Chemistry: The Central Science 9780134414232, 1292221224, 9781292221229, 0134414233

Table of contents :
Cover......Page 1
Useful Conversion Factors and Relationships......Page 2
Title Page......Page 7
Copyright Page......Page 8
Brief Contents......Page 11
Contents......Page 13
Preface......Page 27
Acknowledgments......Page 31
About the Author......Page 37
1. Introduction: Matter, Energy, and Measurement......Page 48
The Atomic and Molecular Perspective of Chemistry......Page 50
Why Study Chemistry?......Page 51
Pure Substances......Page 53
Elements......Page 54
Compounds......Page 55
Mixtures......Page 56
Physical and Chemical Changes......Page 58
Separation of Mixtures......Page 59
Kinetic Energy and Potential Energy......Page 61
A Closer Look: The Scientific Method......Page 63
Temperature......Page 65
Volume......Page 66
Units of Energy......Page 67
Precision and Accuracy......Page 70
Significant Figures......Page 71
Significant Figures in Calculations......Page 72
Conversion Factors......Page 74
Strategies for Success: Estimating Answers......Page 76
Conversions Involving Volume......Page 77
Chapter Summary and Key Terms......Page 79
Key Equations......Page 80
Exercises......Page 81
Additional Exercises......Page 85
Chemistry Put to Work: Chemistry and the Chemical Industry......Page 52
Chemistry Put to Work: Chemistry in the News......Page 69
Strategies for Success: The Features of This Book......Page 78
2. Atoms, Molecules, and Ions......Page 88
2.1. The Atomic Theory of Matter......Page 90
Cathode Rays and Electrons......Page 91
Radioactivity......Page 93
The Nuclear Model of the Atom......Page 94
2.3. The Modern View of Atomic Structure......Page 95
A Closer Look: Basic Forces......Page 97
Atomic Weight......Page 99
2.5. The Periodic Table......Page 101
Molecular and Empirical Formulas......Page 104
Picturing Molecules......Page 105
2.7. Ions and Ionic Compounds......Page 106
Predicting Ionic Charges......Page 107
Ionic Compounds......Page 108
Names and Formulas of Ionic Compounds......Page 111
Names and Formulas of Acids......Page 115
Names and Formulas of Binary Molecular Compounds......Page 116
Alkanes......Page 117
Some Derivatives of Alkanes......Page 118
Learning Outcomes......Page 120
Exercises......Page 121
Additional Exercises......Page 126
A Closer Look: The Mass Spectrometer......Page 100
A Closer Look: What Are Coins Made Of?......Page 103
Chemistry and Life: Elements Required by Living Organisms......Page 110
Strategies for Success: How to Take a Test......Page 119
3. Chemical Reactions and Reaction Stoichiometry......Page 128
Balancing Equations......Page 130
A Step-by-Step Example of Balancing a Chemical Equation......Page 131
Indicating the States of Reactants and Products......Page 133
Combination and Decomposition Reactions......Page 134
3.3. Formula Weights......Page 136
Formula and Molecular Weights......Page 137
Strategies for Success: Problem Solving......Page 138
3.4. Avogadro’s Number and the Mole......Page 139
Molar Mass......Page 140
Chemistry and Life: Glucose Monitoring......Page 142
Interconverting Masses and Numbers of Particles......Page 143
3.5. Empirical Formulas from Analyses......Page 144
Molecular Formulas from Empirical Formulas......Page 146
Combustion Analysis......Page 147
3.6. Quantitative Information from Balanced Equations......Page 148
3.7. Limiting Reactants......Page 152
Theoretical and Percent Yields......Page 154
Key Equations......Page 156
Exercises......Page 157
Additional Exercises......Page 163
Integrative Exercises......Page 164
Design an Experiment......Page 165
Strategies for Success: Design an Experiment......Page 155
4. Reactions in Aqueous Solution......Page 166
Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes......Page 168
How Compounds Dissolve in Water......Page 169
Strong and Weak Electrolytes......Page 170
Solubility Guidelines for Ionic Compounds......Page 172
