Chariots in the Veda 9004075909

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MEMOIRS OF THE KERN INSTITUTE

CHARIOTS IN THE VEDA

EDrTED BY

J.C. HEESTERMA

A'I THE ORIGIN OF THE EQCATION RATHA-YAJNA

ON THE ORIGIN OF THE EQUATION RATHA-YAJNA

the acts of violence or sublimated them to 'harmless' recitation. Basically, this chariot, unlike carts or wagons, belongs to the sphere of strife and combat. Probably for this reason, its employment in the classical ritual as it has been argued in the preceding chapter, is waning. How then had the chariot become such an important part of the ritual furnishings? To answer this question it may be helpful to have a closer look at the instructions for the establishmem of the place of sacrifice (devayaJana). Na tu rail y, the place of sacrifice would be at the spot where a wandering or booty-conquering griima would settle down with its fires, either for a temporary stay or for a more lasting residence 3 . The basic meaning of devayaJana is: the spot where the contact between man and gods is brought about, in sacrifice. If this was the place where originally the.sacrificial contests took place and where the contesting parties met, the texts may still show reflections of the practical arrangements for such events and shed more light on the connection of the chariot with sacrifice. Indeed, in a passage on the character of the New and Full Moon sacrifices, this favourite place of settlement of the gods is called 'conspicuous for its chariots' 4 •

rnay show and which are connected with special wishes (kiimya)7. Some of the precepts specified as kiimya, however, also occur as common, general directions. These kiimya directions are, in fact, existing general requirements, but taken apart, given separate status and elaborated according to the ritualists' needs and provided with a short explanation 8. GoB I. 2 .14 gives the following general rule:

The Selection

of the Place of Sacrifice

The directions given in the ritual texts make it sufficiently clear that the selection of a suitable sacrificial terrain was a matter requiring great care and attention 5 • The instructions for the location of such a place and for the characteristics it should have-some accompanied by meaning and explanations 6-are presented in the form of a number of constant characteristics (nitya) and a number of characteristics that such a terrain 3 Cf. Krick, 1982. Das Ritual d.er Feuergri1ndu11g (Agnyadheya): 57 ff. • TS 11.5.6: E,·d vai deoaratM Jdd dariapiirruimiisau; yo dariapiirruzmiisfw ~!i;~ stimena ydjaJt. rdthaspa,_ta evfiuasfine vdu dafinam dva.syati. For this pas~age, see p. 23. ' Some general requirements are: The soil should have no clefts, be not hollow, be without cracks, not be polluted, not be salty, be without anthills and grown over thjc~ly with weeds. See: TS \'I.2.6: ~1S Ill.8.4:97.3; KS XXV.3:105.8: SadvB II.10.11-25; SB Tll.l.l.1-5; GoB L2.14; ApSS X.20.1-11; VadhS IV.18, 90a. ·b;. LiiiySS J.1.H-21, Baudh.KarmantaS XXV.5:232.10-233.2; Caland-Henry. § 9; Caland. 1896. D1e Altindisdzen Todtm- und Bt,taltung,gf'hrau.du: § H, p. 31; Gonda, 1965. The Savayajna.s. 120 ff.: Krick, 1982. Das Ritual de-r FtU£Tgrundung (Agn;&fheya): 59 ff. • There is an innacion in the practising of these rules. Tf ont' disregards the customary criteria of selection. the texts provide a number of instructions of a totally diflerent_ order: Wherever uoe has established the fire, there one sacrifices on the (correct) place ol sacrifice, or: The sacrificial place is the place where many brahmins agree ir will be (!\.1S III.8.4:99.4: KS XXV .3: 106.6). Similar alternative, non-material requirements are given in GoB I.2.14, SR III.l.l.5 and in some of the sfitras. Sa XXl\'."10:101 8, ··GoB Il.2.7:172 . .J.). So the place of sal"rific-e was rnns1dered a ptrfec; match 10 or even an arm superior to the p ir, wh!ch is defi~ed by Rau as 'a m~d or ,to~ rampart of round or oval groundplan-rnanv mncs ha511ly erected-and remforccd Y wooden defences, enclosing thatched timber sheds co ser,e at th!". best as t~mporal") honws hu1 more ften 10 shelter men and their cattk in times of war.' (Rau: :>2) •• For a reconstn1ction of th1~ wav of lif.-. see Rau. 19.'>7 Staal und GtJtllschajl rm altrn Jnd,m: 13 IT.; 1976. The Meamng of p;,, in l'edrr Literature; I977. ·Ist \'t·dischc Archaologic moglich?" ZD.\fG. Suppl. Ill. I: lxxxiii-c. .

