cainps clliltl cornhatnilts, sexunlh abusetl gills, and otllei cllildreil li\iilg witlliil the coilfiiles of the rrlilitar~ Hone\ei, it also discusses clliltli erl ho T\ el e \ ictiinized b~ arinetl conflict ill tlleii Tillages and coinrnunities, sue11 ns oipllnils niltl larldrrliile ~ictiins Although this stuth is based oil field resenicll fioin tllese tno countries, its scope exterlds he1 oiltl the borders of hlozarnbiclue niltl Angola Coinpni ati\ e nnnh ses of T arious cnses lligllligllt their siinilni ities and differences as well ns offeiiilg broader anahtical perspecti\es on the impact of wni on clliltlreil 111 surn, this stuth situates the pllerlorrlerlorl in Slozninbiclue niltl Angola ~titlliilthe coiltext of n rrlore far-ieaclliilg explorntion of tllese issues Tlle hook innkes foul innill arguments (1) the irl~ol~eineilt of childien in nni tloes not constitute n ilev plleilorrlerlorl but has gairletl nev dirrlerlsiorls because of cllailges ill the nature of nnifnre and cuiient untleistniltlirlgs of chiltlhootl, (2) clliltlreil nffectetl b~ conflict-both ~ not coilstitute a llornogeileous gi oup of helpless \ icgirls niltl h o s-do tirrls but exercise nil ngencT of tlleii onn, ~\llicllis sllnpetl h tlleii pni ticulni experieilces niltl ciicuinstances, (3) the llenlirlg and reintegration of clliltlierl nffectetl b~ arrrletl conflict rleetl to be einhetltletl in local T\ orld \ iev s and rrlenilirlg ST sterns in ordei to be effecti~ e niltl sustninable, and (4) socinl i eiiltegi atioil of clliltli en affected h arined corlflict rnust go llniltl ill h a r d nith larger strategies of socinl de\elopineilt and the el ntlicntioil of poT e r t ~ The booh outlines the llistoiies of political corlflict ill hlozarnbiclue and Xrlgoln and the coiltext ill T\ hiell the irn oh errlent of cllildreil ill the proti actetl c i il~ T\ ni 5 tool< place It also corlsitlei s issues of reseni cll rrletllodologies niltl the ethical cllnllerlges associatetl with conductiilg research in corlflict a i d post-conflict situatioils nith \ulnernhle groups, particulni 11 cllildreil Chapter 2 discusses the corlrlectioils betneen cllildreil niltl war histoiicnlh and socialh, the cllnilges in n ni fare that ha\ e influencetl the pieseilt situation, and factors such as cllildllood de\elopinerlt niltl p o \ e r t ~ Child soltliers find tlleinsel\es in a position that hrenks donil dicllotorrlies betweell ci~iliarland cornhatnilt, ~ictirrland peipetiatoi, initiate niltl initiated, piotected and protector TVitll these rnultiple, iilteistitinl positioils, clliltl soldieis epitoinize the coiltlitiorl of sirnultaneousl~lln~iilginultifncetetl itleiltities and utterh lacking n peiinanent, stable, niltl socinll~defirletl place 111 this \\a,the\ o c c u p ~a noiltl of tlleii owl1 11% rnust go b e l o r d the cleni-cut derrlarcntiorls hetween cllild and adult, niltl between iililoceilce and guilt, to exarrliile the irltiicate w n ~ sin which the corlditiorl of the cllild soltliei cuts across estnhlislled categories

Introduction

5

T'Varfare is a profoundly gentlered phellor~lellon.~ It is not just that rrlell becolne soltliers ~vllilewornen work and wait at horne, a popular image based on two relatively well-organizetl twentietll-century ~vorld wars. 111 European illterllatiorlal and civil wars, as well as in AFricall wars, wornen ill the civilian population becorrle targets of recruitment and sexual violence perpetrated by soltliers that is tlesigrled to dernoralize, humiliate, ant1 illllllobilize all enelny. T'i70111e11 ant1 girls are raped in front of tlleir Inale relatives. Sonletirnes, rape ends ill rnurder. Young wornen ant1 girls are kidnapped and lleltl in military camps where they are used as laborers, servants, and sexual slaves. I11 some cases, young wornen becorrle arrrled conlbatarlts ill ostler to tlefentl thenlseh-es or avenge the wrongs tlorle to tlleir kirls~vornell.~'~ This gerlderetl ant1 sexualizetl tlirrlerlsiorl of warfare is seltlorrl unclesstood as a fulltlarnelltal and pervasive feature of arrrletl collflicts. It comes to public attention primarily ill particularly drarrlatic installces, especially those invol\-ing the systernatic exterlllirlatiorl of cornbat-aged rrlell as well as the rape of ~vornenin the target group.'' Ferrlale survivors of ~vartirnesexual abuse ant1 exploitation seltlorrl speak of tlleir suffering since it is often sharneful as well as traumatic.lTTllis book exalnirles the situation of girls and young n-olllell affected by war. Boy soltliers and girls forced to serve militias represent arlonlalies and contratlictions. They inhabit all autonolnous ~vorldwith its own rules and relations of power. Yet they come frorrl a civil society orderetl by farnil!; kinship, gender, and gelleratioll, and, after peace returns, they rnust reenter a world whose fulltlalllental tenets they were lnatle to violate ant1 ~vllosecategories they have defied. How are young n-olnen and rrlell who have served and fought wit11 the rrlilitia groups to be assimilatetl back into society? How call they make an ortlerly trarlsitiorl froln clliltl rrlilitia rrlenlber to adult civilian? They have been traurnatized by their experiences, by the rnurtlers ant1 other acts of violence ant1 violation they have committetl, ~vitnessetl,and feared or suffered thenlseh-es, and by the sudtlen ant1 total suntlering of their previous ties to kill and

community Civilians lost n o r e than their sons and daughters to the rnilitary forces; they lost hornes, village, ant1 li\-elilloods as well. Repeated attacks on civilians ill places with no rnilitary sigrlificance have beer1 a fundalllental feature of postcolorlial civil wars. 111 both ~lozalllbiclueant1 Angola, substarltial nulllbers of rural residents were tlisplacetl, forced to seek sanctuary in rrlore stable regions of tlleir o~vncountry or to cross borders to find refuge. Few rerrlainetl for the tluration of the conflict; rrlost returnetl llonle as soon as local collditiolls perrnittetl. The injuries arltl tlisplacerrlerlt they suffered were colllpountled by the devastation they encounteretl on tlleir return. 111 Angola, as rural resitlerlts tried to resurne tlleir

6

Introduction

lir es, rebuilding bui ned r illnges, culti\ atiilg the fields, arltl t i ar elirlg to rnnrket, inailr people-especiallr children a i d rouilg people-neie injuied b~ the larltlinirles that coinbatailts llntl left hellirltl Foi thern, the T\ nr continuetl er ell in the nhseilce of soldiei 5 In hlozarnbiclue niltl Angola, wni is gerleinllr conceptunlized in opposition to societ~,as n stnte ill ~\hic11people are renartletl for hieahiilg fundnrnental rlorrrls nild socinl codes People nllo lla\e beer1 tliiectlr irlr olred in wai nre not easih acceptetl bnch illto societ~,for the1 ale of the wni ", the1 are iecorlsideretl to he pollutetl b~ the "~\iong-tloings gnided as corltninirlated br the spirits of the tlentl niltl cniriers of tlleii ailgel Those iildiritlunls n h o hilletl oi salt people being killed are potential coiltninirlators of the socinl hodr Darlgei niltl pollution nie attached to all wni-affected peisoils, being n witiless to rnurtlei or an unr\itting collnhoi atoi in nti ocities is also tlnilgerous TVar pollution is coilsitlei ed a tllrent to societ~,so r ouilg T\ orrlerl a i d rrleil n h o sei\ etl niltl fought in rrlilitins inust undergo n process of clearlsiilg ns tller rrlnke the tiarlsitiorl from the stnte of nar hack illto rloirrlal societ~ This ieiiltegiatioil is accomplishetl nith local pi actices, llich differ pi ofountllr frorrl TVestei n 1x1chotherapeutic appi onclles In the context of the ciril ~ \ n i in s Slozarnhiclue nrld Xngoln, reconciliatioil goes ber orld the pi ocess of restoi irlg corninunicatioil niltl i esohiilg differeilces arrloilg oppositiorlnl groups nonrioleilth , it also erlcorrlpnsses the process of i estorirlg iiltiinnte ties tllnt llnr e ruptui ed, reintegrating wni-affected persons into local cornrnunities, and iesurniilg iloiinal life Ckil nars llnre long-lasting effects on nllole societies ns well as on intli\idunls Tlle ecorlorrlic underde\elopinerlt that is both cnuse niltl coilsecluence of narfare narrows the oppoi tuilities a\nilnhle to roung people to attnirl the occupational and farnih positioils that signif1 full adulthood The book eiltls b~ exploring go\ el rlrrlerltal nrld 11011-gorel ilinerltnl progi nins for tleinobilizntion, rellnhilitatioil, and socinl i eiiltegi atioil of wni-affected clliltli en

Chapter 1 Civil Wars in Mozambique and Angola

This stud1 draws on etllrlogrnplli~research untleitnken in Xrlgoln and Slozninbiclue, two ,Xricnil nations tllnt l l n ~ eexpeiieil~etlprolorlgetl and blood\ ci\ il ~tni s Both countries are foriner Portuguese coloilies that hecame irldeperlderlt in 1975 aftei long wnis of ilntioilnl liheiatioil In both countries, the postcoloilinl go\einrneilt, letl h ilntiorlalist ino\errleilts tllnt successful11 p i o s e ~ u t e d\tars of independence, adopted a Slarxist orieiltntioil niltl so~inlistrrlotlels of de~eloprrlerlt These policies rrlet with iesistnilce froin fnctiorls of the foiinei iildepeildeil~e rno\ ements, ~tllicllwaged Ttni ngnirlst the i n ~ u m h e n tgo\ erilinerlt wit11 rrlnterial nssistnil~e from foreign ilntiorls During these ~ t n i s ,nhich lnstetl 01er fifteen I en1s in hlozarnbiclue niltl for rrloi e tllnil t ~entl t I en1s in Angola, thousands of clliltlien nere tlrn~tninto arined ~ o r l f l i ~These t clliltlien of nar nie the subject of this hook In Slozarnhiclue, the wnr hetneeil the Frerlte tle LihertnbZo tle Slocarnbiclue (hlozarnbiclue Liberntion Fioilt), knonn as FRELISIO, niltl the Resistencia Nn~ioilnlSlocninbicniln (hlozarnbiclue National Resistance), h n o ~ t nas RENXSIO, stnited nit11 the ~ i e a t i o i lof RENXhlO in the late 1970s niltl erlded ill 1992 Mtei elm e n I en1s of arrrletl st1uggle, Slozninbiclue nttairletl its irldeperlderlce frorrl the Portuguese ill 1973 HoneIer, it h e ~ n i n eeilineslled ill regional coilflicts as Zirnbnhtean foices fought agnirlst Biitisll iule ill the rleigllborirlg coloilr of Southen1 Rllotlesia Tlle Rllodesinil Ceiltrnl Irltelligeil~eOiganizatioil in 1977 estnhlislled RENXhlO ns n iebel foice ~titlliilhlozarnhiclue Its oiigirlal assigrlrrlerlt ~ t n sto 5p1 on Zimhab~tennguenillas operating frorrl hnses there Soon its nssignrneilt ~ t n sexpniltletl to iil~lutlearrrletl oppositioil to the FRELIhlO go~eiilinerltin ietnlintiorl foi its full irrlpleinerltntioil of UN sanctions agnirlst Rllodesin niltl, more irrlpoi tnilth, its suppoi t of the nirrled struggle for irldeperlderlce led b~ the Ziinhab~teNatioilnl Liberation Flollt (ZXh-LA) '

8

Chapter 1

The coililectiorls betnee11 these two territories ~\itlliilthe etlliloscape of Eui openil coloilinlisill uiltleilaitl these t l e eloprrleilts ~ Iillrnedinteh after hlozarnbiclue's independence, n nurnher of Poi tuguese settleis and foirrler rrleinheis of the colorlial arinr left hlozarnhiclue for Rllotlesin Tlle Rllotlesinil securit~sei~icesreel uitetl the fountling illeillbei 5 of RENXSIO fioin this group RENLlh10not oil11 nssistetl Rllotlesiarl forces in tlleii operations ngairlst ZANLX irlsitle Sloznillhiclue, but it also iinplerrleiltetl the ngerlda of those resentful Poi tuguese settleis who narlted to unseat the coillilluilist go\ el nrneilt ' Fi oil1 1977 to 1980, RENXhlO's role \\as expniltletl to iilclutle the sabotage of FRELIhlO's ecorloillic and social policies niltl the disiuptioil of rlorinal life in ruial areas RENLlh10 \\as also deplo~etlngnirlst ZXNLl irlfiltrntiorl routes illto Ziinhab\\e, nlthough its nctiorls weie fni less tlninngirlg tllarl the direct attacks of the Rllotlesinil Xrinr niltl Air Foice oil ecoilorrlic niltl inilitan targets in the pro\irlces of Tete, Slanicn, and Gazn In response, the Sloznillbicnil go\el ilinerlt foi ces tooh the \\ ni back to Rllodesin X \\ ell-traiiletl gueri illa foi ce iilfilti ntetl the erlerrlr line to ope1ate alorlgside Ziinhnh\\ en11 nationalists In ntltlition, Sloznillhiclue launched offeilsi\e operations agnirlst RENXSIO bases, nllicll culrninnted ill the captuie of the stmtegicalh iinpoi tnilt rnountnins of Goioilgosn in late 1979 TVitll the irldeperlderlce of Zirnhab\\e ill 1980 follo\\irlg the Larlcastei House agi eerneilts, T\ hie11 T\ el e inetliatetl b~ the Biitisll go\ el ninent, RENXhlO lost its Rllodesinil support and \\as tnkerl o\ei b~ the South ,Xi ican Securit~Foi ces Tlle South ,Xricnn i egirrle llntl such nil irltei est because the ,Xrican Nntiorlal Corlgi ess ("LUC)llnd a pi eserlce ill hloznrnbiclue and nas suppoitetl b~ the Slozninhicnn go\eirlrrleilt ill its struggle agnirlst apni tlleid RENXSIO also receketl support frorrl seine gioups in TEstenl countiies, includiilg the Uilitetl Stntes RENXSIO greu iapidh ill size and in inilitnir effecti~erlessBT inid1983, the i ebels llntl regnirletl control o\ er the rnouiltniils of Gororlgosa in ceiltrnl Sloznillhiclue niltl nere opeintiilg ill eight of the countir 's elm e n pi o\ iilces RENXhlO's nttnchs ngniilst tie\ elopineilt nrld nit1 pi ojects, rontls, biitlges arltl inilnn~s,schools, hospitals, farrns, arltl erltiie \ illnges ere cllni acteiized b~ nets of exti erne c i u e l t ~against ci~iliarls STsterrlatic torture niltl illnssnci es became tragicnlh fi ecluent, e\ ell oi tlinarT eTerlts ill iural nieas, pniticularh in the southern pnit of the countrT RENLlhlO'sst1nteg7 nns to disrupt the iural infi astiucture, isolate the go\ el nrnent ill gni risoil to\\ ns, niltl reiltlei the c o u n t r ~ungo\ el 11able, t h e r e h ~forcing FRELISIO illto corrlplinilce nith South Africa's securit1 coilceiils b~ eliinirlatirlg the ANC presence in Slozninhiclue At this stage, RENXSIO \\as prirnarih the inilitar~conduit of the South ,Xiican iegioilnl stmtep of tlestnhilizntiorl in Sloznmhiclue 111 spite of its innssi\ e cruelt~against the ci\ ilinil populntion, RENXSIO successfulh