Exchange (Metathesis) Reactions......Page 173
Ionic Equations and Spectator Ions......Page 175
Acids......Page 176
Bases......Page 177
Identifying Strong and Weak Electrolytes......Page 178
Neutralization Reactions and Salts......Page 180
Chemistry Put to Work: Antacids......Page 182
Oxidation and Reduction......Page 183
Oxidation Numbers......Page 184
Oxidation of Metals by Acids and Salts......Page 186
The Activity Series......Page 187
Strategies for Success: Analyzing Chemical Reactions......Page 190
Expressing the Concentration of an Electrolyte......Page 191
Interconverting Molarity, Moles, and Volume......Page 192
Dilution......Page 193
4.6. Solution Stoichiometry and Chemical Analysis......Page 194
Titrations......Page 196
Chapter Summary and Key Terms......Page 199
Exercises......Page 200
Additional Exercises......Page 205
Integrative Exercises......Page 206
Design an Experiment......Page 207
5. Thermochemistry......Page 208
5.1. The Nature of Chemical Energy......Page 210
System and Surroundings......Page 212
Internal Energy......Page 213
Relating E to Heat and Work......Page 214
State Functions......Page 216
Pressure–Volume Work......Page 218
Enthalpy Change......Page 220
5.4. Enthalpies of Reaction......Page 222
A Closer Look: Using Enthalpy as a Guide......Page 224
Heat Capacity and Specific Heat......Page 225
Constant-Pressure Calorimetry......Page 226
Bomb Calorimetry (Constant-Volume Calorimetry)......Page 228
Chemistry and Life: The Regulation of Body Temperature......Page 229
5.7. Enthalpies of Formation......Page 232
Using Enthalpies of Formation to Calculate Enthalpies of Reaction......Page 234
5.8. Bond Enthalpies......Page 236
Bond Enthalpies and the Enthalpies of Reactions......Page 238
Foods......Page 240
Fuels......Page 242
Other Energy Sources......Page 243
Chapter Summary and Key Terms......Page 246
Key Equations......Page 247
Exercises......Page 248
Additional Exercises......Page 254
Integrative Exercises......Page 256
Design an Experiment......Page 257
A Closer Look: Energy, Enthalpy, and P-V Work......Page 221
Chemistry Put to Work: The Scientific and Political Challenges of Biofuels......Page 244
6. Electronic Structure of Atoms......Page 258
6.1. The Wave Nature of Light......Page 260
Hot Objects and the Quantization of Energy......Page 262
The Photoelectric Effect and Photons......Page 263
Line Spectra......Page 265
Bohr’s Model......Page 266
The Energy States of the Hydrogen Atom......Page 267
6.4. The Wave Behavior of Matter......Page 270
A Closer Look: Measurement and the Uncertainty Principle......Page 272
6.5. Quantum Mechanics and Atomic Orbitals......Page 273
Orbitals and Quantum Numbers......Page 274
The s Orbitals......Page 277
A Closer Look: Probability Density and Radial Probability Functions......Page 279
6.7. Many-Electron Atoms......Page 280
Orbitals and Their Energies......Page 281
6.8. Electron Configurations......Page 282
Hund’s Rule......Page 284
Transition Metals......Page 286
6.9. Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table......Page 287
Anomalous Electron Configurations......Page 290
Chapter Summary and Key Terms......Page 292
Learning Outcomes......Page 293
Exercises......Page 294
Additional Exercises......Page 299
Design an Experiment......Page 301
A Closer Look: Thought Experiments and Schrödinger’s Cat......Page 275
Chemistry and Life: Nuclear Spin and Magnetic Resonance Imaging......Page 283
7. Periodic Properties of the Elements......Page 302
7.1. Development of the Periodic Table......Page 304
7.2. Effective Nuclear Charge......Page 305
A Closer Look: Effective Nuclear Charge......Page 308
Periodic Trends in Ionic Radii......Page 310
Variations in Successive Ionization Energies......Page 314
Periodic Trends in First Ionization Energies......Page 315
Electron Configurations of Ions......Page 316
7.5. Electron Affinity......Page 318