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So sacrifice in general implies many hundreds of days' chariot dn •-probably a reference to the original eastward migration of a son of ·caravan' -and it requires great skill to survive, for being on the move ma\' lead to confrontations. In any case, this summary of the hazards of sacrifice is another testimony to the fundamenta l connection between chariot and sacrifice. In one of the passages cited above 10 (Sac;lvB II.10.12) it is required that one leave no room open in the East for another place of sacrifice. the size of a famJa-cast. The pomt seems to be that one must be able to cast the {am;a. the yoke-pin. oneself and establish one's next garhapatya hearth where it falls down. H owever, the presence of a rival sacrificer East of one's own v,ould blockade one's ad\ ance further East. ff this assumption were correct, the situation would bear a strong resemblance to the practice of the yiitsattras, the long sacrificial sessions during which one travels eastward along che right bank of the rivers Sarasvati or Dr::,advat120 • For this purpose. the havirdhana shed, the rndas and the ii.gn1dhra shed arc provided with wheels: the sacrificial stake is mortar-shaped ar the base so that it is movable (PB XX\t .10.5). Each day the sacrificial terrain is established on a place East of the previous one. The giirhapatya fire is built on the place where the Jamyii comes down. This sattra may be finished when they have reached the place where the river disappears (PB XXV .10.16) or as soon as one's cattle have sufficiently increased ('when their hundred cows, to which a bull ,vas admitted, have become a thousand' PB XXV.10.19). Other reasons for terminating the sattra are when they come to be deprived of all their possessions, or when the grhapati dies, or when they reach Plak,a prii.sravatia, a place near the end of the river (PB XXV .10.20-21). Obviously this ~acrificial journey was a risky affair. ~loreovcr, this travelling sacrificial caravan was probably not particularly peaceful: one could be robbed and killed on the way. '

PB XXV 10-13;

ApSS XXIII.12

4-13-15, Hillebrandt, R1luall1uratur. 158 f.

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ON THE ORICI;-.; OF THE EQUATION RATHA-YAJ NA

From chis it is clear that in the yatsattras, the drive to the East, the 'ratha'-like identity of sacrifice and the danger of a confrontation are the definite formal features. However, as we have tried to demonstrate on the basis of the instructions for the lay-out of the place of sacrifice (devayajana), and as we have seen in the survey of the imagery of the chariot used for ritual performance, these characteristics formed p art of other sacrifices also. Sacrifice, sacrificial performance and separate elements of sacrifice can completely be described by using the imagery of the chariot. From the preceding observations it seems justified to conclude that this was done not just as a result of coincidental similarities. The equation yajii.a-ralha has its roots in a historical connection ; for ultimately the chariot and sacrifice were inseparable, being the instrument for the winning of booty and the conquering of new land.

VI EARLY PICTORIAL REPRESENTATIONS AND MAT ERIAL REMAINS OF T H E C H ARIOT In India, the history of the chariot in art and figurative representations is not as well documented as in neighbouring and contemporary cultures. Material remains, too, are extremely scant, e.g. if compared to the central- and East-Asian regions, where remains of chariots and horsebones were found buried in graves to accompany their owners 1 , or if compared to Greece, Egypt and the Near East, where the literary record is amply supplemented by the painted and sculpted evidence 2 • In India, the material evidence falls into the foJlowing categories: 1. Rockpaintings. 2. Parts of bridle-equipment. 3. Toy-vehicles and terracottas. 4. Sculptured representations on temple-reliefs.

Rockpaintings Rock-shelters arc fairly numerous in Central India, particularly in the Vindhyan sandstone which lends itself to their formation. Some of them are decorated with drawings upon the walls and ceilings, executed in purple, red and light orange-brown. Some clearly belong to later times, but many of the drawings are equally clearly associated with the hunting cultures of Stone Age or immediately post-Stone Age times 3 • A tentative chronology has been put forward for the rock art of Central and peninsular India 4 based upon style, context, superimposition and general indications of antiquity. Most paintings depict human figures, animals, hunting scenes and abstract figures. Among these, also a few remarkable chariots are represented. Two chariots are depicted in rockpaintings in ~orhana Pahar. Mirzapiir district. One (fig. 1) is drawn by four horses, tied to what seems to be a fairly large yoke consisting of a straight bar. The draught-pole is connected with the middle of the yoke and consists of an equally straight bar connected with the bottom part of the chariot' Cf. Dewall. 1964. Pfnd und Wagm imfn,hm Chino.. 2 See Anderson, 1961. Anciml Greek Horsemanship; Greenhalgh, 1973 Early Creek War~are; Nagel, 1966. Dn TTLl!rnpotamirche Stmtwagtn: Liuaucr " Crnuwel, 1979. 11'heeled •'ehu:la. ' Alkhin a Allchin, 1968. Th~ Birth of Indian Cioilizo.tion; 1982 The Rise of Civilization in lndza and Pal.utan.

• \\'akankar, 1962. 'Painted Rock Shelters of India.' Riv. di Snmze Preistondu, 17: 237-253.

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PICTORIAL REPRESENTATIONS AND MATERIAL REMAINS

PICTORIAL REPRESENTATIONS AND MATERIAL REMAINS

85

box. One driver can be distinguished, standing in a large chariot-box.

He is standing behind a high curved front, holding the reins which run

Fig. J. Painting of four-horse chariot at Morhiinii Pahiir. From AJlchin, 1958.