Civil Wars

9

atti actetl the $1inpnthr of the pensniltr\, especinlh in the cellti a1 and rlortlleril iegioils of the countr\ hlarlr peasants felt tlisemponeretl b\ the go\ el nrneilt's niltagorlisill to their iural heritage niltl t i ntlitioilnl autlloiities and b\ its policies of forced \illngizatioil that coercetl peasants illto coi~lrnunalsettleinerlts wit11 sllaretl fnirrls niltl social seirices Young people, in pniticular, nere nttiactetl to RENXhlO because of a crisis ill ernplo~illentSlnin ~ o u t hhad inigrntetl frorrl iural to uibnil niens to fiiltl jobs, but in 1984, the FRELISIO go\ernrneilt's OpernbZo Produb20 sent urbnn th\ ellei s n h o \\ el e corlsidei etl "uilproducti~e" back to the couiltirside niltl closetl tlle tloors to "parasites " Tllese returnetl ~ o u t hno lorlgei fit into the local social structuies, \there authorit\ restetl wit11 the eltlei s Furthei inoi e, rum1 ni eas lacked footl, etlucation, and eillplo\rneilt oppoi tuilities RENLlh10offered tllese tliscoilterlted ~ o u t ha neu puipose in life b\ putting a gull in tlleii llarlds TVnifare ill Sloznillbiclue peaked in 1987, n h e n RENAL10 rrlade sigrlificnilt rnilitar~gains in the 1101 tllein and ceiltinl arens of the countr\ and uiltlei took nctiorls in the southern region The Hoinoiile illnssncie ill J u l ~1987, in nhich rrloie tllnil 400 people tlied, rrlarlr while the1 In\ in hospital beds, nas one of RENXSlO's rrlost ilotoiious attacks in the south Duiing this period, atrocities weie coillillittetl throughout the c o u n t r ~Slost el e attiibutetl to RENXSIO Hove\ el, go\ el ilrnent soldieis also carried out seine abuses Tl'ith its ecorlorrlr tle\astated nild de\ eloprrleilt pi ojects para11zed, the countr\ becnine iilci ensing11 tlepentlent on foieigrl aitl As a result, the go\ errlrrlerlt tlecitled to untlertake far ienclliilg ecorlorrlic reforrns, abarltloiliilg its foiinei Slaixist policies ill fn\ oi of political a i d ecoilorrlic libel nlizatioil 111 1990, a nev constitution nas adopted, errlbrnciilg the piiilciples of multipni t\ dernocrac~ The FRELISIO go\ enlment, T\ it11 its resoui ces dissipated b~ I en1s of wni, nas incapable of iinposiilg a rnilitar~solutioil to the conflict RENAh10 nas also uilnble to sustniil its nar effort, because South Africa decrensetl its suppoit tluring a piocess of internal ieforins to end apartheid TVitll this inilitnir irnpasse, n political solutioil becnine possible Follov iilg se\ el a1 rrlorltlls of negotiations, the go\ el ilinerlt niltl RENXSIO signed a Geileial Peace Xgreeinerlt in Roine in October 1992 Tllese ilegotintiorls nere rrletlintetl b~ the Italinil religious coillilluilit\ of Snilto Egidio and the Cntllolic Clluic11 in Sloznmbiclue Tlle first dernocrntic electioils tool< place ill Octobei 1994 FRELISIO nail tllese elections b~ a wide inn1gin, wit11 st1erlgtll ill the southern niltl rloi tllei rl regions, niltl forinetl a ileu go\ernrneilt F i ~ e\enis Inter, in the 1999 elections, FRELISIO rrlaiiltaiiletl its lloltl on powel, though b~ n rlariou rrlni gill " The c i ~ i l~ \ n iill Sloznillbiclue nas one of the bloodiest niltl inost ')

Map 1. Mozambique. Map No. 3706 R.2, LTnited A-ations Cartog-aphic Section Reprinted b) permission of the United Nations.

Civil Wars

11

dernstnting of its time " Tlle social costs Itere enormous, niltl the consecluences foi the c i iliarl ~ populntion catasti opllic Huiltli eds of thousarlds of hlozarrlhicans died as n iesult of the Ttni About f i ~ einilliorl people nei e iiltei nalh displaced h~ 1989, inoi e than one inillioil became i efugees in rleigllboi ing count1ies Besitles the rrlarlr uncounted clliltlierl ~$110died as a tliiect consecluence of the wni, nil estirrlated 250,000 oi inore cllildi en nere eitllei orpllniletl oi sepni ntetl fi oil1 tlleii farrlilies Scllool eiliollrrleilts weie retlucetl br nil estiinatetl 500,000, and rrletlicnl facilities sei r icing appi oxiinnteh fir e rrlilliorl people ~t el e destroretl ''I Betrteen 8,000 and 10,000 clliltlierl in hlozarnbiclue pniticipated in the corlflicts a5 soldieis, rrlost fighting rtith RENXhlO Since the 1992 agreement, Slozninhiclue has rrlarlagetl to innirltnirl peace The peaceful derrloci atic ti arlsitiorl in South 'Xricn niltl the continuation of pence in other ileigllhoiiilg rlatioils hare facilitated this peaceful atinospllei e \%I r felt incidents of political r iolence har e beer1 reported In innilr pnits of the countrT t o d n ~especinllr , the iural areas, Sloznmbicnns are still tr~irlgto corrle to teirrls nit11 the rtni niltl i ecoilstitute their lir es In Arlgola, chi1 Ttni lasted eTen longer than ill Slozainhiclue, niltl pence p r o ~ e t rrlore l difficult to estnhlisll Xrlgolnils cnirietl oil arined struggle agnirlst Poi tuguese colorlinl iule fi oil1 the en111 1960s until 1974, rtllen the go\ erilineilt in Portugal n as or el tlli ort n The nev go\ erilinerlt did not pwsue coloilial rtnis, niltl ilntioilnl irldeperlderlce hecarrle n real possibilit~ Three rrlajor anti-coloilial groups then engaged in n bitter interileciile rtar to gnirl exclusi~eaccess to powel niltl corltiol orer the couiltrT These gi oups ~tel e the SIPLA, Slor iinerlto Popular Nncioilnl de Lihei tabno de Xrlgoln (Populni niltl Nntioilnl h l o errlent ~ foi the Lihei atiorl of Angola), cNITLI, Uilino Nncioilnl pni a a 1ndependi.ncia Totnl de Angola (Natioilnl Crliorl foi the Total Iiltlepeiltleilce of Xngoln), and UPA-FNLI, Uiliiio Populni de Angola-Fiente Nncioilnl de Lihei tnbiio de Angola (Xilgoln Populni Uilioil-Natioilnl Fi oilt foi the Lihei atioil of Angola) Tlle SIPLA errlei ged r ictorious niltl pi oclnirrletl Angola's independence in N o ~ e m h e i1973 TVllile the cPLI-FNLI fntletl in irnpoitame in suhsecluent T en15, UNITLIi ecoilstitutetl itself as anti-Slnixist and pro-Ifistern to coiltiilue its niltigo\ el ilinerlt iilsurgencr cNITLYs pi irnar~suppoi ters ill its ~tni against the hIPLI gor el rlrrlerlt weie the United Stntes niltl South 'Xiica l 1 South 'Xricn's irlrol~errleilt arose frorrl its interest ill inairltairliilg ~tllite sup1ernacr niltl pier eiltiilg the expansion of hlnixisrrl ill the region Tlle Uilitetl States nas inteiested not onh in suppoi tirlg the apartheid regime ill South 'Xricn, n he\ allr, hut also ill offsetting arlr nllinilces the S o ~ i ecrliorl t and Cuhn inigllt rrlnke on the ,Xricnil coiltiilerlt At the height of the Coltl Il'ar, South ,Xi ican troops directh supported cNITLI and Cubnil ti oops fought

12

Chapter 1

alorlgside the hlPLX The Uilitetl States cllarlrleletl fuiltls niltl arins to UNITLl Lihe the ci\ il nni ill Slozninbiclue, the ci\ il Ttni ill Xrlgoln \$as shaped b\ regional niltl global forces ns \tell as locnl and rlatioilnl coiltlitiorls BI 1987, there nere innjoi battles in the south of the c o u i l t i ~culini, rlatirlg ill the siege of Cuito Cunnn~ale(a tonil in southrtesteril Angola) b\ South ,Uiican niltl cNITLI foices ,Vtllougll fighting at Cuito Cuana\nle erlded in a stnlernnte, the outcoine ~ t n sa ps~cllologicnltlefent foi the South ,Uiican Defence Forces South 'Uricn llntl to rethink its rnilitar\ stmteg7 iin Angola, g i ~ e nthe tlifficulties it faced in t r ~ i n gto \till the conflict rnilitarih N e ~ ttliploinntic atteinpts to eiltl the corlflict foll o ~ t e t Cuito l Cuniln~aleTlle next eighteen rrloiltlls weie inarhetl siinultnneoush b\ the rrlost sustainetl efforts to ncllie~ea peaceful settlerrlerlt and sorrle of the fiercest fighting of the elltile nni The fiist cllarlce for peace cnine in h l a ~1991, \then the go\einrnent and UNITLlsigrletl n ceasefire ngreeinerlt ill Bicesse, Poi tugnl, follo~tiilg rrletlintioil b\ the Poi tuguese go\erilineilt Tlle ceasefile held until the electioils ill Septeinbei 1992 Tlle fiist derrlociatic elections in the counti7 '5 histor\ Tteie tleeined flee niltl fnii b\ the irlterilntiorlal corninuilit\ Tlle hIPLI n o n n innjoiit~of the Totes cNITLI iefusetl to accept the election results, claiinirlg electoral fraud Jonas Sa\irnbi, UNITLYsPresident, oi deretl his t i oops to i etui 11 to ~tni, niltl full-scnle conflict i esurned ill Octobei 1992 l 1 This brutal nni rnged o n until 1994, taking a l l e n ~toll ~ o n the ci~iliarl populntioil In No\ embei 1994, a nev pence agi eerrleilt ~t as signed in Lusahn between the go\ernrnent niltl cNITLI Tlle Lusnka Protocol \$as aiined nt i estoi irlg pence in Xilgoln and pi oinotiilg rlatioilnl reconciliatiorl tlli ough n ceasefii e follo~ted b\ corrlplete tlisni rrlarrleilt and cantonrrlerlt In Xpiil 1997 n Go~eirlinerltof Nntionnl Recoilcilintiorl and crlit\, ~tllicllbrought UNITLlinerrlbers as well as represerltnti~esof sorrle otllei political parties illto the cnbiilet, ~ t n sestablislletl Uilfortuilntteh, this fragile pence tlid not last long 111 Octobei 1998, folloning tlisagieerrleilts wit11 the go\einrnent, UNITLl\tent bnch to \tar, niltl the hurnan toll continuetl to rise 111 F e b r u a r ~2002, the tlentll of UNITLllentlei Joilns Sn~irrlbimarked a ilev chapter ill Xilgoln's politicnl histon, ns the People's h l o errlent ~ foi the Liberntion of Xrlgoln (hIPLX) and UNITLlfinalh laitl d o n n tlleii \tenpons in pursuit of pence X pence agreerrlerlt betnee11 the hlPLX go\ernrnent niltl UNITLlnns sigiletl in April 2003, ~ t h i c herlded near11 thii t\ \ears of fighting The c i ~ i ~l t n iill Xilgoln ~ t n stle~astatirlgto the elltile population because it lnstetl so long, inged ncioss so inuch of the couiltn, a r d in\ o h etl suc11 lni ge-scale atrocities against ci\ ilinils Slintei estimates that during the 1992-94 pllnse of the war inole tllnil 100,000 people died

Slap 2. Angola. Slap No. S i 2 i R.2.1-mted Nations C : ~ Itographic Section. Rep~irltedb\ pelrrllssiorl of the United Natlo~ls.

14

Chapter 1

from wni-relntetl causes, the nurnber of larldrrliile ~ictirrls lose to 70,000 l 4 Xccortliilg to the 1997 UNDP Humnil De\elopinerlt Repoit in Angola, nhout 280,000 people weie li~irlgill rleigllhoriilg countlies as refugees, niltl nppioxirnateh 1 2 inillioil Xilgolarls nere internnlh displncetl, innil\ of tllein fioin rum1 arens to the cities About llnlf of the displncetl population nere cllildreil uiltlei fifteen \ears of age As rrlnilr as one inilliorl cllildierl nere directh exposetl to nar ns ci\ilinils and coinbntarlts Slore tllnil half a rrlillioil cllildreil tlied, tens of tllousands T\ el e orpllarled oi separntetl from tlleir pni ents, and inarlr inoi e T\ el e hidilnppetl during inilitni r incui sions E\ ell \ e n I oung cllildi erl T\ el e dragged into armies niltl militias UNITLlnns inost ncti\e in nhducting and i ecruitiilg cllildreil, but the go\ el ilinent foi ces also used clliltli erl as soltliers although to n lesser extent Cllildierl cniried neapoils and ~ oil i ecoililnissarlce otllei ecluiprnent, fought on the fi oilt lines, s e r ed missions, lnitl landrnines, and coiltlucted espionage Tlle 1997 UNDP Repoi t oil Huinan De\elopineilt in Xilgoln estiinntetl tllnt hetween 8,500 and 10,000 underage soldieis woultl he tlemohilized during the 1996-97 tleinohilizntiorl process l o Tlle T\ ni nffectetl innil\ more clliltli erl indii ecth Slnlnuti itioil incrensetl because of a tleclirle in food production niltl the tlisplacerrlerlt of farinel s Tlle deteiiorntiorl of llenltllcni e s e r ices ~ during the nar i esulted in higher infant niltl cllild inoitnlit~ rates Cllildreil weie pie\erltetl from atteiltliilg scllool b\ displnceineilt and h\ the tlestructioil of scllool builtliilgs In ntltlitiorl to death, pllr sical i r j u r ~and , tmuinn, cllildreil suffered frorrl the dire po\eit\, hunger, niltl social nild errlotioilnl problerns cnusetl h~ pioloilged exposure to political ~ioleilce I

Challenges of Conducting Research in Post-Conflict Situations Docurneilting arltl nnah zing the expel ieilces of clliltli ell and \ oung people ill the context of T\ nr a i d exti eine \ ulnerabilit~poses foi initlable cllallerlges This section exnrrlirles sorrle of the inetllodologicnl nild ethical issues faced h reseaicllers ~ \ o i h i n gin contexts of ckil nni nild Ix ecnrious peace Cllildi erl fi eclueilth cllnilge tlleir n a n ati\ es The1 inn\ sn\ one thing one t l a ~ ,and the next d a ~the\ inn\ tell nilotller ston entiieh, nllich rrlnkes it difficult foi the resenicller to estnhlisll the tiuth or, rrlore pieciseh, to decide ~ \ h i c h\ el sion of the n a n ati\ e to adopt Foi this rensorl skillful a\ 5 of cross-referencing clliltlreil's researcllers rnust t l e elop ~ testirrlorlies Inter~iensnith nitnesses oi pniticiparlts to the same e\ent, as nell as nith farnih rnernhers, frieiltls, and cni e g i ers ~ sue11 as tenellei s, traineis, niltl piiests, cnil be \ e l \ useful 111 adtlitioil, the etllrlogrnpllei