7.6. Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids......Page 319
Metals......Page 320
Nonmetals......Page 322
Group 1A: The Alkali Metals......Page 324
Group 2A: The Alkaline Earth Metals......Page 328
Hydrogen......Page 329
Group 6A: The Oxygen Group......Page 330
Group 7A: The Halogens......Page 331
Group 8A: The Noble Gases......Page 333
Chapter Summary and Key Terms......Page 334
Key Equations......Page 335
Exercises......Page 336
Additional Exercises......Page 340
Integrative Exercises......Page 342
Design an Experiment......Page 343
Chemistry Put to Work: Ionic Size and Lithium-Ion Batteries......Page 313
Chemistry and Life: The Improbable Development of Lithium Drugs......Page 327
8. Basic Concepts of Chemical Bonding......Page 344
The Octet Rule......Page 346
8.2. Ionic Bonding......Page 347
Energetics of Ionic Bond Formation......Page 348
Electron Configurations of Ions of the s- and p-Block Elements......Page 350
A Closer Look: Calculation of Lattice Energies: The Born–Haber Cycle......Page 351
8.3. Covalent Bonding......Page 352
Lewis Structures......Page 353
Multiple Bonds......Page 354
Electronegativity......Page 355
Electronegativity and Bond Polarity......Page 356
Dipole Moments......Page 357
Comparing Ionic and Covalent Bonding......Page 360
8.5. Drawing Lewis Structures......Page 361
Formal Charge and Alternative Lewis Structures......Page 363
A Closer Look: Oxidation Numbers, Formal Charges, and Actual Partial Charges......Page 365
Resonance in Benzene......Page 367
8.7. Exceptions to the Octet Rule......Page 368
Less Than an Octet of Valence Electrons......Page 369
More Than an Octet of Valence Electrons......Page 370
8.8. Strengths and Lengths of Covalent Bonds......Page 371
Chapter Summary and Key Terms......Page 374
Exercises......Page 375
Additional Exercises......Page 380
Integrative Exercises......Page 381
Design an Experiment......Page 383
9. Molecular Geometry and Bonding Theories......Page 384
9.1. Molecular Shapes......Page 386
9.2. The VSEPR Model......Page 388
Applying the VSEPR Model to Determine Molecular Shapes......Page 389
Molecules with Expanded Valence Shells......Page 393
Shapes of Larger Molecules......Page 396
9.3. Molecular Shape and Molecular Polarity......Page 398
9.4. Covalent Bonding and Orbital Overlap......Page 400
sp Hybrid Orbitals......Page 401
sp2 and sp3 Hybrid Orbitals......Page 403
Hybrid Orbital Summary......Page 405
9.6. Multiple Bonds......Page 407
Resonance Structures, Delocalization, and p Bonding......Page 411
Chemistry and Life: The Chemistry of Vision......Page 413
Molecular Orbitals of the Hydrogen Molecule......Page 414
Bond Order......Page 416
9.8. Bonding in Period 2 Diatomic Molecules......Page 417
Molecular Orbitals for Li2 and Be2......Page 418
Molecular Orbitals from 2p Atomic Orbitals......Page 419
Electron Configurations for B2 through Ne2......Page 422
Electron Configurations and Molecular Properties......Page 423
Heteronuclear Diatomic Molecules......Page 426
Chapter Summary and Key Terms......Page 428
Learning Outcomes......Page 429
Exercises......Page 430
Additional Exercises......Page 435
Integrative Exercises......Page 438
Design an Experiment......Page 439
A Closer Look: Phases in Atomic and Molecular Orbitals......Page 420
Chemistry Put to Work: Orbitals and Energy......Page 427
10. Gases......Page 440
10.1. Characteristics of Gases......Page 442
Atmospheric Pressure and the Barometer......Page 443
The Pressure–Volume Relationship: Boyle’s Law......Page 446
The Temperature–Volume Relationship: Charles’s Law......Page 447
The Quantity–Volume Relationship: Avogadro’s Law......Page 448
10.4. The Ideal-Gas Equation......Page 449
Relating the Ideal-Gas Equation and the Gas Laws......Page 452
Gas Densities and Molar Mass......Page 453
Volumes of Gases in Chemical Reactions......Page 455
10.6. Gas Mixtures and Partial Pressures......Page 456