Fig. 2. Painting of two-horse chariot al Morhiinii Pahiir. From Allchin, !958.

up co the horses' heads separately. The axle is placed at the rear end of the chariot-box and is shown extending some distance outside the side panels of the chariot. The wheels contain approximately six spokes. The scene seems to represent a hold-up or waylaying of the chariot, which is suggested by the two accompanying figures, one with a sword or mace and a shield, the other with a bow and arrow, pointing at the chariot. The other chariot, depicted at Morhiinii Pahiir5 (fig. 2) is drawn by two horses. Like the other, the chariot is shown partly in side view and partly from above, with the wheels spread out. The two circles shown on each side near the front may represent wheels, but more likely, they represent the sides, shown in plan. Similarly, the hoop in the front may represent the chariot-front. The yoke, shown as a straight beam, is worn high on the horses' necks. Another crossbar is shown parallel to the yoke. Its purpose is not clear. Reins are not shown. In this chariot, too, the axle extends far beyond the chariot-box, but it may simply have been depicted that way for the sake of showing the wheels more clearly. Allchin 6 mentions another scene which may be related to the chariots, on che roof of a more easterly cave in the same group. It shows a man on horse-back with a long spear being attacked by five or six bowmen similar to the one in the chariot scene. These arc the only representations of ridden horses and horse-drawn chariots which have been recorded from the Bhainswar area and, according to Allchin, the only paintings there which suggest the presence of metal-using people. The style and the original red colour of these drawings strongly suggest that they were done by the same people who executed the numerous hunting and dancing scenes all round. Pieces of worn red and purple haematite, in association with stone tools have been found in the caves. but metal objects have been found to be totally absent. The area around Bhopal is panicularly rich in caves, many of which contain wall paintings of different styles. A chariot of a type quite different from chose depicted at Morhiinii Pahiir, is found in the Dharampuri shelter near Bhopal 7 (fig. 3). The chariot is executed in red paint. It gives the impression of being a light-weight vehicle, of which the wheels might be spoked. Two occupants are standing on the axle, or so it seems; the platform is not visible and possibly very small. The chariot is drawn by _two animals, which may represent cquids, but may, according to their stout shape and short legs, be bovines as well. No yoke can be 5 6

7

See Allchin, 1958. 'Morhana-Pahar: A Rccliscovcrv. · ),Jan, 58 153-155, pl. :V1. 1958. 'Morhana-Pahar: A Rediscm-ery.' Man, 58: ·153-155 . See Wanke. 1977 Zentralind£sche Felshifder: 55-56, fig. 38 and pl. 29h.

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PICTORIAL REPRESENTATIONS AND MATERIAL REMAINS

-- - - -... {::i

"""

,, ..

-- - -

""-

---:--

-- ~~

Fig. 3. Painting of chariot at Dharampuri, Bhopal. From Wanke, 1977.

PICTORIAL REPRESENTATIONS AND MATERIAL REMAINS

87

distinguished and only the beginning of a draught-pole. Very clear are the reins, running from the animals' mouths to the drivers. The figure standing on the left may be the driver. The right-hand figure is partly covered by a large round shield. Remains of painted wheels appear all around this scene. In a recent book on the antiquities of the Bhopal region, Sharma and Alia describe some more chariot representations, which form part of what seem to be elaborate hunting scenes, including archers and different species of game. In a large group of rock-shelters, termed ' Firangi group' a painting is found of a chariot with spoked wheels, drawn by what seem to be two bulls 9 • In the so-called Lal Ghati group, a twowheeled car is represented, pulled by one animal and driven by a charioteer. It is followed by figures of armed people accompanied by a dog 10 . In Firangi North, some chariots are depicted 11 as well as in the Shakad Karad group (SK-5) and in the Ganeshghati group in rockshelter nr BK-22. Not all of these paintings are illustrated in Sharma & Ali; a typological comparison cannot be made yet. The authors date these paintings roughly to the 'pre- or proto-historic' period.

Discussion Dating rockpaintings is difficult. An approximate date could be acquired if the design or the style of a painting could be traced on pottery or if pieces of worn haematite could be gathered from stratified deposits in or near the caves. In caves at Bhimbetka, also situated near Bhopal, such associations have indeed been found. Consequently, some of the paintings could be attributed to Mesolithic times 12 • Throughout Indian history, peoples of totally different levels of technical and social development have lived in each others' neighbourhood. The people who executed the paintings of the chariots may not actually have used these chariots themselves. In the light of these difficulties, it is carefully suggested by Allchin 13 that the chariots at Morhana Pahar may form a record of a sortie, most probably in the early centuries B.C., from some centre in the Gangesjamuna Doab into the territory of hunting tribes who still used no metal 14 . This suggestion may

Fig. 4. Bronze toy-chariot from Rairh. From Margabandhu, 1973.