Civil Wars

15

rnay he guided by irrlportailt social and llistorical events that help put t h e child's narrative i n context. T h e coillplexities o f conducting fielthvork ill war settings call, paradoxicall!; he exacerbated by t h e presence o f huillanitarian agencies and NGOs ~ v h o s eraisorl d'etre is t h e provision o f aid and assistance to populations affected by war. Tlle iilteractiorls h e t ~ v e e nhumanitarian NGOs a i d the people they support are ofterl based o n the uneclual relatiorlsllip between provider and recipient. T h e agency/client tlynarnic creates inutual tlepentlency O n the o n e hantl, NGOs need t h e victims a i d tlleir stories to fulfill their sense o f rrlissioil as provitlers o f humanitarian assistance; o n t h e other hailtl, t h e victirns cluiclily uilderstantl that their status as victims is crucial to obtaining aid. 1\17 observations i n the field s h o ~ v that populations affected by war are likely to eilllarlce tlleir rictiin status i n the presence o f NGOs. This relatioilsllip o f rnutual tlepeiltlerlce is not a prohlerrl until t h e researcher enters the scene. T h e access o f researcllers to war zones is ofterl facilitated by NGOs. Humanitarian aitl organizations gain early access to conflict a i d postcorlflict sites, ofterl by negotiating with the parties i n conflict. NGOs are able t o tlevelop extensive local netn-orks that allow tllein to cllaililel support arltl aitl to populations ill ileetl. These assets are valuable to researcllers wllo car1 utilize the contacts o f NGOs as a local support bases. Researchers gain access to people, communities, and netn-orks, as well as logistical support-lotlgiilg, access to clean water, a i d soilletiilles food and trailsportatiorl to a i d froin t h e war zone. These resources are invaluable, coilsideriilg the situation i n illost war-ravaged regions. In sorrle cases, such as illy studies ill b o t h h1ozaillbiclue and Ailgola, researcllers gain access to the field as consultants for humanitarian organizations. Because o f t h e cooperative relatiorlsllip bet~veeilt h e researcher and t h e humanitarian organization the researcller is associatetl with the N G O , even ~ v l l e nnot einployetl by t h e organization. However m u c h researchers attest to their intellectual iildepeilderlce froin the orgailization, the research is perceivetl as directly related to, or an exteilsioil o f , t h e humanitarian work provitled by the N G O . Tllus, w h e n researcllers collect data frorn local populations they may ofterl h e told ~vllat~-ictiins tlliilli NGOs want to hear. Researcllers inigllt find tllernselves collectiilg recurring, recycletl, arltl soilletiilles exaggerated ilarratives o f victirnization. Tlle relatiorlsllip h e t ~ v e e ncaregiviilg agencies arltl researcllers especially affects coin.ersations wit11 chiltlreil, wllo rnay believe they must present tlleinseh-es as llelpless a i d dependent i n ortler to he seer1 as tleserving o f assistance. Althougll this situation is not designed by the llurrlailitariarl agencies, it is a consequence o f their activities o n the ground a i d poses a cllalleilge to researcllers operating ill these enrironrnents.

16

Chapter 1

W h i l e victims are able t o exercise their agency i n order t o rrlaxilnize their gains, the researcher, too, rleetls to b e aware o f t h e situation and have t h e ability to filter t h e information. My experience sho~vsthat prolorlgetl or repeated visits t o t h e field, together with cross-referencing to other available sources, help lnirlilnize this problern. ,Vtllougll this is a serious issue for researchers, it does n o t Inearl that all people touched by war errlbellisll or alter their narratives accordirlg to the circulnstances. T h e influence o f humanitarian agencies i n conflict ant1 post-conflict settings is so strong that they may b e perceived to b e replacing or taking up t h e role o f go\-ernrnental institutiolls. In these settings, local people comrnonly say that t o resolve a particular probleln "an NGO will need to develop a project"; for exarnple, "we are waiting for an N G O to help us deal with sanitation," or "there aren't any recreatiorlal facilities for t h e clliltlrerl . . . we need to tliscuss this with the NGOs." T h e NGO-ization o f conflict ant1 post-conflict settings rrligllt generate a practice or ever1 a philosophy o f deperlderlce u p o n foreign aid, without putting pressure o n local institutions to assurne their responsibilities and deliver necessary services. Insteatl o f expecting t h e go\-ernrnent t o provide for tlleln, citizens turn to NGOs for support. O f course, this is not by chance; t h e weakening capacity o f nation-states to provitle for their citizens exparlds t h e field o f action o f hurnanitarian NGOs that have access to internstiorlal resources. This situation has solnetirrles created claslles between hurnanitarian agencies ant1 go\-ernrnellts wit11 regard to t h e scope o f llulnallitariall actions ant1 inter\-elltiolls o n t h e ground. I ~vitnessetla typical example o f t h e problem ~vllileevaluating t h e Cllildren and T'i7ar Project (CFVP) sponsored by Save t h e Clliltlrerl USA i n hlozarnbiclue i n 1995. This project airrled at tlocurnenting, tracing, and reullif~illgunaccolnpanied cllildrerl affected by war wit11 their falnilies. Mter successfully relocating the cllildrerl i n war-ravaged communities, the CWP faced a problern: ill rrlost o f these communities, scllools llatl b e e n burned during the war, teachers had b e e n killed or displaced, and etlucatioll was n o longer available. csillg some o f its resources, t h e CT'iT decided to create community schools, lloldirlg classes under trees or i n builtlings rrlatle fro111 local ~naterials.Because teachers were not available, the NGO trained sorrle youths who could read and write, all i n an effort to keep the cllildrerl busy FVllen the reunification project ended ill 1995, the NGO asked t h e hlinistn o f Education o f blozambiclue to absorb these cornlnunity scllools into the national educational system. T h e government refused o n the grounds that these scllools did not fulfill t h e rninirnmn standards: rrlost o f tllerrl operated without proper builtlings; the teacllers had n o forlnal clualifications and could n o t b e placed ant1 paid ~ v i t h i n

Civil Wars

17

t h e national clualification and salary scale; and inost o f t h e scllools taught cllildrerl o f different ages and levels o f achievernent i n t h e same class. This situation created probleins between t h e NGO a i d t h e ininistry A n official froin t h e inillistry stated that NGOs should recogrlize t h e liinitatiorls o f tlleir humanitarian role and n o t see themseh-es as substitutes for t h e go\-ernrnent. He stressetl that before NGOs embark o n these kinds o f initiatives, tliscussions about follon--up actions should b e undertaken with go\-ernrneilt agencies. This situation is but o n e exainple o f t h e claslles that car1 arise i n the course o f providing assistance to war-affected children. These problerrls also affect t h e work o f researcllers w h o ileetl access t o b o t h types o f iilstitutioils. Researcllers rnust b e very skillful n o t t o shut t l o ~ v niinportailt sources o f irlforrrlatiorl and researcll support. I n Angola, relatioilsllips o f trust were n o t easily or cluiclily establislled during what tunletl out to b e only an interval o f peace i n a protracted and bloody civil war. Y o u n g derrlobilizetl soldiers and their relatives shared personal stories with t h e CCF teains ~ v h o i nthey already line~v and trustetl. T h e fact that I was brought i n by CCF colleagues facilitated rny acceptance. blaily o f t h e adults iin.ol\-ed wit11 war-affected clliltlrerl took advantage o f t h e opportunity to teach us about local knon-ledge and practices regarding war trauina, Ilealing, and social reiiltegratioil. Openly discussing acts o f rnurder and other atrocities ~vitilessetland coinrrlitted by forrrler clliltl soldiers, dealing with t h e guilt that adults felt at their failure to protect their o ~ v nclliltlreil and those i n tlleir comrnunities, facing t h e conflicts that still sirrlrrlered over t h e ii!juries suffered a i d inflicted i n t h e recent past-all recluiretl rnutual coilfitleilce. Indeed, without the field researcher's preexisting relatiorlsllips with traumatized young people a i d their caregivers, such project ~voultlhave beer1 extrernely difficult t o uiltlertake. Xilotller cluestion t h e etllilograpller ~vorliingi n war zones faces is, how should these narratives o f war and suffering b e hantlled? How tlo \-ictims o f war express their experiences o f paill a i d sexual \-iolence t o a stranger doing research? Do people feel coinpelletl t o speak, given tlleir \-ulnerable position? 111 different circurnstailces, ~ v o u l dthey have clloseil not to talk? I f this is t h e case, h o w slloultl t h e researcller deal with these terrible stories o f violence, huiniliatioil, and suffering? I faced these difficulties arltl dilerrlrrlas after gatlleriilg children's narratives about tlleir experierlces o f war, pain, and abuse. How does o n e translate these gruesorne narratives o n t o paper? \Vhat are t h e bountlaries between t h e rleetl t o rrlalie these terrible atrocities public a i d m y euristic intrusioil? Researcllers n-orliiilg oil clliltlrerl a i d war are o f t e n faced with t h e difficult tlilerrlinas iilllereilt i n writing about a i d presenting these llorrific

18

Chapter 1

stoiies Is the1 e a particulni lnilgunge to express n pel soil's pair1 niltl suffering nithout iiltiutling into tlleir pii\nte space-the intirnac~of the \iolence, pnin, and suffei ing, ns T\ ell as the recounting niltl i e\ isiting of the e\ erlt tllnt sllni irlg its details 11it11 the etllilogi apller i ecluiresi On the otllei llniltl, llov should the etllrlogrnpllei llniltlle tllese nni i ati\ es nithout losing the force tllnt such exposures of nni atlocities niltl \iolence coinrrlitted ngnirlst these ~ o u n gwornell and inerl hiirlgi Reflecting on these and i elated cluestions o\ er the I en15 is pni t of nllat kept rrlr field rrlnterials ill note forrrl for so long Howe~er,I tllirlh tllnt achno~\ledgerrleiltof the irlfoirnants' ageilc\ in the process of telling tlleir nar stories is irrlportarlt E\en witllirl the constraints irlllereilt in tlleii situation, the\ cnil choose what rrlessnges the\ wish to coine\ to the noiltl niltl hou the\ nish to cornrnunicnte tllein The\ cnil decide to be silent, to ornit certain t\pes of inforinntioil, and to tniloi tlleii rlari nth es Etllilogi apllers oi hiilg ill these circumstances should he awnie of niltl understand llov tlleii positions sllnpe the wn\s in ~ \ h i c hthe rlari nth es are presentetl, ns well tlleir iiltei pi etntioil and es to the oi ld 11% all-iilforinnilts and trarlsrrlissioil of those ilni r n t i ~ researchers-ha\ e ngencl in these processes

Research Methodologies I have heel1 tloiilg researcll on health, healing, and religion ill Mrica for the last two tlecatles. Since 1993, illy ~vorlihas focused oil the effects of war and on postwar healing of trauina. I llave ~vorlietliilterinitteiltly in ~lozambicluetllrougllout this period and in Angola since 1997. As an anthropologist, I privileged clualitative researcll inetllotlologies based on in-depth, sernistructured iiltervie\vs with key iilforrrlailts and focus group discussioils. I also used participant observation of corninunity events a i d activities, counseling sessions, arltl public rrleetiilgs as a inearls of accluiring relevant information. I corrlpleinerlted rny field researcll with library a i d archi\-a1 research, re\-ie~viilgpuhlislled reports a i d unpublishetl tlocurnents. 1\17 interest ill the effects of war oil clliltlrerl evoh-etl over time as I hecaine iin.ol\-etl in various projects about children a i d arinetl conflict. Tracing the trajectory of my awareness of and research interest ill these issues is irrlportailt to ail uiltlerstailtliilg of the point of view froin which I have written this hook. h1y first researcll in ~lozamhiclue(1986-87) was a study of tratlitioilal religious institutioils a i d tlleir effects on society ill three large neighhorlloods of Maputo-City: Cllarnailculo, Xiparnailiile, and Mafalala. This research focused on indigenous healers a i d oil the Zionist churches that syi~thesizetlthe Cllristiarl inessage of sah-ation with indigenous spiritual practices a i d beliefs focused on healing. I stutlietl tllese healing rituals