Partial Pressures and Mole Fractions......Page 457
10.7. The Kinetic-Molecular Theory of Gases......Page 458
Distributions of Molecular Speed......Page 459
A Closer Look: The Ideal-Gas Equation......Page 460
10.8. Molecular Effusion and Diffusion......Page 461
Graham’s Law of Effusion......Page 462
Diffusion and Mean Free Path......Page 463
10.9. Real Gases: Deviations from Ideal Behavior......Page 465
The van der Waals Equation......Page 467
Chapter Summary and Key Terms......Page 469
Exercises......Page 470
Additional Exercises......Page 476
Integrative Exercises......Page 478
Design an Experiment......Page 479
Strategies for Success: Calculations Involving Many Variables......Page 451
Chemistry Put to Work: Gas Separations......Page 464
11. Liquids and Intermolecular Forces......Page 480
11.1. A Molecular Comparison of Gases, Liquids, and Solids......Page 482
11.2. Intermolecular Forces......Page 484
Dispersion Forces......Page 485
Dipole–Dipole Interactions......Page 486
Hydrogen Bonding......Page 487
Comparing Intermolecular Forces......Page 490
11.3. Select Properties of Liquids......Page 491
Viscosity......Page 492
Chemistry Put to Work: Ionic Liquids......Page 493
Capillary Action......Page 494
Energy Changes Accompany Phase Changes......Page 495
Heating Curves......Page 496
Critical Temperature and Pressure......Page 497
11.5. Vapor Pressure......Page 499
Volatility, Vapor Pressure, and Temperature......Page 500
A Closer Look: The Clausius–Clapeyron Equation......Page 501
11.6. Phase Diagrams......Page 502
The Phase Diagrams of H2O and CO2......Page 503
Types of Liquid Crystals......Page 505
Chapter Summary and Key Terms......Page 508
Exercises......Page 509
Additional Exercises......Page 514
Integrative Exercises......Page 516
Design an Experiment......Page 517
12. Solids and Modern Materials......Page 518
12.1. Classification of Solids......Page 520
Unit Cells and Crystal Lattices......Page 521
Filling the Unit Cell......Page 523
A Closer Look: X-ray Diffraction......Page 524
The Structures of Metallic Solids......Page 525
Close Packing......Page 526
Alloys......Page 529
Electron-Sea Model......Page 532
Molecular Orbital Model......Page 533
12.5. Ionic Solids......Page 535
Structures of Ionic Solids......Page 536
12.7. Covalent-Network Solids......Page 540
Semiconductors......Page 541
Semiconductor Doping......Page 543
12.8. Polymers......Page 546
Making Polymers......Page 547
Structure and Physical Properties of Polymers......Page 550
Semiconductors on the Nanoscale......Page 552
Metals on the Nanoscale......Page 553
Carbon on the Nanoscale......Page 555
Chapter Summary and Key Terms......Page 558
Key Equations......Page 559
Exercises......Page 560
Additional Exercises......Page 567
Integrative Exercises......Page 568
Design an Experiment......Page 569
Chemistry Put to Work: Alloys of Gold......Page 531
Chemistry Put to Work: Solid-State Lighting......Page 545
Chemistry Put to Work: Modern Materials in the Automobile......Page 549
Chemistry Put to Work: Microporous and Mesoporous Materials......Page 554
13. Properties of Solutions......Page 570
The Natural Tendency toward Mixing......Page 572
The Effect of Intermolecular Forces on Solution Formation......Page 573
Energetics of Solution Formation......Page 574
13.2. Saturated Solutions and Solubility......Page 576
Solute–Solvent Interactions......Page 578
Pressure Effects......Page 580
Chemistry and Life: Blood Gases and Deep-Sea Diving......Page 583
Mass Percentage, ppm, and ppb......Page 584
Mole Fraction, Molarity, and Molality......Page 585
Converting Concentration Units......Page 586
Vapor–Pressure Lowering......Page 588
A Closer Look: Ideal Solutions with Two or More Volatile Components......Page 590
Freezing-Point Depression......Page 591
Osmosis......Page 593
Determination of Molar Mass from Colligative Properties......Page 596