8

Shanna & Ali, 1980. Arduuology of Bhopal Region. • Sharma & Ali, 1980. Archaeology of Bhopal Region. 20. rock-shelter nr FL-3. 0 ' Sharma & Ali, 1980. Archaeology of Bhopal Region. LAG-H. 11 Sharma & Ali. 1980. Archaeology of Bhopal Regwn: FN-13 and pl. 15. 12 Misra, Mathpal & Nagar, 1977. Bhimbetka. " 1958. 'Morhana-Pahar A Rediscovery.' Man, 58: 153-155. " For other explanations, e.g. ~r:ia with his discus, or invading Aryans, sec Kosambi, 1970, 19764 • The Cultur~ and Civilisation of Ancient India in Historical Outlinr: 115, suggcsung a date of roughly 800 B.C.

88

PICTORIAL REPRESE:S.TATIOJ\S ANO MATERIAL REMAINS

PICTORIAL REPRESENTATIONS AJliD MATERIAL REMAINS

further be corroborated by the presence of very realistic chariots on th railings and gates of the Sa.Tichi stupas, which are dated at approx. first century A.D. These chariots do not basically deviate from the Morhana Pahar chariots. Both have the rounded hoops as their sides and fronts. The yoke is straight and placed high on the necks. At Saiichi too both chariots drawn by two and those drawn by four horses are reco;ded'. The same difficulties apply to the dating of the Dharampuri chariot (fig. 3) and the other chariot representations from the Bhopal area. Although a typology of these early Indian chariots cannot be established it is not difficult to see that in the case of the Dharampuri chariot a quit; different car is depicted and in a different style. The yoke and the chariot-box are lacking and the only reason for identifying it as a chariot, is the swift action which is suggested by the dynamic standing figures. The scene may, at a first glance, look primitive and unrealistic, but a comparison with painted chariots elsewhere may bring it to life a little. Similar chariots are depicted in the Tamadjert cave, Tassili des Ajjer, in central Sahara 15 • Here, too, the driver is represented standing on what seems to be the axle. No yoke is shown. Experiments have made it clear that even without the use of metal equipment, such a carriage could be manufactured and, in fact, put to use 16 • The horses are tied to a beam, attached to the bridle under their heads; the reins run directly from the horses' mouths to the driver. The Dharampuri painting and the other car depictions in the Bhopal region may therefore also be regarded as possibly realistic. If so, these vehicles may be considered more primitive, and perhaps earlier types of chariot, since they have no counterpart in any of the known sculptured chariots; even the chariot of the B,.gveda appears to be a more complex vehicle. Due to the difficulties in dating and the lack of conclusive evidence, firm conclusions are not justified, but the possibility cannot be ruled out that some of these simple Bhopal vehicles represent a type of pre-Vedic chariot.

th:

Parts of Bridle-Equipment Horses were controlled by a bridle, composed of reins, a bit or a cavesson and a headstall. Metal bits were composed of single or compound (snafile) mouthpieces and a pair of cheekpieces. The latter were held in place by divided cheekstraps and, on the earlier Near-Eastern bits, the ends of the mouthpieces passed through the chcekpieccs. The reins were connected to the mouthpiece ends 17 . In the Near East and " See Spruytte, 1977. Eludes experimentaks sur l'attelage: pis 18, 19 Spruytte, 1977. Eludes expirimmLale.s sur l 'alltiage. Definitions from Littauer & Crouwel, 1979. Wheeled Vehicles: 4 Some very clear chapters on the development of bits are cu be found m Anderson 1961. Ancumt Grtek Rorsmumshib. 6 ' 17

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Greece. it has been possible, from the excavated parts of bridleequipment and from detailed pictorial representations, to establish some typology of bits 18 • The few parts of bridle-equipment, yielded by the Indian soil, form evidence too meager for drawing conclusions 19 • For this reason, a short reference to this subject may suffice here. As to the origin of the snaffle bit in India, it is believed to have been introduced by the Greeks 2°. The Sanskrit word for bit: khalzna is a borrowing from the Greek xo:Aiv6i; 21 . Khaltna is not attested to in the Vedas. Since no other Vedic word for bit seems to be available, Vedic evidence for bits is consequently lacking 22 . RV V.61.2 nasor ydmafz may mean 'control of the nostrils', hence: 'noscband'. The relevant material has been discussed by Leshnik 23, whose conclusions may be summarily reproduced here: There is evidence for horse bits in early India from the northern and southern extremities of the sub-continent, as well as from central India. In addition, central India provides secondary information through the wall-paintings at Aja1_1ta and the stone carvings of Amarii.vat1. Scanty as it is, this evidence points to the use of jointed snaffle bits with separate cheekpieces in the North at two, and perhaps three different periods: They were used during the first century A.D. at Taxila and also a century or so later in Rajasthan (Sambhar). Their presence has further been considered in either the 7th-6th or the 3rd century B.C., depending upon the ultimate dates accepted for the Gandharan Grave Complex, where one cheekpiece has been discovered (Timurgarh). The likelihood must not be overlooked that at both Taxila and Timurgarh the recovered bridle objects might just as well have belonged to foreigners as to Indians. A jointed snaffie bit of a type widespread in the antique world has been 18