Civil Wars

19

as activities carried out ~vitllillthe context of farnily and collllllullit!; not as isolated perforrrlarlces or rrlarlifestatiolls of a particular belief system. My focus was on culture as tlyllanlic and creative, continuous and shared, and as a fulltlalllental dirrlellsioll of hurnan societies. X few years later (1993-94), I continuetl to develop my researcll in the sarrle direction, focusing n o r e closely on spirit possessioll and its relation to the war ant1 ~vitlerpolitics of culture in hlozarnbiclue. This fielthvork took place on the periphery of Maputo (in crbarl District Number Five, which includes Ntlhlavela, Zorla L'erde, Prilneiro de hlaio, and Kllollgoloti) ant1 ill two rural districts, Boarle ant1 blallllic;a, also in the south of hlozarnbiclue. Sirlce the civil war had ended in 1992, I was interestetl ill the ways collllllullities negotiated the trallsitioll frorrl war to peace by Inearls of spirit possessiorl and belief in the powers of ancestral spirits. Studying the healing strategies adopted by war ravagetl people irnrnetliately after the ceasefire and tllerl again after the resolution of the civil war was one part of the researcll I contlucted for my tlissertation.li In the course of this project, I intervie~vedtratlitiorlal healers, diviners, and spirit ~lletliullls;tratlitiollal chiefs appointed by the Por; religious leaders from ,Urican Illtlepelltlellt Churches tuguese (~11iir1 Co~?fli( t (C)xford. O x f o ~ d 1 rnr el sit\ Press. 1994) 17 Genera C:onrentlon f o ~the A m e l l o ~ a t ~ oof n the C:ond~tlon of the 12hu1lded and S I Lln ~ A ~ r n e dF o ~ c e sln the Fleld, August 12, 1949, 73 L7NTS 31 ( F ~ r s tGene\a C o n ~ e n t ~ o nGenera ); C:onrentlon for the Amello~atlonof the C:ond~tlon of I \ o l u ~ ~ d e d S ,~ c kand S h ~ p ~ \ r e c k e\ Ide m b e ~ s of Armed F o ~ c e sat . ConSen, August 12, 1949, 73 L7NTS 85 ( S e ~ o n dGene\a C o n l e n t ~ o n ) Gene\a rentlon R e l a t ~ r eto the T ~ e a t m e n tof P r l s o n e ~ sof I\ar. Allgust 12, 1949. 73 1 ATS 13.3 ( T h n d Gene\a C:onrentlon); and Genera C omentlon Relat~reto the P ~ o t e c t l o ~ofl Clllllan Pelsons ln Tlrrle of 1Zh1, August 12, 1949, 73 L7NTS 287 (FOIIIth C;ene\a C:onr e n t l o ~ l ) 18 Karma A a b l ~ l s"Er ~ , ol\111gC 011cept1o11s of C:IT 111a11sand Belhge~e n t s O n e H u n d ~ e d&a15 aftel the Hague Peace C o n f e ~ e n ~ e s111 , " C I ~ I L ~ 111 L ~ TTbl, ~ I S ed. S ~ m o nC h e s t e ~ m a n(Bol~lder,C olo . L ~ n n eR ~ e n n e2001). ~. 9-24 19 Karl \ o n Clause~s~tz. 01, Tbn~ ( L o n d o n Peng111n Books, 1982); h l a ~ ~ I(d1d01, AYe'~nrld Old TTbls Orgarl~sedliolerlce 111 a GloDnl Ern ( C n l ~ l b ~ l d gPe .o l ~ t ~ P ~ e s s .1999); S A &Inas. " 'Yen' and 'Clld' I \ a ~ sh . TTahdDlst~nctlon;" TColIrI Pulltlcr 34 ( O c t o b e ~2001). 99-1 18; \lark Duffield, "Post-modern C o n f h c t I\arStates a n d P ~ n n t eP ~ o t e ~ t l o n C17111 , " TTbrs 1 , 110.1 (1998). l o ~ d sPost-ndlust~~le~lt , (35-102; D a r ~ dKeen, "The E c o n o m ~ cFllnct~onsof T'lolence 111 C 1\11 I \ a ~ s , ArliI" pill Papi? 320 ( L o n d o n Oxfold LTnl\ers~t\Press for the Inte~natlonalInstltl~te foS ~ t ~ n t e gStudles, ~~ 1998). I 20 &Idor, LY~cln ~ i dOlrl TColr; \11chael Ignatleff. TIIPTbo11io1'r H U I ~ UEtl~rli( s o ~ hHenrl . Holt and C:ompanr, 1998); Mats TCnl or,(/ t11iJlorl~111 Cur,scii~i(i( U e ~ Y E C O I ~ ~Agerldns I ~ I L C111 C17111 B e ~ d a and l Dnlld hI. hlalone, eds., Gleed n11d G~~e71nnce . . L l n n e Rlenner. 2000) TCms ( B o u l d e ~C:olo 21 \ I a n & ~ l d o ~" B , e ~ o n d\1111ta11~111, Arms Races and Arms C o n t ~ o l , In " l'1111, ed. Clnlg C a l h o u ~ l ,Paul P l ~ c e ,a n d Xshlel Tlrrl11le1 d n s t n r l d ~ ~Sepfembn ~g ( U e ~ Tiork. s A e ~ sP ~ e s s2002). . 1.39-76 22 Ibld 23. Iill\\ as, " 'Neu ' and 'Old' 1Zh1s." 24 S e ~ l aB e n h a b ~ b ,"LTnhol~Pohtlcs Reclam~lngDemoc~atlcTTntiles ,Ifter 5if1ti11cbo11. ed C alholln, P l ~ c e and , T~mme~, S e p t e m b e ~11." In l'~irIostor,rl~rtg 241-53. 111 a

170

Notes to Pages 33-35

23. See G l n a s , " 'New' and 'Old' T\Brs." 26. S ~ m o C:hesterman, ~l ed., C17~tltn1ir I I I TCiu ( B o u l d e ~Colo.: . Llnne R ~ e n n e ~ . 2001). 27. Jacklln Cock. C o l o ~ i ~ nl s~ i dCnrll~r TVo? n ~ i dGp1idp7 I I I 5u11t11* f i i t o (C:ape To~vn:C)xfo~d I-nil el sit\ Press. 199 1 ) . 28. See L7tas, "Sneet Battlefields," o n nornen in the ci\il \\a1 111 Llbelia. 29. Kaldor, A\7~rl n ~ i dOlI TCims; I(a1do1. " B e ~ o n d\lilita11~111";and C a r o l ~ n A-01d s t ~ 0111, A DIffp7~1itK I I Iof~ Tbi11 ~ \to7 ) (Philadelph~a:LTni\erslt\ of Penns\l\allla P ~ e s s 1997). , SO. A-o~dstrom,*4 Dlffi7~11t I(0id of TCiu Jtu7). 31. \liehael Ignatiett, Ti7tltnl TVo? EIoro7~oo ~ i dB P ) O I(Nev I ~ Yolk: H e m \ Holt, 1999), 6. 32. Robe1 t Gersonr, "Summa11 of Refugee Accoll~ltsof P r i n c ~ p a l lC:onfl~ct ~ Related E x p e ~ ~ e n c In e s hlozamb~que"(T\Bshington, D.C:.: Bureat1 tor Reft~gee l t , TVllliarn F l ~ l n e g a ~Al , Comlpl~catedTTbl P ~ o g l a ~ ~L7.S. l s , State D e p a l t ~ ~ l e ~1988): TIIPHa7 7u7rl111g 0f~lIozni110iqii~ ( B e r k l e ~LTrnle~ : sit\ of Calltorma PI ess. 1992). 33. Human Rights T k t c h . "Eas1 Prel." 34. Felnando, a fo111lel RENLk\fO ~ l l l l dc o ~ ~ l b a t a ~!\as l t , f o ~ l ~ t exed15 e ~ l old n h e n h e told 111s s t o ~ quoted ~. in E d u a ~ d oT\ll~te.Tbitpr of Bloorl: CIiild7~11 o~id ~ b ~ q ~ ~hlozamb~que: ~ 7.n.. 1988). TCiu I I I A I I u : o ~ ~ (hlaputo, fo111lel clllld soldlel fiorrl H u a ~ ~ l b Intel\ o, ieued b1 the 35. T~\ent~-1ea1-old author in Feb1tla11 1998 In Huambo, Angola. 33. Lola L t ~ m p eR , I I I I I IGI II II I~I Tlip ~ Glubnl Black J I o ~ k p toi 511iollA711ir (Lon, Alvls Slr171e)2001: P ~ o f i I l ? ~the g don. Zed Books, 2000): S111allX I I I ~SS ~ u \ e \ Srnnll Aob1~11i(Clxfo~d:Oxfold I - n i \ e r s ~ t \Press, 2001); C:oalit~on to Stop the LTse of Child S o l d ~ e ~Lsi g, l ~ tTbi.@o~ir:LYut 51iitobl~fo7C11ilrl7~11 ( L o n d o ~ lCoahtion : to Stop the L7se of Cllild Soldie~s,1998). 37. Paul Dalies. "C:ambod~a and the L a n d m ~ n e Bt~rden-Ll G e n e ~ a l O ~ e r l i e n . "In Paul D a ~ i e snith Nic Dunlop. TVo? of t l ~ pJIoirs: Co~~ibodtn, Lo~ido~~ Pluto PI ess, 1994) , C IET Inteli71111esa11d tile I i 7 1 p o 7 1 ~ ~ ~ ~ 1of~ ia7L1 Ve ~a~t t~ (Lo~ldorl. n a t ~ o n a l ,TIIP Joe101 Costs of L O I I ~ I I I I II III PFoii7 T C U I ~ I I ~ AI ~4 fPgTI ~: n ~ i ~ ~B tUo T~ iI ,I I ~ , Yo1 k: CIET Internat~onal,1993). Co~~ibodtn o11r1dIozni~cbiqcip(A-e~v 38. X1111lest~I n t e l ~ l a t l o ~ l a,Yo l , ,llole U~111g fol U I U I ~ I ~Sa71e ~ I ~theS :Cl11ldre~1of 5to7n L P O I (A-elvYo~ I~ k: ,hnnest\ Inte~national.undated). 39. O n n a r l o ~ d s see , TVilham Reno, TVo1lo7rlPolitits n ~ i d+it011 Jtotrs (London. L ~ r l n eR l e n n e ~ ,1998): hIl~llae1H a l e , Resoulce TTbrs Tlle ,Yew Ln~ldscnpeof Glo C o ~ I j l ~(A-elvYo~ ct k: h l e t ~ o p o h t a n 2001). . 40. Vats B e ~ d a land \I. \lalone, eds., G~rprlo11r1G I ~ P I J ~ EI I~CUPI I O I I I I C , L ~ r l ~Riennel, le 2000). Agendas 111 C17111T T ~ I s( B o u l d e ~Colo.. s Amled 41. Cllara C)tllnnu. "Innocent TTictims:PI otectlng Children In T ~ m e of 2000 (London: Agenda Pub11sl1111g.2000), 84. C:onfhct." In r7~~it~rlA\70tio~~r 42. Glaca S f a ~ h e l The , Iinpacf of T T ~ 011 I C1111d~e11A Re711n11S I T I C P the 1996 lillfed I I York: P a l g ~a\e, A\70t~o~irRppo7 t U I I ~ I I PIi~ipnctof A7 i~iprlCo~IjllctU I I C I I I I ~ I I P(A-el\ 2001); Racllel B ~ e t tand Irma Specht, l o i o ~ gJolrl1~7r Tb%) Tlir-\ Clioorp to Figl~t (Bouldel, C 010.: L ~ r l ~Reinnel, le 2004),Jo Bolden a n d Joarl~lad e Bell\, Cl11ldre~1 p l i ) , Co~Ijlittn11r1D~splncpi~ip~it (A-el\ Yo1 k: o ~ i dlbcitli 011 tlip F ~ U I I ~ ~E It lI ~I ~P ~: o p r ~A711ipd B e ~ g l ~ a hBooks. n 2004); Cole P. Dodge and hlagne Raundalen. eds., R~ot11i11g a , I ~ l o z a i ~ ~ (Uppsala, b ~ q ~ e Sneden: S~grrlaFolC11lldrerl 1r1 TTbl: Sudnrl, I k n ~ ~ d nrld lag, 1991); Rachel Brett and XIarga~et\lcC:alhn. C I I ~ I ~ ~ ~ P I 1117~iribIp I - ~ I I P Jolrli~s (T'axjo. Sneden: Radda Barnen. Snedlsh Sa\e the C:hildren, 1996);James GarITI~ balino, Kathleen Kosteln~,a n d Nancl D u b ~ o l \AYo , Place to B e n C11lld: G ~ O I UI> oi n TVOI Z O I I P(San F~ancisco:Jossel-Bass. 1991); h l c ~ n d aHon~vana,"Innocent

Notes to Pages 35-41

171

and Glultr. C:hlld S o l d ~ e ~ass I n t e ~ s t ~ t ~and a l Tact~calAgents," In J l o k ~ j ro1id ed h l c ~ n d aHonr\ana and F ~ h p B I P ~ ~ CO/ /SI / ( / I Po1id I I Yulrtl/ o i Pu~teolu~iinl-if,~cn, De Boecl, (Oxfold. Jn111es Culler, 2003). Alan Rar111ond and Susan R n r ~ ~ l o ~ l d , C / / ~ / ( / ~1 1P) TCnr I I (Uev Yo1 h. S ~ m o nand Schuster, 2000); Peter I \ S l n g e ~C, / / ~ / ( / ~ P I I ot TCnr (Uev Yo1 h. Pantheon Books, 200.3); Pamela Rernolds, "'Yol~thand P o h t ~ c s ln Soutll A f i l ~ n ,111 C11~ldrer1n r ~ dflle Po11t1cs of Culf~rre,ed. Slla~orlStepllens ( P r ~ n c e t o nA . J . P r ~ n c e t o nLTnlrers~trPress, 1Y93), 218-42 I "Gn 1s B e h ~ n dthe (Front) L ~ n e s , "Pmcp R P ~ I ~8,R 110 O 43 C : ~ I011 il A ~dstrom, 3 (Septernbe~1996). 131. 44 h d d ~ t ~ o nProtocol al I, art 77(2) 43 C:onrent~ono n the R ~ g h t sof the C:h~ld.art 1 , LTU Doc A/44/49 (1989). n\ allable nt htfp //rororo 1rr111c111 cl~/l~fi71I/i71er1113/lI/k2~~~ l~fi71( a c ~ e s s e d22 F e b U~ ~r I 200.3) See also Jennr I(11pe1.I ~ i t p j ~ i o t t o ~Loirl i n l C u ~ i c o ~ i oCl/tlrl i g Ci7~111o1is 11) A I I I ~ P ~ Cu~tjllct( U e ~ Tiork. s C:larendon Press. 1997); Gel aldlne TTanBlleren, Tlip I I I ~ 1ioPI t. N ~ ~ h o f1993). f, t1o11nlLnro 011 flle R~glltsof flle Ch11d ( D o d ~ e ~ hSfn~tlnus 46 I b ~ d. art 38(2) (emphasls added) 47 h f r ~ c a nCharter o n the R ~ g h t sand T\elfa~eof the C h ~ l d .CIA1 Doc CAB/LEG/24.9/49 (1990), nlt. 2. Clitld 5uldiprs 48 See Cohn and Good~s~n-G111. 49 O ~ t ~ o nPa~l o t o c o ol n the C : o n r e ~ l t ~ oof~ lthe R ~ g h t sof the C h ~ l dconcelns ,allable nt htfp //rororo L C I C erg/ lrlg 111rolr elllent of ~ l l l l edn~ 111 rrled ~ o n f l ~ c tn\ irl~lI/~~ig/sstt~~~igO 11sf/cirpL1rt52O/FlD2C91 CCBDBFOljSC1256B66005BcYE49 (accessed F e b n l a ~2.3, ~ 2004) See also F ~ h p eGomez Isa, L o P(ljtlclpocto~i( / P 10s LYi~ios~ 1 /us 1 I C I O10s ~ IIlnechos del A Y ~ r ~ o Cor~jl~cfos Arij~udosEl P~ofocoloFnc1rIfat171on In C O P I ~ I P I sobre ( B ~ l b a o1rnr el sldad de Duesto, 2000) 50 See Furler, Co~tjlict 11, * f i i t o 31. Rndda B a n e n , "C hlldlen of T\kl," ,Ynosleftn 011 Cl111d Sold~ers1 (Sfn1~11 2000) B ~ ~ t l cltlzens sh protested t h e ~ ar ~ m'sr use of serenteen-\ear-olds In actlre serr Ice 111 the G111f T\ ar of 199 1 32. "Bor S o l d l e ~Foulteen, , B e a s TVltness to BUIIIMT o ~ t u ~ e S, "u ~ ~ d nT ~) m e s ( L o n d o n ) , -3J a n l l a ~2003 ~ l C o111t, 1A Doc A/C:OUF/ 5 3 Rome Statute of the I n t e r ~ l a t ~ o n aC:r~mlnal llfi71. 183/9 , a\allnble nt http //iuiuro 1111 o~g/laiu/~cc/stafufe/~oi~~ef~n 54 ILO T\orst Forms of C h ~ l dLab0111 C onrentlon (1999). conrentlon n o 182. art S(a) es A Soc~alH ~ s f o ro ~f F n m ~ bL$e (Neu 35. Plllllppe A l e s , C e ~ ~ f ~ rofr ~Ch~ldhood P I I t l i Politi(s ~ ufCirltlo~ Yo1 h. Random House. 1962); see also Stephens. C / / ~ / ( / I mi(/ 56 Borden and G ~ b b s Cl/l/(/rp~i . n ~ i ( Tbor / 37. Sf~chaelF ~ e e ~ ~ l aT nl ~, eR~glzfsn11d TTior~gsof C I L I I ~ T P( LI Io n d o ~ l .Fln~lclb PI Intel P u b l ~ s l s, ~ e1993) ~ 58 H o n ~ s a n a "C , h ~ l d r e nof T\ ar " 39. Cl111sJenhs, Ch~ldhood( L o ~ l d oa~nld Ner\ Tio~h. Routledge, 1996),\'11g1111n o nSome C:onceptllal C:aputo, "Ant111opolog~'sS ~ l e n t'Others'. A C : o n s ~ d e ~ a t ~of and hlethodolog~calIssues f o ~the Stud\ of Youth and C h ~ l d r e n ' sC:l~ltlnes,"111 Ibufll C ~ r l t u ~ e'As Cross-C~rlf~rral Perspecf~z~e, eed. V e ~ e dArn~t-Tala1a n d Helena Thllff ( L o n d o n Routledge. 1993); hlllson James, Cl~tlrll~oorl I(1~11titipr5plfn1i(/ 5ue1oI R P P I ~ P I I ( (Edinburgh. P E d l ~ l b l l ~1 g lI ~ I I T ~ I S I ~P T~ e s s . Intto~isl/lpsoi ~ ~ ~ ~ E Y ~ )ufCl~~/(/liou(/ 1993). li0 hm~t-Tala1and T\111ff, I.'olrtl/ C~tlticj~r lil C: John S o m m e r r ~ l l e .Tlip R ~ S Po ~ i ( /Fall of Cl~tldliood (Bere111 H ~ l l s Sage, 1982). Jo Bolden, "Childhood a n d Pol~crSfnke~s.X C0111palatlre Pelspectlre o n the Globahsat~onof C hlldhood," In Co~irtjI ( ( toig o~irlR ~ c o ~ i sitctl~ig tr