13.6. Colloids......Page 598
Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic Colloids......Page 599
Chemistry and Life: Sickle-Cell Anemia......Page 601
Chapter Summary and Key Terms......Page 602
Learning Outcomes......Page 603
Exercises......Page 604
Additional Exercises......Page 610
Integrative Exercises......Page 611
Design an Experiment......Page 613
Chemistry and Life: Fat-Soluble and Water-Soluble Vitamins......Page 579
A Closer Look: The van’t Hoff Factor......Page 597
14. Chemical Kinetics......Page 614
14.1. Factors That Affect Reaction Rates......Page 616
14.2. Reaction Rates......Page 617
Change of Rate with Time......Page 618
Instantaneous Rate......Page 619
Reaction Rates and Stoichiometry......Page 620
14.3. Concentration and Rate Laws......Page 621
Reaction Orders: The Exponents in the Rate Law......Page 623
Magnitudes and Units of Rate Constants......Page 625
Using Initial Rates to Determine Rate Laws......Page 626
First-Order Reactions......Page 627
Second-Order Reactions......Page 629
Half-Life......Page 631
The Collision Model......Page 633
Activation Energy......Page 634
The Arrhenius Equation......Page 636
Determining the Activation Energy......Page 637
Multistep Mechanisms......Page 639
Rate Laws for Elementary Reactions......Page 641
The Rate-Determining Step for a Multistep Mechanism......Page 642
Mechanisms with a Slow Initial Step......Page 643
Mechanisms with a Fast Initial Step......Page 644
Homogeneous Catalysis......Page 646
Heterogeneous Catalysis......Page 648
Enzymes......Page 649
Learning Outcomes......Page 654
Exercises......Page 655
Additional Exercises......Page 663
Integrative Exercises......Page 666
Design an Experiment......Page 667
A Closer Look: Using Spectroscopic Methods to Measure Reaction Rates: Beer’s Law......Page 622
Chemistry Put to Work: Methyl Bromide in the Atmosphere......Page 632
Chemistry Put to Work: Catalytic Converters......Page 650
Chemistry and Life: Nitrogen Fixation and Nitrogenase......Page 652
15. Chemical Equilibrium......Page 668
15.1. The Concept of Equilibrium......Page 671
15.2. The Equilibrium Constant......Page 673
Evaluating Kc......Page 675
Equilibrium Constants in Terms of Pressure,Kp......Page 676
Equilibrium Constants and Units......Page 677
The Magnitude of Equilibrium Constants......Page 678
The Direction of the Chemical Equation and K......Page 679
Relating Chemical Equation Stoichiometry and Equilibrium Constants......Page 680
15.4. Heterogeneous Equilibria......Page 682
15.5. Calculating Equilibrium Constants......Page 684
15.6. Applications of Equilibrium Constants......Page 686
Predicting the Direction of Reaction......Page 687
Calculating Equilibrium Concentrations......Page 688
15.7. Le Châtelier’s Principle......Page 690
Change in Reactant or Product Concentration......Page 692
Effects of Volume and Pressure Changes......Page 693
Effect of Temperature Changes......Page 695
A Closer Look: Temperature Changes and Le Châtelier’s Principle......Page 697
Chemistry Put to Work: Controlling Nitric Oxide Emissions......Page 700
Key Equations......Page 701
Exercises......Page 702
Additional Exercises......Page 707
Integrative Exercises......Page 708
Design an Experiment......Page 709
Chemistry Put to Work: The Haber Process......Page 674
16. Acid–Base Equilibria......Page 710
16.1. Arrhenius Acids and Bases......Page 712
Proton-Transfer Reactions......Page 713
Conjugate Acid–Base Pairs......Page 714
Relative Strengths of Acids and Bases......Page 716
The Ion Product of Water......Page 718
16.4. The pH Scale......Page 720
pOH and Other “p” Scales......Page 722
Measuring pH......Page 723
Strong Acids......Page 724
Strong Bases......Page 725
16.6. Weak Acids......Page 726
Calculating Ka from pH......Page 727
Percent Ionization......Page 728
Using Ka to Calculate pH......Page 729
Polyprotic Acids......Page 733