See Littauer

&

Crouwel, 1979. Wheeled VehiclM; Anderson, 1961. Ancient Gruk

Horsemanship 19 Soundara Rajan, 1963. 'The Iron Age Culture Provinces oflndia.' Bhiiratfya Vidyi, 23 1-21, makes the following scatement: •A feature of importance is particularly the large number of snaffie-bits and stir-ups of horses found m different megalithic monuments both in north Deccan as at Junapani, as also in the deep south, as far as Sanur and Adichanallur which would seem to show that even in the first half of the I st millennium B.C . the use and mastery over horses had become a habit of these Black and Red Ware using communities.' Unfortunately. the author does not give further details, dc~cnpt10ns or illustrations. • Marshall. 1951 Taxi/a, vol. II: 550 21 \ , Thus Marshall, 1951. Taxiui. vol. II, and ~layrhofer, Dictionary. Against th.is view: \le'.>er and Hopkins. see Hopkins, 1889 Ruling Caste: 202. 22 Z1mmer's translation of iiprii by 'bit' (18.79 Altmdischtf Lehm: 249; followed by Le,,h,uk, 1971 'Some Early Indian Horse-Bits and Other Bridle t-:quipment. • AJA , l 97 1 141-150) bas not been followed by later translators. (Cf. Geidner, ad RV I. 101.10 and X . 105.5. Mayrhofer, Dictionary. cranslates: 'Schnurrban, bartige Lippe; Kopfschmuck (Hclmbusch)'); for references, cf. Vedic Index, II: '.i79 f. ~ Le,hnik, 1971. 'Some Early Indian Horse-Bits and Other Bnclk Equipment.• AJA, 191 1 141-150.

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PICTORIAL REPRESENTATIONS ANO MATERIAL REMAINS

PICTORIAL REPRESENTATIONS AND MATERIAL REMAINS

found at the R ajasthan site of Rairh. It has been dated with some probability to the 4th-3rd centuries B.C. At Nab'PUr a snaffle and possibly an early pair of stirrups were found in one of the cist graves of the region. In form, the snaffle is close to the Taxila specimens; accordingly, a similar dating has been suggested. The tip of the Indian peninsula (Adichanallur, Jadigenahalli, Guntakal) has provided actual specimens of two different types of bit. One is a simple bar snaffle and appears to be of indigenous origin . The other is a curb bit, calling to mind a Roman prototype. Both have been cautiously dated in the firstsecond centu ries A.D. Illustrations of these objects may be found in the study by Leshnik, to whom the reader may also be referred for further literature on this subject.

may also have been used. Some models of light carts from Harappa and Yfohenjodaro were drawn by animals that looked much like horses. T hey have tentatively been dated to c. 2 500-2000 B. C. or some later period with in the second millennium B. C. . . Toy-vehicles have been reported further from the early h1stonc levels of Atranjikhera, Brahmapuri, Charsada, Rairh, Rangmahal, Sambhar, Taxila and other sites 27 • They are fashioned from bronze, copper or terracotta. Different types are also represented : covered wagons, transportation-carts but also chariots. Many vehicles have wheels on which spokes are indicated. The chariot models can be distinguished by their shape and lighter construction. Rairh has yielded some model chariots made of bronze. One of them is illustrated here (fig. 4, p. 86) 28 . It is provided with high sloping and voluted sides. A yoke is attached to the pole, which is curved upwards. The three beams running from the chariot-box to the pole are interesting, since they may possibly be identified as the trive'(lu or trida'(l(l,a, a 'threefold piece of bamboo', which is frequently mentioned in the Mhbh. Hopkins 29 suggested that this piece was formed of the pole and two pieces running from the axle to the pole on either side, or that it was a triangle of bamboo, one side of which was parallel to the axle, the other two running together to the pole. The first of these possibilities can be recognized in some model vehicles as illustrated in Margabandhu, the other suggestion is not evidenced by model carts. In the case of the Rairh chariot neither of these two descriptions would fit. A definite identification would, however, require more evidence than one toy-chariot. Wheels without toy-carts have been reported in abundance. They were made from moulds and also modelled by hand. There is a variety of shapes: Hubs on one side, hubs on both sides, no hubs at all, biconvex wheels, straight wheels. From this Margabandhu concluded that there was a gradual development from the simple to the complex type of wheel, that must have run parallel to the development of the actual '>•,heel-shapes of those days. This conclusion would seem a bit rash, since from the B,.gveda fairly complex types of wheel are known, provided with spokes a tyre and a hub. Not only were the wheels sometimes made from moulds, but also some parts of the cart- or chariot-box. This is testified t0 by a number ofterracottas and their moulds, representing the fronts of toy-vehicles. They