172

Notes to Pages 41-46

Clillrll/ood C o r t t ~ ~ ~ i p o Irrci~s l n ~ oi tlip \ot tologit ol 5t11d) of Cl/ilrll/oorl. ed. Alhson James and Allan PI o11t. (London: Fa11ne1 Press. 1990). 62. Jn111es and P ~ o u t Corlsfr , u c t ~ r ~a gr ~ dR P C O ~l rIcSf z~~~Cl111d1zood. ~g 153. H a r n Hendrick, C h ~ l d r e n . Cl/ilrll/oorl n ~ i dErtgliltrli 5oti~t\, 1880-1990 (Cambridge: Cambridge 1-11i\ers1tl Press. 199'7). 64. Honnann, "Ol). -. {(I. hr~11n.Ippad111a ~"Global , Ethnoscapes: A-otes o n Q u e ~ e for s a TI ansnaAr~thlopolog?,ed. Ricllald Fox (Snnta Fe, tiorlnl X n ~ t h ~ o p o l o g in , " Recnpflrr~r~g A-.\I.: School of Amellcan Research P ~ e s s 1991), , 191-210. '77. K o ~ d s t r o m*4 , Dlffil~ritI(0id u f T C i ~\to>). 3'7. 78. Riclln~ds,F ~ g l z f zfor ~ ~ gthe Raz~~folest. '79. C:hristian Geffral and \logens P e d e ~ sen. "Nampula en g u e I~e." P U ~ I ~ I Q I I P P A T l l u : o ~ ~ i b ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ A 4 j 5 i t o i ~29 i ~ (1988): 28-40; C:hristian G e f f i a ~ L. o toltrp (Ips ~ ~ I I ~011 , F ~ u l e ~CorlJ1zcf , Ar1f111opologze d'lr11e guene cz71zle (Palis: C ~ e d u - I i l ~ t l l n l n1990), oi z f i l c n ; Ishmail Rashid. "Bush Path to D e s t ~ l ~ c t ~To hn e: 011g1n and Character of the R e \ o l u t ~ o n a ~LTrnted l F ~ o n t(R1-F/SL)." +/to D P ~ J P / U ~ I22. I I / Pno. I I ~3 / 4 (1997). 19-44, Boxden nrld G ~ h b s ,C11zldler1 of TTirl: Xbdullnll a n d B a r l g ~ l ~ n , " L u m ~ e nYo'ol~th";I b ~ a h i m,Ibdullah and Patrick \Iuana, "The R e \ o l u t ~ o n a ~ ~ Front of S i e ~ Leone," ~a In -ifiito~iG l i ~ ~ l i l l oed. r . C h ~ ~ s t o p hClapham e~ (London: Jarrles Cullex 1998), 172-94: Riclln~ds,F ~ g l z f zfor ~ ~ gthe Raz~folesf. 80. T. I\: Bennet, r-si~igC I I I I I I P 01I I = I ~ I I / P ( Cu~Ijl~et: / A L p g l t l ~ ~ i o* tf ~i i t o ~ Ti ~ m l i , tlo~i? (Essex: Institute f o ~Secln 1t1 S t u d ~ e s2002). ~ pI e~~Ui a,Replesentatl\ l e of the LTN S e c ~ e t a ~ l - G e n ef~ on l~ 81. O l a ~ aO ~ L ~ I S C:hild~enand A ~ m e dC:onflict, quoted b~ S ~ n g eIn~ C / / ~ / ( / ~ntP TVocl,. I I 10. 82. I b ~ d . 83. Julia E. Sfnxted, "C l l l l d ~ e and ~ l X111led C o n f l l ~ in t XIIL~ Socznl , " Ider~tlt~es 9, 110. 1 (March 2003): 31-i3. See also Paul Colher. Etorio~~ilc Ccliir~rofC17~11 Cortjliet

--

Notes to Pages 49-54

173

o1id T I I P II~ripllratio~is ~ f u ~PUIIC)(T\Bshington, D.C:.: T b r l d Bank. 2000); singe^. C:/iild~i~i ot TVocl,;Ah hl-Kenz, "'Yol~thand TTiolence."in A/?~rn'rLYi711Piopli, Pollrlis ~IT ;Ifa11d I I ~ S ~ L ~ Ied. I ~ IStepllen O ~ ~ S , E l l ~ s( T h e Hague. DGIS [ ~ I I I ~ Iof~ Foleign tails]. 1996). 42-57, Chapter 3

1. h l a ~ u l a1s not 111sleal nalne. I use a p s e u d o ~ l l to ~ ~plotect l 111sldentltl. 2 h l a ~ u l anas tmentl lea15 old n h e n I ~ n t e ~ r ~ hml e ~ ~Ine Sde p t e m b e ~199.5 111 C : h ~ b ~ t Gaza o , plorlnce. \Iozarnb~qlle h l a ~ u l as a d that 111 the beglnrnng h e mas to ~ ta,n d ole1 time \ e l \ afiald of the u a l , but lle had 110 nltel~latl\eto aciJ~lstl~lg h e learned to llre that hte 3 F e ~ n a n d o from . Tchol.~\i.d ~ s t ~ 111 ~ c\Iozamb~que, t nas f o l ~ r t e e nlea15 old \ \ h e n lle told 111s stall, quoted 111 Edualdo Tnllte, Tblces of Blood C1~11d~er1 u11d b ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ hlozamb~que.s n . 1988). 14-13 TCnl 11, A I I u : o ~ r i (hlaputo, 4 hhchel De C elteau, TIIPP?o(tlri of E-c~o)rln)L f i . tlans Stelen Rendall o ~a PI ess, 1984). (Be11,elel. L7111\el s ~ t of l C a l ~ fm 5 A n d ~ i hlatsangaissa, . REr\,UlO's first leader, d ~ e dIn combat T S I ~ I Igole111ment f o ces ~ In Go1 ongosa, Sotala pro1 ~ n c eIn , 19'79 H I t ~ o l l o ~ \se are ~ commonl~ I,no\\~las the 171utsur~gasHI^ successo~ as Afo11so Dhla1,arna. See Alex Vines, R P oi A I I u : o ~ r i b( O ~ ~x ~f o~~~d C:ente~ . tor Southe111 L l t r ~ c a nS t u d ~ e s . ~ i o i ~ c oTi~lolls~ri 1 rnl el s ~ oft Yo1 ~ l.,In a s s o c ~ a t ~ oT nS I ~ IJames I C In I eT. 1991) 6. Robelt Gelson\, " S u ~ ~ l r n aof~ lRefugee A ~ c o u n t sof P ~ l ~ l c l p a C l lo~r l f l ~ ~ t Related E x p e ~ ~ e n c eIns hlozamb~que"(T\ashlngton, D C: . Bureat1 tor Refi~gee I/O; F ~ n ~ l e g aA n. P ~ o g r a m s ,1 S State Department. 1988); T'lnes, R P I ~ ~ I T\1111a111 Compl~cafedTTirr The Har-roiu~rlgo f I ~ l o z u i ~ ~ b ~(Be11,le~. que L7~ll\elslt\of C a l ~ f o l ~ l l a C o ~ i t ~ nAs I I~iqcio\ ~ oito tlli Rootr of TCo? P ~ e s s .1992); I \ 1l11amh h n t e ~z4pn~tliiid'r , oi A~igolon ~ i dA I I u : o ~ r i (Lorldon. b ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ Zed Books, 1994) n Sfozarnh~que.R e - F ~ a r n ~ nC1111g 7. Sala Glbbs, "Post-TZkl R e c o ~ l s t l u c t ~ oln d ~ e n ' sE x p e ~ ~ e n cofe Trauma and Healing." D i r o s t ~ ~18. r 110 3 (September 1994). 2(i8-ili; h l c ~ n d aHonr\ana. "Okltrtnkoln 0'1irlnlo I.'oknl\i, Let's L ~ g h at Uev Knouledge ln the Post-1Zh1 R e ~ r l t e g ~ a t of ~ oThl-Affected ~l Clllldlerl F I I ~Local . 111 Angola," C onsultanel Rep01 t f o ~ C:C F Angola. 1998 8 J o Bolden. "C:h~ldhoodand the Pollel \ I a k e ~ s .h C omparatlre Perspect~re o n the Globallsatlo~lof C hlldhood," ln Corlsfructlrlg arld Recorlsfr uctlrlg Childhood Co~iti~ripoln~\ Irsciir 11, tlli 5ociolog1rlcnl 5t11d)of Cl/llrlliourl. ed hlhson James and Al. h Dames. "Helplng. C o p ~ n gand 'C 111la11 Prout. ( L o n d o n Falmer P ~ e s s 1990); t ~ u a lHealing'," Reco71er~ Resealcll a11d C o - o p n a f ~ o011 ~ ~liolerlce, Edlrcatlorl urld Rilinbilitot~o~i of I.'ocoig P i o f ~ l i1. n o 3 (l99(i); hlhson James. Cli~lllioodI(1~1itltlir I ~ C P (Ed~nbllrgh.Ed~nbllrgh 5ilfn1irl \orlo/ R ~ l n t t o ~ i s l / ~11,p stlw E X ~ ~ ~ IofP Cl/~l(lliou(l ~al urld Childhood 1r1 L7~ll\elslt\Pless, 1993), Pa111ela R e ~ n o l d s ,E a d ~ f ~ o rHealers Zi11/bob7(~~ (Athens C)h~oLTnlrers~tlP ~ e s s 1996); . Jo Bolden and S a ~ G a ~ b b s Clitl. (11i1iofTCnl Rispo~iristo Pr\clio-5oc1olD1stm 11, Cn~ribodlo(Genera. 1 111tedA a t ~ o n s Social De\ e l o p ~ ~ l e n1997). t, R e s e a ~ c hInst~tutef o ~ 9 B a ~ b a ~Rao b e ~ t s "The , Death of \Iacho-th~nl.. Fem1111stResearch a ~ l dthe 5tlcdiir I ~ i t~i i~n t t o ~ iFUI o l tori '7 (1984). TI ansf01 matlon of Peace Studies," TCUII~PII's l Colorlels a11d Cudles TTbl a11d Ge~lder111 So11tl1l i f i ~ c a(Cape 195-200. J a ~ l , h ~Cock, TOTSII.C)xfo~d 1 nlr el s ~ Press. t ~ 199 1) 10 Cock. C o l o ~ i ~n~irl l s C o d ~ i s38 , a 1~el1-1,11o\\11 fernale healel fi or11 h ~ t o B, I p~ ~ o\ lnLe, Xn11. K~ltxlrn~ula, gola, ~ n t e r l l e l \ e db~ author and C arhnda \ I o n t e ~ r o~nJ ~ 199'7 T

174

Notes to Pages 54-57

12. Ibid. 13. Fernando, quoted in I\hite. Tbicrr ofBlood, 14. , child soldier from H u a ~ ~ l bAngola, o, intervielred by au14. T i s o ~ ~ laa for111er thor. Febrllary 1998. 13. Zita, then aged seventeen. intervie~vedby author in September 1993 in Macia, l\Iozarnbique. Zita belonged to a group that 1ras in charge of stealing food and other goods from the poplllation. H e was also often assigned the task of guarding civilians in the camp. 16. Maria, a seventeen-)ear-old girl, inter\-ielved by author in Josina Machel Is. Mozambiql~e.May 1999. TFry little is usl~allysaid a b o l ~ t land, k l a n h i ~ asol~thern the roles girls play as combatants. cooks, and domestic workers, and the sexual abuse the) suffered. Tlle next chapter focuses exclusi\-elyo n the situation of girls. 17. hstro. then seventeen, intervie~vedby the C:CF team in Huambo, Angola. klarch 1998. llstro stated that h e was never involved in direct combat. H e was trained to operate \\.it11 l a ~ l d ~ ~ l i ~his l e group s: ~ r o u l dplant l a ~ l d ~ ~ l iin ~ lellelll) es territory and clean paths of any possible landmines. 18. Ernesto told his story in I\llite, T'oicwr ofBloorl. 29. 19. Balto, tile11aged eighteen, inter\-ielred b) autllor a n d C;arlinda hlonteiro, Hllambo. Angola. February 1998. 20. Hon~vana,"Okttsinknlo 0'11dnloIbkoljr, Let's Light a A-elr Fire." 21. Lopes, a forrner child soldier from UNITA, inter\-ielred by author in Jul) 199'7 at the International Orgallizatioll for Migration (1C)kl) Transit Centre. in Vialla (near Luanda). hngola. In this intervielr. Lopes lvas lrith Sam, his friend and also a for111er child soldier; Sarrl 1ras less talkative and often just nodded lrhile Lopes told us his lrar stories. 22. Domingo. aged nineteen. interrielred by author in klalange. February 1998. I also had a cllarlce to talk ~ r i t hhis rnotller a n d sister-in-la\\., \\.it111rllo11l he lived for a lrhile. Domillgo had been demobilized and had managed to secllre a job. H e lras attending classes at night and had just paid bride~vealthfor his girlfriend, lvho 11lo\-edin \\.it11 hi111. 23. Dunga. a seventeen-year-old former soldier from klalange, Angola, intervielred by a l ~ t h o rin Lombe. Febrllary 1998. I n e n I met Dunga. h e lras still struggling ~ r i t h~ l i g l l t ~ ~ l aabout r e s the lrar: lle rrlerltiorled d r e a ~ ~ l iof ~ lbeing g kidnapped again to fight and of holding an ,X-4'7 machine glln and killing ever): body around him. H e was undergoing treatment by a local healer. 24. Ben, a young forrner soldier fro111 Malange, Angola, ser\-ed as a UNITA soldier and lras demobilized in 199'7. Interrielred by author in Malange. Febrlla n 1998. by autllor and C;arlinda hlonteiro in Malange, 23. Mrs. A ~ l d r a d einter\-ielred , hngola, Febrllary 1998. 26. For Nelson's story. see B6ia Efraime J6nior. "The Psychic Reconstruction of For111er Cllild Soldiers," Cl~ildr-ell,TTirr; a11d P ~ r - s e ~ ~ t t ~ o ~ ~ - R e Hope: b ~ ~ I dPya~r~g cr~rlirtgrof tltp Co~ip~.r.r irt Jlof~ltto,Allu:o~~tbi~~tty. 1-4 U P C P I I /1996 ~ P T (klozambiq~le: s.n.. 1996). (52-li3. 27. Xlcinda H o n ~ r a n a ,"Negotiating Post-TZBr Identities: Child Soldiers in klozambiq~leand Angola," in Co~ttwrt~d T~r.~oirts n ~ t dCortstr.~tct~d Cot~gorirr:C ~ I I ~ P I I ~ poruq * f i i c n irt Foc1t.r. ed. George C:lement Bond and A-igel C:. Gibson (Boulder. flle R a i l ~ f o ~ e sTTirr; f : Youfll Colo.: TZi.stvie\v Press, 2002); Paul Ricllards, Figllfil~gforo11d R r s o ~ o r ~irts Si~1.1.o L P U I I(Osford: P James Chlrre7; 1996); Oliver F ~ ~ r l e"Child y. Soldiers in ,lfrica," in Co11j1ic.t irt +.;en, ed. Oliver Fl~rley(London: I. B. TatIris, 1995).