Types of Weak Bases......Page 736
16.8. Relationship Between Ka and Kb......Page 739
A Cation’s Ability to React with Water......Page 742
Combined Effect of Cation and Anion in Solution......Page 743
Factors That Affect Acid Strength......Page 745
Binary Acids......Page 746
Oxyacids......Page 747
Chemistry and Life: The Amphiprotic Behavior of Amino Acids......Page 749
16.11. Lewis Acids and Bases......Page 750
Learning Outcomes......Page 753
Exercises......Page 754
Additional Exercises......Page 759
Design an Experiment......Page 761
A Closer Look: Polyprotic Acids......Page 735
Chemistry Put to Work: Amines and Amine Hydrochlorides......Page 741
17. Additional Aspects of Aqueous Equilibria......Page 762
17.1. The Common-Ion Effect......Page 764
Composition and Action of Buffers......Page 767
Calculating the pH of a Buffer......Page 769
Addition of Strong Acids or Bases to Buffers......Page 772
Chemistry and Life: Blood as a Buffered Solution......Page 775
Strong Acid–Strong Base Titrations......Page 776
Weak Acid–Strong Base Titrations......Page 778
Titrating with an Acid–Base Indicator......Page 782
Titrations of Polyprotic Acids......Page 784
17.4. Solubility Equilibria......Page 785
The Solubility-Product Constant, Ksp......Page 786
Solubility and Ksp......Page 787
A Closer Look: Limitations of Solubility Products......Page 789
Solubility and pH......Page 790
Chemistry and Life: Tooth Decay and Fluoridation......Page 792
Amphoterism......Page 795
17.6. Precipitation and Separation of Ions......Page 797
Selective Precipitation of Ions......Page 798
17.7. Qualitative Analysis for Metallic Elements......Page 799
Chapter Summary and Key Terms......Page 802
Key Equations......Page 803
Exercises......Page 804
Additional Exercises......Page 809
Integrative Exercises......Page 810
Design an Experiment......Page 811
A Closer Look: Lead Contamination in Drinking Water......Page 796
18. Chemistry of the Environment......Page 812
18.1. Earth’s Atmosphere......Page 814
Composition of the Atmosphere......Page 815
Photochemical Reactions in the Atmosphere......Page 816
Ozone in the Stratosphere......Page 819
The Ozone Layer and Its Depletion......Page 820
Sulfur Compounds and Acid Rain......Page 822
Nitrogen Oxides and Photochemical Smog......Page 825
Greenhouse Gases: Water Vapor, Carbon Dioxide, and Climate......Page 826
The Global Water Cycle......Page 830
Salt Water: Earth’s Oceans and Seas......Page 831
Freshwater and Groundwater......Page 832
A Closer Look: The Ogallala Aquifer—A Shrinking Resource......Page 833
Water Purification: Desalination......Page 834
Water Purification: Municipal Treatment......Page 835
Chemistry and Life: Ocean Acidification......Page 838
Greener Reagents and Processes......Page 840
Learning Outcomes......Page 843
Exercises......Page 844
Additional Exercises......Page 849
Integrative Exercises......Page 850
Design an Experiment......Page 851
A Closer Look: Other Greenhouse Gases......Page 829
A Closer Look: Fracking and Water Quality......Page 836
19. Chemical Thermodynamics......Page 852
19.1. Spontaneous Processes......Page 854
Seeking a Criterion for Spontaneity......Page 855
Reversible and Irreversible Processes......Page 856
The Relationship between Entropy and Heat......Page 858
S for Phase Changes......Page 859
A Closer Look: The Entropy Change When a Gas Expands Isothermally......Page 860
Expansion of a Gas at the Molecular Level......Page 861
Boltzmann’s Equation and Microstates......Page 862
Molecular Motions and Energy......Page 864
Making Qualitative Predictions about S......Page 865
The Third Law of Thermodynamics......Page 867
Chemistry and Life: Entropy and Human Society......Page 868
Standard Molar Entropies......Page 869
Entropy Changes in the Surroundings......Page 870
19.5. Gibbs Free Energy......Page 871
Standard Free Energy of Formation......Page 874
19.6. Free Energy and Temperature......Page 876