Toy- Vehicles and Terracotta:,·

Apart from the limited number of horsebits-from which, moreover, it is not possible to decide whether they belonged to ridden or driven horses-excavations have not revealed remains of parts of actual chariots or any other wheeled vehicles 24 . On the other hand, a large number of miniature vehicles have been reported from a number of sites in central and western India and the Deccan and a few sites in the Ganges valley. These models were perhaps used by children as toys and may represent fairly accurate copies of the actual vehicles of those days. A discussion of all the material cannot be attempted here. We must confine ourselves to referring briefly to the existing literature on the subject. Margabandhu 25 surveys the different types of bronze or copper and terracotta toy-carts, m ainly those of the early historic period, c. 300 B.C. to 300 A.D. For detailed descriptions and further reading one may refer to this work. The earliest wy-vchicles, their wheels and frames, have been reported from Chalcolithic times at Alamgirpur, Chanhodaro, Harappa. Kalibangan, Lothal and Mohenjodaro. In the majority, they seem to represent the heavier type of transport wagons and other ox-drawn carts, but in a few cases there is some doubt concerning the species of draughtanimals that was intended. It has been suggested by Piggott 26 that horses 24 One spoked chariot-wheel, wii.h a diamcuc of 1 20 an, ha3 been excavated at Bulandf Bagh, Bihar, presumably daring back to Mauryan times. It is now in r.he museum of Patna, arch. 4493, and illustrated on pl. xxxi bin Deloche, J., 1983. Contribution a /'histoir, de la toiture m lnde. Pub!. EFBO, vol. I 38. Paris. 20 Margabandhu, 1973. ·Technology of Transpon Vehicles in Early India.' In: Radwcarbon and Indian Arcluuolagy: 182-189. 26 Piggott, 1970. 'Copper Vehicle Models in I.he Indus Civilization.' JRAS, 122: 200-202.

91

" Margabandhu. 1973. 'Technology of Transport Vehicles in l'.arly India.' In: Radwcarbon and Indian Archaeology: 182-189. 18

Fig. 1, 3 from Margabandhu, 1973; see also Rau, 1977. ·Isl \'cdische Archiiologic rnoglich"' ZDMG, Suppl. III, 1, XIX: lxxxiii-c. 19 1889. Ruling Caste: 186, note

92

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PICTORIAL REPRESE:-;TATIONS A:--10 MATERIAL REMAINS

PICTORIAL REPRESEXTATIONS AND MATERIAL REMAINS

are decorated with four draught-animals, wearing heavy garlands depicted frontally and presumably representing some kind of bovine'. These objects were found in Kausambi and dated to the first century

to be merely elevated firing platforms for archers, as shown on many Mahabharata and Ramayai:ia friezes 35 . On some of rhe later reliefs the vehicles are very elaborate and are provided vvith a tall superstructure: The 'chariot' grows out of proportion and develops into a kind of mov· ing castle 36 . The present-day ceremonial temple car is clearly reminis· cent of the original battle chariot. It is still called ratha 'charier' and is often provided with horses of papier mache or wood and with a chariotcer 37 .

B.C.3o Another source of evidence for vehicles consists of terracotta plaques, seals and scalings. Some round terracotta plaques showing cha riots are known of from Kausambi and are assigned to the first and second centuries B. C. 31 It is difficult to discern details, but one ( 153 in K ala) d epicts a man on a chariot, driving two horses. The side-panel of the chariot shows an elevation towards the back. The wheel is spoked and shows a hub. The other plaque (109 in Kala) depicts a chariot that seems to be drawn by a pair of stags 32 . The wheel is quite large, but fu rt her details cannot be observed. From roughly the same period a number of seals is known to show chariots. On a seal from Jhusi (2nd century B. C .) the hindlegs of horses and a chariot-wheel are visible, with two persons sitting in the chariot 33 . Often the scene is so small or poorly visible th at it is hard to make out what sort of vehicle is intended. In a village scene, depicted on a round terracotta plaque from Bhita, dist. Varai;iasi , dated to the 2nd century B. C., a chariot has been depicted, probabl y d rawn b y horses. But D havalikar 34 interprets this as a bullock-cart. The wheel, the hooped sides and front of the vehicle are, however, strikingly sim ilar to the chariot representations on rhe railings of the San.chi monuments. This brings us to another subject. The San.chi sculptors have depicted a number of chariots showing a considerable degree of detail, so it may be worthwhile to give a more detailed description and a discussion of the chariot representations on this monument in the following pages.

Sculptured Representations on Temple Reliefs Noc only did the chariot continue to be used as a literary device after the Vedic period, it also found its way into the art of sculpture, ample evidence for which is offered by temple reliefs. The first Indian chariots, depicted in stone relief, look fairly realistic. superficially resembling Near-Eastern chariots. Later on, the 'chariots· are sometimes provided with cwo, sometimes with four wheels, and seem 0 ' They arc now in the Allahabad museum and depicted in Kala , 1980. Tm-acottas m /he Allahabad Museum: fig. 209, 325a and b. 31 Kala, 1980. Terracollas in the Allahabad ,\11mum: fig. 153. 109. 32 Kala, 1980. Terracoltas in the Allahabad .\efuseum: fig. 109. 33 Chhabra, 1961. 'Amiquitics fromjhusi and Other Sites: la/it Kala, 9: 11-15. esp. p. 11-12, pl. IV, fig. 1. See also Thaplyal, 1972. Studus in Ancient Indian Seals: 118. 190, 246, 268, 274, 277. Ocher illustrations in Sharma, 1969. Excavations at Kauiiimb1: 74. pl xlvi and xxviii A & B 34 Dhavalikar. 1977 . .\1asterpiea, of Indian l'erracoltas: 54, pl. 35.