Notes to Pages 57-60

175

28. Christian Geffray. L o cnctsp rlrr n ~ ~ t i p011 s L I I o : o ~ ~ / O Ai ~~~~(t~h:~ u p o l or lg' (i o~l ~ (Paris: C:redll-Karthala. 1990);Tines. R P I I ~ IMinter. ~ I U ; -if,ico's Co11t7.n.r. q110.1~ei71il~ 29. Pitango is a forrner child soldier ~ r l l ofought alongside the FALA,the go\: e r l m ~ e n tarmy rather than the insurgent LTNITA. H e lras eighteen ~ r h e ninterrie~vedin C:ambandlla, Bi?. Angola, by members of the C:CF team in March 1998. H e \\as de~~lobilized in 1997 from the d e ~ ~ l o b i l i z a t i center o~l of GraFanil in Luanda. In 1998, h e had enrolled for evening classes at a nearby secondary school. SO. Fonseca. interrielred in Kl~itoby the C:CF team in January 1998. H e lvas thirteen 1vhe11lle joined the 111ilitar) and se\-ellteell at the time of this intervie\\; His military training took place in Kuito, and h e lvas then sent to fight in the province of K~vanzaSul. 31. Geffra), La cnlrse des aclrines nu , l l o z a ~ 1 0 ~ qHuo~n u x l a , "Okusinkaln 0 ' ~ l d a I o loko1l.p. Let's Light a N e ~ vFire"; Hon~vana,"Negotiating Post-I\Br Identities." 32. Pitango. a nineteen-year-old former child soldier from Bi?. Angola. intervie~vedby rnernbers of the C;CF tearrl in l'farcll 1998. 33. Mats LTtas, "The Agency of Victims: T b m e n and I\Br in Liberia," ; I , d l & p1:r o~,rlB l ~ o k ~ 1 :C r :l / i I r l ~ n~ ~ i dlocctl~~ I IPostcolo~,inl-if,.icn, ed. hlcinda H o n ~ v a n a and Filipe De Boeck (Oxford: Jarrles C;~u.re),fortllcorni~lg2003); Furle), "C;hild Soldiers in Africa"; Honrrana. "A-egotiating Post-I\Br Identities." 34. Roberts, "The Death of Macho-think," quoted in Cock, C o l o ~ i ~o11d ~r Cadyes, 56. 35. Cock. C o l o ~ , ~mid ~ r C o d v s Ilene Cohn and Guy S. Goodwin-Gill. Cl/ilrl Sol~ I z41.~~/pd I Co11j1ic.t(Oxford: Osford LTnirersity Press, 1994). rlios: TIIPRolp of C11ill1~1i 36. Paul Xntze and l'ficllael Larnbek, eds., Te~lsePast: Culflrt-nl Essnjs ill E.olc~~cn o~,rld I ~ ~ t i o(A-elr q York: Routledge, 1996). S i . Smokeless ponder is the most commonly 11sed ponder in bl~lletrifles. It is c o ~ ~ l p o s eofd nitrocellulose a n d ~litroglycerinecornpou~ldsa n d binders. S111okeless po~vdersare generally classified by application based o n their burning rate and properties. There are handgun p o ~ r d e r s s, h o t g ~ u lpo~vders.and rifle p o w ders. Holre\-er, there is considerable crossoven l ' f a ~ l )shotgun po~vdersare also usefill pistol po~vdersand vice-versa. I l l e n inhaled o r ingested. smokeless polrder call have moderate tosic effects. See C:huck H a ~ r k s", G l ~ n sand Shooting Online," ~ \ ~ \ ~ \ ; c l l u c k l l a ~ v ~ < bL7S .co~~l: Research C;o~ulcilC;o~~lrnittee on Smokeless and Black Po~vder,"Black and Smokeless Po~vders:Technologies for Finding Bombs and the Bomb Makers" (report, 1998). 38. H o n ~ r a n a"Ok~rs/aknla , 0 ' ~ l d a I oIbknl~e,Let's Light a Fire"; H o n ~ r a n a , "A-egotiating Post-Ikr Identities." 39. Fernando's story quoted in I l l i r e . Tbicrr ofBlood. 14. 40. I intervielred Paulo's father, Boavent~lra,in hlaputo Urban District NLUIIber Fire in April 1993 at his h o l ~ s e I. also met Palllo and other family members. 41. Pedro. a tlrenty-year-old former LTNITA soldier from Malange. Angola. inter\-ielred by author and Carlinda hlonteiro in Februar) 1998. TZi. also had a healer, ~ v h ohelped Pechance to intervie~vPedro's alunt Nzinga. a ~vell-kno~vn d r o deal with the tralmlas of war. 42. Jose, all eighteen-year-old for111er UNITLAsoldier fro111 L o ~ ~ l bl'fala~lge, e, Angola, intenielred by the C:CF team in J11ne 199i. H e spent sis years as a soldier. His brother was also abducted and died after a failed attempt to escape from the camp. 43. Dunga. former 1-A-ITA soldier. intervie~vedby a l ~ t h o rLombe. . Malange. Angola, February 1998. In military terms the "parade" was a large. open space ~ v h e r etroops were drilled in f o r ~ ~ l a t iand o ~ l asse~~lblies \\.ere lleld.

176

Notes to Pages 61-65

44. Pitango. interrielred in Cambandl~a,Bi?. Angola. by members of the CKF team in March 1998. 43. I intervielved Noel and his Father at their llo111e in Nharnatanda, l ' f o z a ~ ~ l bique, in September 1995. Foln-teen-year-old A-oel was a w r y talkati~eboy who ~rollldtalk a b o l ~ his t militan deeds ~ r i t hfriends and neighbors. His father didn't like hi111sllaring lrar stories b e c a ~ ~ he s e feared that people could be allgr) at hi111 for what h e did. 46. These methods of destroying old identities and imposing nelr ones are Fa~~liliar fro111 the histor) of the trams-Atlantic e ~ l s l a v e r ~ l eof ~ l tTVest Africams. h l t h o ~ ~ gthe h two experiences are separated by several centuries. their resemblance is not coincidental. In many ,lfi-ican societies. names collstitute social relations a n d obligatio~ls.See H o n l m ~ l a", O l ~ ~ r s i n k n 0l u' ~ l d n I oI b k n l ~ e Let's , Light a A-elr Fire"; Honrrana. "A-egotiating Post-I\Br Identities." 47. Dunga. a former 1-NITA soldier from Lombe, Malange. Angola, intervielved by author in L o ~ ~ l bFebruary e, 1998. At the time of the intervielv, lle 1ras seventeen years old. r Malange in February 1998. 48. Domingo. interrielred by a l ~ t h o in 49. Josi., a ) o u n g for111er L7NITAAsoldier fro111 l'falange, Angola, inter\-ielred by the CC:F team in Jlulle 1997. 50. Eduardo. a former young soldier from the government army. i n t e r ~ i e ~ r e d by the C;CF teal11 in 1998. Eduardo is fro111&ito in Angola and \\as eighteen at the time of this intervie~l: 51. Lopes. former 1-A-ITAsoldier from Malange, interrielred by author. 1C)M transit center in \.'iana, Angola, July 1997. 52. Of course, these traditional ritl~alsare enacted not in the contest of death but rather in the contest of ritual bloodshed. See hlcinda Honrrana. "Spiritual Xgenc) and Self-Renelml in Soutller~ll'fozarnbique" (P11.D. diss., L7niversity of London. School of Oriental and African Studies [SOAS]. 1996). h yersion of the dissertatioll was later pltblished as a book: hlcinda Honrrana. Li7~i11g Spilifs, Jlodn-PI T~ud/t/orls:Spilif Possess/o~l nrld flle Politics of Culflrr-e 1r1 S o u f l l n . ~ ~ (Mapl~to:Promedia. 2001; Lisbon: Ela Por Ela. 2003). ,\IO:OIII~~QIIP 53. By adapting these cultllral forms. 1-A-ITA attempted to strengthen the alliance lvitll its support base. UNITA portra)ed its rival, the hIPLX, as all ~ l r b a n based, mainly creole, m o w m e n t ~ r i t honly marginal ties to the masses. IO, 54. Vines. R P I I ~ I I95-96. 53. Ho111i I(.Bllabha, T h e L o c u f i o ~of~C u l t u w ( L o ~ l d o ~Routledge, l: 1994). 56. Marcos, a t~renty-year-oldformer soldier from Mozambique lrho f o l ~ g h t alollgside RENNAk10troops. interrielred by a l ~ t h o rin Chibuto in September 1995. hlarcos \\as about t~relve~ r l l e nlle 1ras abducted into the ar111y. His relae H e came back after the ceasetiyes did not hear of him for more than f i ~ years. fire in 1992 at the age of seventeen. 57. Dolllingo, a tlve11t)-year-old for111er UNITA soldier, inter\-ielred by autllor in Malange in Febrl~ary1998. 58. Milito. from LTige in Angola. fought alollgside the F M . the gowrmnent ar111y. H e \\as sixteen lvhen i~ltervie~ved b) the CC;F teal11 in L7ige in October t years in the military Demobilized in 1996. nlilito 199'7. H e had spent a b o l ~fo11r nolr lives in LTige ~ r i t hhis older brother. 59. l'fanecas, a t ~ r e n t ) - ) e a ~ o for111er ld soldier from Huarnbo, Angola, intervielred by the CKF team in October 199'7. H e was abducted at the age of sisteen in his neighborhood ~ r h i l eplaying ol~tsidelrith friends and lras forced to enlist. Another friend 1ras abducted ~ r i t hllirn.

Notes to Pages 65-70

177

(50. Jamba, a nineteen-year-oId former 1-NITA soldier from Kl~ito,p r o ~ i n c e of Bi? in Angola. 61. Zita, a former boy soldier fro111RENLAl\IO,hlozarnbique. e in Bi?. Angola, served in 62. Kineteen-year-old Tuta from K l ~ r ~ jdistrict 1-A-ITXs army for five years and lras i n t e r ~ i e ~ r eby d the CC:F team in Kl~itoin 1998. (53. Jfilio. a tlrentyyear-old rho had f o l ~ g h talongside 1-A-ITA. is from the p r o ~ i n c eof Huambo. I l l e n h e left the military h e became very depressed. Inter\-ielred c o ~ l d u c t e db) the CC;F teal11 in H u a ~ ~ l binJanuar) o 1998. (54. Eduardo. from Bi?. served in the government army. (53. A-ineteen-year-old Noel from A-hamatanda in klozambiql~elras forced to fight alongside RENLI\'fO soldiers. li(3. Gito. a former young soldier from kloxico. Angola. served in LTA-ITXs army Gito lvas nineteen years old ~ r h e nh e lras i n t e n i e ~ r e dby the CC:F team in March 1998. (57. S l ~ l aa, yo1111g mall from nlosico in Angola, lras a soldier ~ r i t hLTA-ITA for d S11la lras ninemany years. In April 1998. ~ r h e nthe CC:F team i n t e r ~ i e ~ r ehim. teen years old. D ~ l r i n gthe lrar, Sula's leg \\as seriously irkj~lred,and he 1ras out of action for more than a month. (58. Dacosta. a former child soldier rho s e r ~ e din RENNAklO'sarmy is from Josina l'fachel Island in l'fa~lllica,l ~ f o z a ~ ~ l b i qIu ec .o ~ l d u c t e dthis interview in May 1999. Dacosta lras kidnapped at the age of nine. I met ~ r i t hhis ~ r h o l efamily , his brother lras a militiaHis father is a priest in the local Zionist c h l ~ r c hand 111a11~vitlltlle go\-ernrnent. T h e Father's dilernrna, ~vhichthe t ~ v obo)s sllared, was ~ r h e t h e rone day his soils ~rollldh a w to confront each other o n the battlefield. Fortl~nately.that never happened. Dacosta was demobilized when the war ended in 1992. (59. Gito. i n t e r ~ i e ~ r eind March 1998 in nlosico by the C:CF team. '70. L l ~ c a slras nineteen ~ r h e nthe lrar ended in 1992. I i n t e n i e ~ r e dhim in Cllibuto, h l o z a ~ ~ l b i q uin e , S e p t e ~ ~ l b e1993. r H e 1ras kidnapped in 1982 at the age of nine and forced tojoin the REA-LI\'IOinsl~rgentarmy. His mother. grandmother. and baby sister were also kidnapped o n the same day but h e n e w r saw tlle111 in the camp. H e learned later of their death in tlle l l a ~ l d sof RENN-V\-v\IO. '71. Zita, from klacia in Mozambique. interrielred by author in September 1995. 72. Sarn, a friend of Lopes: Carlinda l'fo~lteiroand I intervie~vedboth bo)s in Viana, at the 1C)M Transit Center in J111y 199'7. '73. A-elito. a former soldier from klar~jacaze,Gaza province in Mozambique. inter\-ielred bv author, 1995. '74. Pedro. a nineteen-year-old from Malange in Angola. interrielred by allthor in klalallge in Febrllarv 1998. 13. Ben, inter\-ielred by author in Malange, Angola, in Februar) 1998. '76. Ibid. '77. h n t h o n ~Glddens, Tlip Cu~i~titiitlu~i uf \ U C I P ~ \ 0 1 1 t l i 1ufi ~t l l ~T/IPOI\ uf \ ~ I I I ( ~ U T U ~ I O(Be1 P I kele~ . U n i \ e ~ s l t \of C alifo~rliaP ~ e s s 1984). , '78. I b ~ d .9. . '79. Illld.. 16. 80. P a ~ t l l aC h a t t e ~ j e e ,Tlze AYnfzorlnrld ~ t F~agrnerlts s Colo~11a1 U P I Posfcolo~~~al ~ H ~ Y ~ U(PI I I lnceton, PT N.J.: PI lnceton 1-rnlel sit\ Press. 1993); Gal atri C:hak~a\ol t~ 11, tlip T ~ n c I ~ ~ ~ i g ~(A-el\ l I ~ ~Yo1 r lk:i ~Routledge, ~i~ 1993). S p i ~ a k011tsid~ , 81. De C el teau, TIze P~ncfzceof E-c~n\da\Lfe, xix.