Free Energy under Nonstandard Conditions......Page 878
Relationship between G ° and K......Page 880
Chapter Summary and Key Terms......Page 882
Key Equations......Page 883
Exercises......Page 884
Additional Exercises......Page 890
Integrative Exercises......Page 892
Design an Experiment......Page 893
A Closer Look: What’s “Free” About Free Energy?......Page 875
Chemistry and Life: Driving Nonspontaneous Reactions: Coupling Reactions......Page 881
20. Electrochemistry......Page 894
20.1. Oxidation States and Oxidation– Reduction Reactions......Page 896
Balancing Equations by the Method of Half-Reactions......Page 898
Balancing Equations for Reactions Occurring in Basic Solution......Page 901
20.3. Voltaic Cells......Page 903
20.4. Cell Potentials under Standard Conditions......Page 906
Standard Reduction Potentials......Page 907
Strengths of Oxidizing and Reducing Agents......Page 912
20.5. Free Energy and Redox Reactions......Page 914
Emf, Free Energy, and the Equilibrium Constant......Page 915
A Closer Look: Electrical Work......Page 917
The Nernst Equation......Page 918
Concentration Cells......Page 920
20.7. Batteries and Fuel Cells......Page 923
Nickel–Cadmium and Nickel–Metal Hydride Batteries......Page 924
Hydrogen Fuel Cells......Page 925
Corrosion of Iron (Rusting)......Page 928
Preventing Corrosion of Iron......Page 929
20.9. Electrolysis......Page 930
Quantitative Aspects of Electrolysis......Page 932
Chapter Summary and Key Terms......Page 935
Exercises......Page 936
Additional Exercises......Page 943
Integrative Exercises......Page 944
Design an Experiment......Page 945
Chemistry and Life: Heartbeats and Electrocardiography......Page 922
Chemistry Put to Work: Batteries for Hybrid and Electric Vehicles......Page 926
Chemistry Put to Work: Electrometallurgy of Aluminum......Page 933
21. Nuclear Chemistry......Page 946
Nuclear Equations......Page 948
Types of Radioactive Decay......Page 949
Neutron-to-Proton Ratio......Page 951
Radioactive Decay Chains......Page 953
Further Observations......Page 954
21.3. Nuclear Transmutations......Page 955
Accelerating Charged Particles......Page 956
Transuranium Elements......Page 957
21.4. Rates of Radioactive Decay......Page 958
Radiometric Dating......Page 959
Calculations Based on Half-Life......Page 961
Radiotracers......Page 963
21.6. Energy Changes in Nuclear Reactions......Page 965
Nuclear Binding Energies......Page 967
21.7. Nuclear Power: Fission......Page 968
A Closer Look: The Dawning of the Nuclear Age......Page 971
Nuclear Waste......Page 973
21.8. Nuclear Power: Fusion......Page 974
21.9. Radiation in the Environment and Living Systems......Page 976
Radiation Doses......Page 977
Chapter Summary and Key Terms......Page 979
Learning Outcomes......Page 980
Exercises......Page 981
Additional Exercises......Page 985
Integrative Exercises......Page 986
Design an Experiment......Page 987
Chemistry and Life: Medical Applications of Radiotracers......Page 964
A Closer Look: Nuclear Synthesis of the Elements......Page 975
Chemistry and Life: Radiation Therapy......Page 978
22. Chemistry of the Nonmetals......Page 988
22.1. Periodic Trends and Chemical Reactions......Page 990
Chemical Reactions......Page 991
Isotopes of Hydrogen......Page 992
Properties of Hydrogen......Page 993
A Closer Look: The Hydrogen Economy......Page 994
Binary Hydrogen Compounds......Page 995
22.3. Group 18: The Noble Gases......Page 996
Noble-Gas Compounds......Page 997
Properties and Production of the Halogens......Page 998
Oxyacids and Oxyanions......Page 1000
Properties of Oxygen......Page 1001
Oxides......Page 1002
Elements......Page 22
22.6. The Other Group 16 Elements: S, Se, Te, and Po......Page 1004
Sulfides......Page 1005
Oxides, Oxyacids, and Oxyanions of Sulfur......Page 1006
Hydrogen Compounds of Nitrogen......Page 1008
Oxides and Oxyacids of Nitrogen......Page 1009