The Image of the Horse-drawn Chariot on the Monuments of Saiichf

In the present chapter only the representations of chariots on t he sculptured panels of the famous sriipa gateways of San.chi will be examined in detail. since they are among the oldest and the best preserved. The Saiichi stupa is situated in the state of Madhya Pradesh. to the ~orthcast of Bhopal. Its origins probably go back to the third century B.C. During the following century the old Saiichi stupa was enlarged to become a hemisphere of about 36 metres in diameter. The old wooden railings were replaced by stone ones of approximately 2. 70 metres high. Towards the end of the first century B.C. four gateways were added at the four cardinal points. Above these entrances high and elaborate triple arches (tora!la) were erected. Both the railing and the arches are close imitations of their wooden prototypes. The sculptured panels on the gateways of stupa I are usually ascribed to Indian artists living in che beginning of the first century A.D. They contain some of the earlier representations oflndian chariots 38 • Technically the carvings are of high l ) As for instance on Hoysala temples. See Dcloche, 1981 'Etudes sur la circulaiion en lnde. II Les voirures hoysala.. BEFEO. LXX: 11-21: Copal Reddy. 1970. ·The An of War-fare Under the Kakatiyas of Warangal. · Journal of the Oriental Institute, Baroda. XIX: 119-138, esp. references on p. 124 f.: 1'.lichell, 1979. 'Brass Chariots of Bengal: From the Archive of David :--IcCutchion.' AARP. 16: 27-3 I. 56 See. e.g. 11ichell, 1979. ·Brass Chariots of Bengal.' AARP, 16: 27-31. ,. See che figures m Duman;:ay, 1975. ·L'architecture des chars processionels du Sud de l'Inde.' BEFEO, LXIL 191-201: see also !he illustrarions in .4ARP. 16. 1979: .\.[obilc Archi~clure zn Asia. Cermwr11al Chariots, Finals and Carriages. •~ A chariot similar to those on the Sfu1ch1 stupa gateways 1s found on a relief of Bhiijii ~ihiira (rcntatively dated to the first eentu1·y B.C.), representing the Sun god. Surya. on a qw,dnga. It di!Tns from chose depicted at Saiichf in that it has the front panel dernrated " 1 th four lines, running from the railing to the bottom of the chariot. There are fewer and thinner spokes The hub is small The reins run directlv from the horses· mouths to th e hands of the charioteer. Hcadplumes seem to consist o·f a long forelock. ued at the root. No side tassels are visible. See Coomaraswamv. 1927. Hwor; qf Indian and lndoneSran Art. pl \"II, fig. 24. Another early and realistic chariot is depicted on a copper vase from the fast cemurv A D., in lhc British :--iuseum. see X oi.:ucs, I 931. L 'attelagr d Lt chela/ de sell, a traur.< ·,,-' d~r..IAINS

Harness: Confusing mixture of straps, all meeting in one point at the side· breastband, indication of a girth. and another strap leading to the neck or to back. Ornaments: Plumes and tassels not clearly visible. Peculiarities: Confusing harness.

th;

4. (XVIIb) Place: Stu.pa 1, back of southern gateway. West end of lowe1· architra\·c, fron t of bottom lintel. Meaning and context: Two kings, one in a chariot and the other on an elephant, arc part of a companion picture to the one in which people march in the opposite direction on the other projecting end of the lintel (pl. 3 (XVIb)). completing the middle scene (pl. 2 (XV)). Chariot: ' Double' front panel. Side panel not decorated. Projecting extremity at 1·ear end. The axle is placed 1·elatively far to the front. Wheel: Straight spokes, probably more than 14. No details. Passengers: The charioteer, standing to the right of the king here, holds stick and reins. The king is standing to the right of the queen, holding his left a rm over her shoulder. He has his right hand uplifted, against his breast. Both a rc much taller than the charioteer. Harness: Rather inarticulate, comparable to that on pl. 3 (XVl b). A neckstrap, breastband, a girth the upper part of which runs to the neck rather than to the back. The reins run up to a rectangular block high on the neck. probably the end of the yoke or a terrel. Near the horses• mouths, the reins seem to split into two straps, one connected to the noseband, the other running to the mouth. Perhaps an indication of a bit. Ornaments: Headplumes in the shape of fly whisks but rather small; cassels verv small. Peculiarities: Apart from the presence of the queen, a sort of reflection of pl. 3 (XVIb) with an equally strange harness. 5. (XVIIIa) Place: Stu.pa I, West pillar of southern gateway, the middle panel of the fron t face upper panels. Meaning and context: A king in a chariot is accompanied by a suite (reduced in number due to the smallness of the panel), according to Marshall and Foucher, king Asoka on his way to paying his famous visit to the Bod.hi tree. As on pl. 2 (XV), he is accompanied by his viceroy riding an elephant. . Chariot: Relatively big chariot with high sides. Vertical bar in the front 1s very clear. Dotted decoration along the edges. Projection at the rear very thick and slightly curved upwards. \\Theel: Big; contains approximately 33 spokes. Passengers: The charioteer is standing to the right of the king, both of equal size ( due to the limited space available on the panel?). He is holding reins and stick in both hands. Harness: Reins run up co high on the right-hand horse's neck. A neckstra~ 5 visible. The tailband extends over the girth but a proper breastband is not vts1ble. It seems as though the horses' mouths are connected with a strap. Ornaments: The decorations of the headstall are only vaguely visible because of damage. Peculiarities: Small panel, large chariot of wluch the upper edge is level with