-

-

178

Notes to Pages 70-79

82. Ibid.. 37. 83. Ibid.. 38. 84. 011Tirnangane's story, see Jfinior, "The Psychic Reconstructio~l,"62. 83. Jacinto, a se~enteen-year-oldformer soldier from Malange, Angola. intervielved by the CC:F team in Janltary 1998. 86. Julio, a tl\.ent)-year-old former UNITA soldier fro111 Huarnbo, Angola, int e r ~ i e ~ v eby d the CC:F team in Hltambo. January 1998. 8 i . Mario. a nineteen-year-old former 1-A-ITAsoldier from Hltambo. Angola. inter\-ie~vedby the C;CF teal11 in Huarnbo, Ja~lual?1998. 88. A-ordstrom, *4 Diffclrrtt I(i11d ufTtVkl.Stul:y. 89. Fernand Delignr; in De Certeau. TI!? Pmctirr u f E 7 ~ ~ 1 y dLo fyr . 90. Xcllille h l b e ~ ~ l b"Pro\-isional e, Notes o n the Postcolony," ; I f i c n 62, no. 1 (1992): 3. 9 1. Koln-oltma. Alln// 11 '?st pas oblig;.

Chapter 4

1. Anita. i n t e r ~ i e ~ v ebyd a u t l ~ o in r May 1999 in Josina klachel Island. 2. C:arol MacCormack and Marilyn Strathern, A\70tco~, CC1tltco~o11rl C;r~irlo.(Cambridge: C a ~ ~ l b r i d gUni\-ersit) e Press, 1980); Belinda Bozzoli, "l\Iarsis~~l, Ferrli~lis~~l and South Llfi-ican Stltdies," Jo~cl.rtol of Socctl1~1.11 z f i i c o ~Stccdirs ~ 9. no. 2 (1983): nr,rl POTOPI. i11Rlo.01 G ~ ~ r (Princeton. cr N.J.: Prince139-71; Jill Dubisch. ed., Ckr,dr~. ton L7ni\-ersity Press, 1986): Henrietta Moore, A Pnsslorl for 1)~Yfmerlce:Essujs 1r1 =I~itl/~opolug? n11rl C;r~idr~. (Bloomington: Indiana 1-ni~ersityPress, 1994); Jltdith Butler. C;rr,rlo. Eoccblr: Fr~~iir,i.r~~i nr,rl tllr S I ~ ~ I J P IufI(1~11titj S ~ U I I (Ne~vYork:Rolttledge, 1990): Begoria Xretxaga, Shutter-111gSller~ce:IIbil1er1,A Y n t ~ o ~ ~ u u11d l i ~ i Polif~cnl 7~ SuD~ec(Princeton, N.J.: Princeton 1-ni~ersityPress, 1997);Jltdith ti7~ityi11L Y o ~ t l I~ ~~ l .~~ ~O I I ~ DiIorio, "Feminism and T k r : Theoretical Issues and Debates," Rr_fc~v~icr Irsltrs R P II~~ "Tbrrle~land the Liberian Ci\-il 711au20, 110. 2 (1992): 51-68: F L ~ I ~Olo~lisaki~l, ~II 1995): 34-3i. T\Br." zf,icnrt I ' V ~ I I I(March/September 3. Henrietta Moore. "The Problem of Explaillillg Violence in the Social Sciences," in Se* u11d Ti'ole~~ce: Issues i11 Repr-eserltnfiorl u11d Expnie~lce,ed. Penelope H a r ~ e yand Peter Golv (London: Rolttledge. 1994). 138-55. 4. Jean Bethke Elshtain. I~VUII/PII orl(l I'k11.(Brighton: H a r ~ e s t e r 1Y8i). , 5. hleredeth Tursllen, "T2h11len'sT\kr Stories," in T17~nfTTbrnle~l110 1r1 TT'CII~~~NIP, ed. Meredeth Turshen and Clotilde T~vagiramariyza (London: Zed Books, 1998). 6. Jackl?n Cock, "Tkrnen, the l'filitar) a n d hlilitarization: So111e Questions Raised by the South African C:asen (paper presented to the Center for the Study of T'iolence and Reconciliation. seminar 7. 1992). 2. 7. Jackl? n Cock, COIO~IPIS urld Cndr-es: IIbmlerl n11d Gerldn- 1r1 Soufll 14fi~cn(Cape To~vn:Clxford 1-niversity Press. 199 1 ) . 8. Sheila Rolvbotham. T'VUIIIPII, Rr.ristorlrr o11d Rr7~uIlctior1(Lolldoll: Penguill Books, 1972). 9. Susan McKay and Dyzan Mazurana, "Girls in klilitaries, Paramilitaries, Militias and Armed Clpposition Groltps" ( b a c k g r o ~ t ~paper ~ d presented at the Inter~ l a t i o ~ lC a lo ~ l f e r e ~ l coen TZBr-Affected C;hildren, TLnnipeg, Manitoba, Canada, 2003). See also McELay and Mazurana, TtV11r1~*41? t l ~ rC;il%r? 10. R o n n e Pkairns. "The Voices of Girl Child Soldiers. Sri Lanka" (A-elv York and Gene\-a: L7nited Nations Q ~ r a k eOffice, January 2003), a\-ailable at http:// ~\~\~cq~tno.org/ne~~~ork/Reso~trces/girlSoldiersSrilar~ka.l~cif.

Notes to Pages 79-86

179

11. Human Rights T\Btch. Forgotten Figlltos: Cl/ilrl S O / ( / ~ P~ ~I : IA T ~ , g o l o(Nelr York: H l ~ m a nRights T\Btch, April 2003). 12. In "Angola's Cllildren Bearing tlle Greatest Cost of T\kr," lifiica SPCI/I-/~J Rn~inrl11. no. 3 (2003). 13. Vivi Stav1-011,CC:F in Angola. in an intervie~rlrith T h e LTnited Natiolls Integrated Regional Netlvorks (IRIN) 4, March 2004. 14. Veena Das. "The Anthropology of Violence and T h e Speech of T'ictims." = I ~ , t l ~ l u p o Today l o ~ 3, no. 4 (198'7): 11-13. See also F. Ross. "Speech and Secrecy: TZhrnen's T e s t i ~ ~ l o nin) tlle First Five TGeks of Public Hearings of the Soutll African Truth and Reconciliation Commission," in R ~ ~ ~ c n kni ~T'Voll(l: lg Ti'o1~11c.r: Social S l f f ~ ~ . i o11d ~ , g R P C O I J Ped. ~ . TTeena Das. Arthur Kleimnan, Margaret Lock. l ' f a ~ ~ l p h eR l aa ~ ~ l p h e laen, d Pa111ela Re)nolds (Berkele): Uni\-ersity of C;alifornia Press. 2001). 250-79. 13. Sl~sanBro~rnmiller, "Making Female Bodies the Battlefield." in dlass Rape: The TTirl-Ago.n2rlst 1Tbil1e~1 1r1 Bosr1io-H~l-ego71~r1~1, ed. Alexa~ldraS t i g l ~ ~ l a(Lin) coln: LTnirersity of Nebraska Press, 1994). 16. H o n ~ r a n a"LTntold , T k r Stories: Yo'olullgT b m e n and T k r in klozambiql~e" (paper presented at tlle conference o n "Cllildren and Youth as E ~ ~ l e r g iSocial ~lg Categories in Africa." L e w e n . A-ovember 1999). l i . In ,lfrica, Zionist churches fine a Christian message lrith cl~ltln-a1practices a n d spiritual beliefs from local religious traditions. 18. JIlcti means a honse o r residential 11nit in Shangane, a s o l ~ t h e r nMozambican language. 19. See also Elisa hluianga, "l\Iullleres e Guerra: Social de hlullleres Regressadas das 'Zonas d a Renamo' n o Distrito d e Mandhakazi" (Ph.D. diss.. LTniversidade Eduardo Mondlane, Mozambique. 1996). 20. Nora, a se\-enteen-)ear-old lvolnan inter\-ielred by tlle autllor in Josina klachel Island in May 1999. She ~ r a l k e dfor more than three days before reaching the camp. On her Tray to the camp. she salr soldiers kill captives lrho Irere tired a n d could not lmlk all)lnore. Nora 111anaged to escape d ~ l r i n gone of the girl's expeditions to fetch water for the camp. r May 1999 in Josina Machel Island. 21. Chtarina. i n t e n i e ~ r e dby a l ~ t h o in 22. Leia, inter\-ielred by author in May 1999 in Josina l'facllel Isla~ld. 23. A-tombi, a talkative yo1111glromen from Josina klachel Island, interrielred by a l ~ t h o in r May 1999. 24. Maria, a seventeen-year-oId wornall i~ltervie~ved b) tlle autllor in Ma) 1999, in Josina Machel Island in klozambiql~e. 23. Anita, interrielred by a l ~ t h o in r May 1999 in Josina nlachel Island. 26. Tlventy-one-year-old Dinha, intervielved by tlle autllor in tlle island in May 1999. 27. Mats LTtas, "Slreet Battlefields: Youth and T h e Liberian Civil T\Brn (Ph.D. diss., Uppsala L7niversit), 2003). A\70t to C I ~ "Cl~ild : Co~~cbntn~itsColo~~i28. Human Rights T\Btch. "I.'occ'll L~nj.11 bio (A-e~rYork:H l ~ m a nRights T\Btch. September 2003). 53. 29. X~lgolarlgirl child soldier quoted in Keiarns, "The Voices of Girl Child Soldiers." 15. SO. Elderly lromen from Josina Machel Island. 31. I intervielved Felista in the 111ost relnote area of Josina Machel Island lrhere access is Yen difficl~lt,especially d l ~ r i n gthe rainy season. in May 1999. Almost evenbody told m e of her s t o n Felista was happy to share h e r war experiences lvitll rne. L7nfortunatel), Ilras unable to inter\-ielr ller husband, as lle 1ras alray during my stay o n the island.

180

Notes to Pages 87-90

32. Judite's story in Muainga. "kl~~lllheres e Gl~erra,"30-31. 33. Ibid. 34. These lvolnell and a felv others c o ~ ~ l p o s ethe d ~rornen's!ring c o ~ ~ l ~ ~ l o n l ) called DF; see ibid., 33. 33. Susan Bro~vnmiller,=Igaicli,i.rt010.TtTill: ~ I P I T'TUIIIPII, I, cl~,rlR ~ ~(Nelr I P York: Si11lo11SC Scll~lster,1973). 3 3 . h film by Helke Sander and Barbara Johr, B ~ I F loid ~ ~ IBl?fi~it~: . I(l?~g (Munich, 1991). Thg~oclltig-cogEli~,rlp~. Analysis," in 37. Ibid., 46; see also Ruth Seifert, "T\kr a n d Rape: A Preli~~linary AIIcl.r.rRcl~ I P .oi111ger / ge~leratio~ls) I-elationship, 126 .IK-47 assalilt rifles, 31, 58 A 1 l l / ~til ~ ;,ti potob11gJ (Iiourou~na) , 74 .Ilto Saya (Colombia), 30 .Imi.lia (a I ~ ) ( I I ~ ~ 116-17, (I), 18411.28 ,&llerican-Europeall 1s. ,Ulicall culture, 153-54 amnest!- Ia~v(Slozambiqlie, 1987), 20, 138 Xna (pseud.), 120-21 .ISC (.If-ican National Congress), 8-9 ancestl-al spil-its: harm fi-om, 126; honoring ci of, 106, 114, 123-28; t i r i o i ~ ~ b (house o f ) , 111, 117; offerings to, 126; poTver

of, 155-56; protection b!; 106-7, 127; returllillg soldiers' reilltroductioll to, 111-12; and the ~val--peaceTI-ansition,19 .Ingola: bul-ial rituals in, 107-8, 123-25; cllildllood 1s. adultllood ill, 3, 40, 157; children's roles in, 41-42, 52; democratic government in, 12; Go\-e~-nment of National Recollciliatioll and L-llit> established, 12; independence/ postcolonial government of, 7, 11; map of, 13; n a r ethics in, 53-54. Src / / / t o .IngoIan ci\-il wars .IngoIan civil Tvaars: ceasefil-e of 1991-92, 12, 16711.13; ceasefire of 1997-98, 12; ceasefire of 2003, 12, 123; civilians attacked during, 5-6; civilians \-s. colnbatants in, 76; Cuito Cuana1ale siege, 12; death toll and social costs of, 12, 14; displacement I-esnltingfrom, 14, 99; dulatioll of, 11; Lusaka Protocol, 12; political background of, 7; sevlial assault on \-illage women during, 76; social ~lornlsIiolated ill, 105, 106; TI-anmaticcil-c~imstances follo~ving, 122-23; ~vomen'sroles in, 79, 93 (.sc.c. cllto ~ r t i r i r girls/>o~ulg i ~\onlell).Src cllto SIPLI; 1-SITA%; 1-P.1-FNLI .Ingola Polxilar 1-nion-National FI-onr for the Liberation of Angola, 1I .Inita (pselid.), 75, 8G85 apartheid, 8, 9, 11, 47 Xppadill~i, Xrjun, 45 .Irii.s, Philippe, 40 .Isian civil Tvaars, 30 Xssociatioll of Former Conlhatallts, 131 .Issociation of TI-adirionalHealers, 131

190

Index

Xstro (pseud.), 53, 141-12, 17411.17 .Ilirora (a healer), 131-32 AI1ist~-alia, 36, 38 /ijrlo rituals, 132, 18611.66 Bakongo people (Ingola), 23, 114 Bnlknn llnls, 31 Balro (pselid ), 56 Bangladcull, 88 bciliricit (fora>sfor food across nlilitar! lines), 131, 18511.62 IIII(/ F:P/JP/~(, (Salldel- a1ldJoI11-),87 F:P~J(,IPJ Bell (pseud.),36, 17411.24 Benhabib, Se!-la, 33 Bhabha, H o ~ n K., i 3, 63-64 Bi6 (Angola), 23, 56, 113, 132-33 blood slicking, GO, 61-63, 17611.52 Boane (southern Rlozambiqne), 19 hod) 1s. mind, 117, 150-51, 133 bombing, precision, 18111.74 Boorhb!; Seil, 138 Bosnia, 31 Bosnia-Herregox-ina, 88 Bo!-den,Jo, 152-53 ho>s/young Inell: as associated wit11 conflict, 77; gender definitions of, 53; labor migl-ation of, 81, 148, 163. Scv ulso child soldiers British naxy 27 Bro\vnmille~-,Susan, 87, 88 Bulgel; James, 2 bullet-po~vclel-, 59, 66, 17511.37 burial ~ritlialsii;bito.sj, 107-8, 123-25 Burnla (hI>allnlar),30, 38, 90 Bli~-li~ldi, 29 Cabo Delgado (hloranlbique) , 20 Camarada, Soba, 127 Cambodia, 30, 152-53