Chemistry and Life: Nitroglycerin, Nitric Oxide, and Heart Disease......Page 1011
Phosphorus Halides......Page 1012
Oxy Compounds of Phosphorus......Page 1013
Elemental Forms of Carbon......Page 1015
Chemistry Put to Work: Carbon Fibers and Composites......Page 1016
Carbonic Acid and Carbonates......Page 1017
General Characteristics of the Group......Page 1018
Silicates......Page 1019
Glass......Page 1021
22.11. Boron......Page 1022
Chapter Summary and Key Terms......Page 1024
Exercises......Page 1025
Additional Exercises......Page 1029
Integrative Exercises......Page 1030
Design an Experiment......Page 1031
Chemistry and Life: Arsenic in Drinking Water......Page 1014
23. Transition Metals and Coordination Chemistry......Page 1032
23.1. The Transition Metals......Page 1034
Physical Properties......Page 1035
Electron Configurations and Oxidation States......Page 1036
Magnetism......Page 1037
23.2. Transition-Metal Complexes......Page 1038
The Development of Coordination Chemistry: Werner’s Theory......Page 1039
The Metal–Ligand Bond......Page 1041
Charges, Coordination Numbers, and Geometries......Page 1042
23.3. Common Ligands in Coordination Chemistry......Page 1043
Metals and Chelates in Living Systems......Page 1045
23.4. Nomenclature and Isomerism in Coordination Chemistry......Page 1049
Structural Isomerism......Page 1051
Stereoisomerism......Page 1052
Color......Page 1055
23.6. Crystal-Field Theory......Page 1057
Electron Configurations in Octahedral Complexes......Page 1061
Tetrahedral and Square-Planar Complexes......Page 1063
Learning Outcomes......Page 1067
Exercises......Page 1068
Additional Exercises......Page 1072
Integrative Exercises......Page 1074
Design an Experiment......Page 1075
A Closer Look: Entropy and the Chelate Effect......Page 1047
Chemistry and Life: The Battle for Iron in Living Systems......Page 1048
A Closer Look: Charge-Transfer Color......Page 1065
24. The Chemistry of Life: Organic and Biological Chemistry......Page 1076
The Structures of Organic Molecules......Page 1078
Solubility and Acid–Base Properties of Organic Compounds......Page 1079
24.2. Introduction to Hydrocarbons......Page 1080
Structural Isomers......Page 1081
Nomenclature of Alkanes......Page 1082
Reactions of Alkanes......Page 1085
Alkenes......Page 1087
Alkynes......Page 1089
Addition Reactions of Alkenes and Alkynes......Page 1090
A Closer Look: Mechanism of Addition Reactions......Page 1091
Substitution Reactions of Aromatic Hydrocarbons......Page 1092
Alcohols......Page 1094
Aldehydes and Ketones......Page 1096
Carboxylic Acids and Esters......Page 1097
Amines and Amides......Page 1100
24.5. Chirality in Organic Chemistry......Page 1101
Amino Acids......Page 1103
Polypeptides and Proteins......Page 1105
Protein Structure......Page 1106
24.8. Carbohydrates......Page 1108
Disaccharides......Page 1109
Polysaccharides......Page 1110
Fats......Page 1111
Phospholipids......Page 1112
24.10. Nucleic Acids......Page 1113
Chapter Summary and Key Terms......Page 1117
Exercise......Page 1118
Additional Exercises......Page 1123
Integrative Exercises......Page 1124
Design an Experiment......Page 1125
Chemistry Put to Work: Gasoline......Page 1086
Strategies for Success: What Now?......Page 1116
A: Mathematical Operations......Page 1126
B: Properties of Water......Page 1133
C: Thermodynamic Quantities for Selected Substances at 298.15 K (25 °C)......Page 1134
D: Aqueous Equilibrium Constants......Page 1138
E: Standard Reduction Potentials at 25 °C......Page 1140
Answers to Selected Exercises......Page 1141
Answers to Give it Some Thought......Page 1171
Answers to Go Figure......Page 1177
Answers to Selected Practice Exercises......Page 1183
Glossary......Page 1191
Photo and Art Credits......Page 1209
Index......Page 1213
Fundamental Constants......Page 1250
Periodic Table of the Elements......Page 1251
Back Cover......Page 1252