!

•h" hn...-P""c' l-,p-..,-1c

Pl. 6 Covered cart drawn bv two oxen. Saii,hf. ;\,farshall

&

Foucher pl XTXc.

99

100

PICTORIAL REPRESENTATIONS AND MATE RIAL REMAINS

PICTORIAL REPRESENTATIONS AND MATERIAL REMAI KS

101

6. (XIXc) Place: Stupa I, front face of a loose fragment from the East pillar of the southern gateway. Meaning and context: According to Marshall & Foucher, the merchants Trapu~a and Bhallika passing through Uruvilvii.. The main part of the lower panel is covered by a large ox-drawn cart. Cart: A big, rectangular cart with two spoked wheels and covered by what appears to be a matted roof, supported by four pillars. The box is decorated and apparently has seats. The axle is placed in the centre. Wheel: The wheel is spoked like a chariot-wheel, containing approximately 24 spokes. A nave is visible, around the axle-end. Passengers: Three persons can be seen sitting in the vehicle. Harness: Nothing of the harnessing of the oxen is visible. The tail, as usual, is tied up. Ornaments: No ornaments on the oxen. Peculiarities: The only ox-drawn can to be found on the Sii..nchi monuments.

7. (XXIIIa) Place: Stupa I, front of northern gateway, m iddle section of lowest architrave. Meaning and context: Visuantara Jii.taka' 2 • The panel shows some elements from the story: The capital of the Sibis, the departure of the prince, h is wife Mii.dri and their two children on a large chariot, drawn by four richly decorated horses. To the left, the chariot is shown again when it is unyoked and presented by che king and che queen to a brahmin. The chariot is depicted for the third " Marshall and Foucher, I: 225, TI opposite pl. XXIII. The relief on pl. 7 showing scenes from the Viivantara or Venantarajiitaka, contains three extremely dear representations of the chariot. In the J iitakas, the battle chariot and some of its variants (iakafa, phussaratha) occur with great frequency and must therefore have been very popular. It is part of the fourfold army, it occur~ as a processional car, as a royal means of transport, and its imagery is used in comparisons (MahiiniiradakassapaJataka, 544: 252-253, where a king and his qualities a.re compared with a chariot and its parts), also in other Pali texts (see Rhys Davids, 1907. 'Similes in the Nikayas.' JPTS, 1907: 52-151, esp. p. 127). T he descriptions of chariots in the Jatakas arc however not very detailed and of no great help in further analyzing the representations in sculpture. The chariot in the Vtssanlarajata_ka is described as catusindhai;ayullam, 'yoked with four Sindh horses·, or caiuviih1m, 'quadriga.' When the horses are unyoked and given to a brahmin the text reads: a,stsu_ pana dmnesu rathadhura'!I iikiist yeva a_l_thiisi: 'When the horses had been given, the front ol the chariot stood up. as it were, in the air', which was clearly followed up by the sculptor. In a different context the chariot is said to be ayosu/caJanemi, 'the rim or Lire well made of iron', and suca111_UUitapakkhara, 'the armour or mail lined with gold' (unclear: pralc$ara, prakkluua or prakhara in Skt). In the texts frequenL mention is made of the dhaja (Sh dlwaja), 'banner', but it was apparently not included in the reliefs. (On later temples, cars are often depicted with a kind of stone pillar standing behind the archer; this may represent the 'standard' as the sculptors understood it from the texts.) \\'here possible, however. the signs of royalty are shown clearly; the paiica rqjakakudhabha,µfii.ni. 'the five signs of royalty· are: valaoijan, (Skt viilavyajana ~ camara), 'fan , fly whisk, chowrie'; urihisa (Skt ~rii;,a), 'diadem, turban'; khagga (Skt khar/.ga), 'sword'; chatta (Skt chattra), 'canopy, parasol, umbrella' and ptiduko. (Skt piiduka1 , 'slippers, sandals' (J. V: 264). It remains to be said that in the .Jatakas the description of the harness is usually limited to the formula rathassa cammati ca natulin ca (Kukkura Jalaka, 22, 58) 'the leatherwork and straps of the chariot'.

~ ,_

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