Caplimba, Sopa, 132 Carlos (pseud.), 128 Gal-tesian dualism, 117, 150-51, 153 Ca~r-alho,R., 130 cassal a meal, 116 Catholic Ch111-cl1,151. .Spp (11\0Sallto Egidio CCF (Christian Children's Fund), 17, 22-25, 141 Chamancnlo (Rlaplito-Cir!; Rlozambiqne), 18-19

chiefs' ill\ ol\ elrlellt in recruitnlent, 36-57 childhood: x-s. adlilthood, 3, 40, 157; conre~npo~-ar!-riexvs of, 31; rites of, 42; as a social/cult~u.alcollstruction, 28, 40-44, 157 children: commodification of, 46; defined age of, 35-36; illterllational hnmanital-ian Ia~vfol- protection of, 28, 31, 33, 35-40, 41, 47, 158; labor of, 46; resilience, 148, 162; rights of, 2, 35-39; violent crimes committed in peacetime b!; 1-2; and xvealth, 52. .Sw NI\Ocllildrell ill\ ol\ ed ill/affected h) uar; child soldiers; girls/!-oling Tvomen ChiIdl.cn and T k r PI-oject. .Spp CTVP cllildren ill\ 011 ed ill/afkcted h> war: agent!- of children, 4, 18; and childhood x-s. adlilthood, 3, 40, 157; displacenlent of, 14, 99-101; hnmanital-ian 01-ganirarions'response to, 2-3; magnittide of the problem of, 27; ~nalnutritiollof, 14; nlortalit> rates for; 14; in the Slorambican cix-ilxval-s, 11; ne\v dimensions of, 4; outrage orel-, 40; o\ er\ ieu of, 2, 4, 26; pollution of, 6, 105, 108, 111-12, 122, 133, 155 ( \ P P NI\O cleansing rituals); porert!-lh1inge1-of, 14; researcll 011,cllallellges of, 1 4 1 8 ; I-ennificarion ~virhfamilies, 19-21; [TNIT-Ys abdlictionlrecmit~ne~~t of cllildren, 14; lictinl status of, and obtaining aid, 15-16, S(,(;(ip (11sochild soldiers; healing; historicallsocial context of cllildren ill war; I-eintegl-ationinto socier!Childl-en's CI-lisades (12121, 27 child soldiers: agellc! of, 30, 69-74, 96-97, 162; as children rs. adults, 3, 4, 63-66; as cix-iliansrs. combatants, 4, 7G75; di\ersions enjo>edb>,67; fear; paill, and I-emorseexpel-ienced by, 6GG7, 68-69, 108; hlimanirarian programs for; 19-20; illllocellce vs. guilt of, 4, 49-50, 68-73; intel-national Ia~vprohibiting use of, 35-39; as I J I ~ I ~ . S ~51-52; III~(I.S, lrlelltal illrless of, 108, 109, 117-18; mliltifacered identities of, 4; nlimber of, 1, 10, 27, 29; n1imbe1-demobilized in Angola 1996-97, 14; parellts' inabilit: to protect, 3-57; and pox-el-ty,1, 28; prex-enring children's 1x1-ticipationin

Index \Val; 157-39, 162; reasons for using childrrn, 44-48; in RES.ISl0, 11, 29, 92, 94; I-lithlessness of, 71-72; socializillg of cllildren into soldiers, 54; stmctliral calises of, 159-60; slirvival strategies of, 67-68, 162; training of bo>s/>oil~lg rner1, 34; as victims vs. pel-petl-atol-s,4, 50, 68-73, 74-75, 95, ,Sw NISOhealing; histol-icallsocial context of cliildl.ell ill \Val.; illitiatioll, ~iiilital).; I-ecniitment; reintegration into society Chilombo, Soba, 126 Cllissico, Soba, 126 Chi-istian Childl-en's Fund. .Spp CCF cil-climcision ~ritlials,43 civilians, attacks 011,3-6, 8-9 civil Tvaars: atl-ocitieslc~-~ielt>-lsex~ial violence as co~nmonplacein, 34 (.swN / \ O 1111r1cigirls/young ~volnell); civilians attacked in, 5-6; cix-ilians\-s. bellige~-enrs in, 32-34, 88, 95; ci\-ilians' \lilnerability ill, 34-35 (trr cilto 1111r1cigirls/young women); diaspol-a supporters of, 34; global actors in, 34; reseal-ch challenges ill setting of, 1 4 1 8 ; researcll methodologies fol- stlldy of, 18-25; sexual \-iolence as a tactic of, 76, 87-92; social ~lornlsliolated ill, 105, 106-8; as a total societal crisis, 1, 3, 34-35, 164; vs. tl-adirional ~val-s,27, 31-35, 47. .\cr cikoX~lgolarlci\ il uars; hlozarllhicall cix-il wars Clalise~virz,&I-l \-on, 32, 71 cleallsirlg rituals, 104, 108, 109, 110-22, 133, 146-47, 159 Cock,Jacklyn, 33, 53, 78, 94 Cold I\:rr; 28-29 Colombia, 30, 93 Columbine school shootings, 1-2 cornbat exclusion laws, 94, 18111.74 common sense, 153 commlinity rituals, 109, 122-23 collfessiollal, 151 Congo, Seclilo, 127 conscription, 52, 116, 18411.26. .Sw NI\O recruitlnellt, rllillirllirrll age for cons1ime1-s'actions as tl-ajecrories, 70 contl-ol, dialectic of, 70 Con\ elltior1 o n the Rights of the Child (1989), 2, 35-36 creatol; I-emote,106, 18311.7

191

Croatia, 31, 90 Cuba, 11-12 Cnito Clianax-alesiege (.Ingola, 1987), 12 Cultulal Re\ olutioll (China), 27 cliltnre's role in sociallemotional wellbeing, 150 CIVP (Cllildl.en and IKrr Project; Slozambiqlie, 1995), 16-17, 19-21, 137-38, 139-40 Dacosra (psend.), 67, 118-19, 17711.68 Damiao (psend.), 128 Das, \i.ena, 80, 97 David, Bishop, 120, 18411.34 death, rirlials snrrolinding, 107-8 deception, 71 De Cerreali, Slichel, 51, 70-71, 96 dehll~nanization,58-61, 64 derllohilizatiorl programs, 136-46, 163 Democratic Repliblic of Congo, 29 Destacamenro Femenino (DF ~ving; lloznnhique), 92-93 Dhlakama, .Ifonso, 17311.5 dialectic of contl-ol, 70 dialrlolld nlilles, 81 diaspom E I I ~ ~ O I - TofCcivil I - . s rr-al-s,34 Dinha (pselid.), 85 Diniz, InocCllcio, 89, 18011.47 disease, 154 distress. Sw ~nelltalillnesslhealth divination, 108-9, 124, 129-30, 135 DN-IS (National Department of Social 1Velfa1-e,Slinisrr>-of Health), 139 Docunlelltation, Tlacillg, and Reunification (DTR; RIozambiqne), 137 do~nestic~vorkllaborexploitation, 78-79, 97-99, 102, 18111.64 Domingo (psend.), 56, 62, 17411.22 dmgslherbal medicines. .Spp llerbal ~nedicilles/drugs DTR (Documentation, Tracing, and Relinification; RIozambiqne), 137 D~ulga( p s e ~ ~ d56, . ) , 60, 61-62, 17511.43, 17611.47 Eduardo (pseud.), 62, 17611.50 Elsa (pselid.), 18411.26 El Salx-ador;30 Elslltaill,Jea~lBetllke, 77, 94 Enloe, C>-ntllia,94 El-itrea, 29

192

Index

Erllesto (pseud.),35-56 Ethiopia, 29 erhnograph!: .Spp research methodologies European--1merican \-s..Ifrican c1ilrli1-e, 153-54 exploitation, sexual. SFCIIII(/CI girls/yoi~rlg rromen explosives, children's Ilandling of, 31 Fainzang, S!-lvie, 155 fpltico (magic), 18411.27 Felista (pseud.),86, 91, 179-8011.31 femininity\-s. masculinity, 77 feminism, 78 Ferllalldo (pseud.),34, 30, 34, 39, 17011.34, 17311.3 field~vork..Sw research methodologies Flor (pseud.), 100 Fonesca (pselid.), 144 Fonseca (pselid.), 57-58, 17511.30 foreign aid, deperlderlce 011, 13-16 forgetting, induced, 59 FRELIRIO (Frente de Liberra~aode llocanlbique) , 7-8, 9 fi-onr line, 94, 18111.74 Gabriel (pseud.), 146 gu~i(I:~Io(TI-eeof ancestl-al shades), 127 Gaza (Rlozambiqlie), 19-20 gelldel; 53 gendered ~vaarfal-e, 5, 77-78. .Spp (11\0 girls/!-oling Tvomen General Peace Xgreenlellt (1992), 9, 11 genel-ational succession, 45-46 Gene\-a Con\-enrions and .Idditional Protocols (1949/1977), 31-32, 35, 36, 137 Gibbs, Sara, 152-53 Giciddens, ,Intlloll!, 69-70 Gil (psend.), 118, 119 Gilboa, Dahlia, 31 @rls/young lvolnell, 73-103; abduction/^-apelsex~lal enslar-e~nrnt1-: the militia, 5, 21-22, 29, 31, 55, 76, 78-87, 91, 102, 18011.34;agellc! of, ill war; 95-96, 102; as associated with peace, 77; in the Balkans, rape of, 31; cllildhirtll arld cllildrealing ill ~nilitar! camps, 84-85, 99; cleansing rituals for; 146-47; clothing of, 149; counseling fo~;

147; clisplaceli~elltancl c l i s l ~ i e ~ i i l ~ e l ~ i i e ~ ~ t of, 99-101; do~nestic~vorkb!- and labelexploitation of, 78-79, 97-99, 102, 18111.64; gender defillitiolls of, 33; healing of, 120-21; impact of Tval- on, ox-er\-ie~v of, 2; labor migl-ation of, 149; ~narriageof, 118; nlarliage age of, 42, 52; milital-ization of,/as soldiel-s, 5, 78, of 92-97, 102; public a~val-eness exlxriellces of, 73-76; Recollstruilldo a Esperan~a'semployment of and counseling fo~;21-22, 81-82, 147, 149; reilltegratioll of, 136, 146-49; RES.ISlO's abduction, rape, and sevlial enslavement of, 21-22, 55, 79, 83-87, 89-92; researcllers' access to, 21-22; I-esilienceof, 148-49; sexlial violence against, as awar tactic, 76, 87-92; silence regarding their experie~lces, 79-80, 83, 97, 146; as s1irvivo1-sof capti\-it!- in milirar!- camps, 78-82, 91, 102; ~\onlell'srole in nar; 77-78; siliq~rr healing; grotips among, 149. Sw (11s~ I-eintegl-ationinto socier!Gito (pseud.),67, 17711.66 gold mines, 81 Gorongosa, 8 go\erllnlellt army, 32, 37-38, 79, 86, 90 Go\-ernment of Sational Reconciliation and Lrnity (.Ingola), 12 Go\ uro (hlozanlbique), 131 GI-imes,Ronald, 42 grolip identity, 45 Guatemala, 30 GulfI\'a~-(1991), 17111.51, 18111.74 /~(linl,ri\ (spirits), 126 hand grenades, children's handling of, 31 handgun powders, 17511.37 llannony, I54 11eale1-s: .Issociation of Traditional Healel-s, 131; kl~~ih(/ritIc/\, 62-63, 109, 112, 116, 117-18; in nlilitary camps, 62, 116; )/J(I)/~I\, 109, 111, 115, 116; I-itua1.sof, 18-19, 104-5, 108-9, 111-12 (.sc.c. ~ l s o \!~lN;/;l' ll/lf/l/~\)~ /;ll~(/ll,~(/, 109, 118, 130-31 healing, 104-34; CCF I-esearch on traditional practices, 22-25; of children's social wounds, 150-57; \-ia cleansing ~ritnalsfor TV~I--affected

Index cllildren, 104, 108, 109, 110-22, 133, 14G-47, 159; ria commlinir!- rirlials, 109, 122-23; \-ia di\-ination, 108-9, 124, 129-30, 135; diline, 118-19; of girls:!-oung Tvomen, 120-21; herbal I-emediesfor; 108, 109, 111, 114, l l G , 117, 120-21, 130; ia llonorillg ancestral spirits, 106, 114, 123-28; and local wo~-ld\-ie~vslmeaning systems, genel-ally, 4 , 133-34, 139, 130, 162; of rllelltal illness of child soldiers, 108, 109, 117-18; of orphans, 109; fol- peace, restoration of, 131; pluralistic approacll to, 110; ria quieting the spirits of the dead, 107-8, 124, 129-33, 18Gn.GG;\-ia religious services/rituals, 118-19; \ ia I-ememberingtraumatic expel-ience, 121-22; resistance to, 119-20; rituals in lloz~lnbique,18-19; tladitional lituals combined ~virhChi-istian messages, 110, 147; TVesrern bion~edical:ps!-cholo&al vs. local, illdigellous approaclles to, 150-57, 163; of witnesses to killings:bo~nba~-d~nenrs, 121 llealtll, African 1s. TVester11concepts of, 154 Hendrick, Har~v,41 herbal ~nedicilles/drugs:for healing, 108, 109, 111, 114, l l G , 117, 120-21, 130; for militar!- initiation, 59, 62, G6, l l G , 17511.37;to protect soldiers from injrrr>, l l G , 18411.27 Herzegox-ina, I-apeof girls in, 31 llistorical/social context of cllildren ill wal; 26-48; .Ifi-ican ci\-il ~val-s,29-30; .Isian cix-ilwars, 30; Balkan ~val-s,31; BI-itish rial?, children in, 27; cllildllood, and protection of children, conre~npo~-ar!riexvs of, 31; childhood as a social: cultural collstructioll, 28, 40-44, 157; Children's Cmsades, 27; the Cold \Val; 28-29; cornparati\-e pel-specti\-eson, 29-35; educatioll, lack of, 28; Gelle\a Con\-enrions and .Idditional Protocols, 31-32, 35, 3G; hliman I-ighrs,and sanctity of life, global social consciolisness of, 31-32, 33; idealism of yo~irh,27; international hlimanirarian l a \ for child protection, 28, 31, 33, 35-40, 41, 47, 158; knights and squires in medie\-al Europe, 26; Latin .Imerican

193

ci\il wars, 30; Middle Eastern conflict, 30; minimum age for reel-~iirmenr, 35-38, 52, 158; Sapoleon's al-my, cllildren ill, 27; political and religious ideologies, 28, 30; pox-err!; 28; I-easons for tising children as soldiel-s, 44-48; Red Guards, 27; re\olutiolls, cllildren in, 27; traditional wars \-s. model-n cix-il wars, 27, 31-35, 47; ~inemplo!-ment,28; vulllerabilitv of cllildren to recruitnlent, 28; wars of independence, children in, 27; weapons technolog?; 31 HI\-/AIDS, 46, 102, 148, 160 111(1111hir (an herbal remed!-1, 117 Holx- Spil-it, 118 Horlloirle massacre (hlozanlbique, 19871, 9 honor; 80 HRTV. Src Hunlall Rights TCxtcll Hliambo (.Ingola), 23, 56, 113, 132-33 Hliila (.Ingola), 112-13 llirrllallitaliarl organizations: cllildren in\-ol\-edin :affected by \Val; I-esponse to, 2-3; \-s.go\-ernmenrs, 1G-17; on ~nininlunlage for recruitnlent, 36-37; programs for child soldiel-s, 19-20; victims' dependence on, 15-lG, 162; victims' status and obtainirlg aid from, 15. S?? (ILSO .sf)?